YALE UNIVERSITY
LIBRARY

ID. 1213
4 MANUAL OF
BELGIAN CONGO

Compiled by the Geographical Section qf the Naval Intelligence
Division, Naval Staff, Admiralty

LONDON :
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Printed under the authority of
His Majesty's Stationery Office
By Frederick Hall at the University Press Oxford

CONTENTS

.-/J1A±*.

Introduction

TAGE 7

I.

Frontiers

. 12

II.

Physical Geography 

. 27

III.

. 60

IV.

Vegetation . . ....

. 71

V.

. 87

VI.

Native Races ... . .

. 92

VII.

Conditions of Native Life.

. 103

VIII.

Political Organization ....

. 123

IX.

Cultural Conditions 

. 131

X.

Religion and Ceremonial ....

. 143

XI.

Agricultural and Forest Products .

. 155

XII.

. 202

XIII.

217
XIV.
Foreign Trade ......
. 261
XV.
Government and Administration
276
XVI.
Conditions affecting the Development oi
the Congo 
299
Index 
320
MAP
Communications Map ....
at end
BELGIAN CONGO
INTKODUCTION
The greater part of our information regarding the Belgian
Congo is derived from the work of explorers and travellers,
the reports of officials of the Belgian Government, and the
researches of investigators in various branches of science.
Despite the great mass of this material, however, our know
ledge of the country is still very imperfect. "When the
immense area of the region (about 910,000 square miles), the
difficulties of communication within it, and the comparatively
limited resources at the disposal of the authorities are taken
into consideration, this fact is by no means surprising, but it
renders difficult any attempt to give a systematic and co
ordinated account of the country as a whole. No detailed
, and accurate topographical survey, for example, has yet
been made, and the nature of the surface-forms over
large areas has never been properly described. Geological
investigation has in the main been confined to those districts
which are believed to be rich in mineral wealth, and even
there it has seldom advanced beyond the preliminary stages.
Within recent years a number of reports by officers of the
Service agricole have provided much useful information re
garding the soils of certain localities, but in proportion to the
total area of the colony these reports are relatively few in
number and limited in extent. A small number of meteoro
logical stations have been established, but their records as
a rule extend back for only two or three years and form but
a scanty basis for generalization. On the flora and fauna of
the country some valuable research has been done by the
MusSe du Congo beige and by various scientists acting inde
pendently of it, but many years must elapse before such
a survey as they have begun can be satisfactorily completed.
The same is true of the state of ethnical inquiry: some of the
tribes have been studied in great detail, but of others there is

8 INTRODUCTION
scarcely a word. The investigation of the economic wealth of
the country has naturally received more attention. Various
companies to whom concessions have been granted h^ve
explored their lands more or less thoroughly, although the
results have in many cases not been made public. More im
portant perhaps are the investigations made by the Service
agricole into the distribution and cultivation of plants of
economic value and the suitability of certain areas for the
development of a pastoral industry. The chief mineral areas
have probably been located, but their extent and value can in
most cases only be guessed at. With regard to communica
tions a systematic study of many of the waterways has still
to be made, and before the development of the railway system
can be undertaken on an extensive scale the best routes have
to be determined.

Position (ind Extent
The Belgian Congo is situated in the basin of the Congo in
Equatorial Africa, and lies between the parallels of 5° £0' N.
and 13° 40' S., and between the meridians of 12° 10' E. and
31° 30' E. Its area is estimated at 910,000 square miles.
The original idea in the foundation of the Congo Indepen- "'
dent State was that it should include the whole basin of the |
Congo, but various political circumstances have restricted the
present Belgian colony within somewhat narrower limits.
On the northern frontier all the land drained by the right-
bank tributaries of the Bornu, the Ubangi, and the Congo as
far as the Cataracts belongs either to French Equatorial*
Africa or to the Cameroons. Below Manyanga, however,
Belgian territory extends to the right bank of the Congo, and
includes not only the drainage area of that river, but part of
that of the Chiloango, as well as the basins of several smaller
streams which flow directly to the Atlantic.
In the north-east the frontier coincides with the Congo-Nile
watershed from the sources of the Bornu almost to Lake Albert,
but in the east a narrow strip of country which extends
southwards as far as the sources of the Ruchuru falls within
the basin of the Nile. Farther to the south the eastern. and
southern shores of Lakes Kivu and Tanganyika which 1
drain to the Congo, belong either to East Africa or to ¦

INTRODUCTION 9
Rhodesia. To the south of Lake Mweru also, where the
Luapula marks the frontier, part of the Congo basin belongs
to Rhodesia.
The eastern part of the southern frontier follows the Congo-
Zambezi divide, but west of the Kasai this ceases to be the
case, and many of the tributaries of that river rise upon and
drain a considerable part of the plateau of Portuguese Angola.
The total area of the basin of the Congo is estimated at '
1,425,000 square miles, that of the- Belgian Congo at 910,000
square miles. "When the area of those relatively small parts
of the colony which are not drained by the Congo is deducted
and allowances are made for probable inaccuracies in the
figures given, it is seen that the Belgian Congo includes
between 60 and 65 per cent, of the whole basin of the Congo.
The area of Africa is estimated at 11,262,000 square miles, and
the Belgian Congo is therefore a little less than one-twelfth
the size of the whole continent.

General Considerations
The Belgian Congo-is a region of great geographical interest.
The low sandstone plateau which forms the central part of the
colony is surrounded on all sides by higher peripheral regions
which are of more varied geological formation, and are some
times rich in mineral wealth. The basin which is thus
formed lies on both sides of the equator, and this fact is of
the greatest importance in regard both to climate and vege
tation. The central region has a uniformly high temperature
with rain at all seasons of the year ; on the periphery the
annual range is greater, and in the south at least there is
a well-marked dry season. The characteristic features of the
yegetation are therefore the dense forests of the equatorial
districts and the savannas and steppes of the surrounding
uplands. Human activities are profoundly modified by these
conditions. In the forest the struggle for existence is on the
whole severe, the opportunities for agriculture are restricted,
and man has often to devote a considerable part of his time to
hunting or fishing ; on the savanna the conditions are more
favourable, the cultivation of the land presents fewer difficulties,
and a more civilized life is frequently possible ; the inhabitants
of the steppe are sometimes engaged in pastoral pursuits.

10 INTRODUCTION
The development of the country is also affected to some extent
by the same geographical factors. In the forest the exploita-
tion of natural products, such as rubber, palm-oil, and copal, f
and the establishment of plantations in which tropical plants
may be cultivated are the chief pursuits of the white man ;
the uplands on the other hand contain considerable stores of
mineral wealth, and European interests there are mainly con
cerned with its development. *
The problems connected with the civilization and develop
ment of the Belgian Congo are both numerous and hard of
solution. In the forested region, and to some extent elsewhere,
the natives live, and will for long be compelled to live, in
small and more or less isolated communities. No common j
interest unites these different groups, and indeed they are
frequently at enmity with one another. Under European
control law and order can no doubt be established in the
country, and a certain amount of help can be given to the
native. But to raise him from the low state of civilization in
which he at present exists, to educate him, and to improve his
moral and social outlook will be a task of the greatest difficulty.
There appear to be no native institutions which can be adapted 1
to these ends, and owing to climatic conditions the number of
Europeans resident in the colony must necessarily be small
and their influence restricted. The chief hope of the country
would seem to be in the mission schools, but whether the
natives who have been trained there will exercise a humanizing
influence when they return to their villages, or will relapse
into the barbarism from which they have so recently emerged
is still a matter of doubt.
The economic development of the country will likewise
proceed slowly. Apart from mining and the cultivation of
plantation products it will depend very largely on the extent
to which the native methods of agriculture can be improved.
But it must be remembered that within the forest area climatic
conditions have an enervating effect, and it may be questioned '
whether the native is equal to the expenditure of more physical
energy than at present, or whether there is much inducement
for him to attempt it. On the upland savannas surrounding
the central basin conditions are probably more hopeful but
there is as yet too little information to justify any forecast of
the lines along which progress will be made.

INTRODUCTION 11
The development of the communications of the country
presents another set of problems. Practically the whole
region drains to the. river Congo, and the chief means of
access is from the Atlantic coast. But the Congo does not
give that unity to the region which might havebeen expected.
Both it and its tributaries are in places interrupted by falls
and do not form good through routes. Hence some of the
peripheral districts show a centrifugal tendency. The Katanga
in the south-east belongs physically to the plateau of South
Africa, and has been developed as a result of the northward
movement of European man on that plateau. Its present
outlet is at Beira on the east coast, but its future port may be
at Lobito Bay on the west coast. In any case its southern
part at least will remain economically outside the Congo
basin. The Eastern Highlands which border the Great Rift
Valley belong to East Africa, and the movement to bring them
within the hinterland of the Indian Ocean, as evidenced by
the railway from Dar-es-Salam to Lake Tanganyika, has
become pronounced within recent years. The north-eastern
districts which border the Congo-Nile divide and the eastern
part of the country between the "Welle and the Ituri may
conceivably turn towards the Nile as they develop. Even at
present a certain amount of trade takes place by way of that
river. To a limited extent the Congo attracts trade from regions
beyond the borders of the Belgian colony, and its value in
' this respect was shown in 1911, when the German possession
of the Cameroons was extended so as to touch the river at two
points. But here also the centrifugal tendency is apparent,
and the French contemplate extending their existing line
from Brazzaville to Minduli west to Pointe Noire so as to
obtain an independent outlet in their own territory.

CHAPTER I
FRONTIERS
The frontiers of the Belgian Congo were only gradually
defined. This arose from the informal and almost irregular^
way in which the Congo Free State came into existence.
During the latter half of the nineteenth century great interest
was aroused in Europe by the progress of African exploratioiij
and Leopold II, King of Belgium, was one of those most
attracted by the possibilities which ik opened up. In 1876 he
invited various explorers and others interested in the subject
to a conference at Brussels. As a result of it an International
African Association was formed with the objects of pursuing
the work of discovery in Africa, suppressing the slave trade,
and developing commerce as a civilizing agency. The inter
national character of the Association, however, was of short
duration, and before long Belgian interests predominated,
Leopold himself supplying most of the funds.
In 1878, after Stanley's return from his great journey across
Africa, he met the king and some members of the Association,
in Belgium," and it was agreed to form a subsidiary body of
the Association, the Comite d'etudes du Haut-Congo, which
later on took the title Association Internationale du Congot
Under the auspices of the Comite Stanley again went to Africa,
in 1879, and during the next few years was busily engaged in
exploring various parts of the Congo basin, in establishing
posts, and in concluding treaties with the native chiefs. His
activities caused much anxiety to other Powers, notably
Portugal, which considered that they also had claims in the
region, and in 1884-5 the Berlin Conference was held to
discuss and as far as possible to regulate the whole position.
The Act of the Conference provided for freedom of trade in
the basin of the Congo and elsewhere, the suppression of
slavery, the treatment of natives, the conditions under which
commerce might be conducted, and various other matters of

BELGO-PORTUGUESE (KABINDA) FRONTIER 13
a similar nature. In fact it laid down the general principles
on which the country ought to be governed. "When the Act
was signed the president of the International Association,
acting on the authority of King Leopold, signified his
adhesion to it.
While the Conference was proceeding, however, the Inter
national Association had been negotiating with the repre
sentatives of the various Powers attending it, and, after making
some concessions to be mentioned later, had been recognized as
a sovereign State. It was to this recognition that the Congo
Free State owed its origin. Shortly thereafter King Leopold
accepted the sovereignty of the country, while the Inter
national Association, which had been used as a stalking-horse,
appears to have died a natural death.
Belgo-Portuguese (Kabinda) Frontier
Before Portugal consented to recognize the sovereignty of
the International Association in the Congo basin, there was
a lively dispute regarding the lands lying on either side of
the estuary. Portugal, on the strength of her long connexion
with the region, was anxious to retain both banks of the river.
She was eventually compelled, however, to surrender the
north bank, but was allowed to remain in possession of the
enclave of Kabinda. The treaty of February 14, 1885, by
which she recognized the International Association, defined
the boundary between their possessions, but, as it was based
on insufficient geographical knowledge, it had to be modified
in the light of subsequent discoveries. An attempt to do so
was made in the Convention of May 25, 1891, but it was
not until much later that the matter was finally settled. In
1900-2, a joint delimitation commission considered the whole
matter, and its report was ultimately accepted by a protocol
dated July 5, 1913.
The arrangement arrived at by this protocol was briefly
as follows. From the point at which French, Portuguese,
and Belgian territory meet the frontier follows the thalweg of
the Chiloango as far as its confluence with the Lukula, and
then the thalweg of the latter river to the point (5°10'S.,
12° 32' E.) at which it is joined by the Zenze. From there a
straight line is drawn southward to the parallel of latitude

14 FRONTIERS
which passes through the source of the river Lulofe on the
slope of the plateau of Nime-Chiama. The frontier then runs
along this parallel westward to the geodetic pillar at Yema
(5'44'S., 12°18'E.), whence it follows first the thalweg of
the Lulofe and then that of the Venzo, as far as Mallango.
From there a purely conventional frontier runs to the coast,
which is reached about a mile and three-quarters north of the
lagoon of Lunga. Franco-Belgian (Mayumbe) Frontier
Difficulties had also to be settled with France before
recognition could be obtained. The Association claimed rights
not only in the basin of the Congo but in that of the Niadi
Kwilu, while France had not abandoned her desire for land
south of the Congo. Finally, an agreement was reached by
which the basin of the Niadi Kwilu was assigned to France
and the land south of the Congo to the Association. By the
Convention of February 5, 1885, it was resolved that the
frontier should run from the source of the Chiloango along
the watershed between the Niadi Kwilu and the Congo as far
as the meridian of Manyanga. From there a line was to be
settled, which should follow as far as possible some natural
division of the land, and should end between the station of
Manyanga and the cataract of Ntombo Mataka, at a point
situated on the navigable portion of the river. (By the
Protocol of November 22, 1885, the southern portion of this
line was defined ; it follows various minor irregularities of the
land which need not be detailed here). Beyond Manyanga it
was arranged that the frontier should follow the Congo up to
Stanley Pool, pass through the centre of the Pool, and continue
along the river to a point above the Likona-Nkunja. From
there a line was to be drawn, following as far as possible the
water-parting of the latter river, until it met the 17th degree
of longitude east of Greenwich, which then became the frontier.
As will be seen later, the latter portion of this convention had
to be modified subsequently.
Territories Claimed by the International Association
In the preceding paragraphs the frontiers of the territories
claimed by the International Association have been described I
in so far as they were affected by treaties made with Portugal

FRANCO-BELGIAN FRONTIER 15.
and France. In its Declaration of Neutrality on August 1,
1 885, the Congo Free State defined the extent of its possessions
as, it then understood them. From the point at which the
watershed of the Likona-Nkunja reached the 17th meridian
of east longitude that' meridian was to constitute the boundary
until it met the 4th parallel of north latitude, which then
became the frontier as far east as the 30th degree of east
longitude. This meridian was then followed to 1°20' south
of the equator, and from that point a straight line was
drawn to the northern extremity of Lake Tanganyika. From
there the boundary ran along the median line of Lake Tan
ganyika, the straight line connecting Lake Tanganyika with
Lake Mweru by 8° 30' S., the median line of Lake Mweru,
the watercourse which connects it with Lake Bangweulu,
and the western shores of that lake. On the south the fron
tier was described as running westward from the southern
extremity of Lake Bangweulu along the Congo-Zambezi divide
as far as the 24th degree of east longitude. From there it
fallowed the watershed of the Kasai between the 12th and
6th parallels, and then went due west until it met the K wango.
This river then became the boundary as far north as the
parallel of Noki, and from the point where they met the
frontier turned due west again until it reached the meridian
which passes through the mouth of the Wango Wango. We
have now to examine how far this provisional boundary was
subsequently modified.
Franco- Belgian (Congo-Ubangi) Frontier
As the Belgians began to occupy effectively the lands to
which they laid claim, various questions dealing with frontiers
arose to cause trouble with neighbouring States. One of the
first of these had regard to the Franco-Belgian boundary, which
was to follow the Congo above Stanley Pool to a point to be
fixed above the Likona-Nkunja, thence to longitude 17° E., fol
lowing as closely as possible the water-parting between these
two rivers. Differences of opinion arose as to the river called
Likona-Nkunja, but eventually the French contention that
the Ubangi was the river really intended was accepted by
King Leopold. A protocol signed on April 29, 1887, stated
that from its confluence with the Congo the thalweg of the

16 FRONTIERS
Ubangi shall form the boundary until its intersection by
the 4th parallel of north latitude. The Congo Free State
undertook not to exercise any political action on the right
bank of the Ubangi to the north of the 4th parallel, while the
French Republic made a similar promise with regard to the
left bank north of the same parallel. It was further agreed^
that in no case should the frontier of the Free State be drawn
to the south of the 4th parallel, which had been assigned to
it by the Convention of February 5, 1885.
Matters rested in this position for a few years, when the
designs of Leopold in the basin of the Bahr-el-Ghazal led to
further trouble. The French maintained that the boundary \
of the Fr ie State was marked in this region by the 4th parallel,
while the Free State argued that the 4th parallel was
merely a minimum boundary, that the Ubangi ceased at the
confluence of the Bornu and Welle, and that she was therefore
entitled to take possession of the lands in the basin of the
Bahr-el-Ghazal, which were vacant when she entered them.
Relations were further strained by the treaty of May 12,
1894, to be referred to presently, between Britain and King
Leopold, but eventually the latter yielded, and on August 14,
1894, an agreement was signed with France. From the con
fluence of the Bornu and the Welle the boundary was to
follow the Bornu up to its source, cross in a straight line
to the Congo-Nile watershed, and follow it to its intersection ;
with the 30th meridian of east longitude. The Free State on
the other hand undertook to renounce all occupation and to *
exercise no political influence in the basin of the Bahr-el-
Ghazal north of the parallel 5° 30' N.
A Declaration made on Februarj* 5, 1895, and renewed in
a treaty signed November 28, 1907, defined more clearly French
and Belgian interests in the district of Stanley Pool. The
boundary was to follow the median line of the Pool up to the
point of contact with the island of Bamu, the southern shore
of this island up to its eastern extremit}', and then the median *i
line of the Pool. The effect was to transfer the island to France, ¦'
but it was agreed that it should not be made into a military :
post.

ANGLO-BELGIAN FRONTIER 17

Anglo-Belgian (North-Eastern) Frontier
In pursuance of his schemes in the Upper Nile Leopold
.tried to obtain from Britain what he could not obtain from
France, and as, in 1894, Britain was disinclined to pursue an
active policy for the reconquest of the Sudan, but was not
* unwilling to see a weaker Power than France established in
the Upper Nile, Leopold had little difficulty in negotiating
a treaty. This treaty, which was signed at Brussels on May 12,
1894, laid it down that the sphere of influence of the Free
State, north of the German sphere in East Africa, should
be limited by a frontier following the 30th meridian east
of Greenwich up to its intersection with the Congo-Nile
watershed, and should then follow that watershed in a
northerly and north-westerly direction. In addition Great
Britain granted to Leopold a lease of certain territories for
his own life. These territories were to be bounded by a line
starting from a point situated on the west shore of Lake Albert
I immediately to the south of Mahagi, and running to the nearest
point of the frontier defined above. Thence it was to follow
the watershed between the Congo and the Nile up to the
25th meridian east of Greenwich, and that meridian up to its
intersection with the 10th parallel of north latitude. From
there it was to run along the 10th parallel to a point to be
determined to the north of Fashoda, after which it was to
'. follow the thalweg of the Nile southward to Lake Albert and
the western shore of Lake Albert to the point above indicated
south of Mahagi. Further it was stipulated that on the
death of Leopold the treaty should remain in force as far as
concerned all the portion of this territory to the west of the
30th meridian, as well as a strip 25 kilometres in breadth to
be delimited by common consent, stretching from the water
shed between the Nile and the Congo up to the western shore
of Lake Albert and including the port of Mahagi. In return
for this the Free State leased to Britain a strip of land,
' 25 kilometres broad, extending from the most northerly point
on Lake Tanganyika to the most southerly point of Lake
Albert. . Germany, however, protested so strongly against
this latter arrangement that it was abandoned by Britain in
a Declaration signed at Brussels on June 22, 1894. At the
BELG. CONOO B

18 FRONTIERS
same time that the above agreement was signed letters were
exchanged between the contracting parties containing as-
surances that they did not ignore the claims of Turkey and
Egypt in the basin of the upper Nile.
Before the effective occupation of the leased territory took
place, however, the situation had radically altered. In 1898
the power of the Khalifa was overthrown by Lord Kitchener,
and, although the Free State sought to take advantage of the
Dervish defeat by occupying various posts in the leased
territory, Britain contended that the rights of Egypt over
the region had revived. A period of strained relations*
followed, and it was not till 1906 that an agreement was
reached. On May 9 of that year a treaty was signed which
annulled that part of the Agreement of May 12, 1894, dealing
with the leased territory, but allowed Leopold to retain for his
own life the district known as the Lado enclave, the extent of
which was defined as follows : ' The Enclave comprises the terri
tory bounded by a line drawn from a point situated on the west
shore of Lake Albert, immediately to the south of Mahagi, to
the nearest point of the watershed between the Nile and
Congo basins; thence the boundary follows that watershed
up to its intersection from the north with the 30th meridian
east of Greenwich, and that meridian up to its intersection
with the parallel of 5° 30' of north latitude, whence it runs
along that parallel to the Nile ; thence it follows the Nile
southward to Lake Albert, and the western shore of Lake
Albert down to the point above indicated south of Mahagi.'
At the same time the boundary between the Congo and-the
Sudan was defined. Starting from the point of intersection
of the meridian of 30° east of Greenwich with the watershed
between the Congo and the Nile, the frontier was to follow
that watershed in a generally north-westerly direction until
it reached the frontier between the Free State and the French
Congo. It was also decided, however, that the strip of land
25 kilometres broad, stretching from the Congo-Nile water
shed to Lake Albert, already referred to, should continue in
the possession of the Free State.
Before describing the final adjustment of frontiers in this
part of the colony, it is advisable to consider the evolution
of the frontier between the Belgian Congo and the British
possessions in East Africa. As already indicated, the Declaral

ANGLO-BELGIAN FRONTIER 19
-tion of Neutrality issued by the Independent State in 1885
stated that the 30th meridian east of Greenwich should form
the eastern boundary of its possessions between the parallels of
4° N. and 1° 20' S. By this arrangement a considerable stretch
of territory belonging to the basin of the Congo and lying to
the west of Lake Albert was excluded from the Independent
State. On December 28, 1894, however, after the Franco-
Belgian frontier had been defined, and geographical know
ledge of the region considerably extended, a new Declaration
of Neutrality was issued, and in it the boundary, which now
ran along the thalweg of the Bornu to its source, and then in
a straight line to the Congo-Nile watershed, was continued
along the watershed to its intersection by the 30th meridian,
and then along 'the extension of this watershed until its
second intersection by the aforesaid meridian'. From the
latter point the 30th meridian again became the boundary as
far south as the parallel 1° 20' S. This arrangement appears
to have been accepted by Britain in the Agreement of May 1 2,
1894, though it is not quite clearly stated there. As the
Independent State was still excluded from Lake Albert by
this arrangement, the Mahagi strip was constituted in order
to give it access to that lake.
Further difficulties soon arose. A delimitation commission
found that the 30th meridian did not lie where it had been
thought that it did, but between 11 and 12 miles farther
to the east. One result of this discovery was that the British
found themselves excluded from Lake Edward. Moreover
difficulties had arisen with Germany. According to the
Declaration of Neutrality the boundary was to run from the
30th meridian at its intersection with the parallel of 1° 20' S.
to the northern extremity of Lake Tanganyika. At this
time, however, the existence of Lake Kivu was unknown,
and when it was discovered, in 1894, Germany claimed a
right of access to it. The matter remained long in dispute,
and the difficulty was accentuated when Britain and Germany
came to an agreement regarding some territory to the north
of Lake Kivu which the Free State claimed. Finally on"
May 14, 1910, a protocol was signed by representatives of
Belgium, Britain, and Germany, whereby a settlement was
effected of various matters on which differences of opinion
had arisen. b 2

20 FRONTIERS
By this protocol the highest summit of Mount Sabinio, which;
lies to the north of Lake Kivu, was taken as the point where,
British, Belgian, and German possessions met. From there
the Anglo-Belgian frontier was to run in a straight line to the
summit of Mount Nkabwa, but it was provided that in de
limiting this section of the frontier the commissioners
appointed for the purpose might deviate from a straight line
to a distance of 3 kilometres on either side in order to take
advantage of natural features when it was of advantage to do
so, as long as the total area of British or Belgian territory was
not affected. The commission completed its work in 1911, but
its report, dealing with rather minute points, need not be
detailed here. They are incorporated in a protocol signed at
Buswenda on May 14, 1911, and in the agreement signed at,
London on February 3, 1915.
From the summit of Mount Nkabwa the boundary as far
north as a point on the parallel 2° 7' N. midway between the
shores of Lake Albert, as determined by a mixed commission
at Brussels in 1910, was accepted in the protocol signed there
on May 10 of that year. It follows first the parallel of latitude
of the summit of Mount Nkabwa eastwards to its intersection
with the thalweg of the river Manyaga, the thalweg of that
river to its confluence with the thalweg of the Ishasha, and the
thalweg of the Ishasha to its mouth in Lake Edward. From j
the mouth of the Ishasha it crosses Lake Edward in a straight
line to the mouth of the river Lubilia-Chako, and ascends the
thalweg of that river to its source. It then follows straight \
lines connecting the source of the Lubilia-Chako with the
summit of Margharita Peak (the highest point of the Ruwenzori
range), and Margharita Peak with the source of the river Lami, j
situated about 5*4 kilometres north-west of the peak Kalengili ;
and about 20 kilometres south-west of the hill-top Karangora. i
The thalweg of the Lami as far as its confluence with the '
thalweg of the Semliki, and the thalweg of the Semliki then
form the frontier as far as Lake Albert. In Lake Albert itself
the boundary is formed by a succession of straight lines passing
through the points situated midway between the shores of the *
lake on the parallels of 1° 30' N, 1° 45' N., and 2° N. to a point *
midway between the shores of the lake on the parallel of
2° 7' N. By this arrangement Britain remained in possession
of an outlet on Lake Edward, while the Belgian Congo received

ANGLO-BELGIAN FRONTIER 21
the left bank of Lake Albert, which placed it in communication
with the valley of the Nile.
As a result of this arrangement the necessity for the
Mahagi strip ceased to exist, and the Protocol of 1910 arranged
that the frontier between the point already mentioned on
the parallel 2° 7' N. and the Congo-Nile watershed should
run in a westerly direction to the point of intersection of the
shore with the southern boundary of the Mahagi strip, and
then along the southern boundary to the watershed. But
when this region came to be examined in detail it was found
that, owing to a bend in the watershed, the Mahagi strip had an
east-and-west direction and not a north-and-south one as was
usually indicated on the maps. A joint Anglo-Belgian com
mission appointed to delimit a suitable frontier reported in
1913, and after some modifications its proposals were adopted
and embodied in the Agreement of February 3, 1915. From
the point on parallel 2° 7' N, midway between the shores of
Lake Albert, the boundary runs northward till it meets a
straight line drawn from the summit of the hill Kagudi
through the summit of a knoll on the coast about 1*7 kilo
metre south-east by east of the hill Kagudi, then a straight
line to the summit of the hill Kagudi, and then another
straight line drawn towards the summit of the hill Biet as far
as its intersection with a straight line joining the summit of
the hill Milia to the confluence of the rivers Nashiodo and
Alala. From this point a straight line was drawn to their
confluence, after which the boundary followed the Nashiodo to
its source nearest the summit of the hill Keresi; thence a
straight line to the summit of the hill. From here the boundary
follows in succession the watershed of the Sido basin to the
summit of the hill Aminzi, a straight"? line to the top of the
rock Monda, a straight line to the confluence of the rivers
Narodo and Niabola, the thalweg of the river Niabola upwards
to the point on it nearest to the summit of the hill Agu, and
a straight line to the summit. Beyond this point'^the'boundary
is traced first along the watershed of thejAioda river basin to
the summit of the hill Sisi and then along the watershed of the
Leda river basin to the summit of a knoll situated about
4-2 kilometres south-east and east of the hill Cho. It then
runs along the watershed between the Niagaki river basin and
the tributary which joins it just below its confluence with the

22 FRONTIERS
Ammodar as far as the point on this watershed nearest to the
confluence of the Niagaki and Ammodar ; thence a straight:;
line to this confluence. The thalweg of the Ammodar then
forms the boundary upwards to its junction (at a point about
1,600 metres south-west of the summit of the hill Akar) with
the thalweg of that tributary of which the source is close to a
knoll on the Congo-Nile watershed, about 5-6 kilometres south-
south-east of the summit of the hill Ham and about 6*2 kilo
metres west-south-west of the summit of the hill Akar. Beyond
this the thalweg of the tributary is followed to its source, from
which point a straight line is drawn to the summit of the
above-mentioned knoll on the Congo-Nile watershed.
Belgo-German (Lake Tanganyika) Frontier
The events which led to disagreement between Belgium and
Germany on the eastern frontier have already been mentioned.
The joint commission whose recommendations were embodied
in the Protocol of 1910 had their work ratified by their
respective Governments in 1911. At least part of the proposed
boundary was actually delimited before the outbreak of war.
According to the protocol the boundary leaves the median
line of Lake Tanganyika at its northern end and follows the
thalweg of the principal western branch of the Rusisi as far as
the northern point of the delta. It then keeps along the thalweg
of that river to the point where it leaves Lake Kivu. Where
the river divides into several branches the local authorities are
to determine which is the principal branch. Across Lake Kivu
a line was drawn from the Rusisi to a point in the north
situated midway between Goma and Kisenyi in such a way
as to give the islands of Iwinza, Nyamaronga, Kwidjwi, and
Kitanga in the west to Belgium and the islands of Kikaya,
Gombo, Kumenie, and Wau in the east to Germany. (The
map showing the exact tracing of this line has not been
published.) To the north the frontier was to follow as far as
possible the meridian of the point situated midway between
Goma and Kessegnies as far as another point about 500 metres
to the south of the road going from Goma by Bussoro, Iwuwiro,
Niakawanda, and Buhamba to the pass between the Rukeri
and the Hehu. It was provided that in delimiting this parti
of the frontier native tribes should as far as possible be left in
German territory. From the point last indicated the frontier

BELGO-GERMAN FRONTIER 23
turns to the north-east and runs at a distance of 500 metres to
the east of the road already mentioned as far as the parallel of
Niakawanda. Where there are suitable natural features the
frontier may be carried 1,000 metres from the road. To the
north of Niakawanda the frontier could only be approximately
traced, but it was understood that it should- not go east of the
greatest depression between ' the slopes of Ninagongo and
Karissimbi. To the north of the parallel of the hill Bihira the
boundary was to be drawn in such a way as to follow as far as
possible the natural features of the land and to pass about
midway between Bihira and Buhamba to the northern point
of the Hehu. (The maps referred to in this part of the agree
ment were not published. The delimitation was entrusted
to a joint commission, whose work, though completed, does not
appear to have been ratified.) From the summit of the Hehu
the frontier runs in a straight line to the highest point of
Karissimbi and from there to the summit of the Vissoke. It
then follows the crest of the chain of small craters to the
summit of Mount Sabinio.
The southern part of the Belgo-German frontier as defined
by the Declarations of Neutrality is the median line of Lake
Tanganyika. Anglo-Belgian (Rhodesia) Frontier
The boundary between the Belgian Congo and Rhodesia was
settled by the Agreement of May 12, 1894. It was then decided
that the frontier should follow a line running direct from the
extremity of Cape Akaluhga on Lake Tanganyika, situated at
the northernmost point of Cameron Bay at about 8° 15' S., to
the right bank of the river Luapula where this river issues
from Lake Mweru. From there the line was drawn directly to
the entrance of the river into the lake, being, however, deflected
towards the south of the lake so as to give the island of Kilwa
to Great Britain. It was then to follow the thalweg of the
Luapula up to its issue from Lake Bangweulu, and from there
southwards along the meridian of longitude of the point
where the river leaves the lake to the watershed between the
Congp and the Zambezi, which it was to follow until it reached
the Portuguese frontier.
It was only in 1911, however, that an attempt was made to de
limit this frontier, and then itwas found that a further rearrange-

24 FRONTIERS
ment would be necessary with regard to the strip of Congo;
territory which according to the Agreement of 1894 was sup
posed to be bounded on the west by the Luapula and on the
east by the meridian of Panta, the place at which the river''
issues from Lake Bangweulu. The river which leaves the lake
appears to lose itself in the swamps to the south of it, and the
river which leaves the swamps flows alternately east and west
of the meridian in question. The simplest method of re
adjusting the frontier would be to carry it along the thalweg
of the Luapula from Lake Mweru to the point at which it first
meets the meridian of Panta and then to follow that meridian ,
south to the Congo-Zambezi divide. This would involve the
surrender of a small strip of land which Belgium has hitherto
considered to be her own property and would deny her access
to the lake, but the loss in either case would be slight.
The survey of the boundary between the Congo and Rhodesia
was completed in 1914, but the outbreak of war stopped
negotiations for the time being.
Belgo-Portuguese (Angola) Frontier
In the Convention between the International Association^
and Portugal dated May 14, 1885, very little is said about
the boundary between the Congo and Angola. It was merely
defined in the parallel of Noki, from that town to the point at
which it intersects the Kwango, and the Kwango itself in
a southerly direction — presumably as far as the 6th parallel,
which, according to the Declaration of Neutrality signed
shortly after, marked the southern limit of the possessions of the
International Association as far east as the eastern watershed t
of the Kasai. As the Belgians pushed forward in the south,
however, they passed beyond the limits here indicated, and in
1890 Leopold II created the district of East Kwango, which
included Lunda, as the result of an expedition by Dhanis, who
had concluded treaties with the native chiefs. A period of
strained relations which followed was ended by two treaties
signed May 25, 1891. The principal point in these treaties
was that the frontier should follow the thalweg of the Kwango
from the parallel of 6° S. to the parallel of 8° S., the latter *
parallel to its intersection of the Kwilu, the Kwilu in a
northerly direction as far as the parallel 7° N, and the parallel
7° N. as far as the Kasai.

BELGO-PORTUGUESE (ANGOLA) FRONTIER 25
In the work of demarcation between the 7th and 8th
parallel from the Kwango to the Kasai account was to be
taken of the natural configuration of the land and the limits
of the native States. From the point at which the 7th parallel
meets the Kasai the frontier was to follow the thalweg of the
Kasai to the mouiih of that one of its sources which originates
in Lake Dilolo and the course of this affluent to its source.
Thereafter it was to run along the Congo-Zambezi watershed
to the 24th meridian east of Greenwich.
The delimitation of the frontier between the Kwango and
the Kasai, provided for in the above treaty, took place in
1892-3, when the Free State was represented bythe Congo
missionary, George Grenfell. The Commissioners departed in
so many particulars from the general indication of the frontier
laid down in 1891 that the result of their work may be briefly
stated here. Following the thalweg of the Kwango from the
8th parallel as far as its confluence with the Tungila (8° 7' 40" S.
approx.), the frontier ascends the latter river as far as its
intersection with the canal through which pass the waters of
the Lola, and the thalweg of the same canal as far as its con
fluence with the Komba. From that point it runs due east to
the Wamba, follows the thalweg of that river as far as its
confluence with the Uovo Nuovo, the thalweg of the Uovo to
its confluence with the N'Kombo, and the thalweg of the
N'Kombo and the Kamanguna as far as the parallel of 8° S.
From this point the boundary is the 8th parallel as far as the
thalweg of the Lucai'a, the thalweg of that river as far as
7° 55' S., and the parallel of 7° 55' S. as far as the Kwengo. The
Kwengo then forms the frontier to the 8th parallel S., and from
there the boundary runs eastward to the Luita and follows the
thalweg of that river to its confluence with the Kwilu. The
parallel of this confluence (7° 34' S. approx.) then becomes the
frontier eastward to its intersection with the Kama Bomba or
Kangulungu, the thalweg of that river to its confluence with
the Loangue, and the thalweg of the Loangue as far as the
7th parallel S. From the point of intersection of the 7th
parallel S. and the thalweg of the Loangue" the frontier follows
the parallel as far as its intersection with the thalweg of the
Lovua, after which it follows the thalweg of the Lovua to the
parallel of 6° 55' S. The remainder of the boundary is formed
by this parallel as far as its intersection with the thalweg of

26 FRONTIERS
the Chikapa, the thalweg of that river as far as 7°17'S., and
the parallel of 7° 17' S. as far as the thalweg of the Kasai.
The report of the Boundary Commissioners was ratified by
a Declaration signed at Brussels, March 24, 1894. Several
minor adjustments had, however, still to be made. In the
treaty of May 25, 1891, it was assumed that* Lake Dilolo lay
on the Congo-Zambezi divide. Subsequent investigations
showed, however, that no tributary of the Kasai flowed from
Lake Dilolo and that the lake, such as it was, was situated in
the basin of the Zambezi some miles to the south of the water.-
shed. The difficulty was settled by an exchange of letters, in
April and June 1910, by which it was arranged that the frontier
should follow the thalweg of the Kasai from the point of its
intersection with the parallel of 7° 17' S. as far as its confluence
with the Luakanu, and then the thalweg of the Luakanu and
that of its eastern tributary which takes its source near
Cha Calumbo, as far as the source of the latter river. From
there a straight line was to be drawn to the Congo-Zambezi
watershed. By a treaty signed at Brussels on July 5, 1913, the
details of the Noki-K wango frontier were finally settled. The
boundary now starts from Noki at a point situated 100 metres
to the north of the principal building of the old factory of
Domingos de Souza, and runs from north-west to south-east
until it meets the parallel of 5° 52' S. It then turns eastward
and follows in a general way that parallel as far as the Kwango.
Forty-five places are, however, mentioned through which it is
to pass, and some of them lie to the north and others to the
south of the parallel in question.
Belgo-German (German Congo) Frontier
The serious political differences which arose in Europe on the
Morocco question in 191 1 did not affect the territorial arrange
ments of the Belgian Congo, but as a result of the readjustments
which were then made Germany obtained outlets on the
Congo and on the Ubangi. Access to the Congo was secured
by the cession of the valley of the lower Sanga to its con
fluence with the Congo, and to the Ubangi by the cession of
the valley of the Lobaye to its confluence with the Ubangi. j
These cessions gave Germany in all a frontier of about 10 miles
on the Congo-Ubangi.

CHAPTEE II
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
Introduction
The general character of the physical structure of the
Belgian Congo may be comprehended at a glance. In the
south of Africa there is a high plateau, which is continued
northwards by the highlands of East Africa and the coastal
mountains of West Africa. Between these lies the central'
basin of the Congo, which in relation to its surroundings is
a plateau of relatively low elevation. The greater part of this
plateau belongs to the Belgian Congo, of which it forms the
nucleus, and only in the north-west does it pass beyond the_
political frontiers of the colony into French Equatorial Africa
and the former German possession of the Cameroons. Around^
it the land rises on all sides, sometimes to very considerable
heights. In the south-east there is the Katanga, which is
a continuation of the high veldt of South Africa and Rhodesia,
and on the south the northward-facing escarpment of the
lower Angolan plateau. To the east are the mountains bordering
the great rift-valley which contains Lakes Albert, Edward,
Kivu, and Tanganyika. The north-east has a lower elevation,
and consists of a plateau-like stretch of country which forms
the divide between the waters of the Congo and those of the
Nile. Farther to the west this upland region separates the
basins of the Congo and Lake Chad. The western rim of the
central basin lies for the greater part outside of the Belgian
Congo, and is formed by the highlands which run along the
west coast of Africa. In the south, where it falls within the
colony, it is known as the Crystal Mountains. To the west of
these mountains lies the coastal region in which the hill country
of Mayumbe is the most important feature.
The Belgian Congo may therefore be divided into the
following physical regions : the coastal region and Mayumbe,
the Crystal Mountains, the Central Basin, the north-east

28 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
plateau or Welle region, the Eastern Mountains, the Katanga,
and the northern slopes of the Angolan plateau or Kasai region.
Owing to the want of sufficient topographical and geological
information, it is not always possible to delimit these regions
with exactitude, but notwithstanding that difficulty they serve
as the best basis for a discussion of the physical geography of
the country. Geological Outlines
In its broad outlines the geology of the Belgian Congo is
now fairly well known, but detailed work has hitherto been
confined to a few regions, chiefly those in which minerals are
known or believed to exist.
The coastal region is underlain by gently folded sandstones
and shales of marine origin, which have a general inclination
towards the ocean. They are believed to be of Cretaceous and
Tertiary age, but around the estuary of the Congo they are
covered with recent alluvium.
The Crystal Mountains consist of rocks of Palaeozoic and pre-
Cambrian age, which strike NNW.-SSE., with a predominant
dip to the east. The older rocks of the series occupy the
western portion of the belt, and the degree of metamorphism
increases from east to west. In the west they form a complex
series of gneisses, quartzites, and various schists and other rocks
all highly folded and metamorphosed by granitic intrusions.
To the east of them the rocks consist of limestones and
calcareous schists, which form a cherty dolomitic series, and
are overlain still farther east by sandstones and shales. West
of the Crystal Mountains the greater <part of the Mayumbe
region appears to consist of granitic rocks.
The most widely distributed geological formation in the
Belgian Congo is that known as the Lubilash. It consists
almost entirely of white or red sandstones and soft schists,
which cover the greater part of the Central Basin and some
times extend into the plateau and mountain regions which
surround it. These rocks, which have a thickness of at least
1,000 feet, incline very gently towards the centre of the Congo
basin. They appear to have been deposited upon a peneplain*
of ancient rocks similar to those which are found in the
Crystal Mountains and in the eastern part of the colony.
The soil derived from the sandstone is generally porous and,

GEOLOGICAL OUTLINES 29
except where it has been enriched by humus, infertile. Where
schists predominate on the other hand they give rise to
a tenacious clay, which being impermeable leads to the forma
tion of marshes along the rivers and in the depressions of the
surface. The Lubilash formation is believed to have been deposited
in a large but somewhat shallow inland sea. Owing to the
want of evidence, however, complete agreement has not yet
been reached as to the period at which this deposition took
place. As a rule those who have made investigations in the
country appear to support Cornet's opinion that the Lubilash
rocks belong to Triassic-Jurassic times. F. E. Studt on the
Other hand considers that they are much older and were
probably deposited during the Devonian period.
The Lubilash formation, though most fully developed in the
central basin of the Congo, is also found in other parts of the
country. Practically the whole region drained by the Kasai
and its tributaries belong to it, the main exceptions being
where the underlying rocks of pre-Cambrian and Palaeozoic
age rise as monadnocks from amidst the sandstone, or where
the rivers have cut their way down through the sandstone on
to the same older rocks. In the Welle country there are also
large areas of sandstone, although the most widespread forma
tions are either metamorphic or granitic. The Great Rift Valley
north of the Lukuga is bordered by a zone of ancient rock,
but between it and the Lualaba sandstone is again the
prevailing formation.
The geological structure of the Katanga appears to be more
varied than that of other parts of the Belgian Congo. Apart
from the granites which form the Bia Mountains, the Hakans-
son plateau, and the Marungu west of Lake Tanganyika, the
rocks of this region are believed to range from pre-Cambrian
to Permo-Carboniferous. The oldest, the Kafubu beds, cover
extensive areas to the west of the Biano plateau .and to the
north of Kundelungu. They consist of compact granular
quartzites, usually white or pale red in colour, and are probably
of Cambrian age at least. Overlying them unconformably
are the Wemashi rocks, which are formed of dark-coloured
conglomerates, greywackes, and shales of Silurian age. They
pass upward into the Kambove beds, which consist of grey
dolomites, sandstones, and shales, more or less pyritic, and

30 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
belong to the same geological period as the Wemashi rocks.
The two series cover a considerable area in the south of the
colony, and are also found to the west of the Luapula and
Lake Mweru as well as in other parts of J;he country. The
copper deposits of the Katanga are practically all found in the
dolomitic rocks of the Kambove series, which also contain
the Ruwe gold and platinum deposits and numerous deposits
of iron ore. The Lufira beds, which are probably of Devono-
Silurian age and consist of fine-grained, brick-red sand
stones and shales with interlaminated brownish sandstones
and red and white-banded clay slates, occur in the south-east
of the Katanga, where they come to the surface close to the
Biano plateau, along the Koni hills, and along the foothills
of the Kundelungu plateau. They are also found in other
parts of the Katanga. Above them are the Kundelungu beds,
formed mainly of coarse arkose sandstones and compact. fel
spathic quartzites, often false bedded, and interspersed with
fine shale bands. With regard to the time of their deposition
there appears to be some difference of opinion. Hitherto they
have been regarded as of Permian age, but Studt considers that
they lie conformably on the Lufira beds and belong to Devono-
Silurian times. They occur chiefly to the east of the Lualaba
river on the high country of the Biano, Mutenga-Miambo,
Kundelungu, and Kibala plateaus, and in the valleys of the
Luvua, Lomami, Luembe, and Sankuru rivers, as well as in
various other districts. Their extension, however, is greatly
hidden by the Lubilash beds, which have already been de
scribed. These overlie the Kundelungu beds unconformably on
the highest parts of the Biano and Kundelungu plateaus, and
also cover immense tracts of country to the west of the Lualaba.
The Lualaba beds have only a limited extension in the
Katanga, where they occupy a small area in the Lualaba
valley about 9° 45' S. In other parts of the colony they are
more widely distributed, and are found on either side of the
Congo for considerable distances above and below Stanleyville.
They consist in the main of sandstones and calcareous shales,
and outside of the Katanga at least are believed to be older
than the Lubilash and to belong to early Secondary times.
With regard to the Katanga, however, Studt is of the opinion
that *he Lualaba series overlies the Lubilash.
Alluvial deposits are found in the valleys of many of the

GEOLOGICAL OUTLINES 31
larger rivers in the central part of the Congo basin, and they
also cover some considerable areas in the rifts of the Katanga
region. Drainage System
The Congo is' the central artery of the drainage system of
practically the whole country. Concerning the source of the
river there has been considerable discussion. If its length
from its mouth to the point at which its most distant tribu
tary rises is to be the test, the source of the Congo must
be sought for among the headstreams of the Chambezi to the
south of Lake Tanganyika. The Chambezi flows into the
south-eastern part of Lake Bangweulu, losing itself in the
extensive marshes which mask the southern end of that lake,
and the river which issues from it is known as the Luapula.
The Luapula, after marking the boundary of the Belgian
Congo for practically the whole of its course, flows into Lake
Mweru, issuing from it as the Luvua to join the Lualaba at
Ankoro. If, however, the matter is considered from a purely
geographical point of view, it would appear that the Lubudi,
which flows into the Lualaba above Bukama, is to be regarded
as the true source of the Congo. From the headstreams of the
Lubudi to the mouth of the Congo the valley of the river is
normally developed. Its basin was formerly limited by the
long diagonal range of the Mitumba Mountains, and the events
which have added to it the drainage of the Katanga are of
more recent date. The Lualaba, by which this region is partly
drained, has its sources on the Congo-Zambezi divide about
12° S. Between it and the Luapula, farther to the east, is the
Lufira, which also rises on the divide. The two rivers, Lualaba
and Lufira, pursue a northerly direction with many windings,
passing through the Mitumba range in deep gorges. In about
8° 20' S. the two rivers unite in Lake Kisale, beyond which
the river is sometimes known as the Kamalondo.
The next important tributary of the Lualaba is the Lukuga,
which is connected with Lake Tanganyika, and in this way
drains a considerable part of the former German possessions
in East Africa. The true source of this river, however, is on
the north-west of the Marungu plateau, and the geological
accident which has converted it into an outlet for Lake
Tanganyika is of comparatively recent date. The discharge

32 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
of water from the lake is far from constant, ceasing almost
entirely after a period of scanty rainfall, and becoming again
established when the level of the lake has been raised by a series
of rainy years. About 1880 it was running strongly, but about
then a gradual fall in the level of the lake set in, and was
continued with occasional pauses for. about twenty years.
Since about 1900 there appears to have been a change, the
level of the lake has risen, and the river which leaves it has
now an average depth of about 10 to 12 feet. The Lukuga
has a fall of about 1,000 feet in its course of 300 miles, and its
bed is therefore much interrupted by rapids.
To the north of the Lukuga a number of rivers enter the
Lualaba before it turns to the north-west at Stanley Falls.
Among these are the Luama, the Elila, the Ulindi, and the
Lowa with its ( great tributary, the Oso. All of them rise in
the'high mountainous country bordering the Great Rift Valley
and pursue rugged courses almost to the points at which they
enter the main river.
Below Stanley Falls, where the main river definitely takes
the name of Congo, the first large affluent is the Lindi, which
with its tributary, the Chopo, enters from the hill country to
the east. Much more important is the Aruwimi, which enters
the Congo at Basoko. Its headstreams, the Ituri, the Shari,
and various others, rise on the southern slopes of a knot pf
mountains lying to the west of Lake Albert. Among the
tributaries which it receives are the Ibina, which comes from
the heights above the Semliki valley, and the Epulu and the
Nepoko from the Aruwimi-Bomokandi watershed. The
Aruwimi flows almost entirely through the great equatorial
forest, which appears here to attain its maximum density.
Farther west the Itimbiri and the Mongala drain much of
the relatively low country lying between the Congo and the
Ubangi-Welle. The former, which is also known as the-
Rubi or Lubi, rises to the west of the Nepoko and enters
the Congo near Bumba. The latter is formed by the confluence
of several streams, the most important being the Dua, the
Ebola, and the Likame.
The Aruwimi, Itimbiri, and Mongala flow for a great .part of
their way through the northern part of the Central Basin.
The Ubangi occupies a somewhat different position. Its
headstreams, the Bornu and the Welle, which follow roughly

DRAINAGE SYSTEM 33
parallel courses, belong essentially to the plateau region which
borders the Central Basin and forms the Congo-Nile divide.
The Bornu forms the northern boundary of the colony, and
as it has few important tributaries from the south it does not
collect a large part of the drainage of the plateau except in
the west, where the Bili, which joins the Bornu just above its
confluence with the Welle, is the most important river of this
Mesopotamian region. The farthest headstream of the Welle
rises in the same group of mountains as do the Ituri and the
Shari, but it receives its chief northern tributaries, the Dungu,
Duru, and Were, from the Congo-Nile divide. On the left
bank its principal affluents are the Bomokandi, whose sources
are not far from those of the Epulu, and the Bima, which rises
near the Itimbiri. Below the confluence of the Bornu and
the Welle, the Ubangi forms the international boundary. Its
largest affluents on the left bank are the Lua and the Giri,
both of which belong to the Central Basin. Above Irebu the
Ubangi joins the Congo, which then becomes the frontier.
Turning now to the left-bank tributaries of the Congo, the
first to demand attention is the Lomami. It rises in moun
tainous country, but as it flows northwards almost parallel to
the Lualaba a great part of its course lies within the central
lowlands. West of the confluence of the Lomami with the
Congo there is a long stretch in which the main stream receives
no left-bank tributary, as the great plain to the south is drained
by rivers flowing in the same direction as the middle Congo.
Of these the most important are the Lulonga, formed by the
confluence of the Lopori and the Maringa, and the Ruki
system, which lies just south of the equator. The latter is
formed by the confluence of the Busira and the Momboyo. The
larger affluents of the Busira, the Chuapa and Lomela, rise
in the east not far from the Lomami. The Salonga, which
also flows into the Busira, and the affluents of the Momboyo
are shorter and rise farther to the south. The Lukenie, whose
headstreams likewise rise near the Lomami, drains the most
southerly part of the same region, but flows into the Kasai.
Below the point at which it collects the surplus waters of
Lake Leopold it is known as the Fini.
The last great tributary of the Congo is the Kasai, which
with its tributaries drains the northward-facing slopes of the
South African plateau. On this plateau a number of large
BELG. CONGO C

34 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
rivers rise and flow north towards the Central Basin. The
more important of these from east to west are the upper
Sankuru, known as the Lubilash, the Lulua, the upper Kasai, .
the Loange (Loangue), the Kwilu, the Kwengo, the Wamba,
and the Kwango. The upper Sankuru and the Lulua, with their
tributaries, lie wholly within Belgian territory, but the upper
Kasai and the rivers farther to the west have their sources on
the plateau of Angola,, which belongs to Portugal.
The Sankuru may perhaps with justice be regarded as the
true continuation of the Kasai, notwithstanding the fact that
its contribution to the combined stream at Basongo is con
siderably less. Along with its numerous tributaries it drains
a large area in the east before it makes its great bend to the
west some distance below Lusambo. Apart from its headstream
the only important affluent which it receives on the right
bank is the Lubefu, which lies between it and the Lomami.
Farther west the Lukenie is the main drainage channel of the
country lying north of the Sankuru. On the left bank the
Sankuru receives the Lubi at Lusambo and the Lubudi at
Bolombo. The westward-flowing Sankuru meets the upper Kasai at
Basongo, and the combined stream, now known as the Kasai,
flows in a west-north-west direction to its confluence with
the Congo, at Kwamouth. The most important tributary of
the upper Kasai is the Lulua, which joins it at Bena Makima
and drains a considerable area to the west of the basin of the
upper Sankuru. Farther to the west the Kasai receives the
Kwango, which, with its tributaries, the Wamba and the
Kwilu, forms the chief river-system in the south-western part
of the colony. The confluence of the Kasai with the Kwango
is at Wissmann Pool, a short distance above the point at which
the Fini enters the main stream.
Below Kwamouth the Congo receives no large tributary, *
but in its passage through the Crystal Mountains it is joined
by a number of short streams. Of those flowing through
Belgian territory the most important are the Eluala, which
enters on the right bank, and the Inkisi, the Kwilu, and the
Lufu, which enter on the left. In the district of Lower Congo a
large part of Mayumbe is drained to the Chiloango, which enters \
the Atlantic through the northern part of the Kabinda enclave,,!
This part of the Chiloango basin and a comparatively small :

DRAINAGE SYSTEM 35
district in the north-east which lies within the basin of the
Nile are the only regions in the colony which do not lie within
the drainage area of the Congo.
The Belgian possessions in the northern part of the Great
Rift Valley lie, as has just been indicated, in the basin of the
Nile. The Ruchuru, which rises in the volcanic region to
the north of Lake Kivu, flows northward into Lake Edward,
while the Semliki, which leaves that lake, carries its surplus
Waters to Lake Albert. Part of this drainage system lies
within Belgian territory; it includes the basins of various
small rivers which flow directly into the lakes.
From this brief survey it will be seen that the rivers of the ''
Belgian Congo can be more or less closely related to the
main physical regions into which, as already indicated,
the country can be divided. The Lubudi-Lualaba-Congo,"
with its tributaries below Stanley Falls, the lower Aruwimi,
the Itimbiri, the Mongala and the Ubangi proper, on the
right hank, and the lower Lomami, the Lulonga, the Ruki,
and the Fini on the left, form the great rivers of the low
central plateau. The upper Lualaba, the Lufira, and the
Luapula drain the Katanga. The Eastern Highlands lie in
the basins of the Lukuga, Ulindi, Lowa, Ituri, and other rivers
which flow westwards towards the Congo. The rift-valley finds
one outlet to the Lukuga and another to the Nile. The Congo-
Nile plateau in the north is within the drainage area of the
Bornu and the Welle, while the higher and more extensive
plateau in the south of the colony sends its waters northward
to form the Kasai. The short streams which rise in the Crystal
Mountains flow directly to the Congo. The coastal region
and Mayumbe drain mainly to the Chiloango in the north or
to the Congo in the south, but a few small streams in the west
find their outlet in the Altantic.

Regime of the Congo and its Tributaries
The rivers of the Congo system seldom remain at their mean
level, and as a rule are either rising or falling. According to i
their position they have either a double or single maximum
and a double or, single minimum. The Congo and its left-
bank affluents, more particularly the Kasai, have two periods
< of high water each year and two periods of low water. The
c 2

36 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
right-bank tributaries on the other hand, and especially, the
Ubangi and the Sanga, have only one maximum and one mini#
mum in the course of the year. On the Congo there is low
water in March and high water about the middle of May. This f
is caused by the heavy rains, which have taken place somewhat
earlier in the Kasai region, in the Katanga, and in the southern
part of the Eastern Highlands. The rivers flowing from these
regions are not only in flood themselves, but they cause the
main river to rise rapidly. After this the Congo again begins "
to fall, and low water is reached at Stanleyville in July, where
the minimum is lower than that of March. At LukolelaJ
opposite the confluence of the Congo and the Sanga, the,
reverse is the case, the main river being lower in March than
in July. This is due to the fact that in April the Ubangi
begins to rise, while the Itimbiri, Aruwimi, and other right-1
bank tributaries are also in flood about this time. Owing,]
however, to the great diminution in the discharge of the
Kasai the effect of this increase is not felt below the confluence j
of that river with the Congo, and at Leopoldville the Congo j
is at its lowest in July and August. ^
The second maximum on the Congo is reached about the
middle of December. The Ubangi and Sanga have a regime ¦
somewhat like that of the Nile, and do not attain their maxi-l
mum height until the month of October. It is not, howevejp
till the left-bank tributaries begin to rise as a result of the
increasing rainfall south of the equator that the Congo reaches,
its second maximum. This, as has just been said, is about the
middle of December, after which, as a result of the annual fall
in the northern tributaries and the intervention of a short.
dry period to the south of the equator, the river falls until it
reaches the March minimum. ¦)
If the above account of the regime of the Congo be correct,
as would from recent investigations appear to be the case, it
follows that the double maximum and minimum are due not so '-
much to the alternate flooding of the tributaries lying re
spectively north and south of the equator, as was formerly
believed, but rather to the double rainy season in the region
to the south of the equator. The northern tributaries con
tribute to the result, but the southern appear to control the
regime of the river. .
The variations from year to year in the amplitude of the

DRAINAGE SYSTEM 37
annual floods of those rivers of which the discharges have been
oarefully measured is considerable, but whether the flood be
high or low its general character along its course remains the
same from, year to year. On the Congo, Ubangi, Sanga, and
Kasai this is particularly the case, variations in the discharge
of their tributaries and local precipitation having only a slight
modifying effect. From the point of view of navigation this
is a matter of some importance. When one of these rivers
has once been properly surveyed it is possible by measuring
the height of water at any point to estimate within about
a foot the height at all other points along the course of the
river.
Regional Survey
• The Coastal Regions and Mayumbe
To the west of the Crystal Mountains the land is diversified1
in appearance and presents little geographical unity. The
coast, which is little over 20 miles in length, is generally low
and sandy, and the shoal by which it is fringed makes it unsafe
for navigation. This shoal, which begins a few miles south of-
Red Point (5° 44' S.), carries the three-fathom line three and
a half miles and the five-fathom line six and a half miles
from the shore. Behind the coast the land rises, often per-
> pendicularly, to a low plateau which seldom exceeds 100 feet
in height. It is sandy in some places, marshy in others, and
is much cut up by the valleys of the various streams by
which it is drained. At some distance inland there is a second
and higher plateau, the escarpment of which, like that of the
first, runs parallel to the coast. It also appears on the right
bank of the Congo estuary between Banana and Malela, where
it varies in height from 240 to 300 feet (75 to 90 metres).
This plateau, which is covered with sandy or sandy-clay soils,
{ extends inland to the hill country of Mayumbe. The vegeta
tion is generally poor, except in the valleys of the Luibi and
* Bola, where there are considerable tracts of forest.
, Along the estuary of the Congo the scenery is as a rule very
'' different in character. The land, which has for the most part
been formed by the debris carried down by the great river,
fis low-lying, and is cut up by creeks in every direction. In
"many places there are mangrove swamps. The bed of the
river, also, contains many islands and sandbanks. Of these

38 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
the island of Mateva, which lies below Boma, is the largest^
but there are several others belonging to Portugal which are
of considerable size.
Mayumbe is the third region into which the country west
of the Crystal Mountains may be divided. It is bordered on
the west by a line which runs more or less parallel to the
coast and cuts the rivers Chiloango, Lubuzi, and Lukula, where :l
they form falls in passing from the hills to the low plateaus *|
which border the ocean. On the south and east Mayumbe proper
does not as a rule extend beyond the divide between the basins
of the Congo and Chiloango, while on the north it is separated^
by the Chiloango from its extension in Portuguese Kabinda
and French Gabun. '4
Mayumbe therefore belongs in the main to the basin of the
Chiloango. It is an elevated and broken country in which
the hills rise, sometimes abruptly, to heights varying from '*-
1,500 to 2,500 feet (460 to 760 metres). The valleys are narrow
and deep, and the rivers flow in tortuous courses which are
much cut up by rapids and falls. The soil is fairly thick, and
consists of clay or clay and sand intermingled, resting upon
hard rocks such as gneiss, schist, and quartzite. Much of the
land is forested, but in places there are clearings which become
larger and more extensive towards the south.
Three different zones may be distinguished. In the first,
which lies between the Chiloango and the hills on the left
bank of the Lubuzi, the land rises from 300 feet (90 metres)
in the west to over 1,500 feet (460 metres) in the east, and is
even higher in the south. The soil is generally fertile, and
in places there are considerable tracts of virgin forest. The
conditions are accordingly favourable for the establishment
of plantations, of which there a're a number at Ganda Sundi,
Chela, and elsewhere.
The second zone lies between the high hills which border
the Lubuzi and the sources of the Lukula and Nyanzi. In it
the land rises to greater heights, and frequently passes into
plateaus of considerable extent. The forest areas are more
limited, and much of the vegetation consists of savanna
and scrub. -j
In the third zone, which extends to the south of the
Lukula-Congo divide, the land is lower, and the valleys, whichf
are broader, are often bordered by marshes or gallery forests, if

REGIONAL SURVEY 39
The Crystal Mountains
The name, Crystal Mountains, given by the earlier geo
graphers to the mountainous area which separates the central
basin from the coast, is an unfortunate one, but no better term
has as yet been suggested. The region was at one time occupied
by a great mountain range, which was first reduced by the
processes of denudation to a peneplain and then eroded into
a much-dissected plateau. In the more- elevated districts
it reaches heights of considerably over 2,000 feet (610 metres).
The Congo in its passage through this region encounters rocks
of different degrees of resistance, and thus has a course which
is much interrupted by rapids and low waterfalls. Hence
from Matadi to Leopold ville there are numerous stretches of
unnavigable water.
The physical geography of the Crystal Mountains has been
carefully studied in places, and more especially along the
line of railway- which now connects the navigable reaches
on the lower and middle Congo. Its general character south
of the river is fairly well known. In the vicinity of
Congo da Lemba, north-east of Matadi, it has the appearance
of a much-dissected plateau. Stretches of relatively level
ground are rare, the hills are prominent, and the whole country
is cut up by numerous river-valleys. Between this region
and the series of plateaus which lie north of Matadi on the
right bank of the river, the Congo makes its way from north
to south in a gorge, the sides of which are often from 500 to
1,000 feet (150 to 305 metres) in height. In this the most
turbulent part of its course the river has an ave-rage fall of
about 5£ feet per mile (1 metre per kilometre).
Farther to the east and the north-east, that is, in the basin
of the Kwilu and its tributary the Kwilu-Madiata, the elevation
of the land is less and usually varies from 1,100 to 1,300 feet
(335 to 395 metres). The surface is less irregular, and along
the railway line between Songololo and Kimpese is almost
level. To the north, however, its character changes: high
hills and deep valleys succeed one another, while the average
height of the land is from 1,600 to 2,000 feet (488 to 610
metres). This type of country is continued north of the Congo
below Manyanga. In places it assumes a mountainous aspect,
and is deeply dissected by numerous rivers. Between Manyanga

40 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
and Isangila the Congo itself has a much less turbulent course
than higher up or lo.wer down, and in places has even been
navigated by steamboats. But on account of some low falls
and various rapids this stretch is of little value.
Returning to the left bank of the river, the next region to
demand attention is the mountainous massif of Bangu, which ;
is bounded on the north by the Congo, on the south and west
by the Lukunga, and on the east by the Pioko. It is not
a continuous plateau but a highly dissected region which
rises in the centre to Mount Uia, 3,445 feet (1,050 metres) above
sea- level. On the south and west, along the right bank of the
Lukunga, and on the east along the left bank of the lower
Pioko, Bangu terminates in cliffs which rise from 800 to 1,000
feet (244 to 305 metres) above the level of these rivers. In the
south it is particularly mountainous, its hills and elevated
plateaus rising to heights of over 2,000 feet (610 metres),
while its deep valleys are often deeply wooded. Northern
Bangu on the other hand is lower and much less rugged ;
the land is undulating, the hills are low and rounded, and the
wide valleys which separate them from one another have gentle
grass-covered slopes.
Mountainous country is also found towards the south-east of
the massif of Bangu, especially between the Kwilu-Madiata
and Thysville, where the Matadi-Leopoldville railway reaches
its highest point, 2,428 feet (740 metres) above sea-level.
North-east of Bangu the land is somewhat similar to that
which lies to the west of the massif. At Leopoldville the
Congo enters the gorge by which it passes through the
Crystal Mountains, and from there to Manyanga — a distance
of 87 miles — it flows in a bed which is sometimes as much
as 1,300 feet (395 metres) below the level of the surrounding
land. Its course is exceedingly tortuous and irregular. In some
places it passes through narrow defiles where the rocks rise
perpendicularly to heights of 300 to 600 feet (90 to 180 metres),- 1
in others it broadens out, and the river forms caldrons and
pools often of considerable size. Rapids are numerous, and
navigation is impossible.
The Belgian part of the Crystal Mountains belongs almost
entirely to the basin of the Congo. The principal tributaries
which join the main stream on its right bank are the Fulukari
or Kenke, the Tombe, and the Eluala, and on its left bank the

REGIONAL SURVEY 41
Inkisi, the Lukunga, the Kwilu, and the Lufu. As they all
flow through hilly country, they are practically of no value for
navigation. The Central Basin
Detailed information regarding many parts of the Central
Basin does not exist. For this there are several reasons. Over
the whole region there is great uniformity in the physical
character of the land, and the minor differences which occur
are in many cases obscured by dense vegetation. The rivers,
which form the chief means of communication, have generally
been followed by travellers, and away from them there are
many districts which have never been described. The mineral
wealth of the country appears to be confined to the peripheral
regions, and the necessity for investigating their physical and
geological structure has rather led to the neglect of the
Central Basin.
To state precisely the extent of the region under considera
tion is a matter of some difficulty. It certainly includes all the
land with an elevation of less than 1,600 feet (488 metres) above
sea-level, and in many places the 1,600-feet contour would mark
the limits of the region very well, as the land frequently rises
much more rapidly above it. But if it be taken a large district
lying to. the west of the Lualaba and to the north of the Kasai-
Sankuru will be excluded from the region, and for this
there appears to be no adequate reason. East of the Lualaba
above Kindu and south of a line joining Nyangwe with the
confluence of the Sankuru and Lubefu the land begins to rise
rapidly only when the 2,000-feet (610 metres) contour has been
reached, and that line may therefore be considered as marking
in this part of the country the meeting place of the Central
Basin, with the uplands which surround it.
The boundary of the Central Basin may therefore be pro
visionally defined as follows. On the west it is formed by the
Congo and the Ubangi from Stanley Pool in the south to the
vicinity of Libenge in the north. From Libenge it follows an
easterly direction, keeping to the north of the Dua and Itimbiri,
and then bears to the south, crossing the Rubi above Buta
and the Aruwimi below Avakubi. The eastern boundary runs
more or less parallel to the course of the Lualaba, and at no
great distance from its right bank, to the neighbourhood of

42 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
Nyangwe, while the southern coincides more or less with the
fall-line where the left-bank tributaries of the Kasai-Sankuru
make their last descent from the Angolan plateau. On
almost all sides the Central Basin slopes down to Lake
Leopold, which is only about 1,000 feet (305 metres) above
sea-level. The extreme difference in level between the
highest and the lowest parts of the region is therefore
generally less than 1,000 feet. But only in a few places is
there any sudden change in the topography of the surface.
In the west a great stretch of country, including the land on
either side of the middle Congo as far up as the confluence of
the Aruwimi, the greater part of the basins of the Lopori and
the Maringa, and the western parts of the Ruki and the Fini,
has an elevation of less than 1,300 feet (400 metres). On the
other hand the land which is over 1,600 feet (488 metres) in
height is limited in the main to the upper basins of the more
important headstreams of the Ruki and the Fini, and from
there westward to the Lualaba. There are also one or two
detached districts, the most important of which lies north of
and parallel to the Kasai.
Probably the best way in which to get a general idea of this
immense and imperfectly investigated area is to follow the
courses of its more important rivers, and as far as possible to
describe the lands which they drain. Above Stanley Pool the
Congo flows for over 100 miles between steep-faced hills which
are high and close to the river in the south, but in the north
become lower and recede from it. Across them the Kasai
cuts its way in a gorge about 40 miles long to join the main
stream at Kwamouth. About 40 miles to the north of Kwa
mouth the hills begin to disappear, and at Bolobo only a few
traces of them are left.
Above Bolobo there are few interruptions in the general
monotony of the surface. The narrows at Lukolela are formed
by low hills of conglomerate, which do not rise more than
50 feet above the level of the river, and from Irebu to Upoto
the Congo flows through a vast plain, which appears to extend
to a great distance in every direction. On the left bank there
is much marshy land round Lake Tumba, while farther to the
north the Ruki, the Ikelemba, and the Lulonga mostly traverse
very flat country in their lower courses. In the region between
the right bank of the Congo and the Giri there are great

REGIONAL SURVEY 43
areas of swamp which extend upstream as far as the confluence
of the Mongala. The drainage of this part of the country
indicates very well the general character of its topography.
The rivers are numerous, and at times of high water overflow
their banks for a mile or two on either side, while various
channels unite them with one another. From the Mongala,
about a day's sail above Mobeka, there is a water route to the
Ubangi by way of the Giri. Similar channels from the Congo
below and above Nouvelle Anvers lead to the Lua or upper
Giri. The Congo is also connected with the Lulonga by
a waterway which leaves the former river opposite Nouvelle
Anvers and enters the latter about three days' sail above its
confluence with the main stream. In short a great part of
the country between the Congo and the Ubangi as far north
as the parallel of Mobeka is under water, and the population
live on numerous smajl islands which rise above the surface
of the water.
At Upoto, which is situated almost in the extreme north of
the great bend of the Congo, the aspect of the country begins
to change. A range of hills which rise about 360 feet (110
metres) above the level of the fiver run along its right bank
as "far as Bumba. On the south they fall somewhat steeply to
the Congo, but on the north they have a gentle slope towards
the Motima and are cut up by several small valleys. Beyond
Bumba they leave the river and run towards the interior in
a north-easterly direction. Farther to the north, between the
Motima and the Dua, there is another range, somewhat lower
and without steep slopes. On the whole the country which
lies between the Congo and the Dua- Mongala has the appearance
of a gently undulating plain, with a general increase in height
towards the north. The surface is more deeply incised by the
rivers which flow across it, and, while the larger ones have
developed broad flood-plains frequently under water during
the rainy season, the smaller ones sometimes flow in beds so
deep that in order to cross them a descent and corresponding
ascent of nearly 100 feet are in some cases necessary. This
feature is even more marked farther to the north, along the
watershed between the Dua and the Ebola, near Mogbogoma,
where the land rises to a height of over 1,600 feet (488 metres),
and the streams flow in deeply cut valleys.
Above Bumba, where the hills which began at Upoto recede

44 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
r
from the river, the Congo once more flows in a great plain,
which on the right is crossed by the Itimbiri and the
Aruwimi. The lower courses of these tributaries lie within
the Central Basin, and the land through which they flow is
either flat or gently undulating. The Itimbiri is said to be
bordered in places by red cliffs, which rise perpendicularly
from the river, while on the right bank of the Aruwimi there
are ridges of low hills between Moganjo and Yambuya.
Away from these rivers comparatively little is known about
the topography of the country.
On its left bank the Congo is joined by the Lomami some
distance above its confluence with the Aruwimi. The lower
part of the basin of the Lomami belongs to the plain through
which the Congo flows, and part of the land between the two
rivers appears to be covered with marsh. Between Send we
upon the Lualuba above Riba-Riba, an,d the Lomami above
Bena Kamba there is a depression which during the rainy
season is also transformed into an impracticable marsh. Farther
to the south the country becomes somewhat higher and more
undulating, but it has never been properly explored, and very
little is known regarding it.
Above the confluence of the Congo and Aruwimi at Basoko
the land on either side of the main stream becomes more
broken in character. Even below Basoko rocks and low hills
appear on the left bank, and by the time that post is reached
they have become continuous and rise to a height of nearly
200 feet. Above it, however, they soon give place to low-
lying and swampy land. On the right bank the hilly country
begins east of Basoko and continues with little interruption
as far as Stanley Falls. These hills nowhere rise to any great
height, but they indicate that the land generally is becoming
more undulating in character, and that the surface features
are less monotonous than those in the western part of the
Central Basin. Beyond Stanley Falls the same type of scenery
prevails as far as Nyangwe, and, although the country is some
what broken, no hills of any size lie near the river. Farther
east of course the land begins to rise rapidly, while to the
west a low watershed separates the basin of the Congo from
that of the Lomami.
The characteristic surface features of the western part of
the Central Basin of the Congo are also found in the south

REGIONAL SURVEY 45
of the region drained by the Ubangi. From the confluence
oi the two rivers northwards for a considerable distance
much of the land which lies between them is under water
for part of the year. The Giri, a tributary of the Ubangi,
flows through a great swamp, where for at least three or four
months out of the twelve the trees rise directly from the
stagnant water. Some distance north of the Giri the land
increases in height, the swamps disappear, and the surface
features assume a more varied aspect. Rolling down-like
country extends from here northwards to the low hills which
border the left bank of the Ubangi above its great bend, and
mark the northern limits of the Central Basin. For the sake
of convenience, however, these hills may be described here.
They run with a general direction of west-north-west to east-
south-east, and are more or less parallel to the upper course of
the Ubangi. Seen from the rolling country to the south they
appear low and of little importance, but when viewed from
the north they are somewhat more imposing, as they sometimes
rise to heights of at least 1,000 feet (305 metres) above the
level of the Ubangi.
To the north of these hills, and above the rapids where they
are crossed by the Ubangi between Zongo and Mokoange, the
valley of that river is broad and somewhat diversified in
appearance. In places it consists of gently undulating, land,
while in others there are belts of rounded hills which some
times approach close to the river and sometimes recede from
it to a considerable distance. The vegetation is also varied,
and on the whole the Belgian side of the Ubangi has a pleasing
aspect. The southern part of the Central Basin falls within the
drainage area of the Kasai. In the west lies Lake Leopold,
which with the rivers flowing into it is drained by the
Fini. This lake appears to be the remnant of a great inland
sea into which the waters of the upper Kasai, the Kwango,
and the Fini at one time drained. It was cut off from the
Congo by a low ridge, to which the name of Mantere Hills has
been given, and across which the Kasai at a later date cut the
gorge that terminates at Kwamouth. A great part of the land
formerly covered by this ancient sea lies to the east of Lake
Leopold, and consists of marshy ground now drained by various
rivers, of which the Lutoi and the Lokoro are the most

46 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
important. Deposition has played a great part in modelling
the surface features, and the remains of ancient sandbanks are
still to be seen. To the west of Lake Leopold the land appears
to be higher, and at the southern end of the lake there are
hills from 50 to 200 feet in height. Below the lake also the
Fini passes through gently rolling downs which Grenfell
declared to be among the most promising districts in the
whole of the Central Basin.
In the lands which border the Kasai-Sankuru the topography
is somewhat more varied than it is farther to the north. The
valley of the Kasai is well cut into the plateau of the Central
Basin, which here slopes to the north. Near Dima, a short
distance above the mouth of the Kwango, the surface of this
plateau lies about 200 feet above the level of the Kasai, while
at Basongo, where the latter stream meets the Sankuru, the
difference of level is at least 400 feet.
The valley of the Kasai is of varying width. About 15
miles above Kwamouth it is at least a mile broad, while the
edge of the plateau proper is seven or eight miles distant.
Below Wissmann Pool it increases to at least 20 miles, and the
Pool itself is only a large island-studded expansion of the
river. Near the confluence of the Kwango with the main
stream the valley is still broader, but near Dima it begins to
contract, and from about 30 miles above that post the river
flows between two gently inclined banks. Farther to the
east these increase in height, and near Mount Pogge the
undulating plateau which borders the Kasai is between 400
and 500 feet above the level of the river. Higher up towards
Basongo the affluents of the main stream are more numerous,
and the plateau assumes a more dissected appearance.
Farther to the east the general character of the land remains
much the same. A gently undulating plateau occupies most
of the country east of the upper Kasai and south of the Lukenie.
It slopes towards the north, and seldom exceed 1,500 feet (457
metres) in height. The valleys of the principal streams are
deeply incised, and the land in their neighbourhood is often
broken. The smaller rivers on the other hand flow in shallow
valleys and do not greatly affect the topography of the surface.
Minor features depend upon the nature of the underlying
rocks. In the sandstone districts the smaller affluents of the
large rivers flow in steep narrow valleys, which, as in the case

REGIONAL SURVEY 47
of some near Lusambo, are almost canon-like in appearance.
Where schists are found the valleys have greater slopes, and
often contain small clay-covered plains, which are frequently
marshy. The Welle Region
That part of the Belgian Congo which is drained by the
Welle and the Bornu with their tributaries belongs to the
Congo-Nile watershed. In general form it consists of a great
undulating plateau sloping on the whole from the north and
east towards the south and west, and varying in height from
over 4,000 feet (1,220 metres) in the former districts to about
1,600 (488 metres) in the latter.
The eastern part of the region as far west as 29° E. has
a more irregular topography than the remainder of the country
under consideration. A plateau, the average height of which
is probably about 4,250 feet (1,300 metres), slopes down gently
towards the north and west, where it gives place to an im
mense plain from 2,300 to 2,600 feet (700 to 800 metres) above
sea-level. The plateau and the plain are separated from one
another by an intermediate zone, in which there are numerous
isolated hills rising from 330 to 660 feet (100 to 200 metres)
above the level of the surrounding land. On the east of the
plateau are a number of hills which form the Congo-Nile
watershed, and on the south, near the Welle-Ituri watershed,
some groups of mountains rising to heights of at least 4,500
feet (1,370 metres). Elsewhere the plateau appears as an
almost unbroken plain cut up by numerous small streams. It
is a region of special interest on account of its suitability for
stock-raising, and the Lugwarets, who are its inhabitants,
possess numerous herds of cattle.
The intermediate zone of hills which lies to the north and
west of the high plateau has in general a lower elevation.
Many of the small isolated massifs which characterize the
zone are of granitic formation, and the soil in their vicinity
appears to be very fertile. In the neighbourhood of the
Kibali the surface is much more broken, and a number of hills
which rise to at least 330 feet (100 metres) above the general
* level of the land consist almost entirely of iron ore.
West of the districts just described the physical geography
of the Welle region presents comparatively few features of

48 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
interest. As the rainfall decreases from south to north, the
tributaries of the Welle are more powerful than those of the
Bornu, and have cut their way back to such an extent that,
east of the Were at least, the greater part of the country is
drained by the former river. West of the Were, the Bili and
other tributaries of the Bornu flow in a westerly direction,
and on the whole the general slope of the land is towards the
west and south-west. On the south the country falls, somewhat
steeply in places, towards the Central Basm.
Over the whole of this region the land forms a series of
broad undulations which produce hardly any visible effect on
the contour of the surface. North of Niangara, for example,
the country is very flat, devoid of hills, and bujfc slightly
undulating, and as far as the Congo-Nile divide it appears to
consist in the main of a series of monotonous plains. The
actual water-parting, however, is clearly marked. To the
south and west of Niangara the country retains the same
general character, but is somewhat lower, except where one or
other of several groups of hills rises above the level fo the
surrounding land. Mount Angba, which is situated on the
right bank of the Welle near Amadis, and rises to a height of
between 600 and 700 feet above the river, is an enormous mass
of iron ore. To the south of it Mount Majema on the
Bomokandi near Poko is of similar formation, while higher
up the same river lies Mount Tena. The latter, which is said
to rise to a height of 4,900 feet (1,490 metres) above sea-level,
is also a mass of iron ore.
Considered as a whole, the region is one which has not yet
been dissected by rivers to any great extent. The Welle and
most of its tributaries wind their way between high banks of
clayey alluvium, and the broad depressions in which they flow
are much too shallow to be termed valleys in the ordinary sense.
The courses of the streams are interrupted by numerous falls
which prevent continuous navigation. In the intervening
reaches, where the fall of the rivers is slight, they sometimes
expand during the rainy season into large swamps. There do
not, however, appear to be any marshy districts similar to
those found in some parts of the Central Basin.
Over a great part of the country the soils consist of sandy
clays. In many places, and especially, it is said, in the
neighbourhood of the iron mountains, these soils are rich in

REGIONAL SURVEY 49
limonite, which sometimes forms a hard crust on the surface
and makes the land unfit for cultivation. Alluvial soils occur
in the vicinity of the rivers, and it is probably in these districts
that the most extensive areas of cultivable land are to be
found. The Eastern Highlands
The Eastern Highlands are here taken to include the
mountain system which borders the Great Rift Valley on the
west, together with that part of the valley itself which lies
within the Belgian Congo. The region is one of considerable
orographical complexity, and in many places its features are
known only in broad outline. As a general rule, however, the
land rises gradually from the central basin to the mountains
which border the rift, and then falls steeply to the great valley
in which lie Lakes Albert, Edward, Kivu, and Tanganyika.
Lake Albert. — These general characteristics are well brought
out in the country to the west of Lake Albert. The eastern
slopes of the mountains are drained by short rapid streams,
while the western lie within the basin of the Ituri and its
tributaries. Along the central part of the lake the mountains
run parallel to the coast, from which they are not more than
a few miles distant. Farther north they recede from it, and
the plain of Mahagi, which on its landward side is bordered
in places by escarpments 700 to 1,000 feet (214 to 305 metres)
high, intervenes between them and the lake. Towards its
southern end also Lake Albert is bordered by a continuation
of the Semliki plains.
The western slopes of the mountains have been much cut up
by the Ituri and its tributaries, more especially by the Shari
and the Nzi. For the greater part of their course these two
rivers flow through very rugged country, but near their
confluence there is a large and important plain. In the region
round Nioka, farther to the north, the land is less rugged, and
there is a succession of hills with gentle slopes separated by
small river-valleys. In the forest zone which lies farther
west than the region just described the land is lower, but is
often hilly and even mountainous in places. Among the more
important heights in the range are the Korowi Mountains,
the Pikoti Mountains, the Aja Mountains, and the Numa
Mountains. These range in height from about 6,500 to 8,400
feet (1,980 to 2,560 metres).
BELO. CONGO D

50 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
The Semliki.— -The rift-valley is continued to the south of
Lake Albert by the valley of the Semliki, which flows from
Lake Edward. It is a large river, but owing to the difference
of level between the two lakes, 968 feet (295 metres), it is
broken up by rapids to such an extent that it is unnavigable
except in its lower course, where it winds about in the marshy
plain to the south of Lake Albert.
The mountains which border Lake Albert on the west fall
at Boga (south-west of the point at which the Semliki enters
the lake) to a height of about 4,250 feet (1,295 metres). They
rise again in Kiamata to 5,050 feet (1,540 metres), but south
of that mountain their elevation is again reduced, and a gap
is fprmed which to the north-west of Beni does not exceed
4,035 feet (1,230 metres). It is through this gap, over 30 miles
wide, that the great tropical forest of the central Congo
makes its way eastward to the slopes of Ruwenzori. To
the south-west of Beni the mountains increase in height,
and the escarpments towards the rift-valley again becomes
well marked. The western slopes of this range are drained
by the Ibana, a tributary of the Ituri, and to a great extent
they are covered with virgin forest.
On the east of the rift-valley part of the massif of Ruwenzori
lies within the Belgian Congo. This massif forms the eastern
escarpment of the rift for a distance of about 70 miles. Its
highest point is 16,600 feet (5,060 metres) above sea-level, and
a considerable area on its summit is covered with perpetual
snow. It has not yet been ascended from the western or
Belgian side.
Lake Edward. — West of Lake Edward the escarpment
runs close to the shore. Its altitude is considerable, and in
several places heights of over 7,000 feet (2,134 metres) are
reached, while the culminating point near the northern end
of Lake Edward is 10,216 feet (3,114 metres) above sea-level. '
The massif as a whole appears to be very broad and to fall
steeply on the west, where it is much cut up by tributaries of
the Lindi and the Lowa.
The Ruchuru.— The upper course of the Ruchuru is moun
tainous, but in its lower course it flows through a plain
which forms part of the rift-valley. On the west the plain is
bordered by the escarpment of the Itongo Mountains, the
summits of which rise to an average height of about 7,250 <

REGIONAL SURVEY 51
feet (2,210 metres). The escarpment on the east of the plain
also belongs in part to the Belgian Congo ; in the south it is
high and deeply ravined, but towards the north it is much
lower and descends gently to the level of Lake Edward.
The Virunga Mountains.— To the south of the plain of the
Ruchuru the rift-valley has been blocked by a number of
volcanoes to which the general name of Virunga Mountains
has been given. These volcanoes may be separated into three
clearly distinct groups, a western, a middle, and an eastern. The
western group contains Namlagira and Ninagongo, both of
which are still active. The eastern and central groups on the
other hand are each composed^of three extinct volcanoes, those
in the former group being Sabinio, Mgahinga, and Muhavura,
and in the latter Vissoke, Karissimbi, and Mikeno. The Belgo-
German frontier crosses the region, so that some of the
volcanoes lie partly, and others entirely, outside of the Belgian
Congo. The highest is Karissimbi, which rises to 14,783 feet
(4,506 metres) above sea-level.
In addition t6 the eight large volcanoes there are a number
of craters, most of which are in a more or less advanced state
of denudation. They often follow well-marked lines of
fracture. Lake Kivu. — The western escarpment of the rift-valley,
which may be traced from the north past the region of the
volcanic mountains, is continued along the west of Lake Kivu,
into which it often steeply descends. The lake itself is about
60 miles in length, and contains the mountainous island of
Kwijwi, which belongs to the Belgian Congo. The western
slope of the escarpment drains to the Lowa and the Ulindi,
and has the same general character as farther north.
The Rusisi. — The Rusisi flows from Lake Kivu to Lake
Tanganyika. Between the southern end of the former lake
and the plain in which the river flows for the greater part of
its course there is a great barrier of primitive and eruptive
rocks, which stretches across the rift-valley and rises to a
height of about 2,300 feet (700 metres) above the level of the
plain. On the east it passes insensibly into the mountains
which border the rift- valley, but on the west the escarpment
is clearly visible and can be traced by its high summits with
rounded outlines.
Across this barrier the Rusisi makes its way in a deep
d 2 i

52 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
gorge. The difference in level between Lakes Kivu and
Tanganyika is about 2,230 feet (680 metres), and the Rusisi
falls very rapidly during the first part of its course- Later on
its speed becomes less, and it flows through a low marshy
plain. The western escarpment still remains high and steep.
Towards the Congo the land falls much more gradually, and
the basins of the rivers which drain it, the upper Ulindi and
the Elila, are mountainous in the east, hilly in the centre,
and fairly flat in the east. All the more important rivers are
cut up by numerous falls and many rapids.
Lake Tanganyika. — Seen from the delta of the Rusisi, Lake
Tanganyika has the appearance of an immense corridor lying
between high and almost perpendicular walls. It has a length
of about 400 miles, and an average breadth of about 30 miles.
At one time the level of the lake appears to have been
higher than it is at present, and the modern shore-line is
often separated from the foot of the mountains by a long
belt of gently sloping land, which terminates near the lake
in a sandy beach.
The western escarpment between Uvira and Baraka is par
ticularly high, and sometimes rises to 4,000 feet (1,220 metres)
above the level of the lake. It appears to form a high broken
plateau, which has been carved by the rivers draining it
into separate table-topped mountain ranges. This region,
which is known as the Maniema, lies within the basins of
the Elila and the Luama. To the south of it the valleys
remain high as far as the remarkable valley through which
the Lukuga flows from Lake Tanganyika to the Lualaba.
The region through which the Lukuga flows is much lower,
especially to the south of the river. There the characteristic
features are wide plateaus and undulating hill country, cut up
by numerous valleys, which are all more or less narrow and
deep. The affluents of the Lukuga which flow in these valleys
are rushing torrents during the rainy season, but during the
dry season are often reduced to a mere trickle. Near the
main stream the land is low and marshy, but farther off it
rises, sometimes by terraces, to the mountains which border it
on either side.
South of the Lukuga the mountainous region which lies
to the west of Lake Tanganyika is known as the Marungu.

REGIONAL SURVEY 53
In the more elevated districts to the south there are, to the
north of the Lunangwa, great scarped heights separated from
one another by deep and steep-walled valleys, and huge
shelving ridges whose surface is dotted with minor peaks.
Towards the north and west these disappear to a great extent,
and their place is taken by undulating plains, the elevation of
which is not so great. To the former region- the name of
High Marungu has been given, while the latter is known as
the Manika, or Low Marungu. The more important heights
of the High Marungu rise to 7,000 or 8,000 feet (2,135 or
2,440 metres) above sea-level, while the river-valleys are at
least 2,000 feet lower. In the Low Marungu the average
elevation is about 2,000 feet above sea-level.
Katanga
The Katanga, which occupies the south-eastern part of the
Belgian Congo, is an extension of the high plateau region of
South Africa and Rhodesia. Towards the north it has under
gone considerable radial dislocation, and large rifts or graben
have been formed. Several important sub-regions may be
distinguished. In the south, along the Congo-Zambezi divide, the country
consists of an undulating plateau with an altitude of between
4,000 and 5,000 feet (1,220 and 1,525 metres) above sea-level.
To the north of it the country in which the copper mines are
found is diversified by frequent hill ranges, and generally lies
between 3,500 and 5,000 feet (1,065 and 1,525 metres) above
sea-level. It is well watered by tributaries of the Luapula,
Lufira, and Lualaba rivers, and is as a rule covered with
relatively thin forest.
Still farther north the country rises by steep escarpments
to higher plateaus which have altitude's of 4,500 to 6,000 feet
(1,370 to 1,830 metres) above sea-level. The upland plains
on these plateaus are undulating and furrowed by numerous
watercourses, which cut out steep and wide ravines. The
main watercourses find their way through this region by
large valleys, and fall rapidly to much lower levels.
•The chief physical regions into which the Katanga as
a whole may be divided are the following.
The Southern Katanga. — At a first glance the whole of this
region seems to consist of a region of hills and peaks, but

54 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
when viewed from any one of the latter it assumes its true
form and appears as a vast undulating plateau. On the south
it passes into the similar plateau of Rhodesia ; on the north
west it is bordered by the south-west prolongation of the
Biano plateau, and towards the north-east by the plateau of
Kundelungu. On the north it falls steeply to the Low
Katanga. The Kundelungu Plateau. — Kundelungu is the high plateau
which lies between the Luapula and Lake Mweru on the east
and the valley of the Lufira on the, west. Two distinct regions
may be recognized, the plateau proper and the slopes which
lead up to it from the rifts by which it is partly surrounded.
The former has an area of at least 6,000 square miles, and an
average height above sea-level of over 5,000 feet (1,525 metres).
It presents on the whole a gently undulating and only slightly
diversified surface. Here and there, there are shallow basins
where, as a result of the impermeability of the sub-soil, and
it may be the neighbourhood of a spring, the soil is damp
throughout the year. These ' dembos ', as they are called, are
sometimes ten to twelve miles long and two miles broad, and
their surface soils are often very fertile.
The slopes of the plateau on the other hand are much cut
up by rivers, and often terminate in almost perpendicular
cliffs which mark the lines of fracture. On the west, for
example, the Kasanga and the Lofoi leave the plateau to join
the Lufira by hanging valleys and falls from 600 to 700 feet
in height. On the east again the western fault of Lake Mweru
seems to be continued to the south along the flank of the
plateau, where a whole series of rivers leave the plateau by
falls hundreds of feet in height.
The eastern slope of the plateau between the Luizi and
Lake Mweru differs somewhat from the escarpment farther to
the south. The rivers have cut deep valleys well back into
the plateau, and the land through which they flow forms
rough, hilly country. In the lower courses of these and other
rivers there are often tracts of rich alluvial soil.
The Kibala and Mulumbwe Plateaus.— Separated from the
Kundelungu by the high valley of the Lubule lies the region
of Mulumbwe. Here the forces of erosion have long been active,,!
and the country consists of a succession of hills and broad
valleys. The summits of the larger hills are almost horizontal

REGIONAL SURVEY 55
and are covered with a fertile light clay, on which the savanna
is comparatively luxuriant, while the valleys contain large
tracts of alluvium on which the vegetation is particularly rich.
The Kibala plateau, which lies to the north-west and north
of the Mulumbwe plateau, forms an undulating country drained
by various tributaries of the Lualaba. Parts of the surface
appear to be covered with laterite similar to that on
Kundelungu, but in the larger valleys, where alluvial soils
have accumulated, there are many fertile districts.
The Mweru-Luapula Rift-Valley. — To the east of the
Kundelungu plateau lies the rift- valley of the Luapula and
Lake Mweru, which here separate the Belgian Congo from
Northern Rhodesia. Its western border has already been
described, and its eastern is somewhat similar in character.
In the valley itself much of the soil is alluvial, and there are
many fertile districts along the course of the Luapula and to
the south-west of Lake Mweru. On the other hand consider
able tracts of country, especially in the valley of the lower
Luapula, become marshy during the rainy season. The region
has a height of about 3,000 feet (915 metres) above sea-level.
Lake Mweru itself is a shallow sheet of water, and the greatest
known depths do not exceed 50 feet (15 metres). It appears to
be gradually filling up, partly as a result of the sand carried
into it by various rivers, and partly by the vegetation which
grows in its bed.
The Lufira Valley. — Between the Kundelungu plateau on
the east and the Biano plateau on the west the Lufira flows
through another region which has been formed by subsidence.
It is roughly triangular in shape, and is drained by the Lufira
from the south, the Dikulwe from the south-west, and the
Luvua from the north. In the south of this region lies a
detached hilly region known as the Pompora and Koni Hills.
Structurally it is a horst, akin to the Kundelungu and Biano
plateaus. The Biano Plateau and the Bia Mountains.— These also form
a horst lying between the region of subsidence in the valley of
the Lufira just described, and the similar region in the valley of
the Lualaba farther west known as the rift-valley of Upemba.
The Biano plateau has a height of about 5,000 feet (1,525
metres); its flat surface is almost unbroken, and the rivers
which originate on it descend by steep slopes to the lowlands

56 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
It is continued to the north by the Mutenga-Miamba spur, to the
west and north-west of which lie the Bia Mountains. These
mountains, which form the border of the Biano plateau, consist
partly of granitic rocks and are very irregular in outline.
Their future economic development will probably depend
mainly upon the large deposits of tin which they contain.
The Rift-Valley of Upemba.— -The Upemba rift- valley, which
is occupied by the Lualaba, runs from south-west to north-east.
Its south-eastern border is formed by the Biano and Kibala
plateaus, and the north-western by the Hakansson plateau.
The escarpments are steep, but their sharp outlines have been
much reduced by river erosion and denudation. The larger
rivers which enter the valley descend from the plateaus by
long series of falls and cascades.
The valley itself presents several features of interest. The
greater part of the ancient lake which at one time occupied it
has been filled up partly by alluvial matter carried down by
the rivers from the surrounding uplands, and partly by the
remains of the papyrus reed which flourished in the shallow
waters near the land. Lakes Upemba and Kisale, the largest
remaining portions of it, are gradually being reduced in size
in this way. In all there are about thirty-five of these fluvial
lagoons. At times of flood the level of the rivers is much
higher than during the dry season, and as a consequence vast
marshes are formed. Between these lie the villages and the
cultivated lands which surround them.
The Hakansson Plateau. — This forms a well-defined system
falling steeply towards the Lualaba on the south-east, and
more gently towards the Lovoi on the north-west. The axis
of the chain consists of a granitic massif, the summit of which
has been worn down into an undulating plateau broken here
and there by a few hills and low ridges. Towards the east
the topography is somewhat more varied, as the rivers which
flow from the plateau into the Upemba rift cut up the escarp
ment and give it a more mountainous aspect. Beyond the
confluence with the Kilubi, the Lovoi cuts its way through
the range, which is continued to the north by a series of
comparatively low hills.
West of the Hakansson and Biano plateaus are other plateaus of
similar character connecting the Katanga with the Kasai region.
The above survey of the physical features of the Katanga

REGIONAL SURVEY 57
indicates that it is a region of great topographical diversity.
At the present time the large deposits of copper which occur
in the south constitute its chief claim to attention, but there
are considerable areas where agriculture in one form or
another could be pursued. Its soils, as might be expected,
differ greatly in character. Alluvial plains and swamps, some
of which are of considerable size, occur in various localities,
the most important being those in the Dikulwe-Lufira-Luvua
area and along the Lualaba in the Upemba rift. Many parts
of the high plateau are covered with sand, evidently derived
from the Lubilash rocks which are widely distributed through
out the region. Such districts form rolling short-grass country,
on which trees are generally absent. Laterite is generally
observed where the subsoil is more or less impermeable, and
chiefly in flat country, where surface drain'age is slow. Gravels
are found in many river- valleys.
Another feature of interest in the Katanga are the thermal
and mineral springs which occur all over the country.
The waters from these springs contain sulphuretted hydro
gen, sodium chloride, magnesium sulphate, calcium and
magnesium carbonates, and silica. In some cases their tem
perature is little below boiling-point, while in others it is little
above that of the surrounding rock. The more saline springs
are frequently used by the natives as sources of common salt,
which they collect in various ways.
The Kasai Region
The country known as the Kasai region lies somewhat to
the soutii of that river and its main tributary, the Sankuru.
Its boundary towards the north is determined by an escarpment,
the exact position of which will be defined later. In general
character the region is a plateau with a gentle slope from
north to south. The rivers as a general rule follow the slope
of the land, and their valleys, often deeply cut, provide the
main features in the relief of the surface. The sandstones of
the Lubilash series, by which it is mainly covered, were de
posited upon a peneplained surface of older rocks which appear
as residual mountains rising above the level of the surrounding
sandstone or are found underlying the sandstone in the valleys
of the more important rivers.

58 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
In the extreme west the basin of the Inkisi, a tributary of
the Congo, is much dissected by the various rivers which drain
it, but it has the general appearance of a plateau, with an
average height of about 1,500 feet (457 metres), cut up by
numerous valleys of erosion. The eastern border of this basin
is formed by a relatively high escarpment which runs approxi
mately from north to south, and leads to a second plateau with
an average height of about 2,500 feet (762 metres) above sea-
level. This plateau stretches eastward as far as the upper
Sankuru, where it attains a height of about 2,800 feet (854
metres). Towards the north the plateau terminates in the low escarp
ment which has already been mentioned. This escarpment
begins on the Kasai west of the Kwa gorge, and at first runs
southward more or less parallel to the course of the Kwango, but
north of the fifth parallel it bends to the east and crosses that
river between Muene Kundi and Kingunshi. From there it
runs by way of Kenge on the Wamba and Madibi on the
Kwilu to Bena Makima on the Kasai, whence it goes in a
north-easterly direction to the confluence of the Sankuru and
Lubefu. The edge of the plateau is about 650 feet above the
level of the rivers. The escarpment is much dissected, and
when viewed from the north presents a somewhat mountainous
aspect. To the south of the escarpment the land increases in
altitude, and about the fifth parallel assumes its proper form
of a continuous plateau.
The falls by which the rivers draining the plateau descend
from it lie back, often a considerable distance, from the escarp
ment. To the west of the Loange there are vertical falls, and
the total difference in level between the upper and lower
courses of the rivers is often about 1,000 feet (305 metres).
Below the falls the rivers in this part of the country flow in
deep canon-like valleys. (Some of the falls marked on maps,
such as the Archduchess Stephanie Falls, are merely rapids,
and the true falls lie higher up the river.) To the east of the
Loange the falls are not well marked, and the rivers descend
a few yards at a time over several miles, the total change of
level thus produced being considerable. The valleys, though
deeply entrenched, are not canon-like as they are in the west.
In the west the falls are probably due to a change of level
caused by sinking in the central part of the Congo basin— < i i

REGIONAL SURVEY 59
a change of level with which the rivers have not been able to
keep pace. In the east on the other hand the immediate
cause of the difference of level appears to be the hardness of
the granitic substratum on which the rivers make a relatively
slight impression. The Loange itself is an important river
without any important fall, and it has been suggested that it
flows in a fractured valley.
The soils of the region vary in character. On the plateau
they consist mainly of sands or sandy clays ; on the slopes of
the valleys clays are more abundant, while in the valleys
themselves large areas are covered with clay underlain with
an impermeable subsoil.
To the east of the upper Sankuru the country gradually
becomes transitional between the Kasai region proper and
the Katanga. At first the land is much broken, and consists of
a succession of hills and plateaus on which the soil is generally
poor. Farther east there are large plateaus almost similar to
that of the Biano. The land is unforested, and is covered
in many places by a sandy clay soil.

CHAPTER III
CLIMATE
The data available for a study of the climate of the Belgian
Congo are still very scrappy and imperfect. Prior to 1911
they consisted in the main of scattered observations which
had been made as circumstances permitted, and seldom ex
tended continuously over a whole year, much less over a series
of years. In 1911, however, attempts were made to improve
matters, and the control of the Meteorological Service was
handed over to the Department of Agriculture. The Service
was then reorganized, and a number of observing stations
established throughout the country. Of these the most
important and best-equipped were at Banana, Eala, Stanley
ville, and Elisabethville. At Ganda-Sundi and Kitobola
arrangements were made to record temperature, rainfall,
humidity, and the direction and intensity of the winds, while
at twenty-four other places throughout the country rain-
gauges were set up and observations provided for. About the
beginning of 1913 most of these stations were in working
order, but the outbreak of war appears to have disarranged
matters, and comparatively few records covering more than
a year or two are available. If sufficient material now exists
to enable a general statement regarding the climatic conditions
of the country to be made, it must also be borne in mind that
few of the figures given below can be considered as more than
approximate. General Conditions
i The most important factor affecting the climate of the
Belgian Congo is its equatorial position. To this is due the
uniformly high temperature which prevails over the greater
part of the country, and the well-marked double maximum in
the annual rainfall. The heat equator lies to the north of the
geographical equator, and the lands to the north of the latter
have therefore a higher mean temperature than those to the

GENERAL CONDITIONS 61
south of it. Partly because of this the dry season is more
marked to the south of the equator than to the north of it—
a fact which also appears to exercise an important influence
on temperature. The Katanga, on account of its high eleva
tion and southerly latitude, has characteristic features of its
own, and must to a certain extent be treated separately. The
districts to the west of the Crystal Mountains also have some
peculiarities owing to their proximity to the Atlantic.

Temperature
Throughout the greater part of the country the highest"'
temperatures are reached in February, March, or April, March
as a rule being the warmest month. This applies to the
regions lying north of the equator as well as to those lying
south of it, and appears to require a word of explanation. The .,
reasons for it, however, are by no means clear, but may be
somewhat as follows. South of about latitude 2° S. a well-
marked dry season begins to manifest itself. This occurs when
the sun is north of the equator, and the land is consequently
cooled by radiation, the lowest temperatures being reached
about July. When the sun comes south again the temperature
begins to rise, at first somewhat rapidly, but after the beginning
of the rainy season more slowly. This continues during the
whole time the sun is south of the equator, and the maximum
temperatures are reached shortly after it has passed overhead
on its way north, that is, about March. In the northern
hemisphere on the other hand, owing to the fact that the
heat equator is north of the geographical equator, there is no
well-marked dry season, and the sky is much- overcast through
out the year. Radiation is not so great, and the temperature
is more uniform. On the other hand the rainfall is somewhat
heavier and exercises a greater cooling effect. Consequently
the highest temperature is reached when the sun is on its way
north, but before the heavy rains begin, that is, in February,
March, or April.
In the hottest month of the year the mean temperature
varies from about 78° to 82° F. On the whole it is higher
to the north of the equator than to the south of it. July
or August is as a rule the coolest month except very near
the equator, where the minimum occurs in the last quarter of

62 CLIMATE
the year. The mean temperature varies from 75° to 80 F.,
and is on the whole lower for the southern districts than for
the northern.
It would be rash to place too much reliance on the figures
which are available, but when they are reduced to sea-level it
would appear that the distribution of mean annual tempera
ture is somewhat as follows. From the equator there is a rise
both to the north and to the south. In the north this rise is
continued well beyond the frontier of the Belgian Congo ; in
the south it probably ceases somewhere between the sixth and
tenth parallels, but in the absence of fuller information it is
impossible to say precisely where.
The annual range of temperature is least in the equatorial
districts, and becomes greater to the north and to the south of
them. The figures available for places within 2° of the
equator show a range of about 2° to 4° F. For the country to
the north of this no observations have been made in the
Belgian Congo, but at Mobaye on the French side of the
Ubangi the annual range is 6° F. To the south of the equa
torial districts it varies as a rule between 7° and 10° F.
The mean daily range as far as it is known is fairly uniform
over the greater part of the country apart from the Katanga,
and, varies from 12° to 20° F. Absolute extremes which have
been recorded show maxima as high as 104° F. at Luluabourg
and 102° F. at Eala, and minima as low as 54° F. at Ganda-
Sundi and Vivi. On the uplands of the Congo-Nile divide
and on the plateau south of the Kasai the range is probably
much greater at times.
Several regions present features of special interest. In the
districts bordering the lower Congo west of the Crystal
Mountains the temperature of the warmest month (February
or March) is well up to the average, being 'about 80° F. In
July or August, however, the mean temperature falls to about
70° F., which is rather less than that of places in the same
latitude farther to the east. These lower temperatures may
perhaps be explained by the presence off the west coast of
Africa of a cold current, and its cooling effect on the local
south-westerly winds which at that season blow over the
districts referred to.
The greater part of Katanga, on account of its southerly
latitude and high elevation, has climatic conditions peculiarly

TEMPERATURE 63
its own. The temperature is lower both in summer and in
winter, and the annual range is greater. Elisabethville, which
lies over 4,000 feet above sea-level, has its highest temperatures
in October or November, that is, when the sun is on its way
south and just before the rainy season has begun to cool the
air. The coldest months are May, June, and July, when the
sun is overhead in the northern hemisphere. The annual
range is from about 60° F. in. the coldest months to about
75° F. in the hottest. The variations in the mean daily range
are also much more marked here than in other parts of the
country. It appears to be greatest about July, when it is as
much as 45° F., least about February, when it does not exceed
20° F.
For the Eastern Highlands and the Kasai uplands no
reliable figures are available. In the former region the high
temperature of the equatorial belt is modified by the great
height of the land, and certain districts enjoy a climate of the
warm-temperature type. The Kasai uplands are intermediate
in latitude and altitude between the central basin of the Congo
and the plateau of the Katanga, and in temperature they resemble
in a modified form the southern part of the Central Basin.
Rainfall
The seasonal distribution of rainfall in the Belgian Congo
is governed by the northward and southward movements of
the sun across the country. As a result of this movement
there is practically everywhere, except in the Katanga, a double
maximum and a double minimum in the course of the year.
The districts bordering the equator lie well within the rain- ¦¦
belt at all seasons, but even there the seasonal variation is
established. At Eala (0° 5' N), for example, the maxima occur
in March and October and the minima in July and January,
the extremes being 3-2 inches in January and 7-9 inches in
October. Farther in the interior Romee (0° 25' N.) has its
maxima in April and November and its minima in February
and August, the extremes being 3-3 inches in August and
12-4 inches in April.
Farther north, about midway between the equator and the
northern frontier, the rainfall is less evenly distributed
throughout the year, the maxima are as a rule closer together,

64 CLIMATE
and one minimum is longer and drier than the other. There
is, however, no well-marked dry season. At Yambata, which
is in some ways typical of this region, the months of maximum
rainfall are April and August, and the months of minimum
rainfall June and December. The wettest month in 1911 was
August, with over 12 inches, and the driest December, with
about half an inch.
The region between the Welle and the Bornu is the only
part of the country north of the equator with anything
approaching a dry season. At Uere the maxima are in May
and October, for which months the rainfall is 7-4 and 14-9 inches
respectively. The first minimum is in July, which has 4-8 inches,
and the second in December and January, during which period
less than 2 inches fall.
South of the equator the dry season is much more marked.
In the districts round the lower Congo the first maximum is
in March or April, and the second in November or December.
There is a reduced rainfall in January and February, and
a dry season which usually lasts from about the beginning of
June till the end of September. At Banana, for example,
April and November have over 8 inches, January and February
about 3-5 inches, and June, July, August, and September less
than half an inch in all. In the interior the same character
istics prevail, but the dry season is shorter : at Luluabourg and
Kasongo, for example, it lasts only during June and July;
farther east it is somewhat longer. To the south, in the
Kasai uplands, the dry season is of greater duration and the
total precipitation less.
In the Katanga, more especially in the southern part of it,
there appear the first indications of a single maximum in the
rainy season. The observations made at Elisabethville cover
only a few years, and the results are not always consistent,
but the tendency is for the rainfall to begin about the. end
of September, to increase to a maximum about February,
and to cease in April or at the beginning of May.
Great caution must be observed in any attempt to estimate
the total annual rainfall of the different regions of the Belgian
Congo, as the small number of stations, the short periods
during which observations have been made, and the uncertainty
which must necessarily exist regarding the accuracy of the
records render generalization dangerous. In the Central

RAINFALL 65
Basin a number of stations have an annual precipitation
between 60 and 65 inches. The figures based on one year's
observations for Likimi in the basin of the Mongala and for
Avakubi on the Aruwimi are higher and are between 70 and
75 inches. As these places occur in densely forested districts
which require a heavy rainfall, it is not unlikely that they are
typical of considerable areas, and are not exceptional either in
time or in place. If this be so, it would follow that the mean
annual rainfall over the greater part of the Central Basin is
between 60 and 75 inches; in all probability, however, the
area with less than 65 inches is much larger than that which
has over that amount. The records of Lusambo and Luluabourg
indicate that the area with a rainfall of over 60 inches may be
carried well to the south of the fifth parallel in the country
between the Kasai and the Sankuru.
The peripheral regions have on the whole a lower rainfall
than the Central Basin. To the north of the Welle the mean
annual precipitation appears to fall to between 50 and 60 inches,
but is probably nearer the latter amount than the former. In
the Eastern Highlands rainfall diminishes towards the east,
and Kwesi, Nya Lukemba, and Albertville have an annual
mean of about 45 inches, while other districts have probably
somewhat less. To the west of the Crystal Mountains the
rainfall is more variable, and ranges from 35 to 55 inches,
being highest in the hill country of Mayumbe and lowest
along the Congo.
In the Kasai uplands the rainfall -is also less than in the
Central Basin, except in the district already mentioned between
the Kasai and the Sankuru. Farther west, between the Kasai
and the Kwango, precipitation appears to decrease towards the
south, and probably falls to 45 inches or less. The south
eastern districts are among the driest in the country, and it is
doubtful whether the mean annual precipitation in the basins
of the Luvua and the Lufira reaches 45 inches. On the High
Katanga on the other hand the summer rainfall is heavy,
and amounts to between 45 and 50 inches.
Considering these facts as a whole, it is evident that the"*
rainfall of the Belgian Congo is not very great, and is indeed
less than might have been expected. It is questionable
whether as much as 80 inches falls anywhere throughout the
colony. This is a low maximum as compared with the
8ELG. CONGO E

66 CLIMATE
Cameroons, where records of over 150 inches are not uncommon.
Nor is the number of days on which an appreciable amount of
rain falls at all excessive, and very few places appear to have
on an average more than 110 such days in the course of the
year. As a rule the sky is usually clouded over at sunrise
during the rainy season, but gradually clears as the morning
advances. Between one and two in the afternoon storm clouds
appear, and these may, or may not, lead to rain. Thunder
storms are of frequent occurrence in the rainy season.
Winds
Few accurate observations have been made regarding the
strength and direction of the winds, and most of the informa
tion regarding them has to be gleaned from miscellaneous
sources. Westerly winds prevail on the coast during the
greater part of the year, and appear to make their way well
into the interior of the continent. It is only in the east, and
more especially in the south-east, that winds with an easterly
component gain the upper hand.
Mention is frequently made of tornadoes by residents and
travellers in the Congo. Most of these, however, appear to be
atmospheric disturbances caused by thunderstorms, and are
not tornadoes in the true sense of the term.
Climatic Regions
The foregoing discussion indicates that the Belgian Congo
may be divided into a number of climatic regions corresponding
more or less closely with the physical regions already described.
The main characteristics of each region may now be summed
up and the records of a few typical stations added.
Central Basin
The Central Basin, owing to its equatorial position, has a
uniformly high temperature. The annual range is slight, and
the diurnal range, though considerable, is not excessive.
Rainfall is heavy and is well distributed throughout the year,
though towards the northern and southern margins of the
region there are indications of a dry season. As a result of
the heavy and more or less continuous rainfall the relative
humidity of the atmosphere is generally high.

CLIMATIC REGIONS

67

Temperature

Station.
Eala .
Nouvelle Anvers .
Leopoldville Station.
Eala .
Nouvelle Anvers .
Leopoldville

Lat.
0° 5' N.
1° 5' N.
4° 2' S.

Lat.
'5'N.'5'N.
'2'S.

Long.
18°21'E. 19° 9' E.
15° 19' E.
Long.
18°21'E. 19° 9' E.
15°19'E.

Jan.
75-9 79-0
77-0
July 75-476-3 72-3

Rainfall
Station. Lat. ' Long. Jan. Feb.
Eala . . 0° 5' N. 18° 21' E. 3-2 3-5
Dundu Sana 3° N. 22° 26' E. 1-9 1-6
¦Lusambo . 4° 58' N. 23°23'E. 5-5 6-8
Station. Lat. Long. July Aug.
Eala . . 0° 5' N. 18° 21' E. 3-4 4-1
Dundu Sana 3°N. 22°26'E. 3-3 6-3
Lusambo . 4° 58' N. 23° 23' E. 5-0 2-2

Feb. 75-479-7
78-3
Aug. 75-676-1 74-7

Mar. 5-0 2-78-5
Sept. 7-7 7-7
6-4

Mar. April
76-5 76-8
78-8 78-4
80-0 79-5

May
76-8
78-877-7

June 76-678-3
75-7

Sept. 75-276-6 77-9

April 6-0
11-2 7-9
Oct. 7-9
11-8

Oct. Nov. Dec.
75-6 74-8 76-3
76-8 77-4 77-5
77-7 77-9 77-9

May 5-7 3-93-0

June 3-5 3-91-5

Nov. Dec. Total
5-9 5-5 61-4
5-8 0-7 60-8
5-0 70 65-6

Lower Congo
The Lower Cojigo, on account of its proximity to the ocean
and more southerly latitude, differs in several respects from
the Central Basin. The mean temperature of the warmest
months is at least as high, but the annual range is greater on
account of the low temperatures of July and August. The
total precipitation is also much less, and there is a dry
season of several months' duration: For these reasons the
region is better adapted to Europeans than the preceding one.

Temperature

Station.
BananaGanda-Sundi
Lat. Long. Jan.
6°S. 12°27'E. 80-0
. 4°8'S. 12°52'E. 78-4
Feb. 80-6 79-8
Mar.82-0 80-0
April May
81-3 79-1
77-5 78-4
June 75-0 74-1
Station.
Banana
Ganda-Sundi
Lat. Long. July
6°S. 12°27'E. 73-0
. 4°8'S. 12°52'E. 69-6
Rainfall
Aug. 72-8
70-9
Sept. 75-9
72-3
Oct.
78-473-4
Nov. 79-5 75-4
Dec. 80-275-6
Station.
Banana
Ganda-Sundi
Lat. • Long. Jan. Feb.
6°S. 12°27'E. 3-5 3-6
4°8'S. 12°52'E. 6-2 9-3
Mar. 4-0 8-7
April 8-4 8-4
May 2-25-6
June 000-0
Station. Lat. Long. July Aug.
Banana . 6°S. 12°27'E. 0-0 0-2
Ganda-Sundi 4° 8' S. 12°52'E. 0-0 0-2
e2
Sept. 0-2 0-3
Oct. 1-92-4
Nov.8-3 8-7
Dec.
4-6 5-2
Total 36-955-0
68 CLIMATE
Welle Region
The Welle region is the most northerly in the country,
and approaches the Sudan in its climatic characteristics.
The temperature is on the whole somewhat higher, and the
annual range greater than in the Central Basin, and, although
there is rain throughout the year, the precipitation during
the southern summer is markedly low. The climatic regime
of the region can best be illustrated by the records of Mobaye
in French Equatorial Africa, though the rainfall there is
somewhat greater than it is farther east.

Temperature

Station.
Mobaye
Lat. Long. Jan.
. 4°20'N. 21°10'E. 77-7
Feb.
77-5
Mar.
80-0
April 77-9
May
78-2
June 77-5
Station.
Mobaye .
Lat. Long. July
. 4°20'N. 21°10'E. 76-1
Rainfall
Aug. 74-3
Sept. 75-9
Oct.
75-9
Nov.
76-5
Dec. 77-7
Station.
Mobaye .
Lat. Long. Jan. Feb.
4°20'N. 21°10'E. 0-5 1-5
Mar. 4-6
April 6-4
May
15-2
June 7-3
Station.
Mobaye .
Lat. Long. July Aug.
4°20'N. 21°10'E. 4-4 6-6
Sept. 7.2
Oct. 8-8
Nov. 5-4
Dec. 11
Total 68-6
Eastern Highlands
The Eastern Highlands have a temperature which decreases
with altitude, but, as no observations have been made, it is
impossible to say at what rate that diminution takes place.
It is obvious, however, that the climate must be sub-tropical
rather than tropical in the more elevated areas, and it is
possible that some districts may even be suitable for European
settlement. The rainfall is also less than in the Central Basin,
and appears to diminish towards the east. To the north of
the equator it takes place at all seasons of the year, but to the
south there is a dry season. No figures for temperature exist.
Rainfall
Station. Lat. Long. Jan. Feb. Mar. April May June
Kwesi . 1°8'N. 29°59'E. 4-6 2-9 2-5 7-0 1-8 3-1
Albertville(Toa) 5°43'S. 29°23'E. 4-6 3-2 6-5 6-0 2-6 0-2
Station. Lat. Long. July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Total
Kwesi . 1°8'N. 29°59yE. 3-2 5-1 2-8 6-6 2-9 1-7 44-2
Albertville(Toa)5°43'S. 29°23'E. 0-2 0-4 0-9 2-3 9-7 8-3 44-9
KATANGA 69
Katanga
The Katanga, or at least the High Katanga, belongs
climatically to the northern part of the plateau of South
Africa rather' than to the Belgian Congo. The summers are
hot and wet, and the winters warm and dry. The range
between the hottest and coldest months is considerable, and at
Elisabethville amounts to as much as 15° F. There, also, the
diurnal range is very great, especially in June, July, and
August, when it appears to exceed 45° F. At that season
minimum temperatures in the vicinity of freezing-point are
frequently registered, while the mean maximum temperature
for October, the hottest month, is between 90° and 95° F.
With the possible exception of part of the Eastern- Highlands,
the High Katanga is the only part of the Belgian Congo
which can be considered as at all suitable for European
settlement. Temperature
Station. Lat. Long. Jan. Feb. Mar. April May June
Elisabethville. 11°40'S. 27°29'E. 72-1 71-8 70-7 70-6 66-0 60-6
Station. Lat. Long. July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
Elisabethville . 11°40'S. 27°29'E. 60-3 64-2 70-9 74-8 74-0 71-4
Rainfall
Station. Lat. Long. Jan. Feb. Mar. April May June
Elisabethville 11°40'S. 27°29'E. 9-3 10-3 9-5 1.3 0-5 0-0
Station. Lat. Long. July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Total
Elisabethville 11°40'S. 27°26'E. 0-0 0-0 0-3 0-5 4-0 114 47-1
Kasai Region
The Kasai Region may in some ways be compared with the
Welle country. Like the latter it has, in the north at least,
a somewhat higher mean temperature than the Central Basin ;
in the southern, more elevated districts, it is probably some
what cooler, with a greater annual and diurnal range. In the
central districts between the Kasai and the Sankuru the rain
fall may be heavier than in the Welle country ; elsewhere it
is probably about the same in the north, but decreases toward
the south. There is, however, everywhere a well-marked dry
season. The only figures for the region are those for
Luluabourg, but they can hardly be regarded as typical.

70

CLIMATE

Station.
Luluabourg Station.
Luluabourg

Temperature

Lat. Long.
5°56'S. 22°25'E.
Lat. Lous'
5°56'S. 22°25'E.

Jan. Feb. Mar. April May June
75-7 75-6 75-9 76-3 76-1 75-9
July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
76-3 76-3 75-6 75-9 75-9 76-8

Station. Lat.
Luluabourg . 5° 56' S.
Station. Lat.
Luluabourg . 5° 56' S.

Rainfall

Long.
22° 25' E.

Jan. Feb. Mar. April May June
7-2 5-4 7-9 6-1 3-1 0*2

Long. July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Total
22°25'E. 0-1 2-5 6-5 6-6 8-7 6-6 60-9

CHAPTEE IV
VEGETATION
Notwithstanding much valuable work on the natural
vegetation of the Congo, there are still large areas about
which very little information is obtainable. Many parts of
the country have not yet been subject to a detailed survey,
and even the limits of the great botanical regions are in some
places imperfectly known. The present chapter is therefore
confined to an account of the main types of vegetation in so
far as they influence human activities, and no attempt is
made to discuss the subject from a purely botanical point
of view.
Several distinct types of vegetation may be recognized,
and these correspond more or less closely with the natural
regions of the country as defined by physical and climatic
conditions. The tropical forest covers the greater part of the '
Central Basin, and is also found in the river-valleys of the
surrounding regions. Savanna is characteristic of the Welle
country, and along with steppe covers the greater part of the
Kasai uplands. In the Katanga vegetation is more varied,
and ranges with altitude from tropical forest to steppe. The
latter formation is also the prevalent type on the higher slopes
of the Eastern Highlands. On the Crystal Mountains and in
the country to the west of them, where physical and climatic
conditions are more varied, there are large areas both of
forest and of savanna. On the whole therefore it may be
said that tropical forest is the characteristic type of vegetation
in the Central Basin, while savanna covers the greater part of
the peripheral region except in the highland areas, where it
frequently gives place to steppe. As a rule, however, the..
limits of these different formations cannot be clearly drawn,
since in many places, more especially in marginal regions,
local conditions of soil and climate exercise an important
influence.

72 VEGETATION
1 The Coastal Districts
To the west of the Crystal Mountains the natural vegetation
is somewhat varied in character. The banks of the Congo
and the large islands which lie in the bed of that river are
often fringed with mangrove, brushwood, or occasional clumps
of forest in which raphia, oil-palms, and Pandanus are found.
Farther inland brushwood and savanna are the dominant ,
types. On the low plateaus which fringe the coast and extend
inland to the hill country of Mayumbe the forest is as a rule
confined to the valleys of the rivers. Towards the north these
forests are sometimes extensive and contain raphia, oil-palm,
and other trees of economic importance, but in the south,
where the valleys open out and give rise to big marshes,
they disappear, and their place is taken by large tracts of
papyrus. In the valleys of the Luibi and Bola, however, the
forests are continued to the coast between Banana and Malela.
The plateaus and plains of the region are as a rule covered by
a high herbaceous vegetation in the midst of which oil-palms,
bamboos, and baobabs are occasionally found.
In the central part of Mayumbe, between the sources of the
Nyanzi and the Lukunga, south of the Lukula, and the
mountains south of the Lubuzi, the forest is more widely
distributed, but is frequently interrupted by open clearings
which are covered with herbaceous plants and by plateaus on
which brushwood is the prevailing type of vegetation. On
the whole the forest is less rich than it is farther north, and
trees of economic value do not attain their maximum develop
ment. The oil-palm nevertheless appears to grow well.
The northern part of Mayumbe, between the mountains
south of the Lubuzi and the Chiloango, appears to be com
pletely wooded and to contain considerable tracts of virgin
forest. In addition to various other trees of economic value
this region possesses large numbers of oil-palms.
In many parts of Mayumbe the virgin forest has disappeared
and has been replaced by a secondary formation which is
usually of much less economic value. The destruction of the
primitive forest as a preliminary to the cultivation of the land
is naturally most active in the river-valleys and lowland
districts. Hence it is chiefly on the mountain-slopes that
the largest areas of virgin forest are now found.

THE CRYSTAL MOUNTAINS 73
The Crystal Mountains
The so-called Crystal Mountains separate the Coastal Region
from the Central Basin. Except along the line of the railway
between Matadi and Leopoldville and in a few other districts,
comparatively little is known about their vegetation, but its
general character is somewhat as follows. To the north of the
Congo the river-valleys are usually fringed by gallery forest,
while the intervening mountains are covered with herbaceous
plants and form extensive savannas. South of the river
brushwood is the dominant type except in the river-valleys,
where there are gallery forests, and in certain districts where
considerable stretches of land are also under forest. One of
these districts is situated north and north-east of Congo da
Lemba, and extends from the valley of the Bembezi to that of
the Lufu. Another, known as the Forest of Ziaka, lies at the
confluence of the Kwilu and the Kwilu-Madiata. In the
southern part of the Bangu massif the valleys, and sometimes
the hills, are heavily wooded, and the raphia and the oil-palm,
the umbrella-tree, and the baobab are all common; in the
north of Bangu on the other hand the forest is less extensive,
and the greater part of the land is covered with brushwood.
In addition to the oil-palm the Bangu forests contain a number
of trees of economic value. #
The Central Basin
The limits of the tropical forest can as yet be stated only in
general terms, as much of the region remains unsurveyed, but
on the whole it may be said to occupy the greater part of the
Central Basin, where the elevation of the land is less than
1,600 feet above sea-level. In this region there is only a slight
range of temperature between the warmest and coldest months
of the year, while rain falls at all seasons. In the north the
border of the forest appears to be more regular than in the
south, and is probably determined by climatic conditions alone.
The main rivers flow from east to west, and the northern limit
of the forest runs more or less parallel to them. In the south
on the other hand, where the chief tributaries of the Kasai
flow towards the north, the forest frequently follows their
valleys southward for a considerable distance. On the east

74 . VEGETATION
the limit of the forest is generally determined by the
mountainous borderland of the State.
Within the limits thus roughly defined lies the great tropical J
forest. It ought to be stated at once, however, that the virgin*
forest is by no means continuous over the whole of this area.
It is interrupted in places by stretches of secondary forest,
brushwood, and savanna, but, owing to the want of precise
information, no exact account of their distribution is possible.
It is probable, as will be seen later, that the virgin forest was
formerly more extensive than it is now, and that the other
formations mentioned are in many cases the result of man's
interference with it.
Bearing in mind then the difficulties which exist, an
attempt may now be made to define somewhat more exactly
the limits within which the tropical forest is found. Accord
ing to Thonner and Chevalier its northern border appears on
the left bank of the Ubangi at Bangi and runs southward at
no great distance from the river to about the latitude of
Libenge. After curving to south-east until it is a little
north of Bwado it follows an east-north-east line to north
of Boyolo and Abumombazi, and finally runs eastward to
south of the Welle. M. de Wildeman, who is in agree
ment as far as the west is concerned, is inclined to carry the
eastern part of the border-line farther to the north, and
believes that it cuts the Welle shortly before its confluence
with the Bornu. According to him a considerable part of the
lower Welle at least falls within the forested area. This
opinion is to some extent endorsed by a recent writer in the
Bulletin agricole, who has traversed a considerable part of the
region in question and has drawn the northern limit of the
forest along the Bili from its confluence with the Bornu to
a point about 24° 30' E., then south-east to Bima on the Welle,
and from there along that river and its tributary the BOmo-
kandi to the east. The diversity of opinion thus indicated is
probably due in the main to the transitional character of the
region. As the northern limit of the forest is approached it
is interspersed more and more freely with stretches of savanna,
and it becomes increasingly difficult to say where the one
formation definitely gives place to the other.
The southern limit of the forest is even more difficult to
determine. M. Chevalier considers that it begins at Lukolela

THE CENTRAL BASIN 75
on the Congo, and runs southward so as to embrace the greater
part of Lake Leopold, after which it bears away to the east.
M. de Wildeman on the other hand, while admitting that the
land on either side of the Kasai-Sankuru is a region of transi
tion, considers that it should be included within the tropical
forest. From the botanical point of view this is no doubt
correct, but it is also true that very considerable areas of
savanna lie between that river and the Congo, especially in
the east.
In the east of the country, also, there is still much that is
uncertain*. South of the Welle the forest follows the Aruwimi
and Ituri eastward, crosses the Semliki, and passes between
Lakes Albert and Edward on to the lower slopes of Ruwenzori.
Dr. Milbraed considers that the southern limit of this part of
the forest runs from Nyangwe on the Lualaba to Burton Gulf
on Lake Tanganyika, but whether all the region between this
line and the Aruwimi-Ituri can be considered as virgin forest
is exceedingly doubtful. In the vicinity of the Aruwimi much
of the vegetation appears to be of secondary formation, while
to the south of the Ituri it passes quickly into the steppe of
the Eastern Highlands. Farther south, however, in the district
of Lowa, there are considerable tracts of virgin forest in the
basins of the Ulindi and Elila. It is just possible that the
gallery forests of the region have fostered the idea that the
tropical forest is more continuous than it really is.
Within the region which has been delimited the tropical
'forest is characterized by the great height and girth of the
trees of which it is composed. The lianas which have grown
up with the forest push their way towards the light, and
produce their fruit and flowers among the upper branches of
the trees. Here also epiphytes of all kinds grow in profusion,
and combine with the rest of the vegetation to produce that
gloom which is everywhere so marked a feature of the tropical
forest. Among the plants there are many of considerable
economic importance. The African rubber-tree (Funtumia
¦dastica), various rubber-producing lianas (including Landolphia
owariensis and Clitandra Arnoldiana), the oil-palm (Elaeis
guineensis), the raphia palms (Raphia Laurentii and Raphia
vinifera), and the copal tree (Copaifera Demeusei) are most
^exploited at the present time. In addition to these there are
"many trees which would furnish timber for building and

76 VEGETATION • ,,
cabinet-making if the communications of the country would
permit of their exportation.
In many places, as already pointed out, the primitive forest
appears to have been replaced by a secondary forest which is
much less impressive. In it the vegetation is on the whole
not nearly so dense, the trees consist as a rule of softer wood,
and herbaceous plants are abundant. The greater development
of the undergrowth is indeed the most characteristic feature of
the secondary forest, and probably explains the term browse'
so often applied to it by travellers in the Congo.
The existence of the secondary forest has given rise to much
discussion, but no definite conclusion as to its origin yet
appears to have been arrived at. The prevailing opinion,
however, seems to be that it has grown up in clearings which
have been made at one time or other by the natives for
purposes of cultivation, and have at a later period been
abandoned. Experience in India and elsewhere lends weight
to the argument that the primitive forest once destroyed never
reappears in its original form. The problem is one which,
when solved, may throw considerable light upon the future
development of the whole region. It has generally been
argued that the luxuriance of tropical vegetation is so great
that man cannot as a rule fight successfully against it. But
if he can, even when uncivilized, so profoundly modify its
general character, it does not seem impossible that at a more
advanced stage of civilization he should overcome the difficul
ties which it presents, and turn at least the more suitable parts
of the forest area to his own account. On the other hand the
reckless destruction of many valuable trees which is, and has
for long been, taking place as a result of native methods of
cultivation is a matter of serious consideration, and, if not in
some way checked, will lead to the loss of what might ulti
mately prove to be a great source of wealth to the country.
It is also important to note that the forest, whether it be
primitive or secondary, is not continuous over the whole region
which has been assigned to it. Very frequently it is cut up by
savannas, which sometimes lie along the banks of the rivers,.
but at other times are found on the higher lands separating
their valleys. On these savannas grasses and herbaceous
plants are dominant, and trees, and even woody shrubs, are
either few in number or entirely wanting.

THE CENTRAL BASIN 77
An account of the distribution of these three types of vege
tation—virgin forest, secondary forest, and savanna— can be
given for only the better-known parts of the region under con
sideration. In the north the country between the Ubangi and
its tributary the Giri appears to be in the main covered with
virgin forest, at least in the better-known parts near the rivers.
Farther east,_between the Giri and the Congo, west of Mobeka,
the land, which is low-lying and marshy, is also covered with
virgin forest. Along the courses of the Mongala, the Dua,
and the Motima there are great stretches of almost level
country, which are inundated during the rainy season. In
these districts the tropical forest is particularly dense, and the
large numbers of lianas which it contains render it almost
impassable. Away from the rivers, however, there appear to .
be considerable tracts of secondary forest. Farther east, in
the neighbourhood of Dobo, the right bank of the Congo is
fringed by a savanna, beyond which there is a belt of forest.
To the north of this forest lies a more extensive savanna,
which stretches from the Molua to the Loeka, and in which
grasses are the chief plants. Higher up the Congo, near
Bumba, and perhaps farther to the east, this savanna reappears
on the banks of the river, but as a rule it is separated from it
by a belt of forest. Along the Aruwimi the tropical forest
fringing the river often gives way to secondary formations at
no great distance off. This seems to be the case between
Panga and Banalia, where, to the north of the river especially,
there appears to be a considerable tract of secondary forest.
In some places even the banks of the river are covered with
herbaceous plants.
To the south of the Congo the forest appears to be even less
continuous than it is to the north. In the neighbourhood of
the confluence of the Congo and Kasai at Kwamouth the
banks of both rivers are well wooded, but away from them
there is bush, and in places the country has a savanna-like
appearance. The banks of the Fini,which connects Lake Leopold
with the Kasai, are inundated at certain seasons of the year, and
are covered with a herbaceous vegetation from which trees are
as a rule absent, but farther away from the river and around
the lake the virgin forest reappears. It also covers much of
the western part of the country drained by the Lopori, the
Maringa, and the Busira, though it is reported to be less dense

78 VEGETATION
in. these regions than elsewhere. In places the rivers are
somewhat deeply entrenched, and the summits of their divides
are frequently covered with secondary forest. This is probably
due to the fact that the population here is relatively dense,
and that much of the land in the more elevated districts has
at one time or other been cleared for agriculture. It has been
suggested, however, that the water-parting between the Busira
and the Maringa is primitive bush-land. Regarding the
country drained by the upper courses of these rivers and their
tributaries probably less is known than of any other part of
the Congo. All that can with safety be said is that in the
eastern part of Equateur and in Sankuru there appears to be
very little virgin forest away from the rivers, and the greater
part of the land is covered with bush or savanna. Farther to
the east, in the lower valleys of the Lomami and Lualaba,
as well as over a part of the region between them, there is
again forest, but of its character little is known.
Towards the south, where the Kasai-Sankuru marks some
what roughly the limit of the tropical forest, secondary forma
tions become more 'frequent. On ascending the Kasai from
its confluence with the Congo, the forest is frequently seen to
retreat from the banks of the river — at Bokala, for example, it
is distant by about a day's march, and the intervening area is
occupied by bush. Farther upstream the gallery forest follows
the river, but beyond it savanna extends as far as the eye can
reach. Along the Sankuru, also, the forest retains its transi
tional character. At Butala the soil is sandy, and forest and
savanna1 alternate, while at Bena Dibele forest again becomes
the dominant type. On the whole the characteristic features
of this region are the ^gallery forests along the rivers and the
savannas and occasional forests of the interior.
In conclusion then it seems evident that the region which
has been described is essentially one in which the tropical
forest is the dominant natural formation, and in the lower and
wetter parts of the country it still appears to be in almost
exclusive possession of the land. On the higher ground
beyond the river-valleys, where it is naturally less dense, and
where conditions are more favourable for human settlement,
it has been destroyed to a great extent by man and replaced
by the less valuable secondary forest. Savanna, as might be
expected, is most common on the margins of the region and in
the drier districts which lie to the west of the Lomami.

THE WELLE REGION 79
The Welle Region
The vegetation of the country north of the Welle is much
more diversified than that of the preceding region. In the
valleys of the Bomu and the Welle, as well as in those of their
more important tributaries, there are frequently considerable
areas of virgin forest, which are probably due in part to the
heavy flooding which takes place in these districts during the
northern summer. In the gallery forest rubber-producing
plants are common, the oil-palm is found in the vicinity of
native towns such as Niangara, Poko, and Amadis, and coffee
(Coffea Canephora) grows in the wild state, the best varieties
being obtained from the northern and eastern districts. On
its borders the virgin forest gives place to secondary forest
and brushwood, which in some places is of considerable
breadth, while in others it is quite narrow. The brushwood
is composed of shrubs 10 to 20 feet in height, among which
there are numerous small trees and an occasional large one.
In the secondary forest on the other hand low trees pre
dominate, while the undergrowth only is formed of shrubs.
On the extensive plateaus which lie between the rivers
savanna is the prevailing type of vegetation. It frequently
stretches for immense distances in every direction, and is
composed in the main of grasses and herbaceous plants. Of
the grasses Imperata cylindrica is perhaps the most widely
distributed ; it reaches a height of about six feet, and is said
to form good food for cattle. On the other hand it proves
a great obstacle to the cultivation of the land, and native
plantations have frequently to be abandoned by their owners
after it has taken possession of them. Intermingled with the
grass are shrubs and bushes, together with Various flowering
plants. All are more or less burned up during the dry season,
but spring up again immediately after the rains.
The Eastern Highlands
The vegetation of the eastern borderland of the Belgian
Congo is very varied, but, as much of the region is practically
unknown, it is impossible to do more than give a very general
account of the greater part of it. Among the more important
' causes of the diversity which exists are altitude, surface
"features, exposure, and climate, and in the short survey which

80 VEGETATION
follows it will be seen that each of these is of considerable
importance. On the western slopes of the mountains which
border the great African rift-valley, the equatorial forest
gradually disappears, and as altitude increases its place is
taken by savanna, mountain forest, and steppe. In the north,'
between Kilo and the Ituri, the forest appears in places, but
there are considerable stretches of land where trees are entirely
wanting, and where the vegetation consists almost entirely of
herbaceous plants and grasses. The false sugar-cane and
Imperata cylindrica are characteristic of these districts. The
Shari and Nizi in their mountainous parts are sometimes
bordered by a little gallery forest, but when they descend into
the plain they flow through land which is almost entirely
savanna. Farther east, between the route from Irumu to
Mahagi and Lake Albert, the vegetation of the mountain
region is composed almost entirely of grasses mixed with
bushes and semi- woody plants.
West of the Semliki the. vegetation is somewhat different.
North of Beni the equatorial forest is almost continuous, and
extends across that river to lose itself on the lower slopes of
Ruwenzori, or to turn towards the north and south of that
mountainous massif. Farther south the western side of the
mountains which border the rift- valley appear to have savanna
on their lower slopes and steppe on their upper.
In the rift-valley itself there is also considerable diversity.
As already mentioned, much of the country immediately to
the west of Lake Albert is covered with grass and bushes.
In the valley of the Semliki, also, the vegetation is com
paratively poor. Round Kisindi in the south there are
acacia forests ; farther north, to the west of Beni, there is
a great grass plain, which is largely overgrown with Borassus
palm ; near Lake Albert expanses of reed-grass alternate with
patches of elephant-grass, barren steppes, and trees. To the
east of the Semliki the western slopes of Ruwenzori also fall
within the Belgian Congo. On them several distinct zones of
vegetation may be recognized. Between 3,000 and 6,000 feet
above sea-level a great part of the land is covered with
savanna. Towards the lower limit it consists in the main of
short grasses, while the acacia with which it is sometimes
dotted gives it a park-like appearance; higher up there are
much elephant-grass and occasional forests rich in ferns.

THE EASTERN HIGHLANDS 81
Above 6,000 feet the mountain forest begins to appear, and
reaches its maximum development between 7,000 and 8,000
feet. Beyond that the slopes become steeper, and the forest
less dense ; in it the bamboo is an important plant, and is
found as far as 10,000 feet above sea-level. Higher up
the vegetation gradually assumes a more or less alpine-like
character. On the shores of Lake Edward there are many marshes, in
which thorny bushes, reeds, and similar plants are found in .
quantity. To the south of it the plain of the Ruchuru has
the appearance of a bare level steppe covered with short grass
and dotted here and there with light acacia bush. Near the
lakes the bush becomes denser, and in various places there are
occasional tracts of forest. East of the Ruchuru lie the
volcanic Virunga Mountains. Here, owing to lava flows more
or less recent, much of the vegetation is still in a state of
development. On the lower slopes of Ninagongo, for example,
the land is covered with what has been called virgin bush-
forest. It consists of thickets of shrubs and trees of medium
height, and is in places almost impenetrable. Great trees
with tall trunks grow isolated here and there. Higher up
the trees disappear, and a mass of bushes and shrubs hardly
the height of a man, with rod-shaped branches, grows crowded
together. Above the brushwood, which is representative of
the subalpine region, come the alpine growths, of which
the most characteristic plant is the arborescent Senecio
Johnstonii. Much, however, depends upon the age of the
lava, and on Karissimbi, above the bamboo forest, there is
open wood formed almost entirely of extremely old Hagenia
stems. The northern shores of Lake Kivu are formed of banks of
recent lava which are only partly decomposed, and the vege
tation is consequently stunted. In the valleys of the rivers
which flow into the lake there are frequently large tracts of
.papyrus. On the Belgian side the mountains are said to be
covered with short grass, broken here and there by clumps of
trees more or less extensive.
The valley of the Rusisi varies considerably in altitude.
On the plateau towards the west steppe conditions prevail,
and much of the land is suited for pasture. The lower part of
the valley is covered with reeds and hardy herbs, while round

BELG, coaao

82 VEGETATION
the mouth of the river, on Lake Tanganyika, there are great
clumps of Borassus palm. The western margins of the lake as
far south as the Lukuga are occupied by marshes and grass
land ; in the latter Imperata cylindrica is often the most
important plant.
On the whole therefore the vegetation of the Eastern
Highlands is relatively poor, and this is explained by the
high altitude and comparatively low rainfall of the region.
Probably the areas which will eventually prove most useful to
man are those in which savanna or steppe formations prevail.
In the more fertile districts much of the land seems well
suited for agriculture, while in the less fertile large numbers
of cattle can be reared. It is even possible that some parts of
¦ the country may prove of value for European colonization.
The Kasai Region
In the Kasai region topographical and climatic factors are of
peculiar importance. The land slopes down from the plateau
of southern Africa to the central basin of the Congo, and all
the main rivers flow from south to north. As there is every
where a well-marked dry season, it is only in the valleys of
these rivers and in some restricted areas on the plateau that
water can be found at all seasons of the year. Consequently
the characteristic features of the vegetation of the region are
the gallery forests of the valleys and the savannas and steppes
of the more elevated districts.
Many of the rivers which rise upon the plateau have their
origin in marshes of greater or less extent. When these marshes
are permanently wet they are frequently surrounded by a belt
of woodland which soon passes into savanna, and eventually
into steppe. The woods in the vicinity of the marshes are,
however, very unlike the tropical forest. The trees do not
reach any great height, while the undergrowth is poor and
the lianas few and undeveloped. Carpodinus gracilis, a rubber-
producing plant, is often found in such districts. It is probable
that the sandy-clay soils in the vicinity of the marshes were
at one time more extensively forested than they are at present,
and that considerable areas have been cleared in comparatively
recent times in order to meet the demands of native agriculture.
Over the higher parts of the plateau a steppe vegetation

THE KASAI REGION 83
generally prevails, modified more or less in places by local
conditions. The soil is frequently an infertile sand, which
bears neither tree nor shrub, and the only plant of economic
importance which need be mentioned is Landolphia Thollonii,
from which much of the - grass rubber ' of the Kasai region is
obtained. Even the grasses fail to reach any considerable
size. Small ponds frequently occur on the higher parts of the
plateau ; when permanent, they are often fringed by clumps
of trees, but when intermittent, a few herbaceous shrubs alone
differentiate the land from the surrounding steppe.
The vegetation in the valleys is much more varied. In
their upper parts the rivers flow in slight depressions on the
plateau. Here and there are stretches of land which are
inundated during the rainy season, but dry up more or less
quickly, and beyond them are lightly wooded savannas which
occupy the borders of the depressions and soon pass into
steppe. A little lower down, where the rivers cut their way
more deeply into the plateau, the vegetation begins to change
. in character. In the marshy parts of the river-beds woody
plants appear, and give the first indication of the gallery
forest. To begin with, they occur only in scattered patches,
but later on they become more numerous and form a con
tinuous fringe to the rivers.
In their middle courses the rivers flow in deeper valleys,
from which marshes are usually absent, but, as evaporation is
less intense than on the plateau, the soil remains humid. As
a result the gallery forest assumes considerable importance,
and two types may be distinguished. In the immediate
vicinity of the rivers the land is inundated for at least part of
the year, and the trees here attain their maximum develop
ment. Among those of economic value may be noted Clitandra
Arnoldiana and Clitandra robustior, from which rubber is
obtained. In the dry forest which lies farther up the slopes
of the valley other rubber-producing trees, such as Landolphia
owariensis and Funtumia, are found. Parts of the dry forest
have been destroyed by the natives in order to obtain land
for cultivation, and in the vicinity of the native villages the
oil-palm is often grown. Beyond the forest fringe lies the
savanna on gently inclined or undulating ground. In favour
able conditions the trees grow fairly close to one another, and
give a park-like aspect to the landscape, but where the
j F2

84 VEGETATION
humidity is less they grow in open formation, and are often
stunted in their growth. In this open savanna Landolphia
humilis and Carpodinus gracilis are common. As in the dry
forest, much of the land has been cleared by the natives.
Beyond the savanna of course lies the steppe.
In the lower courses of the rivers of the Kasai region the
rate of the current is checked, and the debris carried down
from the plateaus is deposited and forms extensive sandbanks
and intermittent marshes. These are unsuitable alike for
forest and savanna, and are as a rule covered with papyrus.
Beyond them savanna sometimes appears, but they often pass
directly into steppe.
In a highly generalized account such as the above it is
obviously impossible to take account of local conditions. These
are sometimes of considerable importance. On the plateau
the soils with an admixture of clay usually bear a richer
vegetation than those which consist only of sand. In the
same region the depressions on the surface of the land are
sometimes covered with forest to a greater or less extent. It
is possible indeed, as has often been argued, that the forest
area of the Kasai region was formerly much greater than it
now is, and that by a process somewhat similar to that which
has taken place in the Central Basin it has been reduced within
its present limits. The natives, when seeking land suitable
for cultivation, naturally selected the more fertile districts,
but in burning off the vegetation they did much to destroy
the fertility of the soil.
Katanga
The Katanga on the whole may be regarded as a region of
transition between the evergreen tropical forest of the Central
Basin and the steppes of the South African plateau. Owing
to the variety of its geographical features, however, and to
corresponding differences in soil and climate, there is con
siderable diversity in its vegetation, and gallery forest,
savanna of various types, steppe, and marsh are all to be
found. The greater part of the High Katanga is a wooded savanna.
From a distance it has the appearance of an impenetrable
forest, but on closer investigation it is seen to be very different.

KATANGA 85
1 The trees belong in the main to the Leguminosae, and among
them Acacia and especially Cryptosepalum are very abundant.
They grow in open formation, and their slender trunks are
seldom more than 20 to 40 feet in height. In the humid
districts, and more especially along the banks of the rivers,
they are more closely planted, and are sometimes bound
together by lianas. When the soil is very dry on the other
hand they become xerophilous and consist in the main of
thorny acacias. From place to place the continuity of the
forests is broken by clearings, which may be several miles in
length, and this alternation of forest and steppe is one of the
most characteristic features of the country. Moreover the
hills which lie between the rivers are often covered with
coppice and grass. The region is essentially one in which
there is a constant struggle between forest and steppe, and
the growing interference of man tends to give the victory to
the latter. The annual fires originated by the natives, and
the felling of timber for fuel by Europeans in the mining
areas, alike contribute to the limitation of the woodlands.
In the more elevated parts of the Katanga — at heights of
5,000 feet and more — savanna gives place to steppe. The
plateau of Kundelungu may be regarded as typical in this
respect. The plants, among which leguminous varieties pre
dominate, are hard and thick-set. There are few flowers, and
in general the country presents the aspect of a somewhat
bare greenish-yellow region extending in all directions. Only
in the neighbourhood of the marshy districts in which the
rivers have their sources, and along the numerous water
courses, are there any trees. Among them are tree-ferns and
various kinds of palms; in places bamboos are also found.
Farther down on the slopes of the plateau the vegetation
gradually becomes* richer and more abundant.
Elsewhere in the high country plant life is similar to one or
other of the two types which have just been described. On
the Kibala and Mulumbwe mountains savanna predominates.
On the Kibala mountains it is rich, while on the Mulumbwe it
is poor, and trees are found only round the sources of the
rivers and along their courses. The Manika plateau on the
other hand is a steppe, and its vegetation consists of low
grasses intermingled with various flowering plants. The
Marungu, as the mountainous region to the west of Lake

86 VEGETATION
Tanganyika is called, is somewhat similar in character, and is
covered with grasses and various herbaceous plants. Trees
are found in the more humid districts and in the vicinity of
the watercourses.
In the north of the Katanga the tran sition towards the ever
green tropical forest becomes well marked, and along the
rivers, which flow in relatively deep valleys, at the foot of the
waterfalls, where they descend from higher to lower lands, and
in the plains which lie beyond, there are considerable tracts of
relatively dense gallery forest. The rift- valleys have a vege
tation peculiarly their own. Along the course of the Lualaba,
between Bukama and Ankoro, lies the rift-valley of Upemba,
in which there are great tracts of marsh-land. Here papyrus
is the most important plant, and it grows so extensively that
the great masses of it which break away during the rainy
season render navigation on the river and lakes extremely
difficult. Large tracts of papyrus also occur in the valley of
the Lufira near Sampwe, and in the valley of Lake Mweru and
the Luapula. Trees of considerable size, with a dense creeping
undergrowth, often border these valleys, but on the whole the
vegetation is not so dense as in the tropical forest. Along the
shores of Lake Mweru, also, there are often extensive tracts of
high grass.

CHAPTER V
FAUNA
A broad distinction may be drawn between the savannas '
and the forest with respect to the wild animals by which they
are inhabited. To the former region belong the large ungulates,
such as the antelope, giraffe, zebra, buffalo, wild ass, and the
rhinoceros, together with some of the carnivores, such as the
lion, one species of the leopard, and the hyena. The forest
on the other hand is particularly the home of the chimpanzee,
the gorilla, and almost innumerable monkeys. The elephant
is found in both regions, while the okapi and one species of
the leopard are confined to the forest.
k Of the carnivores the leopard is by far the most dangerous
in the Belgian Congo. The big leopard or panther inhabits
the eastern, southern, and south-western parts of the Congo
| basin. Over the rest of the country it is the forest leopard
(which has shorter legs than the panther and larger rosettes)
that is the prevailing type. On the north-east frontier, near
;: Ruwenzori, there is a third species, which has markings almost
like those of the jaguar.
j The lion is found across practically the whole of the Kasai
is region in the south, and he has also made his way into the
Ubangi region in the north. On the whole he shuns the dense
forests and the more thickly populated parts of the country.
The spotted hyena, Hyaena crocuta, appears to be practically
confined to the savanna lands, and is of very doubtful occurrence
in the forests or in the west of the country. In the north and
south it grows to a considerable size, and is very fierce.
Cats of various kinds are widely distributed. The golden
cat, Felis aurata, is found throughout the northern half of the
Congo basin, and smaller wild-cats are found almost every
where. The cervalini cat is found in the north and north-east,
and the civet-cat in all parts of the country except the densely
forested regions, where there are large numbers of genets.

88 FAUNA
The various groups of animals included under the general
name of antelope are well represented in the Belgian Congo.
Among the Tragelaphinae are the bongo (Boocercus), the bush-
buck or harnessed tragelaph (Tragelaphus), and a variety of
the marsh-loving tragelaph (Tragelaphus gratus). The bongo
is an inhabitant of the forest regions to the north, west, and
east of the central region ; the bushbuck is found in one form
or another in different parts of the country ; T. gratus, which
has elongated hoof's so that it may walk in soft mud, spends
most of its time in water, and may often be seen among the
reeds with all but its head and horns submerged. Several
varieties of eland are known. Taurotragus oryx livingstonei
is found in the extreme south-west, south, and south-east of
the Congo basin. A second group of antelopes, the Hippo-
traginae, is represented by the roan antelope (Hippotragus
equinus), said to be found in the northern basin of the Ubangi,
while another form of the same animal belongs to the south
west and south-east of the Congo basin. Among the Cervi-
caprinae are the reedbuck (Cervicapra), one species of which is
found in the western Congo, while others occur over all the
southern half of the country outside of the forest area, and
the waterbuck (Kobus), of which there are also various kinds.
The most important member of the Cephalophinae is the yellow-
backed duiker (Cephalophus sylvicultor), which has now been
recorded in various parts of the Congo basin. The hartebeest
belongs to the Bubalinae ; the Cape hartebeest (Bubalis carna)
penetrates to the south-western limits of the Congo basin, and
it is just possible that the great hartebeest (Bubalis major)
may exist in the north-western part of the country.
Several varieties of buffalo are found in the country. The
most interesting is the red dwarf buffalo (Bos nanus), which
lives in the Ituri forest, and some varieties of which occur in
various parts of the Central Basin. The Cape buffalo (Bos coffer)
extends over those parts of the South African plateau which
lie within the Belgian Congo, and has apparently made its
way north in the east of the country almost to the Semliki.
In the north the buffalo of Central Africa (Bos planiceros) is
found along the Ubangi.
The okapi (Ocapiajohnstoni) is an inhabitant of the tropical
forest. In the east it has been found as far south as the
vicinity of Nyangwe and the Maniema country, while in the

FAUNA 89
north it extends at least as far west as the Lua. Giraffes of
various species live on the savanna lands to the north and
south of the tropical forest. The rhinoceros is widely dis
tributed in the western, northern, and some of the eastern
districts. The elephant is a native of all the wooded districts of the
Congo, but its numbers have diminished greatly owing to
the way in which it has been killed for the sake of its ivory.
The type which is most common throughout the whole region
is Elephas africanus cyclotis. A dwarf variety, provisionally
known as E. africanus pumilio, is said to exist in the western
part of the equatorial region.
In the tropical forest the anthropoid apes and monkeys
are widely distributed. The chimpanzee is found mainly to
the north and east of the Congo-Lualaba, but it also appears
to the west and south of that river. The variety found in the
north and north-east is Simia troglodytes schweinfurthi, while
farther to the south, between the Lualaba and the west coast
of Tanganyika, S. t. marungensis is the predominant type.
The chimpanzee of the Lower Congo and Mayumbe is prob
ably Simia pygmaeus. The gorilla is reported to be widely
distributed throughout the greater part of the forest region.
Throughout the forest there are many species of monkeys.
The baboons, it is true, prefer the open country, and are not
so well represented in the Congo as in other parts of West
Africa. On the other hand the mangabeys are exceptionally
well represented, and the Cercopithecinae contain several
varieties which are believed to be indigenous to the country.
Lemurs are found in the Ituri forest and elsewhere.
A few of the remaining animals of the Belgian Congo are
worthy of mention. Bats are very numerous and include
various varieties of the fruit-bat, in addition to large numbers
which are insectivorous. Among the insectivores are shrews,
moles, and hedgehogs. The rodents are represented by the
flying anomalures, the squirrels, the porcupine, the ground-pig,
the pouched rat, and others. Hares are found, but apparently
not within the densely forested area, and hyraxes are chiefly
arboreal forms of the sub-genus Dendrohyrax. The hippo
potamus is found in the rivers.
Few of the birds of the Belgian Congo appear to be peculiar
to the country, and most of them are similar to those found

90 FAUNA
in various other parts of Africa. The guinea-fowl, Phasidus
niger, extends from the Gaboon right across the northern forest
belt as far as the Ituri. One species of true vulture (Neophron
monachus) and the fishing vulture (Gypohierax) are found over
the greater part of the Congo basin. A flamingo, probably J
Phoeniconais minor, and three species of pelican — Pelicanus
rufescens, P. onocrotalus, and P. sharpei — may be seen on the
broad reaches of most navigable rivers, and the red-beaked,
scissor-billed tern and two other species of the tern are common
objects in the same and similar localities. The white egrets
are Herodias alba and H garzetta, and the crowned crane is of
the West African variety. There are over twenty species of
sunbirds. The parrot is represented by a love-bird, by three
species of grey and green parrots (Poecephalus), and by the
grey parrot, which is found everywhere except in the extreme sj
south-east. Among other birds found generally over the
whole region are starlings, cuckoos, hoopoes, ground-thrushes,
eagle-owls, and various others.
The reptiles of the country include pythons, tree-cobras,
tree-vipers, Cape vipers, and egg-laying vipers. The large
monitor lizard is abundant wherever there is water. Tortoises
and turtles are represented by various freshwater forms of
Pelomedusa, Sternothaerus, and Trionyx. The common African
form of the crocodile (Crocodilus niloticus) is found all over
the Congo basin in rivers of any size. In the main Congo'*;
there also exists the slender-snouted crocodile (C. cataphractus),
and in the Ubangi the short-headed crocodile (Osteolaemus).4
Among the frogs and toads may be mentioned the hairy frog,
Trichobatrachus, and Gampsosteonyx, a frog with unwebbed/
toes ending in sharp, long claws, and various Ranine frogs of
the genera Chiromantis. Of the true toads (Bufo) there are at
least three species, and of the narrow-mouthed ant-eating
toads three genera. One or more species of the Xenopus
genus of the aquatic tongueless frogs may often be seen
floating amongst the water vegetation on the surface of still
pools and backwaters.
Insects in great variety are found in all parts of the Belgian
Congo. Termites, the so-called white ants, often do great
damage to houses and stores, but may be of some value in
assimilating and turning into mould the fallen trees or rotten
branches of the forest, and thus improving the surface soil.

FAUNA 91
The dwellings of these termites are a characteristic feature of
the scenery in many parts of the country. In the north they
are high, and not much broader at the base than at the top,
but almost always capped by a roof of wide-spreading eaves.
This type also prevails throughout the greater part of the
forest belt. In the south, where the soil is derived from
sandstone or red laterite, the ant-hills are of great size, and
.rise to a sharp pinnacle at the top without any roof or cap.
In all £he Kasai region this is the characteristic type.
Among the true ants several varieties are widespread
throughout the Congo. Of these the ' driver ant ' is the most
troublesome, but among the others are a large reddish-yellow
ant, Oecophylla maragdina, which builds its nest on the trees
it frequents, small black ants, whose bite causes a serious
swelling of the part affected, and another type of tree-ant,
which dwells in the swampy forests, and builds round black
nests in the forks of trees.
There are several kinds of bees. In various parts of the
country, Apis melifica, an African variety of the domestic
honey-bee, is found. It is usually wild, but the natives are
aware of its value, and in some districts take steps to attract
it to the vicinity of their villages. Of wasps there are several
species, the most common being the mason-wasp (Sphegidae),
which is said to be one of the most prominent insects in the
country. The mosquito and the tsetse fly are described in the section
on 'Health Conditions' (see pp. 312-14).

CHAPTER VI
NATIVE RACES
The basin of the Congo is inhabited almost entirely by the
negro species in more or less typical form, tinged in many
parts by an alien element which appears to have made its
way southward by way of the Nile. The principal elements
in this negro population are the Batwa, or pygmy, the Bantu
negro, and the Nilotic negro. The Batwa
The Batwa, or pygmies, are believed to form the aboriginal
race of the Belgian Congo, and they are certainly the most
backward. They are found in various parts of the country,
and are probably most numerous' between the Aruwimi and
the Bomokandi, in the great Congo bend, and throughout the
country lying between the upper Kasai and Lake Tanganyika.
Their name varies according to the region in which they live.
Between the Lopori and the Congo are the Bafoto, the Aka
live on the upper Bomokandi, the Batembo between Lake
Mweru and Lake Tanganyika, and the Bafete on the lower
Lomami. Nor is it uncommon to find the same name borne
by a Batwa tribe and a tribe of forest negroes. This may be
due to the latter having displaced the former and taken its
name, or it may be that the Batwa sometimes adopt the name
of a Bantu community when they are attached to it, as is
frequently the case, in the capacity of game-hunters.
The Batwa are considerably below normal height. The
men seldom exceed 4 feet 7 inches, while the women are often
under 4 feet. They have large brachycephalic heads, and
a yellow or reddish-yellow skin, sometimes much lighter than
that of the people among whom they dwell. Some of the
men have long black beards, which grow freely, and the body
is usually covered with much short ' felted ' hair. The nose is
flat and broad, the upper lip long, and the body well pro
portioned, though the neck is short and weak.

THE BANTUS 93

The Bantus

Over the greater part of the Belgian Congo the Bantu
negroes predominate. This term, however, is philological
rather than ethnical, and especially on the border-line does
not correspond with variations of physical type. At the
same time it is extremely convenient, and to a certain extent
justifiable on physical and physiological grounds. The variation
in type among the Bantus is due probably to a varying ad
mixture of alien blood, which is most marked towards the
north and east. This foreign element cannot be identified
with certainty, but, since the Bantus appear to approach the
Hamites in those respects in which they differ from the negro
proper, it is probable that the Hamites have entered into the
composition of the Bantu peoples. The following account of
the Bantu peoples of the Belgian Congo is not intended to be
comprehensive, as considerations of space forbid, but rather
aims at giving an outline of the geographical distribution of
the more important tribes, with some account of their physical
characteristics. Concerning their ethnical relationship it will
be well to speak with caution, as when all is said and done
our knowledge of this subject is still of a very hypothetical
character. In the coastal region and in Mayumbe the principal tribes
are the Bakongo, properly so called, and the Mussorohgo,
Kakongo, Mayumbe, Babwende, and Basundi, who are allied
to them. The Kakongo, who are on the right bank of the
Congo estuary, appear to be a much mixed community. In
the hill country of Mayumbe live the people of the same name :
physically they are rather slender, their average height is
about 5 feet 8 inches, and their skin is very dark in colour.
The Basundi and the Bakongo inhabit the region of the
Crystal Mountains, the former living to the north of the river
and the latter to the south. The Bakongo as a whole appear
to be a degenerate race, the primitive type having been
degraded by several centuries of contact with the worst forms
of European civilization.
For the sake of convenience the Central Basin may be sub
divided. Along the course of the Congo there are several
important tribes. The Bateke are found mainly in the French
possessions on the right bank of the river, but some branches

94 NATIVE RACES
of this family are settled on the left bank to the north of
Stanley Pool. They are very mixed in physical type, some
of the chiefs being fine-looking men, while many of the poorer
people are coarse, and have ugly, unintelligent faces. Allied
to them are the Bambuno, who inhabit parts of the country
between Stanley Pool and the lower Kwango. The Babuma
of the lower Kasai are also connected with this group.
The Bangala occupy both banks of the Congo from its
confluence with the Ruki to above the point at which it
is entered by the Mongala. Their territory extends north
wards and eastwards so as to include practically the whole of
the Giri basin (apart from its most northern districts) and the
lower parts of the basins of the Dolo and the Mongala. On
the south the Bangala country includes the greater part of
the basin of the Lulonga and a small part of the country
drained by the Lopori and the Maringa above their confluence
at Basankusu. Related to them are the Bayanzi, or Babingi,.
who formerly occupied the left bank of the river between the
mouth of the Kasai and Irebu, but are now in a more restricted
area, and the Bapoto, who dwell along the river above the
Mongala confluence.
East of the Bangala and north of the Bapoto are a number
of tribes classed under the general name of Gombe. It is
questionable, however, whether they belong to the same group -
as the Bangala, or whether indeed the different tribes which
bear the name ought to be regarded as closely related to one
another. The term Gombe appears to be applied by the
riverain tribes to all the inhabitants of the interior who
provide them with manioc and other foodstuffs.
The principal tribes comprising the Gombe group are the
Gombe proper, who live on both banks of the Mongala above
the Bangala country and on the left bank of the Motima, the
Bwela between the Gombe and the riverain Bapoto, the
Maginza to the north of the Motima, the Mabali in the basin
of the Dua, the Buja to the west of the Itimbiri, and the
Mabinza farther to the east. To the south of the Congo a
second group of Gombe people lie east of Nouvelle Anvers.
In the north, in the basin of the upper Lua, a tributary of the
Ubangi, there is a third group, who employ a Gombe form of
speech, although they- are apparently surrounded on all sides
by people speaking Sudanian languages.

THE BANTUS 95
All these peoples are well spoken of as regards their physical
appearance. Of the Bangala it is said that the faces of the
men are nearly always agreeable and even handsome, exhibiting
no marked prognathism. Their bodies are almost perfect in
proportion, and from the sculptural point of view they some
times reach the climax of negro beauty. The Bayanzi are
generally above the medium height, and their bodies are well
set up, their limbs wiry, though somewhat slight, their
shoulders broad, and their chests well developed. The Gombe
are also reported to be splendidly built, and to have an
irreproachable frame.
Farther up the Congo, between the confluence with the
Itimbiri and Stanley Falls, the Mongo occupy the left bank
of the former river. They appear to extend far into the
interior, and will be dealt with later. On the right bank are
a number of tribes which will be treated along with those of
the Aruwimi basin.
To the north of the Congo the most important Bantu-
speaking people, and one of the most important in the whole
country, are the Ababua. The exact limits of the country
which they occupy appear to be still unsettled. It is agreed
that it lies between the Welle on the north and the Bomo-
kandi-Makonga on the east. On the west it certainly extends
as far as the Bali, a tributary of the Rubi, but some authorities
carry it as far as the Likati. The southern boundary, in the
vicinity of the Rubi, is not well defined. As a whole the
country occupied by the Ababua is traversed from south-east
to north*- west by the Bima, and is covered by extremely dense
forests. The Ababua are divided up into a number of tribes, and it
is probable that a good deal of ethnic mixture prevails. Among
the chief tribes are the Mondingima, the Mogongia, the
Moganzulu, and the Moginita in the east of the country, and
the Mobati, the Molissi, and the Boganga in the west. On
the whole they appear to be a well-made race. They are
neither tall nor heavily built, and the body is well proportioned,
the head small and very round, the nose flat, the lips heavy,
and the forehead low. The women are in general good-looking,
but tend to be small in stature. Both sexes have brilliant
eyes, and an agreeable expression, but appear to be wanting
in intelligence. Activity rather than vigour appears to be

96 NATIVE RACES
their chief physical characteristic ; the men make bad porters,
and when taken from their own locality are of little value.
Belonging to the same linguistic group as the Ababua are
the Bakongo and the Mobenge. The Bakongo, who are the
fishermen of the Welle, live on the banks of that river to the
north of the Ababua, but it is questionable whether they
belong to the same ethnic group. The Mobenge are settled in
the country between the Welle and the Likati. To the north
of them along the banks of the former river are the Basango.
To the south-east of the regions just described Bantu-
speaking peoples are continued along the Congo and up
the valleys of the Aruwimi and Lindi. Among them are
the Basoko, Babali, Turumbu, Bagunda, Lokele, Topoke,
Bamboli, and Bakumu. They live in a forested region, and
it is seldom that any one tribe covers a considerable area.
Physically the people are inferior to the Ababua and various
other tribes which have already been described. The body
is well formed, but the legs are short, and the face often ugly
and prognathous. Indeed it is said that the farther one goes
from the Congo or the middle course of the Aruwimi the more
these people tend to be short-legged, long-armed, and of ugly
appearance. East of the Congo and south of the Lindi there occurs a
break in the Bantu-speaking peoples, as far at least as the
Belgian Congo is concerned.
Within the great bend of the Congo the most important
people are the Mongo or Balolo. They and various tribes
connected with them are said to occupy much of the Central
Casin as far south as the Lukenie. From the ethnological
point of view, however, this region has not yet been carefully
studied, and further information is necessary before any very
definite statements can be ,made. The Mongo are of poor
physical development, and one writer describes those between
the Lomami and the Lopori as ' small of stature and meagre
of build, a backward forest race'. Others appear to be more'
vigorous, and the Tumba tribes, on the north-eastern shofes of
Lake Tumba, are said to be a fine virile race.
In the southern part of the colony the Luba-Lunda group of
peoples occupy all the country from the Kwango affluent of the
Kasai to Lake Tanganyika. This group includes the Baluba
and the Balunda, and probably the Warega and the Maniema

THE BANTUS 97
are connected with them. The Warega occupy the basins of
the Ulindi and the Elila to the west of the rift-valley. They
are a tall, well-made people, and are both muscular and hardy.
To the south of them are the Maniema, also in all probability
belonging to the Luba-Lunda group. But, as their country
was during the nineteenth -century a great centre of the Arab
slave-dealers, it is likely that they have undergone a certain
amount of intermixture with other people. They are not very
tall, but their supple bodies are well formed and well pro
portioned. In colour they are light, their noses are somewhat
less flattened than those of the average negro, and their lips
are not so thick. The women are described as being singularly
pretty and graceful.
The Baluba peoples occupy a large area to the south of the
Lukuga and between Lakes Tanganyika. Mweru, and Bang
weulu in the east, and the Kasai in the west. In the east,
where they exist in the greatest racial purity, they founded
the States of Katanga, Urua, and Uguha. West of the
Lomami, where they have intermixed to some extent with the
Bakete aborigines, they include the Basonge and the Bashi-
lange. In the eastern region a large area bounded on the
north by the Lukuga, on the east by the Nyemba and the
Lukumbi, and on the west and south by the Luvua-Lualaba
is occupied either by Baluba-hemba or by Bahemba. The
most important families in the Baluba-hemba group are : the
Bangoy, settled between the Luisi and the Lukusu ; the Baluba
between the Nyemba, which flows into the Luvua, and the
Kibumba ; the Bakitentu on both sides of the Lukulu near the
Luvua; the Bamwika on the islands of the Luvua above
Kiambi ; and the Basonge in the districts between the Lualaba
and the Lukuga. In the Bahemba group are : the Bakyombo
r between the Luisi and the Lukulu ; the Bamwenge near
| Mount Kaomba ; the Bamulenda along the course of the Kimbi
i between the Lukusuwi and the Lukulu ; the Bakinsunkulu
at the sources of the Lubile ; the Bakiliba farther down the
'' same river ; and the Bakasanga south of the Lukuga. Neigh
bouring peoples outside the region just described, such as the
Katanga, who live farther to the south, are also of Baluba
stock. The Batabwa, to the south-west of Lake Tanganyika,
[seem to be of somewhat different origin. They are smaller
than the Baluba, less well made, and somewhat shrunken in
appearance. BBtO. COSQO <*

98 NATIVE RACES
The Basonge, who belong to the same ethnic stock as the
Baluba, occupy a considerable part of the country between
the Lualaba and the Sankuru from the fifth to the seventh
parallel of south latitude. Among the more important tribes
of this people are the Basanga, the Beneki, the Bena Kalebue,
and the Mona Kialo. The men are tall and muscular, and are
said to possess a certain natural dignity which gives them an
air of superiority over neighbouring people. The women
sometimes possess grace, and even beauty.
To the north of the Basonge are the Batetela. They are
reported to be well above the average height, to possess
considerable muscular strength, and on the whole to be good-
looking. Though black is their prevailing colour, some are
light yellow. The tribes which must be included under the
general name of Batetela extend over a very large region:
a number inhabit both banks of the Lubefu and adjoin the
Basonge, while others live to the north of the Lukenie and
are neighbours of the Akela. Considerable variety of civiliza
tion exists among these various tribes: those in the south
have adopted a culture suitable to the plains, while those in
the north exhibit to the full all the characteristics of a forest
people. Some of the western Baluba are known as Bashilange.
They are probably an intermixture between the real Baluba
and an earlier Bantu people, the Bateke, who occupied the
same region. Physically they are much inferior to the eastern
Baluba and to the Batetela.
The Bushongo, to whom the name Bakuba has frequently
been applied, inhabit a large extent of territory south of the
Sankuru river and between the Kasai and the upper Sankuru.
Their southern frontier runs from about 5° 20' S. in the west
to about 5° S. in the east. To the north of the Kasai-Sankuru
the Bushongo Meno occupy the country from about the mouth
of the Lubefu to about the region of the Swinburne rapids.
They consist of a number of tribes, not altogether homogeneous,
some of which have crossed the river and been incorporated
in the great Bushongo empire.
The Bushongo proper are divided into a number of tribes.
The Bambala, round whom the rest of the nation has grown
up, inhabits the country about Mushenge. The Gwembi live
to the north of them in the angle formed by the Sankuru and
the Lubudi near their confluence, the Idinga to the west of

THE BANTUS 99
them, and the Bashoba to the south of the Idinga. In the
extreme west, near the confluence of the Kasai and Sankuru,
are the Bakele ; to the south-west of them the Bienge occupy
both banks of the lower Luchwadi, while the Gali Bushongo
live along the right bank, and the Bambali along the left bank
of that river farther to the east. The Inyenye are south of
the Bambala and north of the Yungu, and the Malongo occupy
the district between the Langala and the Kasai. Farther south
are the Mudi Langa and the Bakete. East of the Bambala
are the. Bamboy; the Bangendi inhabit the plains farther
north ; and the Bangongo dwell between the Lubudi and the
Sankuru. The Bushongo, particularly the Bambala, are a well-made,
good-looking folk. They are remarkable for their relatively
high standard of civilization, and are not only in possession
of a history and an organized system of government, but are
distinguished by an artistic sense, which finds expression in
the proficiency with which they pursue certain crafts, such as
embroidery and wood-carving.
The Bushongo Meno, whose general position has already
been .described, are likewise divided into a number of tribes.
The Dibele, the. Bandunjeke, and the Tonkfushere follow in
succession along the right bank of the Sankuru from Bena
Dibele to below its confluence with the Sankuru. The Bohindu
and the Bashui live to the north of the first two of these on
the left bank of the Lukenie, while the Gelukenie occupy
the country on the right bank. Two tribes have crossed
to the left bank of the Sankuru — the Buluku, who hold a strip
of land above the point at which the Lubefu joins the main
stream, and the Bambingi, who hold a similar strip above the
confluence of the Sankuru and the Lubudi.
Farther west, between the Kasai and the Loange, there are
several tribes of some importance. The Bashilele, who are said
to be connected with the Bashilange, occupy the country to
the north. To the south of these in the east are the Badjok.
They are small and ill-conditioned, and in appearance are dark
and ugly. Their manners are in all respects bad, but they are
reputed to be among the most active and enterprising of the
trading peoples of Africa. To the west of them are the
Bakongo, whose territory extends across the Loange as far as
the Luana. Formerly they occupied the whole country between
I .62

100 NATIVE RACES
the former river and the Lubue, but they sold the southern
part of it to the Bapenda, who now inhabit a large area between
the Lubue and the Kasai. The Bapenda appear to be an
inferior race and are said to be too cowardly to attack big
game except by means of automatic traps. South of the
Bapenda are the Bapindi, to whom they are believed to be
related. In the basin of the Kwilu there are many tribes, only
some of which have as yet been investigated. The Bambala,
one of the most important, fall into two distinct groups. The '
southern group who appear to form the parent stem occupy
the territory between the Kwilu and the Kwengo from the
mouth of the latter as far south as a line drawn through
the sources of the Luano. They are also found between the
Djari and the Kwengo as far south as a line passing through
Kisamba. The west bank of the Kwengo is also occupied by
them, but they do not appear to extend far into the interior.
The northern group of the Bambala is found on both sides
of the Kwilu, but is cut in half by the Bayanzi, Basongo,
Bahuana, and Bapindi, who occupy the banks of the river.
The Bambala are a comparatively tall people, and, although
they are slenderly built, they are very wiry, and in powers
of endurance are said to be quite equal to the Bakongo.
The Bahuana are also found in two districts separated
from one another. One group occupies the territory between
the Kwilu and the Inzia from the confluence of the two
rivers as far south as the fourth parallel. The other is situated
on the right bank of the Kwilu from the Lubuzi almost as
far as Kikwit. There are also one or two small enclosures
elsewhere. Though well built, the Bahuana are generally
rather short in stature, and have not the same powers of
endurance as the Bakongo and the Bambala.
The Babunda occupy a stretch of territory which lies
between the Kwilu and the Kalembo, and extends roughly
from 5° to 5° 30' S. and from 19° to 20° E. Physically they
are of much heavier build than other peoples dwelling in this
part of the country. They are large-boned and tall, but
their legs are rather short for symmetry. In colour they
are very dark.
The main body of the Bapindi are found on the right bank
of the Kwilu between the parallels of 5° 30' S. and 6° 30' S.,

THE BANTUS 101
while a smaller colony lives on the left bank of the Kwengo
between the Bambala and the Bayaka. As far as is known
the main group of the Bapindi extends eastward as far as
the Kasai.
The Bayaka inhabit a somewhat ill-defined territory between
the rivers Kwango and Inzia, and between the fifth and sixth
parallels of south latitude. They are almost divided into
two sections by some groups of Bambala people, with whom
physically, physiologically, and culturally they show a con^
siderable resemblance. The men are rather short, but they
are generally well built and good-looking, and some of the
women are even pretty.
The Bakwese, who live on the upper Kwilu about 6° S.
are divided into three tribes, the Bagwa-ndala, the Bakwa-
Mosinga, and the Bakwa-Samba. Of these the first is appa-
; rently the most important. To the south of the Bakwese are
the Balua, whose territory between the Kwilu and the Kwengo
extends as far south as latitude 6° 30' S.
The_ Bayanzi (including their sub-tribes, the Wanguli and
the Makwa) live on the east bank of the Kwilu from its mouth
to about 4° 30' S. and extend eastward as far as the Kancha
and the Kasai. South of the fourth parallel they are separated
from the Kwilu by Bahuana and Bambala peoples who live on
the banks of the river. On the left bank of the Kwilu they
are found from 4° to 4° 30' S. It is possible that the Bakonde
on the left bank of the lower Kwilu and the Badinga between
the Luela and the Kancha are also Bayanzi. Physically, the
best specimens of the people are found in the up-country,
the worst on the river banks.
So far little has been said of the tribes occupying the more
southerly parts of the Kasai region, and indeed very little
appears to be known regarding them. They belong to the
Lunda group of the Bantu people, and their wild savagery
has made travel in their country a matter of great difficulty.
The men are said to be large and well made, more so indeed
than their neighbours on the other side of the Angolan
frontier. Their colour, is also lighter, and the lips are not
so thick. '
Of the tribes to the north of the Kasai there is also little
detailed information. The Bankutu inhabit a large stretch
of territory which lies on both sides of the Lukenie between

102 NATIVE RACES
the meridians 22° 30' and 23° 30'. In the east their frontiers
run off from the banks of the river towards the north-east
and the south-east. They are essentially a forest people, and
in general character they resemble other forest peoples farther
to the north. Physically, however, they appear to be rather
degenerate in type. Some distance to the north of them are the
Akela, who also dwell in the forest but belong to a better type.
They are tall, thin, and well-proportioned, and in physical
appearance are superior to the Bankutu. West of the Bankutu
are the Lukenie, who live along both banks of the river.
The Lesa occupy the country between the Kasai in the
south and the Fini-Lukenie in the north from the confluence
of these two rivers in the west to the Lekore, a tributary
of the Lukenie, in the east. They are of average height and
well made, but have little muscular development. They are
a rather cowardly people, and at the first hint of danger take
to flight. In temperament they are friendly, but of loyalty or
good manners they know nothing.
The Stjdanian Negroes
The people who live in the north of the Congo are distin
guished from practically all the other inhabitants of the
country by the fact that they speak one or other of the
Sudanian languages. The line of demarcation between them
and the Bantus has already been indicated, but it may now
, be more precisely stated. It starts on the Ubangi, in the west,
in the neighbourhood of Ibenga, separating in a general way
the basin of the Giri from that of the Lua. From the head-
streams of the former river it bears east until it reaches the
Mongala, and then north-east to the Dua, a short distance
above the point at which it unites with the Ebola. Thence
it runs almost due east to about the meridian which passes
through Yakoma, after which it turns towards the north, and
reaches the Welle some distance above its confluence with the
Bomu. The banks of the Welle are occupied by the Bakango,
who often speak the language of the people with whom they
have dealings in the interior. It is probable, however, that
the majority of the people between Jabbir and Bambili have
originally come from Ababua families, and if this be the case
the linguistic frontier may be drawn a little to the north

THE SUDANIAN NEGROES 103
of the Welle as far east as Bambili, From Bambili the line
marking off the Bantu-speaking peoples turns towards the
south-east, and follows an irregular course across the Aruwimi,
and as far as the Lindi, whence it runs west towards the Congo,
north of Stanley Falls. To the south of this a great part of
the basin of the Lindi, and its tributary the Chopo are
occupied by people of non-Bantu speech. '
To the north of the Congo the most important groups
are the Azande and the Mangbetu in the east, and the
various people who speak Bwaka and Banda in the west.
In the Lindi basin, east of the Congo, are the Bamangu, the
Bakuinu, the Wapai, and various other tribes, whose ethnic
relations are far from clear.
The Azande, who are also known as the Niam-Niam, occupy
practically the whole of the country between the Welle and
the Bomu, and extend as far east at least as the headstreams
of the Yei, an affluent of the Nile. At one time they invaded
the region which they now inhabit, and under different chiefs
took possession of the land, driving out or absorbing the
indigenous tribes. The subjects of these chiefs settled down
in the country assigned to their leaders, and took the names
by which they are now distinguished from one another. The
Abanja are settled in the extreme west, near the confluence
of the Bomu and the Welle, the Ambwaga stretch across the
middle Were, while the Abali are between the upper Were
and the Bomu ; the Embili live to the west of the lower
Gurba, the Avurn-ezo between the Gurba and the Duru, and
the Adio in the east near the headstreams of the Yei. All
these tribes, with the exception of the Abanja and the Adio,
have as chiefs the Avurn-Gura, or descendants of Gura, the
founder of the dynasty. They are considered as belonging
to a superior race, and have certain privileges to which the
simple Azande may not aspire.
Physically the Azande are a fine, well-built race. The men
range from about 5 feet 6 inches to 6 feet in height, and the
women are in proportion. The colour of the skin is a medium
•brown. Both men and women are very graceful in all their
actions. The Mangbetu appear at one time to have formed a more
powerful people than they do at present. They are probably
derived from an intermixture of two different races: the

104 NATIVE RACES
conquered, including a whole number of more or less indigenous
tribes, of which the most important were the Bangba, the
Medje, the Makere, the Mangbellet, the Mobadi, and others ;
and the conquerors, who imposed their manners and customs
upon them so successfully that the Azande name is claimed
by all.
The region in which the Mangbetu are settled is situated
on both sides of the middle Bomokandi. On the north it
extends as far as the Welle from Dungu to below Niangara,
on the east to the lands occupied by the Azande, south of the
Kibali, and the territories of the Momvu north of the Nepoko
river, and on the west to the Abarambo country between the
Bomakandi and the Welle below Niangara. Farther east,
and separated from the main body of the Mangbetu, are the
Mobadi, Munvu and Mangbellet, who also appear to be ruled
by Mangbetu chiefs.
The Mangbetu people hold a high place among the peoples
of the Congo. Not only are they well built, strong, and
muscular, but they are also agile and graceful. Their reputa
tion for courage, intelligence, and devotion is not excelled
by any other people in the country.
The neighbours of the Mangbetu are the Momvu on the
east and the Abarambo on the west. The former are said
to be short in stature, and to be darker in colour than the
Mangbetu, to whom they are generally considered to be an
inferior race. They are, however, robust, patient, and devoted
to agriculture. The Abarambo men are strong and muscular,
and the women well made. They are a savage people, sus
picious, malicious, and full of superstition.
In the second region of non-Bantu speaking peoples, that
of the Ubangi bend, the Banziri are one of the most important
peoples. They live along the banks of the river in that part
of the country where it begins to change its direction from
west to south. They are a fine-looking race, and are probably
allied to the Bwaka, who occupy the country lower down the
river, between Libenge and Mokoange, and extend far into
the interior. Still farther south between the Ubangi and the
Lua are the Monjembo, who belong to the same linguistic
group. The Banda group of Sudanese people is represented
in the Belgian Congo by at least two tribes, the Banza and
the Gobu. The latter occupy a stretch of country between

THE SUDANIAN NEGROES 105
the Banziri and the Bwaka, while the Banza are farther to
the east. The tribes which speak one or other of the Sango
languages are : the Sango and the Yakoma, who live along the
course of the Ubangi- Welle, the former in the region round
Banzyville, and the latter in that round Yakoma ; the Bongo
farther south, between the Ubangi and the Ebola; and the
Mongwandi to the south of the Ebola.
Unlike most of the Bantu-speaking parts of the Congo, '
where considerable diversity of physical type is accompanied
by some form or other of Bantu speech, the region which
has just been described shows little variation in physical type,
but very considerable differences in language. The inhabitants
are as a rale of medium height and well proportioned. The _
head is usually long, though in the north there is sometimes
a marked tendency to brachycephaly. The facial character
istics are hardly those of the true negro, and in the east
especially an almost European cast of countenance is often
seen. The colour of the skin varies : in most cases it is a dark
chocolate brown, but in some places, as, for example, along the
course of the Ubangi, it is a dark brownish black, and in others
a light red or yellow brown. The hair is as a rule short and
woolly, but among the Mongwandi and some other tribes it is
longer and less curled. Everything points to the fact that
very different ethnic strains have entered into the blood of
these people.
In the region which lies in the basin of the Lindi, to the
east of the Congo, several tribes may be noted. The Bamangu,
who live near the Congo, are described as a very handsome
people, noted for their extreme licentiousness. It is said that
their bows resemble those of the Azande and of the Sudanese
tribes to the north of the Congo basin. There also appears
to be some resemblance between them and the Mangbetu.
The Bakumu, who live farther east, belong to a less handsome
physical type. The body is sometimes well formed, but the
legs are often short like those of the forest negro, and the face
is ugly and prognathous.

CHAPTER VII
CONDITIONS OF NATIVE LIFE
The Family
Among the negro peoples generally the family is the social
unit. In its most elementary form it consists merely of the
man, with his wife or wives, and those of their children who
have not married and acquired homes of their own. It may,
however, be extended so as to include not only others who are
connected by ties of blood, but slaves, and even strangers.
The size of the family group, and the relation of its different
members to each other, accordingly varies considerably from
one tribe to another.
Polygamy is practically universal. The most notable ex
ception to this rule are the Bushongo, who appear to be
monogamous, as far, at least, as women of legitimate Bushongo
blood are concerned. As, however, they frequently have
concubines whose parents have surrendered them as pledges
for debt, the distinction is perhaps more : apparent than real.
Among those tribes which are openly polygamous the number
of wives possessed by each man varies considerably. With the ,
Baholoholo and the Lesa the average seems to be two, while the
great chiefs do not have more than six. Other tribes, and more
especially some of those who dwell outside of the limits of the
tropical forest, practise polygamy to a much greater extent.
The Basonge chiefs are said to have as many as 200 wives,
and the Mangbetu chiefs have also large numbers. In these
cases, however, it is probable that only a few are wives in the
real sense of the word, while the remainder are merely
servants. Among the forest tribes several wives are the rule,
and only those men who are too poor to afford this content
themselves with one. Indeed it seems to be the general
practice of the native to invest his surplus capital in wives, as
his more civilized brother invests his in real estate. They
add to his importance, and bring him in a handsome return.

THE FAMILY 107
Nor do the women object. The single wife has to perform
alone not only all the domestic work but no inconsiderable
part of the field-work as well, whereas when there are several
wives the field-work at least is divided among them, and the
share of each is proportionately reduced. The additional tax
levied by the Government on all wives after the first is said
to be restricting the practice of polygamy in various parts of
the country.
As a man is actuated at least partly by economic motives in
his desire to possess more than one wife, so does the betrothal
partake more or less of the nature of a bargain between him
and the family — usually the father — of his future wife.
Sentiment, however, is by no means absent. Beauty, or what
the native considers to be beauty, is an important factor in
regulating his choice. Among some tribes (the Warega, for
example) moral qualities, of which chastity does not appear to
be one, are said to be much sought after. With the Bangala
again the social position of the woman is a consideration by
no means negligible. Whether there is any affection between
a man and his wife has been disputed, but the general con
census of opinion appears to be that it does exist in many
cases ; much of course depends upon the circumstances of the
marriage. The methods by which a marriage is arranged vary from
tribe to tribe. In many cases the would-be bridegroom first
assures himself of the consent of the woman whom he has
chosen. This custom prevails, for example, among the
Warega, the Ababua, and the Baholoholo. With the Basonge,
the Mangbetu, and the Mayumbe on the other hand the
consent of the woman appears to be taken for granted.
Whatever be the prevailing custom, however, the subsequent
procedure is usually much the same. The father — sometimes, it
may be, the maternal uncle— of the woman is approached either
directly by the man himself, by his father, or by his friends, and
after long bargaining an arrangement is arrived at. The bride
groom either directly or through his father pays a certain dowry,
and in return receives his bride. It is questionable, however,
whether this system ought always to be regarded as marriage
by purchase pure and simple. The Basonge, for example,
protest energetically against the idea, and say that the father
who gives his daughter in marriage always retains the right

108 CONDITIONS OF NATIVE LIFE
to bring her home if her husband beats her without due cause,
Among the Warega again the custom exists of transferring
a woman from one husband to another even after marriage, if
the latter offers better terms. The Baholoholo father does not
make his demands till the marriage has been arranged, and
then his future son-in-law is rather expected to pay up without
demur. If the father refuses his consent it is not unusual for
his daughter to elope. A modified form of marriage by capture
appears to exist among the Ababua, the man sometimes carrying
off the woman who consents to be his wife. But in whatever
way the marriage is arranged the Ababua husband has to
give presents to his wife's relations not only at the time of the
marriage but at intervals thereafter. On the other hand
when the parent accepts the first payment he in fact engages
to give a second girl in place of the first if she dies or is
otherwise lost to her husband.
On the whole then it would appear to be impossible te
make any general statements in regard to the nature of the
native marriage. Mutual affection undoubtedly exists in
many cases, in many others the feelings of the woman are
disregarded, frequently the marriage is based on economic
considerations alone. But it seems to be generally considered
that the parent who gives a daughter in marriage loses the
service of a worker, and must be compensated for his loss.
On the other hand a husband who loses a wife by divorce or
flight is entitled to reclaim the dowry which he has given
for her.
The age at which marriage takes places varies according to
circumstances. Probably the great majority are arranged
between young people of marriageable age, but there are
important exceptions. The man is frequently the older of the
two, as it is he who has to provide the necessary dowry,.
though for this he often obtains assistance from his father.
In any subsequent marriage into which he may enter the
difference in age is usually greater, and in those tribes where
the chiefs have a large number of wives young girls are
frequently married to old men. Child marriage also exists in
some parts of the country. Among the Bangala, for example,,,
girls are occasionally married when they are only three or four
years old, and similar customs prevail with the Bushongo and
the Baluba. In some cases the Bushongo mothers conclude ,a

THE FAMILY 109
marriage between their children while both boy and girl are
of tender years. The Warega appear to have adopted the
Arab custom of espousing girls who have not reached a
marriageable age.
The number of children born of a native marriage is
generally small, and the rate of infantile mortality is high.
The woman has seldom more than two, or at most three,
children, and the average number of births per union is still
lower. For this there are various reasons, but the most im
portant are probably the loose sexual morality prevalent
throughout the country, and the large number of wives
possessed by the chiefs in certain districts. Among some
tribes abortion and infanticide are by no means uncommon.
For the high rate of infant mortality ignorance and disease
are mainly responsible. The mother, even when she is
attached to her child, as indeed is usually the case, takes few
precautions against changes of temperature, insanitary con
ditions, and other causes of illness and death among infants.
Malaria also is prevalent in most parts of the country, and,
although the adult negro appears to be immune, there is
little doubt that many children fall victims to the disease.
Diphtheria, scarlatina, and meningitis are all more or less
common. Family affection is by no means wanting. As a general
rule parents seem to be attached to their children, and often
play with them. The children on the other hand reciprocate
.these feelings, and are particularly devoted to their mother,
with whom they are most brought into contact. Nor do
parents and children cease to care for one another when the
latter have "grown up. The married woman who has been
ill-treated by her husband can usually find a home with her
father, a fact which indicates that the family tie is at least
acknowledged. Again, contrary to a widely prevalent opinion,
it is not true that old age is held in little respect by the
natives of the forest region. Among the Warega the old and
infirm are carefully provided for by their children, who take
their advice and have great faith in their wisdom. The
Ababua likewise care for the old people, and provide for
them even if they are unable to work. The same appears to
be true of the tribes who occupy the more open savanna lands.
The influence of the old men is great among the Baholoholo,

110 CONDITIONS OF NATIVE LIFE
and if they become infirm their children build huts for them
near their own and provide for their wants.
*> As might be expected, however, little attention is paid to
to the education of the children. As they grow up they learn to
take part in the work of the family. Boys are taught by their
fathers to clear the forest, to hunt and fish, girls by their mother
to cook and work in the fields. With some tribes a certain
amount of moral training is also given to children ; thieving
and lying are severely punished, and respect for old people
and the dead is inculcated. In the majority of cases, how
ever, it would appear that there is no specific teaching, and
that such rules of conduct as exist are learned almost un
consciously. Where initiation ceremonies are in vogue, as
they are in some parts of the Kasai region, a more formal
training is sometimes given. The Bushongo youth, for
example, have detailed, if somewhat gross, rules of conduct
- laid down on these occasions for their future observance.
In the native family the husband and father holds the chief
place. It is he who assigns their tasks to each member of the
family, and it is he who gives his daughters in marriage and
receives the dowry which is paid for them. With regard to
the latter point some writers have maintained that it is not
the father but the maternal uncle who is in this respect the
head of the family. For this, however, there appears to be
very little evidence, although it seems to be the case that the
maternal uncle is one of the relatives whom children are
taught to respect. Among the Ababua, for example, he has
the right to correct his nephews and nieces if he finds them
engaged in wrong-doing.
But if the powers of the father are great, they are*by no means
unlimited. As already mentioned, his father-in-law is often
able to intervene if he ill-treats his wife. On the other hand
a woman guilty of serious misconduct may be deemed fortunate
/ if she escapes with a beating. As a rule the father retains the
obedience of his sons only until they set up establishments of
their own, though in some cases, as already indicated, his
moral authority continues to be great over both his children
and his grandchildren. His power over his daughters is more
absolute, as they are often regarded as his personal property
^ with whom he can do what he will.
The position of woman is more difficult to define. In some

THE FAMILY 111
cases she is regarded as little more than a slave who can
be sold or transmitted from father to -son with the family
goods ; in others she occupies a position of importance, and
is able to exercise considerable influence. A few illustrations
will serve to indicate how impossible it is to make any general
statement on this subject. Among the Warega women are not
only well treated but are admitted to the public assemblies,
where they are allowed to take part in all discussions. With
the Mangbetu their position both at home and in public is
generally recognized as being an "important one. On cere
monial occasions a Mangbetu chief is always accompanied by
his principal wives, who may take part in the ' palaver ', and
otherwise use whatever influence they possess. The Baluba
women again occupy a place in village life which more or
less corresponds in importance to that of the family to which
they belong. In many cases indeed they are able to hold
the position of chief, and in general they are regarded both in
public and in private as possessing almost equal rights with the
men. The Baholoholo women do not appear to take part
in public life to the same extent, but they are treated with
respect and regarded as human beings who possess distinct
rights of their own. In the Bushongo country also the
position of the women is not without a certain dignity. The
mother of the king is a person of considerable importance,
and there are numerous women in the council, which consists
of the older inhabitants of the region. In domestic matters
also the relations of husband and wife arewell defined. The
duty of the husband is to hunt for game, and to defend the
home if attacked, that of the wife to till the land and cook
the food. Children, while young, are entirely under the
control of the mother, and only when they begin to grow up
does the father have the right to control their actions.
In other tribes, however, the position of women appears
to be much less favourable than in the cases which have just
been described. Thus among the Ababua the women, although
well treated in a general way, occupy a very inferior place,
and a. wife may even be sold if it pleases her husband to do
so. The same is true of the Bangala. Among the Basonge
the woman also holds a very dependent position ; she is con
sidered mainly as an agricultural labourer, and may be sold or
exchanged.

112 CONDITIONS OF NATIVE LIFE
Domestic Slavery
According to law slavery does not now exist in the Belgian
Congo. The practice of domestic slavery, however, is so wide
spread in the country, and is so closely interwoven with the
existing social system that any attempt to interfere with it
would at present be inadvisable. Accordingly, while the
State does not recognize the practice, it does not interfere
with it, except in as far as is necessary to protect the slave
against abuse, and to give him help when he appeals for it.
The extent to which the State is able to intervene in such
cases, however, is obviously limited, and in many parts of the
country it is probable that conditions are much as they were
before the annexation of the colony to Belgium. Nevertheless,
it is necessary to recognize that the system is more or less
in a state of transition, and that it is not always possible to
make definite statements regarding the extent to which it
is practised and the relations which now exist between
masters and slaves.
A man may be reduced to a state of slavery for one or other
of several reasons. Sometimes he is born into it, but it is by
no means always the case that the children of a slave are
themselves slaves. Among the Baholoholo, for example, the
child of a female slave is free, and among the Ababua a slave
who marries a free woman himself becomes free when his first
child is born, while a female slave at once regains her liberty
if she marries a free man. With the Bushongo the children
of slaves belong to the master of their parents, and are unable
to marry Bushongo girls, but in other respects they are con
sidered as free. Formerly all prisoners taken in war became
the property of their captors, and it is probable that in some
parts of the country many people still lose their liberty in
intertribal feuds. Poverty is also a frequent cause of slavery,
and a man without resources of his own is often glad to attach
himself as a slave to a master who will provide him with the
necessaries of life. Thieves caught in the act, adulterers, and
other criminals are with some tribes compelled to atone for
their fault with their liberty.
As might be expected, the position of the slave varies greatly
from tribe to tribe, but on the whole is not so unfavourable as
is sometimes imagined. In most cases he is treated as a

DOMESTIC SLAVERY 113
member of the family, and like other members thereof has
a well-defined position with corresponding rights and duties.
Domestic slavery as practised among the Mangbetu, for
example, imposes no great hardships. Although their social
position is lower, the slaves live much as their masters do,
and if they are unpaid they receive presents from time to
time. Indeed it is not uncommon for a slave who regards
himself as unfairly treated in this respect to transfer his
services to a- new master on the first opportunity. Moreover
the Mangbetu do not appear to sell their slaves, at least t'o
strangers, and do not ill-treat them. They may marry, but
their masters possess certain rights over their offspring. Under
the Ababua the position of the slave seems to be much less
favourable. He cannot withdraw from the authority of his
master, and can redeem himself only with his master's con
sent. His owner also seems able to sell him, exchange him,
or even to kill him. On the other hand the customary
usages of the tribe afford him a certain amount of protec
tion. Public opinion, for example, would oppose the sale of
a man out of the village in which he had lived for a number
of years without serious cause. Among the Baluba again
there is nothing, apart from Belgian law, to prevent a master
from killing his slave, but public opinion would be much
against him if he did so.
On the whole the relation in which a man stands to his
slaves is determined by his position as head of the family of
which the slaves are members, and, apart from the fact that
the tie between them is in some respects more permanent,
there is often little difference between the way in which he
treats his slaves and the way in which he treats his wives and
daughters. He exacts obedience from them, and in return
gives them his protection. The slave has to be provided with
a hut and food, and sooner or later with a wife or wives. In
return he has to render certain services which vary from tribe
to tribe, but the extent of which are all more or less clearly
defined by custom which almost possesses the force of law.
His right to have property of his own varies. Sometimes,
as with the Bangala, he may even own slaves, sometimes
everything which he possesses is his master's, and can be dis
posed of by him at his will. Very frequently there is some
method by which he may ultimately regain his liberty. With
BKLG. CONGO H

114 CONDITIONS OF NATIVE LIFE
the gradual extension of Belgian rule the worst abuses of the
system of domestic slavery will gradually disappear. And that
such abuses did exist there can be little doubt. The Ababua
and the Bangala were at one time accustomed on the death
of the head of a family to kill and eat several of his slaves,
and other tribes probably did the same.
Houses and Villages
The style of domestic architecture, though almost always of
a primitive description, varies considerably from one part of
the Belgian Congo to another. For this there are several
reasons. Much depends upon the building materials which
are available, and as a result the hut of the forest is often very
different from that of the grass-land. Climatic conditions
have also to be considered : in some districts it is necessary
for the natives to take precautions against heavy rainfall and
consequent flooding, while in others they have to protect them
selves against the relatively cold weather which prevails at
certain seasons of the year. The stage of civilization which has
been reached by the native is also indicated by the type of house
in which he lives, and the homes of the pygmies of the tropical
forest are naturally very different from those of such relatively
civilized people as the Mangbetu. That foreign influences
must not be excluded from consideration is shown by the fact
that the native hut in the neighbourhood of European settle
ments has frequently undergone considerable improvement.
The position, structure, and size of the native village are
also subject to much variation. Position may be determined
by one or other of several factors, of which the most important
are a supply of good water, security against floods, the
proximity of good arable or pastoral land, facilities for
hunting and fishing, and suitable means of defence. The size
of the village on the other hand is mainly dependent on
social and political conditions, which in turn are at least
partly determined by geographical environment. As a rule
social and political units are larger on the savanna than in
the forest, and consequently it is in the former region that
the largest villages are generally found. The structure of the
village is influenced by similar conditions. Where a low
state of political development prevails it consists at most of

HOUSES AND VILLAGES 115
a double row of huts arranged more or less irregularly along
the main path. Among more highly developed communities
on the other hand the houses or groups of houses are often
arranged symmetrically around the abode of the chief; de
fensive works, when they exist, are organized with care, and
various communal buildings are provided.
The most primitive type of hut in the Congo is that
constructed by the Batwa. As he spends his time mainly in
hunting, and is constantly moving from place to place in
pursuit of his game, a permanent habitation would be of little
value to him. In many cases he merely constructs for
himself a cage of boughs, which are stuck into the moist
ground at their thick end and then bent over in a flattened
semicircle and pressed into the soil by their tips at the slender
end. Other withes are bound round horizontally, and when
the skeleton thus formed has been covered with leaves the
building is complete. The villages are little more than
encampments hidden in the recesses of the forest, security
and the proximity of game being usually the main factors
which determine their position.
Among the other peoples of the Congo the villages are of
a more permanent character. In the tropical forest they are
generally small, and seldom contain more than 100 huts,
while many consist of twenty, or even less. A few illustrations
will serve to show the general conditions by which their sites
are determined. On the lower Congo, and especially in
Mayumbe, villages are found in the most diverse situations :
some are concealed in the depths of the forest, while others
are perched high up on the mountain-slopes. The proximity
of drinking water and arable land are probably the most
important factors nowadays in the choice of village sites, but
formerly the places which were selected had in addition
a good defensive position. Wherever it is found, however,
the village is nearly always of the same type. The huts are
arranged in two parallel rows on either side of a pathway or
open space, those in each row being separated from one
another by an interval of a few feet. The whole village is
usually surrounded by banana plantations.
• The Wangata, who occupy part of the region which lies
near the equator between the left bank of the Congo and the
Ruki, live on the low plateaus which rise abov«j the surround-
h2

116 CONDITIONS OF NATIVE LIFE
ing inundated land. As a rule the huts are built on either
side of a footpath which follows the axis of the plateau, those
belonging to one family group being separated from those
belonging to another by an open space. The Bosanga, who
live to the south of the Wangata, and the Bombwandza, to the
east of them, cut a series of re-entrant angles in the forest
along the line of the path, and in each of these angles a
family group is installed.
The Bangala live on both sides of the Congo above
Coquilhatville, and devote much of their time to fishing.
Their villages are accordingly situated in the vicinity of the
river, and usually consist of several parallel rows of huts, the
whole being surrounded by banana plantations.
The Lesa, on the left bank of the lower Lukenie, live on
the marginal district between the forest and the savanna.
Their villages, however, are often found just within the forest
border, and their sites are carefully chosen, partly with a
view to defence and partly with a view to access to good
water and arable land. A village may contain several groups
of houses separated from one another by small plantations,
and in each group the huts are built on either side of the
pathway, sometimes touching one another and sometimes
a few yards apart. At either end of the village there are
several huts occupied by the young men, to whom the safety
of the community is entrusted. The chief's house is situated
in the centre of the main group of buildings. Each village
also contains a forge, and a sort of public hall, in which the
inhabitants sit and talk.
Along the Aruwimi the villages are somewhat different in
type. The Banghelima, who occupy both sides of the river
between Basoko and Panga, and the Bapopoie, who live
in the interior mainly to the south of the Aruwimi, build
their huts without any order along the streams and along
the principal routes. The Banghelima are fishers, and place
their villages where easy access can be had to the rivers, while
the Bapopoie choose sites near water and arable land. All the
houses belonging to one family group are placed together.
The Warega, in the basins of the Elila and the upper
Ulindi, east of the Lualaba, build^their homes in more or less
continuous rows along the main paths. One tribe, the
Malinga, place their villages near the smaller rivers, while

HOUSES AND VILLAGES 117
another, the Ntata, live on the summits of the high mountains,
where defence is easy. The Warega village is always simple in
design, and a structure placed at one end of the single street
is the only public building which it contains.
The Ababua, to the south of the Welle, live in small villages,
which are carefully fortified. As a rule about twenty estab
lishments are grouped together, the huts being placed sym
metrically on either side of an open road, 30 to 70 feet in
width. The whole is surrounded by an impenetrable defence
of brushwood, in which there are one or two carefully guarded
openings. In the centre of the village a small elevated post
provides a suitable point from which to observe the approach
of a stranger along the paths which lead to the village.
So much for the villages of the tropical forest. Several types
of houses are found within the same region. The most common
is that of which the ground plan is rectangular. In the
Lower Congo, where this type prevails, the roof is gable-shaped,
and as a rule overhangs the walls of the hut so as to provide
a veranda on which the inhabitants may sit during the day.
The hut is divided by a partition into two apartments, one
of which is used as a kitchen and the other as a bedroom.
The materials employed are poles and thatch, derived from
a variety of palm widespread throughout the region.
The huts of the Wangata are somewhat similar in design.
The framework is constructed of poles which are bound
together with lianas. Formerly both the outside and the
inside of this skeleton were covered over with bafnboos, and
the intervening space was filled with leaves. This method,
however , was found to be objectionable, as it provided a
refuge for all kinds of vermin, and in many cases the Wangata
now content themselves with lining the interior of the hut
with cork. The roof is generally constructed of plaited
bamboo leaves, and when well made will last for years. The
women's huts are frequently built in a single line under a
continuous roof. Another building found in the Wangata
village, and known as the ingomba, is merely a shed, which
is open to all the winds that blow; it is the place where
the natives sit, talk, and eat during the day.
The Ababua huts are also rectangular in plan, while the
roof, which is gable-shaped, overhangs on the side facing the
street in such a way as to form a veranda. The different huts

118 CONDITIONS OF NATIVE LIFE
are placed close to one another facing the street in such a way
as to form a continuous row. A variety of raphia palm known
as sese provides most of the material which the native requires
in the construction of his abode.
In the Aruwimi region a very different type of domestic
architecture makes its appearance. The principal form of
structure among the Bapopoie, for example, is a four-sided
hut usually from 6 to 9 feet square. The walls, which are
made of wood, are about 4 feet high, while the roofs, which
rise in the shape of a pyramid to a considerable height, are
constructed of large marantaceous leaves fastened in horizontal
rows against a frame of basket-work. In some cases the base
of the hut, instead of being square, is round. When finished,
the building may have a height of 18 or 20 feet, and has the
appearance of a gigantic candle-extinguisher. In the region
occupied by the Ababua and allied tribes there appears to be
more than one type of hut, but the most prevalent is that
with a circular base and a conical roof. The diameter of the
ground-plan varies from 10 to 12 feet; the walls, which are
about 5 feet high, are formed of wooden stakes, the interstices
being filled with mud, and the roof is made from the carefully
arranged leaves of the likungu. Generally there are two
doorways, one of which opens out into the open space round
which the huts are built, while the other is at the back, and
affords a means of retreat into the forest. The hut of the
chief is often distinguished by the fact that the supports on
either side of the principal doorway are carried upwards from
5 to 10 feet, and are decorated with the spoils of war.
On the savanna geographical conditions are less unfavourable
than in the forest for the growth of large communities with
a more or less developed system of government. As a result
the villages are often larger and more complex in structure.
The sites are mainly determined by the occupations of their
inhabitants. The Banziri, for example, are traders and fishers,
and their villages lie close to the river, the huts being arranged
in two long lines forming a wide street. Some of these
villages are over a mile in length, and appear to be well
populated. Farther to the east, in the country between the
Bomokandi and the Welle, the Mangbetu usually place their
villages where there are good water, fuel, and fertile soil.
Travellers have, however, noted that these people are not

HOUSES AND VILLAGES 119
without an aesthetic sense, and that they often select sites
possessed of great natural beauty. The villages are sometimes
of considerable size, and the huts are arranged around an
open space, on which there is often a large hall, used for public
meetings and similar purposes. The plan of the village varies,
and it may be circular, elliptical, square, or intermediate, but
it is always well built and carefully looked after. Generally
speaking, there are no fortifications, but this rule is not
invariable, and the houses of the chiefs at least are sometimes
surrounded by a zareba or palisade.
The Baluba occupy the country to the south of the Lukuga.
Their villages are often carefully planned. The chief and his
family occupy a number of huts, which form a rectangle at
the end of the principal street. Around them, on the side
remote from the village, are the dwellings of the chief per
sonages with their families and clients. In the main street of
the village are the huts of various other officials and their
followers. The less important people live in streets running
parallel to the main street.
Among the Basonge, who dwell on the borders of the equa
torial forest between the Lubilash and the Lualaba, there
are also many large villages. Kolomani, situated on the
Lurimbi, a tributary of the Lomami, was said to have a
population of 10,000 in 1897, and a few years later Pania
Mutombo had one of 2,000. Many other Basonge villages
appear to be well built and prosperous. The streets are long
and broad, and the huts of the various family groups are
surrounded by small gardens. Frequently each person of
importance has his own quarter, varying in size from four
to twenty huts, which runs at right angles to the main road,
and is encompassed by a hedge. The largest of these is occu
pied by the family of the chief, and is built round a great
rectangular court, in the centre of which stands the- residence
of the chief himself. Opposite the entrance to the quarter
of the chief stands the hall which serves as a meeting-place
and council chamber, and not far off is the forge, where
the village gossips congregate. Basonge villages are some
times fortified by a palissade of tree-trunks, but the practice
is by no means common.
In the Kasai region conditions vary. The Bushongo
villages, which are often found scattered on the savanna by

120 CONDITIONS OF NATIVE LIFE
the side of running water, are generally small, and the houses
are grouped in hamlets of a dozen or even less. The larger
villages, however, may consist of several streets, each formed
by a double line of huts. Behind each house there is usually
a small granary about three feet high, while in the street
there are often some open sheds, where people work or rest.
A fetish house is also a common object. The villages are
separated from the surrounding bush by a cleared space of
varying width. The Bakongo villages are likewise small, and
seldom contain more than fifty houses. In the centre there is
an open space, except for the residence of the chief, and
around it the other houses are built in the form of a square
or a circle. The whole is surrounded by a palisade, beyond
which are various sheds where the inhabitants meet to weave '
or to gossip.
On the savanna the native house is perhaps more varied in
structure than it is in the forest, partly on account of the
diversity of building material, and partly because of the
influence exercised by foreign invaders. The Banziri huts
are shaped like bee-hives, and have thick grass roofs which
reach to the ground. As they have a diameter of about
12 feet they are fairly capacious. Occasionally in this region
one comes across a square or oblong habitation built partly
of mud, the owner of which has come under the influence
of the European, and has, as far as possible, adopted his
style of architecture.
The Mangbetu are probably the best builders in the whole
of the Congo region. The ground-plan of their huts is either
circular or rectangular, but the former predominates. The
walls, which are between two and a half and three feet high,
are made of clay, which sometimes becomes very hard, and is
susceptible of acquiring a high degree of polish. The frame
work of the roof is made of poles, which in the circular hut
form a cone-shaped structure ; in the square and rectangular
huts the roofs are sloping. As a rule straw is used as thatch,
but its place is sometimes taken by leaves. The walls are
often ornamented on the outside by geometrical designs, such
as the interlacing of the rhombus and the circle, drawn in
black, white, and red, or by the designs of various objects,
such as men, animals, guns, and tools.
But it is in the construction of the hangars which they use

HOUSES AND VILLAGES 121
as public- halls that the Mangbetu really excel. These are
often of large dimensions, and are built with great care.
The roof may be of varied architectural design, and the sup
porting pillars, of which there are sometimes as many as
sixty, are often carved with designs which show considerable
talent. The Basonge hut is usually rectangular in form. Its walls,
which are about three feet high, are constructed of logs planted
one against another. At each corner instead of a log there
is a long flexible pole, and when these are bent down and
fastened to one another they give the skeleton of the roof
a somewhat oval appearance. Various grasses and herbaceous
plants are used for thatching purposes. The Baluba hut is
constructed on somewhat similar principles ; it is usually 10
to 12 feet square, and the walls have a height of about 4 feet.
The stakes which form the skeleton of the roof, instead of
being bent down as in the Basonge hut, are merely drawn
together and fastened so as to give the roof a pyramidal form.
Besides the principal hut there are similar but smaller ones
for slaves and the older boys and girls.
Several types of dwellings are found in the Kasai region.
Among the Bushongo the plan of the hut is rectangular, the
dimensions being 18 feet by 14. The 'roof, which is gable-
shaped rests upon walls about 6 feet high. The leaves of the
palm are extensively used in the construction of both walls
and roof. The Bangongo huts are similar but smaller. Quite
another type is found in some parts of the middle Sankuru.
There the walls of the huts, which are about 15 feet by 9, are
made of poles about 12 feet in length fixed vertically in the
ground at a distance of from 4 to 6 inches from one another.
The frame of the dome is constructed of long flexible sticks,
which are fastened to the top of these poles and bent over
to meet in the centre so as to describe the arc of half a circle.
The whole construction is covered with a thick thatching of
dry grass. In the upper part of the house there is a rack
of wattle, which serves as a loft for keeping provisions.
One or two other types of native hut, the structure of which
is determined more or less by climatic conditions, may be
described before concluding. The Baholoholo hut is small,
the ground-plan forming a square of which the sides are
about 8 to 10 feet. The walls are formed of canes planted

122 CONDITIONS OF NATIVE LIFE
in the ground, and rising above it to a height of about 4 feet.
Longer and more flexible canes are placed among these at
intervals, and bent over so as to form the skeleton of a more
or less dome-shaped roof. The inside walls are then plastered
over with mud derived from the nearest ant-heap, while the
roof is covered with reeds, herbs, and straw. The whole
structure is very light, but on account of the materials of
which it is constructed does not suffer much from the violent
winds which are a characteristic feature of the Tanganyika
region. Behind his own hut the head of each family has
an enclosure in which are situated the dwellings occupied by
his wives, together with a shelter for his live-stock. The
buildings where he stores his sorghum are usually situated
outside the enclosure.
In some of the eastern districts (as, for example, among the
Warundi people, who dwell on the slopes of Ruwenzori) the
villages are usually placed at the bottom of the valley, so that
the inhabitants may be protected against cold. The huts,
which are circular in plan, are large, their diameter being
from 20 to 25 feet. The whole building is covered with
grasses or herbs, and the interior is lined with reeds to afford
a protection against the cold. Bamboos are also used to make
partitions by which the hut is divided into two or three
apartments. As a further protection against cold the entrance
is often more elaborate than is usual with a native hut, and
consists of a tunnel-like archway several feet in length.

CHAPTER VIII
POLITICAL ORGANIZATION
With the European occupation of the Congo the develop
ment of native political institutions was more or less arrested.
In many parts of the country the advent of the white man
seriously weakened the authority of the local chiefs, but it
was not till 1910 that any attempt was made to regularize
their position and to give them a place in the administrative
system. In that year, however, the Belgian authorities
decided to recognize various chiefdoms, and to invoke the aid
of their chiefs in the government of the country. . The chiefs
so recognized were in general the customary heads of the
tribes or subdivisions of tribes to which they belonged, but
power was retained to remove any one who proved unsatis
factory, and to appoint another in his place. The authority
allowed to these chiefs was in general that which they
possessed by custom, and it was stipulated that it should be
exercised in the customary manner, for example, with the aid
of a council when that had hitherto been the practice. Con
sidering the powers moreover which some chiefs had wielded
in the past, it was only natural to provide that they should
not do anything which was contrary to public order, and that
they should not contravene any laws expressly designed to
supersede native customs, as, for example, laws forbidding
murder, cannibalism, &c. In addition certain new powers
were conferred upon them. The working of this system
will be discussed later (see 'Government', Chapter XV), the
object of the present chapter being rather to describe the
general character of such political institutions as grew up
under native conditions. Although the authority of these
institutions has in many cases been weakened, and their
powers reduced, they still continue to exercise considerable
influence upon native life in most parts of the country.
If the family is the social unit, the village is the political
unit. In the forest region, as already indicated, it is generally

124 POLITICAL ORGANIZATION
small, and on the whole political institutions are more rudi
mentary there than they are on the surrounding savannas,
where as a general rule the larger states and the more highly
organized societies are to be found. (This does not of course
imply that large States alone exist in the latter region, and
small States alone in the former, but it suggests the prevailing
tendency.) Several villages may be grouped together under
a local chief, who recognizes the authority of the chief of the
tribe. Each village also has its own chief, who may be, but
is not necessarily, the head of the family group composing
the village. This system, which is fairly advanced for the
forest region, appears to be that which the Ababua have
developed. The various tribes grouped under this common
name have no supreme chief, and each tribe is autonomous,
and occupies a definite geographical area. Within the tribe
there are a number of groups, each of which has collective
ownership over part of the territory occupied by the whole
tribe. These groups (called etina in the native tongue) are
again subdivided into clans, or makere, each of which consists *
of several village communities. At the head of each of the
makere there is a chief, and the chief of the oldest makere" is
sometimes recognized as the chief of a certain number of
cadet-clans, and sometimes as chief of the whole etina. The
etinas, although they are autonomous, in their internal
organization recognize a certain order of precedence, which
is signified by the offering of the leopard. A man who kills
one of these animals offers it to the chief of the elder makere
of the elder etina of the tribe to which he belongs.
A somewhat similar but less complex grouping is found in
other parts of the forest region. The Lesa, who belong to it,
although they live rather upon its margin, form a good example.
With them the political unit is, as usual, the village, but the
country which they occupy appears to be divided up into
a number of districts, over each of which there is a chief, on
whom the village chiefs are more or less dependent. The
latter, however, are the real rulers, and, though they do not
seem to exercise a very active authority, they are held in some
respect by their subjects. The district chiefs at one time had
considerable power, as they were usually the heads of the
families to which the village chiefs belonged, but that power
has greatly decreased, though it is still said to exist. In all

POLITICAL ORGANIZATION 125
his decisions the chief of a village is assisted by an assembly,
consisting of the older and more notable men of the com
munity. When a chief dies he is succeeded by his eldest
surviving brother, or in default of a brother, by his son.
The Mayumbe, another forest people, are organized on
somewhat similar lines. Each village has its chief, who
often possesses considerable authority. Before the arrival of
the Europeans, for example, he had the power of life and
death in his hands. In all matters of importance he is assisted
by a council of notables, but the extent to which he is under
its control probably varies from place to place and from time
to time. Another official of the village who formerly exercised
a good deal of authority was the mambouc. He commanded
the army in time of war and took the place of the chief as
president of the council when military matters of any kind
were under discussion. In contrast with what occurs in most
other parts of the Congo, a Mayumbe chief when he dies is
usually succeeded by the son of his eldest sister.
Sometimes a group of villages, each with its own chief, are
united under the general authority of a supreme chief, known
as the kulundu. His authority, however, seems to be vague,
and, although he is often held in considerable respect, it is
questionable whether he has any real power.
As already said, the political organization, of the various
peoples who inhabit the savanna regions is often more highly
developed. Perhaps the best illustration of this fact is the
system of government which formerly prevailed among the
Bushongo. Their empire, for such it was, was ruled by a
hierarchy of officials more elaborate than has been recorded
of any other African people. It was in the full possession of
its powers when the white man first entered the country, but
is now showing signs of decay. The supreme chief is the
nyimi, who at one time bore the title of Chembe Kanji
('representative of God upon earth'). Under him are the chiefs
of the vassal tribes and a great number of local chiefs, who
owe allegiance either to the nyimi himself or to one or other
of the vassal chiefs. Theoretically the nyimi was an absolute
monarch, and in public and on all ceremonial occasions was
treated as such. In fact, however, the government was con
trolled to a greater or less extent by the kolomo, or function
aries of the court. Of these functionaries there were a great

126 POLITICAL ORGANIZATION
number, and the more important of them held sway, except
when the nyimi happened to be a man of more than ordinary
ability. As the representative of the people, all land was
regarded as belonging to the nyimi, and he was able to give
it to, or take it from, whomever he pleased. The subject
tribes which were settled on Bushongo territory paid tribute
to him, and upon all the villages over which his rule extended
certain dues were levied. It was from these resources that
the members of the kolomo derived their income.
When the nyimi died his throne passed to his brothers in
order of age, and in default of brothers to the sons of his
sisters in the same order. Such at least was the theory, but
it was rarely put into practice, as the nyimi had and used the
right to disinherit those of his relations whom he disliked.
As a rule therefore he was able to designate his heir from
among his brothers, nephews, and even cousins, but he was
compelled to limit his choice to the descendants of his female
ancestors. The kolomo included various military, judicial, and ad
ministrative officials, together with representatives from all
the subject tribes. In addition all those who were engaged
in the more important industries and arts, such as weavers,
blacksmiths, musicians, and dancers, had the right to be
represented at the court of the nyimi. These various officials
were not hereditary, and in theory the nyimi alone could
appoint a successor to any one who died or became disqualified;
in practice his choice was generally decided for him by public
opinion. Among the Basonge, who also dwell outside of the tropical
forest, there is a somewhat similar tendency to the growth of
large political units. The chief of the village community is
as usual the real ruler, but in some cases this community has
attained considerable proportions, and may number several
thousand people. Under such conditions the power of the
chief is often great, though much will depend upon his
personal qualities. In all important matters he acts only after
consultation with his council, which is composed of some of
his older and presumably wiser subjects. Not until a man
has acquired a reputation for considerable wisdom is he
invited to take part in the deliberations of this august body.
The court officials on the other hand are usually young and

POLITICAL ORGANIZATION 127
vigorous, as upon them devolves the duty of carrying out the
decisions arrived at by the chief in council.
The bonds which unite various villages together into groups
appear to be somewhat loose. An important chief frequently
exercises a certain authority over a number of smaller villages,
whose local chiefs are to some extent subject to him, but his
power over them is not as a rule very great. Each year they
send him tribute in the form of slaves, cattle, or food, and in
former times he was entitled to demand from them a con
tingent to his armed forces in the event of war breaking out.
In return he had to afford them protection if their lands were
invaded by strangers. Among some of the Basonge tribes
the suzerainty of the supreme chief is even more illusory.
The village chiefs meet at frequent intervals and elect one of
their number as their overlord, but, as he holds office only for
a short time, his authority is practically non-existent.
A chief when he dies is as a rule succeeded by his eldest
son. Should' the eldest son be notoriously stupid or cruel,
the village council nominates another member of his family in
his place. If on the other .hand he is a minor, they appoint
a regent, who is usually the brother of the dead chief.
The Baluba, who dwell in the open woodland of the south
east, have also a political organization which is more highly
developed than that of the forest peoples. The country which
they occupy appears to have been conquered for them by
a great chief called Tumbwe, whose successor lives in the
Marungu Mountains near Lake Tanganyika. Not being able
to administer the whole, of his vast area by himself, he
entrusted it to the sons of his relative Kabalo. Shola, the
elder, occupied the north-west of the country, while Kayua,
the younger, occupied the south-east. Each, after he had
fixed on a site for his own village, distributed at least part of
the remainder of his land among his children, nephews, and
those of his followers whom he specially wished to reward.
The condition of the grant was that they too should establish
villages, each with its own local chief. Around the various
leaders thus designated the bulk of the people grouped them
selves, each man according to his own inclination. The
different chiefs and sub-chiefs are bound by custom to provide
their overlord with part of the yearly crop, together with
a share in the proceeds of the chase.

128 POLITICAL ORGANIZATION
The whole political system is therefore a hierarchy, based
upon a blood-relationship which is always determined through
the female line. When a chief dies he is succeeded by his
brothers, and on their decease the office passes to the eldest
son of their eldest sister. If there is neither sister nor brother
the chieftainship passes to a cadet branch of the same family.
The chief is assisted in his administrative, judicial, and
executive functions by a council of notables, who, in the first
instance at least, are nominated by him. A right to be sum
moned to the council appears to belong to the successors of
those who have once held a place upon it, but they cannot
avail themselves of this right until it has been recognized by
the chief. Occasionally the latter summons all the freemen
of his village to a conference, but such an assembly does not
have much real power, and the government remains in the
hands of the chief and his council.
The Mangbetu also, as might be expected from the general
state of their civilization, have a well-organized political
system. At the head of each tribe is a chief, who places his
sons, brothers, or notables as secondary chiefs in different parts
of the country over which he rules. Each of these has several
villages under his control, and, as he cannot be in all of them
at once, he in his turn appoints local chiefs for each. The
administration of justice is one of the most important matters
with which these various officials have to deal. Cases of little
importance are settled by the village chiefs, while others are
taken either to the chief of the group of villages to which the
litigants belong or to the chief of the tribe himself. It is said
that Okondo, one of the greatest of the Mangbetu chiefs, was
accustomed to spend four or five hours each day in the
administration of justice. This system is rendered possible
only by the fact that the country occupied by the Mang
betu is very fertile, and consequently densely populated. The
villages are numerous, and few of them are far distant from
the tribal head-quarters.
The tribal chiefs are assisted in the discharge of their duties
by a council, which consists of the secondary chiefs, warriors
of distinction, and old men who have gained a reputation for
political wisdom. All give their advice freely, but the chief,
at least when he is a man of some ability, has the final decision
in his own hands. Formerly he had the power of life and

POLITICAL ORGANIZATION 129
death over his subjects, but since the occupation of the country
by the Belgians all matters of grave import are settled in
European courts.
As a general rule a Mangbetu chief is succeeded by his son.
In the event of his being without a direct heir, or for other
special cause, his place is taken by his brother.
It has already been indicated that the powers of the chiefs,
with or without their councils, were at one time much greater
than they now are. They made war and peace, dispensed
justice according to the tribal law such as it was, and con
trolled to a greater or less extent the economic and social life
of their subjects. To-day in all the regions which are
effectively occupied by the Belgians intertribal war is for-
; bidden, and, although the administration of justice is often left
to the local chiefs, they are compelled to observe the general
,, laws of humanity. In some cases indeed the people seem to
prefer to take their disputes to a European court when one is
available. Such appears to be the practice in Mayumbe, where
nearly everything is said to be tried before a European
tribunal, and various other tribes regard such a tribunal as
a final court of appeal.
It was rather custom with the force of law than laws that
were consciously made which governed the daily life of the
people. In the civil domain this system probably worked,
and in many cases still works, indifferently well. If a man
obtained a loan or entered into an agreement with another, he
generally did so before witnesses who were conversant with
all the facts. The chief and his council had therefore little
difficulty in learning the truth or in coming to a decision in
accordance with tribal or village custom. If the defendant
himself was unable to repay his loan or fulfil his engagement,
it became the duty of his family to do it for him. The
collective responsibility of the family for the default of its
individual members was probably the nearest approach made
by these primitive peoples to a general principle of law in
civil affairs.
The methods adopted in the pursuit and punishment of
crime were open to much graver objection. The chief offences
recognized were murder, theft, and adultery, and as a rule the
criminal concealed his act, not because it was against the law,
and not because it was morally wrong, but because its detection
BELG. CONGO I

130 POLITICAL ORGANIZATION
would have brought swift retribution upon himself.. Indeed
in most parts of the country the custom was for the aggrieved
party or his surviving relations to take the law into their own
hands when the criminal was caught in the act, and to put
him to death or to otherwise maltreat him. If on the other
hand no one raised a complaint, there were generally no
means by which an offender might be put upon his trial. A
stranger, for example, might be murdered within the confines
of a village, but, as no one was directly interested in him, his
murderer generally escaped. Punishments, whether inflicted
by the injured party or his family or by order of the chief
and his council, were as a rule very severe. Whipping and
mutilation, often of a most atrocious character, were common,
and it was only among the more advanced tribes that the
principle of compensation was admitted.
If the criminal were not caught in flagrante delicto, recourse
was had to supernatural means for his discovery. The sorcerer
was appealed to, lots were cast, and the person thus designated
was compelled to submit to the ordeal by poison, which in
one form or another was common throughout most parts of
the Congo. Even in cases where a chief with his council
honestly endeavoured to arrive at the truth with regard to
a suspected person they resorted to this method if other
means failed. For further details regarding the part played
by the sorcerer in the administration of justice see page 151.

CHAPTER IX
CULTURAL CONDITIONS
The Bantu and Sudanian Negroes
Mental Characteristics
It is difficult to obtain a clear idea of the mental character
istics of the natives of the Congo. All accounts which arc
available are liable to have been influenced either by the
interests or the sentiments of those by whom they have been
written, or by the special conditions which prevail among the
people to whom they relate. Some statements of a general
nature may, however, be made. The native child appears to
be active and intelligent, but his mental development often
ceases about the age of puberty. This fact has never been
satisfactorily explained, but may be due to one or other of
several causes. The loose state of sexual morality, and early
and excessive sexual indulgence are believed to have a very
prejudicial effect on the intellectual growth of the youth of
the country. On the other hand it must also be remembered
that by the time a boy has reached the age of eight or ten
years he has learned everything that the village to which
he belongs has to teach him, and that as a rule no further
demand upon his intellectual faculties is made. Or it may
be that the real cause of the early cessation of intellectual
growth among these native peoples must be sought for among
the conditions which determine racial differences.
The adult negro is, however, by no means devoid of intelli
gence. He has considerable powers of assimilation, and is
easily taught to do manual labour of a kind to which he has
hitherto been unaccustomed. The Mayumbe, for example,
though by no means so alert as some of the other natives of
the Congo, are said to learn in a fortnight all the work required
of them in the cocoa plantations, and statements of a similar
nature have been made of other forest tribes, such as the
12

132 CULTURAL CONDITIONS
Bangala and the Wanga. Of some an even better account
is given. They are said to understand quickly, and to answer
promptly, all questions put to them on matters of which they
have cognisance, but to become fatigued if the interrogation
is unduly prolonged. Sometimes they show no little lin
guistic capacity: it is said that an Ababua will easily learn
in a fortnight the dialect of a tribe previously unknown
to him.
The Congo negro is not devoid of reasoning power, but
he has little conception of general ideas, and in argument
he relies mainly upon illustration and comparison. He also
makes frequent use of the reductio ad absurdum, and has
a child-like delight in attempting to place his opponent on
the horns of a dilemma. As a rule he is not logical in his
methods of thought, and will frequently after accepting the
major and minor premisses of an argument refuse to accept
its conclusion. On the other hand the members of some
tribes are full of good sense, and, if a course of action thought
to be desirable is placed before them in a plain and simple
fashion, they will agree to it without hesitation. Though
native powers of generalization are, as has already been said,
limited, different tribes appear to vary greatly from one
another in this respect. Some have very few abstract words
in their language, others a considerable number. The Baluba,
who are said to be capable of seizing an abstraction when it
is presented to them, may perhaps represent a state of negro
development a little above the average. They have words
in their language for such ideas as mankind, poverty, and
health, but not for friendship, charity, tenderness, or chastity,
which represent abstractions to which they are unaccustomed.
Within certain limits the native is a close observer of '
nature. Everything connected with matters which closely
concern his daily life are carefully noted by him and stored
in his memory for future use. His knowledge of plants and
animals is often extensive, he makes a good guide, and he
has an almost malicious joy in nicknaming people on account
of any minor peculiarities which they may happen to possess.
But as a rule he does not seek for an explanation of what he
has seen. Often indeed he is too ignorant to discover it, but
in any case he is mentally too lethargic to trouble himself
further with matters whioh do not directly concern him.

THE BANTU AND SUDANIAN NEGROES 133
The imagination of the native is well developed, but only
within comparatively narrow limits, and it is sometimes
difficult to distinguish it from conscious exaggeration or even
deliberate mendacity. He cannot refrain, for example, from
describing a small crowd of people as a multitude of men
numerous as the trees. On the other hand it is questionable ,
whether he is ever able to imagine conditions of life unlike
those to which he himself has always been accustomed. To
explain the sea to a forest negro is said to be an almost
impossible task. In foresight also he is generally lacking.
He acts on the impulse of the moment, and is as a rule too
much occupied with the things of the present to pay much
attention to those of the future. The luxuriance of vegetation
by removing the fear of absolute starvation is no doubt partly
responsible for this, and it is interesting to note that tribes
(such as the Mangbetu and the Basonge) which live on the
savannas with their recurring dry seasons are accustomed
to take somewhat longer views. But it may be noted that
even in the forest the cultivation of such plants as manioc
implies that the native is able to look ahead for at least a year.
The native is also under the control of custom to such an
extent that his inventive faculties are not given much opporT
tunity to develop. When he is faced with a difficulty he
prefers to surmount it by means which are intellectually the
more easy even if they ultimately involve him in a course
which is physically more laborious. Thus if a tree stops his
path he finds it easier to go round the obstruction than to
plan for its removal. In some cases he has been known to
adapt the methods of the European to his own requirements,
but generally he takes everything for granted, and. is seldom
on the look-out to devise means to improve his position.
Intellectual Attainments
That the standard of civilization reached by the natives
of the Belgian Congo is low goes without saying. No native
system of writing has been devised, and, except in the rela
tively few cases in which a man has been trained in a mission
school, he is unable either to read or write. The most impor
tant means of communication, apart from verbal statements,
is the tam-tam, or drum, which is found in almost every

134 CULTURAL CONDITIONS
village. With the Congo people it takes the place of a national
telephone, and among the more skilful tribes is used to a
considerable extent.
In all matters involving arithmetical calculations very little
progress ha$ been made. Among many tribes the people are
usually able to count up to 100, but beyond that they seldom seem
able to go. Sometimes they have words for 200 and higher
numbers, and sometimes, as with the Ababua, anything above
50 is expressed only in general terms. The decimal system
of notation is employed, and both when they are actually
counting or making calculations, and when they are stating
numbers the natives use their fingers and toes very freely.
As they are ignorant of all but the most obvious movements
of the celestial bodies, they make little use of' them in their
division of time. As a rule they mark the progress of the
year by the alternation of the dry and rainy seasons. The
Bangala who inhabit a region where it is almost impossible
to distinguish the one from the other appear to make their
reckoning by reference to the rise and fall of the Congo.
The phases of the moon enable most tribes to divide the
year into lunar months. By the sun they can tell the time
of day with remarkable accuracy.
The geographical knowledge - possessed by the natives is
usually very limited. As a rule they know only the country
within a few miles of their own homes, but a certain amount
of course depends upon the main occupations of the tribes
to which they belong. Those who are engaged in trade, for
example, not only possess a good deal of information about
the region from which they obtain their staple commodities,
but have some acquaintance with the main trade-routes and
the more important rivers in their own part of the country.
Tribes which have been accustomed to provide porters for
Europeans also acquire in time a certain knowledge of the
outside world. But with these and such exceptions the Congo
native shows little interest in what lies beyond the limits
assigned to his village. His practical skill as a traveller is
by no means negligible. With the help of the sun he is
usually able to orient himself, and he often shows considerable
skill in locating himself when far from home. Some tribes
are also able to make rough but accurate maps of the country*
around their homes. Among those who are able to do this

THE BANTU AND SUDANIAN NEGROES 135
the Mangbetu are specially noted, but the Warega and the
Basonge have also some skill in this respect.
Their knowledge of the past is very fragmentary. Most
tribes possess traditions regarding the events which led to
the occupation of the land of which they are in possession,
but beyond that they are usually ignorant of everything of
which they have not personal knowledge. But to this general
statement the Bushongo form a notable exception, as the
history of their tribe appears to go back in a more or less
accurate form for several centuries. Among the Basonge
also a considerable amount of local history is handed down
from one generation to the next. Curiously enough it is
regarded as secret, and is told only to the notables of the
tribes. Native medicine is a curious combination of sorcery and
empirical skill, the former predominating among the more
ignorant tribes, and the latter among the more advanced. For
the most part the treatment of the sick is entrusted to the
sorcerer, or to professional healers, whose secrets are handed
down from father to son. Native herbs enter largely into>
their pharmacopoeia. Manioc leaves are much used because
of the prussic acid which they contain, and charcoal, burned
banana stems, decoctions of the bark of many different kinds
of trees or of leaves steeped in boiling water, palm-oil, and
the oils of certain nuts such as the kola, are all more or less
rationally used, either externally or internally. Hot fomenta
tions are applied to swellings, rheumatic pains, and strains.
Massage is much in vogue among certain peoples for severe
indigestion, lumbago, headache, and various other complaints.
Broken limbs are straightened and set in rude splints. The
application of all these remedies is usually accompanied by
magic rites, chants, and other ceremonial acts.
Practical Skill
Even in matters which closely affect his daily life the
native does not show any great ingenuity in devising, or
skill in executing works of public utility. To his house alone
does he appear to give much attention. The roads between
different villages are usually tracks which in the course of
time have been beaten into the semblance of paths. But

136 CULTURAL CONDITIONS
on their upkeep no labour is expended. If one should happen
to become blocked by a falling tree, the native seldom thinks
of removing the obstacle, he simply passes round about it.
There are, it is true, exceptions to the rule. In the Mangbetu
country some of the roads, especially those which lead to the
villages of the chiefs, are well made, and the Baluba villagers
unite to clear the paths which lead to their fields and wells.
Rivers are bridged only when they are quite unfordable. To
construct a bridge lianas are fastened to trees on either side
of the river and swung across to the opposite side. By
interlacing these with other lianas a structure is provided
which, if it has been carefully made, will sometimes last for
several years.
The canoe is almost everywhere the sole means, apart from
human porterage, which the native has devised for the trans
port of goods. However long and shapely it may be, it is
nothing but a hollowed-out tree-trunk, and into its construc
tion the skill of the carpenter does not enter. In size it
varies : many are designed to carry from two to six men, but
others are larger ; and it is said that some of those used by
the Mayumbe are capable of transporting three tons of coco
nuts. Apparently the natives are quite content with the canoe
for purposes of navigation, and in many cases spend more time
and labour in devising an appropriate figurehead for it than
in seeking to improve the type to which it belongs. On the
upper Ubangi and on its headstreams, the Bomu and the
Welle, where the Sudanese have made their influence felt,
the art of navigation is somewhat more advanced, and the
canoes used there are practically boats. They are so con
structed that they draw little water, and are therefore
admirably adapted for these rivers and their tributaries, where
they are required to glide on the surface, the depth of the
rivers at some seasons of the year being measured only by
inches. On the Welle and the Bomu these boats have very
thick sides, and are also fitted in other ways for use on rivers
whose courses abound in rocks and rapids. In some parts
of the Congo, however, the natives have not even reached the
canoe stage of navigation. When the Warega desire to cross
a river which is too broad to be bridged they make use of
very primitive rafts consisting of several tree-trunks rudely
fastened to one another. The inhabitants of the district round

THE BANTU AND SUDANI AN NEGROES 137
the lower Lomami use rafts for purposes of transport, and the
Bakwese, one of the very backward tribes of the western
Kasai region, do the same. Sometimes these rafts are made
of bundles of papyri or reeds, and are similar to those employed
on the upper Nile.
Agricultural methods are discussed elsewhere, but it may be
noted here that even in those districts where there is a well-
marked dry season the natives do not appear to practise the
art of irrigation. On the other hand they are sometimes
compelled by the necessities of the case to undertake the
drainage of their lands, and this they do by constructing
small channels. Some of the riverain tribes are accustomed
to dam the rivers along which they live in order to obtain
suitable fishing grounds.
On the whole then it would seem that the native is very
much the creature of his environment. To obtain from it his
daily needs he. shows a certain amount of ability and even of
ingenuity, but with him sufficient to the day are the needs
thereof, and he takes little thought of the ways and means by
which his position might be rendered more comfortable and
more secure. Art
Among the natives of the Congo the artistic faculties are
not developed to. any great extent, though some tribes show
considerable skill in tattooing, weaving, and the manufacture
of pottery. Their attempts at painting and drawing are
with few exceptions either very simple or very crude. The
Mangbetu, the Ababua, and various other peoples decorate
the outsides of their houses with designs of one kind or
another, mainly geometrical figures, representations of animals,
and scenes from daily life. Articles of domestic use are fre
quently ornamented in a somewhat similar fashion. But all
that they do is by way of imitation, and imagination seldom
appears to enter into their art. Occasionally, however, there
are exceptions. The Bushongo are distinguished by a re
markable artistic sense, which finds expression in the pro
ficiency with which they pursue certain crafts, such as
embroidery and wood-carving.
Sculpture is confined to working in wood, and occasionally
in ivory. Among the objects most commonly made are fetishes

138 CULTURAL CONDITIONS
of various kinds, models of men and of animals, and articles
of domestic use. The designs are usually crude and con
ventional, and give little evidence of artistic sense. An
exception must, however, be made for certain tribes, such as
the Mangbetu, who work in ivory. The objects made by
these people, such as trumpets, knife-handles, goblets, and
statues, often show considerable skill and a more developed
sense of beauty than is to be found in most other parts of the
country. Although the natives of the Congo can hardly be called "
musical in the ordinary sense of the term, they have various
musical instruments, some of which are much in use. Of
these the simplest and probably the most primitive is the
tam-tam ; it is merely the segment of a tree-trunk, the inside
of which has been scooped out through a narrow slit. The
tam-tam is used for that drum-signalling which is, cr at least
was, so common in different parts of the country, and in which
some native tribes had acquired a high degree of proficiency.
An advance on it is the drum proper, which consists of a
hollow wooden receptacle with its open end covered over
with a stretched skin. The tambourine, made of a wooden
hoop over which a skin is likewise stretched, and the friction
drum, in which the noise is produced by rotating a stick
passed through the centre of a leather drum-head, are also
found in various parts of the country. Several types of wind
instruments are also in use. Flutes and pan-pipes are made
from reeds, and whistles and trumpets from the horns of
various animals. The stringed instruments include primitive
forms of the guitar and the zither. Of dances there are various
kinds. The war dance, which is participated in by the men
only, usually loses all idea of rhythm, and frequently degene
rates into a sham fight, while those dances in which the women
alone take part are probably connected with sexual phenomena.
Dances in which there is only one performer, male or female,
are as a rule connected with religion, witchcraft, or the
practice of medicine. On these occasions the dancer some
times whirls himself into a state of frenzy, in which he is
supposed to be able to reveal the names of suspected persons,
witches, and criminals, and to give other important evidence.
But most common of all are the dances in which both sexes
take part, as they provide one of the chief means of amuse-

THE BANTU AND SUDANIAN NEGROES 139
ment "at the command of the native. They may take place on
any festive occasion, such as a marriage, the gathering in of
the crops, or even a funeral.

Industry
Probably nothing throws a clearer light upon the present
condition of the natives of the Congo than a survey of their
industries. It shows that they have passed beyond the stage
at which all their time, energy, or inclination is required to
provide for the immediate necessities of their existence, but
it also indicates that they have advanced but a comparatively
short way towards providing themselves with the needs of
even the poorest civilized community.
Weaving is carried on in almost all parts of the country,
but notwithstanding the abundance of various fibres it has
made comparatively little progress. In one or two regions, of
which Mayumbe is probably the most important, cotton is
spun and woven, but the product is said to have a texture
little, if anything, finer than the better kinds of native basket-
york. Elsewhere on the other hand the indigenous industry-
has disappeared owing to the importation of European goods-
It is probable, however, that it will again develop, especially
in those districts where cotton is now being grown under
Belgian supervision. But the bulk of the material used for
weaving is derived from the raphia and other palms. • With
the fibres of these plants the natives manufacture various
fabrics, which differ in quality according to their skill. Some
of the Basonge work is said to be remarkably fine and durable,
though the pieces woven are not much larger than a pocket-
handkerchief, and have to be sewn together in order to make
clothes. But in a country where clothing is usually at a dis
count woven goods are frequently used for other and more
necessary purposes. The Ababua, for example, chiefly employ
them to make bands, with the aid of which the women are
able to carry their children while at work. Among other
fibres which are sometimes woven are those of the kapok
and banana, with which the Bangala do a certain amount of
crude weaving.
The manufacture of basket-work appears to be a more
important industry than weaving ih many parts of the country.

140 CULTURAL CONDITIONS
The raw materials employed vary according to locality, and
reeds and rushes, the fibres of the Borassus, raphia, and oil-
palms, and the leaves of the Pandanus are all used in the
localities in which they grow. Among the articles more fre
quently made are baskets, mats, sieves, hats, fishing-nets, and
shields. In quality of workmanship they range from rude
vessels of interlaced reeds, such as those carried by the Lesa,
to the skilfully made mats of the Mayumbe, which are often
tinted in various designs.
Ropes are made from various plants. For rough work, and
among the ruder peoples lianas from the forest are alone
used. For articles of a finer quality, however, the fibres of
the pine-apple, raphia-palm, banana, and other plants are
utilized. The Mangbetu use hair for certain purposes.
Of all the industries of the country the working of metals
is that which is held in highest repute. It is the only one
indeed in which a certain amount of specialized skill is
required, and those who are engaged in it may be regarded
as practically the only craftsmen of the Congo. The raw
material is obtained from various sources. Sometimes it is
found at hand, and the Ababua and the Lesa obtain their
supplies in the ground at a depth of from six to ten feet
below the surface. The Basonge on the other hand look
for theirs in the mountainous parts of their country, while
the Baluba get it from the limonite on the banks of the
Lukula, and in the vicinity of the Lualaba. The Mangbetu,
who formerly obtained iron ore from the iron hills in their
neighbourhood, now depend for the most part on imported
European iron. The methods employed in smelting the ore
are, as might be expected, of the most elementary descrip
tion. It is heated by means of a charcoal fire, and then
well hammered with a view to getting rid of all foreign
substances. A hammer and an anvil, along with rude bellows,. usually
made from the -trunk of a tree, are the only implements at
the disposal of the native smith, but with their aid he can
fashion a great number of articles, such as arrow-heads, knives,
hoes, rings, bracelets, bells, and hammers. The Basonge are
said to be the best blacksmiths in the Congo, but the Mangbetu
also have a high reputation. They can do much European
work if they have a model ; they make, for example, hinges,

THE BANTU AND SUDANIAN NEGROES 141
bolts, and pincers, and it is said that they make them much
better than a European could with the same means at his
disposal. Their aim, however, is practical rather than artistic.
Although the Congo blacksmith works mainly in iron, some
tribes make use of other materials. The Mangbetu employ
copper and brass for the manufacture of articles of luxury,
and the Basonge and Baluba make bracelets and similar
articles from copper, which they apparently obtain from the
Katanga in the form of crosses.
On account of their skill the native smiths are highly
regarded by their fellows, and among some peoples rank next
in importance to the local chief. In many cases they devote
either all or the greater part of their time to their work, and
depend upon it for their livelihood. But in some districts the
industry seems to be declining in importance. It is said
that as a result of the spread of European goods the Mayumbe
have not only given up the smelting of iron ore, but have
to some extent abandoned the use of home-made articles in
favour of those imported from abroad.
Reference has already been made to woodwork in connexion
with sculpture. The- industry is not specialized to the same
extent as iron-working, and each man is his own carpenter,
though some are recognized as being more than usually skilful,
and are employed on work demanding special care. The tools
are of the simplest description, and consist of a hatchet, an
adze, and sometimes, but by no means always, a knife. Dried
leaves with a rough surface are occasionally used for polishing
purposes, and take the place of the glass-paper of the Euro
pean carpenter. The articles made are of the most varied
description. Canoes probably rank first in importance in all
the regions in which they can be used ; after them come
articles of domestic use, such as beds, stools, bowls, plates,
and spoons, handles for such implements and weapons as the
hoe, the hatchet, and the lance, and various objects used for
social, religious, and ceremonial purposes, such as the tam
tam, the fetish,, and the mask. The Mangbetu are said to
be specially skilled in all work of this description, and many
of the articles which they make have a finish which is almost
entirely wanting in that of other tribes.
In most parts of the country the manufacture of pottery
is carried on by the women. As the natives of the Congo

142 CULTURAL CONDITIONS
are ignorant of, and have evolved nothing similar to, the
potter's wheel, the fashioning of the clay is done entirely by
hand. The vessels when made are either placed in the sun
to dry and harden, or burned over an open fire or in a closed
oven. The articles produced in this way vary greatly in
quality of workmanship. With most tribes the object is
purely utilitarian, and little or no attention is paid to style
and finish. With others, however, more care is taken. The
Mangbetu not only make very elaborate vessels, but they
polish them and ornament them on the outside with various
designs. The Bushongo also have carried the art of pottery
to a relatively high stage of perfection. The articles which
they make are decorated with various designs, but they do
not engage in the industry to any great extent, as they make
considerable use of gourds for carrying water and for cooking
purposes. Other industries are of comparatively little importance. To
prepare his manioc and maize the native pounds it in a mortar
with a pestle, and sometimes passes the flour thus obtained
through a sieve. No other process is known, nor indeed is
one necessary, as each household provides its own supply just
when it is required.
The skins of wild animals are used for various purposes,
but no attempt is made to tan them. Throughout the whole
country only one method appears to be followed. The skins
are scraped and dried in the sun, after which they are put to
the purpose for which they are intended.
Some knowledge exists regarding the use of paints and
dyes among the more advanced tribes. The Mangbetu have
various colours for the decoration of the body. Purple they
obtain from the dust of a red wood, black from the juice of
a certain fruit, and white from white earth. The Bangala
also have a rudimentary acquaintance with the art. To colour .
cloth black they place it in stagnant water, while to make
it red they use the sap of a plant somewhat akin to the
myrtle. The Baholoholo and the Warega obtain red from
the Pterocarpus. The Bushongo also make use of various
colours. The red which they use is derived from the wood
of the tukula, black from charcoal, yellow from the wood of
the boa, and white from a mineral substance.

THE BATWA 143

The Batwa
The Batwa are a more or less nomadic people of the forest
area. Their standard of civilization is much lower than that
of the sedentary peoples of the Congo basin, and the conditions
under which they live are very different.

Social Organization
The Batwa group themselves together in small communities
varying in size from two to twenty families under the rule
of one of their number, who by stronger will or greater
ability has been able to assume the command. When several
of these communities simultaneously desire to go on a big
hunting expedition, or to move from one region to another,
they sometimes unite themselves under a temporary chief
whom they have chosen for the purpose. When their object
has been attained the various groups separate, and the authority
of their leader ceases to exist. If they have occasion to come
together again they may choose some other person to com
mand them.
As hunting is practically the sole occupation of these people,
and as the sedentary negroes are often in want of animal food,
certain relations have grown up between them. The Batwa
take their surplus game to the. Bantus, and exchange it for
arms, pottery, and provisions, articles which they cannot, or
which their mode of life does not permit them, to produce for
themselves. If they do not obtain what they desire by friendly
means they steal it, but always, it is said, leave a piece of
smoked flesh in its place. Often, however, they place them
selves under the protection of a powerful Bantu, and in
return for game receive [provisions and a disused hut, which
serves as a temporary abode. The Bantu becomes the kolu,
or patron,jjof the Batwa, and acquires a certain amount of
prestige from the fact. So much so is this the case that, if
a Batwa is captured by one of the sedentary negroes, his
captor will endeavour to obtain a wife for him in the hope
of establishing a Batwa family, who ,'will be attached to him,
and will provide him with animal food.

144 CULTURAL CONDITIONS
The Family
Polygamy is practised by some tribes, but not by others.
The Batwa of the district round Lake Tanganyika, for example,
are monogamous, and among them the husband enters the
family group to which his wife belongs. Where polygamy
prevails the reverse is the case, and the wife follows her
husband. The first wife is not considered more legitimate,
nor does she enjoy a higher rank, than the others. When
a Batwa desires to marry he addresses himself to the father
of the girl, and sometimes appeals to his kolu for the neces
sary dowry. As a rule, this is not excessive. With regard
to the repayments which have to be made if the woman
subsequently dies, the Batwa often conform to the customs
prevailing among the settled tribes to which they are
attached. The division of labour among the different members of the
family is very simple. The father with his grown-up sons
engages in hunting, obtains the fruit of the oil-palm for the
manufacture of wine, and constructs the rough huts which
serve as temporary abodes. The women occupy themselves
with the menage, and sometimes do a little basket-work or
fishing. But apart from hunting, work is not held in much
honour, as the Batwa can get all that he wants by exchange.
ReUgion
The Batwa appear to have some idea of a future life, and
they believe that after death a man is able to reappear to
his relations in order to make his desires known to them.
When such reappearances are thought to be taking place the
Batwa construct in the neighbourhood of their camp a shelter
in which they place victuals for the benefit of the deceased.
They also believe in metempsychosis, and invoke their dreams
as a proof that men are transformed into animals after their
death. Some privileged people are thought to, escape this
fate, and to be replaced in the world of men by women of
their tribe. Others are less fortunate and become bokali,
or vagabond spirits, who roam the forest, wicked and dangerous.
Moral Ideas
The standard of morality among the Batwa is in general
very low. Adultery is common, so common indeed that

THE BATWA 145
it is considered murder to kill the guilty party. To thieve
from a stranger is considered rather a virtuous act, provided
that the theft is condoned by a piece of meat being left in
place of the article stolen. To steal from a Batwa on the
other hand is regarded as a grave crime, and may lead to
serious fighting unless the aggrieved one appeals to his kolu,
who may endeavour to settle the dispute according to the laws
of his own tribe. In all other matters it is the same. The
only principle of justice for the Batwa is that of vengeance.
Whoever does him an ill or causes him a loss is to be killed,
whatever the cost. Hence the various Batwa communities
are almost always at war with one another. The only factor
which makes for a more orderly settlement of disputes is the
influence of the kolu, which of course is moral rather than
legal. Property
The Batwa possess little property. They claim the right
of hunting where they like, but if any one disputes their
claim they go elsewhere, after having killed some one. They
have no slaves, but if they find an unattached member of their
own race they do not hesitate to sell him to the sedentary
negroes. Their goods consist of women, dogs, lances, knives,
arrows, an old hut in some neighbouring village, and poultry.
The laws of inheritance vary. With the Batwa of the Busira
the custom is for the father of a dead man to inherit if his son
has no children. Round Lake Tanganyika on the other hand
the father inherits all the property of his son even if he leaves
children, with the exception of his wife, who marries one of
her deceased husband's brothers. If the dead man's father
is not alive he is succeeded by one of his brothers, or, failing
brothers, by one of his children. Similarly, when the chief of
a family group dies, his place is taken by his eldest surviving
brother, and only on the death of the last of his brothers
does his son succeed. Disputes are frequent, and as there
is little law recourse is had to force. Sometimes the kolu
intervenes,*but as a rule the Batwa prefers to settle the matter
for himself in his own way.

BELQ. COHQO

CHAPTER X
RELIGION AND CEREMONIAL
Generally speaking, the natives of the Congo believe in
the existence of a Supreme Being who is the creator of all
things and is incapable of doing evil, but who is so high and
distant that he pays no attention to the affairs of ordinary
humanity. This Supreme Being is believed by at least some
tribes to have created a number of other beings who act, as it
were, as his vicars on earth, and to whom he has given great
but, not creative power. These have divided their authority,
in whole or in part, with human beings, animals, and inanimate
objects, such as stones, rocks, trees, and water. The spirits
which inhabit these are generally conceived as harmful,
treacherous, and wicked, ever ready to strike an evil blow
when a suitable opportunity presents itself. One gives death,
another defeat, a third bad crops, while others are supposed
to specialize on different types of disease. In these evil spirits
the native implicitly believes, however hazy may be his ideas
regarding the higher orders of the hierarchy. To combat their
evil power he attempts to conciliate them by gifts, and to
protect himself by talismans. Of all talismans the fetish is the
most common.
As a general rule the fetish is not regarded as an idol, and
is not worshipped. Its power is not given it by the Supreme
Being or by one of the secondary spirits, but has been attributed
to it by the natives themselves, sometimes as the result of a
disturbing and inexplicable circumstance, but more frequently
as the result of special incantations which have been performed
over it. Any object, it would appear, may become a fetish,
if it has been consecrated by the proper ritual. Often it is
made with a view to the purpose it is intended to serve, but
frequently it happens that the native picks up a stone which
appeals to his fancy, sees a tree which strikes him as peculiar,
or selects one or other of innumerable objects for reasons
which it would be hard to determine, and proceeds to make

RELIGION AND CEREMONIAL 147
it into a fetish. This he does either by his own power of.inean-
tation or through the village fetish-man, who acts as his inter
mediary. Thus the native has a great number of fetishes, to
one or other of which he turns in every important act of
his life. There is one for each malady from which he is
liable to suffer, one which protects him against the spirit
bringing peace, if he wants war, and one against the spirit
bringing war. if he wants peace, one which protects his crops,
another which renders his marriage fruitful, and so on in
almost infinite variety. Few fetishes provide for all the.
desires of their owner, and most* of them have only limited
powers. As fetishism plays so important a part in the daily life
of the native, it may be considered still further. Several
important subdivisions of the whole group of fetishes may
be recognized. In the first subdivision are living animals
such as the leopard, the hippopotamus, and other representa
tives of the indigenous fauna. The idea of fetish animals,
probably originated in the belief of the people in metempsy^
chosis. The spirits of the dead pass into certain animals,
which the native therefore regards as sacred. Lest the spirits
should become sad and therefore irascible in their new abode,-
he conciliates them with gifts of food and in other ways.
Secondly, there are fetishes which consist of the repre
sentatives of living objects. Among them are some which
belong to .chiefs, sorcerers, and other notable men, and
which on that account are able to inflict injuries, or to inter
fere with the schemes of less important people. Others are
domestic fetishes, and are the protectors of the house Or
person to which they belong. Again, there are those which
are the property of the whole village community whose
interests they are supposed to guard. These fetishes are nearly.
always made out of a block of wood. Though both men and
animals are represented in this way, the former are by far.
the more common. A large number are concerned with the
propagation of the race, and according to modern ideas are
more or less obscene. They are often dressed up in gaudy.
clothes, but the magic does not reside in the clothes but in
the objects themselves.
A third group of fetishes consists of inanimate objects, not;
representative of men and animals, to which incantation has.
k. 2

148 RELIGION AND CEREMONIAL
given a special virtue. These include fixed objects, such as
stones and trees, and movable objects, such as bracelets,.
collars, teeth, and other articles which may be included under
the general name of amulets. Among the Mangbetu, for
example, amulets are much more common than other forms
of fetish ; in many parts of the Congo forest on the other
hand it is the ordinary fetish which is generally found.
The position of the fetish varies. Those belonging to chiefs
and notables remain in their possession. The domestic fetish
is kept in some safe place in the native hut. Those which
are the common property of the village community are placed
in fetish-houses, wh'ich are often situated in the middle of the
village street. The various amulets are sometimes worn on
the person, and sometimes placed where it is believed that
they will prove most serviceable; for example, those which
protect the crops are hung round the plantations, while those
which assure the safety of the canoe are safely concealed
within it. Fixed objects, supposed to be fetish, such as trees
and cross-roads, are either avoided by the native or approached
with superstitious awe.
The fourth category of fetishes is that of fetish acts. In
some tribes when a child is born, or it maybe when he reaches
puberty, the father, or in some cases the fetish-man, forbids
him to do certain things. He may, for example, forbid him to
eat the flesh of certain animals on the ground that his familiar
spirit dwells in them. Some men again must not be seen
eating, while others are forbidden to drink or to smoke in
public. The fetish is the object of ceremony but not of worship.
Apart from his belief in a Supreme Being and his super
stitions regarding spirits who always seek to do him harm,
the native has no religious ideas. He thinks only of evil
spirits which must be conciliated, and of evil influences which
must be overcome. To calm the first he makes offerings not
as a sacrifice, but as a bribe, in order that their neutrality
may be assured ; to protect himself against the second he
has recourse to his fetish. But fetishism is not a religion.
The native has little knowledge of right and wrong. With
him sin is not an evil act committed against a good God,
but a mistaken act which may arouse against the doer of it
the anger of a spirit evilly disposed. In short what the

RELIGION AND CEREMONIAL 149
native fears is the material and not the spiritual result of
sin. By doing wrong he believes that he will arouse the
spirits or the fetishes of others, and in order to protect himself
against them he has only one thought, and that is to have in
his own possession a spirit which will neutralize the adverse
powers. What makes him hesitate when he is about to
commit a wrong act is the fear that his own fetish will not
be able to protect him against the fetishes of others. He
knows that it has no power of itself. But he believes that,
as a result of the incantations which have been pronounced
over it either by the sorcerer or by himself, the inert material
has been endowed with an inferior soul, and has acquired
a special and well-limited power by which it is able for
a time at least to perform certain functions. When it fails
him, as fail him it often must, he does not consider that his
own misdeeds have caused it to deny him its protection, nor
does he lose faith in it. The failure is simply due to the fact
that it has ceased to be active, and to restore to it the virtue
which it has lost he takes it to the sorcerer, who once more
repeats his incantations over it. In fact the native regards
his fetish in much the same way as the European regards
the potato which he carries in his pocket as a protection
against rheumatism.
There are several kinds of incantation — objurgation, the use
of cabalistic words, and the repetition of phrases without any
precise meaning. There is no idea of praying to the fetish
when incantations are performed over it; on the contrary
it is told what its duties are, and it is exhorted to act accord
ingly. Evil spirits likewise are not entreated, but are
commanded and even threatened. As to the cabalistic words
used on some occasions, they appear to be known only to the
sorcerer, and perhaps to the native chiefs.
Belief in a future life is general, but there is much vague
ness regarding the form which it is to take. A few tribes
appear to believe in the existence of another world into which
man will pass after death, but the majority hold in some form
or other the idea of reincarnation. According to some of
the Congo peoples not only are the souls of the dead rein
carnated, but every man, whether he be a chief, a simple free
man, or a slave, is able in this life to select the animal into
which he will pass after death. On no account will he eat

150 RELIGION AND CEREMONIAL
the flesh of that animal, and it is said that he even tries to
conform to its customs, so that he may be certain of inhabiting m
it after death. It seems probable that this belief had much
to do with the horrible practices which at one time took place
in certain crocodile and leopard societies.
Among other tribes a somewhat different view is taken.
Man is not considered as having the power of selecting the
animal into which his soul will ultimately pass. That is
settled for him by his conduct during life. The souls of good
men take up their abode in the bodies of those animals wliich
are reckoned noble, while the souls of wicked men are reincar
nated in the bodies of those animals which are held to be
unclean. Among many of the tribes dwelling in the north
of the country the souls of the great chiefs reappear in the
gazelle, the hippopotamus, and the leopard; in the south,
where the cruelty of some of the old chiefs is still remembered,
it is believed that they live again in the leopard and other
bloodthirsty beasts.
The belief in a future life has probably had much to do
with the practice of human sacrifices which formerly pre
vailed in many parts of the country. The natives believed
that it was only fitting that when a great man died he should
take with him into the new life all that had made him happy
in the old. In many tribes wives, slaves, and even children
were slain after the death of their lord and master.
As already indicated, the power of the fetish-man or sorcerer
is very great. Among a people who believe in evil spirits it is
only natural that there should be some one to whom they may
turn for help and protection. Thus the sorcerer has become
an essential factor in the maintenance of social order and
of family life ; he protects, he exorcizes, and he cures. Without
him almost every act of the native would be either impossible
or dangerous. He alone is able to wield the necessary powers
to discover and to overcome hostile spirits, and therefore his
services are required at almost every turn. He presides
over the ceremonies by which the future is foretold, and, as
crime and disease are believed to be due to evil spirits, he is
frequently both judge and doctor to his village.
. So ingrained is the belief in spirits in the mind of the
native that he will do nothing while in ignorance of the
attitude which they are likely to assume. If he , is about

RELIGION AND CEREMONIAL 151
to create a new village, to nominate a successor to the departed
chief, to clear a plantation, or to declare war, he has recourse
to some ceremony by which the intentions of the spiritual
world will be declared. One example of this type of ceremony
may be given. When in the old days an Azande chief con
templated war, he took a young hen to the sorcerer, who
placed before it some grains of maize along with a small piece
of a poisonous tree which had been boiled with it. If the hen
ate only of the maize it did not die, and it was therefore safe
to assume that the expedition was one which could be under
taken with every prospect of success. If on the other hand
the hen ate the root as well as the maize it died, and from
that fact it was deduced that the expedition if undertaken
would have a fatal termination. The sorcerer, on opening
the body, was moreover able to declare the nature of the
unfavourable influences which were at work.
Magic, it may be noted in passing, is practised in various
other forms. A native will squat for days before an effigy
which represents an enemy or a danger, pouring imprecations
upon it, and driving nails into it until he has reached its
heart, so that he may kill the person or exorcize the danger
which it is intended to represent.
The power of the sorcerer is almost as great in political and
social life as it is in the affairs of the supernatural world. In
the administration of justice he plays an important part.
Evil spirits frequently act through human beings, and the
sorcerer alone is able to discover these spirits and to take the
necessary measures of protection against them. Thus the
search for criminals is often entrusted to the sorcerer, and in
this capacity he wields considerable power, a power which is
much abused. Abstract theories of justice do not as a rule
trouble him, and most of what he does is done with a view to
his own aggrandizement. Accordingly he seldom accuses
a rich or powerful person, even if he has good reason for
believing him guilty, a'nd the rites which he performs
usually end in an attack or some innocent but helpless
individual. The political power which the sorcerer derives from the fact
that he has to be consulted before any decisive step can be
taken by the community, together with his control over the
administration of justice combine to make him a very impor-

152 RELIGION AND CEREMONIAL
tant person, and with many tribes his authority is greater
than that of the chief.
For somewhat similar reasons the sorcerer is the medicine
man of the native village. The people believe that all ill
ness is caused by evil spirits, and accordingly medical treat
ment is always accompanied by magic and ritual. It fre
quently happens, however, that the sorcerer possesses a certain
empirical skill. He knows and is able to make use of all the
knowledge which the people have collected in the course of
centuries regarding the treatment of disease. Sometimes also
he possesses,, perhaps without knowing it, certain special
powers, such as that of hypnotism. Most sorcerers are, how
ever, little more than charlatans who trade upon the ignorance
of the people.
On the whole the sorcerers appear to have exercised an evil
influence in the country. Their power was great, and they
nearly always abused it. Whoever tried to resist their
authority was pursued by their implacable vengeance, and was
fortunate if he escaped with his life. The nature of their
work tended to develop their mental capacity, and they were
generally more intelligent than the people among whom they
dwelt. They were, for example, clever enough to know how
to increase their importance, and to trade better on native
credulity they wore masks and surrounded themselves with
all kinds of grotesque ceremonial. On the other hand they
have always resisted any progressive movement, and since
the arrival of the Europeans they have formed one of the
chief obstacles to the progress of civilization. They quickly
saw that their authority was threatened, and have done every
thing in their power to maintain it. In those parts of the
country where Belgian rule is firmly established the power of
the sorcerers has been broken, but it is probable that they still
celebrate their bloody ceremonies in the depths of the forest
and in the more remote parts of the country.
The power which the sorcerer exercised in one form or
another over human life was very great, though it belongs to
a period which is now rapidly passing away. At one time,
however, human sacrifice played a very important part in the
so-called religious life of the people, and competent observers
have declared that more lives were lost in this way than
through either pestilence or war. In order to complete this

RELIGION AND CEREMONIAL 153
review of the attitude of the native mind towards religious
matters some notice must be taken of the purposes for which
such sacrifices were made.
Reference has already been made to the custom which at
one time prevailed among various tribes of slaying a man's
wives and slaves when he himself died. In such cases the
idea underlying the sacrifice seems to have been somewhat
as follows. To ensure that a man should hold a position at
least as important in the next life as that he had held in the
life from which he had just departed, it was necessary that he
should not appear unattended before the spirits. If he did
so, they might consider him a mean person, and reincarnate
him in the form of an unclean animal. On the other hand, if
he went accompanied by a fitting retinue, they would be
suitably impressed and would give him at least the body of
a noble animal in which to dwell. Nor were the survivors
unmindful of their own comfort. They feared that, if he were
unhappy, their deceased relative might return either as an
animal or a spirit to plague them, whereas, if he were happy,
he would leave them alone.
Human sacrifices were also made with the direct intention
of conciliating evil spirits. The sacrifices generally con
sidered the most agreeable were those in which blood was
shed, and for this reason animals were frequently killed.
Their flesh was eaten, for ' the flesh is not the blood, and the
blood alone counts '. Man also was sacrificed, for he was the
noblest of the animals and therefore likely .to prove most
acceptable to the evil spirits. But a certain amount of dis
crimination was shown in the choice of victims. The least
valuable members of the tribe were usually selected, slaves
and prisoners of war being taken first. Women, on account
of their value as labourers, were sacrificed only on the death of
the men entitled to the fruit of their labour. The ceremonies
at which those sacrifices took place were often of the most
dreadful description, numbers of people often being slain on
each occasion.
Trial by ordeal also led to the death of many people in
the Congo. If a man died prematurely or otherwise, if a
woman fell ill, if a misfortune overtook the tribe, or if any
other untoward event occurred, it was considered that an
evil spirit working through a member of the community was

154 RELIGION AND CEREMONIAL
responsible for the calamity. To the sorcerer was entrusted
the task of discovering the guilty party, and this he proceeded
to do by incantation and lot. Sometimes the person desig
nated in this way was immediately put to death, but more
frequently he was compelled to undergo the poison ordeal.
This took various forms which need not be discussed here.
As a rule, however, the sorcerer was able so to manage matters
that the wealthier members of the tribe were able to escape
from the fate which would otherwise have awaited them.

CHAPTER XI
AGRICULTURAL AND FOREST PRODUCTS
Notwithstanding the growing importance of the mineral
industry in Katanga, the future progress of the Congo will
depend very largely on the extent to which the, agricultural
and forest resources of the country can be developed; ' This
chapter will therefore be devoted to an account of the products
of the soil, and a consideration of the factors involved; in any
attempt to increase the yield to be obtained from it. . - . ; -
Such a study requires the consideration of a number of
different but closely related problems. (1) First in importance,
from the point of view of the colony as a whole, comes native
agriculture, because upon it depends the livelihood of-the
greater part of the population. (2) But native agriculture,
however important it may be for the inhabitants, contributes
but little to export trade, in which Europeans are mainly
interested, and upon which the material prosperity of the
country largely depends. Hence the exploitation of the
natural products of the forest has been undertaken with native
labour, but mainly for the benefit of the white man. As
neither party has any definite interest in the care of these
product's, such exploitation tends to become reckless and
.destructive, and eventually the natural resources of the forest
become exhausted. (3) Plantations are then established either
for the cultivation of plants indigenous to the country or for
the cultivation of those introduced from abroad. (4) A further
branch of agriculture is the attempt to improve native methods,
partly at least with the object of providing an exportable
surplus. (5) Lastly there may be noted the endeavours which
have been made in the Katanga to introduce European
agriculture properly so called.
This classification must not be too rigidly applied, but it
affords a basis for a consideration of the economic resources
of the country so far as these are dependent upon the productive
qualities of the soil.

156 AGRICULTURAL AND FOREST PRODUCTS

Native Agriculture
In the Belgian Congo the production of food is practically
the only occupation of the native. Climatic conditions make
it possible for him to reduce his clothing to a minimum, while
from the natural products of the country he easily obtains all
that he requires for the construction of his dwelling, and
manufactured goods he has for the most part been able to do
without. But with regard to food the position is different.
The fruits of wild plants, though they sometimes form a
valuable addition to his supplies, do not provide him with all
that he requires for his maintenance, and the cultivation of
the soil is therefore the one pursuit to which he seriously
devotes himself.
The methods of native cultivation are usually of the most
primitive description. They vary, however, from place to
place, and the following account must therefore be regarded
as somewhat generalized in character. When the forest native
desires to create a new plantation he usually cuts down the
trees to within three or four feet of the ground. The under
wood, where it exists, is also cut down, and along with the
trees is left to dry for several weeks, after which the whole is
set on fire. The stumps and larger branches are as a rule only
partially destroyed by this process, but that does not prevent
the native from beginning cultivation, and it is only gradu
ally that the land is cleared. After the ashes have been
spread over the surface the first crop is frequently planted
without anything further being done, but for certain crops,
such as manioc, the soil is generally collected into small
mounds. For subsequent crops it is customary to turn over
the soil at least once. On the savanna somewhat similar
methods are pursued. The bushes and herbs are cut down
and burned, and the roots removed either with a hoe, a wooden
fork, or by hand. The soil is then turned over, the clods
broken up, and the loose roots collected. As a general rule
clearing the land is done by the men, while the cultivation is
entrusted to the women.
The implements used are of the simplest description. Every
native possesses a hoe, with which he performs most of the
labour required on the land. Rude hatchets and knives are

NATIVE AGRICULTURE 157
his principal tools when engaged in clearing the forest or
savanna. The natives are generally ignorant of all that concerns the
fertilization of the soil. Among pastoral peoples it is occa
sionally the custom to collect farm-yard manure and to use it in
the cultivation of vegetables, but in most parts of the country
the land is cropped until its natural fertility is exhausted, and
then abandoned. The impoverishment of the soil , which
results from this method of agriculture, and the steady
destruction of the more valuable virgin forest in order to
obtain fresh land, are matters of serious concern for the future
welfare of the colony. It is difficult to see what remedies can
be introduced while the natives remain in their present state
of development, and the facts mentioned must be recognized
as tending to limit the agricultural area and to reduce its
value. The plants cultivated by the inhabitants of the' Congo vary
according to the climatic conditions of different regions. On
the whole it might be said, though the statement must not be
construed too literally, that root-crops are characteristic of the
forest areas and cereals of the savannas and steppes. Manioc
and taro are almost entirely grown in the former region,
while yams and sweet potatoes are also cultivated to some
extent in the latter. Daso on the other hand is prac
tically confined to the savannas. Of the cereals maize is
cultivated to a slight extent in many parts of the forest region,
and rice more extensively in those districts in which it is
grown.' Maize and rice, along with sorghum and eleusine, are
the most important crops of the savanna. In the still drier
steppes upland rice, sorghum, millet, and a little wheat are
grown. Fruits are most important in the forest. The banana,
the safo, and Anona Mannii are mainly found in that region,
while the pine-apple and the papaw are more widely distributed.
Oil is obtained from various sources. The natives of the forest
get it from the oil-palm and the raphia-palm ; those on the.
savanna cultivate the ground-nut and sesamum. Leguminous
plants, such as beans and Voandzeia, are chiefly grown in the
savanna and steppe regions.
Pastoral pursuits are most common in the savannas and on
the steppes, where cattle and sheep are frequently kept. The
characteristic animals of the forest on the other hand are the

158 AGRICULTURAL AND FOREST PRODUCTS
pig and the goat. Fowls are found everywhere, bees mainly'
on the savanna.
It is a fact of considerable interest, as showing that agri
cultural conditions in the Congo are by no means as unchange
able as might have been expected, that the most important.
foodstuffs now cultivated have been introduced * into the
country only within comparatively recent times. Down to the
end of the fifteenth century, at least, the indigenes probably
relied mainly upon bananas, yams, millet, eleusine, and the
products of the oil and raphia palms. Manioc, maize, sweet.
potatoes, rice, tobacco, sugar-cane, onions, and probably the.
ground-nut have all been introduced subsequently. Even
millet and eleusine may have been much less widely dis
tributed than they are at the present time. Whether new
plants can be introduced into native agriculture, and the.
cultivation of indigenous plants extended and improved, is
therefore a question of some importance which will have to
be discussed later. Root Crops
Manioc. — Manioc, or cassava, is one of the most important
food-crops in the equatorial forest. Two main species of the
plant are generally recognized, bitter manioc (Manihot utilis-
sima) and sweet manioc (Manihot Aypi), but there seem to be
several varieties of each. They are herbaceous or semi-
shrubby perennials, with very large fleshy tapering tubers.
These tubers, which are often 3 feet long, and 6 to 9 inches in
diameter, are filled with milky juice. The sap of the bitter
manioc contains hydrocyanic acid, and is therefore highly
poisonous. To get rid of the poison the natives of the Congo
place the tubers in a river or marsh, and leave them there to
ferment for a period of three to eight days. When fermenta
tion has ceased they are taken out and washed, and are then
supposed to be safe. If the roots have been placed in stagnant
water, however, they retain a disagreeable flavour, and are
often dangerous to health. Sweet manioc on the other hand.
may be eaten raw, but, as hydrocyanic acid sometimes exists
in the older plants, these are often subjected to the process of
fermentation. In some districts where the natives ignore the
differences between sweet and bitter manioc, as in the upper ,

NATIVE AGRICULTURE . 159
Ituri, fermentation always takes place. As bitter manioc
yields the larger crop it is more generally grown.
The methods of cultivation differ in details in different
parts of the country, but the general principle is everywhere
much the same. The land is cleared of the forest by which it
is covered, and the soil collected into small heaps about a foot
high and three feet apart. In each of these heaps four or five
cuttings are placed, and with the exception of several weedings
the land is often left till the crop is ready. In some cases,
however, the natives prune the young plants in order to,
prevent them running to wood. The tubers of sweet manioc
attain their full development in about twelve months' time,
but for bitter manioc a period of twelve to twenty months is
necessary. Manioc enters into the food-supply of the natives in various
forms. To make chikwangue, or native bread, the tubers are,
after fermentation, washed and ground down into a kind of
paste. A large handful of this is then wrapped up in a banana
leaf and baked in an earthen pot. When carefully prepared,
it is not unpalatable to Europeans. With some peoples
fresh tubers are simply grated down into a paste and boiled,
while with others fermented tubers are dried in the sun. In
the latter case they do not deteriorate rapidly, and can stand
transport without injury. The flour derived from them is
sometimes mixed with palm-oil, and eaten in the form of
porridge, seasoned with salt and condiments.
As a general rule the yield of manioc grown by the natives
does not exceed six tons per acre, but in some cases it appears
to be much greater. The crop is a particularly exhausting
one for the soil, and after it the land often lies fallow for
seven or eight years. The cultivation of manioc is therefore
one of the factors tending to bring about the destruction of
the primitive forest.
Yams. — Yams are grown both in the forest and on the
savanna. Various species of the plant have been recognized,
but some varieties of Dioscorea alata appear to be most gener
ally cultivated by the native. A piece of virgin soil is
selected, and on it cuttings are planted either on the flat.
surface or on small mounds, 16 to 20 inches high. Later on
the land receives an occasional hoeing, and when the plants
have reached a certain height stakes 10 to 12 feet in height

160 AGRICULTURAL AND FOREST PRODUCTS
are provided, to which they may cling. The tubers may be
lifted at the end of a year, but two years are generally allowed
to elapse before this is done, in order that the crop may be
fully developed. In the forest region planting takes place at
all seasons, but on the savanna only at the beginning of the
rains. Certain species, Dioscorea bulbifera(Lmn), and Dioscored
anthropophagorum (Chev.)also produce eatable, bulbous growths
on their stems. These species, however, usually contain a toxic
element, and have to be specially cooked before they can be
eaten. Although yams are not so important as manioc, they enter
largely into the food-supply of the native population, and are
specially valuable in times of scarcity. They are generally
boiled before use.
Sweet Potatoes. — The sweet potato is also grown both in the
forest and on the savanna. It belongs to the genus Ipomoea
Batatas, and the natives distinguish several varieties according
to the colour of the tubers, which may be white, red, or yellow.
The plant requires a light and well -drained soil, and, in the
earlier stages of its growth, a considerable amount of moisture.
In the savanna regions therefore it is generally planted at
the beginning of the rainy season. The method of cultivation
is somewhat as follows. The soil is heaped up into little
mounds or ridges about a foot in height and 2 to 3 feet apart.
On each of these mounds three or four cuttings are placed at
a distance of 20 to 24 inches from one another. Subsequent
labour may be reduced to a minimum. One or two hoeings
are necessary, but, provided the young plant succeeds in
establishing itself at once, its further growth is sufficient to
keep down all weeds. The crop varies according to the
environment, but seldom exceeds four tons to the acre.
The tubers when exposed to the air deteriorate rapidly, and
are therefore either taken from the ground only as required,
or when lifted are cut up into small pieces and dried in the
sun or by artificial means. To prepare them for consumption
they are either boiled and seasoned in various ways, or grilled
in the ashes of a gentle fire. The young shoots of the plant
are sometimes gathered and cooked in place of other
vegetables. Taro. — Taro (Colocasia antiquorum), although not a plant
of great- importance, is found in many parts of the Congo,

NATIVE AGRICULTURE 161
especially in the damper regions. Several varieties have been
recognized. As a rule the leaves are in more demand than the
tubers, which are bitter and have to be cooked for five or six
hours before they can be eaten. The leaf stalks can also be
used as food after the outer layers have been removed. To
propagate taro the natives take the stump of an old plant and
place it in fresh soil. It may reach maturity at any time of
the year, and is often used in place of sweet potatoes when
these are not fit for consumption.
Caladium. — Caladium, a member of the Aroideae, or Arum
family, resembles taro, but must be distinguished from it.
The tubers are cooked in the same way as those of taro ; the
leaves on the other hand are used to a much less extent.
Daso. — Daso (Coleus Daso, Chev.) is a small plant of the
savanna regions, where it is grown for the sake of its tubers.
Potatoes. — Potatoes have been introduced into the country,
but do not appear to have spread far from the Government
posts and mission stations where they were first cultivated.
In the Katanga some good crops have been obtained.
Cereals
Maize. — Maize can be grown both in the forest and on the
savanna ; it is cultivated to some extent by most peoples in
the Belgian Congo, though it seldom forms their chief article
of diet. The native usually selects for this crop a piece of
damp fertile soil, which he clears and burns over in the usual
fashion. The ashes are then spread on the land, and the seed
is sown. Small holes are made in the ground by means of
a hoe at intervals varying from 1 to 3 feet, and a few grains
are placed in each. Later on the land is weeded, and the
young plants thinned out, only one or two being left in each
clump. When the crop begins to approach maturity pre
cautions have to be taken against the depredations of birds,
which flock to it from all quarters. The harvest is a very
simple affair. Women and children break off the ears by
hand and carry them home to the village.
Notwithstanding this slovenly method of cultivation, the
yield per acre sometimes amounts to eighteen bushels. It
varies greatly, however, with the rainfall, the variety culti
vated, and the fertility of the soil. In the forest the crop is
generally heavier than on the savanna, as there each plant
BULO. CONGO L

162 AGRICULTURAL AND FOREST PRODUCTS
usually carries several well-developed ears ; on the savanna
on the other hand one rather small ear is the rule. In some
districts two crops are taken off the same piece of land in one
year, but in such cases the second crop is always smaller than
the first.
Maize is used by the native in various ways. While still
green it is often eaten after being roasted among hot ashes or
boiled. More frequently perhaps it is preserved for use in
the dry season, sometimes in small granaries specially erected
for the purpose, and sometimes in closed earthen vessels, which
are kept inside the huts. When wanted it is ground down
into flour by primitive methods, and converted into a thick
dough. Frequently also it is used along with sorghum or
eleusine in the manufacture of a native variety of beer.
Sorghum. — Sorghum is grown mainly on the savanna and
steppe regions surrounding the equatorial forest; thus it is
a crop of some importance in the Katanga, in the Eastern
Highlands, and in the Welle and Kasai regions. It is culti
vated in much the same way as maize, and reaches maturity
from four to six months after the seed is sown. In the earlier
period of its growth, more especially during the second month,
the plant contains prussic acid, and is then a source of danger
to domestic animals ; later on this diminishes in quantity, and
disappears entirely before the ripening of the grain.
The natives, after grinding sorghum into a coarse flour,
make it into a kind -of porridge, of which they are said to
be very fond. They also mix it with other foodstuffs, such as
haricots, ground-nuts, palm-oil, and pilipili. As mentioned
above, it is used along with maize in the manufacture of
a native beer, which is often drunk to excess. The straw is
sometimes dried, and employed in the construction of small.
temporary shelters.
Millet. — The species of millet known as Pennisetum typhoi-
deum (Rich.) is an important cereal of the steppe lands of
the Congo, and more especially of the Kasai region, where
some of the natives have large areas under cultivation. For
such lands it is well adapted, as a low rainfall is sufficient for
its growth, it does not require a fertile soil, and it reaches
maturity between three and five months after the seed is put
in the ground. When the grain is ripe the ears are cut off,
and the straw used for feeding live-stock. In some cases the

NATIVE AGRICULTURE 163
plants -are left in the soil as they yield crops during three
successive years.
Millet, after being converted into flour, is made into a thick
paste, often with the addition of palm-oil or some indigenous.
condiment. In this form it is much relished by the native,
and in some cases forms his chief article of food. From millet
he also makes a kind of beer, which appears to be consumed
in considerable quantities. .*•¦., ,
Eleusine. — Eleusine (Eleusine. coracana) is grown by,th»
native of the savanna regions in the east and south of the
country. It thrives on relatively poor soil, and frequently
yields a crop where other cereals cannot be cultivated. As it
ripens in a comparatively short time, four or five months after
sowing, it is often planted when it is seen that other crops
are likely to result in failure.
When harvest arrives the ears of eleusine are collected by
hand, and placed upon mats to dry in the sun. They are then
rubbed between the hands and the grain detached. The coarse
flour derived from eleusine is used much in the same way as
that made from sorghum. As in the case of several other cereals
which have been mentioned, eleusine is fermented and a native
beer made from it.
Wheat. — Attempts to grow wheat have been made in several
places, but chiefly in the neighbourhood of the missions of Les
Peres Blancs at Badouinville and Kilo. At the former plaee
the missionaries are said to have succeeded, in favourable
years, in obtaining a crop of nearly 30 bushels to the acre,
but the average yield is only about half that amount. At
Kilo also encouraging experiments have been made. When
the natives grow it they often use it in the manufacture
of beer, which is said to be better than that obtained from
eleusine. Rice. — Rice is at the present time grown in different parts
of the Congo, and its cultivation tends to spread. The chief
producing area is in the country round Stanleyville, where it
is an important article of native diet. Elsewhere, in the
Welle region, Kivu, Katanga, and the north-eastern districts
of the Kasai, it is regarded rather as a luxury. The upland
variety of the plant, dry rice, is most generally cultivated,
marsh (or wet) rice, though it yields a much larger crop, being
practically unknown.. L 2

164 AGRICULTURAL AND FOREST PRODUCTS
As there is no well-marked dry season in the country round
Stanleyville, rice may be grown at all seasons of the year ; it
is, however, as a rule sown between January and July. A piece
of suitable land is selected, and the trees are cut down by men,
or, if trees be wanting, the grasses which take their place
are uprooted by women. The men then go over the land,
making with their hoes a number of small holes, may be seven
to ten to the square yard, while the women who follow place
a few grains of seed in each hole and cover them up. With
the exception of an occasional weeding no further cultivation
takes place until the crop is ripe, though, as it approaches
maturity, it has often to be protected from birds. Irrigation
is not necessary, as a rainfall of about 14 inches spread over
three or four months appears to be sufficient to ensure an
average crop.
When the harvest arrives the ears of rice are cut off with
a knife or piece of sharpened wood, and placed in heaps.
A few days later, when the grain has loosened in the ear, it is
beaten out and conveyed to a granary, where it is usually
stored for some time before being used. It is consumed in
various forms : rice-biscuits, sweetened with honey or sugar
cane, are much eaten by the natives, and rice boiled in a little
water and seasoned is also a favourite dish.
In the Kasai region the methods of cultivation are much
the same, but the seed is sown at the beginning of the rainy
season. Maize is sown along with it, and, as it ripens first, it
provides the cultivator with a crop upon which to live until
the rice is ready.
The cultivation of rice is capable of being extended in many
parts of the Belgian Congo, and experiments which have been
made at the agricultural station at Kitobola appear to indicate
that with a little more care the native might obtain a con
siderably larger yield per acre (see p. 195).
Fruits
Banana — In some parts of the forested region the banana
constitutes the chief food of the native population. The
plantain is the species mainly cultivated, and of it nearly
every district has its special varieties. To make a plantation
the land is cleared and planted with young shoots taken from
old plants elsewhere. These produce fruit at the end of a

NATIVE AGRICULTURE 165
year and a half, and immediately thereafter die, their place
being taken by two or three young shoots which appear at
the foot of each plant. This process continues until the land
is exhausted.
The forest peoples use the banana in a variety of ways.
As it ripens at all times of the year, it provides a constant
supply of food. The fruits may be .roasted in hot ashes, or
boiled in palm-oil or water and ground down into a paste.
A nourishing flour may also be made from it, and in the
north-east of the colony at least it is used in the manufacture
of an alcoholic drink. The outer fibres of the stem of the
plant are converted into ropes and cords, while the skins
and dry leaves are used in the fabrication of native soap.
Other Fruits, — Of the other fruits of the Belgian Congo it is
unnecessary to say much. The pine-apple is grown in many
districts, both in the forest and on the savannas, and is often
eaten by the natives while still in an unripe condition. The
papaw is also widespread, but is seldom cultivated ; its fruit is
eaten raw. The mango is chiefly found in the Lower Congo
and in the eastern part of the colony. The fruit of the native
plant is mediocre in quality, and selected varieties have been
introduced from the East Indies for propagation by the natives.
The safo (Canarium Saphu, De Wild.) may be seen growing in
the vicinity of nearly every village in the equatorial districts.
It belongs to the same family as the nutmeg, and its fruit, of
which the natives are very fond, is -like a large violet-coloured
prune. The safo spreads naturally, and is seldom cultivated.
Two species of the Anonaceae may be mentioned. Anona
Mannii is a native of the, equatorial forest, and is found scattered
throughout the greater part of it. Anona senegalensis on the
other hand is an inhabitant of the savanna and steppe regions.
Both produce fruits much sought after by the natives. The
fruit of the lianas of plants belonging to the family of the
Apocynaceae, such as Landolphia owariensis and Clitandra
Arnoldiana, also form an occasional article of native diet.
Oil-producing Plants
Oil-Palms. — The distribution of the oil-palm (Elaeis guineen-
sis) and the position of its products in European com^
merce will be discussed later (see p. 183). For the native;,
also, the tree is one of the most valuable of the forest region.

166 AGRICULTURAL AND FOREST PRODUCTS
There are several varieties, the most useful for the production
of oil being those with a relatively small stone and a relatively
thick pericarp. The fruit of other varieties is cooked and
eaten. The oil is obtained either by boiling and crushing
the fruit or by allowing it to ferment before crushing. When
fresh the oil is of a yellow orange colour, and has a consistency
in the ordinary temperature of the Congo somewhat similar to
that of butter in this country. It is much used in native
cookery, and is freely rubbed on the body, probably to protect
the skin against the rays of the sun. In many parts of the
Upper Congo the stones are not used by the natives except at
times of scarcity, when they are broken and the kernels eaten ;
elsewhere, however, as in some parts of the district of Equateur,
the stones are crushed, and the oil which they contain is
extracted. The sap of the oil-palm provides the native with an alcoholic
beverage of which he is very fond. To obtain it one of several
methods may be adopted. In some cases the male flower-stalk
is cut off just below the inflorescence, and on the part remaining
attached to the tree a deep incision is made. A small calabash
placed in a suitable position collects the escaping sap. Fer
mentation begins at once, and, if the natives desire a strong
liquor, they allow it to continue for two days. The wine is
then placed in closed vessels, where it remains in a good
condition for several weeks.
The oil-palm also provides the native with some of the
materials which he requires for the manufacture of soap. The
flowers, stalks, and other refuse are burned, and the ashes,
whieh are rich in alkalis, are put in water, mixed with palm-
oil, and boiled for several hours. The pasty substance which
results is then rolled into balls about the size of a potato, and
is ready for use.
Among other products of the oil-palm serviceable to the
native are : the leaves, which he uses as a thatch for his hut ;
the fibres, which he weaves into a rough cloth ; and the heart,
or terminal shoot, which he regards as a vegetable delicacy.
Raphia Palms. — Large areas in the forest region are covered
with one or other of the different varieties of the raphia palm,
some of which, are of considerable value to the natives. Between
the stone and the hard shell of the fruit there is a thin layer
•of oily matter, from which a reddish oil, more liquid than

NATIVE AGRICULTURE 167
palm-oil, may be extracted. The sap of Raphia vinifera, as is
indicated by the name, furnishes a wine which is held in equal
repute with that derived from the oil-palm. Some tribes
obtain a similar drink from the sap of Raphia Laurentii. In
both cases it is often collected by boring a hole in the centre
of the palm-tree. Among other uses to which the raphia
palm is put by the natives the following may be .mentioned.
The somewhat concave inner side of the stem, or midrib of the
frond, has its transverse section very similar to a tile, and is
much used for roofing purposes in some parts of the Congo.
The petioles of the fronds of Raphia Sese are plaited and made
into thatch. The fibrous parts of the young leaf may be used
in the manufacture of native cloth. Poles, building- laths,
ropes, fishing-lines, and various other articles may also be
obtained from some part or other of the frond of the raphia.
For its distribution and place in European commerce see
page 187.
Ground-Nuts. — The ground-nut (Arachis hypogaea) is an
annual herbaceous plant belonging to the Papilionaceae, a
sub-order of the Leguminosae. In the Belgian Congo it is
cultivated mainly on the savanna lands, but it also grows well
in the forested areas. Although it thrives on light and even
poor soil, and reaches maturity four or five months after it is
sown, it requires a good deal of attention. A fine covering
of tilth has to be maintained on the surface in order that the
peduncle of the flower may push the ovary several inches
underground, where the seeds are developed. Hence it is
usually grown in small quantities, very often close to the huts
of the natives, who are in this way able to give it the care it
requires. In the forested area, where it is sometimes grown
in small plantations, its cultivation might profitably be extended,
as it is one of the comparatively few plants suited to native
agriculture for which there is an extensive foreign demand.
The ground-nut is not as a rule an important article of
diet among the peoples of the Congo. It is eaten raw, boiled,
or roasted, but rather as a delicacy than as a staple foodstuff*
Some tribes extract the oil from the nuts for cooking or other
purposes, but this practice is by no means general ; others
grind the nuts into flour and use it along with maize and
sorghum. Sesamum. — Sesamum is grown mainly on the savanna, but

168 AGRICULTURAL AND FOREST PRODUCTS
not as a rule to any great extent. The land is cleared in the
dry season, and the seed sown at the beginning of the rains.
During the growth of the plant an occasional weeding is all
the attention that the land requires. The crop matures in
three or four months after sowing, when the plants are cut
down or pulled up, and placed upon mats in the sun until the
pods containing the seed burst open. A light beating is then
sufficient to detach the grain from its covering. To obtain
the oil the grain is roasted, pounded in an earthenware vessel,
and thrown into hot water. The oil then collects on the
surface, and is easily skimmed off. It is used for various
purposes in native cookery.
Castor-Oil Plants. — The castor-oil plant (Ricinus communis)
is grown in many parts of the Belgian Congo. In some
regions (as, for example, in the Upper Ituru) it is the only
source of oil known to the natives. To obtain the oil the seed
is first dried and roughly pounded, and then placed in boiling
water and stirred for some time. After this process the oil,
which is dark in colour and very impure, may be skimmed off.
It is used by the natives mainly to anoint the body and as
a cosmetic, its value as a purgative being apparently unknown.
Gourds. — Gourds of various kinds are grown in the vicinity
of jnost native villages. The uses to which they are put are
various, but some varieties are grown especially for the sake
of the oil which is contained in their seeds.
Miscellaneous Food-Crops
Beans. — Beans are grown to a much greater extent on the
savanna than in the forest, as the climatic conditions are there
more favourable to them. There are many varieties, differing
from one another in size, colour, and flavour. As a rule they
are interplanted with other crops, such as maize, manioc, or
sweet potatoes. Beans seldom, if ever, form the staple food
of the native, but in many places they constitute a not un
important article of diet. They are either boiled in water or
stewed along with a little oil or ground-nut.
Bambarra Ground-Nut.— This plant (Voandzeia subterranea)
is only cultivated in the savanna regions, as it is more sensitive
to damp than the ground-nut, to which it is allied. Like that
plant, its fruits mature below the surface. They are sometimes
roasted or boiled, and sometimes ground down into a flour*

NATIVE AGRICULTURE 169
from which a kind of pastry is made. Notwithstanding its
value as a foodstuff, however, Voandzeia is cultivated only to
a comparatively slight extent.
Cajanus Indicus. — This is a shrubby plant, growing to a
height of from four and a half to six feet, and is found in
the savanna regions. The ' beans ' produced by it are cooked
in the same way as ordinary beans.
Miscellaneous. — Certain varieties of capsicum are much
sought after by the natives in order to give a flavouring to
their ordinary food. One of these varieties, Capsicum frute-
scens, known as pilipili, is grown in many villages. A
tomato, Solanum Lycopersicum, is also widespread throughout
the country. The fruit is about the size of a greengage,
but possesses a finer flavour than the European variety.
Solanum Melongena, which flourishes in various parts of the
savanna region, produces a fruit shaped somewhat like a
cucumber. Several species of Amarantaceae are found in
the vicinity of native villages, sometimes wild and at other
times cultivated. The young shoots and leaves are cooked as
vegetables. Purslane (Portulaca oleracea), Hibiscus Sabdariffa,
sometimes known as ' Guinea sorrel ', and a variety of native
onion (Allium angolense) are among other vegetables cultivated
to a greater or less extent by the inhabitants.
Stimulants
Tobacco. — Several varieties of tobacco are grown in the
Congo, some being more suitable to the forest and others to
the savanna. Comparatively little is known regarding them,
but the following have been recognized : Nicotiana rustica,
Nicotiana Tdbacum, Nicotiana Tabacum, var. brasiliensis, and
Nicotiana Tabacum, var. virginica. Tobacco is almost always
cultivated by the natives in small patches either in their fields
or around their huts. They appear to devote little attention to
the plant while it is growing, but occasionally snip off the buds
in order to develop the leaves. The methods of preparing the
tobacco for use are also primitive in the extreme. In some
cases the leaves after they have been cut are exposed to the sun
on the roof of the hut or are hung up in the interior ; in others
they are bruised between two stones and rolled into balls,
which are then dried in the sun. The product can seldom be
smoked by Europeans, and the native himself, when he can

170 AGRICULTURAL AND FOREST PRODUCTS
afford it, often buys factory-made tobacco. Among some
tribes tobacco is used in the form of snuff. In such cases it is
frequently mixed with other articles to give it greater strength,
the clove being sometimes used for this purpose.
Hemp. — The cultivation of hemp still appears to be carried
on in many parts of the country, but it is not grown for its
fibre, which in tropical countries is of little value, but for its
seed, which the natives desire on account of its narcotic proper
ties. The evils resulting from the practice of smoking it are
so great that the Government has prohibited its cultivation
and sale.
Kola.— The kola-nut is the fruit of a tree belonging to the
order Sterculiaceae. Several species have been recognized in
the Congo. Sterculia Ballayi is found mainly in the Lower
Congo, where it is sometimes cultivated, and S. acuminata is
an inhabitant of the equatorial forest. The natives chew the
nuts to allay thirst or even hunger.
Textile Plants
Cotton. — Recent attempts to induce the natives to cultivate
cotton for export will be dealt with elsewhere. For a con
siderable time before these attempts were made, however,
cotton appears to have been grown in certain districts, but the
output was of little importance. In the Kasai region several
native varieties are known, but the methods adopted by the
tribes who grow it are of the most primitive description.
The seed is sown before or during the rains, but the plant
receives very little attention until the crop is ripe. Even then
the fibre is often allowed to remain ungathered until it has
deteriorated to a great extent. In order to dry it the natives
expose the cotton to the sun or place it in front of a fire.
• Domestic Animals
Cattle. — In certain parts of the savanna and steppe regions
considerable numbers of cattle are kept by the natives. The
districts in which they are most numerous are in the Lower
Congo, the more elevated parts of the Welle country, the
Eastern Highlands, and the Kasai region.
In the east of the country which lies north of the Welle
there are cattle-raising districts near the summits which form
the watershed between the Congo and the Nile. The cattle of

NATIVE AGRICULTURE 171
this region vary considerably. The Dinka breed, which appears
to have originated in the basin of the Nile, has a well-developed
body and large horns, and is said to be a good producer of
milk. The Wadai breed, which is allied to the Dinka, is also
well developed, but is much less valuable as a milk-producer,
though it is said to be capable of considerable improvement.
A third breed, kept by the Lugwaret tribe, is small, and
gives little milk.
Various parts of the Eastern Highlands are also occupied by
pastoral tribes. This is especially the case in the region of
Wanyabongo, to the west of Lake Kivu and the Rusisi. There
several distinct breeds are found. Cattle either without horns
or with short horns appear to be numerous only to the west of
the Rusisi. They are better milkers than the larger, long-
horned breed to be found farther north. Throughout the
whole region comparatively little seems to be done by the
natives to improve their cattle. They have, it is true, a few
crude ideas about selection, but their notions of what is
desirable frequently vary from tribe to tribe and from time
to time.
As a rule native cattle receive little attention. During* the
day they feed upon the natural pastures, and are guarded by
the children of the tribe ; at night they are driven into an
open enclosure. The calves, however, are more carefully
tended, and at night are sheltered by the natives either in
their own huts or in special buildings. During the rains food
is usually abundant, but in the dry season the cattle have
frequently to be driven to better-watered districts.
As the native seldom drinks milk, he usually makes it into
cheese, of which he is exceedingly fond. Butter is also made,
but is mainly used to anoint the skin, and is never eaten
except by those tribes who have been in contact with Europeans.
In some districts, as in the Eastern Highlands, many tribes
eat a considerable amount of meat, and large cattle-markets
are held at fixed intervals in various parts of the latter region.
There is also a considerable trade in hides, which are used for
clothing, the covering of granaries, and various other purposes.
Sheep. — Sheep are most numerous in the savanna and steppe
regions in the south-east of the Welle country, in the Eastern
Highlands, and in the Kasai region, but they are also found
within the forested area in the region round Stanleyville, in the

172 AGRICULTURAL AND FOREST PRODUCTS
valleys of the Lowa and Lomami, and elsewhere. They are
generally woolless, and in those cases where they do have
a little wool it is of poor quality. The flesh is eaten, but is
much less appreciated than that of the goat.
Goats.— Goats are met with in all parts of the Congo. As
a general rule they provide only a small amount of milk,
though some varieties found in the Eastern Highlands and in
the Kasai region are better in this respect. The flesh is much
appreciated, and it is mainly for this reason that the animal
is kept. It receives no special attention, and during the day
wanders about the village in search of food ; at night it is
taken into the hut of its owner. In the Eastern Highlands
the goat is of considerable importance, as there it forms the
mainstay of the poor man, just as cattle form the mainstay of
the richer members of the community.
Pigs. — The native pig is most common in the districts of
Bas Congo, Kwango, Kasai, and Ubangi. Like the goat it
receives little attention, and is allowed to pick up a living
from the garbage lying about the village. Owing to the con
ditions in which it lives it is subject to disease, and at the best
its flesh is much less desirable than that of the European pig.
Fowls.— In all parts of the Congo fowls are numerous, but
they are generally small in size, and do not lay many eggs.
In some districts (as, for example, in parts of the Eastern
Highlands) they are regarded as a special perquisite of the
women. They receive little attention, and appear as a rule to
be reared for the sake of their flesh rather than for their eggs.
The Barbary duck is also common throughout the country ; it
is easily raised, and its flesh is esteemed. In some villages
a few pigeons are kept by the inhabitants.
Bees. — Bees are found in many parts of the Congo, but seem
to be most numerous in the steppe and savanna regions. The
natives are very fond of honey, and adopt various devices in
order to obtain it. In some cases they simply search for the
bees' nests, which are usually found in the hollows of trees or in
cracks of the rocks, and proceed to smoke them out ; in others
they make a sort of primitive hive, which they hang in a tree
after placing in it a small amount of honey in order to attract
the bees. The wax is said to be of good quality, but hitherto
the native has paid little attention to it ; in some cases, however,
it appears to have been collected and sold.

NATURAL PRODUCTS 173

Natural Products

The most important products derived from the natural
vegetation of the country are rubber, palm-oil, and copal, but
piassava, raffia, and other fibres are exported to a slight extent.
With the exception of some varieties of rubber these products
are mainly obtained from the forest region, and it is only
occasionally that the savannas and steppes produce articles
much sought after by Europeans. From the survey which
follows, however, it will be seen that the natural resources of
the country are by no means inexhaustible. The sole object
of the natives who collect the raw material is to obtain as
much as possible with the least expenditure of labour. This
leads to wasteful methods of exploitation, which, on account of
the size of the country, the Government is able to do little to
prevent. Moreover in the case of some plants, such as those
which produce rubber, the development of plantations in other
parts of the globe where the climate is favourable and labour
cheap and abundant has led to a fall in price which seriously
affects the output of the natural product when it becomes
more difficult to obtain. Hence there is a movement towards
the establishment of plantations, and these have some special
advantages in the Congo. The difficulties of transport, which
are very great when the raw produce of the forest has to be
collected from widely scattered areas, can be reduced, and the
preliminary processes of manufacture, which are usually neces
sary before export, can be more efficiently undertaken. In the
case of rubber and oil the movement towards plantation culti
vation is well marked. Copal is in a somewhat different
category, but it may be noted that much of that which is now
collected represents the accumulation of past years, and it is
impossible to say how long the present output can be main
tained. The raphia palm has as yet only been exploited to
a slight extent, and the question of cultivating it has not
arisen. Rubber
The production of rubber has played a very important part
in the political and economic history of the Belgian Congo.
In 1887, the first complete year for which export statistics
exist, the total output of the country was about thirty metric

174 AGRICULTURAL AND FOREST PRODUCTS
tons. During the following fourteen years the annual exports
steadily increased, and in 1901 exceeded 6,000 metric tons.
Since then, however, they have shown a gradual decrease, and
in 1915 amounted to only about 2,200 tons. The decline in the ,
value of rubber relatively to that of the other exports of the
country is even more marked. In 1900 nearly 85 per cent, of
the total value of the exports of the country was credited to
it, but in 1915 it accounted for about 15 per cent. Never
theless it still holds an important place in the trade of the
Congo region, and its present position and future prospects
are matters of considerable interest.
Until quite recently all the rubber exported from the
Congo was derived from uncultivated plants indigenous to
the region. These plants belong to the order Apocynaceae,
and include trees, climbers or vines, shrubs, and herbs. The
vines, which are by far the most important, belong to the
three genera, Landolphia, Clitandra, and Carpodinus. The
majority of them are woody climbers, and many of them
attain a great size. In addition to the vines, a number of
bushy plants belonging to the same, genera furnish ' root
rubber' from their underground stems (rhizomes). Some of
these plants occur normally as vines in the forest, but develop
a bushy habit when growing upon open ground, where there
are no trees to serve as supports. The shrubs are therefore
characteristic of the savanna, in contrast to the vines, which
are inhabitants of the forest region. The only indigenous
rubber-tree of any importance in the Congo is that known
as Funtumia elastica (Stapf), or Kickxia elastica (Preuss).
Although the vines belong to the forest, their growth appears
to be most satisfactory either upon its outskirts or in the
more ppen spaces in the interior, where they have free access
to light and air. In the densely wooded districts the stem of
the vine remains slender until it has reached the top of the
tree which affords it support, and is able to expose its leaves
to the light. After this it increases in thickness, but vines
growing under these conditions obviously develop slowly.
The number of rubber-producing vines belonging to the
genus Landolphia is considerable, and only a few of the more
important need be mentioned here. Among these Landolphia
owariensis undoubtedly holds the first place. It is a climbing
shrub which frequently attains a length of over 300 feet;

NATURAL PRODUCTS 175
normally it is found as a vine, but on the savanna it sometimes
occurs as a bush. Landolphia owariensis is one of the chief
sources of Congo rubber, and the product is of excellent
quality. Landolphia Klainei (Pierre) is likewise a climbing
plant of considerable length ; it* has a vigorous growth, and
provides part of the rubber obtained from the Congo forest.
Landolphia Thollonii (Dewevre) is a dwarf shrub from six to
twelve feet high. Owing to its central tap-root it is able to
grow in regions which have , a long dry season, and hence it
flourishes on the savanna and on some parts of the steppe. It
is the principal source of root rubber, which is obtained from
the bark of its underground stems, or rhizomes. Other species
of Landolphia which occur in the Congo are Landolphia
Gentilii (De Wild.) and Landolphia Droogmansiana (Dewevre).
The genus Clitandra is poorer ih rubber-producing plants.
The most important species is Clitandra Arnoldiana (De Wild.),
the lianas of which sometimes reach a length of 250 feet. It
is found in various parts of the forest region. Other species of
more or less value are Clitandra Mannii (Stapf ) and Clitandra
robustior (K. Schum). The genus Carpodinus is relatively poor.
in rubber-producing plants, and the only species which need
be mentioned are Carpodinus Gentilii (De Wild.) and perhaps.
Carpodinus ligustrifolia (Stapf).
Funtumia elastica (Stapf), or Kickxia elastica (Preuss), is a
large tree, sometimes attaining a height of 100 feet, with an
erect, tapering, cylindrical trunk, usually covered with a mottled
grey bark. It owes its name of ' silk rubber-tree ' to the fact
that its seeds have an attachment of silky hairs. It is essentially
a forest tree, and in the Belgian Congo it thrives not only in
the tropical forests of such districts as Bangala, but also in the
savanna forests, where there is a more or less well-marked dry
season. Funtumia elastica, in its indigenous condition, does
not provide much of the Congo rubber, and it is rather as
a cultivated tree that it has to be considered.
The collection of rubber from wild plants scattered through
out the country must necessarily be done by natives without
European supervision, and the methods employed by them are
primitive in the extreme. Incisions are made in the vine
either as it hangs on its supporting tree, or after it has been
pulled down and laid along the ground. In some cases the
latex does not flow freely, but simply fills up the cuts which

176 AGRICULTURAL AND FOREST PRODUCTS
have been made and there coagulates. The strips of rubber
thus formed are then pulled off, and rolled into balls either at
once or after they have been washed in warm water to remove
fragments of bark. If the latex flows freely at first, as it
sometimes does, the cut is not sufficient to hold it, and in
such cases various devices are adopted. Sometimes the native
collects it in his hand and smears it over his body, from which
he afterwards peels it in long strips ; at other times he catches
it on a leaf and spreads it out in a thin layer so that it may
coagulate rapidly.
In the case of certain vines the latex flows so freely that it
has to be collected in cups made from leaves, or in other
receptacles, and afterwards coagulated. In such cases incisions
are either made in the stem as before, or the stem is cut up into
short lengths, which are placed upright in a trough so that
they may be drained as completely as possible. Coagulation
of the latex thus collected is then brought about in one of
several ways. The juice of two species of Costus (C. afer and
C. lucanusianus), is employed to coagulate the latex of Lan
dolphia owariensis while that of Clitandra Arnoldiana coagu
lates readily after a long boiling, provided the process is
carefully performed. Some tribes pursue a more primitive
method, and simply pour out the latex on the soil and wait till
coagulation takes place. This process, however, as may
readily be imagined, produces a rubber of very inferior
quality. To obtain and coagulate the latex from the small bushy
forms of Landolphia, Clitandra, and Carpodinus a different
procedure is necessary. The rhizomes are pulled up and
exposed to the sun for some time, in order that the latex may
be coagulated. They are then cut up and beaten with wooden
mallets to remove the bark, which contains the latex. The
further processes employed vary from one region to another,
but in a general way it may be said that the bark is alternately
pounded and washed until the vegetable fragments are removed
from the crude rubber. In certain districts machinery was
introduced by the European companies operating therein, but
some of them have had to cease work on account of the want
of sufficient raw material.
The native practice, already referred to, of cutting and
pulling down the stems of the rubber vines in order to tap

NATURAL PRODUCTS 177
them more easily and more effectively has given rise to con
siderable discussion. The obvious objection to the practice
is that the stem is destroyed in the process of extracting
the rubber, and this, of course, is true. But it is argued
that not only is the yield of rubber much larger when
the lianas are cut down, but that the plants are not killed,
and soon throw out new shoots from the basal portions
of their stems. These shoots, it is said, can be treated in
a similar fashion in two or three years' time, as the quality of
rubber which they yield is much superior to that given by
seedling vines of the same age. Moreover in the depths of
the forest there are innumerable vines, poor and of little value
because of the want of light and air, but ready to take the
place of more vigorous plants when these are removed. Tapping
on the other hand is said not only to give an inferior yield of
rubber, but to lead to the speedy death of the vine. The
number of incisions made by the natives is excessive, and
large slices of bark are sometimes removed, exposing the
inner wood and rendering it liable to the attacks of insects
and fungoid pests. When, as often happens, the lianas are
torn from the trees to which they cling, but not cut, they do
little more good, and only serve to cumber the ground. Those
which are not torn down are tapped too frequently, the vitality
of the plants is affected, and their death speedily follows.
The policy of the Government in regard to these different
methods of obtaining rubber has changed more than once.
At one time the -system of exploitation by cutting down the
vines was regarded as wasteful, and attempts were made to
restrict it as much as possible. In 1910, however, partly as
a result of the researches of De Wildeman, Chevalier, and
others, a decree was issued which permitted the cutting of the
lianas, providing that the main stem was left to a height of
about five feet above the level of the ground. The matter,
however, can hardly be regarded as settled. Native methods
of tapping, it is true, usually end in the death of the plants,
and it is probable that certain species of vines, even if carefully
tapped, are liable to be killed. On the other hand Seret
found that Clitandra Arnoldiana died after the stems had
been cut. It is possible therefore that plants which will not
stand careful ta/pping will also be killed by cutting.
The destruction of rubber-producing plants, which for one
BELQ. CONQO M

178 AGRICULTURAL AND FOREST PRODUCTS
reason or another was widespread about the end of the last
century, led the State to take energetic measures to preserve
what was then its chief source of wealth. These measures
need not be recapitulated here, but their general character
may be gathered from a decree published in 1904, which
enacted that for every 100 kilogrammes of rubber collected in
the State lands and forests a certain number of trees or vines
were to be planted. In this and other ways a large number of
rubber vines, especially Landolphia owariensis, Landolphia
Klainei, and Clitandra Arnoldiana were established. But the
experiment was far from being a success. The cost of planting
the vines and tending them in the earlier stages of their
growth was considerable, their growth was slow, and their
yield was less than that obtained from wild vines. In 1909
the decree requiring replanting was abrogated, and in 1910
many of the plantations were abandoned.
Meanwhile various experiments had been made in the
cultivation of rubber-trees, and the attempts to establish
plantations received a new impetus from the gradual decline
in the output of rubber, the success of plantations in Ceylon
and Malaya, and the rise in price, which was to culminate in
the boom of 1910. Progress has necessarily been slow, but
the general principles governing the cultivation of plantation
rubber are now fairly well known. Experiments have been
made with Funtumia elastica, Hevea brasiliensis, and Manihot
Glaziovii, and the relative merits and demerits of each have
been carefully considered. As the question is one of con
siderable importance in relation to the future economic
development of the Congo, a brief review of the work which
has been accomplished is given here.
Funtumia elastica is indigenous to the Congo, the districts
of Ubangi, Bangala, and Aruwimi being among those in which
it is most frequently found. It was only natural therefore,
when the idea of establishing rubber plantations was first
entertained, that experiments should be made with this tree.
A number had been planted as early as 1901, but it was not
till 1906 that their cultivation was seriously undertaken, and
not till after the abandonment of the compulsory planting of
vines in 1909 that they became of prime importance in the
attempts to grow plantation rubber. By the end of 1910 there
were about 3,500,000 trees in various State plantations in

NATURAL PRODUCTS 179
different parts of the country. Further progress, however,
was checked by the fact that experiments in Hevea brasiliensis
had apparently given much better results, and a number of
Funtumia plantations have since been abandoned.
The view that Hevea is better adapted for cultivation than
Funtumia is now generally accepted in the Congo. At the
same time the latter tree has undoubtedly certain advantages.
It grows quickly and easily even on soil of moderate fertility,
and appears to be able to survive in districts too dry for Hevea.
It is also less subject than that tree to attacks of insect pests.
In addition it requires to be tapped only once or twice a year,
and the latex, which is of good quality, is easily coagulated by
means of boiling water.
On the other hand, as is now generally recognized, the yield
from Funtumia is considerably less than that from Hevea. Its
tapping also presents some difficulty at times, as it tends to throw
out branches from an early stage of its growth, and, although
these can be lopped off, the surface of the trunk is left rough
and irregular. To overcome these difficulties it was suggested
that Funtumia should be planted in coppice formation, the
trees being placed at distances of only six feet from one
another, instead of twelve feet, as is usually the case. As the
trees increase in size the less vigorous are cleared out. By
this method, it is claimed, the trunks of the young trees are
drawn upwards towards the light, few branches are developed,
and as the soil is always shaded the expense of keeping the
land clean is reduced to a minimum. The investigations made
with a view of testing this system of cultivation have, however,
not given satisfactory results. Measurements taken at Gazi,
in the district of Stanleyville, during the three seasons 1912-15,
showed that the increase in circumference of trees grown in
close formation was little more than half that of trees grown
in open formation. Both lots had been planted in 1909, but,
whereas those growing in open formation were about ready for
tapping, those growing in close formation did not appear
likely to yield rubber for four or five years. Though the
question cannot yet be regarded as finally settled, it hardly
seems probable that this method will regain for Funtumia
the position which it has lost. ;
Whether the cultivation of Funtumia will be taken up by
the natives in plantations of their own is also a matter on
m 2

180 AGRICULTURAL AND FOREST PRODUCTS
which it would be hazardous to express a definite opinion.
It is true that the tree grows easily, and does not require
a great deal of attention, but much will depend upon the
extent to which the native can be induced to undertake work
for which there is no prospect of an immediate return. The
land would have to be cleared, planted, and kept comparatively
clean for a period of six or seven years before any return
could be obtained from it. It is possible that the State might
do something to encourage such plantations by remitting part
of their taxes to natives who had a certain number of trees in
good condition but not ready for tapping.
Hevea brasiliensis appears to have been first introduced into
the Belgian Congo in 1899, when about fifty trees were planted
in the neighbourhood of Coquilhatville. The number was
gradually increased, and in 1904'there were about 3,000 trees
in that district. For several years after this very little progress
was made. At that time the proper methods of tapping Hevea
had not been discovered, and the plantations in Malaya had
so far not proved a success. The State moreover was then
devoting all its energies to the cultivation of rubber vines.
But, with the failure of these and the successful development
of the plantations in Malaya, a new impetus was given to the
cultivation oi Hevea. Bythe end of 1911, 250,000 had been
planted in the country, and since then the number has been
largely increased.
Hevea brasiliensis is a large forest tree, which may reach
a height of 100 feet. It has a well-developed trunk, sometimes
measuring 10 to 12 feet in circumference, and the branches
are high. Though an inhabitant of the Amazon lowlands, it
possesses very considerable powers of adaptation, and is at
present being grown successfully under very varied conditions
of temperature, rainfall, and elevation. In the Belgian Congo
it appears to thrive where there is a rainfall of at least
60 inches, though in Mayumbe it is grown with somewhat less
than that amount. If the climate is satisfactory, Hevea will
grow on relatively poor land, but the best results are obtained
on good alluvial soils, as the growth of the tree is then most
rapid. On the whole Hevea is a more difficult tree to cultivate
than Funtumia. The seed has to be selected, and the young
plant grown with some care. It is said that the best results are
produced when the seedlings are left in the nursery till they are

NATURAL PRODUCTS 181
several feet in height. The upper parts of the stems are then
cut off, the plants lifted, and the roots trimmed, after which
the ' stumps ' thus obtained are carried in bundles to the place
where they are to be planted. The great advantage of this
method is that by it the best roots may be selected ; the dis
advantage is that the humidity of the air is not so great as in
Malaya, where the method originated, and a number of plants
have consequently suffered in transit. The use of seed-baskets
is also practised on occasion. A single seed is sown in each
basket, and the plants thus raised are kept under shade and
well watered until required for planting out. The entire
basket is then placed in the soil without disturbing the roots.
The first Hevea trees grown in the Congo were planted at
a distance of about 16 feet from one another, but they were
evidently too close, and a number of them died. The distance
now observed is from 22 to 25 feet, or even more. To reduce
the expense of keeping the land clear various catch crops have
been attempted, but it is believed that they tend to retard the
growth of the Hevea trees. The matter, however, is still the
subject of experiment.
Hevea also presents greater difficulties from the point of
view of tapping than does Funtumia. The method which has
been evolved depends upon the fact that, if the initial incisions
are reopened after a short interval by cutting off a thin slice
of bark from one of the edges of the cuts, a further flow of
latex takes place. This procedure may be repeated again
and again with a similar result. To do it successfully, how
ever, requires a certain amount of skill, as to get the best
results shavings of one-twentieth of an inch in thickness, or
even less, have to be taken from the bark.
The cultivation of Hevea in the Congo can as yet hardly
be regarded as having passed far beyond the experimental
stage, but so far the results have been satisfactory. The tree
appears to find climate and soil well adapted to its growth.
In the Malay region a plant three years old has an average
circumference of about 14 inches at a height of 3 feet above
the ground, and a plant ten years old one of about 54 inches.
For the Congo corresponding measurements, made, 'however,
on a much smaller number of trees, gave 12, and from 36 to
over 54 inches respectively.
But it is by the amount of rubber which it yields that

182 AGRICULTURAL AND FOREST PRODUCTS
Hevea must stand or fall, and here again the results which
have been obtained do not pass beyond the experimental stage.
On the Malayan rubber plantations it has been estimated that
the average annual yield is between 396 lb. and 630 lb. per
acre for trees between ten and eleven years old. The experi
ments made at Bakusa, Eala, Musa, and Kitu, on trees from
ten to twelve years old, showed an annual yield per acre
varying from 352 lb. to 528 lb. Some of the best results
obtained from Funtumia of a similar age gave from 164 to
176 lb. per acre.
As yet only provisional conclusions can be drawn from the
experiments made in regard to the cultivation of Hevea and
Funtumia in the Congo. On the whole, however, it would
appear that Hevea is well adapted to the conditions which
prevail over a considerable part of the country, and that
a larger yield may be expected from it than from Funtumia.
On the other hand it is a more difficult plant both to grow
and to tap, and for this reason it is suitable for cultivation only
on plantations which are controlled by Europeans. Probably
the latter statement is also true of Funtumia, but there is just
a possibility that the natives may eventually be induced to
grow it on small plantations of their own.
A third variety of rubber, known as Ceara, is obtained from
Manihot Glaziooii (Mull. Arg.), which has had a somewhat
varied history in the Belgian Congo. For some time it had
a certain vogue in the country chiefly on account of its rapid
growth and the- small amount of care which it seemed to
demand. In the equatorial forest, however, where there is
great humidity at all seasons of the year, it began to suffer,
when about four years old, from cryptogamic growths, and its'
cultivation had to be abandoned. Perhaps because of its
failure there, it was also neglected elsewhere, and some planta
tions, which had been established in Mayumbe, were practically
abandoned. Within the last few years its climatic require
ments have been better understood, and it is once more being
grown in certain regions. The most important plantations at
present are situated at Bokala in the district of M oyen Congo.
Manihot appears to grow best when the trees, which are
raised from ' stumps ', are planted about 13 feet apart, as in
that case their crowns are touching when they are about four
years old. This is important, as trunks .'which are exposed to

NATURAL PRODUCTS 183
the sun, give but little rubber. The methods of tapping are
somewhat peculiar. The outer bark of the tree is removed
from one-fourth or more of the circumference of the stem to
a height of 6 feet, and the stripped surface is then moistened
with the acid juice of a citrus fruit, or with some solution
such as acetic acid, in order to facilitate the coagulation of
the latex. A large number of small horizontal incisions are
then made by stabbing the bark with a knife, care being taken
that the cuts do not penetrate ,too deeply. The latex exudes
from the cuts, and in contact with the acid solution quickly
coagulates on the stem. A certain amount of skill is necessary
in carrying out the work. If the incision be too slight, the
yield of latex is feeble, while, if it be too deep, the tree speedily
dies. What place Manihot will eventually take in the production
of rubber in the Congo it is as yet impossible to say. It has
the advantage of growing well in dry situations, where other
rubber trees will not survive, and the rubber produced is often
of excellent quality. Little information is at present available
regarding the yield which it may be expected to give ; but the
results of similar plantations in German East Africa leads to
the conclusion that the return from Manihot will be greater
than that from Funtumia, but less than that from Hevea. It
is,' however, a tree that is not likely to be grown outside of
plantations controlled by Europeans.
The Oil-Palm
The oil-palm (Elaeis guineensis) is one of the most important
trees of the Belgian Congo. It is placed by botanists in the
tribe Cocoineae of the natural order Palmae, together with
the one other genus Cocos to which the coco-nut palm belongs.
The oil-palm is essentially a tree of the tropical forest, but,
though widely distributed therein, it is not found everywhere.
It appears to prefer the more open spaces, and is most common
in and around existing or abandoned native villages. There
its abundance is probably due to seeds which have been
scattered by chance, as the tree, being of slow growth, is
seldom or never planted by the natives.
The best soil for the oil-palm is one rich in humus, moist,
but well drained. It seldom grows in marshy districts, but it

184 AGRICULTURAL AND" FOREST PRODUCTS
flourishes on deforested lands at a slightly higher level. Pro
vided, however, it receives a sufficiently heavy rainfall — 50 to
70 inches are said to be necessary in the Congo — the quality
of the soil is of comparatively little importance. A certain
amount of light and air are also necessary in order to obtain
the best results ; when grown in the depths of the forest, it
gives a comparatively poor yield.
The oil-palm requires a long period in order to reach
maturity. In the district of Equateur, for example, the trees
do not appear to give a normal yield before they are fifteen
years of age, but after that they continue to bear abundant
crops for at least another twenty years. Nevertheless it is
unfortunate that in many cases the natives have been careless
of the source of wealth provided for them by the oil-palm.
Many trees have been destroyed in the process of clearing the
forest for agricultural crops, and many more have been reck
lessly cut down in order the more easily to obtain their fruit.
The Government has at various times tried to check this
destruction, but apparently with little success.
The value of the oil-palm in native economy has already
been discussed (see p. 165). In international trade it holds
a position of considerable importance. Within recent years
palm-oil and palm-kernels have been exported in increasing
quantities to European markets, where they are chiefly
employed in the manufacture of soap, candles, and glycerine ;
some qualities of palm-oil are also made use of in the manu
facture of tin-plate. Until about 1911 these exports came
almost entirely from the district of Mayumbe. The amount
contributed by the interior was small, as the railway rates
were high, and modern factories for the extraction of the oil
were wanting. In 1911, however, a convention concluded
between the Government and Lever Brothers, the makers of
Sunlight Soap, prepared the way for the development of the
palm-oil industry over large areas in the Central Basin.
By this convention, which was finally approved on April 24,
1911, Lever Brothers engaged to form a Belgian company
(SocUU anonyme des huileries du Congo beige) with a
minimum capital of 25,000,000 francs, and to build within six
years a factojy capable of treating 6,000 tons of fresh fruit per
year in each of the districts in which they were given conces
sions. These districts consisted of the country lying around

NATURAL PRODUCTS 185
and within 60 kilometres (37-| miles) of the following posts :
Bumba and Burumbu on the Congo, Lusanga on the Kwilu,
Basongo on the Kasai, and a place 25 miles south of Ingende
on the Ruki. If within six years of the approval of the con
vention the company established a factory capable of extracting
the oil from 6,000 tons of fresh fruit per year in any of these
regions, it was to have the right, until April 24, 1921, of
leasing within that region 75,000 hectares (185,336 acres) of
land bearing oil-palms at an annual rent of 25 centimes per
hectare (about one penny per acre). If on the other hand it
built a factory in any district capable of using 15,000 tons of
fresh fruit annually, it was to have the right of selecting
200,000 hectares (494,230 acres) of land in that district, provided
that the total holding in the Congo did not exceed 750,000
hectares (1,853,360 acres). From January 1, 1945, the company
is to obtain proprietary rights over parts of the lands which it
has hitherto held on lease, the amount which it will receive
being determined in the following way. In each of the
districts already mentioned it may choose 40,000 hectares
(98,846 acres), but not more than 150,000 hectares (370,670
acres) in all. In addition, however, it may select 4 hectares
(9-8 acres) for every metric ton of oil, or its equivalent, that it
has exported from these districts by a port of the colony during
the preceding five years. The total amount of land which it
may acquire must not exceed 750,000 hectares (1,853,360 acres).
It will remain subject to an annual payment of 25 centimes
per hectare, and may not be sold without the consent of the
Government, which would be entitled to receive one-half of the
purchase money.
According to the agreement the company is to undertake
the development of existing plantations, and to establish new
ones where necessary. All labour is to be free, and is to be
paid for at the rate of at least 25 centimes per day, together
with rations. Where contracts are made with the natives for
the regular delivery of fruit the minimum price is to be fixed
so that an equivalent wage will be secured to the labourer.
In each of the districts one doctor at least is to be maintained,
and a hospital and school are to be established. Half of the
officials of the company are to be of Belgian nationality, and
one-third of the material required, other than that manufac
tured at Port Sunlight, or according to the secret processes of

186 AGRICULTURAL AND FOREST PRODUCTS
Lever Brothers, and one-half of the merchandise imported by
the company into the colony are to come from Belgium. All ¦
roads, railways, telegraphs, telephones, &c, constructed by the
company are as far as possible to be free to all.
Under the convention a good deal of preliminary work has
already been accomplished. Factories have been built at
Leverville on the Kwango, and at Alberta, near Bumba, on
the Congo. Means of transport are being improved, and a rail
way has been laid down from Leverville. Measures are also
being taken to clear the land around the palm-trees, and to
protect them from unnecessary destruction by the natives.
Copal
Copal has within the last few years become one of the most
important exports of the equatorial forest. It is a resin which
is secreted in large drops by certain trees belonging to the
family of the Leguminosae, and in the Belgian Congo is pro
duced by Copaifera Demeusei, and perhaps by some other
trees whose position has not yet been determined. Among
the regions in which Copaifera Demeusei is most abundant are
the districts of Equateur, Moyen Congo, Lac Leopold II,
Bangala, Ubangi, and Stanleyville. In these districts it is
usually found in the marshy places which occur in the vicinity
of the rivers.
Copal is found under various forms. Green copal is obtained
from the ' tears ' which are spontaneously exuded in the
fissures of the bark. In Guinea incisions are made in order to
facilitate the collection of the resin, but, until recently at least,
this method has not been employed in the Congo. In the
marshy districts the natives prod for copal under water with
a stick shod with iron, recognizing its presence by the sound
it gives forth when struck ; they also collect it in considerable
quantities on the sandbanks, where it has been deposited by
rivers during times of high water. In the district of Equateur,
notably in Busira Manene, a variety of fossil copal called
dangi is found in the soil ; it has a very pure sound, and is
lighter, yellower, and more brittle than that collected from
the trees.
The natives who collect copal remove from it some of the
grosser impurities, such as bark, earth, and insects, before they

NATURAL PRODUCTS • 187
dispose of it. Prior to being sent to Europe, the hard and soft
gums are separated from one another. The former are plunged
into a solution of caustic soda for half an hour, and are then
washed in water and placed in the sun to dry. The pieces are
then sorted out, and any impurities which remain are removed.
The whole process is, however, carried out in a very crude
manner. The softer gums, of more recent formation, are not
able to stand this treatment, and are merely scraped and
packed for export.
Copal is used in Europe for the manufacture of varnish, the
most suitable kinds being hard, transparent, and brittle. The
colour is also of importance, as upon it depends the colour of
the varnish produced. The natives say that different kinds of
copal trees yield copal of different colours, but how much
truth there is in this statement still remains to be seen.
Until 1910 the annual export of copal from the Belgian
Congo seldom exceeded 1,000 tons. Since then it has rapidly
increased, and in 1916 amounted to 8,700 tons. The develop
ment of the export trade appears to have been due in part to
the increasing demand for copal on the European market, and
in part to the impetus given to its collection by the fall in
the price of rubber. The Government seized the opportunity
of fostering an industry which might eventually prove of great
value to the colony, and to encourage the native collector
established a market at Basankusu, the capital of the Lulonga
district, where he might sell his copal at a fixed price instead
of dealing with a trader, as had been his custom in the case
of rubber. The Raphia Palm
The raphia palm, whether considered from the native or
the European point of view, is one of the more useful trees of
the equatorial forest. It flourishes in marshy places, and some
varieties thrive on land which is completely inundated.
Among the more important species the following ,may be
noted. Raphia Laurentii (De Wild.), often known as the
bamboo palm, is very common in the district of Equateur,
where it sometimes forms considerable forests. It is one of
the largest of the raphia palms, and often rises to a height of
45 feet, the leaves being from 15 to 45 feet in length. Raphia
vinifera also appears to be widely distributed, but differs from

188 AGRICULTURAL AND FOREST PRODUCTS
R. Laurentii in the fact that it does not grow in the same
close formation. It is usually found in clumps scattered here
and there, and often at some distance from one another.
Further, unlike R. Laurentii, it does not flourish on inundated
lands, but prefers the more elevated districts in the middle of
the marshes, and the denser parts of the tropical forest. It is
a comparatively small tree, and is often not more than 10 or
12 feet in height. Raphia sese (De Wild.), another common
species, is a large plant, but is less developed than R. Laurentii,
and the leaves are much smaller. Raphia Gentiliana (De Wild.)
and Raphia monbuttorum (Drude) may also be noted.
From the European point of view the most important
products of these palms are piassava and raffia. Piassava,
which is much used in Europe for the manufacture of stiff
brooms, is produced by the sheath of the lower parts of the
leaf-stems. These are cut down and steeped in water for a
considerable time, after which the fibrous strands can easily
be separated by beating. In order to get the best results some
care is necessary in the preparation of piassava. The fibres
should be well cleaned, and should have as nearly as possible
the same diameter (1*5 to 2 mm.) for the whole of their length.
Those which are thickest, most flexible, and darkest in colour
command the best prices on the market. Raffia, which is
obtained from the upper epidermis of the follicles of the young
leaves, is much used in Europe by horticulturists, vine-growers,
and others. The Congo product is apparently not so good as
that which comes from Madagascar, and greater care requires
to be taken in its preparation.
At present only small amounts of piassava and raffia are
exported from the Congo. Plantations
The cultivation of plants which either are not indigenous
or, if indigenous, are of little or no economic value in their
native state, is a matter of some difficulty, and an account of
the attempts which have been made will show that so far
comparatively little progress has been achieved. The obstacles
to such progress are of course considerable. Plants, and
more especially cultivated plants, when transferred to a new
environment, require a good deal of attention, and in the

PLANTATIONS 189
absence of expert attention are unlikely to succeed. But it is
just in this respect that many attempts to introduce new crops
into the Congo have been doomed to failure. The methods
followed have often been wholly empirical, and it is only
within the last few years that endeavours have been made
to introduce a properly trained scientific staff. Further,
apart from the production of rubber and oil, which have
already been discussed, it has not yet been shown that the
Congo possesses any special advantages in soil or climate for
the cultivation of a crop of world-wide importance. Its climate
does not seem so well adapted to the growth of cocoa as San
Thome, nor its soil so well adapted to the growth of coffee as
Brazil. Whether any such crop will yet be discovered remains
to be seen. The interest which has hitherto been shown in
the production of rubber has no doubt diverted a certain
amount of attention from the possibility of other crops, but no
definite evidence has yet been adduced to show that the Congo
possesses any great potentialities in this respect. On the other
hand the question of a sufficient supply of labour presents
some problems which it will not be altogether easy to solve.
(See pp. 302-4). Cocoa
The cultivation of cocoa was first attempted in the Belgian
Congo in 1895, and for some years it was grown along with
coffee on State plantations, where the better soils were reserved
for it. But, partly owing to the want of proper scientific
knowledge, these attempts did not prove a success, and the
State plantations have almost entirely disappeared. On the
other hand private enterprise has become increasingly active,
and a number of important plantations have been established
in Mayumbe and elsewhere.
In Mayumbe* the principal plantations lie between Luki and
Chela, on either side of the railway line which runs from
Boma to Chela. Among the more important companies
operating in this district the following may be noted : Societe
anonyme d 'agriculture et de plantations du Congo, Societe de
colonisation agricole du Mayumbe, Plantations coloniales (La
Luki), Societe anonyme Urselia, SocieU Urselia secunda, and
Compagnie sucriere europeenne et coloniale. Outside of
Mayumbe cocoa is grown by Plantations Lacourt on their

190 AGRICULTURAL AND FOREST PRODUCTS
property situated near the confluence of the Kondue and the
Sankuru, not far from Lusambo. An important experimental
station has been established byt the State at Ganda-Sundi, '
some distance north of Chela, in order to investigate the best
methods of cultivating the cocoa plant and preparing its
products for the market. Another station at Barumbu, almost
in the centre of the equatorial forest, is trying to discover
whether the cultivation of cocoa can be advantageously pursued
in this region. The results so far are distinctly promising. In
1907, 32,000 trees in bearing produced a crop of only 10 tons
of dry cocoa, but under the more careful methods of cultiva
tion afterwards adopted that amount had been increased to
41 tons in 1915. A number of young plantations are also
expected to become productive before long.
In Mayumbe the plantations are generally situated between
500 and ] ,200 feet above sea- level, but in some cases they are
as high as 2,500 feet. The most suitable districts are in the
valleys and on the lower slopes of the hills. Cocoa requires
a deep and permeable soil, and this is usually, but not always,
found in regions covered with virgin forest. In such regions
also the soil is rich in humus, and the richer and deeper it is
the greater the crop that it will produce.
The climatic conditions of Mayumbe differ somewhat from
those which prevail in other parts of the world where aocoa is
extensively grown. There is a well-marked dry season, but
the relative humidity of the atmosphere is always high, and it
is said to be owing to this that the plant is able to thrive.
A certain amount of shade, however, appears to be necessary
for cocoa during the first three or four years of its growth.
When the land is cleared various trees, such as Eriodendron,
mango, and kola, are for this reason sometimes left standing,
but the practice is not without its drawbacks. Large trees
take up a considerable amount of water during the dry season,
and if they are blown over, as is often the case, they do
a considerable amount of damage. In place of them the
banana is frequently grown ; it taxes the soil somewhat, but it
provides a good shade, and also affords an opportunity for a
catch crop. When bananas cannot be obtained the higher
varieties of pois cajou are sometimes used.
The value of shade-trees is still a matter of some dispute.
On the one hand they often give a much-needed protection

PLANTATIONS 191
not only to young plants, but to older trees, which, if they are
unshaded, yield a large return, but are rapidly exhausted.
Moreover, they prevent the removal of the soil by erosion,
or the loss of its fertility by intense solar radiation. On the
other hand, if the plants are too much shaded, they have
a vigorous growth, but do not produce fruit. It was formerly
thought that in those parts of the tropical forest where there
is rain at all seasons shade-trees were not so necessary as in
Mayumbe, but recent experiences at Barumbu indicate that
without them the yield of cocoa rapidly diminishes.
The cocoa plantations of the Congo appear to be subject to
various insect and fungoid pests. Of the insects the most
dangerous is a Hemiptera (Sahlbergella singularis), which
attacks the pods and causes canker in the branches, rendering
them sterile and sometimes bringing about the death of the
tree. They are aided in their work of destruction- by various
fungi, which find an entrance into the plant by way of the
punctures and lesions produced by the insects. The best way
of meeting the attacks of these pests, which are capable of
doing considerable damage, is to spray the trees with a solution
containing petrol, soap, and Bordeaux mixture ; all wounds
ought at the same time to be closed up by a covering of
vegetable tar.
The fermentation and drying of cocoa are a work of con
siderable difficulty, and in Mayumbe special buildings have
been erected for the purpose. Evidently a good deal has still
to be learned regarding the processes in question, as a recent
report on cocoa exported from the Congo says that, while some
of it is excellent, much of it suffers from want of proper care
in its preparation.
The cultivation of cocoa is the only agricultural enterprise
undertaken by Europeans in the Congo which has yet risen to
a position of much importance. The progress which has been
made is considerable, but the product still plays quite an
unimportant part in the world's markets. For the last three
years for which figures are available the annual exports averaged
726 metric tons. It is probable that, as the best methods of
cultivating the plant and preparing the product for market
become better known, the output will increase, but it is
questionable whether it will ever rank high among the exports
of the colony. So far Mayumbe has proved the most suitable

192 AGRICULTURAL AND FOREST PRODUCTS
region in the Congo for the production of cocoa, but, while the
rainfall there is sufficient in normal years, it is occasionally
deficient, with the result that the crop may be reduced by as
much as 30 per cent, or even more. If it should eventually
prove to be the case that cocoa can be successfully cultivated
in the equatorial districts of the interior, this difficulty would
not arise, but others connected with labour and transport
might prove to be serious. Coffee
The history of the cultivation of coffee in the Belgian Congo
is somewhat chequered. A number of varieties, some of which
are said to be of considerable value, are indigenous to the
country, others have been imported from Liberia, Arabia, and
Brazil. Various experiments made between 1885 and 1892
induced the Government to undertake the cultivation of coffee
on an extensive scale, and plantations were established at
a number of posts, including "Coquilhatville, Bikoro, Ikenge,
Bombimba, Nouvelle Anvers, and Barumbu. By the end of
the century these plantations contained over 2,000,000 plants,
and by 1904 the annual export had risen to 160 tons. Since
then the plantations have one by one been abandoned, and the
exports have declined almost to vanishing point.
A variety of causes contributed to the failure of an industry,
which for a moment seemed full of promise. The climatic
conditions of the Congo are not unfavourable to the cultivation
of coffee, but the soils of the countiy are not so admirably
suited to it as are those of Brazil. The development of the
Brazilian industry, partly at least as a result of its special
advantages, led to a fall in the price of coffee on the European
market to a figure which made its cultivation in the Congo
unprofitable. Further the planters were handicapped by the
fact that they were working without expert advice, and that
they had little or no knowledge of the varieties on which to
specialize, or the proper methods of cultivation to pursue.
In order to discover whether the cultivation of coffee on
proper scientific principles can be successfully undertaken in
the Congo, the agricultural service about 1912 established an
experimental plantation near Stanleyville. In all probability
the results obtained here will show whether there is any real
future for coffee in the Congo.

PLANTATIONS 193

Ramie

Ramie belongs to the genus Boehmeria, of the family of the
Urticaceae. Two important species may be recognized, B.
tenacissima, or China grass, and B. nivea, to which the name
of ramie is often more particularly applied.
Various experiments have been made regarding both species
in the Belgian Congo, and in some districts the results appear
to have been satisfactory. ' At Eala, for example, a plantation
on good soil produced four crops per year, and similar results
have been obtained from some fertile valleys in the Lower
Congo. There are probably many other districts scattered
throughout the country where the conditions are at least as
favourable. As the plants are grown without irrigation the
shoots, and therefore the fibres, are shorter than those obtained
from similar plantations in Malaya. Agaves
Agave rigida, from which the fibre known as sisal hemp is
obtained, has long been grown on the Lower Congo, where it
was probably first introduced by traders or missionaries.
Various experiments were made regarding its cultivation, but
for a number of years very little progress was recorded.
Eventually large plantations were established at Kalamu, near
Boma, and in 1912 contained about 30,000 plants. A specimen
of the products which was sent to London in 1916 was valued
at £50 per ton at a time when fair Manilla hemp was selling
at £53. The quality was reported to be good, but the fibre had
been insufficiently washed. Agave Cantula is also grown oh
the Lower Congo. Its fibre is softer and finer than that derived
from Agave rigida, arid specimens of it were valued in London
in 1916 at £53 per ton. Though insufficiently washed, it was
said to be suitable for admixture with Manilla hemp. Agave
Azul gives a fibre which is said to be as good as Mauritius
hemp. Furcraea gigantea, from which Mauritius hemp is obtained,
has been grown in the Belgian Congo to a slight extent for
a number of years. In 1910 a plantation of some size was
established at Kalamu. The product seems to be somewhat
inferior to the best qualities which appear on the market.
BEI.O. CONGO ' N

194 AGRICULTURAL AND FOREST PRODUCTS
Kapok
Eriodendron anfractuosum, from which kapok is obtained,
grows wild in various parts of the Belgian Congo. It is a tree
which might ultimately prove of some value to the natives, as
it not only furnishes a fibre which could be exported, but
produces an oil which can be used in the manufacture of native
soap ahd for other domestic purposes.
Within the last few years experimental plantations have
been established at Kalamu, Congo da Lemba, and Eala. The
seeds for these plantations were imported from Java, and came
from a variety of the tree which is more productive that that
which grows in the Congo. How far the experiment will be
a success yet remains to be seen.
The Improvement of Native Agriculture
At a first glance it might seem that the improvement of
native methods of cultivation would lead to. a large increase in
the agricultural output of the country. But apart from the
general effect which such an improvement would have in
reducing the necessity which at present exists for destroying
part of the virgin forest each year, and apart from the benefits
it would confer on the native population by diminishing the
danger of famine, it is questionable whether there is much
that can be done. The root crops upon which the natives of
the forest region mainly depend cannot be exported. Of the
cereals which provide the bulk of the food of the inhabitants
of the savannas maize is the only one which has a world
market, and it could probably be cultivated on an extensive
scale, but it is doubtful whether the heavy cost of transport
would permit of its exportation. Hence it is that attention
has been mainly concentrated on two or three crops which
seemed well suited to the country, and for which there is
a special demand abroad. Of these the most important are
rice and cotton. Rice
Rice is grown by the natives in different parts of the Congo
(see p. 163), but important experiments have been conducted
by the State in recent years with a view of extending and
developing its cultivation. These experiments were made at

THE IMPROVEMENT OF NATIVE AGRICULTURE 195
Kitobola, which is situated in the valley of the Lukunga in
the Lower Congo. At first upland rice alone was grown, but
recently some varieties of marsh rice introduced from Ceylon,
Java, and Italy have been cultivated on irrigated lands. The
results so far obtained have shown that irrigated land produces
about twice as much as unirrigated land, and produces it at
nearly half the cost. The quality of the rice does not appear
to be so good, and much of it is used to feed animals, but this
is a matter which can probably be remedied.
It is questionable, however, whether any development, of
irrigation on an extensive scale is to be looked for in the
near future, and probably more attention will be paid to
increasing the area under upland rice. In the valley of the
Lukunga there are considerable stretches of land on which it
might be successfully grown. Their soil is too damp fori other
crops, and they are at present uncultivated. The main difficulty
seems to lie in the fact that all the agricultural operations of this
region are performed by women, who are even less willing
than men to abandon their old methods and experiment in
new crops.
The world-scarcity of foodstuffs during the latter years of
the war made it necessary to consider whether the output
of the Belgian Congo could be increased. As about 80 per
cent, of the total area under lice (25,000 to 30,000 acres) is
situated in the region round Stanleyville, it was to that part
of the colony that attention was directed. The chief obstacles
to exportation at present are the colour of the grain, the fact
that much of it is broken by the native methods of preparing
it for the market, and the heavy cost of transport to Matadi.
In the time at their disposal the Government could do little
to improve the quality of the crop, but, in order to remedy the
deficiencies of native milling, steam machinery was set up at
Stanleyville. The greater part of the surplus crop has of late been sent
to the troops operating in East Africa, but when conditions
again become normal an increased amount will probably
be available for export. There seems no reason indeed why
the cultivation of rice should not be greatly extended. In
many parts of the Congo climate and soil are well suited to
its growth, and in some districts at least the natives take
readily to its cultivation. But an improvement in quality
n 2

196 AGRICULTURAL AND FOREST PRODUCTS
and a reduction in freight rates are essential if it is to take
a place of any importance in the world's markets.

Cotton,
A little native cotton has always been grown in a few districts
in various parts of the Belgian Congo, but some years ago,
when it seemed likely that the world's supply of raw cotton
would fall short of the world's demand, it was only natural
that its cultivation on a more extensive scale should be con
sidered by the Government. In 1909 it was decided that the
best course was to induce the natives to grow it on their own
account, and with that end in view they were provided with
seed and a fixed price for the crop was guaranteed them.
Experiments along these lines were continued for two years
in the Lower Congo, the eastern districts, and the Kasai region,
but were ultimately abandoned. The specimens of cotton
obtained are said to have been of good quality, but they were
very limited in amount ; the native evidently preferred to
devote himself either to the cultivation of foodstuffs or to the
collection of forest products.
Within the last few years further experiments have been
made. In 1915 small quantities of cotton were grown in the
Kasai region at Luebo, Luluabourg, Mushenge, and elsewhere,
but the results were only moderately successful. Egyptian
varieties showed themselves liable to various diseases, and
American ones were not much more resistant. Better results
have been achieved at Nyangwe, where some experiments
carried out under the supervision of an American expert show
that cotton may be successfully cultivated in parts of the
surrounding region.
In 1916-17 attempts were made to persuade the natives in
the neighbourhood of Nyangwe and Kasongo to devote part
of their land to it, and 177 small fields with a total area of
about 125 acres were placed under that crop. A market
was established at Nyangwe, and the unginned cotton was
purchased at the rate of 20 centimes per kilo, which corre
sponded to about 60 centimes per kilo for ginned cotton. The
product was sent to Europe, where it was classed as equivalent
to American ' middling '. In the same year the State farm at
Nyangwe had about 135 acres under cultivation. The cotton

THE IMPROVEMENT OF NATIVE AGRICULTURE 197
which it produced is said to be of excellent quality, and the
seed obtained has been distributed to the natives of Maniema
and Sankuru. In 1917-18 the area cultivated by the natives
was considerably extended. The exports so far. have been as
follows : 1915 ... 2-9 metric tons
1916 . . . 11-2
1917 . . . 22-5
The natives are reported to have been greatly pleased with
the results of their labour, some of them having received as
much as 50, 75, and even 100 francs. It is probable therefore
that, if nothing unforeseen occurs, a considerable extension of
the area under cotton will take place in the region between
Nyangwe and Kasongo. The population is denser than in
many other parts of the Congo, and appears to take more
readily to the cultivation of new crops.
As a result of the experiments which have been made,
attention is at present being concentrated on two varieties
of American cotton, Triumph big boll and Simpkins early
prolific. The former, which is extensively grown in Texas,
has a fibre of medium length, and produces a good crop. The
latter has a shorter fibre but ripens early, and is particularly
suitable for those regions which have only a short dry season.
It is probably the best adapted for cultivation in the country
round Nyangwe.
Those parts of the Kasai region which lie round Luebo,
Luluabourg, and Lusambo also appear to be well adapted to the
cultivation of cotton, as climate and soil are both reported to
be favourable. An experimental station at Loukala, north-west
of Sankuru, has already given some satisfactory results.
In the Lower Congo the demand for labour on the planta
tions will probably prevent much being done in regard to cotton.
Little attention has so far been given to the Welle country,
but it is a region which, given good means of transport, might
well become of considerable importance.
It is questionable, however, whether any great progress will
be made in any part of the Congo, at least for a long time to
come. Native cotton is of little value, and the cultivation of
exotic varieties, such as medium or short American, involves
expert superintendence. So far the aim has been to improve
native methods of cultivation rather than to establish planta-

198 AGRICULTURAL AND FOREST PRODUCTS
tions on European lines, and, although agricultural experts and
missionaries can give much help, progress in this direction
must necessarily be slow. Nor can much be advantageously
done until means of transport have been greatly improved.
The native is not likely to demand cotton for his own use,
except in small quantities, for a long time to come, and
arrangements would have to be made for the rapid export of
the crop, in order to prevent its deterioration. Existing
facilities, in addition to being insufficient, are much too
costly.

European Agriculture
The High Katanga is the only region in which the cultivation
of the soil by Europeans has as yet made much progress. It
would be incorrect no doubt to think of it as a white man's
country, but climatically it is better adapted to European
settlement than any other part of the Belgian Congo. The
reasons for attempting to develop its agriculture were strong.
Until recently it was necessary to import into Katanga at
high rates the greater part of the foodstuffs required by the
mining population. There was therefore an urgent need of
an agricultural community whose labours would supply the
home demand. That comparatively little progress has yet
been made is hardly surprising. The majority of the whites
who have gone there have been attracted either by the high
rate of wages in the mining centres or by the prospect of finding
minerals on their own account. Concerning the land there
was at first little information. Practically nothing was known
of the character of the soil, of the crops most suited to it. and
of the best methods of cultivating them.
The investigations which have since been made regarding
the fertility of the soil are not yet numerous, and, though
some reports are pessimistic, there appear to be large areas
suitable for cultivation. The rainfall is greater than in
Rhodesia, and is more certain. At the same time the plateaus
appear to be healthy, if some necessary precautions are taken.
On the whole it seems probable that a considerable amount of
development is possible, though it is unlikely that the region
will have a great agricultural future. In the course of a few
years it may be able to supply the more important needs of

EUROPEAN AGRICULTURE 199
the mining community, and even to grow one or two crops for
export, but beyond that it is unlikely to go.
The progress which has been made up to the present may
be briefly recounted. Previous to 1909 a small number of
farms had been established, chiefly by the British officials of
the Tanganyika Concessions. As a rule they consisted of a
few acres, and were cultivated by the native with his hoe.
In that year, however, the Compagnie fonciire agricole et
pastorale (La Pastorale) was formed with the object of intro
ducing European methods of agriculture into the Katanga,
and for that purpose received a grant of about 375,000 acres
from the Comite special (see p. 280). The task before it was one
of considerable difficulty. Most of the land was forested, and
there were neither roads nor rural habitations. Animals,
implements, and seeds were alike wanting, while native labour
was both costly and hard to obtain. In these circumstances
the company set itself to investigate the nature of the country,
clear suitable areas, settle colonists, and provide them with
houses, outbuildings, and other necessaries. Unfortunately it
was handicapped by want of funds, and its activities were
limited, but it performed a useful service, as it succeeded in
locating good agricultural land in several districts.
As Belgian settlers were not coming freely, and as there
seemed a possibility that the best land would be occupied by
colonists of other nationalities, the Government resolved in
1911 to establish an agricultural department of its own in the
region. La Pastorale had started farms at various places, near
Elisabethville, at Katentania, where it has bought cattle and
buildings belonging to the Tanganyika Concessions, at Kapiri
at the foot of the Biano plateau, and elsewhere, but the Mission
agricole decided to confine its labours to districts not too far
distant from Elisabethville, which was the natural market for
agricultural produce, and yet not too near it lest their native
labour might be enticed away by the higher wages prevailing
at the mines. Two villages were established as depots for
mining wants, Nieuwdorp, 100 miles, and Bellefontaine, 78
miles distant from Elisabethville. Lands were deforested,
rivers cleared, marshes drained, and roads provided. In
addition, an experimental station was established at Munama,
in order to study the best methods of cultivating plants which
appeared suited to the Katanga. In the south of the country
several farms were established without State aid.

200 AGRICULTURAL AND FOREST PRODUCTS
In 1915 there were thirty farms and the total area under
cultivation was estimated at 2,145 acres. Since then there
has been little change. Maize is everywhere the chief crop,
but potatoes, sweet potatoes, manioc, and vegetables are also
grown. Vegetables appear to be the most profitable crop, as
they can be grown at all seasons of the year.
The future development of the region must necessarily be
slow. The cost of clearing the land and improving it is
considerable, and must be undertaken with caution, as the
really fertile districts are scattered. In some places drainage
is necessary in order to minimize the danger of malaria, which
in any case is frequent when the land is cleared for the first
time; almost everywhere irrigation must be provided to
ensure a supply of water for vegetable gardens during the dry
season. The valleys of some of the rivers contain fertile soil,
but they cannot be immediately utilized, as the regulation of
the waters must first be undertaken. It is also difficult to
obtain settlers of a desirable type, as the Belgian peasant does
not take naturally to colonization. In his economical way he
lives comfortably at home, and he shows no great desire to try
his fortune in unknown lands. The few who do go abroad prefer
the United States, Canada, or even the Argentine, where the
difficulties to be overcome seem less formidable, and where
they may have friends and relatives. Even if colonists were
more numerous, the State could not afford to settle large
numbers at once. In addition to the expenses already men
tioned, which in any country would be considerable, and which
are much greater in the Katanga on account of the cost of
transport, the would-be farmers usually arrive without resources
of their own. Houses h^ve to be built for them, implements
provided, and financial assistance given.
On the other hand the development of the mineral industry
will provide the Katanga farmer with' a growing market for
many years to come. Even at the present time he is very far
from being able to meet its needs. In 1912, and the mining
population has grown rapidly since then, it was estimated that
to meet the home demand 9,000 to 10,000 acres of maize,
500 acres of wheat, and a herd of 15,000 cattle would be neces
sary. Obviously then there is considerable scope for agricultural
industry. The only other region in which Europeans have settled to

EUROPEAN AGRICULTURE 201
cultivate the soil is in the north-east, where there are a few in
the vicinity of the gold mines at Kilo.
The earliest ^attempts at stock-raising in the Congo were
made by the missionaries, Les Peres Blancs, who had settle
ments at Baudouinville and Albertville (Toa). Their first
experiments were unsuccessful, but they seem to have sur
mounted their difficulties, and they now have a flourishing
herd of 150 head of cattle. Goats and sheep are also raised
by them. Another important experiment was made when La
Pastorale introduced a herd of 960 head of cattle from Rhodesia,
and settled some at Katentania, on the Biano plateau, and
others in the district round Lulua. At the end of 1914 the
herd at the station at Katentania numbered over 1,700. Most
of the animals belong to the Barotse breed, and appear to
thrive upon the plateau, if they are carefully treated. They
would do better, however, if forage plants were to some extent
at least substituted for steppe grasses during the dry season, as
at that time the natural supply of food is scanty. The breed
might also be improved by the introduction of good stock
from Europe.
In several other districts experiments are also being made.
At Miao, about 25 miles south of Luluabourg, a State station
has been established. The Marungu plateau is also said to be
suitable for stock-raising, and arrangements are being made to
investigate its value.
The whole question of cattle-raising is complicated by the
distribution of the tsetse fly.

CHAPTER XII
MINERALS
The mineral wealth of the Congo is found almost entirely
in the regions of older rock which surround the Central Basin.
It includes copper, tin, iron, gold, coal, and diamonds. The
extent to which each of these occurs is only partly known,
and their value cannot yet be determined.
Copper
The copper deposits of the Katanga have up to the present
received most attention. The belt of country in which they
occur begins a little to the west of the Lualaba, not far north
of the eleventh parallel of south latitude, and runs first in an
easterly and then in a south-easterly direction. In the west
the breadth of the belt varies from 25 to 40 miles, but in the
south-east it is considerably broader. Its total length is about
250 miles. The copper-bearing strata are harder as a rule
than the rocks of the surrounding country, and in consequence
the ore deposits are usually situated in the residual hills and
ridges. One or two deposits, however, and notably Luishia,
occur in low-lying districts. The hills which contain copper
always form a strong contrast to the neighbouring lands
because, unlike the latter, which are timbered, they are bare
of trees and shrubs, while between them and the woodlands
grows the misuka, or mahobohobo, bush (a variety of wild
loquat), which is here an excellent indication of copper. The
absence of trees, which is believed by various writers to be
due to the presence of a solution of salts of copper in the
subsoil, has facilitated the work of the prospector.
The copper deposits are situated in quartzose strata varying
from incoherent sandstone to pure quartzite, and in schists,
shales, and limestones. The more abundant copper minerals
are malachite, chrysocolla, azurite, and melaconite. Finely
divided chrysocolla, azurite, and malachite are found impreg
nating the country rocks, and also in the form of mammillary

COPPER 203
masses, the three minerals also being frequently associated
with one another. Melaconite, while often associated with
these, occurs also in ores intimately mixed with limonite and
manganese dioxide.
The ore-bodies vary in size from comparatively small ones
scattered over the country to large ones like those at Elisabeth
ville and Kambove, which are between 2,000 and 3,000 feet in
length. These bodies, whatever their size, are very similar in
general form, and probably all have a common origin. Near
the centre of the deposit, and parallel to its extension, is a
sugary sandy quartz, much fissured, in which copper carbonates
and oxides occur in large masses. Away from this quartz the
country rock is impregnated with malachite, chrysocolla, and
azurite. The earlier investigators believed that the deposits
were derived from copper sulphides, which probably occurred
in fissure veins. According to their theory the ore-bodies in
process of exploitation contained the copper derived from
a considerable depth of sulphide veins, and it was expected
that when the latter were reached they would prove to be much
narrower than the out-cropping oxidized ores. More recently
some doubt has been cast on this theory of the origin of the
copper deposits, and it is said that the small quantity of
sulphides found to date, notwithstanding the fact that exploita
tion has extended to depths at which, under existing climatic
conditions, the zone of secondary enrichment should have been
encountered, is rather against the idea that the deposits are
vein-like bodies. Various experts seem inclined to support
the view that they are of sedimentary origin, but the matter
cannot be regarded as settled either one way or the other.
When the problem is solved, however, it will probably enable
a more accurate estimate to be made of the extent of the
reserve of copper in the colony.
The mining and smelting of copper ore were followed for
centuries by the natives living in the vicinity of the copper
deposits, and the mines worked to-day by Europeans were
originally native mines, which have been re-located. The
want of good means of communication is a serious drawback,
and the development of the copper-belt is at present confined
to its south-eastern and central parts, which are connected
with the Rhodesian railway system. The most important
centres are at Elisabethville, Luishia, and Kambove, but new

204 MINERALS
mines are about to be opened up at Kamatanda and Fungu-
rume near the main line from Kambove to Bukama.
The Star of the Congo mine, situated about six and a half
miles from Elisabethville, was until recently the most important
source of copper in the Katanga. The ore, which is almost
entirely obtained from open-air workings, is washed on the
spot before being sent to the smelters at Lubumbashi. For
some years it was obtained almost entirely by hand labour, but
in 1914 steam shovels were introduced to strip off surface
formations and mine the soft ore.
The mine at Kambove was opened in 1913 on the completion
of the railway from Elisabethville. It is reported to be
enormously rich, and the Union miniere now obtains the
greater part of its ore from this source. The high-grade
material is picked out, and sent to Lubumbashi by rail, while
the low-grade is reserved for future treatment. Luishia,
which is about 55 miles from Elisabethville, on the way to
Kambove, produces a powdery ore containing quantities of
cobalt and iron, and a considerable part of it has to be screened
or briquetted before use. Operations here were for some time
suspended, but have apparently been resumed.
Lubumbashi, which is situated close to Elisabethville, is the
smelting centre for all the ore mined in the Katanga. By
1915 five furnaces had been erected there, and two others were
completed in 1918. As a result the plant at Lubumbashi is
able to produce 40,000 tons of copper per year. The flux is
dolomitic limestone, which is obtained near the Star mine.
The provision of fuel for the blast furnaces is a problem of
considerable difficulty. Originally coke was imported from
Europe at a cost of £12 per ton, and later on from the Wankie
coal-field in Rhodesia at a cost of £5 8s. In 1912 it was decided
to build coke-ovens on the spot, and arrangements were made
with the Wankie Company to supply, and with the Rhodesian
railways to carry, coal at such rates as would permit the manu
facture of coke at about £4 8s. per ton. Two batteries of
coke-ovens, which were completed in March 1914, have now
a considerable output, while the gases liberated in the process
are used for heating purposes. In the spring of 1914 also
a contract was made with the Wankie Company to provide the
fuel necessary for the furnaces then in course of erection. The
contract runs for fifteen years from July 1, 1915, and by it the

COPPER 205
Union miniere binds itself to take 100,000 tons of fuel per year,
of which not less than 40,000 tons and not more than 60,000
tons shall be coke. The working of the* coal deposits at Luano,
about 50 miles south-east of Broken Hill, is also under considera
tion. The quality of the coal there varies, but as soon as a kind
suitable for smelting is found operations will be begun. At
the same time it may be noted that the Luano coal appears to
lie in a somewhat inaccessible valley, and it may prsve rather
difficult to convey it from the mines to the main line. Wood,
which is found abundantly in the vicinity of the smelting-
works, is used for the production of steam-power.
At present only the high-grade ores of the Katanga are
smelted. These amount to about 20 per cent, of the whole
quantity mined, and contain as a rule from 14 to 16 per cent.
of copper. The remainder of the ore is being reserved for
future treatment, and its utilization depends mainly upon the
extent to which it is possible to make use of the electrolytic
process for the extraction of the copper. Extensive schemes
are now under consideration for the establishment of hydro
electric works near the falls of the Lufira and on the Lua
laba, and. for the erection of electrolytic plant at convenient
centres. It is believed that by the leaching process low-grade
ores down to those containing 4 per cent, of copper can be
utilized, and that even high-grade ores can be treated by it
more cheaply than by smelting.
As the treatment of the low-grade ores is urgent — about
three-fourths of the copper contained in the high-grade
direct-smelting ores of the mines at present worked has
already been extracted — and, as it was impossible to purchase
leaching plant during the war, it was decided to erect a con
centrating plant, the material for which could be more easily
obtained. This concentrating plant is now in course of erection
and, when completed, will be capable of treating from 3,600 to,
4,000 tons of low-grade ore daily for the production of concen
trates. By the use of these concentrates it is hoped that the
producing capacity of the existing smelting plant will be
increased to 44,000 tons per year. The leaching plant it is
proposed to proceed with later, when the necessary capital and
labour are available.
The production of copper ingots has increased rapidly since
1911, partly owing to the natural development of the region,

206 MINERALS
and partly to the greatly increased demand for copper arising
out of the war. .In 1911 the total output of the Union miniere,
which controls the production, was 997 tons, in 1913 it had
risen to 7,400 tons, and in 1917 to 27,460 tons. As a result
of labour troubles in Rhodesia affecting the supply of coal,
influenza, and other causes the output for 1918 fell to about
20,000 tons. In 1916 the average cost of production and
transport to Europe worked out at £41 1 Is. 3d. per ton, while
the average price for which the copper was sold was £102
per ton. In 19 the cost of production had risen to £61*7
per ton. Previous to the outbreak of war the whole of the
product was sold to Germany, but since then it has been sent
to the United Kingdom.
At the present time the Union miniere employs a staff of
470 Europeans and about 7,500 African natives. Until recently
the company had little difficulty in getting all the labour it
"required, but there are indications that #with the further
development of the mines the labour problem will become one
of considerable difficulty. In 1917 indeed, and still more in
1918, there appears to have been a decided scarcity. The native
population in the south of the Katanga is small, and does not
offer a sufficient surplus for working the mines. The Union
miniere has, it is true, been able to draw upon it to some
extent, but the bulk of its labour it obtains from Rhodesia,
while a certain amount comes from Nyassaland. Recently,
also, negotiations have been entered into with Portugal to
obtain a supply from Angola, but whether this can be de
pended upon is doubtful, as large demands are already made
upon it by the cocoa plantations of San Thome' and Principe.
The labour hitherto obtained is fairly efficient, judged by
African standards, and the chief difficulties rise from the fast
that the native, who does not love continuous work, frequently
deserts in order to return home. Wages vary according to
circumstances. A few years ago mine natives began at 15s.
a month, in addition to their food, and gradually increased
their earnings. It was then estimated that on an average
each native cost his employers £2 8s. per month. This was
mainly due to the expense of foodstuffs, which had to be
imported. As a result of the recent rise in prices the cost of
labour is now considerably greater.
With regard to the future little can be said. The copper

COPPER 207
resources of the Katanga are believed to be enormous, but at
the present time no accurate data appear to be available for
estimating their extent. The depth of the deposits actually
worked is unknown, and throughout the copper-belt there are
many other deposits capable of profitable exploitation. A few
years ago Mr. F. E. Studt (the metallurgist of the Tanganyika
Concessions) calculated that the total reserves of ore above
water-level in the Katanga exceeded 40,000,000 tons, the
average content of copper being about 8 per cent. If this
estimate be approximately correct, the Katanga is likely to
prove one of the chief copper-producing regions in the world
for many years to come.
Deposits of copper have been found in other parts of the
Congo, but so far they have proved of little importance. It is
said that in many places copper sulphides occur in the practi
cally flat Kundelungu rocks. The deposits are small and
' pockety ', and have no known relation to igneous rocks'; it is
probable that they are of sedimentary origin. Near Siku
M'Bidi, about seventy miles south-east of Kasongo, there is
a quartz vein eight feet wide and traceable for about 100 feet,
which contains a fair proportion of copper minerals. Cupri
ferous quartz-calcite veins occur in the same region (as, for
example, at Kitala in the Lower Katanga). It is reported
that the Geomine has recently discovered copper deposits
at Baudouinville on Lake Tanganyika. In the Lower Congo
cupriferous pyrites is. abundant in the diabasic rocks. The
Bamanga copper deposits, which lie on a small island in the
Congo about seven miles below Ponthierville, were at one
time worked, but now appear to be abandoned. The ore occurs
in parallel fissure veins or in short lenticular bodies deposited
in discontinuous fractures, some of which at least are faults.
Along the Congo river copper placers (thin beds of pebbles of
rich copper ore intermingled with recent river sands) are
reported to exist. It is doubtful whether any of these deposits
will prove of much value. Even in the island of Bamanga,
where picked ores contain from 31 to 55 per cent, of copper, it
has been found unprofitable to continue operations, and in the
other places mentioned the conditions under which mining is
possible are even less favourable.

208 MINERALS Tin
Tin is the most important mineral of the northern part of
the Katanga. The principle deposits occur in a belt of country
which lies on the north-west slope of the Mitumba Mountains,
and extends in a north-easterly direction from a point near
Busanga on the Lualaba by way of Kiambi to the Niemba.
The Cambrian or pre-Cambrian schists of which this belt is
mainly composed enclose bands of granite, and it is in the
vicinity of these that the cassiterite, or tinstone, is generally
found. The conditions under which it occurs appear to vary.
In the south-western part of the belt the veins, which range
from almost pure quartz to rocks which are practically peg-
matic, are situated in the metamorphic regions near the
granite, but sometimes in the granite itself. They are vertical,
and occur in two sets : one which is quite uniform in its contents
of cassiterite runs from north-west to south-east, while the
other is at right angles to it, and is sometimes richer, but on
the whole less constant in value. The veins vary in length
from 300 to 4,000 feet. Cassiterite occurs in good and often
very large crystals embedded in the quartz and is frequently
more abundant near the borders of the veins. Residual
deposits, which economically are more important, are derived
from the weathering of these veins.
In the north-eastern part of the belt, in the country round
Muika, the schists are cut by granites in which there are
intrusions of pegmatite, and it is in these intrusions that the
cassiterite is found. Following the course of the lodes there
are beds of detrital material,' which are as a rule richer in
cassiterite than the pegmatite from which they are derived, on
account of the concentration which has taken place and the
simultaneous abstraction of valueless constituents.
The chief deposits which have as yet been worked are at
Muika, a little to the south-east of Kiambi. They are owned
by the Sociite" de recherches minieres du Bas-Katanga, and
are said to be the richest which have as yet been found. The
mining so far has been little more than experimental, and has
been undertaken mainly with a view to determining the
position of the most suitable deposits. The monthly production
in 1914 was about 10 tons of cassiterite, with a tin content
of 65 to 72 per cent. For the further development of the

TIN 209
region it is proposed to build a hydro- electric plant upon the
Luvua. When this is done it will be possible to erect stamping-
mills and to begin working the mines in earnest. Just before
the outbreak of war hopes were expressed that by 1917 the
monthly output would be 200 tons. Owing to difficulties
which have since arisen, however, the works have been
temporarily closed down. One of the chief drawbacks of the
region is the absence of proper means of communication.
.Before the war the ore which was mined was sent by river
and rail to Boma, and the total cost of freight from Kiambi
to Antwerp amounted to about £20 per ton. The various
improvements suggested will be discussed later (see p. 234).
In addition to the mines at Muika, various others have been
located. The Bakat, which owns those at Muika, has another
promising block to the north-west of Kiambi. East of that place
the Geomine has found tin, while to the north and south of it
the Minerkat has also prospected successfully. At Mulongo
all three companies have claims. The Geomine has also
located tin at Kikonja, and on the Lukusi between Kikonja
and Mulongo, while the Minerkat has discovered it between
the Lukuga and the Niemba in the vicinity of the coal-field of
the Lukuga. The mines on the Lukusi are at present the most
important, and have hitherto produced about 300 tons of tin
yearly, but a more extensive plant has now been laid down,
and considerable developments are expected in the near future.
In the south-west, where the Union miniere has extensive
holdings, there are deposits of considerable extent in the
neighbourhood of Busanga and Kasonzo. Those at Busanga
have already produced a large quantity of cassiterite.
Gold
Gold is found in various geological formations in the Belgian
Congo, but with the exception of the country round Kilo no
great source of supply has as yet been located. Lode-pro
specting so far has consisted mainly in tracing placer deposits
to their source, and little success appears to have been achieved.
The one lode which has been carefully examined is situated at
Ruwe in the Katanga. The rock which contains the ore
consists of a single indurated banded sandstone, which is said
to be about 1,200 feet long and from 3 to 20 feet wide.
BELG. CONGO 0

210 MINERALS
It varies in value, but according to one estimate made some
years ago it is worth about £3 10s. per ton in gold, silver,
platinum, and palladium. Below the point at which the lode
crops out the debris derived from it contains nuggets of gold,
some of which are two inches in diameter and weigh up to
300 grammes. The general opinion seems to be that the gold
found in these nuggets was dissolved from the lode and
deposited in situ in the detrital material. For a time these
deposits were worked and a certain amount of gold obtained.
Since then operations have ceased, but the Union miniere,
which has concessions there, intends when the Katanga railway
reaches Ruwe to investigate them still further, and if possible
to develop them.
Some quartz veins containing gold have also been discovered.
One of these is situated about five miles from Kasama, near
the confluence of the Lufonzo and the Lukala. It is owned by
the Geomine, and is said to yield 30 grammes of gold per ton.
Other veins have been found at Nhowa, upon the left bank of
the Lualaba, north-west of Ruwe. The yield of gold obtained
from them is small, but it is possible that richer ores exist.
In the Katanga nearly all the rocks impregnated with malachite
contain gold, but it always occurs in very small quantities.
The sands and gravels in the beds of many of the rivers which
originate in the copper deposits of Kambove and elsewhere
also contain gold, which can be recovered by washing.
The most important placer deposits in the colony are found
in the vicinity of Kilo, where they occur along the headstreams
of the Ituri. The country rock is diorite, and it is probable
that the gold is derived from pyritiferous quartz veins, which
seem to be particularly numerous at the point of contact
between the diorite and the granite. The auriferous deposits,
which are generally superficial, are believed to cover a much
wider area than has yet been investigated ; they are known,
however, to vary greatly in value. The gold itself occurs in
the form of grains and nuggets, and has been worked at Kilo
since 1905. No payable lode appears to have been discovered
as yet, though rumours of rich finds are frequent.
In various parts of the world gold ores occur in or closely
associated with banded quartzite or siliceous schists rich in
haematite or magnetite. The Kanwa mine, situated on the
Tele river — a tributary of the Itimbiri — is a placer of this

GOLD 211
type. The region is a heavily wooded, sharply dissected
plateau, formed principally of a gneiss-schist complex. Within
this complex is an extensive band of quartzite, which is in
part replaced by haematite. The gold is found in the beds of
the streams which flow through the region, and appears to be
most abundant in the vicinity of the iron-ore -band and along
the line of contact with the schist-gneiss complex. At Nebula,
not far from Kanwa, there is another placer deposit of similar
character, and gold has also been found in the haematite
quartzite of Babeyru, farther to the east.
At Moto, which is about 85 miles north-west of Kilo, the
country rock is reported to be granite, diorite, and haema-
titic schists, and gold of good quantity is found, though the
grains are as a rule rather fine, and large nuggets are rare.
Placers have also been found to the south-east of Moto along '
the courses of the Kibali and of its tributaries, the Lemba,
Kadi, and Kira, and at the confluence of the Aru and Abu
headstreams of the Kibali.
In the Lower Congo gold has been found in certain streams,
the clayey alluvium of which is derived from diabase. It is
probable that the only deposits likely to prove of commercial
value are confined to a belt in which basic igneous intrusions
are particularly abundant.
Oj* the whole the Belgian Congo does not appear to be rich
in gold. The mines at Kilo at present produce the greater part of
the total output, which in 1917 was valued at 10,720,000 francs,
and unless valuable lodes are discovered in the vicinity it is
unlikely that they will seriously affect the world's supply.
Diamonds
Diamonds are known to exist in various parts of the Congo,
but the only field which has yet proved of much importance is
in the Kasai region. It belongs to the Societi internationale
' forestiere et miniere du Congo, and lies within the area
drained by the Kasai and its tributaries from the west, the
most important of which are the Lovua, the Chikapa, the
Longachimo, the Chiumbe, and the Luembe. As far as is
at present known the diamond-bearing area is triangular in
form, and measures 130 miles from north to south, while it is
65 miles wide at its southern base along the Angola frontier.
o2

212 MINERALS
The first diamonds were discovered in 1907, but exploitation
proper did not begin till 1913. The stones occur either in the
present riv^r gravel, particularly in the riffles and pot-holes of
certain of the smaller streams and in the sand-bars of the
larger ones, or in the alluvial deposits of the terraces which
mark the former levels of the rivers. They are somewhat
similar to those obtained in German South- West Africa, but
on the whole are smaller. The average weight is probably
about one-tenth of a carat, though at least one stone weighing
about 15 carats has been found. A considerable percentage of
the diamonds are water-white, while the rest are in part yellow
and off-colour stones, and in part deep yellow, topaz, and
apple-green. The output was estimated at 90,000 carats in
1917. For some years it has been known that there are diamonds
in the Katanga, and investigations regarding the extent to
which they occur have been made in two regions. The first of
these is in the Kundelungu, where there are a number of
' pipes ' similar in geological character to those which produce
the diamonds of Kimberley. The largest of these is on the
eastern slope of the plateau in the basin of the Luanza, a small
river which flows into the Luizi, a tributary of the Luapula,
and here the chief workings have so far taken place. Other
'pipes' are known to exist in the basin of the Katme, a
tributary of the Lualaba, in the basin of the Lashipuka, a
tributary of the Luapula, and in the basin of the Kasanga on
the western slope of the plateau.
The work at Luanza has been hindered by the hardness of
the surface rock and the scarcity of labour, and, although a
number of small diamonds have been found it is not yet known
whether the enterprise will prove a commercial success. Before
the outbreak of war it had been decided to open up another
* pipe ' and to introduce more efficient machinery, but since
1914 operations generally appear to have been suspended.
The second region where diamonds are known to occur lies
in the basin of the Lualaba, where they were first discovered
in 1906 in the alluvium of that river and some of its tributaries,
especially the Mutendola creek. The district within which
they have been found lies between the confluence of the Gule,
a little north of Ruwe, and the mouth of" the Kalule, a short
distance above Bukama. About one-half the stones obtained

DIAMONDS 213
are colourless, while the others are yellow, brown, and rose ;
all, however, appear to be small.
The exploitation of diamonds in the Katanga has so far
been conducted by the Comite d' exploitation des Kundelungu-
Lualaba. As other prospectors, however, claim to have made
discoveries of importance, the Government has decided to
withdraw its prohibition of diamond-mining in the Kunde
lungu by others than the Comite". But in order to regulate
the output all stones which are found must be handed over to
the Government, which fixes the price. In 1917 it was 3 francs
45 centimes per carat.
Diamonds, topazes, and other precious stones have also been
discovered in the north-east of the colony in the concessions
granted to the Societe forestiere et miniere and the SocietS
miniere de la Tele. Regarding them very little is as yet
known. Coal
Up to the present time the most important deposits of coal
which have been discovered are those which lie to the north
of the Lukuga river near Lake Tanganyika. The geological
conditions under which it occurs do not yet appear to have
been determined. By some it is thought to be of Permo-
Triassic age, while by others it is considered to be much older.
The gently inclined bed-rock in which it is found contains
five beds of coal from 2 to 6^ feet thick, and with a total
thickness of about 16 feet. These beds are separated from one
another by less than 32 feet of barren material. The coal has
been traced for some 20 miles, and underlies at least 12 square
miles. The extent of the coal-field and its proximity to the
Lukuga railway led to high hopes at the time of its discovery,
hopes, however, which as yet remain unfulfilled. The coal, like
that of some of the inferior qualities found in Rhodesia, is
relatively poor in carbon, and contains large quantities of ash.
For some time it was consumed on the Tanganyika steamers,
but its use there appears to have been abandoned. Experiments
made with it as fuel for the locomotives on the Kigoma-Dar-
es-Salam railway have also failed, but will be renewed when
deeper seams have been reached. A more recent report states
that the coal mixed with timber is now used on the Grands
Lacs railways and that the results are considered to be very

214 MINERALS .
satisfactory. Suggestions have been made to treat the coal
mechanically in order to prepare it for industrial purposes,
but whether such attempts will succeed is as yet uncertain.
The coal discovered in other parts of the Congo appears to
be even less promising. South of Bukama some seams have
been found, but they are very impure, and contain much shale
and pyrites. (It has recently been stated, however, that the
coal is better than is here indicated, but definite information
is still wanting.) Farther north, on Katanga Creek, a tribu
tary of the Lubumba river, there are carbonaceous shales which
contain coal, apparently of little value. Lower down the river,
near Ponthierville, a few thin seams of coaly matter have been
located.

Iron
Iron ore of various grades is widely distributed in the
Belgian Congo, but owing to their relative inaccessibility they
have been investigated only to a slight extent, and com
paratively little is known about them. The deposits which
may ultimately prove of commercial value occur in the older
rocks surrounding the Central Basin. The most important
are probably those lying in the Katanga to the south of the
copper belt. They consist of haematite and magnetite, which
are altered to limonite near the surface and along planes of
free water circulation. As they are usually harder than the
surrounding rocks, they often stand up as conical hills. In
the vicinity of the Lualaba, in the west of this district, some
of the ores are reported to contain 65 per cent, of iron. The
want of fuel for smelting the ore, and the prohibitive cost of
exporting it, have prevented any attempt to exploit it, and it
would seem likely that, for a considerable time at least, the
iron ores of the Katanga must remain among the undeveloped
resources of the country.
The Kasai region consists of flat-lying sandstones and shales
resting upon a surface of older rocks believed to be pre-
Cambrian. The deeper river-valleys have cut through this
blanket of younger rocks, exposing the older formations, which
also rise up in places from among the sandstone. The pre
dominant older rock within the area bounded by the Kasai,
the Luebo, and the Lulua is an iron formation. It appears to

IRON • 215
be a dark-grey, brown, or red-banded rock, closely resembling
the banded iron ores in the Vermilion range in Michigan.
Haematite and magnetite are its principal constituents.
In the Welle region there are also considerable deposits of
iron ore, which form lines of conical hills running a little west
of north parallel to the general strike of the ancient schists
and gneisses. They consist of dense, rather fine-grained
haematite,, with some magnetite, and are often banded, the
purer ore bands alternating with those of a more siliceous
character. In the east of the colony the mountains in the Maniema-
Kivu region are also reported to be rich in iron ores. They
usually occur in conical peaks and rounded mountains, and
are of all gradations, from light-coloured impure quartzite, the
rock replaced, to dense fine-grained specular haematite, with
some magnetite.
Over a great part of the Congo there are also superficial
deposits of iron ore. They include ferruginous clays and
sandstones, and are in part detrital deposits, the ferruginous
residuum of rocks which have weathered away, and in part
chemical deposits laid down by surface waters heavily charged
with iron. At one time they furnished the native with the
greater part of the iron which he used, but it is questionable
whether they would be regarded as worth exploitation by
.European methods.
As it is unlikely that the iron resources of the Congo will
be developed for a considerable time to come, comparatively
little attention has been paid to them, and few details regard
ing their character and value are obtainable. But that they
constitute a valuable reserve of wealth for the colony can
hardly be doubted. Bituminous Shales
In the rocks of the Lualaba system some beds of bituminous
shales have been found in the vicinity of Ponthierville, near
Stanleyville, and at several points along the line between
these towns. The beds have a maximum thickness of about
5 feet, and upon distillation yield from 70 to 170 litres of oil
per ton. Associated with some of the outcrops are thin layers
of lignite. A company has bored for oil without success, and

216 MINERALS .
whether it will ultimately be found appears to be doubtful.
Much depends upon the degree of folding which exists in the
Lualaba rocks underlying the Central Basin, and the soundings
which have so far been made are not particularly encouraging.
Bituminous rocks have also been reported from various places
along the Atlantic coast. In the vicinity of Chipanga there are
folded sandstone and cavernous limestone of considerable
thickness. These rocks are saturated with asphalt, and upon
analysis show about 24 per cent, of asphaltic matter. Several
small oil-seeps rise there, and the general geological formation
is believed to be favourable for finding oil. Bitumen is from
time to time said to be found floating on the surface of Lake
Tanganyika. • Miscellaneous Minerals
Metallic. — Platinum and palladium occur in the gold-
bearing veins, and platinum in the detrital deposits at Ruwe.
A little native silver is associated with the copper ores at
Bamanga, and the galena of the copper quartz vein at Kitala
in the Lower Katanga is reported to be slightly argentiferous.
A little galena has been found at several points along the
railway in the Lower Congo, and to the east of the Lulua river,
about 7° S. In the Katanga manganese ores are frequently
associated with the iron deposits, but their value is unknown.
Tungsten is said to occur in the granitic region of Mulongo,
and traces of it are also found with the tin at Kiambi.
Non-Metallic. — Rock-salt is not known to exist, but in
the eastern part of the colony there are a number of hot and
cold springs, from which the natives of that district have long
obtained salt. Many of these springs are situated along faults
parallel to the Great Rift Valley. Near Nyangwe and on the
shores of Lake Tanganyika there are other springs from which
salt is occasionally obtained. In various parts of the Katanga
saline springs, mostly thermal, are quite common. Among
other non-metallic minerals may be mentioned monazite,
zircon, and anatase, which have been found in concentrates in
gold-prospecting. Barite occurs in large residual masses on
the Lower Congo railway half-way between Thysville and
Matadi. Asbestos is said to occur in the Katanga.

CHAPTER XIII
COMMUNICATIONS Railways
The Belgian Congo has at the present time 1,250 miles (2,012
kilometres) of railway. The first lines to be constructed were
those which link up the navigable reaches of the Congo. Later
on the mineral region of the Katanga was connected with the
South African system, and the railway has since been continued
to Bukama at the head of navigation on the Lualaba. A third
important line is that which runs from Kabalo on the Lualaba
to Albertville on Lake Tanganyika and, in conjunction with
the Kigoma-Dar-es-Salam railway, opens up a route to the
Indian Ocean. The most important development of the im
mediate future will be the completion of the line connecting
the Katanga railway at Chilongo with Lobito Bay on the
Atlantic. As the great system of inland waterways afforded by the
Congo and its tributaries was entirely cut off from access to
the sea by the long series of falls and rapids which lie between
Leopoldville on Stanley Pool and Matadi on the lower Congo,
the necessity for a railway connecting these two places was
felt from the moment that attempts were first made to develop
the interior. In 1885 a group of British capitalists sought a
concession for the construction of such a line, but they made
conditions to' which the Independent State was unable to
agree, and the project fell through. In 1887, under the auspices
of the Compagnie du Congo pour le commerce et I'industrie,
a preliminary survey of the route of the proposed line was
initiated, and in 1899 the Compagnie du chemin de fer du
Congo was founded to undertake its construction. Work was
actually begun in March 1890, and in March 1898 railhead
reached Dolo on Stanley Pool.
The construction of the line involved very considerable
engineering difficulties. The structure of the so-called Crystal
Mountains in the part where they are crossed by the railway

218 , COMMUNICATIONS
is somewhat as follows. In the west there is the massif of
Palabala, through which the Congo flows between Isangila and
Matadi. Farther to the east is the massif of Bangu, or rather
its prolongation to the south, in traversing which between
Leopoldville and Manyanga the Congo has cut a rocky defile,
where its waters descend in a series of falls over a succession of
rocky barriers. Between these two massifs there lies a com
paratively level country drained by several parallel rivers.
The watersheds which separate their basins, though sometimes
high, are much less difficult to cross than the massifs already
mentioned. These physical facts determine the general profile of the
line. As soon as it leaves Matadi it becomes involved in hilly
country and crosses the torrential Mpozo at a distance of
5 miles from the town. Then it begins to ascend the Palabala,
and 9. miles from Matadi reaches an altitude of 918 feet,
having risen 711 feet in 4 miles. After descending the eastern
slope of the Palabala as far as there is one, the railway follows
an up-and-down course for some distance, and then gradually
rises to the watershed which separates the basin of the Mavutete
from that of the Lufu. Here it is 1,295 feet above sea-level.
About 46 miles from Matadi it enters the relatively level
country which extends to the foot of the eastern massif, a
distance of about 84 miles. In this part of the route the rail
way crosses the Lufu, the Kunkula, the Sansikua, the Kwilu,
and the Gongo. Here the greatest difference in height is
between the crossing of the Lufu, which is 961 feet above sea-
level, and the pass at Zole over the watershed between the
Sansikua and the Kwilu, which is 1,575 feet above sea-level.
Each of the rivers crossed, however, means a descent on the
one side and an ascent on the other.
Beyond the Gongo the railway meets its second great diffi
culty, the southerly prolongation of the massif of Bangu. The
ascent begins at a point 139 miles from Matadi, and in the
course of the next 5£ miles the railway rises from 1,903 feet to
2,448 feet above sea-level. The latter altitude, which is the
highest on the line, is reached at Thysville at the pass of
Zona Gongo. From Zona Gongo to Tampa, a distance of
56 miles, the railway traverses mountainous country, the
lowest heights being reached at the passage of the Inkisi, and
the Lukusu, 1,739 feet and 1,706 feet respectively above sea-

RAILWAYS 219
level. Beyond Tampa the line follows the valley of the
Lukaya for a considerable part of the way to Stanley Pool.
From the foregoing sketch it is obvious that the physical
difficulties in the way of the construction of the railway were
very great. To overcome them involved a heavy expenditure,
and unfortunately it was necessary, in order that the line
should be constructed at all, to cut down the outlay on the
permanent way to the lowest possible amount. It was intended
indeed that parts of it should be provisional only, and that
various improvements should be introduced as opportunity
might offer. So far, however, little has been done, and the
railway is now quite inadequate for the demands made upon
it. The gauge is only 2 feet 5| inches (-75 metre) ; the minimum
radius of the curve was originally 164 feet (50 metres), but has
since been increased to 196 feet 10 inches (60 metres) ; there are
gradients of 1 in 22 on the straight line and of 1 in 35 to 1 in
43 on the curve. The steepest gradients occur in the ascent of
Palabala; elsewhere they do not exceed 1 in 30 except in a
few sections in the mountain districts round Thysville.
Numerous steel bridges had to be constructed in order to cross
the rivers of the region. That over the Inkisi has a length
of 328 feet, and several others are between 164 and 328 feet.
Many of the bridges are on a steep slope, sometimes as much
as 1 in 32, while some are on a curve as well. The most
remarkable is perhaps that which crosses the Shute ravine.
It has a length of 131 feet, a gradient of 1 in 36, and a curve
of 164 feet (50 metres) in radius.
The difficulties on the existing railway arise mainly from
the steepness of its gradients and the sharpness of its curves.
The narrowness of its gauge is less important as far as the
economical working of the line is concerned. But the steep
ness of the gradients does not permit an engine to pull more
than three or four loaded wagons at one time, and on an
average a locomotive does not pull its own weight of goods.
The sharpness of the curves on the,other hand does not permit
a high rate of speed to be attained. Further the number of
sidings where trains going in opposite directions may pass one
another is still limited. The general result is that the expense
of working the line is considerable, and freights, notwith
standing the reductions made in 1910 and subsequently, are
still high. Until something of a drastic nature has been done

220 COMMUNICATIONS
to lower them the development of the communications of the
interior of the country will be of comparatively little value.
As a matter of fact the reconstruction of the whole line is
necessary, as any minor rectifications which might be made
would do little to improve the existing state of affairs. A few
years ago it was suggested by Colonel Thys that the road.
should in great part be rebuilt, that it should carry a double
track, that the gauge should be 3*28 feet (1 metre), or 3*48 feet
(1*06 metre), the gradients not more than 1 in 50, nor the
radius of the curves less than 492 feet (150 metres). He also
suggested the construction of a number of tunnels, some of
which would be of considerable length, of larger and better
bridges over the rivers, and of numerous embankments. The
matter was still under consideration when war broke out, and
since then nothing has been done.
At either terminus of the railway transhipment from rail to
"steamer or from steamer to rail is necessary for the bulk of the
merchandise carried by it. But the facilities for this are still
very unsatisfactory. After the line touches Stanley Pool at
Dolo it turns westward and runs by way of Kinshasa to
Leopoldville. The latter port, however, has few facilities for
transhipping goods, and its proximity to the first falls of the
lower Congo makes it rather a dangerous place for steamers to
lie. Kinshasa, which is higher up and therefore safer, is still
undeveloped as a port, though various companies have wharves
and warehouses there. Proposals for the establishment of a
satisfactory port on the Pool have been made from time to
time, but up to the present nothing of much importance has
been done. At the lower end of the line Matadi is also badly
provided for receiving and despatching goods.
Notwithstanding the difficulties under which it labours,
however, the railway from Matadi to Leopoldville has played
an important part in the economic development of the colony.
It not only carries on all the trade between the ports on the
lower Congo and the whole of the interior, with the exception
of the Katanga and some of the eastern districts, but it is the
outlet for all the goods which collect at the French port of
Brazzaville on the side of Stanley Pool opposite to that on
which Leopoldville stands. Some of this trade comes by way
of the Ubangi and the Congo, and some by way of the French
railway from Minduli to Brazzaville. The high rates on the

RAILWAYS 221
Congo line are an additional inducement to the French to
continue their own railway to the Atlantic at Pointe Noire.
The present rates for the carriage of goods from Matadi to
Leopoldville are as follows (before 1912 they had been much
higher and had the effect of adding anything from 30 to 50
per cent., and in some cases 100 per cent., to the cost of the
goods at the ports of the lower Congo) :
Class of goods Bate per metric ton
£, s. d.
Wines, copper, gold coin, and precious metals . . 38 0 0
Textiles  . 30 8 0
Silver coin  16 0 0
Provisions  640
Paint, varnish, oil  5 12 0
Building materials, ironwork, copper money, and flour 4 16 0
Salt, sugar and briquettes  4 0 0
Rice, steamers, agricultural or industrial material . 3 4 0
The freight rates for the transport of Congo produce from
Leopoldville to Matadi are as follows :
Class of goods Bate per metric ton
£ s. d.
Ivory  40 0 0
Rubber  5 12 0
Other goods  1 17 6
The following table shows the amount of traffic (passenger
ahd goods) on the line during the years 1911-16 :

Goods in metric tons

No. of passengers
Matadi to Leopoldville to
carried
Leopoldville Matadi
Total
191112
48,082
54,237 11,666
65,903
1912-13
72,388
60,176 13,760
73,939
1913-14
—
62,210 15,219
77,429
1914-15
75,517
22,709 17,739
40,448
1915-16
72,317
29,968 31,567
61,535
The Mayumbe railway, which runs from Boma almost due
north, was begun by the Societe" des chemins de fer vicinaux
du Mayumbe in 1898 with the object of developing the agri
cultural resources of the Mayumbe district. The original
intention was that it should be carried to the French frontier at
Dungu on the left bank of the Chiloango, about 124 miles from
Boma, but the cost of construction was so great that in 1901
the company was permitted to stop operations when railhead
reached the Lukula, 50 miles from the starting-point. In 1907,
at the request of the company, whose financial position appears
222 COMMUNICATIONS
to have been far from sound, the State took over the entire
administration of the line. An attempt made in 1909 to reduce
the freights which had been fixed by the company was un
successful, as that body refused its consent. In 1910 the State
continued the line across the Lukula towards Chela, and on
this section, where it had sole control, charged rates which were
lower by 50 per cent, than those on the southern section. This
state of affairs soon became very unsatisfactory, as the higher
rates which prevailed in the south checked the development
both of the line and the country through which it passed, and
in 1914 the State decided to take over the whole line. The rates
existing in 1918 were, however, still very high. It is said that in
Africa the charge on ordinary merchandise ought not to exceed
lfd. per ton-mile (10 c. per tonne-kilometre), and on wood
^fd. to £f<i. (3 c. to 4 c. per tonne-kilometre). The rates actually
levied on the Mayumbe railway are very much higher. For
cocoa the tariff is Is. %d. per ton-mile (78 c. per tonne- kilometre),
for rubber 3s. 2d. (2fr. 38 a), and for timber &&d. (38 c).
The railway has now reached Chela on the Lubuzi. It con
sists of a single line with a gauge of 1 -968 feet (-60 metre).
There are no modern locomotives in use, and the rolling-stock
is limited.After the completion of the railway from Matadi to Leopold
ville the next stage in the development of the communications
of the country was obviously the construction of a line between
Stanleyville and Ponthierville, where the Congo is again un-
navigable. The work was undertaken by the State with the
assistance of a limited liability company known as the
Compagnie des chemins defer du Congo superieur aux Grands
Lacs africains. This company was originally founded in
1902 to connect the Congo with the Nile and Lakes Tanganyika
and Albert by a vast system of railways. It quickly realized,
however, that such a grandiose scheme was quite beyond
its powers for the time being, and adopted the much more
practicable idea of turning by means of railways the unnavi-
gable portions of the Congo above Stanley Falls and between
Sendwe and the Porte d'Enfer.
The rapids between Ponthierville and Stanleyville are not
caused, like those below Stanley Pool, by the passage of the
river through a mountain region, but by a gradual fall in the
level of the land. Between the first fall immediately below

RAILWAYS 223
Ponthierville and the last immediately above Stanleyville the
river falls 181 feet. The railway forms the chord to the curve
which the Congo describes between the two towns mentioned.
It runs through forest country in which there are no great
changes of altitude, and the chief physical obstacles to be
overcome are the relatively deep valleys of a number of rivers
following parallel courses to the Congo, which they join on its
left bank.
The line starts on the left bank of the river opposite to
Stanleyville, the initial height above sea-level being 1,404 feet.
The track follows a course which rises with alternate ascents
and descents to a point between the Usengwe and Bikubi
rivers, where it is 361 feet higher than at the starting-point.
From this point, which is 71 miles distant from Stanleyville
and only 10 miles distant from Ponthierville, the line descends to
the latter town situated at a height of 1,542 feet above sea-level.
In the construction of the railway attention was paid to the
lessons taught by the working of the Matadi-Leopoldville line.
The metre gauge (3*28 feet) was adopted, the minimum radius
for the curves was fixed at 328 feet (100 metres), and the
maximum gradient at 1 in 50. For purposes of traction these
limits are slightly increased, owing to the fact that some of the
steepest gradients occur on the curves. The sleepers are made
of wood which was cut in the vicinity, bombali, a very hard
close-grained red wood resembling cedar, giving the most
satisfactory results. Of the fourteen bridges which were
rendered necessary by the rivers the first to be constructed
were made of wood and the remainder of steel. The longest
are those over the Malinda and the Biaro ; they do not exceed
210 feet in length. The additional expense involved in the
more careful construction of the line has been fully repaid
by the greater efficiency of the locomotives employed and by
reduced running expenses.
The second line built by the Compagnie des Grands Lacs is
that which runs from Kindu to Kongolo. The course which
it follows is somewhat more difficult than that of the first line.
The station at Kindu is situated on the left bank of the Congo
a little below the village of Sendwe, where the river is ob
structed by rapids. As far as the crossing of the Lufube, about
107 miles from Kindu, the railway follows the upstream course
of the river, and is never more than 10 miles from its bank.

224 COMMUNICATIONS
i
In this section the construction of the permanent way pre
sented few difficulties. The country, except near Kindu, is
generally flat, and the bridges which it was necessary to con
struct were neither numerous nor important. Beyond the
Mulengoi the railway departs from the river, and more difficult
country begins. One important obstacle which it was necessary
to overcome was the range of heights which are continued
across the Congo at the Porte d'Enfer.
The line, which is on the metre gauge, has a length of
217*5 miles. The details given with regard to the construction
of the line from Stanleyville to Ponthierville apply in this
case also, with the exception that wooden sleepers are replaced
by metal ones.
The third railway built by the Compagnie des Grands Lacs
is that which connects Kabalo with Albertville on Lake Tan
ganyika. The German line from Dar.-es-Salam to Kigoma by
way of Tabora threatened to bring the western shores of Lake
Tanganyika and some of the eastern districts of the Congo
within the German sphere of influence, and the Belgian line
was constructed partly at least with the object of providing an
alternative route which would be confined to the colony. The
railway was begun in 1911, but owing to the war its com
pletion was delayed until the Germans were finally defeated
on Lake Tanganyika.
The railway begins at Kabalo, situated on the Lualaba a
short distance to the south of Kongolo, and takes advantage
of the gap through which the Lukuga flows from Lake Tan
ganyika. It has a length of about 168 miles, and for the first
part of its way runs on the left bank of the Lukuga, but at a
considerable distance from the river itself. Here there are
no engineering difficulties of any kind, but at about 103 miles
from Kabalo a considerable amount of work was involved in
carrying the track from the high ground which it had hitherto
occupied down to the valley of the Lukuga, which it follows
for the last 43 miles or so of its course. Farther on also some
blasting was necessary in order to prepare the way through
the gorge of Mitwanzi, in which the Lukuga flows shortly
after it leaves the lake.
As regards gauge and methods of construction the line
appears to be similar to the other sections of the Grands Lacs
railway.

RAILWAYS

225

The following tables show the traffic (passenger and goods)
carried on the different sections of the Grands Lacs railway
since 1912 : Stanleyville —Ponthierville Section
Goods in metric tons
No. of Stanleyville to Ponthieroille fo
Ponthierville Stanleyville
17,471 766
22,002 1,970
23,147 2,248
12,022 2,450
Kindtj— Kongolo Section
Goods in metric tons
Kindu to Kongolo to
Kongolo Kindu
13,701 334
15,343 365
21,149 3,530
4,779 230

Year 1912

passengers 17,330

1913

21,750

1914

19,445

1915

26,107 K

No. of

Year

passengers

1912

10,052

1913

12,652

1914

18,211

1915

11,196

Total
18,237
23,972
25,39514,472

Total
14,03515,70824,679 5,009

The heavy traffic in an upstream direction on both sections,
especially during the first three years, is to be explained in
part by the fact that a considerable quantity of material was
being imported at that time for the construction of the line
from Kabalo to Albertville on Lake Tanganyika. On the
Kindu-Kongolo section, for example, the Grands Lacs company
carried the following traffic for its own account :
Goods in metric tons
Year Kindu to Kongolo Kongolo to Kindu Total
1912 12,16,5 57 12,222
1913' ' 13,290 159 13,449
1914 16,607 3,428 20,035
1915 2,365 90 2,455
A certain amount of railway material was also sent by this
route to Bukama for the construction of the northern part of
the Katanga railway.
The longest and in some respects the most important rail
way in the Belgian Congo is that which runs through the
Katanga from Sakania on the frontier, where it connects with
the South African and Rhodesian system to Bukama at the
head of steam navigation on the Congo. By it the valuable
mineral region of the Katanga is brought into direct railway
communication with the ports of East and South Africa, and is
also connected by rail and river with the ports on the
lower Congo.
BELG. CONGO F

226 COMMUNICATIONS
From the time when the possibility of finding great stores
of mineral wealth in the Katanga was first realized the question
of connecting it with the outside world became of the first
importance. In 1902 the Compagnie du chemin de fer du
Katanga was founded with the object of studying the route
and eventually constructing the line which would connect the
Rhodesian frontier with the navigable Congo. At that time
little could be done, as the railway from the south was
still 500 miles distant from the frontier. By 1906 the
position had sensibly improved. The Rhodesian railway
had reached Broken Hill, which was only 140 miles from
the frontier, and the Tanganyika Concessions had begun to
prospect for minerals. Two things were, however, requisite
for the development of the copper mines which they dis
covered, railways and coal. As the latter could be obtained
from the Wankie field about 60 miles south of Victoria Falls,
the case for the railway became very strong, and in 1908 an
agreement was arrived at by which the Tanganyika Con
cessions agreed to furnish the money necessary for its con
struction from Broken Hill to the frontier at Sakania, while
the Compagnie du chemin de fer du Katanga agreed to con
tinue it to the copper mines at Elisabethville. Work was
immediately begun ; in November 1909 railhead reached the
Belgo-Rhodesian frontier, and in October 1910 it arrived at
Elisabethville. As far as the actual development of the
Katanga mines was then concerned the most important part
of the work was thus completed, as an inlet for coal and other
mining requisites and an outlet for copper had been provided.
But from the Belgian point of view much had still to be done.
The Government viewed with considerable apprehension the
way in which the Katanga appeared to be falling under the
economic control of British and South African groups, and
desired to link it up more closely with the remainder of the
colony. The Compagnie du chemin de fer du Congo accord
ingly arranged to begin work at Bukama, notwithstanding the
difficulties in the way of transporting the necessary material
to that place, and to build a line southwards, while a Belgian
company, the Societe coloniale de construction, founded by the
Societe commerciale et miniere, undertook the construction of
the line from Elisabethville, which it was to continue until it
should meet the line coming from Bukama. In June 1913

RAILWAYS 227
Elisabethville was linked up with Kambove, 96 miles distant,
and the whole work seemed likely to be completed in 1915,
when all plans were disarranged by the war. Progress became
much slower, but in July 1915 railhead had advanced to
Chilongo, 69 miles from Kambove. Shortly thereafter the
financial position improved, work was energetically resumed
on both sections of the line, and, notwithstanding the con
siderable engineering difficulties encountered in traversing
the Biano country, the line was successfully completed in
May 1918.
For the greater part of the way the railway runs across the
plateau country of the Katanga, where the line is comparatively
easy to build. Beyond Kambove the land rises, and the rail
way reaches its highest point on the Biano plateau. From
there a steep descent leads to the valley of the Lualaba at
Bukama, and it was on this section of the line that the con
struction of the permanent way presented most difficulties.
The Katanga railway between the frontier and Bukama has a
length of about 450 miles. Like other lines connecting with
the South African system, it has a gauge of 3*48 feet (1*06
metre). Both rails and sleepers are of steel, the use of wood
for the latter being rendered impossible by the white ant. The
rolling-stock is modern. The engines, which weigh 70 tons
each, are as powerful as the large goods engines used in
Belgium, but they are so constructed that wood may be used
as fuel. The wagons used for the transport of copper have
a capacity of 35, tons, and are fitted with arrangements for the
automatic unloading of their contents. Those which convey
coal and coke from Wankie to the mineral districts have
a capacity of 30 tons. For passenger traffic corridor cars'
are employed, and the mail trains, which run twice a week and'
provide direct communication with Cape Town, have restaurant
cars attached. Carriages and wagons are provided with auto
matic couplings, and goods and passenger trains are alike
equipped with vacuum brakes.
The principal stations between the frontier and Bukama,
with their distances from the frontier, are as follows : Sakania,
7\ miles, is the customs station for all goods coming from
Rhodesia ; Kasumbalesa, 95 miles, has iron deposits ; Elisabeth
ville, 158 miles, is the centre of the copper-smelting industry,
and has a branch line to the Star mine; at Kamatanda,
p2

228 COMMUNICATIONS
242 miles, there is a branch line to the copper mines at Likasi,
where the Union miniere proposes to erect works for the con
centration of the poorer ores; Kambove and Fungurume,
257 and 300 miles respectively, are the centres of important
copper-mining districts ; Chilongo, 325 miles, is the station at
which the Katanga railway will eventually be linked up with
the Benguella railway from Lobito Bay ; Kamana, 344 miles,
is a mission station of the Peres Bene'dictins and the centre of
their agricultural estates ; Lubudi, 381 miles, is in the neigh
bourhood of the tin mines belonging to the Union miniere and
of the coal deposits recently discovered by the Simkat ; Bukama,
450 miles, is at the head of steam navigation upon the
Lualaba-Congo. The traffic on the Katanga railway is already considerable,
and with the development of the mineral industry will rapidly
increase. In 1917 over 600,000 tons of goods were carried on
the uncompleted line. This compares very favourably with the
Matadi railway, where the annual movement amounts to only
about 80,000 tons. The freights on the Katanga railway are
also much lower. In 1915 they varied from lfd. per ton-mile
(10 c. per tonne-kilometre) to 8%d. per ton-mile (60 c. per
tonne-kilometre), according to the nature of the goods carried.
Train- loads of coal going through to the mining centres were
charged at the rate of slightly less than %d. per ton-mile
(4*5 c. per tonne-kilometre).
Various extensions of the existing railway system have been
suggested. The more important, partly because it has strong
financial backing and is already in course of construction, is
that which will eventually connect Katanga with the Atlantic
coast at Lobito Bay. So far as it has yet been built it lies
wholly within the Portuguese territory of Angola, and is the
property of the Companhia do Caminho de Ferro de Benguella,
90 per cent, of the shares of which are owned by the Tangan
yika Concessions. From Lobito Bay the railway runs south
ward to Benguella, after which it goes first in a south-easterly
and then in a northerly direction to reach the high Angolan
plateau. The construction of this part of the course was one
of very considerable difficulty. Between Benguella and Mount
Sahoa the line rises 1,115 feet in 13| miles and passes over
high embankments and through numerous deep tunnels, which
had to be made in the granitic rocks. On this section of the

RAILWAYS 229
line lies the Lengue Gorge, a narrow meandering defile, where
it was found necessary to construct about one and a third mile
of rack-rail. Beyond the Lengjie Gorge the railway con
tinues to cross very difficult country. Between Mount Sahoa
and the watershed between the Coroteva and the Chicutucoto
the line rises from 1,128 feet to 2,903 above sea-level, falls to
1,761 feet in the valley of the Catengue, and rises again to
2,930 between the Solo and the Sapa. On the section which
lies between 200 and 225 miles from Lobito Bay the Lepi
Mountains have to be crossed at a height of 4,651 feet, and
here the gradients are often very steep. Farther on, at Lepi
Portella, the highest point reached by the line is 6,082 feet
above sea-level. At Huambo, which is 265 miles from Lobito
Bay, the altitude is 5,413 feet. Beyond Huambo the country
becomes* much more level. The line crosses the Bulu-Vulu
plateau, which constitutes the watershed between the Kubango
and the Kwanza to reach Chinguar, 323 miles from Lobito,
where railhead has for some years been stationary. The
embankments have been constructed as far as Belmonte,
62 miles farther on, but the difficulty of obtaining rails
during the war has delayed the completion of this section
of the line. Beyond Belmonte the track of the line does not
appear to have been finally settled, but its general direction
after crossing the Kwanza is along the Congo-Zambezi water
shed. Few engineering difficulties exist, and it is believed
that the work of construction will be easy.
As part of the route has been only roughly surveyed, it is
impossible at present to give exact figures regarding the
length of the line. From Lobito Bay to the Belgian frontier
the distance is estimated at about 790 miles, and from the
frontier to Chilongo, the point of junction with the Katanga
railway, about 385 miles. According to these figures Kambove,
the present centre of the copper-mining district, would be
about 1,245 miles from Lobito Bay, and Elisabethville 1,344
miles. These figures must, however, be regarded for the moment
as approximate only, and for their accuracy much will depend
upon the route finally taken by the railway.
The Lobito Bay railway will, when completed, enable the
Atlantic port to enter into serious rivalry with Beira for
the trade of the Katanga, and the main factors which will
determine the routes taken by goods and passengers into or

230 COMMUNICATIONS
out of that region may here be considered. At the present
time the chief means of access into the Katanga is by the
railway which runs from Beira by way of Salisbury, Bulawayo,
Victoria Falls, Kafue, and Sakania to Elisabethville, Kambove,
and Bukama. By it the distance from Beira to Elisabethville
is 1,619 miles, and to Kambove 1,718 miles. As, however,
Salisbury, Bulawayo, Victoria Falls, and Kafue are approxi
mately the angles of a four-sided figure it is proposed to
shorten the route by constructing a line from Salisbury to
Kafue. This would reduce the distance from Beira to Elisa
bethville to 1,032 miles, and from Beira to Kambove to 1,131
miles. Under these circumstances it is difficult to determine the
direction which the trade of the Katanga will ultimately
take. Until the Beira line is shortened all the conditions are
in favour of Lobito Bay becoming the port of the region.
Assuming that the' figures given above for the length of the
line connecting it with Kambove and Elisabethville are
approximately correct, the saving of distance by Lobito Bay
would be about 275 miles in the case of Elisabethville and
about 473 in the case of Kambove. But it is questionable
whether competition will ever arise in this form. The survey
for the shorter route between Salisbury and Kafue was com
pleted just before war broke out, and it is not improbable that
work may be begun' on it in the not distant future. If and
when it is completed the state of affairs will be somewhat
different from that indicated above. Elisabethville will be
about 312 miles and Kambove about 114 miles nearer to Beira
than to Lobito Bay. But other factors have here to be taken
into consideration. From Beira there are two sea routes to
London, one by way of the Suez Canal, and the other by way
of the Cape. The former is over 2,000 miles longer than the
route from Lobito Bay, and is, in addition, burdened by the
heavy dues at the Suez Canal, while the latter is nearly 3,000
miles longer than the route from Lobito Bay. It is true that
freight rates are usually higher from western ports than from
eastern, but with the development of trade that inequality
will probably be reduced. On the other hand Lobito Bay
is one of the best harbours on the coast of Africa, and facilities
for the transhipment of goods can easily be provided. Lastly
it may be noted that with the development of the Katanga

RAILWAYS 231
Kambove is likely to become more and more the centre of
the producing area, and the relatively slight difference of dis
tance in favour of Beira (about 114 miles) is hardly likely to
outweigh the other advantages possessed by Lobito Bay. In
this connexion it must be remembered that the Tanganyika
Concessions are largely interested in the prosperity of the
Benguella route, and will naturally do all in their power to
advance it.
On the whole then it seems probable that in the future
the copper industry of the Katanga will depend more and
more on the Benguella railway for the carriage of its exports
and imports (apart from coal). Still more likely is this to be
the case in regard to the tin mines. The southern part of the
concession granted to the Tanganyika Concessions for the
exploitation of its tin deposits lies on either side of the railway
south of Bukama, and the mines which are at present being
worked are for the most part situated at no great distance
from it. The alternative route here is that by way of the
Lualaba-Congo and its connecting railways, but the numerous
transhipments involved make it unlikely that it will be used
for the southern part of the field at least. On the other hand
when the northern districts round Lake Upemba are developed
they will probably be served by it. Work on the Ruwe gold
deposits, some of which are also owned by the Tanganyika
Concessions, has been postponed until they are reached by the
Benguella railway.
The Government of the Belgian Congo, however, cannot
be expected to view with complete satisfaction the diversion
to a foreign port of some of the most important elements in
its export trade, and various schemes have been suggested
to connect the Katanga with the lower Congo. The Trans-
congolais, that series of navigable reaches of river linked
together by railways, which now connects Bukama with
Matadi can, as already indicated, play but a small part in
the trade of the mineral districts on account of the numerous
transhipments involved and the length of time required for
the journey. Another projected line, and one for which the
route was partially surveyed before , the outbreak of war, will,
if completed, link up Bukama with some point on the Matadi-
Leopoldville line, not far from the latter port. From Bukama
it would probably run in a north-westerly direction to the

232 COMMUNICATIONS
Sankuru at Mutombo Mukulu. Keeping to the south of the
Kasai-Sankuru, it would then go by Luluabourg and Luebo
to Joko Punda at the head of navigation on the Kasai.
(Another suggestion is that the line should go by Kanda
Kanda and Kakota to Joko Punda.) From that point it
would run in a somewhat more easterly direction, and would
cross the Kwilu at Leverville and the Kwango at Muene
Kundi. With the exception of some hilly country north
west of Bukama, the suggested route is comparatively level,
and the main engineering difficulties would be connected
with the bridging of the numerous rivers which flow
from the Angolan plateau to the Kasai-Sankuru. The
total length of line to be constructed would probably be
between 1,100 and 1,200 miles, while the total distance between
Kambove and Matadi is estimated at 1,600 miles. As far as
the Katanga alone is concerned it is difficult to see what
advantages such a line would possess over the one from Lobito
Bay, apart from the fact that it would be entirely confined to
Belgian territory. The distance is greater, and, until the
Leopoldville-Matadi line has been reconstructed, access to
the coast is more difficult. Moreover Matadi as a port is
not to be compared to Lobito Bay, and, although it offers
a shorter route to Europe, it is very questionable whether
the slight gain in this respect would compensate for the cost
of the longer haulage overland. On the other hand there
is no doubt that the projected line would be of consider
able value to the development of the country through which
it passed, much of which is distant from good lines of com
munication, and it is partly with this object in view that the
surveys have been undertaken.
Another project which has been advocated in various quarters
is the construction of a line from Kabalo on the Lualaba
to Lusambo on the Sankuru. The distance between these
two places is about 312 miles. Below Lusambo the Kasai-
Sankuru provides about 600 miles of navigable waterway
before its confluence with the Congo 122 miles above Leopold
ville. For the southern Katanga at least this route would
not prove very valuable. It is true that it is much shorter
than the Transcongolais, and involves one transhipment less
from steamer to rail and from rail to steamer, but these
are comparatively slight advantages to set against the fact

RAILWAYS 233
that four transhipments would be necessary between Bu
kama and Matadi, and that the state of the river between
Bukama and Kabalo is very unsatisfactory at certain seasons
of the year. With regard to the north of the Katanga and
some of the eastern districts of the colony the position is
very different, as the completion of the lines from Dar-es-
Salam to Kigoma and from Albertville to Kabalo tend to bring
these regions within the hinterland of Dar-es-Salam. From
Dar-es-Salam to Kabalo the distance is estimated at 1,008 miles,
and it is not improbable that a good deal of the produce of
the country round Kabalo, as, for example, the tin of Kiambi,
may find its way to the eastern port if an alternative route to
Matadi is not provided. Before the outbreak of war the Germans
sought to attract such trade by low freight rates, and the
prospect of their success caused alarm in Belgium, as it was
evident that Hamburg and not Antwerp would be the ultimate
destination of the tin and other articles exported. It was
mainly with the object of countering the German move that
the Kabalo-Lusambo line was suggested. To make the Kasai-
Sankuru a really useful navigable way will involve con
siderable labour, but apart from that there are certain
advantages in the proposed route. From Kabalo the railway
haulage to Matadi would be little more than half that to
Dar-es-Salam, while the > number of transhipments would be
the same. Steamer freights to Europe would of course be
lower from the former port. A good deal will depend on the
rates charged by the different railways, but it does not seem
impossible that a considerable part of the trade of the
northern Katanga may eventually be attracted to Matadi.
At the same time, it may be noted, the coal-fields in the basin
of the Lukuga are likely to find one of their most profitable
markets to the east of Lake Tanganyika, and this will tend
to encourage a return freight from Dar-es-Salam. An alterna
tive to this line is one which would run from Ankoro to
Lusambo instead of from Kabalo.
Two other routes which it is proposed to construct from
Kabalo may here be mentioned. Navigation on the Lualaba
between that port and Kongolo is not free from difficulty at
certain seasons of the year, and the proposal is to link up the
two places by a railway about 55 miles in length. A through
route would thus be provided between Albertville and Kindu

234 " COMMUNICATIONS
which would facilitate trade between Lake Tanganyika and
the lower Congo.
The second projected route from Kabalo is intended to
connect that place with the tin mines of Kiambi and with
Pweto on Lake Mweru. Its exact direction does not appear
to have been finally settled, but it will either follow first the
Lualaba as far as Ankoro, and then the Luvua for the whole
of its course from Lake Mweru, or it will strike straight
across from Kabalo to the valley of the Luvua, which it will
reach at a point some distance from its confluence with the
Lualaba. The whole line will be of considerable value, but
the part most urgently needed is the section between Pweto
and Kiambi. Below Kiambi the Luvua is navigable for at
least part of the year.
As navigation on the Lualaba between Bukama and Kikonja
also presents seasonal difficulties, it is now proposed to con
tinue the Katanga railway northward to Kikonja. Such a line
would be of considerable value to the tin-mining industry in
the vicinity of that town.
At the present time the north-eastern districts of the
Belgian Congo are without good means of communication
with the ports on the lower Congo. The rivers, owing to the
numerous rapids along their courses, are of comparatively
little value, and the time taken for the transport of goods is
excessive. . Accordingly much of the produce exported from
this region, and more particularly gold from the mines at
Kilo, rubber, and ivory, finds its way to the coast of the Indian
Ocean, at Mombasa. This route involves transport by porters
overland, and by lake, river, and railway, and numerous tran
shipments are necessary. To overcome these difficulties a new
line has been suggested which would start at Stanleyville and
run to some point at the southern end of Lake Albert. From
Boga one branch would run northward to Kilo, the centre of
the important gold-mining area, while another would run south
to Lake Edward. This line, when constructed, will prove of
considerable value, but so far only preliminary surveys have
been made. A railway from the Congo to the Welle is also
under consideration. It is proposed that it should run from
Bumba on the Congo by Buta, on the Rubi, and Niangara, on
the Welle, to the gold mines at Moto. A further suggestion
is that it should be continued from Moto to the Nile, probably

RAILWAYS 235
at Rejaf. The preliminary survey for the first part of the line
has already been made.
Another projected line, but entirely outside of the Belgian
Congo, might conceivably affect the direction taken by some
of its trade. At the present time a French line runs from
Brazzaville, on the opposite side of Stanley Pool, to Minduli,
but as it is not connected with the coast it merely acts as
feeder to the Belgian port at Leopoldville. The proposal
is to continue this line from Minduli to the Atlantic coast
at 'Pointe Noire. The total length would be about 365 miles,
and according to the plans under consideration at the out
break of war the gauge would be 3*28 feet (1 metre), the
radius of the sharpest curves 328 feet (100 metres), and the
maximum gradient 1 in 50. The main drawback appears to
be the want of a good natural harbour at Pointe Noire. On
the whole it is probably safe to conclude that the proposed
railway would, if completed, carry a great part, if not the whole,
of the French traffic. Whether the trade of the Belgian Congo
would in part take the same route will depend very largely
upon the condition of the Matadi - Leopoldville line. If
nothing is done to render it more efficient than it at present
is, a considerable amount of trade might easily be lost to it.
On the other hand the Government of the Congo is now con
sidering an extension of the Mayumbe railway to the mines
at Minduli. This would provide a shorter route than at
present, and would in addition overcome some of the other
difficulties which have been mentioned.

Inland Waterways
The Belgian Congo possesses a remarkable system of inland
waterways. The Congo itself rises in the extreme south-east,
and flows in a great curve through the central part of the
colony. One of its tributaries, the Ubangi, with its head-
streams, the Bomu and the Welle, drains the peripheral regions
of the north, while another, the Kasai-Sankuru, performs a like
function for those of the south. In the Central Basin a
number of rivers of less importance flow into the main stream.
On the outside of the great bend are the Mongala, the Itimbiri,
and the Aruwimi, which come from the north or east, while
within the bend. the Lulonga, formed by .the Lopori and the

236 COMMUNICATIONS
Maringa, and the Ruki, formed by the Busira and the Momboyo,
flow in a westerly direction. Farther to the east the Lomami
has a course parallel to that of the Congo south of Stanleyville.
Thus the waterways of practically the whole colony east of
the Crystal Mountains lead to the main stream, which is still
the chief means of communication in the country.
This great system of rivers is, however, by no means so
valuable as might at first sight appear. Its chief defect is of
course the fact that as far as shipping is concerned it is un
connected with the sea, and inland navigation can only be
said to begin at Leopoldville, the terminus of the railway
which connects the upper and the lower Congo. The rivers
themselves moreover vary greatly in value from one part of
their course to another. Those which rise in the highland.
areas surrounding the Central Basin usually descend to it by
falls or rapids, and these frequently form a complete barrier to
navigation. In their rapid upper courses also they collect
much sand, which is deposited when their gradients are
reduced. Sandbanks which change their position more or
less with every flood are therefore a common feature in many
of the rivers. On the other hand the tributaries of the Congo
which rise in the Central Basin have often failed to deepen
their beds to any great extent, and their shallow courses are
easily blocked by trees, sand, and other materials. The extent
to which these various obstacles may be overcome will be
discussed later. It must also be borne in mind that as a result
of the annual movement of the belt of equatorial rainfall north
and south of the equator the amount of water in most of the
rivers varies considerably in the course of the year. The
Congo, which benefits from the double rainy season to the
south of the equator, is the chief exception to this rule.
As hydrographical work in the Belgian Congo is still in its
infancy, it is impossible to describe in detail the extent to
which its various rivers are navigable, and the following
account must be regarded as more or less provisional.
The Congo. — From Stanley Pool to Stanleyville the Congo
affords a navigable waterway 1,000 miles (1,600 kilometres) in
length. In the Pool itself, the Belgian channel to the south
of the island of Bamu has a depth varying from 6 to 20 feet
(2 to 6 metres), while the French channel to the north is
almost everywhere over 10 feet (3 metres). From Stanley

INLAND WATERWAYS 237
Pool to Chumbiri (some distance above the confluence of the
Congo with the Kasai) the river flows between high banks,
and varies in breadth from 1,100 to 3,000 yards (1,000 to 2,600
metres). This part of its course, which is over 125 miles (200
kilometres) long, is known by the Belgians as the chenal, and
by the French as the couloir. Notwithstanding some dangerous
rocks, navigation is everywhere comparatively easy, as the
depth varies from 10 to 20 feet (3 to 6 metres). Above
Chumbiri the Congo broadens, and its bed is occupied by
many sandbanks and islands. Its average breadth is from
5 to 6 miles (8 to 10 kilometres), but at Bolobo, Lukolela, and
Gombe (opposite Liranga), there are short stretches where it
decreases to 2 miles or less. With the increase in the breadth
of the river there is a reduction in its depth, but as far as
Coquilhatville it is navigable by steamers drawing 10 feet
(3 metres) or less, and by lighters carrying not more than
500 tons. The rate of the current varies. At Kimpoko, at the
entrance to Stanley Pool, it is about 5 knots, while in the
chenal it averages from 3-3| near the banks (4 to 5 during
high water) to 5 in the middle of the channel. A vessel
steaming 6 knots would just manage to ascend the river, but
most modern river-boats are much faster, and attain a speed
of 15 or even 20 knots. The winds generally blow up-stream,
usually between 9 a.m. and 4 p.m. Near the equator they
diminish in intensity and duration, and north of it they are
felt only between 1 and 3 in the afternoon.
Above Coquilhatville the river again contracts, and at
Monkero it is less than 3 miles from bank to bank. Beyond
that point it broadens out and attains its maximum breadth of
9 miles (14 kilometres) near the confluence with the Mongala.
It narrows again near the hills of Bopoto, where some reefs of
feldspar appear, and at Malela, above the mouth of the Itimbiri,
but it remains a broad stream until the Aruwimi is passed.
Between that river and the Lomami, however, it seldom
exceeds 1,800 yards (1,650 metres), while beyond the Lomami
it narrows to 1,300 yards (1,200 metres). From Bertha Island
(20 miles below Stanleyville) to Coquilhatville the rate of the
current is generally from 2 to 3 knots, and the bed of the river
is much encumbered by sandbanks, which are constantly
changing their position. As a result the navigable channels
are sometimes not more than 6£ feet (2 metres) in depth.

238 COMMUNICATIONS
Near Bertha Island the river is still shallower, and there are
rocky ledges in its bed. As a result, ships drawing more than
3i feet (1 metre) have often difficulty in passing at times of
low water. This period lasts' for only a week or two, and for
the remainder of the year the channel is open to vessels
drawing from 4 to 4| feet (1*20 to 1*40 metre). Steamers
intended for the run between Leopoldville and Stanleyville
are therefore built so as to draw not more than 5£ feet (1*60
metre) when loaded, and they never take a complete load
over the last stretch of the river between Romee and
Stanleyville. Beyond Stanleyville a series of rapids interrupts navigation
between that town and Ponthierville, a distance of about 80
miles (128 kilometres). It is believed, however, that the difficul
ties which these rapids present to steamers are not insuperable,
and that they might be overcome either by a system of lateral
canals or by a haulage arrangement somewhat similar to that
which has been introduced on several European rivers. Even
at present canoes are able to negotiate the greater part of this
stretch. Above Ponthierville the river is navigable as far as Kindu,
a distance of about 200 miles (320 kilometres). It varies
in breadth from 650 to 2,200 yards (600 to 2,000 metres),
and is suitable for vessels drawing not more than 6| feet
(2 metres). It is said that this stretch might be prolonged
for another 112 miles (180 kilometres) by the construction of
canals with locks at Sendwe and Kibombo. A little higher
up, between Kasongo and Kongolo, there is a series of falls
about which little as yet appears to be known.
Above Kongolo steam navigation is resumed, and is con
tinued to Bukama on the Lualaba, a distance of 400 miles
(640 kilometres). As far as the neighbourhood of Lake Kisale
the river flows at a rate of 4 knots, and can be navigated by
ships drawing less than 6-| feet (2 metres) of water. It then
becomes covered with papyrus, and navigation is obstructed to
some extent ; a fairway can, however, be maintained without
great difficulty. In Lake Kisale, also, there is much floating
vegetation, but the Comite special has constructed a kind of
palisade on either side of the navigable channel which prevents
it from being blocked. Papyrus ceases some distance above
Lake Kisale, and the river broadens out, frequently to 220

INLAND WATERWAYS 239
yards (200 metres). The depth of the river, which in the
papyrus region does not exceed 5 feet (1-5 metre), in the dry
season falls still further, and at times of low water is often
between 2 and 2i feet (60 and 70 cm.). This amount is sufficient
for vessels carrying from 50 to 60 tons. Bukama, which is the
head of steam navigation on the Congo-Lualaba system, is now
connected by rail with Beira and Cape Town.
The Ubangi. — The course of the Ubangi is not so well known
as that of the Congo, though considerable attention has been
given to it within recent years. In its lower reaches the bed
is much encumbered by islands and sandbanks, which render
navigation difficult. Nevertheless large river steamers are
able to make their way upstream as far as the French post of
Imfondo at all seasons of the year. Between Imfondo and
Betu the river is also navigable throughout the year by all
vessels drawing not more than 6^ feet (2 metres). Above the
latter point difficulties commence, as there are occasionally
rocks in the bed of the river which are dangerous at times of
low water. The sill at Zinga is the most important of these
obstructions, and at present prevents vessels going beyond
Libenge for part of the year. But it is said that improvements
might, with comparatively little expenditure, be carried out
at this point which would enable steamers drawing not more
than 3| feet (1 metre) to proceed to Zongo, about 375 miles
(600 kilometres) from the confluence of the Ubangi and the
Congo, at any time of the year.
Above Zongo there are many obstacles to continuous navi
gation. A^)out a mile beyond the post there are rapids past
which all goods have to be carried overland. They are
then re-embarked on small steel steamboats, and taken to the
foot of the rapids at Dunga, where land transport is again
necessary. At the head* of these rapids they are placed in
steel boats or canoes, and carried to the foot of the Elephant
rapids. Beyond that point light boats are used as far as the
rapids at Buta, above which small steamers can ply for at
least part of the year„ These steamers go as far as Banzyville,
which is about 620 miles (990 kilometres) from the mouth of
the river. Here there are again rapids, and transhipment is
necessary. During the dry season this stretch of the river is
available only for steel boats or canoes. Between Banzyville

240 COMMUNICATIONS
and Yakoma, at the confluence of the Bomu and the Welle,
there are frequent rapids, and steam navigation is impossible.
The Bomu is the northern headstream of the Ubangi, and
forms the frontier of the Belgian Congo from Yakoma to the
point at which it rises near the Congo-Nile divide. Rapids are
numerous, and increase in number as the river is ascended.
Many of them can be navigated by canoes during the flood
season, but every year a large number of men, boats, and loads
are lost in the river. The Bomu is on the whole therefore of
little value as a waterway.
The Welle, which is the southern headstream of the Ubangi,
is probably more important than the Bomu, though its value
is not great. It consists of stretches of good navigable water,
broken here and there by rapids which are either unnavigable
or can be navigated only with difficulty. The stretch between
Yakoma and Jabbir is particularly bad, as it contains, among
many others, the Voro rapids, the most powerful and formid
able on the river. From Jabbir to Angu matters are not
much better, but there are a few navigable stretches, 4 to
6 miles in length, where the current is not more than 2 miles
an hour at times of low water. Between Angu and Niangara,
with the exception of the section from the Angba Hills to
Niangara, where the bed for the* first time becomes sandy, the
entire course of the river is cut up by rocky stretches with
occasional intervals of navigable water varying from 2 to
8 miles in length, and in two or three places from 30 to
40 miles. Notwithstanding the difficulties of navigation on
this part of the river, it is used for transport purposes by the
Belgians between Niangara and Angu, from which place con
nexion with the Congo is made by a four days' trek to the
Likati river. Above Niangara the Welle is seldom used by
the Belgians, and communication is" kept up by a good road
which runs along the left bank. On the Kibali there is also
good water in places, which is used by canoes as far as the old
post of Vankerchovenville.
The Giri. — The Giri, a tributary of the Ubangi, rises in the
swampy country between that river and the Congo. Boats
appear to be able to ascend it as far as Bomana, 125 miles
(200 kilometres) from its confluence.
Above the confluence of the Ubangi the chief right-bank

INLAND WATERWAYS 241
tributaries of the Congo are- the Mongala, the Itimbiri, the
Aruwimi, the Lukuga, and the Luvua.
The Mongala. — Small steamers can ascend the Mongala as
far as the Likimi-Businga rapids and falls, about 50 miles
(80 kilometres) from the mouth of the river. Farther up
vessels of shallow draught can go at least, as far as Bokula.
On the Dua, one of the headstreams of the Mongala, canoes
can sail upstream for about 120 miles (192 kilometres).
The Itimbiri. —This river, which is also known as the Rubi,
is of considerable importance as an outlet for the trade of the
Welle region, with which it is connected by two important
routes. One of these runs from Buta on the Itimbiri to
Bambili on the Welle, while the other leaves the Likati,
a tributary of the Itimbiri, at no great distance from its source,
and runs to Angu. The Itimbiri, which in its lower course is
from 150 to 300 yards (137 to 274 metres) wide, can be ascended
by steamers, at least during part of the year, for about 100 miles
(160 kilometres). Above Ibembo various rapids render navi
gation difficult as far as Jamba, but from there light steamers,
or canoes in the low- water season, can go up the main stream
as far as Buta, and up the Likati to the post of the same
name. The Aruwimi. The Aruwimi between its confluence with
the Congo at Basoko and Avakubi, about 350 miles (560 kilo
metres) distant, is an important means of communication for
the region througli which it flows. During the period of high
water it is navigable as far as Yambuya for steamers up to
30 tons burden which draw not more than 3 feet when loaded.
At low water navigation is impeded by sandbanks and other
obstacles in the bed of the river. At Yambuya there are
rapids which necessitate a porterage of about a mile, and
beyond it all goods have to be transferred to dug-out canoes
for their long journey to Avakubi. Oh this part of the river
there are many rapids ; some may be safely ascended at times
of high water, while at others goods have to be unloaded, and
the canoes taken through empty. At Panga the river dashes
down with terrific force, but even there canoes can be poled
up by special crews of villagers, whose homes are situated on
the high bank overlooking the cataract.
The Lukuga. The Lukuga, which flows from Lake Tangan-
BELG. CONGO Q

242 COMMUNICATIONS
yika, falls 770 feet (235 metres) in its journey of 188 miles
(300 kilometres) to the Congo. Owing to its slight depth and
numerous rapids it is of little use for navigation.
The Luvua. — The Luvua, which flows from Lake Mweru, is
navigable for part of the year by light steamers from its
confluence with the Congo at Ankoro to Kiambi, a distance of
about 90 miles (145 kilometres). While the tin mines at Muika
were in operation it was of some value as offering a means by
which the product might be exported.
Within the great bend the principal tributaries of the Congo
are the Lulonga, the Ruki, and the Lomami. Their courses
are all confined to the Central Basin, and they flow for the
most part through comparatively level country.
The Lulonga. — The Lulonga is formed by the confluence of
the Lopori and Maringa. From the point at which it enters
the Congo to the confluence of these two rivers at Basankusu
it has a length of about 125 miles (200 kilometres), and is
navigable throughout by small river steamers. The Lopori can
be ascended by small steamers as far as Ekuchi, and at certain
times as far as Bosow, 280 miles (450 kilometres) from the
confluence. The Maringa is open for an even greater distance,
and small vessels go as far as Befori, which is over 300 miles
(430 kilometres) from Basankusu. The importance of1 this
river, as that of the Busira-Chuapa, farther to the south, is
due to the fact that it is navigable to within 100 miles
(160 kilometres) of the Lomami, and thus serves an important
stretch of country in which other means of communication are
almost impossible.
The Ruki. — As far as its value for navigation is concerned
the Ruki system is only imperfectly known, but there are
probably from 1,000 to 1,250 miles (1,500 to 2,000 kilometres)
or more of water suitable for the smaller types of steamers
throughout the year. The Ruki itself has a length of about
56 miles (90 kilometres) from its confluence with the Congo at
Eala to Ingende, where it is formed by the junction of the
Busira and the Momboyo. The Busira and its headstream,
the Chuapa, may be ascended as far as Ikela, while two
tributaries of the Busira, the Lomela and the Salonga, are
reported to be navigable, the one to Itoko and the other to
Donkankwa. The Momboyo, known above Waka as the Lui-
laka, can be used as far as Monkote, and probably to the

INLAND WATERWAYS 243
neighbourhood of Bombomba. Its tributary, the Lokolo, is
navigable for some distance from its mouth.
Between the Lulonga and the Ruki the Ikelemba can be
ascended to Bombimba, 88 miles (140 kilometres) from its
mouth, while to the south of the Ruki there is a good waterway
from Irebu on the Congo to Bikoro on Lake Tumba. ¦ ^
The Lomami. — The attention given to the development of
communications on the upper Congo has led to the reldive
neglect of the Lomami. The river, however, flows though
a considerable stretch of forest country, for which it v," fhe
sole means of transport. Small steamers run on it to Obenge
Benge, situated about 225 miles (360 kilometres) f:o£i its
confluence with the Congo at Isangi, but it is said to be nayi-
gable as far as Goma Vula, some distance higher up. Above
that point it appears to be suitable only for canoes. • v
The Kasai-Sankuru. — This river system is the most impor
tant in the southern part of the Congo basin, but it is only
within the last few years that any systematic investigation
has been made of its suitability for navigation. Abi*v<8 its
confluence with the Congo at Kwamouth it passes through
a narrow gorge, and there are rocks in its bed, but as far as
Mushie it is navigable by vessels drawing not more than Q\ feet
(2 metres) at the least. Above Mushie the river widens out
into Wissmann Pool. Here there are no rocks, but sandbanks
are numerous, and the channels between them often contain
little water in the dry season. A fairway, however, always
exists, though it is sometimes difficult to find as it changes its >
course from year to year. From Wissmann Pool to Swinburne
rapids navigation is relatively easy, but the rocky bottom" in
the rapids themselves is encumbered with loose blocks which
sometimes present difficulties. Between Swinburne rapids
and Mondana there is generally sufficient water, and this part
of the river can be ascended without much trouble. Sandbanks
are numerous between Mondana and Eolo, and between Isaka
and Bena Bendi, and sometimes impede navigation. Above
the confluence of the Kasai and Sankuru the former river is
navigable as far as Joko Punda below Wissmann Falls.
On the Sankuru between the confluence and Lusambo there
are few rocks, but the course is rendered sinuous by the large
number of sandbanks which exist. One in particular, formed
by the waters of the Lubi, sometimes prevents all traffic.
Q 2*

-244 COMMUNICATIONS
Between Lusambo and Pania Mutombo the river is narrower,
and the rocks which it contains render navigation difficult in
July and August. Less is known of the section between Pania
Mutombo and the Wolff Falls, but it appears to be similar to
the preceding one.
v The length of the navigable waterway on the Kasai-Sankuru
has been estimated at 841 miles (1,354 kilometres), made up
as follows : Kwamouth to Lusambo 764 miles (1,230 kilo
metres), Lusambo to Pania Mutombo 56 miles (90 kilometres),
Pania Mutombo to Wolff Falls 21 miles (34 kilometres). The
distance from the confluence of the Kasai and Sankuru to
Joko Punda is about 116 miles (186 kilometres).
In a report made a few years ago it was stated that the
Kasai-Sankuru might be navigated throughout the year by
vessels 130 to 148 feet (40 to 45 metres) long. During high
water the draught must not exceed 5 feet (1-5 metre), and
during low water 3^ feet (1-10 metre). Above Lusambo the
river appears to be navigable for only about six months in the
year. ¦ In order, however, to maintain a good channel along
the whole course of the river it would be necessary to dredge
and buoy it at various points.
Various tributaries of the Kasai-Sankuru are also navigable
to a greater or less extent. The Fini, which drains Lake
Leopold, and Lake Leopold itself are regularly used, and small
steamers can ascend the Lukenie as far as Loja. The latter
river, however, seems to present many difficulties, and the
estimates made of the length of the waterways on the. Fini
system varies from 435 to 652 miles (700 to 1,150 kilometres).
On'the left bank of the Kasai the Kwango is the most impor
tant tributary ; it is navigable from its confluence to Kingunshi,
a distance of about 160 miles (260 kilometres), and by small
steamers from above the falls at Kingunshi to the Francois
Joseph Falls, another 170 miles (272 kilometres). Still higher
up short reaches of the river are traversed by very small
steamers. An affluent of the Kwango, the Wamba, may be
ascended as far as Kapanga, The Kwilu, which also flows
into the Kwango, provides over 200 miles (320 kilometres)
of waterway, and some of its tributaries are used by small
steamers. Farther east the Kancha is navigable to Nadisma,
about 87 miles (140 kilometres), the Loange to Chitombe,
124 miles (200 kilometres), and the Lubudi for about 50 miles

INLAND WATERWAYS 245
(8.) kilometres). The Lubue is said to be available as far as
Dumba, about 100 miles (160 kilometres) from its confluence,
and the Lubefu to a post of the same name 124 miles (200
kilometres) upstream.
On Lake Tanganyika there are at least 373 miles (600 kilo
metres) of good waterway, and on Lake Albert 93 miles
(150 kilometres).
From the above survey of the rivers of the Belgian Congo it
appears that the colony has over 8,000 miles of waterway, the
greater part of which is' navigable by steamers. In order,
however, to develop and extend the system a more complete
hydrographic survey than has yet been made is necessary.
Until this has been done navigation will continue to be carried
on under difficulties. Probably the most pressing need is for
the improvement of those channels which are obstructed by
sandbanks. At present only a few dredgers are at work in
the country, and most of the rivers are unbuoyed throughout
almost their whole extent. Owing to the shifting character
of the sandbanks moreover the maintenance of a fairway is
likely to involve considerable trouble and expense, as much
of the work will have to be done over again each year. Other
improvements, more costly perhaps, but of a more permanent
nature, will consist in the removal of rocks which at present
render navigation dangerous in places, and the regularization
of the less important rapids so that the transhipment of goods
may be avoided. Later on it may be possible to construct
canals so as to connect the navigable reaches of rivers which
are separated from one another by rapids or falls too great to
be overcome in any other way. It has even been suggested
that Leopoldville might thus be linked up with Matadi, but it
is questionable whether a canal about 125 miles long, and with
a difference of level little short of 1,000 feet between its upper
and its lower end can ever give an adequate return for the
vast outlay which its construction would entail. Probably
the best solution in this case would be to improve the railways
connecting the upper and lower reaches of the river, and to
arrange proper facilities for the easy transhipment of goods.
At the present time the Matadi-Leopoldville line is unable to
provide for the prompt transport of goods coming from the
interior, and the terminal facilities are of a somewhat primitive
description.

246 COMMUNICATIONS
But if the river system of the Belgian Congo is capable of
considerable development the same is true to an even greater
extent of the shipping upon it. At the present time this
appears to be inadequate and badly adapted for the work
which it has to perform. According to a recent report, which,
although it does not pretend to be accurate in all details, is
obviously well informed, there are on the Congo and Kasai
seventeen steamers and sixteen large barges capable of carrying
goods for considerable distances. In addition to these there
are a number of. small steamers, barges, steel boats, and canoes
which are of considerable value upon the smaller tributaries, but
which, if they are to be economically used, ought not to convey
their cargoes beyond suitable points of transhipment on the
main streams. Of the large steamers referred to, five can carry
500 tons, three from 250 to 300 tons, and nine from 150 to
200 tons. The barges include four with a capacity ranging
from 250 to 300 tons, and twelve' with one of 100 to 200 tons.
Some of these boats belong to the State, while others are the
property of trading concerns such as the Compagnie Citas, the
Societe de huileries du Congo beige, and the Compagnie des
Grands Lacs.
An estimate made by the writer already referred to of the
relative cost of transport by ships of different types works out
somewhat as follows. A steamer able to carry 500 tons can
convey goods at a rate of about one farthing per ton-mile
(1-7 centime per tonne-kilometre), while on one carrying only
20 tons the lowest remunerative rate is about three-farthings
per ton-mile (5 centimes per tonne-kilometre). A tug with
a train of five barges in tow on the other hand could do the
same work for one-twentieth of a penny per ton-mile (one-third
of a centime per tonne-kilometre). These figures are probably
only approximate, and do not represent existing freight charges,
but they indicate the direction in which development might
most profitably take place. As much of the export trade of the
Congo consists of commodities for which rapid transport is not
essential, there seems no reason why the use of barges should
not be greatly extended. Whatever type of boat is used, how
ever, it would appear to be most economical to have it of such
a draught that it can be navigated on the river for which it is
designed throughout the whole year, and not during the season

INLAND WATERWAYS 247
of high water only. At present some steamers are laid up
for several months at a time.
On the whole river transport, appears destined to play a
great part in the economic development of the Belgian Congo.
As already mentioned, the colony has over 8,000 miles of
waterway, and when the courses of various rivers have been
investigated and regularized the total length of inland navi
gation will probably not fall far short of 10,000 miles. To
construct anything like a corresponding network of railways
would involve a vast outlay, for which, notwithstanding the
higher rates that would be charged, it is almost inconceivable
that there would be anything like an adequate return. More
over the rivers are on the whole well distributed, and pass
through districts which are either now, or are in the future
likely to prove, among the most productive in the country.
Certain regions, it is true, are less well-endowed than others.
Southern Katanga, for example, must always depend more or
less upon its railway system, while the Welle region, one of
the most promising in the Congo, can never be adequately
served by its rivers. But for the Central Basin, and for the
districts more closely connected with it, the waterways ought
to be regarded as the main lines of communication. Transport
upon them, if slow, is relatively cheap, and they can easily be
connected with their hinterlands by light railways and roads
upon which motor traffic would be possible.
Roads
Most places in the Belgian Congo are connected by native
tracks on which it is only possible to go in single file. In the
dense equatorial forest and wherever the population is scanty
progress on the march becomes very difficult on account of
the tangled vegetation. Near the villages some attempt is
usually made to broaden the path and to keep it clear. The
streams are sometimes forded and sometimes crossed by means
of a bridge more or less skilfully constructed by felling a tree.
Occasionally the more energetic villagers construct wooden
bridges. A certain number of roads have been constructed by the
Belgians. As a rule they have been somewhat hastily and
cheaply made. To attempt to construct them on the European
plan is practically impossible, as the cost would be excessive

248 COMMUNICATIONS
in a country where stone is usually difficult to obtain. Two
routes of such a kind were indeed attempted, one from
Kitobola in the Lower Congo, and the other from Kapende
in the Katanga. They cost about £1,500 per mile, and even
now are of little value. To meet the demands of local traffic
in regions which are being developed under European control,
all that is generally necessary is a fairly level track which
follows the watersheds between the rivers and avoids the
damp and marshy lowlands. Such roads would only require
an expenditure of about £30 per mile for their construction,
and would be of considerable value to the country, as motor
traffic would be possible on them, and they would act as
feeders to the railways.
One of the most important r"oads in the country is that
which runs from Buta, situated on the Rubi, a tributary of the
Itimbiri, by way of Bambili, Niangara, and Dungu to Rejaf
on the Nile. It forms part of a great through route from
the Congo to the Nile, and some sections of it play an impor
tant part in the collection and export of the produce of the
Welle region. From Buta the road runs in a north-easterly
direction, crosses the Itimbiri- Welle watershed and descends
to the Welle at Bambili. It is about 16 feet in breadth, and
is not macadamized except in places where there is much
clay. In consequence motors cannot be used during the rainy
season except in places. From Bambili to Dungu the road
appears to be a mere track, and the river is generally used
for the transport of goods, although porterage around the
rapids is often necessary. Beyond Dungu the road runs
along the Welle for some distance, and then branches off in
a north-easterly direction by way of Faraje, Abo, and Yei
to the Congo-Nile divide. In this region it again becomes
suitable for wheeled traffic, but is not macadamized, and is
not suitable for heavy motor traffic. Wagons drawn by oxen,
donkeys, or mules are used, and horses can be employed on
the section between Faraje and Rejaf which lies beyond the
tsetse belt.
From Stanleyville there is a route to Lake Albert and the
gold-mining region round Kilo. It runs by way of Bafwaboli,
Bafvvasendi, Avakubi, and Irumu to Mahagi. Much of it is
through forests, and the track, though it is a main highway,
is bad, and quite unsuitable for wheeled traffic. From Stanley-

ROADS * 249
ville to the Ituri at Avakubi alone takes twenty-five days' hard
marching. At Irumu roads suitable for wheeled traffic run
north to the gold mines at Kilo and south to Boga. The
latter is continued across the frontier to Fort Portal in Uganda.
From Kilo a good road now runs north-west to Moto and south
east to Kasenie, which is situated on Lake Albert. It is along
this road that much of the gold from Moto and Kilo is sent
to Mombasa.
Another route which connects the Congo-Lualaba with
more remote districts is that which runs from Ankoro to
Pweto on Lake Mweru. It follows the right bank of the
Luvua, and is over 200 miles in length. The prevalence of
the tsetse fly makes the road unsuitable for animal traction,
but it is said that it could be made fit for motor traffic without
any great alteration. On the other hand it is proposed to
build a railway line along what is practically the same route.
A good road from Ankoro runs to Pania Mutombo on the
Sankuru, and provides communication between that river and
the Lualaba. It goes by way of Kisengwa and Chofa. This
road is well constructed and is suitable for motor traffic in
the dry season.
In the Katanga rivers are usually of little value as means
of communication, and various roads have been built. Some
of these are suitable for motor traffic. One from Elisabethville
to Kasenga on the Luapula, north of Fort Rosebery in
Northern Rhodesia, has a length of about 130 miles. As far
as Shifumanzi it has a breadth of about 22 feet, but beyond
that post it is only 10 feet wide. The surface is rounded, and
in dry weather is excellent for motoring ; in the rains heavy
motors would find difficulty in using the road, but light motors
could run on it at all seasons. Kasenga, where the road termi
nates, is in communication with Lake Mweru by the Luapula.
Another important road is that which links Elisabethville
with Bukama. It runs parallel to the railway from Elisabeth
ville, passes a little to the north of Kambove, traverses the
entire length of the Kapiri valley, climbs the high Biano
plateau, and then descends to Bukama. South of Elisabeth
ville a motor-road runs as far as Chinsenda on the Sakania^-
Elisabethville section of the railway. Beyond Chinsenda
it is continued by an old road which was at one time used for
the conveyance of machinery to the copper mines.

250 COMMUNICATIONS
Among other roads in this part of the country may be
mentioned the branch of the Elisabethville-Kasenga route
which runs towards the Kundelungu plateau, a road begun
in 1913 to connect Bukama with Pande, and a proposed
route which would run from Pweto to Baudouinville in order
to connect the healthy and fertile Marungu plateau with
Lakes Tanganyika and Mweru. Around Elisabethville itself
there is a network of roads connecting the various farms with
one another and with the town. Between Kambove and
Ruwe over 300 miles of tracks, suitable for cycling from one
mine to another, have been constructed by the Tanganyika
Concessions. Pipe-Line
By a decree issued in 1910 the construction of a pipe-line
between Matadi and Leopoldville was entrusted to the Societe
anonyme des petroles au Congo. The line was completed in
1913 and placed in operation at the beginning of the following
year. It begins at Ango-Ango, a few miles below Matadi,
and follows the railway for the greater part of the way to
Leopoldville, a distance of about 248 miles. At Ango-Ango
eight large reservoirs have been constructed, each capable
of holding 1,000 tons of oil. In order to facilitate pumping
the line has been divided into eight sections, and pumping-
stations established for each section.
As the port of Matadi is difficult of approach by large
vessels, arrangements have been made for lightening oil-
ships lower down the river. The procedure adopted in the
case of the British Sun, which was the first oil-ship to arrive
in 1914, was as follows. At Kisanga a small 'tanker' came
alongside and took off 700 tons of oil. The steamer then
proceeded upstream as far as Fetish Rock Pass, where another
1,400 tons was pumped into a large stationary barge. The
British Sun, after this second reduction, took the remainder
of its total load of 7,200 tons to Matadi, where it was pumped
into the reservoirs.
Telegraphs and Telephones
With one or two exceptions the telegraph and telephone
system of the Belgian Congo follows the more important routes
of the country. In 1894 a telegraph line was begun which it

TELEGRAPHS AND TELEPHONES 251
was intended to carry from Boma to Tanganyika ; it reached
Coquilhatville in 1899, and beyond that place it has not yet
been continued. From Boma to Matadi it follows the river,
which it crosses just above the Devil's Caldron, and then runs
alongside of the railway line to Leopoldville. Above Leopold
ville the wire again follows the Congo, and has consequently to
cross many tributaries of that river, the most important being
the Kasai, which at that point has a breadth of 3,280 feet. A
rocky bank in mid-stream, however, renders the task of crossing
it easier than would otherwise be the case. Beyond Yumbi the
line is carried across country which is inundated during the
rainy season, and beyond Lukolela it enters forest country
where a strip of land 150 feet wide had to be cleared of trees
in order to prevent damage to the wire. Notwithstanding
these precautions interruptions are frequent.
The line from Boma to Coquilhatville has "a total length of
about 732^ miles. The chief offices for the receipt and dispatch
of messages are Boma, Matadi, Thysville, Madimba, Leopold
ville, Kinshasa, Kwamouth, Bolobo, Lukolela, Irebu, and
Coquilhatville. The wire is also used for telephone purposes,
and telephone messages can be sent from the above-mentioned
places. Two other lines run from Boma, and are used both for tele
graphing and telephoning. One follows the Mayumbe railway
to the north, but has not advanced beyond Lukula, about
50 miles distant from Boma. The chief stations on this line
are at Boma, Luki, and Lukula. The other runs downstream
.to Banana, and was completed in 1912. There do not appear
to be any intermediate offices between the terminal points of
this line.
The telegraphic system radiating from Boma is connected
with European cables at various points. The Societe anonyme
beige de cables telegraphiques has a cable from Matadi which
•links up with the West African Telegraph Company's cable
between Loando and Bonny. From Leopoldville there is also
a connexion with the French system. In 1905 two sub-fluvial
cables were laid between that town and Brazzaville on the
opposite side of the Congo. Owing to the strong current, how
ever, they were worn by the rocks in the bed of the river
and did not last for more than a few years. Since then
communication between the two places appears to have been

252 COMMUNICATIONS
maintained by heliograph, though in 1911 a scheme was pro
posed for the construction of an overhead cable at a point
about eight miles below Leopoldville. In order to provide
quicker communication with Europe than was afforded by
these means, the Belgian Government in 1914 made an agree
ment with the Eastern Telegraph Company by which the
latter undertook to lay a cable between Boma and Loando.
This is an improvement on the method arranged in 1912, by
which Matadi was to be connected with Noki and in this way
linked up with Loando by the Portuguese line in Angola.
Elisabethville may be regarded as the second important
telegraphic centre in the Belgian Congo. One line which
runs by way of Baya, Chinsenda, and Sakania connects it
with the South African system, and so with Europe by the
Eastern Telegraph Company's cables. Another follows the
railway line in the opposite direction, and has been carried at
least as far as Chilongo. A third connects Elisabethville with
" the Star of the Congo mine.
Of the remaining lines in the country used for telegraphic
and telephonic purposes one, laid in 1917, runs from Kongolo
by way of Kabalo to Albertville. Private telegraph lines run
alongside the railway from Stanleyville to Ponthierville, and
from Kindu to Kongolo. A telephone line runs from Kasongo
by Kabambare, Niembo, Kalembelenibe, and Baraka to Uvira
at the head of Lake Tanganyika.
There are at least fourteen wireless stations in the Belgian
Gongo. Of these the greater number are strung along the line
of the Congo-Lualaba, and link up the Lower Congo with the .
Katanga. They are situated at Banana, Boma, Kinshasa,
Coquilhatville, Basankusu (south of the Congo at the confluence
Of the Lopori and Maringa), Umangi, Basoko, Stanleyville,
Kindu, Kongolo, Kabalo, and Kikonja. Of the other two one
is at Elisabethville in the Katanga and the other at Lusambo
on the Sankuru. The station at Banana has a range of from 400
to 1,000 nautical miles, the others one of 300, with the excep
tion of that of Kabalo, the range of which is limited to 100 miles.
Stanleyville and Umangi can communicate with Brazzaville,
Kindu with Mwanza on Lake Victoria, and Banana with
Swakopmund in the former German possessions in South- West
Africa. It is said, however, that atmospheric conditions in the

TELEGRAPHS AND TELEPHONES 253
Congo are unfavourable for wireless telegraphy, the air often
being highly charged with electricity, while the strong sun
light affects the passage of the ether waves. Stations with
wave lengths under 1,200 yards fail after 6 a.m., and succeed
only at night. As the number of messages which have to
be received or dispatched in the course of the twenty -four
hours is not very large, this disadvantage is not so great as
might at first sight appear. For a country like the Belgian
Congo a combination pf wireless with the older method will
probably prove most effective. The great advantage of the
ordinary telegraph is that communication can be established
with any number of intermediate points, but its construction
in the Congo is slow and costly, the cost of upkeep is very
great, and there are numerous interruptions caused by fires,
" falling trees, floods, and wild animals. Wireless stations on
the other hand provide a system of communication which can
be more rapidly constructed and is less costly both in respect
to initial outlay and upkeep. But it is handicapped by the
fact that the number of stations must necessarily be few, and
that it does not provide for communication to intermediate
points,. For a country circumstanced as the Congo the best
plan is probably to establish wireless stations at important
centres and to connect them with the surrounding districts by
telegraphs and telephones. ;. Ports
The ports of the Belgian Congo fall into three groups — sea
ports, river ports, and lake ports. The sea ports and lake ports
are almost entirely engaged in the foreign trade of the colony,
while the river ports, though engaged to some extent in purely
internal trade, are mainly used in connexion with the export
of the products of the country and the import of the commo
dities which it requires from abroad.
Sea Ports
In proportion to its area the coast-line of the Belgian Congo
is extremely short.' Its frontage to the Atlantic lies between
the Portuguese territory of Kabinda and the estuary of the
Congo, and is little over 20 miles In length. For shipping
purposes its value is small. The coast is generally low and
sandy, and the shoal by which it is fringed makes it unsafe

254 COMMUNICATIONS
for vessels to approach too close. This shoal, which begirfs a
few miles south of Red Point (5° 44' S.), carries the 3-fathom
line three and a half and the 5-fathom line six and a half miles
from the shore. In addition the Atlantic rollers have been
known to break in seven fathoms of water.
For its direct communication with the sea therefore the
colony has to depend upon the lower Congo and its estuary.*
This waterway can as a rule be navigated -without much
difficulty, though the conditions are .lo^ideal. The current is
both strong and irregular. Below Barna its average rate is
2*5 knots, but during the period of higE 'water it is about
4 knots. Above Boma it is somewhat greater, and when the
river is high is probably about 5 knots. In,>the part known as
the Devil's Caldron above Noki a rate of 10 knots has been
reported, and vessels steaming not more than 10 knots have at
times been unable to make the port of IV^atadi.
Banana, which is situated on Banana creek at the mouth of
the estuary, is a pilot station and port of call where ships may
be lightened, if necessary, before proceeding upstream. Good
anchorage can be obtained in the creek by vessels drawing up
to 19 feet of water, but it is doubtful whether the port can be
developed. Fresh water cannot be obtained, and ships in need of
a supply must proceed upstream and take it in from the river.
About 20 miles upstream and opposite the Portuguese port
of Kisanga on the left bank the river divides into two
channels. The old passage along the north bank known as
the Mateva Pass route has not been used for a number of years
on account of the insufficiency of vater. That along the
southern bank, formerly called the Congo- Yella route but now
known as the Fetish Rock or Portuguese route, is taken by
practically all vessels going to Boma. The depths on this
route vary from 10 to 4 fathoms, except in the parts south-east
of Bird Island and south of Fetish Rock, where a depth of
20 feet is maintained by dredging. The two channels unite at
Fetish Rock, which is 28£ miles from Kisanga by the Mateva
Pass route and 31£ miles by the Congo-Yella route.
Boma, 7\ miles from Fetish Rock and 60 miles from Banana,
is the capital of the Belgian Congo. The port facilities are not
on an extensive scale. There are two iron piers, a small one
with a depth of 23 feet of water at its extremity and a larger
one, alongside which the larger vessels lie with a depth of

PORTS 255
17 feet at low water. The latter, however, is difficult of
access, being close to a bank formed by deposits from the
Crocodile river.
Above Boma there appears to be a considerable depth of
water all the way to Matadi, a distance of 30 miles, though
navigation, as already mentioned, is sometimes hindered by the
strength of the current in the Devil's Caldron. But provided
the vessel has good speed, neither the current nor the rocks
which lie in the river prove serious obstacles. Ango-Ango,
3 miles below Matadi, is the terminus of the pipe-line which
conveys oil to Leopoldville. It has large oil-tanks and a
pumping-station, and is connected by rail with Matadi.
Matadi, 90 miles above Banana, is the principal port in the
Belgian Congo. It is situated on the left bank of the river
and is at the head of navigation for ocean-going vessels, as the
rapids commence at Vivi almost immediately above it. As a
port Matadi is still in the early stages of development. There
are two large iron piers opposite the railway station, alongside
which steamers lie to load or unload. The piers have T heads,
which, lie parallel with the river-bank and the stream, each
head being 110 yards long. The depth alongside the upper
pier is from 30 to 33 feet, and alongside the lower pier from 17
to 20 feet. In 1913 the two T heads were connected by a
wharf, so that three large vessels can now lie alongside at once.
The Compagnie du chemin de fer du Congo is carrying the
wharf downstream so as to give it a total length of about
1,000 yards. In addition to increased wharfage, however, the
port, if it is to handle efficiently the increasing quantity of
goods from the interior, will require to be almost entirely
remodelled, warehouses will have to be extended, and proper
facilities for loading and unloading vessels provided.
The main difficulties presented to navigation on the lower
Congo and its estuary are insufficient depth of water at
certain seasons of the year, the sinuous course which has
to be followed between Kisanga and Boma, and the strength
of the currents, more especially in the Devil's Caldron. For
relatively small steamers with high engine-power the ascent
is possible at all seasons of the year, though great care has to
be exercised. But the general tendency is towards larger
vessels being employed in maritime commerce, and in any
case the growing trade of the Congo renders the use of the

256 COMMUNICATIONS
smaller ones unprofitable. The Compagnie beige maritime du
Congo has some boats of 7,500 tons, drawing from 23| to
24 feet of water, and these have at low water to be lightened
before they can proceed upstream. Very few oil-tanks draw
less than 20 feet, and those which have a carrying capacity of
between 5,000 and 6,000 tons — that is, the greater number —
draw between 23 and 24 feet. They have accordingly to be
lightened before they are able to ascend the river.
The difficulty of navigating parts of the river presents a con
siderable obstacle to the use of the port of Matadi, and if this
cannot be overcome will undoubtedly retard the commercial
development of the country. Various suggestions have been
made to remedy the existing state of affairs. In 1912 it was
suggested that the present route should be abandoned and that
a return should be made to the one which was in use about
fifteen years ago. As already indicated, the lower Congo may be
divided into three sections. In those between Banana and
Kisanga and between Boma and Matadi the depth of the
water is considerable, and the contour of the bed shows little
change from year to year. Between these two sections, how
ever, there is1 a third in which the bed of the river has a
considerable expansion, is generally shallow, and undergoes con
siderable change from year to year. The Mateva Pass route,
which kept to the north of Bulikoko and Hippopotamus Islands,
had to be abandoned because of silting, but it was said that
with proper dredging it might be kept open for vessels drawing
23 to 24 feet of water. Since the time at which this suggestion
was made, however, further silting has undoubtedly taken place,
and it is thought that dredging a channel would now prove
an almost impossible task. *On the other hand the constant
dredging which has been carried on in the Fetish Pass route
during the last few years has deepened the river there, and
even at low water a depth of 22£ feet (6*80 metres) can now
be obtained. Unfortunately the current is attacking the
banks of the river, with the result that the amount of material
which has to be removed from its bed, is unduly increased,
while the channel itself is rendered more tortuous and
difficult to navigate. To prevent this continuing until the
danger point is reached, it may become necessary to strengthen
artificially the banks of the river — a work which would be
both long and costly.

PORTS

257

Quite recently a further suggestion has been made. It is
said that the river shows a marked tendency to deepen the
channel to the west of the existing route. At present the
main current bifurcates near Fetish Rock, and the principal
branch follows the Fetish Pass route, while another branch
flows between Penfold Island and Bird Island. It is the
latter branch which is believed to be deepening its bed at
the present time, and if the process continues for a few years
at the same rate as it is thought to have done so during the
last twenty years it will form the main channel of the river.
The route by it would be much more suitable for large vessels
than that which is now followed.
The only alternative would appear to be an extension of the
present system of lightening ships before they ascend above
Kisanga, a process which involves both delay and expense
It is this which gives significance to the French proposal to
construct a port at Pointe Noire. Costly harbour works would
no doubt be necessary there, but if completed they would
enable large ships to load and unload alongside. Such a port
connected with Stanley Pool by a much better railway than
that which runs from Matadi to Leopoldville would not only
take the French trade away from the Congo ports, but might
possibly take part of that of the Belgian Congo as well.
The following table shows the number of vessels and the
aggregate tonnage entered and cleared at the ports of Banana,
Boma, and Matadi during the year 1913.
Steamers

Nationality

Ocean Vessels
No. Tonnage

Coasting
No.

Vessels Tonnage

Port of Banana

Entered
Belgian .
BritishGerman FrenchDutch .
32 36 32 26
153,537 68,63973,814 70,312
Cleared
6 1
36
1,210 3
1,032
Belgian .
British German .
French Dutch
33 36 31
26
158,301 68,639 71,37470,312
6 1
35
1,210 3
880
BEI.O. CONGO
,-
R
,
258

COMMUNICATIONS

Ocean Fessels

Coasting

Vessels

Nationality

No.

Tonnage
Port of Boma
Entered

No.

Tonnagt

Belgian .

35

161,939

126

2,393

British

34

63,886

—

—

French

25

69,494

—

—

German .

27

60,748

—

—

Dutch

—

—

11

409

Portuguese

38

10,225
Cleared

4

464

Belgian .

34

154,078

124

2,359

British

34

63,926

—

—

French

25

69,494

—

—

German .

28

62,343

—

—

Dutch

—

— .

13

441

Portuguese

40

10,931
Port of Matadi
Entered

4

464

Belgian .

17

81,117

36

2,769

British

18

33,105

—

—

French < i

13

35,102

— ¦

—

German .

15

33,357

—

—

Portuguese

23

4,526
Cleared

1

116

Belgian .

18

85,963

36

2,769

British

19

37,010

—

. —

French

13

35,002

—

—

German .

15

33,233

—

—

Portuguese

22

4,526
Sailing Ships
Port of Banana
Entered

1

116

Dutch

—



45

1,072

Portuguese

Cleared

111

1,772

Dutch .

—



49

1,182

Portuguese

Port of Boma
Entered

102

1,602

Dutch





2

40

Portuguese

—

Cleared

31

965

Dutch

. —

. 

'2

40

Portuguese

Pmi of Matadi
Entered
31
915
Dutch
¦ —
Cleared
1
15
Dutch
—
—
1
15
PORTS 259
Prior to the war the ports on the lower Congo were served
by four steamship lines, the Compagnie beige maritime du
Congo (flying the Belgian flag), the Chargeurs reunis (a
French company), the Woermann Line (a German company),
and the Elder Dempster line (a British company). For some
time the Belgian line and the French line gave three-weekly
and monthly services respectively, but about 1912 they arranged
a schedule, whereby ,a mail steamer was to arrive at Boma
every ten days. These two companies carried practically all
the passengers to the Belgian Congo, as the Woermann and
Elder Dempster lines ran only cargo boats. Portuguese ships
occasionally called, and a certain amount of trade was also
done by Dutch coasting vessels.
During the war the trade of the Congo (apart from the
Katanga) was practically carried on by four ships which sailed
from Hull and called] at Bordeaux on the return voyage.

Lake Ports
The lakes which lie in the Great Rift Valley are all
accessible from the Belgian Congo. Lake Albert, the most
northerly, provides the chief outlet for the gold mines at Kilo,
and for part of the rubber and ivory from the north-eastern
districts of the Congo. A good road leads from Kilo to
Kasenie, situated on the lake, and from there exports are
shipped to Butiabwa on the British side of the lake. There
is, however, no organized navigation on the lake, and all goods
are carried by canoe. Mahagi, towards the north, is the only
other Belgian anchorage on the lake. Lakes Edward and Kivu
are of less importance, but a certain amount of trade is carried
on by means of canoes. On Lake Kivu the Belgian stations
are Nya Lukemba in the south, Bobandana in the north-west,
and Goma in the north-east. A few years ago the Belgians
had an iron boat on the lake.
Lake Tanganyika is much more important from the point of
view of trade. The chief Belgian port on the lake is now the
modern Albertville, at the terminus of the Kabalo-Tanganyika
line. A breakwater has recently been constructed there. It is
possible that a considerable transhipment trade may eventually
develop between Albertville and Kigoma, the former German
port on the other side of the lake and the western terminus of
R 2

260 COMMUNICATIONS
the railway to Dar-es-Salam. Much, however, will depend
upon the political settlement which is eventually reached
regarding the territories to the east of the lake, and the
extent to which the Belgians develop their railway system to
the west of it. The only other ports of any note are Uvira,
at the northern end of the lake and the terminus of a route
which leads north by way of the Rusisi valley, and Toa, to the
north of the mouth of the Lukuga and an important centre
for native navigation by means of canoes.
On Lake Mweru the principal Belgian stations are Kilwa,
Pweto, and Lukonzolwa. Kilwa is the terminus of an impor
tant porterage route to the Katanga, and from Pweto a road
suitable for wheeled traffic leads to Kiambi, whence there is
communication by river with the Lualaba.
River Ports
The river ports in the Congo fall into two classes : those at
which goods are transhipped from river to rail or from rail to
river, and those which are merely used for loading or unloading
goods conveyed by the river steamers. To the first class belong
places like Leopoldville, Kinshasa, Stanleyville, and Ponthier
ville. Leopoldville, as already mentioned, is not well situated
to be a good port, but it has useful repair and construction
works, which render it of some importance for this part of
the river. A new floating dock was constructed about 1912.
At Kinshasa the Citas (an important shipping company on
the upper river) owns large houses with railway connexion
along the water's edge and an iron pier 200 feet in length.
It also possesses slipways on which most of the French and
Belgian Congo steamers have been assembled. Other firms
at Kinshasa have their arrangements for loading and un
loading steamers, but there is as yet nothing in the way of
a port in the proper sense of the word. At Stanleyville
there is a wharf and an inclined plane running down to the
river. Kongolo has no wharf, and loading and unloading is
done either by means of barges or at the jetty. Similar
arrangements seem to prevail at most other river ports. In
some cases the concessionary companies have constructed small
wharves for their own use.

CHAPTER XIV
FOREIGN TRADE
The real development . of foreign trade in the Belgian
Congo did not begin till 1885, but previous to that there had
been some tentative efforts. In 1858 a French house, Regis
et Cie, had established a branch upon Banana Point, which
was consequently long known as French Point. Two years
later a Dutch company, the Afrikaansche Handelsverleniging
of Rotterdam,; installed themselves at Boma, where they were
joined a few years later by the agents of an English firm,
Hatton and Cookson, and by some Portuguese traders. When
Stanley arrived at Boma in 1877, after his great journey across
Africa, he found sixteen Europeans there, the representatives
of six factories, French, English, Portuguese, and Dutch. In
1882 the British Congo Company made its appearance; it
was followed in 1884 by a Portuguese concern, the Companhia
portugueza de Zaire. Such was the general state of affairs
when the Independent State was founded in 1885. The trade
which was carried on was limited in extent, and was confined
in the main to the districts round the lower Congo.
After 1885 a marked change took place, and before the
end of 1886 three Belgian companies had been formed for
the development of trade in the Congo. Of these the most
important was the Compagnie dtt, Congo pour le commerce
et Tindustrie, which for a number^c-f years was to play an
important part in discovering and exploiting the economic
resources of the country. As its activities extended, affiliated
companies were founded, and by 1891 it had a capital of
35,000,000 francs, ran 25 establishments, employed 250 white
men, and owned 11 steamers. At the same time elaborate
measures had been taken to provide an effective service of
porters until such times as the Matadi-Leopoldville railway
¦was completed. The future history of this and other com
panies is dealt with elsewhere. It suffices for the moment

262 FOREIGN TRADE
to indicate the conditions under which foreign trade between
Europe and the Congo ^was first established.
The following table shows the rate at which the special
trade of the country has since developed. (Statistics of
imports were not collected until May 9, 1892, the date at
which duties were first levied.) Value of Imports
(in thousands of francs)

Year

Value of Exports

(in thousands of francs)

1886 (six months) '

1887

1,980

1888

2,609

1889

4,297

1890

8,242

1891

5,353

1892

5,487

1893

6,206

1894

8,761

1895

10,943

1896

12,389

1897

15,146

1898

22,163

1899

36,067

1900

47,377

1901

50,488

1902

50,069

1903

54,597

*1904

51,890

1905

53,032

1906

58,277

1907

58,894

1908

43,371

1909

56,167

1910

66,602

1911

54,052

1912

59,926

1913

55,187*

1914

52,874

1915

71,994

1916

129,203

4,984 (from May 9)
9,175
11,19410,685
15,227
22,181 23,084
22,325
24,724 23,102 18,08020,896
23,344
20,07521,477 25,181 26,586
22,126 36,846 48,632
54,232 71,590*
44,49223.453 53,765
The figures for 1917 and 1918 have not yet been published, but they are
believed to show a large increase in exports.
* The figures for 1913 are only approximate. War broke out before the
official returns for that year were published and Brussels was cut off from
the Congo.
Exports
The chief articles of export in the* special trade of the
Belgian Congo are rubber, copal, palm-nuts and palm-oil,
copper, ivory, and gold. The relative importance of these
has, however, varied very considerably during the period
under consideration.

EXPORTS

>63

Rubber
The following table shows the annual export of rubber
from the Belgian Congo during the years 1887-1916, the
value of the exports, and the relation between rubber and
all other commodities exported :

Year
188718881889
1890 1891
1892189318941895
18961897
189818991900
190119021903 1904
1905
1906
19071908190919101911
1912
1913
19141915
1916

Metric tons
30 74
131
134 82
156
241338
576
1,317
1,662
2,1133,747 5,317
6,023
5,350 5,918
4,831
4,862
4,8494,559 3,751
3,417
3,4013,510
3,6242,249 2,179
3,017

'te in thousands

Percentage of

of francs

total value of

exports

117

6

260

10

459

11

556

7

327

6

625

11

963

16

1,473

17

2,883

26

6,587

53

8,312

55

15,850

72

28,101

80

39,874

84

43,966

87

41,734

83

47,344

86

43.478

84

43,756

83

48,489

83

43,982

74

30,779

71

42,569

76

51,016

77

34,426

64

34,769

58

17,698

- 32

10,630

20

11,107

15

17,742

14

The rise and decline in the importance of rubber as an
export are very remarkable, and can be explained only by
taking into consideration a number of facts widely different
from one another. In the early days of the Independent
State, before railway communication had been established
with the interior, the cost and difficulty of transport were
too great to encourage any considerable expansion of trade
in this direction. The products of the oil-palm, which could
be obtained in the Lower Congo, and ivory, which bulk for

264 FOREIGN TRADE
bulk was much more valuable than rubber, and could there
fore stand the cost of transport better, constituted at this time
the chief exports of the colony. With the completion of the
railway from Matadi to Leopoldville the situation entirely
changed. The growing demand for rubber in Europe pro
vided a market for a commodity which could be cheaply
collected by means of forced labour, and required neither
a heavy initial outlay nor a long period of waiting for a
return on that outlay. The output accordingly went up by
leaps and bounds, and reached its maximum in the years
1900-6, though the most profitable period did not occur
till the great boom of 1910. By that time, however, the
exports had begun to decline. The old methods of gathering
rubber by means of forced labour were being abolished, the
most accessible districts had probably suffered from reckless
exploitation, and, above all, the plantations of Ceylon and
Malaya had reached the productive stage. The fall in the
price of rubber after 1910 only accelerated a movement which
had already begun, and which would have proceeded more
rapidly than it did had measures not been taken to check it.
Of these measures the most important were, first, a very con
siderable reduction in the railway rate from Leopoldville to
Matadi, and, second, the suspension of the tax on rubber while
its price in Europe remained below a certain figure. The
future of rubber production in the Congo and the prospects
of the plantations there have already been discussed (see
Chapter XI).
The decline in the relative importance of rubber among
the exports is due of course not only to the decreased amount
produced, and to the fall in price, but to the incre'ased output
of other commodities, such as copper, palm-oil products, and
copal. Both from the commercial and from the fiscal stand
point this is an advantage, as it tends to give greater stability
to the trade and finance of the colony.
Palm-Nuts and Palm-Oil
The following two tables show the general character of the
exports of the kernels of Elaeis guineensis and of palm-oil
during the years 1887-1916.

Year18871888 18891890 1891 18921893 1894 189518961897 18981899 19001901 1902
1903 19041905 19061907 1908
1909 1910191119121913 191419151916

Year
1887 188818891890189118921893189418951896
18971898
189919001901 1902

EXPORTS

265

Palm-Kernels

Value in thousands
Percentage of
Metric tons
of francs
total value of
exports
2,138
2,577
3,019
6,617
4,715
1,320
25 *
3,065
677
12
4,055
896
14
5,332
1,333
15
4,972
1,243
11
4,754
1,114
9
4,396
1,099
7
4,740
1,280
5
4,703
1,293
4
4,884
1,319
3
4,225
1,373
3
5,212
1,694
3
4,958
1,487
3
4,596
1,379
3
5,047
1,514
3
¦4,896
1,469
3
5,192
2,088
3
5,628
1,745
4
5,213
1,835
3
6,141
2,657
. 4 ;
6,746
2,879
5
5,895
2,770
5
7,205
3,963
7
8,052
3,623
7
11,024
5,181
7
22,391
12,763
Palm-Oil
10
Value in thousands
Percentage of
Metric tons
of francs
total value of
exports
738
,
1,042
1,142
2,204
1,573
846
16
906
432
8
1,287
614
10
1,710
889
10
1,799
936
9
1,482
771
6
1,250
650
4
1,419
667
3
1,469
735
2
1,627
813
2
1,500
802
2
1,777
951
2
266

FOREIGN

TRADE

Value in thousands

Percentage of

Year

Metric tons

of francs
total value of
exports
1903
1,647
972
2
1904
1,784
1,053
2
1905
1,922
1,153
2
1906
1,995
1,197
2
1907
2,052
1,508
2
1908
2,104
1,220
3
1909
1,712
984
2
1910
2,160
1,796
3
1911
2,273
1,732
3
1912
1,989
1,253
2
1913
1,974
1,244
2
1914
2,498
1,574
3
1915
3,408
2,130
3
1916
3,852
3,351
3
The most remarkable feature in the above tables relating to
the export of palm-kernels and palm-oil is the great increase
in the output which has taken place within recent years.
This is due in the main to the development of the concessions
granted to the Sociite anonyme des huileries du Congo beige
(Messrs. Lever). Up to the present time the export of palm-
kernels has increased more rapidly than that of palm-oil, but,
as the machinery necessary for the extraction of oil is now
being installed in the country, there will probably be a large
increase in its output during the next few years. The policy
of crushing the kernels locally has several advantages : more
oil is obtained from the nuts, the cost of carriage, particularly
heavy if the kernels have to be brought by way of the Leopold-
ville-Matadi railway, is reduced, and the question of making
full use of the waste products becomes of less importance.
As a result of the war, more attention has been paid in the
United Kingdom to the products of the oil-palm than was
formerly the case, and it is not unlikely that the demand for
them will be permanently increased. The oil obtained from
the kernels is by various processes converted into a liquid
portion (olein) and into a hard white fat (stearin). From
various admixtures of these margarine, vegetable butter, and
cooking fats can be produced on the one hand, and soap and
candles on the other. In this country, to which palm-oil
alone was hitherto sent in large quantities, it was used either
for soap and candles or in the tin-plate industry. But it
is not improbable that the consumption of margarine, which,
if it has not exactly come into favour in this country during
EXPORTS 267
the war, has at least lost much of its old disrepute, may be
permanently increased. The residual matter, after the oil has
been extracted, has been for a long time used on the Continent
as a food for young pigs, mileh-cows, and other stock, and it is
said that recent efforts to induce British farmers to experiment
with it have met with some degree of success. On the whole
then it would appear that the demand for both palm-kernels
and palm-oil will increase in this country, while on the Conti
nent, where they have hitherto been used to a much greater
extent, the demand is not likely to decrease.
Ivory
The exports of ivory since ,1887 are shown in the following
table :

Year
1887 188818891890 18911892 18931894 18951896 1897
1898 18991900 19011902 •
1903 19041905
1906 190719081909 1910
1911 1912
1913191419151916 Although fears have frequently been expressed that the
exports of ivory from the Congo would decline owing to the

Value in thousands

Percentage of

Metric tons

of francs

total value of
exports

36

45

85
168
142
2,835
53
187
3,730
68
186
3,718
60
252
5,042
58
292
5,845
53
191
3,826
31
246
4,916
32
216 *
4,319
19
292
5,835
16
263
5,253
11
198
3.965
8
249
4,986
9
185
3,792 •
7
167
n 3,840
7
210
4,838
9
178
4,455
8
204
6,414
10
229
5,936
13
244
6,583
12
237
6,056
9
226
5,693
10
234
6,076
10 "
276
7,762
13
295
7,092
* 13
215
4,589
6
351
7,732
6
268 FOREIGN TRADE
reckless slaughter of elephants, the above table affords little
indication, that that stage has yet been reached. The fluctua
tions in the output which may be observed are due, at least in
part, to the restrictions imposed by the Government at various
times. Regulations which came into force in the early part
of 1913 made the registration of ivory a much more simple
matter than it had formerly been, and allowed the native to pay
a tax on his ivory instead of surrendering one-half of it. At
the same time the minimum weight of a tusk allowed to be
exported was reduced from 10 kilogrammes to 6. Though at
first sight this latter provision might seem to encourage the
slaughter of immature animals, it will probably have little
real effect. . For years a considerable contraband trade had
been carried on across the Portuguese frontier both in large
and small tusks. This trade has been checked to a very great
extent by the new ragulations, and the increased output of
ivory since they came into effect is probably due in the main
to the fact that much less is now smuggled into Angola than
was formerly the case. Gold
Thej figures for the export of gold since 1904, the first year
in which it appeared in the official statistics, are as follows :
Year
1903 ,
1904 .
1905 1906 ,
19071908190919101911191219131914 ,-
1915 1916. The export of gold will probably continue to increase for
some time. The auriferous regions in the north-east of the
colony have not yet been fully developed, while deposits
believed to exist in the Katanga and elsewhere are still
unworked.

Value in thousands

Percentage of

Kilogrammes

of francs

total value of
exports

5

15

less than 1

72-9

219

146-3

468

a

274-7

851

1

534

1,571

3 *

215

704

2

749-3

2,280

4

756

2,515

4

907-4

3,119

6

967

3,222

5

1,476 .,

5,071

9

1,930 .

5,552

10

3,935

13,558

19

2,852 . ,

—

EXPORTS 269
Copal
The export of copal on an extensive scale did not begin till
about 1896. Since then the annual output has been as follows :
Value in thousands Percentage of
Year Metric tons of francs total value of
iaofi n exports
1896 9 16 less than 1
1897 39 67 less tuan 1,
18981899 1 1
1900 21 27
1901 212 297
1902 340 475 ' 1
1903 342 650 1
1904 950 1,426 3
1905 845 845 2
1906 869 1,086 2
1907 1,220 2,038 3
1908 1,661 1,793 4
1909 827 " 868 2
1910 976 1,314 2
1911 2,139 ' 3,348 6
1912 3,776 6,385 11
1913 4,698 8,926 16
1914 6,993 6,294 12
1915 4,266 2,815 4
1916 8,719 5,380 4
While rubber was plentiful and obtained a good price com
paratively little attention was paid to the collection of copal.
But the increased demand for it in Europe, where it is used as
a varnish, came at a time when rubber was less easy to find
than before, and when to this was added the great fall in price
of the latter commodity many traders turned to ' copal as a
substitute. As will be seen from the above table, it had ad^
variced by 1914 to an important place among the exports of the
country. The market appears, however, to have been upset by
the war, and, although the total amount exported is practically
the same as before (allowance being made for shipping diffi
culties), the price has fallen very considerably. It is not im
probable that when normal conditions are restored copal may
become a more important article of export than rubber.
Copper
Copper first appeared among the exports of the Belgian
Congo in 1905. Since 1909 the exports have been as follows :

270 . FOREIGN TRADE

Value in thousands

Percentage of

Year

Metric tons

of francs

total value of
exports

1909

11

17

less than 1

1910

153

90

»*

1911

1,015

1,834

3,

1912

2,463

4,112

7

1913

5,412

8,605

16

1914

10,343

15,515

29

1915

14,274

28,548

40

1916

21,882

63,896

49

During the last few years copper has advanced with almost
phenomenal rapidity to the first place among the exports of
the Congo. This is entirely due to the development of the
copper mines of the Katanga by the Union miniere. After a
long period of preparation these mines were just getting into
full working order when war broke out, and, though their pro
gress was at first rather checked by that event, the subsequent
demand for copper gave a further impetus to their development.
From the fiscal point of view the greatly increased output
of copper is of considerable advantage to the colony. Its
influence on the commercial development of the country is
much less direct. Apart from the coal and machinery used in
the mines and smelters, the material required in the construc
tion of the railways and the rolling-stock employed on them,
and the foodstuffs imported for the benefit of those engaged in
the mining industry, the export of copper leads to no great
return trade, and gives employment to only a relatively small
number of people (about 10,000). On the other hand it has led
to the extension of railways, and may eventually lead to a
certain amount of European settlement.

Summary
The changes which have taken place in the character of the
export trade of the Belgian Congo since the foundation of the
Independent State to the present time may be summarized in
the following table, which shows the total value (in francs) of
the exports in certain years and the percentage contributed to
that total by each of the principal commodities already
considered :

EXPORTS
271
Year
Total value
*=>
¦5
I-i
Palm- oil Rubier
**g
1
Other immodi- ties
"s
1891
53-0
25.0
16-0 6-0
u
100
1895
10,943,000
53-4
11-4
8-5 26-3
•4
100
1900
47,377,400
111
2-8
1-7 84-3
¦ 1
100
1905
53,032,260
9-1
2-8
2-1 82-5
•8
1-5
1-2
100
1910
66,602,300
9-0
3-9
2-7 76-6
3-7
1-9
¦1
2-1
100
1914
52,874,000
13-4
6-8
2-7 20-1
10-5
11-8
29-3
5-4
100
1915
71,994,000
6-3
7-2
2-9 15-4
18-8
3-9
39-6
5-9
100
( A most remarkable feature in the trade of the Congo up to
the present time is the way in which one or two articles have
almost always provided a high percentage of the total value
of the exports. Ivory and the products of the oil-palm gave
place to rubber, and just when rubber was declining both
relatively and absolutely the output of copper began to increase
rapidly. At the same time it must be noted that the export
trade of the colony is now on a much more stable foundation
than formerly, and is much less likely to be seriously disturbed
by fluctuations in the output of any one commodity.
Another feature of the export trade shown by the above table
is the growing importance of articles other than those which
have been specifically mentioned. In 1915 they accounted
for about 6 per cent, of the total value of the goods exported.
Among them are cocoa, rice, cotton, raw hides, and timber. Of
these cocoa and rice are at the present time the most important,
but the output of cotton is on the increase.
As stocks of certain commodities such as palm-kernels have
to some extent been held up as a result of the war, the figures
for 1915 are the last which can be regarded as at all satis
factory for purposes of comparison.
Imposts
The figures for the special import trade since 1892 are given
on page 262. The considerable fluctuations between one year
and another are to be explained in the main by the irregular
importation of railway material and machinery. The following
figures, based on the returns for the four years 1909-12, show
approximately the percentage to the total value of exports of
each of the more important classes of articles imported :
272 FOREIGN TRADE
Cotton and textile goods 20 per cent.
Provisions 16 „ „
Machinery 10 „ „
Metals 10 „ „
Clothing -6 „ „
Steamers, &c. 4 „ „
Cotton and textile goods are imported, very largely for sale to
the native population, who also buy considerable quantities of
old clothing and ready-made goods. Provisions consist of
European foodstuffs for the use of the European population
and agricultural produce required by the natives engaged in
the exploitation of the mines in the Katanga. Metals include
much of the material imported by the railway companies for
the construction of the permanent way, while machinery con
sists of locomotives and the plant required by the mining
companies, the palm-oil industry, &c. The steamers are in
the main for use on the middle and upper Congo and its
tributaries. Among other articles coal, coke, and oil are increasing in
importance. Coal and coke come from the Wankie coal-field
for the smelters in the Katanga, and oil is now used on some of
the river steamers. The importation of rum for the native
population is prohibited, but a considerable quantity of alco
holic liquor is imported for consumption by Europeans. Tobacco,
hardware, and a variety of articles, sometimes designated by
the expressive term 'trumpery', are imported for sale to
the natives.
# The bulk of the imports came before the war from Belgium,
the United Kingdom, Germany, France, Rhodesia, and the
Union of South Africa. The percentage of the total supplied
by each of these countries in 1911 and 1912 was approximately
as follows :

United

Rhodesia and
Year
Belgium
Kingdom
France
Gennany
South Africa
1911
65
12
4-5
5
3
1912
66
10
2
8
6
Cotton and textile goods were very largely supplied by Belgium
(68 per cent, in 1911) and by the United Kingdom, which
countries also provided the greater part of the ready-made
clothing, shirts, &c, sold in the colony. Provisions came from
various quarters. Preserved meats were largely of Belgian
IMPORTS 273
and French origin. Denmark sent butter, and Switzerland
milk. Flour was imported from Britain and various European
countries^ and Rhodesia was developing a considerable trade
with the Katanga in beans, oatmeal, lentils, and barley.
Norway and Angola supplied fish. *
Metals were almost entirely imported from Belgium before
the war, although a large amount of corrugated iron was taken
from the United Kingdom. Locomotives were partly of British
and partly of Belgian make, but wagons and carriages were
practically all of Belgian manufacture.
About 1912 Germany was making a big effort to obtain a
larger share in the import trade of the Congo. Commercial
travellers were visiting the country, displaying their samples,
and offering long credit on easy terms to would-be purchasers.
In that year their share of the imports advanced from 5 to
8 per cent.
As a result of the war, of course, Belgian trade with the
colony was entirely suspended, and the greater part of the
imports was obtained from the United Kingdom and her
colonies. In 1915, for example, the special imports amounted
in value to 23,453,000 francs, and of that sum the share of
the United Kingdom was 11,319,000 francs, of Rhodesia and
'South Africa 6,388,000 francs, of France 1.288,000 francs, and
of Angola 1,075,000 francs. Transit Trade
In the early days of the Independent State its transit trade
was relatively of great importance. During the five years
1888-92, for example, about 45 per cent, of the total value^ of
the exports from the country was credited to goods which
came from beyond its frontiers. In the five years 1909-13
which preceded the outbreak of war this figure had fallen to
28 per cent. The following tables give in millions of francs
the details for the years 1911, 1912, and 1913, and for the years
1914, 1915, and 1916: Table I Transit 24-9
24-3 16.5

Exports

Year

General

Special

1911

78-9

54-0

1912

84-2

59-9

1913

71-7

'55-2

t. CONGO

s

274

FOREIGN TRADE

Imports

Year

General

Special

Transit

1911

58-3

48-6

9-7

1912

62-2

54-2

8-0

1913

87-1

71-6
Table II
Exports

15-5

Year

General

Special

Transit

1914

61-2

52-9

8-3

1915

82-5

72-0

10-5

1916

147-2

129-2
Imports

18-0

1914

51-6

44-5

7-1

1915

29-6

23-4

6-2

1916

791

67-6

11-5

These tables show the relation of the transit trade to the
general and special trade. The decline of the transit trade
both actually and relatively during the latter period is due to
several factors. The greater part of it comes from the French
and former German possessions which border the Congo, and
the exploitation of the latter districts at least must have been
seriously disturbed by the war. On the other hand the greatly
increased exports of copper and palm-nuts from the Belgian
Congo have given it a much larger proportion of the general
trade. The principal commodities which enter into the transit
export trade of the Congo are rubber and ivory. The following
tables show,in millions of francs, the general, special, and transit
trade in each of these articles during the years 1911-13 and
1914-16 :

Tablk I
Rubier

Year

General

Special

Transit

1911

50-4

34-4

16-0

1912

53-5

34-7

18-8

1913

27-8

17-7
Ivory

10-1

1911

9-2

5-7

3-5

1912

9-3

6-1

3-2

1913

11-8

7-7

4-1

TRANSIT TRADE 275

Table II

Rubber

Year
General Special
Transit
1914
14-6 10-6
4-0
1915
18-8 IM
7-7
1916
29-3 17-5
Ivory
11-8
1914
9-8 7-1
2-7
1915
8-3 4-6
1-7
1916
9-6 7-7
1-9
Comparing these tables with those already given, it is seen that
during the first period, 1911-13, rubber and ivory accounted for
85 per cent, of the total transit export trade and during the
second period for about 81 per cent, of it.
s2
CHAPTER XV
GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION
As a result of the international situation created by the
charges of misgovernment against the Congo Free State, the
Belgian Congo was annexed by Belgium in 1908, the annexa
tion becoming effective from November 15 of that year. The
government of the country is now carried on according to the
Constitution finally approved by King Leopold on October 18,
1908, modified to some extent by subsequent Acts of the
Belgian Parliament, of which the more important are those of
March 29, 1911, March 5, 1912, and December 9, 1912. The
effect of these various enactments may be briefly summarized
as follows. Centeal Government
The Belgian Congo is placed under the legislative control of
the king, but he must act on the advice of the Colonial Minister,
who is responsible to Parliament. His legislative power he
exercises by decree, and his executive power by regulations,
subject, however, to any laws passed by the Belgian Parliament.
In the government of the country the king is aided by a Colonial
Council consisting of the Colonial Minister, who presides, and
fourteen members, eight of whom are nominated by the king,
three by the Senate, and three by the Chamber. One of the
councillors nominated by the king and alternately one of those
nominated by the Senate or by the Chamber retire each year,
but may be reappointed. Members of the Senate or of the
Chamber are not themselves eligible for election. The powers
of this Council are advisory, and except in cases of urgency
it must be consulted before any decree is issued. Parlia
ment retains in its own hands the control of the Colonial
Budget. In dealing with the foreign relations of the colony
the king acts on the advice of the Minister for Foreign Affairs.
In practice therefore it works out that the Congo is under

CENTRAL GOVERNMENT 277
the control of the Belgian Parliament, and so under the
control of the Belgian people.
In addition to the Colonial Council, there are two other
bodies of a consultative character at Brussels. One is the
Conseil superieur du Congo, which was created in 1899, and
now acts as a court of appeal. The other is the Commission
des terres, which was created in 1910, and consists of five
members, all Government officials. Its duty is to examine all
questions relative to the concession or sale of land.

Local Government
The Governor-General and Chief Officials
Previous to the royal decree of July 28, 1914, which reorga
nized the administration of the Belgian Congo, the Governor-
General was the head of the executive in the colony, where
he was the representative of the king. As a rule he had
no legislative power, and his duty was to administer the
colony in the way decided for him by the central govern
ment. He appointed and dismissed all the less important
officials, controlled the general administration of the country,
and was responsible for the maintenance of public order. But
his powers were much limited by the authorities at home.
In the preparation of the budget he had only a consultative
voice; the prerogative of mercy could not be exercised by
him; even for the establishment of a new post-office a
ministerial decree was necessary.
The Governor-General was assisted in his work by several
vice-governors and inspectors, the secretary-general, and the
directors of the public services. One of the vice-governors was
in charge of the Katanga; the others were attached to the
central administration at Boma, or were sent as inspectors into
the various districts of the colony as circumstances might direct.
The inspectors had no definitely specified duties, and were used
in the public service as the needs of the administration might
require. The directors of the public services were at the head
respectively of the departments of Justice and Public In
struction, the Interior, Finance, Industry and Commerce,
Agriculture, Marine and Public Works, and Army and Police.
These and various others formed a consultative council which

278 GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION
the Governor-General might ask to advise him if he judged
necessary. As a matter of fact he made little use of it.
The difficulties of* administering so large an area as the
Belgian Congo from Boma soon made themselves apparent,
and the royal decree of July 28, 1914, prepared the way for
the division of the colony into four provinces, Congo-Kasai,
Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga. Their capitals are respec
tively Kinshasa, Coquilhatville, Stanleyville, and Elisabeth
ville. Each of these provinces is administered by a vice-
Governor-General, to whom is entrusted the care of its internal
affairs. He is assisted by the directors of the various public
seryices established in the province, and by a Comite" consultatif
consisting of these directors, together with the commissioners
of the various districts in the province, and some of the more
prominent European inhabitants. The Comite considers all
matters relating to public works, and the collection and
expenditure of the revenue.
The Governor-General has full executive authority in the
colony except in so far as he is restrained by laws and royal
decrees. He cannot, for example, interfere with the vice-
Governors-General in their discharge of the powers assigned
to them, and he deals mainly with matters which affect the
interests of the colony as a whole. The preparation of the
annual budget is entrusted to him, but in this work he receives
help from the provincial authorities. He is assisted in his
various duties by the heads of the public services, and by the
Conseil du Gouvernemenl, in which they sit along with the
vice-Governors-General and various European notables.
Districts and Territories
By a royal decree of 1912 the territorial divisions of the
colony were reorganized. The districts were increased in
number from twelve to twenty-two, and the old subdivisions
of the district, the zones, the sectors, and the posts, were re
placed by a new subdivision, the territory, the extent of which
varies according to circumstances. The twenty-two are as
follows : Bas Congo, Moyen Congo, Lac Leopold II, Equateur,
Lulonga, Bangala, Ubangi, Haut Uele, Bas Uele, Aruwimi,
Stanleyville, Lowa, Ituri, Maniema, Kivu, Sankuru, Kasai,
Kwango, Lomami, Tanganika-Moero, Haut Luapula, Luluai

LOCAL GOVERNMENT 279
The last four of these form the province of the Katanga. Bas
Congo, Moyen Congo, Kasai, and Sankuru belong to that of
Congo-Kasai. Equateur consists of Lac Leopold II, Equateur,
Lulonga, Bangala, and Ubangi. The remainder are included
in the Province Orientale.
Each district is administered by a commissioner, who repre
sents the government within it. He is in charge of the mili
tary and police, and if force is necessary decides when and how
it is to be employed. It is he also who ' recognizes ' the native
chiefs (according to the decree of 1910, see p. 282), or with
draws for just cause a recognition already accorded. In other
respects his powers have recently been increased. Formerly
he had little control over his subordinate officials, but now the
central government does not intervene directly in the or
ganization of the district, while the Governor-General confines
himself to placing at the disposition of the commissioner the
personnel of which he has need.
The administrators of the territories have less authority
than the officials whom they have displaced. In particular
they are forbidden to order military operations or to transform
a police operation into a military one, to order the displace
ment of native villages, and to forbid or subject to conditions
the recruitment of labourers.

Government of the Katanga
By its more temperate climate and rich mineral resources,
no less than by its great distance from Boma, the Katanga is
cut off to some extent from the remainder of the Belgian
Congo, and this fact finds an acknowledgement both in the
history of the region and in the special arrangements which
have been made for its government. In order to understand
these arrangements a brief account of the history of the
region is necessary. Livingstone, Cameron, and Gambier had
called attention to its mineral wealth, but it was not till 1883
that Bohm and Reichard, agents of the German section of the
International Association, visited the native copper mines, and
entered into relations with Msiri, the chief of the country.
In 1885 two Portuguese officers entered the region, and in 1890
they were followed by some British travellers, including
Thompson, Grant, and Sharp. The latter, who were connected

280 GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION
with the British South Africa Company, sought to obtain;'
territorial concessions from the native chiefs. Considerable
alarm was caused in the Independent State by this action,,
and steps were immediately taken to render effective the
claims to the region which had already been made in the
Declaration of Neutrality. The Compagnie du Congo, which
some time before had sent a commercial expedition to the
Katanga, came to the aid of the Independent State in this
emergency. On April 15, 1890, a new company was created,
the Compagnie du Katanga, which took over the expedition
sent out by the Compagnie du Congo and organized two
others. The three expeditions traversed the country, asserted
the authority of the State among the native chiefs, and collected
a considerable amount of information regarding the economic
resources of the region.
The Independent State in the Convention of March 12,
1891, recognized the services which the Compagnie du
Katanga had rendered it by granting it in full ownership
one-third of the domain lands in the basin of the Lualaba
above Riba-Riba, and in the basin of the upper Lomami. (In
1896 the Compagnie surrendered the lands which it held to
the north of the 5th parallel, and received in exchange full
ownership of an equivalent area in the lower Lomami.) It
ceded to it also for ninety years the right of exploiting the
mineral wealth of these lands, and accorded to it for twenty
years preferential rights over all mineral deposits which it
discovered in the territories belonging to the State. The
distances from the more settled parts of the State, however,
the Arab troubles, and the difficulties of delimiting the ceded
lands were all obstacles to progress, and nothing of importance
was done till 1900. In that year an agreement was reached
between the State and the Compagnie du Katanga by which
a new organization was established, the Comite special du
Katanga. This body, which consists of six members, four,
including the president, nominated by the State, and two
by the Compagnie du Katanga, was entrusted with the
exploitation of the mineral resources of the country. All
income and expenditure were to be divided in the proportion
of one-third to the Compagnie and two-thirds to the State.
At the end of the ninety-nine years for which the agreement
was made its property is to be divided in the same proportion,

LOCAL GOVERNMENT 281
and the non-alienated lands according to the terms of the
Convention of 1891.
The State, having such a preponderance on the Comite
special, also entrusted it with political powers, and by another
decree, issued in 1900, granted it the administration of the
Katanga, with the exception of justice, export and import
duties, and postal arrangements. In annexing the Congo, in
1908, Belgium undertook to respect the engagements which
had been made by the Independent State. The Comite
special, therefore remained in the position in which it had
been placed as far as the economic development of the
Katanga was concerned. On the other hand the State
remained free to withdraw the political powers which had
been granted. By the Constitution it was arranged that this
should take place before January 1, 1912 ; it was actually done
on March 22, 1910. The Comite is now the administrator and
manager of the common patrimony of the State and of the
Compagnie du Katanga. Since the annexation it does not
possess the same liberty as before. It has to respect the
terms of the Constitution regarding the sale or concession
of domain lands, and certain contracts which it formerly made
on its own authority must now be submitted for sanction to
the Belgian Parliament. Nevertheless its position remains
very important. No part of the common patrimony of the
State and the Compagnie du Katanga can be disposed of
without its intervention, and, as the majority of its members
are nominated by the Government, it is in reality a great
public administration.
When the territorial reorganization of the colony took
place, in 1912, the four districts of Lomami, Tanganika-Moero,
Haut Luapula, and Lulua were, as already mentioned, formed
into one vice-government. It includes not only the Katanga
in the strict geographical sense, but parts of the old districts
of Kasai, Acuwimi, and Stanleyville.
By a decree of 1910 the vice-Governor-General of the
Katanga represents the Government there and exercises all
the executive powers delegated to the Governor-General.
He has the right of corresponding direct with Brussels, and
has no obligation towards the Governor-General other than
that of sending him a report once in three months. The
powers of the latter official are indeed practically non-existent,

282 GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION
and if the Katanga had a budget of its own it would be for all
intents and purposes a separate colony. The vice-Governor-
General is assisted by officials in the same way as the Governor-
General with the exception that vice-governors are replaced
by inspectors or commissioners-general.

Native Chiefdoms
In 1910 the State undertook the task of associating the
native chiefs in the administration of the country. Ac
cording to the plan adopted every native is to be attached
to a chiefdom, the limits of which are to be determined by
the Commissioner comformably to custom. Where custom
also demands it sub-chiefdoms are to be recognized as well.
The chief is as a rule the customary head of a tribe, and in
such cases the Commissioner confines himself to giving that
individual legal recognition. Where there are no customary
rules, the Commissioner invites the members of the chiefdom
to suggest a candidate for the vacant office, and, if they fail to
do so, he makes the appointment himself. If the chief shows
himself unfit, he may be removed and another appointed in
his place. Every chiefdom is attached to one or other of the
territories in a district, and every chief owes a certain
obedience to the official in charge of the territory to which
he is attached. But he is not to be regarded as a subordinate
of that official, and his chiefdom is not an administrative sub
division of the territory. His position in fact is rather that of
a former ruler who has been placed in tutelage.
The authority which the chiefs are allowed to exercise is
considerable, and embraces the political, judicial, and adminis
trative affairs Of the districts over which they rule. In all
that they do they must conform to customary native law,
except in so far as that is contrary to public order as it exists
in modern civilized States, or conflicts with laws and regulations
made expressly with the intention of overriding customary
law. In addition, however, to the powers prescribed by
custom, certain other duties have been given to the chiefs
by the Belgian authorities. They must, for example, assist
in the collection of the revenue, in the construction of works
of public utility, and in the administration of certain regula
tions for the maintenance of public health. For works of

LOCAL GOVERNMENT 283
a public character the chief is entitled to demand two days'
or six hours' work per month from his subjects, and more if
it is absolutely necessary.
How this system will work out in practice it is yet too early
to say. But it has been suggested that the final result will be
to transform' the chiefs into mere officials of the Government.
In as far as they exercise powers which have been conferred
upon them by the State and do not belong to them by cus
tomary law, they will be compelled to depend upon the State
for their authority ; and to that extent at least they will be
little more than its subordinates. With regard to their
customary powers, the policy of the State is avowedly to
interfere with them as little as possible. But many of the
chiefs are but ill-fitted to govern, and it is probable that, as
time goes on, the State will be driven to interfere more and
more with their activities. Even at the present time it is not
clear that some of them do not abuse their position.

¦ Judiciary
The administration of justice in the Belgian Congo is carried
out partly by European courts and partly by native chiefs.
The European courts are of varying degree of importance.
There are seven tribunals of first instance with unlimited
civil and criminal jurisdiction, and they alone are competent
to hear capital criminal cases against Europeans. These courts
are situated at the following places: Boma for the district
of the Bas Congo; Leopoldville for the districts of Moyen
Congo, Lac Leopold, and Kwango *. Coquilhatville for the
districts of Equateur, Lulonga, Ubangi, and Bangali; Nian
gara for Haut and Bas Uele ; Stanleyville for the districts
of Stanleyville, Aruwimi, Ituri, Lowa, Mamiema,* and Kivu ;
Lusambo for the districts of Kasai and Sankuru ; and Elisabeth
ville for the four districts which now form the Katanga.
These courts may also sit at other places when necessary.
¦ The territorial tribunals have power to hear any criminal
case against natives, and against non-natives when the punish
ment cannot exceed five years' penal servitude or is a fine.
They are created by ordinance of the procurator-general, who
determines the places where they shall sit.
As these courts are, however, insufficient for the require-

284 GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION
ments of justice in so large a country as the Belgian Congo,
the State has given judicial powers to various officials in the
public service. Where no other tribunal is available any
official who holds the degree of Doctor of Laws may hear
charges against either natives or non-natives when the maxi
mum punishment does not exceed seven days' imprisonment
or a fine of 200 francs, certain specified classes of other offences
by natives, and civil cases where the matter in dispute does
not exceed 100 francs in value. There are appeal courts at
Boma and Elisabethville. In civil matters they deal with
cases where the subject in dispute is over 200 francs in value
or a question of competence arises ; in criminal matters they
hear appeals in all cases except where the accused person is a
native and the maximum penalty does not exceed seven days'
imprisonment or a fine of 200 francs. They also act as criminal
courts of first instance when criminal charges are brought
against the inferior judges.
The Conseil superieur du Congo, wliich sits at Brussels, acts
as a court of cassation and as a court of appeal. In civil
matters it hears appeals from Boma and Elisabethville when
the subject in dispute exceeds 25,000 francs in value; in
criminal affairs it acts as a court of appeal in cases affecting
judges of the courts of first instance and as a criminal court in
cases affecting the judges of the courts of appeal.
The native courts are presided over by the local chiefs. In
civil matters where both parties are natives the case is decided
according to customary law. Either party may, however,
demand that the case should be carried before a European
tribunal. The extent to which this is done of course varies in
different parts of the country, but as a rule the native court is
usually resorted to by natives who are not matriculated. In
criminal matters the chiefs and under-chiefs decide according
to customary law, but in two respects their powers are limited.
Flogging is the only corporal punishment which they may
inflict, and that must not exceed twelve strokes. Old men,
invalids, women, and children are not to be punished in this
way. Further the chiefs must report to the European authori
ties all cases of serious crime, more especially cases of ordeal
by poison, human sacrifice, cannibalism, slave-dealing, and the
cultivation and sale of hemp. According to native law these
are seldom considered to be crimes, and those who engage in

JUDICIARY 285
them would escape punishment if the European authorities
were not informed. Further, if an official in the public service
judges fit, he may withdraw any case from the native courts
and send it to a European court for trial.
Sentences pronounced by the native courts are not subject
to appeal except in so far as native custom permits. This
perhaps does not matter very much, as in civil matters the
native may always demand that his trial should take place in
a European court. In criminal matters on the other hand the
European courts can always initiate a new trial before them
selves, and they do this if a native can show just cause. It must
always be remembered, however, that the powers of the chiefs
are still very considerable, and that the native will necessarily
hesitate before he incurs their disapprobation by removing his
case from their purview. As a native cannot migrate from
one part of the colony to another without first receiving the
permission of his chief, the latter has an additional hold
upon him. Land
From the administrative point of view lands are classed
under the following heads : (1) registered lands which form
the private property of the non-native population, (2) lands
occupied by the native population, (3) the State lands, which
include unoccupied lands and those occupied or exploited by
the State. The registered lands alone can be held in private
property. They include lands which were acquired by non-
natives before July 1, 1885, and lands which have been ceded
to private individuals by the natives or by the State, according
to prescribed forms, since that date. The lands occupied by
the natives are held to include not only those which they
inhabit or cultivate, but all those which they exploit in any
manner whatever. In order to allow for native methods of
agriculture it is understood that each village should have an
area at least three times as great as that actually inhabited or
cultivated. The exact nature of the rights of the natives over
these lands does not appear to have been precisely determined.
but they are not able to dispose of them to a third party with
out the consent of the Governor-General. This provision is
considered necessary in the interests of the natives themselves.
The domain of the State includes, in addition to lands

286 GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION
acquired for specific purposes, all the vacant lands of the
colony which have not been registered and are not occupied
by natives. Part of it is known as le domaine public and
consists of all navigable and floatable rivers and streams and
the banks thereof to a depth inland of 10 metres from high-
water level. The remainder of the State lands constitute
le domaine prive, which may be exploited in the ordinary
way and even alienated by the State.
The annexation of the Congo by Belgium led to a new era in
the methods by which the domain lands were worked. In
stead of all exploitation being for the benefit of the State
alone, as had hitherto been the case, it was now recognized
that the collection of the natural products of these lands should
be in private hands, and that the State should content itself
with certain levies. Further the establishment of agricultural,
commercial, and industrial concerns was to be encouraged
by selling or leasing State lands at a moderate rate.
In order to carry out these principles a decree of March 22,
1910, put an end to the State monopoly of vegetable products
on the domain lands. The transition from State to private
exploitation was carried out in three stages, and was complete
by July 1, 1912. Five forest reserves of an extent of 600,000
hectares (2,500 square miles) were alone exempted from the pro
visions of this decree. As a result forest produce can now be
collected by any person who obtains a permit from the Govern
ment, which is given free of charge except in the case of
rubber or copal, when a payment of 250 francs annually has to
be made for each factory. A native of the Congo can collect
without a permit, provided that he does not export directly.
Traders without a fixed establishment in the country pay
500 francs for a patente des trafiquants in addition to the
250 francs already mentioned. The Governor-General may
suspend the right thus granted on account of the exhaustion
of the products, or for any other reason.
In order to make these provisions effective, agreements were
made with the Ahir and the SocUte anversoise, by which they
surrendered the privileges of an exclusive character accorded
to them in 1906, and in return received definite limited areas
(see p. 305), together with the cancelling of the share in their
capital held by the Government. At the same time the Govern
ment withdrew from its partnership in the Kasai Company.

LAND 287
In 1910 and 1911 regulations were also made for the sale of
land. Any person who wants from 1 to 10 hectares applies
to the Governor-General; those who desire more have their
applications submitted. to Brussels. The price varies according
to the situation of the land and the use to which it is to be
put. For trading establishments it is 1,000 francs per hectare,
and in towns 1 franc per square metre. For agricultural
purposes the Governor-General has fixed the price at from 10
to 25 francs per hectare, according to the distance from towns,
railways, rivers, &c. Further those who demand plots exceeding
10 hectares in extent are granted only a provisional occupation
for the first five years, during which time they pay a rent
equivalent to 5 per cent, on the price of the land. At the end
of this period they must show that they have improved the
land either by building upon it, cultivating it, or placing
stock upon it. For large concessions such as that granted a
few years ago to Lever Brothers special arrangements have of
course to be made. All such concessions have to be approved
by the Belgian Parliament.
In the Katanga the conditions affecting the sale of land are
somewhat different. The cessions are made by the Comite
special, and have to be approved by Parliament, but, whereas
that body has the power to alter the terms of any agreement
made for other parts of the Congo, it can only accept or reject
the proposals of the Comite' special. In other respects land is
sold on much the same terms, but the Comite reserves the
right to enter any land to prospect, delimit and exploit mines,
and even to retake it if they indemnify the proprietor of it,

Mining
The mining legislation of the Congo is based upon the
general principle that the minerals belong to the State and
not to the owner of the land. Accordingly no one can work
a mine without a concession from the State. Except in the
Katanga, the concessions of mining rights are regulated by
a decree of March 20, 1893. The Government determines the
regions where prospecting is to be permitted, and grants
licences to those desirous of undertaking it. If the prospector
succeeds in locating a mine he has for ten years a preferential
right of obtaining a concession to work it. The concession,.

288 GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION
when granted, is confined to an area of not more than 10,000
hectares, and is valid for a period of 99 years only. A royalty
of 5 per cent, has to be paid on the net profit received,
together with a tax of 2,500 francs for the concession, ?md one
of 10 _ francs per hectare on mines of precious metals and
stones, or of 5 francs on other mines.
In the Katanga the Government was obliged to respect to
some extent the clauses of the Convention of 1900, between
the Independent State and the Compagnie du Katanga, which
gave to the Comite special the right to exploit for 90 years
the mines discovered on one-third of the State lands. Hence
the decree of December 16, 1910, which opened up the
Katanga to the prospector, is limited in its application. It
does not apply when the right of prospecting or exploit
ing is granted by particular conventions concluded with
the Comite special, and accordingly the Comite may still
withdraw certain areas from the application of the decree.
Parliament also has the right to forbid prospecting in certain
parts of the Katanga, even if these districts have not been
made the subject of special conventions on the part of the
Comite. Whatever the date at which they have been granted,
all concessions expire on March 11, 1990, when the period of
90 years, during which the Compagnie du Katanga has the
exclusive right to exploit all the mines over one-third of the
domain lands of the Katanga, comes to an end. Thereafter
the Belgian Congo comes into full possession of the mines
and the material used in their exploitation.
Two further stipulations in the decree already referred to
increase the control of the Comite over mining concerns con
ducted by companies, that is, over all important works, since
few individuals possess sufficient resources to undertake large
enterprises in Africa. The first requires that the Comite
shall receive 33 per cent, of all shares issued by the company
which holds the concession, while the second reserves to the
Comite" the right of subscribing 20 per cent, of the capital.
The Comite thus has considerable control over the policy
of the companies.
In order to prospect and exploit mines permits from the
Comite" are required. The permis general de recherches is
issued on payment of 100 francs, and gives the holder the
right to prospect in all parts of the Katanga open to ex-

MINING 289
ploitation provided the rights of third parties are respected,
and especially those of the natives. If the holder of a permis
general discovers a mine he is entitled to apply for a permis
special et exclusif de recherches, which secures to him for
two years the exclusive right of prospecting within a circle
the radius of which in the case of precious metals, diamonds,
and precious stones is 500 metres, and in the case of other
minerals 2,500 metres. The permis special costs 200 francs,
and may be renewed for a second term of two years. It gives
the owner not only the sole right of prospecting within the
area prescribed, but the right to demand later on a permis
d' exploitation on condition that he has sufficient capital to
work the mine properly. The latter permit applies not to the
circle within which prospecting was allowed, but to a square
within that circle. Within the area thus prescribed the
holder has the right to mine until March 11, 1990, and he
has also the right to construct means of communication
outside of his concession in order to connect it with smelting
works, roads, rivers, or railways. In return he has to put the
mine in working order within two years' time, and from the
end of the first year pay a royalty of 5 per cent, on the raw
material extracted from it, with a minimum of 50 francs per
hectare, if precious metals, diamonds, or precious stones are
extracted, and'l per cent., with a minimum of 50 centimes per
hectare, if other minerals are being worked. In addition
when a single individual holds the permit he pays 33 per cent.
of his profits to the ComitS ; companies are exempted from this
latter, as the Comite has received 33 per cent, of their shares
without payment. Finance
By the constitution of the Belgian Congo the finances of the
colony are separated from those of the mother country. The
former has its own resources, from which it is expected to
meet its own expenses, and only in exceptional circumstances
would the latter be called upon to give it financial aid. The
separation, however, is not quite complete. The salary of the
Colonial Minister and the expenses of the central administra
tion! are paid for by Belgium, and figure in the budget of
the colonies. All other charges appear in the budget of the

BEL0. CONGO

EL0

290 GOVEENMENT AND ADMINISTRATION
Belgian Congo, which has to be submitted to and approved|
by the Belgian Parliament.
The income of the Congo is derived from various sources.
As proprietor of the greater part of the land of the colony,
and of all its mineral wealth, the State draws considerable
sums from them. The Independent State did not distinguish
between what it received as sovereign from that which it
received as monopolist, and in 1908, the last year in which
it presented a budget, the ' products of the domain, tributes, ;
and imposts paid in kind by the natives ' provided 16,000,000
francs out of a total revenue of 35,000,000 francs. The aban-
donment of its monopolies by the State has led to the dis
appearance of a great part of this revenue since 1910.
The domain is, however, still a source of considerable profit
to the State. The products of sales and leases, the licences for
the collection of rubber, the tax on ivory, which is roughly
about one-half its value, the dues on cutting timber in the
forests, which are not exacted from natives or people cutting
for domestic purposes, and the taxes of 40 centimes per kilo on
tree or vine rubber, and 20 centimes on grass rubber, are in
the aggregate an important source of revenue.
From certain monopolies still in its hands the State also
derives an income. These include the administration of posts,
telegraphs, and telephones, which is, however, far from being
a paying concern, the exploitation of the gold mines at Moto
and Kilo, the State plantations (rubber, coffee, and cocoa) and
pastoral farms, and various other public services. A small
amount is also obtained from certain fees and other charges
levied by the State. They include fines, legal charges, port
dues, and pilotage charges, survey and land registration fees,
and gun-licences. A new tax, first levied in 1913, was assigned
to meet the expenses of collecting commercial statistics. It
amounts to 15 centimes per package, metric ton, cubic metre,
or head, according as it deals with merchandise in bale or in
bulk, or with living animals. The tax is levied upon imports
and exports.
Direct taxation is levied on both Europeans and natives*
In the case of the former it is levied upon the size of their
houses, the number of employees engaged by them, and the
number of boats used in their business. The total amount
which it produces is not great. .

FINANCE 291
A much more important tax is that which is levied on the
natives. All male adults are taxed at a rate varying from
5 francs to 12 francs per annum. Each year the Governor-
General fixes the amount payable by the inhabitants of the
different parts of the country, after taking into account the
resources of the region and the extent to which they have been
developed. In 1912, for example, the male adult of Mayumbe,
the Middle Congo, and the southern Katanga, and of one or
two smaller districts, such as that round Stanleyville, paid
12 francs. In the greater part of the southern regions of the
interior the rate was from 8 to 10 francs, while in the northern
districts it was generally between 5 and 6 francs. In addition
there is a supplementary tax of 2 francs on each wife beyond
the first. The Governor-General may, however, if he sees fit,
lower or even dispense with these taxes, if it appears that the
natives are too poor to pay them. The native tax must be paid
in money ; under the old regime it varied from 6 to 24 francs,'
and was levied in produce, upon which was placed a value
so arbitrary and so low that the native was often compelled
to work for at least, and often much more than, fifteen days-
per month. The chief or sub-chief may be authorized to
collect the tax, but in that case precautions must be taken
to prevent injustice. If the, tax is not paid the chief enforces
it under native law ; if the native has no chief and declines to
pay he may be imprisoned for two months. The yield of the
tax will probably increase considerably as the tribes are
brought under control and as the economic resources of the
country are developed. It appears destined to become one of
the principal resources of the budget.
All traders who do not pay the personal tax have to take out
a licence, which costs them 200 francs, and 500 francs if they
deal in rubber, copal, and ivory. The natives pay this tax
only when they trade with or for the account of foreigners who
are not subject to the personal tax and have not taken out
a licence. The tax was introduced not so much for fiscal
purposes as for the discouragement of nomad traders, who
were believed to be frequently engaged in undesirable enter
prises such as slave-dealing.
The old, taxes of the Independent State on rubber were
replaced in 1910 by a single tax of 75 centimes per kilo
gramme on rubber obtained from trees or lianas, and 50 cen-
T 2

292 GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION
times on grass rubber. In order to encourage the establish-':*,
ment of plantations their produce is at present exempt. The
tax is levied at the time that the rubber is exported, and thus
it is in appearance, though not in reality, an export duty.
All limited liability companies established in the Congo
have to pay to the State a tax of 2 per cent, on their profits.
All foreign companies with a branch or office in the Congo
pay 1 per cent, on the profits derived from their business in
the colony.
The export and import dues now form a considerable source
of revenue. Import duties are fixed at 3 per cent, ad valorem
on ships, boats, machinery, agricultural implements, and
material for railways in working order, and at 10 per cent.
ad valorem on all other merchandize. Material for railways
in course of construction, scientific instruments, live-stock, and
seeds are exempt. In 1913 the Government of the Congo
was authorized to convert these ad valorem dues into fixed
taxes. The export duties are also arranged upon an ad valorem
basis, but for convenience of collection they have also been
converted into fixed charges, and are levied upon the quintal
of 100 kilogrammes. For rubber and ivory they work out at
a rate of 10 per cent, ad valorem. For other products, such as
ground-nuts, palm-oil, and palm-nuts, the duty is equivalent to
5 per cent. Special taxes levied upon alcohol appear to have suc
ceeded in reducing the consumption of that article even before
1913, when its sale to the natives was finally prohibited.
An excess profits tax passed by the Belgian Parliament at
at the beginning of 1919 affects to some extent the finances of
the Congo. The tax is to be levied on all excess profits
realized beyond a sum of 2,000 francs. For the first 10,000
francs on which the tax is chargeable the assessment is to be
at the rate of 10 per cent., and it is to increase by 1 per cent.
for each additional 1,000 francs or part thereof, but is not
to be more than 80 per cent, on that part of the excess profits -
which exceed 600,000 francs. This tax is, however, reduced to
one-fourth on profits derived from the Belgian Congo or from *
foreign countries, and seven-eights of the amount derived from
profits made in the former region are to be handed over to the
colonial treasury.
For the year 1914 the revenue of the colony was estimated
at 30,439,276 francs made up as follows :

FINANCE

293

Land taxes 
Sale and letting of Crown lands and property
Licences to collect vegetable produce
Tax on ivory levied in money or kind
Licences to hunt elephants and carry arms
Wood-cutting in State forests
Customs 
Direct and personal taxes ....
Postal, telegraph, and telephone receipts .
Shipping dues . . . . > .
Judicial fees 
Stamp duties 
Freights and proceeds of special arrangements
companies and individuals .
Recruiting and engaging workmen
Sale of agricultural produce
Interest on shares 
Interest on funds held by the colonial treasury
Interest on loans . 
Proceeds on the sale of goods warehoused in Congo
Proceeds on the sale of the stock of ivory warehoused
at Antwerp on January 1, 1914 .
Exploitation of mines .....
Tax for statistics 
Miscellaneous 

with

Grand Total

Total Receipts
221,100 556,000 140,000
1,643,500 160,000 19,000
6,031,156 9,605,000 876,000 60,000 97,000 18,120
3,656,000 10,400
321,000 35,000 8,000
590,000 100,000
564,000
4,320,000 500,000 908,000
30,439,276

The expenditure of the State is grouped under two heads,
ordinary and extraordinary. In 1914 these were estimated at
51,936,000 francs, and 11,139,582 francs respectively.
The ordinary expenditure was arrived at as follows :

Heads of Expenditure
Administrative service ....
Working of posts, telegraphs, and telephones
Government hospitals .
Exploitation of mines '.
Collection of native taxes
Restrictions on hunting
Coinage, &c.
Religious purposes
Public instruction
Charitable purposes
Museum of Terveuren .
Colonial School .
School of tropical medicine
Sundry expenses .
Public debt .
Repayments, &c. .
Unforeseen expenses .
Insurances . Grand Total

Total expenditure
per item
29,192,396 1,723,766 214,450
1,834,993 219,111 148,500
150,000783,860
593,750 10,000
227,175 72,194
63,787
2,491,173
13,972,845 74,000 64,000
100,000
51,936,000

294 GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION

For 1914, the extraordinary expenditure was distributed in
the following way :
Total expenditure
Heads of Expenditure per item
Museum of the Belgian Congo  ©™'qq7
¦ Sundry annuities  276,897
Sixth annuity to be paid on the special fund of
50,000,000 francs created under § 3 of Article 4
of the Act supplementary to the Treaty of Cession 3,300,000
Equipment of agricultural and pastoral stations . 640,100
Agricultural colonization  607,525
Botanical and zoological research .... 42,500
Marine and hydrographical work .... 1,323,350
Telegraphs and telephones  20,000
Health — Precautions against sleeping sickness . . 804,200
Miscellaneous public works . . . . . 2,500,000
Advances to the Comite spicial du Katanga in accord
ance with Art. 1 of the Convention of June 25, 1903 900,000
Delimitation of the Katanga-Rhodesia frontier . . 400,000
Labour bureau in the Katanga  50,000
Immigration  25,000
Grand Total .... 11,139,582

Since the annexation of the Congo by Belgium the annual
budgets have been as follows (the extraordinary expenditure,
which was much increased by the war, is omitted after 1914) :
Ordinary Extraordinary
Expenditure Expenditure
36.094,036 8,423,000
40,370,814 33,516,775
4<?,847,814 33,356,775
51,065,310 16,818,660
50,933,064 15,024,020
51,936,000 11,139,572
51,936,000
54,755,912
59,570,727 64,988,327
ne great fall in the revenue in 1913 and subsequent years
was due to several causes. The State had abandoned its mono
polies, and the rubber crisis necessitated a reduction of the
taxes on that commodity. The trade of the colony was also
adversely affected by the war. In 1917 matters began to im
prove ; the increased revenue since then, though no doubt due
in part to the general rise in the level of prices, is also
accounted for in part by the development in the resources of
the colony. The increase has been particularly marked in the
yield, obtained from customs and mines, the estimates for

Year

Revenue

1909

36,094,036

1910

39,745,304

1911

40,145,305

1912

45,367,639

1913

40,418,100

1914

30,441,276

1915

30,441,276

1916

32,049,082

1917

43,348,930

1918

57,937,630

FINANCE 295
1918 being 11,000,000 francs and 14,500,000 francs respectively.
The rise in expenditure during the last few years may be
attributed to various causes, of which the general rise in prices,
the increase of salaries to meet the higher cost of living, the
larger personnel involved in the development of the colony,
and the heavier charges caused by the growth of the public
debt are among the most important.
At a first glance the figures given above incline one to take
a serious view of the .financial position of the Congo, and no
doubt they are far from satisfactory. On the other hand
account must be taken of all the difficulties involved in the
transition from the old regime to the new. Former sources of
revenue had to be abandoned before existing ones had become
productive, and hence the series of deficits which form so
marked a feature of the Congo budgets. The fact that the
estimated deficit of 1918 had fallen to 7,000,000 francs, and
that a slight surplus is expected in 1919, may perhaps be
taken to indicate that the worst days are over. If nothing
intervenes to check progress an increasing revenue may be
anticipated from the taxes on land, mining royalties and
the gold mines at Kilo, native taxation, and customs-port
duties. As the position of the native improves he may
legitimately be asked to pay a higher personal tax, and he
will certainly demand more European goods.
In 1912 the public debt of the Belgian Congo amounted to
278,747,200 francs. It consists in the first place of loans which
were issued by the Independent State, and which were taken
over by the colony when it was ceded to Belgium. These
amounted in 1908 to over 105,000,000 francs. Secondly the
Act additional to the Treaty of Cession created a special debt
of 50,000,000 francs, which was to be debited to the colony.
This sum was to be given to the king en temoignage de
gratitude and was to be paid in fifteen annuities, the first
of 3,800,000 francs and the remainder of 3,300,000 francs
each. These sums are indirectly returned to the Congo, as
they are expended on matters affecting its welfare. Lastly
since the annexation the colony has each year borrowed money
to meet the extraordinary expenditure estimated for in the
budget and the deficit between revenue and ordinary ex
penditure.

296 GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION
Religion
Freedom of worship has theoretically at least always existed
in the Belgian Congo, but it appears to be admitted that, under
the old regime, at least Belgian missionaries were favoured at
the expense of those from other countries. This was probably in
part due to the fact that the former, in addition to religious
teaching, gave their converts an occupational training, while
the latter confined themselves in the main to religious and
educational work. Within the last few years some of the
difficulties formerly experienced by the Protestant missions
seem to have been removed.
A decree of December 28, 1888, permits all private associa
tions whose object is of a religious, scientific, or philanthropic
nature to acquire a civil personality and to obtain grants for
land which shall not exceed 50 hectares in extent in any one
locality, at least without a special decree. In the case of the
Roman Catholics, however, a convention concluded with the
Holy See in 1906 enables missions established with the con
sent of the State to receive 100 or even 200 hectares of agri
cultural land free of charge. In return the missionaries bind
themselves to engage in educational work of a prescribed form.
Among other privileges enjoyed by religious bodies are
exemption from the personal tax on employees, a modified tax
on buildings, and reduced rates for the transport of goods
on the boats of the State. They may also receive grants from
the State for their participation in work of interest to the
colony. The Roman Catholic organization of the colony is divided
into three Apostolic Vicarages (Haut Congo beige, Congo beige,
and Stanley Falls), eight Apostolic Prefectures (Kwango,
Matadi, Haut Kasai, Ubangi, Eastern Welle, Western Welle,
Katanga, and Northern Katanga), and several independent
missions. Education
So far comparatively little has been done for native educa
tion. The first schools founded by the State were charity
schools in which orphans, children abandoned by their parents,
and the children freed by the dispersal of slave convoys were
cared for. These schools were situated at Boma and Nouvelle
Anvers, and their management was entrusted to Roman

EDUCATION 297
Catholic priests. The course of training which was given had
as its object the preparation of the pupils for service as
subordinate officers in the military or civil service of the
colony. For other natives there are professional schools
attached to the workshops which the State possesses at
Boma, Leopoldville, and Stanleyville. These are open to youths
from 12 to 20 years of age, who have the consent of their
parents and have been recommended by their chiefs to the
Commissioner of their district. In addition there are primary
schools, where the education is given by members of religious
orders, and a school for the sons of chiefs, which was opened
at Stanleyville in 1913.
The missions, both Protestant and Catholic, have also started
a number of schools. Some of these are completely free and
have no obligation to the State, while others are under a certain
amount of control. In the latter category are : (1) those which
have been organized like the State schools, already mentioned,
for the care of abandoned children ; they are under the general
control of the Governor- General ; (2) the schools instituted by
the Catholic missions which have obtained additional grants of
land. Each of these . has to follow the programme arranged
for it by the head of the mission in consultation with the
Governor-General. In them the teaching of the national
language of Belgium and various handicrafts is obligatory.
Several scientific establishments are probably destined to
play an important part in the study of questions connected
with the Congo." The colonial museum at Terveuren in
Belgium was reorganized in 1910, and has been charged with
the duty of studying and publishing the results of observations
made in the Congo. To the section which deals with natural
science another relating to moral and political science has
more recently been added. Much of the published work of
the museum is of considerable value.
In the Congo itself the only scientific establishments of im
portance are the medical laboratory at Leopoldville and the
botanic gardens at Eala. The Agricultural Service has recently
taken over the work of collecting and co-ordinating the
meteorological observations made in the colony. In addition
various public bodies are engaged to a greater or less extent in
work of a scientific nature.

298 GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION
Protection of the Natives
The measures which have been taken since the annexation
of the Congo by Belgium for the protection of the natives
assume various forms. Compulsory work for Government
purposes still remains legal, but the period of service has been
reduced from five years to three. The policy of relying upon
paid labour for such work appears to be gradually coming into
force. The Decree of August 17, 1910, lays down the conditions
to be observed in the recruiting of native labour and in the
contracts made with the natives. The term of service may
not exceed threa years, whereas formerly the limit was seven
years ; wages must be paid in money, and the labourer has the
right to be repatriated to the district where the contract was
made. Every contract for a term exceeding three months
must be vised, and the magistrate must see that the labourer
clearly understands the terms of the agreement.
It is obvious that with regard to both of those measures
much will depend upon the spirit in which they are worked
and the extent to which supervision is possible. As the same
applies to many other regulations affecting the native, a
permanent commission has been appointed to watch over all
matters affecting his interests and the improvement of the
material and moral conditions of his existence. This com
mission is presided over by the Procurator-General of the
Court of Appeal at Boma, and the other members are appointed
by the king from among the people residing in the colony
' who by reason of their duties or occupations appear most
qualified to undertake this protective work '. In 1912 it was
decreed that the commission should consist often members, in
addition to the president, that it should meet at least once a
year, and that it should draw up an annual report. As the
members are not only drawn from various parts of the colony,
but are representative of all classes of the European population
within it, the commission may almost be regarded as an ad
visory council competent to confer with the Government on
all matters affecting the welfare of the natives.

CHAPTEE XVI
CONDITIONS AFFECTING THE DEVELOPMENT
OF THE CONGO
In any attempt to estimate the future value of the Belgian
Congo as a colonial possession account must be taken of
various factors which at present appear likely to check rapid
progress being made in the development of the resources of
the country. ' Of these, the most important are the difficulties
connected with obtaining a sufficient supply of suitable labour,
the large areas still without means of communication, the
want of capital, and the necessity for relying upon countries
other than Belgium to obtain at least part of the European
personnel necessary for administrative and economic develop
ment. An examination of these matters will show that the
problems which they present, though by no means insoluble,
are nevertheless of a serious nature and are likely to take
many years for their solution. '
Population and Labour
A number of' estimates of the population of the Belgian
CongO have been made since the foundation of the Independent
State, but most of them are of little or no value. Prior to
1910 one of the most careful was that made by Sir H. H.
Johnston, who placed the total number of inhabitants at
15,500,000. ; More recent investigations, based on the number
of adults in each district liable to fhe personal tax, and, later,
on the number of people in each chiefdom, seem to indicate
that this figure was considerably in excess of the actual popu
lation. In 1910, for example, a census of the taxable inhabi
tants provided the figures from which the table given below
was compiled. At the best, however, it offers but a rough
estimate, as it Was reckoned that a proportion of the natives
escaped the observation of the officials who took the census,
while some districts were then far from being completely:

300 CONDITIONS AFFECTING DEVELOPMENT

occupied. Hence it was considered necessary to add 20 per
cent, to the number of taxable natives over the whole country,
and 50 per cent, in the Kasai and Kwango districts and in the
Dungu (Upper Welle) zone. Moreover the proportion of
taxable to non-taxable natives had also to be calculated, so
that the final result may be far from accurate.
(As the table was drawn up while the old territorial divisions
were still in existence, the present districts which more or
less roughly correspond to them have been placed within
parentheses.) Population in
District thousands
Lower Congo  411
Middle Congo  168
Kwango  150
Kasai (Kasai, Sankuru)  912
Lac Leopold  221
Ubangi  165
Equateur (Equateur, Lulonga)  1,017
Bangala  997
Aruwimi  413
Province Orientale (Ituri, Stanleyville, Lowa, Kivu,
Maniema)  1-336
Katanga (Lomami, Tanganika-Moero, Lulua, Haut
Luapula)  269
Uele (Haut Uele, Bas Uele)  1,189
Total in thousands  7,248
Estimated total population of the Congo, 7,248,000.
Since this estimate was made, further light has been thrown
upon the population of the country by the enumeration of the
inhabitants in each of the native chiefdoms recognized by
the Government. In 1917 the following table was prepared.

District
Bas Congo
Moyen Congo
Kwango .

Sankuru .
Lac Leopold
Ubangi .
EquateurLulonga .
Bangala .
Aruwimi Bas Uele
Haut Uele
Stanleyville

Number of

Chiefdoms

* Men

240

83,483

162

35,940

61
14,667
. 161
125,667
. 375
151,460
. 201
42,066
81
26,568
927
161,467
466
85,236
422
102,425
367
78,496
265
139,921
217
216,439
731
84,850
Women 84,44233,683 14,302
162,672 156,237 46,995 33,943
203,969 75,929
111,924 76,430
157,875
236,643 77,206
Children 94,92133,731 14,712
171,283143,441 49,798
21,054
114,435 59,282
122,857 82,359
132,414
200,893 91,120
Total
262,846 103,359143,681
459,622 451,138 138,859 81,565
479,871
220,447338,206
237,285
440,210 653,977 253,176
Number of

District

Chiefdoms

Lowa

275

Ituri

316

Maniema

. 530

Kivu

75

Lulua

18

Lomami .

69

Haut Luapula

58

Tanganika-Moero

78

POPULATION AND LABOUR 301

Children Total
83,023 251,450
85,938 314,749
57,630 184,642
307,448 707,867
17,499 52,710
37,072 11,059
27,951 70,243
33,714 121,504

Men

Women

83,842

84,585

135,043

93,768

61,459

65,553

228,786

188,628

17,725

17,486

36,996

46,991

20,133

22,159

40,389

47,401

Totals . . 6,095 1,954,058 2,038,826 1,982,577 5,975,461
Comparing the above table with the previous one (though
bearing in mind the fact that the limits of the districts are not
the same in all cases), certain conclusions may be drawn. In
1916 the work, of reorganizing the chiefdoms and enumerating
the inhabitants had been practically completed in the districts
of Bas and Moyen Congo, Bangala, Lac Leopold, Lulonga,
Sankuru, and Bas Uele. In the first five of these districts
the population is less than the estimate of 1910 (the figures
for the last two cannot yet be taken into account, as they re
present only part of the regions to which the 1910 estimate
applies). On the other hand in the old Eastern Province the
population enumerated up to the present time considerably
exceeds the estimate, and it may «also be exceeded in Kasai
and Sankuru and perhaps in Haut and Bas Uele. Of the
other districts where the enumeration is not yet complete it
is impossible with the information available to say anything;
in practically all of them the figures yet reached are below
those of 1910. No indication is furnished in the official reports
of the amount of work still to be done, but taking into account
the facts that the population of seven districts is now known,
that in the four districts of the Katanga which are scantily
populated no great increase over the figures for 1910 appears
to be possible, and that in the five districts into which the
old Eastern Province is now divided a great number of the
chiefdoms have already been recognized, it is difficult to see
how the total population of the Congo can much exceed the
official estimate of 7,000,000. Indeed, if an estimate that half
a million people have died as a result of the recent influenza
epidemic be even approximately correct, it may at the present
time fall below that figure.
An average population of less than eight to the square mile is

302 CONDITIONS AFFECTING DEVELOPMENT
much below what one might have expected in a country which
contains as much productive land as the Congo, and there is
little doubt that a much larger population might be sup
ported even under the existing system of cultivation. Within
the last fifty years it has suffered greatly from a variety of
causes. The disastrous raids of Tippoo-Tib and the Arabs
resulted in the practical annihilation of the indigenous popu
lation along the river-bank of the Congo between Stanley Falls
and the mouth of the Aruwimi, and they also caused much loss
of life among the natives up and down the Lomami river.
According to Grenfell the inhabitants of the upper Aruwimi
and Ituri were almost exterminated in a similar fashion. The
Central Basin, again, was much depopulated by the foolish or
criminal policy of the concessionaire companies and the admini
stration of the Crown Domain during the period of absolute
rule in the Congo. The spread of sleeping sickness within
recent years moreover has decimated the population of certain
regions, while much loss of life has at all times been caused by
the cruelties of native rulers, the ceremonial sacrifices and
trials by ordeal conducted by the priests, and perhaps by
cannibalism. With the exception of sleeping sickness, which
will be more fully discussed later, these causes of depopulation
have either been removed or are in the process of being re
moved, and the probability is that unless disease spreads there
will be a gradual increase in the population. The progress of
civilization in the Congo will in all likelihood operate in
a similar way, but much more slowly. As the people become
acquainted with the elementary principles of sanitation,
hygiene, and the general care of the health, there will probably
be a considerable decrease in the death-rate, especially among
children, with whom it is at present very high. Perhaps also
a decrease in polygamy, especially in those regions where the
chiefs have large numbers of wives, might result in an in
creased birth-rate.
One of the great drawbacks of the relatively small population
of the Congo is that those seeking 'to develop the country find
it very difficult to obtain a supply of native labour, and in any.
case the economic polity of the people does not provide any
surplus from whicli such a supply might be freely drawn. It
is true no doubt that the native as a rule leaves the cultivation
of the land to his wives, but he himself has to take some share

POPULATION AND LABOUR 303
in providing for his family by clearing the land, hunting, or
fishing, and with these pursuits regular employment would
seriously interfere. Moreover the general conditions of life
are such that he has no incentive to depart from the practices
to which he is accustomed. Indeed his instincts all lead him
in the opposite direction. The arduous labour which he was
compelled to perform for little or no recompense under the old
regime has in many cases left him with a profound dislike
for work under European control, while the relief from
oppressive tasks under the new regime has to some extent
bred a spirit of contempt for the wishes of the white popu
lation. Any improvement in these respects will naturally be
slow. The introduction of money payments for work done
and the requirement that the native tax shall likewise be
paid in money indicate the lines on which progress may most
profitably be made. If the native is guaranteed by law
a fixed and just remuneration for his labour, and if when he
has paid his tax he is enabled to expend his surplus on goods,
the price of which is not unduly enhanced, he will gradually
acquire some idea of relative values and will work for what he
wants. Hence it is necessary to encourage him to become
anxious to attain a higher standard of comfort and to advance
in the scale of civilization. The advantage of providing for
his needs rather than of pandering to his desires has already
been recognized by the suppression of the trade in liquor,
and the best market, and therefore the best supply of labour,
will eventually be established by creating a demand for useful
articles rather than for the trinkets so often sold to native
peoples. In those regions where native labour is not directly required
for European enterprises the development of the resources of
the country must depend upon persuading the inhabitants to
increase their output beyond what is necessary for their sub
sistence. To this end both the Government and private
companies can contribute much help. The natives must not
only have some assurance of a fair and regular market for their
surplus produce, but they must in many cases have assistance
in setting up machinery to deal with that produce and to
prepare it for export. The development of communications is
also an essential part of such a programme.
Under the conditions which have been indicated there will

304 CONDITIONS AFFECTING DEVELOPMENT
probably be a gradual increase in the amount of labour avail
able in the Congo, but such increase will naturally be slow, and
for many years to come the supply will not be equal to the
demands made upon it. The situation will be relieved only
by an increase in the population together with an increase in
the work actually done by the individual members of it.
In the south of the Katanga the problem is no less difficult,
but is somewhat different in character. 'Owing to the high
altitude of the region its climate is less congenial to the negro
than the lowlands, and the native population is small. As
a' result there is not a sufficient surplus for working the mines,
and the Union miniere has been compelled to obtain its labour
from other regions (see p. 206). In the north of the Katanga
on the other hand conditions appear to be more favourable.
In the valleys of the various rivers by which it is cut up
there is often a fairly dense population. So far the demands
made upon it have not been very great, but it seems probable
that the development of the mines of the region can be
provided for without the needs of native agriculture being
seriously affected. In the tin mines of Kiambi, which were
worked till after the outbreak of war, difficulties arising from
the desertion of the native do not appear to have arisen. In
1914 there were 750 names on the books of the mines, but the
average daily attendance of workmen was 450. Wages aver
aged 7 francs for 30 daj's' labour, plus half a franc per day for
rations. In addition a bonus was given for more than a certain
amount of work.
The development, actual and prospective, of mines, railways,
and other industrial enterprises in the Katanga has naturally
given prominence to the labour question within recent years,
and various suggestions have been made with a view to finding
a reserve of labour. A proposal much agitated before the out
break of war was the introduction of Chinese, but no definite
conclusion was arrived at.
Capital: Commercial Companies
For the further economic development of the Congo a large
amount of capital will be required, and at the present time
it is not clear where that capital will be obtained. It is
questionable whether Belgium will be able to make any con-

CAPITAL: COMMERCIAL COMPANIES 305
siderable advances for a long time to come, and the same
doubtless holds true for the Belgian investor. On the other
hand the risks pf large enterprises in the Congo are so consider
able that few private firms are in a position to take them.
Foreign capital will no doubt be available to a greater or less
extent, but the Belgian Government may well feel that it
would be inadvisable to allow economic penetration by the
capitalists of other countries to take place if it were at all likely
to lead to loss of full political control. Indeed a period of slow
development may ultimately prove beneficial to the Congo. If
the best results are to be obtained, much will depend upon the
European personnel engaged in the administration of the
colony. And no sudden increase in that is possible without
some sacrifice of efficiency. But even if a policy of slow
development be decided upon, much money will be required
for the extension of railways, the improvement of rivers,
scientific research on the economic resources of the country,
and various other objects of a similar nature ; and, if money is
not forthcoming for these, the progress of the colony will be
unduly retarded.
At the present time the bulk of the capital invested in the
Congo belongs to companies which have been founded at
various times and under varying conditions. Reference has
already been made (see p. 261) to the Compagnie du Congo pour
le commerce et Vindustrie, which was founded in 1886 with the
object of constructing railways, improving waterways, and
developing trade. One of the concerns affiliated with it was
the Societe anonyme beige pour le commerce du Haut-Congo,
founded in 1888 to carry on trade in the Upper Congo. Later
on arose the great concessionary companies which played an
important, if not always a creditable, part in the history of the
Independent State. Several of these were concerned with
the exploitation of parts of the Central Basin. The Abir,
which was founded in 1898 to take over the affairs of the old
Anglo-Belgian India- Rubber Company, was giyen the right of
exploiting the basins of the Maringa and Lopori. To the
Societe anversoise du commerce au Congo was conceded the
basin of the Mongalla. The Societe des chemins de fer des
Grands Lacs received a block of land, over 15,000 square miles
in extent, to the south of the projected line from Stanleyville
to Mahagi. In 1898 the Compagnie du Katanga ceded to the
BELU. COSOO U

306 CONDITIONS AFFECTING DEVELOPMENT
Compagnie du Lomami the lands which it held in full owner
ship in the basin of the Lomami, between Bena Kamba and
the confluence of the Lomami and the Congo. . The American
Congo Company, founded in 1905, was given the right to
collect rubber and other vegetable produce over an area of
nearly 4,000 square miles, situated on the left bank of the
Congo from the confluence of the Alima in the north to
Kimpoko on Stanley Pool in the south. The last and one of
the most important of the concessionary companies in the
Central Basin was the Societe international forestiere et miniere,
which was founded in 1906. Its object was to search for
minerals and more generally to develop the resources of
a wide stretch of country in the domaine de la couronne, and
in part of the unoccupied lands of the Comite special du
Katanga, and for this purpose it was given large grants of land
within the areas mentioned.
In the Kasai region several important companies have been
established. The Compagnie du Kasai, founded in 1902,
received the right to operate over a vast extent of territory,
the limits of which were approximately the divide between the
basins of the Lukenie and the Kasai-Sankuru in the north,
the Inzia in the west, and the western limits of the Katanga
in the east. The Comptoir commercial congolais, founded in
1898 and reconstructed in 1904, operates in the basin of the
Wamba, a tributary of the Kwango. Reference has already
been made (see p. 184) to the concessions granted to the Societe
anonyme des huileries du Congo beige (Messrs. Lever) in 1911.
In the various companies established before the annexation
. of the Congo by Belgium the Independent State was usually
interested to a greater or less extent, and derived no incon
siderable part of its revenue from its connexion with them.
This system came to an end in the years which followed the
assumption by Belgium of the responsibility for the good
government of the Congo. In 1911 arrangements were
approved for opening the lands held by the Abir and the
Societe anversoise du commerce au Congo to free exploitation;
and in 1912 an agreement was concluded with the Societe inter
national forestiere et miniere by which it received nearly 600
square miles of land in forty separate blocks in exchange for
the rights which had been granted it in 1906 over 4,000 square
miles of land in the Crown Domain and elsewhere. In 1911,

CAPITAL: COMMERCIAL COMPANIES 307
also, the State cancelled its agreement with the Compagnie du
Kasai and resumed its liberty of action in all the vast region
which had been conceded to that concern. The arrangement
by which it was bound to exploit the lands granted to the
Compagnie du chemin de fer des Grands Lacs was also cancelled.
The various companies which have been mentioned above
were primarily concerned with the exploitation of the natural
resources of the country. Most of them have in addition
established plantations of one kind or another in the regions
where their activities principally lay. With one or two
exceptions, however, the companies which are mainly engaged
in the cultivation of the soil have their sphere of operations in
Mayumbe. The exceptions include the Plantations Lacourt,
whose property is situated at the confluence of the Sankuru
and the Kondue, not far from Lusambo ; the Belgika, which
•has plantations on Bertha Island, near Stanleyville ; and the
Societe equatoriale congolaise Lulonga-Ikelemba, whose property
is situated at Boso Libwa. In Mayumbe the plantations are
mainly devoted to the cultivation of cocoa and rubber. Among
the more important are the Plantations coloniales (La Luki), the
Compagnie sucriere europeenne et coloniale, the Societe anonyme
Urselia, the Societe Urselia secunda, the Societe agricole du
Mayumbe, the Plantations du Bas-Congo, and the Societe
anonyme d' agriculture et plantations au Congo.
The principal mining companies in the Congo are engaged
in developing the mineral resources of the Katanga. The
circumstances which led to the formation of the Compagnie du
Katanga and the Comite special du Katanga have already been
described (see p. 280). One of the first acts of the latter body
was to cede to a British company, the Tanganyika Concessions,
whose agents had already visited the country, the sole right of
prospecting for minerals in the High Katanga. For the
development of the mines which were discovered each body
was to contribute 50 per cent, of the necessary funds, while of
the profits the Comite special was to receive 60 per cent, and
the company 40 per cent. The administrative posts were to
be divided between the two bodies, and at least one-half of the
subsidiary companies formed to work the mines were to have
their seat in London. It was as a result of this agreement,
which was modified in some respects by a convention in 1905,
that the exploitation of the Katanga was vigorously undertaken
u 2

308 CONDITIONS AFFECTING DEVELOPMENT
by the Tanganyika Concessions and a number of mines
located. # ¦*
In 1906, in consequence of a desire to regulate mining g
enterprise throughout the Congo, the Societe generate de Bel-
gique was formed, and in the same year the Union miniere du
Haut-Katanga was constituted. It received the right to work
all the mines in an area of about 55,000 square miles until
March 11, 1990. The Comite special, which granted the con
cession, surrendered its right of subscribing one-half of the
capital to the Societe generate, the other half being found by
the Tanganyika Concessions. The Union miniere has, since
that date, played the chief part in the economic development
of the High Katanga, but several other companies may be
noted. When the Union miniere was formed, all mines which
had up to that time been discovered by the Tanganyika-
Concessions were ceded by it to the new company. But
between then and December 9, 1 909, the date at which the
rights granted to the Tanganyika Concessions in 1900 and
1905 expired, several significant discoveries had been made.
These included some small diamonds in the alluvial soils of
the Lualaba and some formations similar to the diamond-
bearing pipes of Kimberley in the Kundelungu region. Tc
investigate these and to work them, if it were eventually found
profitable to do so, the Comite d' exploitation des Kundelungu-
Lualaba, "Was formed, three members being designated by the
Comite special and two by the Tanganyika Concessions.
In 1910 and 1911 certain conventions were approved with
the object of further developing the Katanga. The first was
made between the Comite spicial and a group of financial
establishments represented by Colonel Thys and M. I. Jadot.
The latter received the right to prospect for minerals in the
region delimited by the parallel of latitude of 10° S., the left
bank of the Lualaba, the west, north, and east banks of Lake
Kisale, the right bank of the Lufira. and the parallel of lati
tude 9° 30' S. Within this region it was to be permitted to
select seven blocks with a total area of not more than 3,500
square miles, where for two years it would have the sole right
of prospecting for minerals. All mines which were discovered
were to be exploited by the concessionaires or by companies
established by them till the year 1990. As a result of this

CAPITAL: COMMERCIAL COMPANIES 309
convention the Societe de recherches minieres du Bas-Katanga
was founded and began operations.
The Sociite geologique et miniere des ingenieurs et industriels
beiges took over the concessions granted to M. Adolphe Grenier
and others. Its field of action was to extend over the same
area as that of the Societe de recherches minieres du Bas-
Katanga, where it was to have the right of selecting seven
blocks of land with a total area of about 3,500 square miles.
In these blocks it was given the sole right of prospecting for
minerals till 1914, and of working any mines which might be
discovered until 1990.
Another convention between the Comite special and MM.
Nagelmaekers etfils led in a similar way to the formation of
the Societe miniere congolaise, whose prospecting rights ex
tended over the lands situated 'to the south of a continuous
line formed by the parallel of 10° S., the right bank of the
Lualaba, the south bank of Lake Kisale, the left bank of the
Lufira, and the parallel of Lofoi. Within this area the com
pany received the sole right, subject to the rights of other
parties already acquired, of delimiting within two years an
area of nearly 800 square miles, in not more than five blocks,
in which they might exercise the exclusive right of prospecting
for minerals until 1914.
A similar concession over the same area, which was granted
to M. Jules Mabillon, led to the formation of the Societe miniere
et industrielle du Katanga.
The Societe Belgo-Katanga was established to work the
concessions granted to MM. Thiery, Briart, and others. Its
sphere of action lay to the south of the tenth parallel, and
there it had, 'subject to rights already acquired by others,
power to delimit an area of nearly 800 square miles, in not
more than five blocks, in which till December 1914 it was to
have the sole right of prospecting.
A concession granted to another financial group (Van Gile,
Daenen, and others) was taken over by the Societe de recherches
minieres Lufira-Katanga, which has the right to seek for mines
in a region bounded approximately by the southern and eastern
frontiers of the Katanga, the Lufira, the Lualaba, and the
Luvua. Lastly there was the Societe anversoise pour la recherche
des mines au Katanga, which took over the concessions granted

310 CONDITIONS AFFECTING DEVELOPMENT
to the Bary group of financiers. It was given the right to
prospect in all parts of the Katanga where third parties had
not already delimited their claims.
In 1912 two new concessions were granted. One. was to the
Brussels branch of the Deutsche Bank and the other was"~to
Benard and Jarislowsky's Bank in Paris and other financial
houses. Since then various others have been sanctioned, but
owing to the war little further progress has been made.
The advantages accruing to large companies when operating
in so extensive an area and under the difficult conditions
prevailing in the country soon began to make themselves
evident, and in 1913 amalgamations were arranged between
the Societe industrielle et miniere du Katanga (the Simkat), the
Societe Belgo- Katanga, and the Societe des recherches minieres du
Bas-Katanga (the Bakat).
In order to work the gold discovered in the basin of the
Tele, a tributary of the Itimbiri. the Societe forestiere et miniere
founded in 1913 the Societe miniere de la Tele. The concession
granted to it embraces the country bounded by the right bank
of the Tele between the Dinda and the Zambe, the right bank
of the latter river to its source, the parallel of its source to the
watershed between the Tele and the Aruwimi, the watershed
until it meets the parallel of the source of the Dinda, this
parallel as far as the source of the Dinda, and, the Dinda from
its source to its confluence with the Tele.
The various companies concerned with transport have
already been mentioned in connexion with the communica
tions of the colony. The railways are owned by the Societe de
chemins de fer vicinaux du Mayumbe, the Compagnie du
chemin de fer du Congo, the Societe' de chemins de fer du Congo
superieur aux Grands Lacsajricains. the Compagnie du chemin
defer du Bas-Congo au Katanga, and the Compagnie du chemin
de fer du Katanga. The railway from Lobito Bay to the
Katanga is owned by the Companhia do Caminho de Ferro de
Benguella (see pp. 228-9). The Societe anonyme Citas runs
a number of the river-boats above Leopoldville. Oil for con
sumption by suitable craft is provided by the Societe anonyme
despetroles au Congo. Communication with Belgium is main
tained by the Compagnie beige maritime du Congo. The
financial establishments in the Congo include the Banque
commerciale du Congo and the Banque du Congo beige, both of

CAPITAL: COMMERCIAL COMPANIES 311
which have offices at Boma, Matadi, Kinshasa, Stanleyville,
and Elisabethville.
The following table shows the capital of the more important
concerns operating in the Belgian Congo (capital 2,000,000
francs-and upwards) : Share Debenture
Name Capital. Stock.
Transport Frs. Frs.
Cie. du chemin de fer du Congo . . . 30,000,000 67,000,000
Cie. des chemins de fer du Congo superieur
aux Grands Lacs africains . . . 75,000,000
Cie. du chemin de fer du Katanga . . 80,000,000
Cie. du chemin de fer du Bas-Congo au
Katanga.  2,000,000
Societe des chemins de fer vicinaux du
Mayumbe  4,500,000
Societe anonyme Citas  3,000,000
Cie. beige maritime du Congo . . 12,000,000 2,187,160
Mining
Union miniere du Haut-Katanga . . . 12,500,000 20,000,000
Societe anversoise pour la recherche des
mines au Katanga ..... 3,000,000
Societe des recherches minieres du Bas-
Katanga  2,000,000
Societe de recherches minieres Lufira-Katanga 3,000,000
Societe beige industrielle et miniere du
Katanga  . 6,000,000
Societe internationale forestiere et miniere. 8,000,000
Societe miniere de la Tele . . _ . . 4,500,000
Cie. geologique miniere des ingenieurs et
industriels beiges  3,510,000
Plantations and Agriculture
Societe agricole du Mayumbe . . • 3,500,000
Cie. sucriere europeenne et coloniale . . 3,500,000 328,751
Societe de plantations coloniales (La Luki) . 2,000,000
Societe de cultures au Congo . . • 3,000,000
LaLuinha  3,400,000
Plantations Lacourt . . . ¦
Miscellaneous
Banque du Congo beige .... 5,000,000
Societe commerciale et miniere du Congo . 3,000,000
Cie. du Kasai  2,000,000 7,000,000
Societe anonyme beige pour le commerce
du Haut-Congo . . . ¦ . • ij'^'SSr
Cie. du Congo pour le commerce et l'industrie 2,092,295
Societe anony me des huileries du Congo beige 30,000,000
Societe forestiere et commerciale du Congo
bele-e  3,000,000
Cie. d'e lomami  3,000 000
Societe des petroles au Congo . *'S!^
Societe Belgo-Katanga  5,000,000
Societe Bellika  3,000,000

312 CONDITIONS AFFECTING DEVELOPMENT
In addition to these there are a number of companies with
capital varying from 200,000 to 2,000,000 francs. There are
also numerous small concerns conducted by people of various
nationalities engaged in the purchase of raw materials of
various kinds and in the sale of European goods to the natives.
It is calculated that at the end of 1917 there were in all 1,750
commercial establishments of one kind or another in the
Belgian Congo. The greater number of these were of course
either branches of large concerns or small 'one-man' busi
nesses engaged in retail trade.
Health Conditions
The climatic conditions of the Belgian Congo are in many
ways unfavourable to its development. Various diseases have
in the past levied a heavy toll on the native populations, and,
although their devastations appear to have been temporarily
stayed, it is by no means certain that they have been finally
overcome. Of these sleeping sickness and malaria are the
most serious, but influenza has recently made its appearance,
and according to a recent report has committed great havoc
among the natives.
Sleeping sickness had for long been endemic in the Lower
Congo, but during the latter part of the nineteenth century it
began ,to spread rapidly through all parts of the Congo basin
with a virulence much greater than it had hitherto shown.
The disease is caused by the presence in the blood of minute
animal parasites called trypanosomes, which once established
in the system may end the patient's life in six months, three
years, or even later. The trypanosomes are conveyed by the
tsetse or biting-fly, Glossina palpalis (sometimes also by Glos-
sina morsitans), which sucks them in from the blood of infected
persons, and perhaps from that of infected animals. After
a short time these parasites multiply to such an extent that
some of them are injected into every man or animal thereafter
bitten by the fly. The illness begins with attacks of fever,
alternating with periods of good health. Later on the patient
may have enlargement of the glands of the neck, and, in the
last stage, the drowsiness from which the disease is named.
If the malady be detected in time, however, lie can be treated'
and has some chance of recovery.

HEALTH CONDITIONS 313
Glossina palpalis is found only where there are both water
and shade, and its favourite breeding-places are in the vicinity
of lakes and rivers. From such localities it seldom departs
more than half a mile, and the European therefore may do
much to avoid the risk of infection. All camps or settlements
should be situated outside the danger zone, and where that is
impossible the vegetation should be cut down in order to
deprive the tsetse of the shade which it requires. For the
native, however, this is rather a counsel of perfection (though
the banks of various rivers are being cleared), and the segrega
tion and medical treatment of those who are affected by the
disease appear to be the chief means by which the disease can
be kept under control at the present time.
Sleeping sickness has probably caused a great reduction
in the population of the Belgian Congo. A few years ago it
was reported to be very prevalent in the vicinity of Lakes
Leopold II, Albert, and Edward, in the Bangala country, in
the district of Aruwimi, between the mouths of the Itimbiri
and Aruwimi, and in parts of the Kasai region, more
particularly in the basin of the Kwango. Since then it has
abated in some of these districts, but there have been violent
outbreaks in others. In 1917 the areas where the disease
was most prevalent were the following: Mayumbe, the dis
tricts of Kwilu and Kikwit in the basin of the Kwango,
parts of the Kasai region, the district of Lumbale on the
lower Welle, the basin of the Itimbiri, and Banzyville and
various other places in the district of Ubangi. In Mayumbe
and Ubangi there was a decrease in the number of cases,
but a recrudescence of the disease was reported in the
Katanga, in the Lomami (Kabinda and Pania Antombo), in
Tanganika-Moero (Kiambi and Pweto), and in the environs
of Sampwe. In 1916, 7,376 natives were treated for sleeping
sickness, of whom 813 died, while in 1917 the number of
those treated had fallen to 4438. (These figures of course
relate only to cases which occurred within the radius of the
medical stations. It is questionable whether the decrease in
the disease is as great as they indicate, owing to the fact that
the medical staff was reduced by the war.)
Malaria is transmitted by several species of the Anopheles
mosquito, which breeds in slow-moving streams, pools, and
marshes, and as a rule does not wander far from these places.

314 CONDITIONS AFFECTING DEVELOPMENT
If this mosquito bites a person with malarial parasites in his
blood, it becomes infected, and soon begins to transmit the
disease to every person on whom it feeds. In the Belgian
Congo malaria takes many forms, but it is usually accom
panied by a chilly feeling, with lassitude and pain in the
limbs. It is, however, difficult to distinguish malaria from
fevers due to other causes.
Both natives and Europeans are liable to malaria in the
Congo. In the case of the native, children are most subject
to attack, and those who survive appear to become more or
less immune in later life, so long at least as they remain
within the area or climatic conditions to which their tribe
has become habituated. If, however, they move to parts of
the country to which they are not physically accustomed, they
are more liable to be attacked. Even in Europeans malaria
does not appear to lead to many fatalities, if proper precautions
are taken. Out of a white population of about 6,000 the
number of deaths recorded as due to it was 14 in 1916 and
6 in 1917. For the same two years the deaths among the
natives treated for the disease numbered 36 and 35 re
spectively. .To stamp out malaria it would be necessary to destroy the
breeding-places of the mosquito, from the nature of things
an almost impossible task in the Belgian Congo. As, even
under the most favourable conditions, it is almost impossible
to avoid a few mosquito bites, Europeans ought to take
occasional doses of quinine, which either kills or prevents
the development of the parasite in the blood.
Blackwater fever is generally recognized to be a sequel of
neglected malaria, and is seldom seen in tropical Africa
except in persons who have suffered from that disease.
Neglect of the general precautions against malaria and want
of care during the progress of that illness when once con
tracted, and during convalescence, are the chief causes of
blackwater fever. The disease is rarely met with among
negroes residing in their native land, but they are liable to
suffer from it if they are moved rapidly from one part of
the country to another. The attacks, however, do not appear
to be as severe as in the case of Europeans.
Small-pox, which appears to have entered the Congo from
Angola, caused much havoc in the country during the nine-

HEALTH CONDITIONS 315
teenth century, and was probably a potent factor in keeping
down the population throughout that period. It is still
endemic in the Congo, but according to recent reports is
much less virulent and deadly than was formerly the case.
The native takes readily to vaccination, and this is probably
one important reason why the disease has decreased in
intensity. Pulmonary diseases, and especially pneumonia, cause many
deaths among the natives, who are unaccustomed to wear
clothing, and take few precautions against the low tempera
tures of the night and early morning. Pleurisy has been
recorded among the natives in the south-west of the cbuntry.
Tick fever is caused by Ornithodorus monbata, one of the
many varieties of tick found in the Belgian Congo. It causes
a relapsing fever, which, if not taken in time, may eventually
lead to paralysis of the face or inflammation of the eyes. With
proper medical advice the course of the disease may be cut
short. The embryos of a filarial worm are sometimes introduced
into the blood by the bite of several species of mosquito.
Some kinds of mosquito are harmless, but others are the
cause of elephantiasis. Europeans are rarely infected.
Jigger lesions are caused by minute sand-fleas, which are
found in great numbers on the unpaved floors of places fre
quented by natives. The jigger, or chigoe, bores its way under
the skin, where it lays its eggs. If it is not picked out it
comes away by ulceration, leaving small wounds which
frequently become septic and inflamed. The danger from
jiggers may be avoided to a great extent by not walking about
with bare feet.
Beri-beri, which'is medically described as 'a specific form
of multiple peripheral neuritis', is said to have been intro
duced into the Lower Congo about 1892. Between that year
and 1896 it developed into a serious plague in the region of
the Cataracts. Since then it appears to have crossed the
country, and at the present time is most severe along the
routes of the Chemins defer du Congo superieur aux Grands
Lacs africains.
Amoebic dysentery is common in all parts of the Congo except
in the Katanga, where it appears to be rare. The proportion
of deaths is decreasing, a result attributed to the use of emetics

316 CONDITIONS AFFECTING DEVELOPMENT
in treating the disease. In the Katanga other forms of
dysentery are rather common.
Among other diseases which are found to a greater or less
extent in the Congo are leprosy, which exists in all parts of
the country but is not very common, typhoid fever, which
sometimes becomes an epidemic as at Kambove and Likasi in
1917, and various illnesses which are common to all mankind.
Venereal troubles appear to be widespread.
The recent outbreak of influenza (1919) did not spare the
colony, and a great many deaths were caused by it, one report
placing the number as high as half a million. This is probably
an exaggeration, but it indicates that the epidemic was of the
most serious description.
Native methods of treatment have already been described
(see p. 135). The personnel of the European medical staff is
quite insufficient for the needs of the colony; in 1915 there
were only eighty medical men in the country, and this number
has since been reduced by the exigencies of war.

Eukopean Population
For the economic development of the Congo, no less than
for its political administration, a considerable European popu
lation is necessary. But to obtain such a population is a task
by no means without difficulty. The conditions of life in the
country are far from attractive, and Belgium itself is not able
to provide the white personnel necessary for the work to be
done. At the present time about 40 per cent, of the white
population are not of Belgian nationality, and, although the
majority of these are engaged in commerce and not employed
in the administrative service, the position is one which
naturally does not appeal to the Government. The fears to
which it led in regard to the Katanga have already been men
tioned, and the development of the Kilo and Moto gold mines
also seems to have been retarded by the want of Belgians
capable of undertaking their management. Now that the
causes of distrust between Belgium and certain other Powers
have been removed, it seems probable that a more liberal
attitude will be adopted by the State.
The last figures available, those for 1917, show that in that
year the white population was 6,295. The number in each

EUROPEAN POPULATION

317

province and the nationality to which they belonged are
shown in the following table.

Province

Province

Province

Province

Nationality

du

de

Orientate

du

Total

Congo-Kasai

V Equateur

Katanga

Belgian .
British .
1,270 132
351 33
571 67
1,071 588
3,263 820
Swiss
342
71
86
76
575
Portuguese
47
6
32
228
313
Italian .
6
—
31
238
275
Norwegian
87
42
34
38
201
American
111
5
18
54
188
Dutch .
50
17
23
19
109
Greek
49
14
22
18
103
Luxemburg
62
7
9
11
89
Spanish .
3
—
2
65
70
Swedish .
33

1
2
36
Russian .
16
4
6
4
30
Danish .
11
3
2
7
23
French .
7
__
1 '
1
9
Others .
46
10
88
47
191





Total
2,272
563
993
2,467
6,295
The Belgians are engaged in practically every kind of
administrative and commercial activity in the Congo. British
interests are confined in the main to the mineral industry of
the Katanga. The Swiss have few trading establishments
of any kind in the country and appear to be mainly employed
as clerks in Government or business offices. The Portuguese
and Greeks carry on much local trade among the natives, and
Portuguese and Italians are also engaged in the mining industry
of the Katanga. Americans work some of the diamond mines
in the Kasai region, and a certain number are employed in the
Katanga and elsewhere. The Luxemburgers are probably
Germans who were engaged in business houses before the war.
A number of Indians have penetrated inland from the coast of
East Africa and have settled in the eastern part of the colony,
where they carry on retail trade among the natives. A few
Chinese are similarly employed.
The financial difficulties in which the Congo has been in
volved have made it difficult for it to remunerate its officials
on a sufficiently liberal scale, account being taken of the condi
tions which prevail in the Congo, the necessity for frequent
leave, and the risk to life and health. The salaries of all
members of the administrative staff were fixed by a decree in
318 CONDITIONS AFFECTING DEVELOPMENT
1912 (though a bonus has since been added to meet the higher
prices caused by the war), and an indication of their general,;
level may be obtained from the following illustration. The
Governor- General receives an initial salary of 50,000 francs,-,
and the Vice -Governors .one of 40,000 francs each, the State
Inspectors 35,000, District Commissioners 16,000-17,000,
and Territorial Administrators 10,000 to 12,000. Judicial
salaries vary from 11,000 to 25,000 francs according to grade
and length of service. A chief medical officer begins at
20,000 francs, and a doctor just entering the service, 12,000.
The captain of a first-class steamer receives 14,000 francs,
others considerably less. Artisans, typists, and clerks begin at
6,000 or 6,500 francs. After two years' service in his grade an
official is entitled to an increase of 10 per cent., and subsequen|!|
increases may raise his initial salary by 20 per cent, in all. **'*
Government officials receive only 85 per cent, of their
nominal salary, the remainder being placed in a reserve fund
from which pensions are ultimately drawn. At the end of ten
years' service (not including leave) the official may draw his
pension whether he has retired or still remains in the service.
In the latter case a second pension begins to accumulate. The
amount payable at the end of each period depends upon the
salary received by the official at the time his pension becomes
due. When it is between 6,000 francs and 10,000 the pension
is 900 francs per year, between 10,000 and 15.000 francs it is
1,100 francs, between 15,000 and 20,000 francs 1,500, between
20,000 and 25,000 francs 1,800, between 25,000 and 35,000
francs 2,300, between 35,000 and 40,000 francs 2,600, between
40,000 and 50,000 francs 2,800, and over 50,000 francs 3,000!
These payments are certainly not excessive. An official whose
final salary was 24,000 francs, and comparatively few receive
more, would at the end of twenty-five years' service, including
leave, receive a pension of not more than 3,600 francs (£144)
per year.
After each period of two years' active service in the colony
every official is entitled to six months' leave, during which he
draws one-third of his salary if it is below 20,000 francs and
one-fourth if it is above that amount.
Few regulations have so far been made regarding the selec
tion of members of the public service in the Congo. The
Governor-General and the vice-Governors-General must be of

EUROPEAN POPULATION 319
Belgian nationality, and no member of either Chamber may
be appointed to any post until at least a year has elapsed since
his resignation of his seat. (The latter regulation ¦ does not
apply to the Governor- General or to the vice-Governors-
General.) Otherwise few restrictions are imposed on candi
dates, and the official policy of the Government is that each
application should be decided on its merits. In April 1919
a special appeal was made to young officers demobilized after
the war to consider service in the Congo, and it is probable
that for some years to come these will form the chief source
from which the official class will be drawn. That the supply
of efficient candidates is not too plentiful, however, is rather
indicated by the fact that the upper age limit has been fixed
at thirty-five years. Apart from the professional qualifications
of those who intend to be doctors, engineers, surveyors, &c, no
examination test is applied, but all selected candidates have to
attend courses at the Colonial School for three months before
proceeding to the Congo.
Whatever be the cause, there is no doubt that the ad
ministrative staff in the Congo is still much too small for the
demands which are made upon it. In almost all branches
of Government activity this is undeniably the case. A con
siderable part of the colony is but imperfectly known, and the
tribes which occupy it have not yet been brought under
control ; the economic resources of the country have only been
partially investigated ; for the improvement and full utiliza
tion of the waterways the Hydrographical Service must be
largely increased. The Medical Service is inadequate for the
heavy demands made upon it, little is being done for education,
and the scientific staff requires to be strengthened in order to
deal with various important problems affecting the colony
which still await solution.

INDEX

Ababua tribes. 95, 96, 102,
107-114, 132, 134, 137,
189, 140 ; political or
ganization, 124; vil
lages, 117
Abali tribe, 103
Abanja tribe, 103
Abarambo tribe, 104
Abir company, 286; 305,
306
Abo, 248
Abu R., 211
Abumombazi, 74
• Acacia, 80, 81,85
Adio tribe, 103
Administration, 276-298 ;
salaries, 317-318
African rubber-tree, 75
Afrikaansche Handels-
verleniging, 261
A gare, 193
Agricultural implements,
156
Agriculture, 9, 10, 137,
156-172, 194-201, 285,
294, 307
Agriculture, Department
of, 60
Agu hill, 21
Aioda R., 21
A.ja Mts., 49
Aka tribe, 92
Akalunga, Cape, 23
Akar hill, 22
Akela tribe, 98, 102
Alain R, 21
Albert, L., 8, 17-21, 27,
82, 35, 49, 50, 75, 80,
222, 234, 245, 248, 249,
259 818
Albertville, 201.224,233,
252, 259 ; railway, 217,
224, 225, 288, 259;
rainfall, 68
Alcoholicliquor, 162, 163,
166, 166, 272, 308 ; tax
on, 292
Alima R., 806
Amadis, 48, 79
Ambwaga tribe, 108
American Congo Com
pany, 806

American cotton, 196,
197 ; population, 317
Aminzi hill, 21
Ammodar K., 22
Amulets, 148
Anatase, 216
Angba, Mt., 48, 240
Anglo- Belgian India-
Rubber Company, 305
Ango-Ango, 250, 255
Angola, 9, 24, 206, 211,
228, 252, 314; trade,
273
Angolan plateau, 27, 28,
34, 42, 228, 232
Angu, 240, 241
Ankoro, 31, 86, 238, 234,
242, 249
Anomalures, flying, 89
Anona, 157, 165
Antelopes, 87, 88
Ants, 90, 91 ; ant-hills,
91
Apes, 89
Arabs, 302
Archduchess Stephanie
Falls, 58
Area, 7-9
Aru R., 211
Aruwimi district, 118,
178, 278, 281, 283, 302,
313 ; population, 300
Aruwimi R., 32, 35, 86,
41, 42, 44, 65, 75, 77,
92, 95, 96, 103, 116,
235, 237, 310, 313;
navigation, 241
Aruwimi Bomokandi
watershed, 32
Asbestos, 216
Ass, wild, S7
Association international
du Congo : see Inter
national Association
Avakubi, 41, 65, 241, 248,
249
Avurn-ezo tribe, 103
Avurn-Gura, 108
Azande (or Niam-Niam)
tribe, 108-105
Babalitribe, 96

Babeyru, 211
Babingi : see Bayanzi
Baboons, 89
Babuma tribe, 94
Babunda tribe, 100
Babwende tribe, 93
Badinga tribe, 101
Badjok tribe, 99
Badouinville, 163
Bafete tribe, 92
Bafoto tribe, 92
Bafwaboli. 248
Bafwasendi, 248
Bagunda tribe, 96
Bagwa-ndala tribe, 101
Bahemba tribes, 97
Bahira, 23
Bahira hill, 23
Baholoholo tribe, 106,
107, 108, 109, 111,112,
142 ; villages, 121
Bahr-el-Ghazal basin, 16
Bahuana tribe, 100, 101
Bakango tribe, 102
Bakasanga tribe, 97
Bakatconipany: seeSoci£t£
des recherches minieres
du Bas- Katanga
Bakele tribe, 99
Bakete tribe, 97. 99
Bakiliba tribe, 97
Bakinsunkulu tribe, 97
Bakitentu tribe, 97
Bakonde tribe, 101
Bakongo tribe, 93, 96, 99,
100 ; villages, 120
Bakteke tribe, 98
Bakuba : see Bushongo
Bakumu tribe, 96, 108,
105
Bakwa-Mosinga tribe,
101
Bakwa-Samba tribe, 101
Bakwese tribes. 101,
137
Bakyombo tribe, 97
Bali R., 95
Balolo : see Mongo
Balua tribe, 101
Baluba tribes, 96-98, 108,
111, 118, 182, 136, 140,
141 ; political org ani-

INDEX

321

zation, 127-128; vil
lages, 119, 122
Baluba-hemba tribes, 97
Balunda tribe, 96
Bamanga I., 207, 216
Bamangu tribe, 103, 105
Bambala R., 99
Bambala tribes, 98-101
Batnbali tribe, 99
Bambarra ground-nut :
i' tee Voandzeia
| Bambili, 102, 103, 241,
I 248
1 Bambingi tribe, 99
>> Bamboli tribe, 96
t Bamboo, 72, 81, 85, 117,
|f 122
Bamboy tribe, 99
Bambuno tribe, 94
BamuL, 16,236
Bamulenda tribe, 97
t Bamwenge tribe, 97
Bamwika tribe, 97
Banalia, 77
Banana, 37, 60, 72, 251,
252, 254-256 ; climate,
64, 67 ; port, 254, 257,
258
[ Banana Creek, 254
Banana Point, 261
'.' Bananas, 139, 14,0, 157,
158, 164-165, 190 ;
plantations, 115, 116
Banda dialect, 103
Banda tribes, 104
Bandunjeke tribe, 99
Bangala district, 94, 175,
178, 186, 278, 279, 283,
313; population, 300,
301
Bangala tribe, 94, 95,
107, 108, 111, 113, 114,
132, 134, 139, 142 ; vil-
< Iages, 116
i Bangba tribe, 104
}. Bpngendi tribe, 99
I Banghelima tribe, 116
t*3angi, 74
. Bangongo tribe, 99 ; vil
lages, 121
Bangoy tribe, 97
Bangu massif, 40, 73, 218
. Bangweulu, L., 15, 23, 24,
! 31, 97
Bankutu tribe, 101, 102
Banque commerciale du
Congo, 310
Banque du Congo beige,
310, 311
Bantu languages, 96, 103,
[ 105
Bantu negroes, 93-103,
li BELO. COHOO.

148 ; cultural condi
tions, 131-142
Banza tribe, 104, 105
Banziri tribe, 104, 105
villages, 118, 120
Banzyville, 105, 239; 313
Baobabs, 72, 73
Bapenda tribe, 100
Bapindi tribe, 100, 101
Bapopoie tribe, 116 ; vil
lages, 118
Bapoto R., 94
Bapoto tribe, 94
Baraka, 52, 252
Barges, 246. See also Boats
Barite, 216
Barumbu, 190, 191, 193
Bas : see under specific name
Basanga tribe, 98
Basango tribe, 96
Basankusu, 94, 187, 242,
252
Bashjlange tribe, 97-99
Bashilele tribe, 99
Bashoba tribe, 99
Bashui tribe, 99
Basket-work, 139, 140,
144
Basoko, 32, 44, 116, 241,
252
Basoko tribe, 96
Basonge tribes, 97, 98,
106, 107, 111, 112, 126,
127, 133, 135, 139-141 ;
villages, 119, 121
Basongo, 34, 46, 185
Basongo tribe, 100
Basundi tribe, 93
Batabvva tribe, 97
Bateke tribe, 93
Batele tribes, 98
Ba tembo tribe, 92
Bats, 89
Batwa race, 92, 143-145;
family, 144; moral
ideas, 144-145 ; pro
perty, 145 ; religion,
144 ; social organiza
tion, 143 ; villages,
115
Baudouinville, 201, 207,
250
Baya, 252
Bayaka tribe, 101
Bayanzi (or Babingi)
tribe, 94, 95, 100, 101
Beans, 157, 273
Beer, native, 162, 163,
165. See also Alcoholic
liquor
Bees, 91, 172
Befori, 242

Beira, 11 ; railway, 229-
231, 239
Belgian control, 12-26,
276-277, 281, 284, 288,
290, 292, 306, 316, 317,
319; investments, 304-
311; population, 316,
317 ; shipping*, 257-
259; trade, 186, 261,
272, 273, 310
Bellefonlaine, 199
Belmonte, 229
Bembezi B., 73
Bena Bendi, 243
Bena Dibele, 78, 99
Bena Kalebue tribe, 98
Bena Kamba, 44, 306
Bena Makima, 34, 58
Beneki tribe, 98
Benguella, 228 ; railway,
228, 231
Beni, 50, 80
Beri-beri, 315
Berlin Conference (1884-
5), 12, 13
Bertha I., 237, 238, 807
Betu, 239
Bia Mts., 29, 55, 56
Biano plateau, 29, 30,
54-56, 59. 201, 227, 249
Biaro R., 223
Bienge tribe, 99
Biet hill, 21
Bikoro, 192, 243
Bikubi R.. 223
Bili R., 33, 48, 74
Bima R., 33, 74, 95
Birdi., 254,257
Birds, 89-90
Bituminous shales, 215—
216
Blackwater fever, 314
Boats, 136, 237-240, 244,
246, 259, 310 ; tax on,
290
Bobandana, 259
Boga, 50, 249
Boganga tribe, 95
Bonin du tribe, 99
Bohm, 279
Bokala, 78, 182
Bokula, 241
Bola R., 37, 72
Bolobo, 42, 237, 251
Bolombo, 34
Boma, 38, 189, 193, 209,
251, 252, 254-256, 261,
277, 278, 283, 284, 296-
298, 311 ; port, 257-
259 ; railway, 221
Bomana, 240
Bombimba, 192, 243

322

INDEX

Bnmbomba, 243
Bombwandza tribe, 116
Bomokandi R, 33, 48, 74,
92, 104, 118
Bomokandi- Makonga R. .
95
Bomu R., 8, 16, 19, 32,
33, 35, 47, 48, 64, 74,
79, 102, 103, 136, 235,
240
Bongo, 88
Bongo tribe, 105
Bonny, 251
Bopoto hills, 237
Borassus palm, 80, 82,
140
Bosanga tribe, 116
Boso Libwa, 307
Bosow, 242
Botanical research, 294,
297
Boyolo, 74
Brass, 141
Brazzaville, 11, 220, 235,
251, 252
Bridges, 136, 219, 223,
224, 247
British population, 317;
shipping, 257-259;
trade, 206, 226, 261,
266, 272, 273, 317. See
also under Frontiers and
Treaties
British Congo Company,
261
British S outh Africa
Company, 280
British Sun, oil-ship, 250
Broken Hill, 205, 226
Brushwood, 72-74, 79, 81
Brussels, 277, 281, 284,
287, 310 ; Conference
(1876), 12 ; Declaration
(1894), 26 ; Treaty
(1918), 26
Buffalo, 87, 88
Buhamba, 22, 23
Buja tribe, 94
Bukama, 31, 86, 204, 212,
214, 228, 231-233, 238,
239, 249, 250 ; railway,
217,225-231, 234, 249
Bulawayo, 230
Bulikoko, 256
Buluku tribe, 99
Bulu-Vulu plateau, 229
Bumba 82, 43, 77, 186,
234
Burton Gulf, 76
Burumbu, 186
Busanga, 208, 209
Bush, 78-81

Bushbucks, 88
Bushongo (or Bakuba)
tribes 98, 99, 106, 108,
110,111, 135,137,142;
politic.il organization,
125-126 ; villages, 119,
121
Bushongo Meno tribe, 98,
99
Busira R., 33, 77,78, 145,
236, 242
Busira-Chuapa R., 242
Busira Manene, 186
Bussoro, 22
Buswenda, 20
Buta, 41, 234, 239, 241,
248
Butala, 78
Butiabwa, 259
Butter, 171, 273
Bwado, 74
Bwaka dialect, 108 ; tribe,
104, 105
Bwela tribe, 94
Cables, 251-253
Cajanus indicus, 169
Caladium^ 161
Cameron, V. Lovett, 279
Cameron Bay, 23
Cameroons, 8, 11, 27, 66
Canoes, 136, 141, 238-
241, 243, 216, 259, 260
Cape Town, 227, 239
Capital, investment of,
304-312
Capsicum, 169
Cargo boats, 259
Carpodinus, 82, 84, 174-
176
Cassava : see Manioc
Castor-oil plants, lb'8
Cataracts, the, 8, 315
Catengue R., 229
Cats, 87
Cattle, 157, 172-173, 199.
201 ; markets, 171
Ceara rubber, 18*2
Central Basin, 27, 28, 32,
33, 46, 48, 93, 184, 214,
216, 235, 236, 242. 247,
302, 305, 806 ; climate,
65-69 ; physical fea
tures, 41-47; vegeta
tion, 71, 73-78
Central government, 276-
277
Cereals, 157, 161-164
Cervalini cat, 87
Cha Calumbo, 26
Chad, L., 27
Chambezi R, .')1

Chargeurs reuni-, 259
Cheese, 171
Chela, 38, 1S9, 190, 222
Chicutucoto R., 229
Chikapa R., 26, 211
Ciiikwangue, 159
Chiloango R., 8, 13, 14,
34, 35, 38, 72, 221
Chilongo, 217, 227-229, 1
252
Chimpanzees, 87, 89
Chinese labour, 304, 317
Chinguar, 229
Chinsenda, 249, 252
Chipanga, 216
Chitombe, 244
Chiumbe R., 211
Chofa, 249
Cho hill, 21
Chopo R., 32, 103
Chuapa R.. 33, 242
Chumbiri, 237
Civet-cat, 87
Climate, 9, 10, 60-70
Clitandra, 75, 83, 165, 174-
178
Coal, 204-206, 209, 213-
214, 228, 233, 272
Coastal regions, 27, 28,
35, 93 ; physical fea-
turea, 37 ; vegetation,
72
Coasting vessels, 259
Cobras, 90
Cocoa, 189-192, 271, 290,
307 ; plantations, 131
Coco-nut palm, 183
Coco-nuts, 136
CoEfee, 79, 192, ,290
Coke, 204, 205, 272
Colonial School, 293, 319
Colonization, 199, 200
C '.unite consultatif, 278
Comite d'etudes du Haut-
Congo, 12
Comite Sexploitation des
Kundelungu - Lualaba,
213, 308
Comite special du Katan
ga, 199, 238, 280, 281,
287-289, 294, 806-309
Commerce : see Trade
Com mission des terres,
277
Commissioners, 279, 282,
318
Communications, 8, 11 ;
inland waterways,
235-247 ; pipe-line,
250; ports, 253-260;
railways, 217-235;
roads, 247-250 ; sailing

INDEX

323

ships, 258 ; steamers,
257-258 ; telegraphs
and telephones, 251-
253
Compagnie beige mari
time du Congo, 256,
259, 310, 311
des chemins de fer du
Congo superieur aux
Grands Laos afri-
cains, 222-225, 246,
305, 307, 310, 311,
315
du chemin de fer du
Bas-Congo au Katan
ga, 310, 311
du chemin de fer du
Congo, 217, 226, 255,
310, 311
du chemin de fer du
Katanga, 226, 310,
811
du TJOngo pour le com
merce et l'industrie,
217, 261, 280, 305,
311
du Kasai, 286, 306, 307,
311
du Katanga, 280, 281,
288, 305, 307
du Lomami, 306
fonciere agricole et pas
torale (La Pastorale),
199, 201
sucriere europfienne et
ooloniale, 189, 307,
311
Companhia do Caminho
de Ferro de Benguella,
228, 310
Companhia portugueza
"de Zaire, 261
Companies, commercial,
304-312 ; taxation of,
.292. ' See also under
Compagnie and Society
Comptoir commercial
con'g'nlais, 306
Congo Basin, area, 8, 9
Congo R., 8, 11-19, 21-
24, 26-45, et passim ;
navigation, 236-239 ;
r£gime,35-37
Congo, Bas, district, 172,
.195-197, 207, 211, 231,
234, 263, 278, 279, 283 ;
climate, 62, 64, 67;
population, 300, 301 ;
railway, 216, 217
Congo beige, and Haut-
Congo beige, Apostolic
Vicarages of, 296

Congo da Lemba, 39, 73,
194
Congo Free (or Inde
pendent) State, 8, 19.
217, 261. 263, 273, 280-,
281,290, 291,305, 306;
origin of the, 12, 13 ;
Declarations of Neu
trality (1885) 15, 19,
23, 24, 280, (1894) 19,
23 ; Treaties and Con
ventions, 12-26, 2S0,
288, annexed by Bel
gium, 276
Congo-Kasai province,
278, 279 ; European
population, 317
Congo, lower, R., 193,
220, 261 ; navigation,
254, 256, 259. See also
Congo, Bas.
Congo-Lualaba R., 89,
239, 249, 252
Congo, Moyen, district,
182, 186, 278, 279, 283 ;
population, 300, 301
Congo-Nile divide, 33,
47, 48, 62, 240, 248;
plateau, 35
Congo-Ubangi, 26
Congo-Yella route, 254
Congo-Zambezi divide,
15, 24-26, 81, 53, 229
Conseil superieur du Con
go, 277, 284
Constitution : see Govern
ment
Copaifera, 186
Copal, 10, 75, 173, 186,
1 7, 286, 291 ; exports,
262, 269, 271
Copper, 30, 57, 141, 202-
210, 216. 226; exports,
262, 268-269,271, 274;
mines, 53, 226, 228,
229,231,249, 270
Coquilhatville, 180, 192,
237, 251, 252, 278, 283
Coroteva R., 229
Cotton, 139, 170, 194,
196-198, 271, 272
Cranes. 90
Crime, 129-130
Crocodile K., 255
Crocodiles, 90
Cryptosepalum, 85
Crystal Mts., 27, 28, 34,
35, 38, 93, 217, 236;
climate, 61, 62, 65;
physical fealures, 39-
41 ; vegetation, 71-73
Cuckoos, 90 X 2

Danish butter, 273
Dar-es-Salam, 11 ; rail
way, 213, 217, 224, 233,
260
Daso, 157, 161
Death-rate, 302
' Dembos '. 54
Deutsche Bank, 310
Devil's Caldron, 251, 254,
255
Dhanis, 24
Diamonds, 211-213, 308,
317
Dibele tribe, 99
Dikulwe R., 55
Dilolo, L., 25, 26
Dima, 46
Dinda R., 310
Diphtheria, 109
Diseases, 312-316
Districts, territorial, 278-
279
Djari R., 100
Dobo, 77
Dolo, 217, 220
Dolo R., 94
Domain, Crown, 285-286,
290, 306
Domestic animals, 170-
172
Domingos de Souza, 26
Donkankwa, 242
Donkeys, 248
Drainage, 31-37, 43, 45,
137, 200
Dua R, 32, 41, 43, 77,94,
102, 241
Dua-Mongala R., 43
Duiker, 88
Dumba, 245
Dundu Sana, 67
Dungu, 104, 221, 248
Dungu R., 33, 300
Duru R., 33, 103
Dutch population, 317 ;
shipping, 257-259 ;
trade, 261
Dyes, 142
Dysentery, 315
Eagle-owls, 90
Eala, 60, 193, 194, 242,
297 ; climate, 62, 63,
67
Eastern Highlands, 11,
27, 28, 35, 36. 75, 162,
170-172 ; climate, 68,
69 ; physical features,
49-53 ; vegetation, 71,
79 82
Eastern Telegraph Com
pany, 252

324

INDEX

Ebola R.,. 82, 34, 43, 102,
105
Economic development,
8, 11, 304-312
Education, 293, 296-297,
319
Edward, L., 19, 20, 27,
35, 49-51, 75, 234, 259,
313
Egrets, 90
Egypt. 18
Ekuchi, 242
Elands, 88
Elder Dempster Line,
259
Elephant-grass, 80
Elephantiasis, 315
Elephants, 89
Eleusine, 157, 158, 163
Elila R., 32, 52, 75, 97,
116 '
Elisabethville, 60, 199,
203, 204, 226, 227, 229,
230, 249, 250, 252, 278,
283, 284 311 ; climate,
63, 64, 69
Eluala R., 40
Embili t* ibe, 103
Embroidery, 137
Eolo. 243
Epulu R., 32, 33
Equateur district, 78, 166,
184, 186, 187, 278, 279,
283 ; population, 300
Equateur province, 278,
279 ; European popu
lation, 317
European agriculture,
.198-201; courts of jus
tice, 129, 283-285;
health conditions,'313-
S1R ; population, 316-
319
Excess profits tax, 292
Expenditure. 292-295
Exports, 262-271, 273-
275 ; duties on, 292

Factories, 184-186
Falls, 217. 238, 243-245
Faraje, 248
Fashoda. 17
Fauna, 7, 87-91
Fern, 80, 85
Fetish Rock and Pass,
250, 254, 256, 257
Fetishism, 187, 146-150
Finance, 289-295
Fini R., 88, 35, 42, 45,
77, 244
Fini-Lukenie R, 102

Fishing, 9, 116, 118. 137,
144, 303
Flamingoes, 90
Flora, 7, 71-86
Foreign trade, 261-275
Forest, 9, 10, 50, 71-86,
157 ; produce, 155-201,
286 ; reserves, 286 ;
villages, 114-118, 123-
125
Fowl, 158, 172
Fort Portal, 249
Fort Rosebery, 249
Fran<jois Joseph Falls,
244
French railways, 11, 220,
221, 235; shipping,
257-259 ; telegraphic
system, 251 ; trade,
257, 261, 272, 273. See
also Frontiers
French Congo, 18
French EquatorialAfrica,
8, 27
French Gabun, 38
French Point, 261
Frogs, 90
Frontiers, 12-26
Anglo-Belgian, (north
eastern) 17-22. (Rho
desia) 23-24, 226
Belgo-fierman, (Lake
Tanganyika) 22-23,
51, (German1 Congo 1
26
Belgo-Portuguese, (Ka
binda*) 13-14, (An
gola) 24-26
Jranco- Belgian, (Con-
go-Ubangi) 15-16,
(Mayumbe) 14, 221
Katanga-Rhodesia. 294
Fruits, 156, 157, 164-165
Fulukari (or Kenke) B..
40
Fungurume, 204, 228
Funtumia. 75, 88, 174-
175, 178-182
Gaboon R., 90
Galena, 216
Gali Bushongo tribe, 99
Gambier, 279
Game, 143
Ganda-Sundi. 38, 60, 190 ;
climate, 62, 67
Gazi, 179
Gelukenie tribe, 99
Genets, 87
Geology, 7, 9, 28-81
Geomine companv, 207.
209, 210

German East Africa, 8'
17, 81, 183, 195
Germany and the Congo,
17, 19, 22 ; railwavs,
224 ; shipping, 257-
259 ; trade, 206, 233,
272, 273. See also Fron-
Giraffes, 87, 89
Giri R., 33, 42, 43, 45, 77,
94, 102 ; navigation,
240-241
Goats, 158, 172, 201
Gobu tribe, 104
Gold, 30, 209-211, 216,
231, 310 ; export of,
262, 268, 271 ; mines,
201, 234. 248, 249, 259,
295, 316
Goma, 22,. 259
GomaVula. 243
Gombe, 237
Gombe tribes, 94, 95
Gombo I., 22
Gongo R , 218
Gorillas, 87, 89
Government : central,
276-277 ; local, 277-
288 ; officials, 277, 318
Governor-General, 277-
278, 318. 319
Grands Lacs railways,
213, 222-225, 310-312
Grant, 279
Grasses, 76, 79-81, 83,85,
86
' Grass rubber ', 83
Great Rift Valley, 11, 82,
35, 49, 97, 216. 259
Greek population and
trade, 317
Grenfell, George, 25, 46,
802
Gienier, M. Adolphe, 309
Ground-nuts, 157, 158,
167
Ground-pigs, 89
Ground-thrushes, 90
Guinea-fowl, 90
Guinea sorrel, 169
Gule R.. 212
Gurba R., 103
Gwembi tribe, 98
Hakansson plateau, 29,
56
Ham hill, 22
Hamites, 93
Haves, 89
Hartebeest, 88
Haut : see under specific
name

INDEX

325

Health conditions, 312-
- 816
'Hedgehogs, 89
fiehu, Mt.., 22, 23
Hemp, 170
Hevea, 178-183
Hides, 271
Hippopotamus, 89
Hippopotamus Is., 256
Hoopoes, 90
Horses, 248
Houses, 114-122, 135 ;
taxation of, 290
Huambo, 229
Human sacrifices, 150,
,152, 153
Hunting, 9, 143-145, 293,
303
Huts, 114-122, 144
Hyenas, 87
Hyraxes, 89
Ibana R., 50
Ibembo, 241
Ibenga, 102
Ibina R., 32
Idinga tribe, 98
Ikela, 242
Ikelemba II., 42, 243
Ikenge, 192
Imfondo, 239
Immigration, 294
Imperata cylindrica, 79,
80,82
Imports, 262, 271-275 ;
duties on, 292
Incantation, 149
Indian population, 317
Industries, 139-142. . See
Trade
Influenza epidemic, 301,
312, 316
Ingende, 185, 242
Inkisi R., 34, 41, 58, 218,
219
Insectivorous animals, 89
Insects, 90-91, 191
International Associa
tion, 12, 13, 14-16, 24,
279. See also Comite
d'etudes du Haut-
Congo
Inyenye tribe, 99
Inzia R., 100, 101, 306
Irebu, 33, 42, 243, 251
IrebuR., 94
Iron ore, 30, 47, 48, 140,
141, 214-215
Ironwork, 140-141
Irrigation, 200
Irumu, 80, 248, 249
Isaka, 243

Isangi, 243
Isangila, 40, 218
Ishasha R., 20
Ishela, 189
Italian population, 317
Itimbiri R., 32, 33, 35,
36, 41, 44, 94, 95, 210,
235, 237, 248, 313;
navigation, 241
Itimbiri Welle water
shed, 248
Itoko, 242
Itongo Mts., 50
Ituri district, 278, 283,
302 ; forest, 89 ; popu
lation, 300, 301
Ituri R., 11, 32, 33, 49,
50, 75, 90, 159, 168, 210
Ivory, 89, 221, 234, 259,
263, 294; export of,
262, 267-268, 271, 274,
275, 291 ; tax on, 290,
293
Ivory-work, 137, 138
Iwinza I., 22
Iwuwiro, 22
Jabbir, 102, 240
Jadot, M. I., 308
Jamba, 241
Jigger (chigoe) lesions,
315
Johnston, Sir H. H., 299
Joko Punda, 232, 243
Judiciary, 283-285, 318
Kabalo, 252 ; railway,
217, 224, 225, 232-234,
259
Kabambare, 252
Kabinda, 13, 34, 253, 313
Kadi R., 211
Kafubu R., 29
Kafue, 230
Kagudi hill, 21
Kakongo tribe, 93
Kakota, 232
Kalamu, 193, 194
Kalembelembe, 252
Kalembo R., 100
Kalengili peak, 20
Kalule R, 212
Kama Bomba B., 25
Kamalondo R., 31
Kamana, 228
Kamanguna R., 25
Kamatanda, 204, 227
Kambove, 29, 30, 203, 204,
227-232, 249, 250, 316
Kancha R., 101, 244
Kanda Kanda, 232
Kangulungu R., 25

Kanwa, 210, 211
Kaomba, Mt., 97
Kapanga, 244
Kapende, 248
Kapiri, 199,249
Kapok, 139, 194
Karangora hill, 20
Karissimbi, Mt., 23, 51
Kasai district, 278, 279,
281, 283, 296 ; popula
tion, 300
Kasai region, 28, 56, 59,
87, 91, 101, 110, 119,
121, 137, 162-164, 170-
172, 196, 197, 211, 214,
306,313,317; climate,
62-65,69-70; physical
features, 57-59 ; vege
tation, 71, 82-84
Kasai R., 9, 15, 24-26,
29, 33-37, 42, 58, 59,
62, 65, 69, 73, 77, 78,
92, 94, 96-102, 185, 211,
214, 237, 243-245, 247,
251
Kasai-Sankuru R., 41, 42,
46, 75, 78, 98, 232, 233,
235, 306 ; navigation,
243-245
Kasama, 210
Kasanga R., 54, 112
Kasenga, 249, 250
Kasenie, 249, 259
Kasongo, 64, 196, 197,
207, 238, 252
Kasonzo, 209
Kasumbalesa, 227
Katanga Creek, 214
Katanga province, 59,
220, 278; agriculture,
155, 161-163, 198-200 ;
boundaries, 27, 28 ;
climate, 61-65, 69 ;
Comity special, 199,
238,280, 281,287-289,
294, 306-309; Com
pagnie du Katanga,
280, 281, 288, 305,
307; constitution, 281 ;
drainage, 31, 35, 36 ;
geology, 29-3ij govern
ment and administra
tion, 277, 279-283 ;
health conditions, 313,
315-316; judiciary, 283;
labour, 294, 304 ; mine
rals and the mining
industry, 155, 202, 204- I
210, 212-217. 225, 226,
229, 231, 268, 270, 272,
279, 280, 287-289, i
304, 307-311, 316, 317; ,

326

INDEX

physical features, 11,
53-57 ; population, 300,
301, 317; railways, 217,
225-234. 247, 310 ; re
ligion, 296; roads, 248,
249 ; sale of land, 287 ;
taxation, 291 ; terri
torial districts, 277,
278, 281; trade, 141,
273 ; vegetation, 71,84-
86 ; wireless stations,
252
Katanga, High, 65, 69,
198 ; Low, 54, 207 ;
Southern, 53-54
Katanga tribes, 97
Katentania, 199,201
Katme R., 212
Kenge, 58
Kenke R. : "see' Fulu kari R.
Keresi hill, 21
Kessegnies, 22
Kiamata, 50
Kiambi, 97,208,209, 216,
233," 234, 242, 260,304,
313"
ibala plateau, 30, 54-56,
85
Kibali R., 47, 104, 211,
240
Kibombo, 238
Kibumba R., 97
Kickxia : see Funtumia
Kigoma, 259; railway,
213, 217, 224, 233, 260
Kikaya I., 22
Kikonja, 209, 234, 252
Kikwit, 100, 313
Kilo, 80, 163, 201, 209-
211, 234, 248,249, 259,
295, 316
KilubiR.,56
Kilwa, 260
Kilwa I., 23
Kimbi R., 297
Kimpese, 39
Kimpoko, 237, 306
Kindu, 41, 224, 233, 238,
252; railway, 223, 225
Kingunshi, 58, 244
Kinshasa, 220, 251, 252,
260, 278, 311
Kira R, 211
Kisale, L., 31, 56, 238,
308, 309
Kisamba, 100
Kisanga, 250, 254-257
Kisongwa, 249
Kisenyi, 22
Kisindi, 80
Kitala, 207, 216
Kitanga I., 22

Kitobola, 60, 164, 195,
248
Kivu district, 163, 278,
283; population, 300,
301
Kivu, L., 8, 19, 20, 22,
27, 35, 49, 51, 52, 81,
171, 259
Kola, 135, 170
Kolomani, 119
Kolu, 143-145
Komba R., 25
Kondue R., 190, 307
Kongolo, 224, 233, 238,
252,260; railway, 223,
225
Koni hills, 30, 55
Korowi Mts., 49
Kubango R., 229
Kumenie I., 22
Kundelungu plateau, 30,
54, 55, 85, 250 ; region,
29,212,213,308; rocks,
207
Kunkula R., 218
Kwa gorge, 58
KwaluR., 100
Kwamouth, 34, 42, 45,
46, 77, 243, 244, 251
Kwango district, 172, 278,
283 ; population, 300
Kwango, East, district,
24
Kwango R., 15, 24-26,
34, 45, 46, 58, 65. 94,
96, 101, 229, 232, 244,
306, 313
Kwengo R., 25, 34, 100,
101
Kwesi, 68
Kwidjwi I., 22, 51
Kwilu district, 313
Kwilu R., 24.25, 34, 39,
41,58,73,100,101,185. 218, 232, 244
Kwilu-Madiata R., 39,
40, 73
Labour, 189, 197-199,
206, 279, 283, 294, 298,
302-304 ; wages, 318
Lado enclave, 18
Lake ports, 259-260
Lakunga R., 72
Lami R., 20
Landolphia, 75, 83, 84,
165, 174-176, 178
Land-ownership, 285-
287 ; taxes. 298, 296
Langala R., 99
Language, 94, 96, 102-
105

Lashipuka B., 212
Laterite, 57
Leda R., 21
Lekore R, 102
Lemba R., 211
Lemurs, 89
Lengue Gorge, 229
Leopards, 87
Leopold II, 12, 13, 15-18,
24, 276
Leopold, L., 33, 42, 45,
46, 75, 77, 244, 313
Leopold, Lac. district,
186, 278, 279, 283;
population, 300, 301
Leopoldville, 36, 39, 40,
73, 217, 218, 238, 250-
252, 257, 260, 283, 297,
310 ; climate, 67 ; port,
220; railway, 40, 217,
222, 223, 228, 231, 232,
235, 236, 245, 250, 261,
264, 266
Lepi Mts., 229
Lepi Portella, 229
Leprosy, 316
Lesa tribe, 102, 106, 140 ;
political organization, <i
124 ; villages, 116
LeverBros., 184-186, 287.
See Societe anonyme
des huileries du Congo
beige
Leverville, 186, 232
Lianas, 75, 82, 186, 165,
175, 177
Libenge, 41, 74, 104, 239
Likame R , 32
Likasi. 228, 316
Likati R., 95, 96, 240,
241
Li kim i, 65
Likimi-Businga rapids,
241
Likona-Nkunja R., 14, 15
Limonite, 49
Lindi R., 32, 50, 96, 103,
105
Lions, 87
Lira nga, 237
Livingstone, David, 279
Lizards, 90
Loando, 251, 252
Loange R., 34, 58, 59, 99,
244
Loangue R., 25. See also
Loange R.
Lobaye R., 26
Lobito Bay, 11, 217.; rail
way, 228-232,310
Local government,. 277-
283

INDEX

327

Loeka R., 77
Lofoi R., 54, 309
Loja, 244
Lokele tribe, 96
Lokolela, 74
Lokolo R., 243
Lokoro R., 45
Lola R., 25
Lomami district, 278,
281, 283, 306, 313 ;
population, 300, 301
Lomami R„ 30, 33-35, 44,
78,92.96,97, 119, 137,
:*.t72,236, 237, 242, 802;
navigation, 243
•LomelaR., 33, 242
Longachimo R., 211
Lopori R., 33, 42, 77, 92,
. 94, 96, 235. 242, 252,
305
Loukala, 197
Love-birds, 90
Lovoi R. , 56
Lovua R.* 25, 211
Lowa district, 75, 278,
283 ; population, 300,
301
Lowa R., 32, 50, 51, 172
Lua R., 33, 43, 89, 94,
- . 102, 104
Luakanu R., 26
Lualaba R. , 29-33, 35, 41,
42, 44, 52, 53, 55-57,
75, 86, 89, 97, 98, 116,
119, 140, 202; 205, 208,
210, 212, 214-217, 224,
227,232-234, 238, 249,
.260, 308, 309
Lualaba-Congo R., 28,
231
-LuamaR., 32, 52
,Luana R., 99
Luano, 205
Luano R., 100
Luanza, 212
Luanza R., 212
Luapula, Haut, district,
: 278, 281, 283 ; popula
tion, 300, 301
Luapula R., 9, 23, 24, 30,
31, 35, 53-55, 86, 212,
. 249
Luba-Lunda tribes, 96,
. 97
Lubefu R., 34, 41, 58, 98,
99, 245
Lubi Rn 34, 243
;Lubilash R., 34, 119
.Lubilash rocks, 28-30, 57
LubileR.,97
Lubilia-Chako R., 20
Lubudi, 228

Lubudi R., 31, 34, 98, 99,
244
Lubudi - Lualaba - Congo
R., 35
Lubue R., 100, 245
Lubule R., 54
Lubumba R., 214
Lubumbashi, 204
Lubuzi R., 38, 72, 100,
222
Lucaia R., 25
Luchvvadi R., 99
Luebo, 196, 197, 214, 232
Luela R., 101
Luembe R., 30, 211
Lufira R., 30, 31, 35, 53-
55, 65, 86, 308, 309;
falls, 205
Lufonzo R., 210
Lufu R., 34, 41, 73, 218
Lufube R., 223
Lugwaret tribe, 47,171
Luibi R., 37, 72
Luilaka R, 242
Luinha, La, 311
Luishia, 202-204
Luisi R., 97
Luita R., 25
Luizi R., 54, 212
LukaR., 210
Lukaya valley, 219
Lukenie R., 33, 34, 46, 96,
98, 99, 101, 102, 116,
244, 306
Lukenie tribe, 102
Luki, 189, 251
Lukolela, 36, 42, 237, 251
Lukonzolwa, 260
LukugB railway, 213
Lukuga R., 29, 31, 32, 35,
52, 97, 119, 209, 213,
224, 233, 260 ; naviga
tion, 241
Lukula R., 13, 38, 72, 97,
140, 221, 222, 251
Lukula-Congo divide, 38
Lukumbi R., 97
Lukunga R., 40, 41, 195
Lukusi, 209
Lukusu R, 97, 218
Lukusuwi R., 97
Lulofe R., 14
Lulonga district, 187, 278,
279, 283 ; population,
300, 301
Lulonga R., 33, 35, 42, 43,
94, 235, 243 ; naviga
tion, 242
Lulua district, 201, 278,
281, 283 ; population,
300, 301
Lulua R.,34, 214

Luluabourg, 64, 65, 196,
197, 201, 232 ; climate,
62, 69, 70
Lumbale, 313
Lunangwa R., 63
Lunda, 24
Lunda tribal group, 101.
See also Luba-Lunda
Lunga lagoon, 14
Lurimhi R., 119
Lusambo, 34, 47, 65, 190,
197, 232, 233, 243,
244, 307 ; climate, 65,
67
Lusanga, 185
Lutoi R., 45
Luvua R., 30, 31, 55, 65,
97, 209, 234, 241, 249,
309 ; navigation, 242
Luvua- Lualaba R., 97
Mabali tribe, 94
Mabillon, M. Jules, 309
Mabinza tribe, 94
Machinery, import of,
271, 272
Madibi, 58
Madimba, 251
Magic, 147, 151, 152
Maginza tribe, 94
Mahagi, 17-19, 21, 80,
248, 259 ; plain, 49
Maize, 142, 157, 158, 161-
162, 164, 194, 200
Majeiha, Mt., 48
Makere tribes 104
Makwa tribe, 101
Malaria, 109, 200, 313-
314
Malaya, 180-182, 193
Malela, 37, 72, 237
Malinda R, 223
Malinga tribe, 116
Mallango, 14
Malongo tribe, 99
Mangabeys, 89
Manganese ore, 216
Mangbellet tribe, 104
Mangbetu tribe,103-107,
111, 113, 114,133,135-
142, 148 ; political or
ganization, 128-129 ;
villages, 118, 120, 121
Manog, 165
Mangrove, 72
Maniema district, 278,
283 ; population, 300,
301 ; region, 52, 88,
197, 215
Maniema tribe, 96, 97
Manihot, 178, 182, 183
Manika, 53 ; plateau, 85

328

INDEX

Manioc, 133, 135, 142,
156-159, 200
Mantere Hills, 45
Manyaga R., 20
Manyanga, 8, 39, 40, 218
Margarine, 266-267
Margharita Peak, 20
Maringa R., 33, 42, 77,
78, 94, 236, 242, 252,
305
Marshes, 82-86
Marungu Mts., 29, 127 ;
plateau, 31, 201, 250
Marungu region, 52, 85 ;
High, 53 ; Low, 53
Matadi, 39, 73, 216-218,
250-252, 296, 311; port,
232, 233, 254-258 ; rail
way, 40, 217, 222, 223,
228, 231, 232, 235, 236,
245, 250, 261, 264, 266
Mateva I., 38
Mateva Pass, 254, 256
Mavutete R., 218
Mayumbe, 14, 27, 28, 34,
35, 65, 72, 89, 93, 115,
129, 180-182, 189-191,
291, 307, 313 ; physical
features, 37, 38 ; rail
way, 221, 222, 235, 251,
311
Mayumbe tribe, 93, 107,
131, 136, 140 ; political
organization, 125
Meat, 171, 172
Medical service, 297, 316,
318, 319
Medje tribe, 104
Meningitis, 109
Metal-working, 140
Meteorologicalservice, 60,
297; stations, 7, 60,
67-70
Mgahinga, Mt., 51
Miao, 201
Mikeno, Mt., 51
Milia hill, 21
Military, 279
Milk, 171, 172, 273
Millet, 157, 158, 162-163
Minduli, 11, 220, 235
Mineral springs, 57, 216
Minerals and mining, 7,
8, 10, 30, 47-49, 53, 56,
57, 154, 200, 202-216,
225, 226, 281, 279, 280,
287-290, 295, 304, 316,
817; mining companies,
307-311
Minerkat company, 209
Mission Agricole, 199
Missions and mission

schools, 10, 163, 228,
296, 297
Mitumba Mts., 31, 208
Mitwanzi gorge, 224
Mobadi tribe, 104
Mobati tribe, 95
Mobaye, 62, 68
Mobeka, 43, 77
Mobenge tribe, 96
Moganjo, 44
Moganzulu tribe, 95
Mogbogoma, 43
Moginita tribe, 95
Mogongia tribe, 95
Mokoange, 45, 104
Moles, 89
Molissi tribe, 95
Molua R, 77
Mombasa, 234, 249
Momboyo R., 33, 236, 242
Momvu tribe, 104
Mona Kialo tribe, 98
Monazite, 216
Monda rock, 21
Mondana, 243
Mondingima tribe, 95
Mongala R., 32, 35, 43,
65, 77, 94, 102, 235,
237; navigation, 241
Mongo (or Balolo) tribe,
95, 96
Mongwandi tribe, 105
Monjembo tribe, 104
Monkero, 237
Monkeys, 87, 89
Monkote, 242
Monopolies, 290
Mosquitoes, 91, 313-315
Motima R., 43, Tf, 94
Moto, 211, 234, 249, 316
Motor traffic, 248, 249
Moyen : see under specific
name
Mpozo R., 218
Msiri, 279
Mudi Langa tribe, 99
Muene Kundi, 58, 232
Muhavura, Mt., 51
Muika, 208, 209, 242
Mulengoi R., 224
Mules, 248
Mulongo, 209, 216
Mulumbwe Mts., 85 ;
plateau, 54-55
Munania, 199
Munvu tribe, 104
Musee du Congo beige,
7, 293, 294, 297
Mushenge, 98, 196
Mushie, 243
Musical instruments, 138
Mussorongo tribe, 93

Mutendola Creek, 212
Mutenga-Miambo Mts.,
56 ; plateau, 30
Mutombo Mukulu, 232
Mwanza, 252
Mweru, L., 9, 15, 23, 24,
30, 31, 54, 55, 86, 92,
97, 234, 242, 249, 256,
260
Mweru-Luapula rift-val
ley, 55
Nadisma, 244
Nagelmaekers, MM., 309
Namlagira, Mt., 51
Narodo R., 21
Nashiodo R, 21
Natives, the : agriculture,
156-172, 194-198 ; art,
137-139 ; ceremonial
sacrifices, 302 ; chief
doms, 123-130, 279,
282-283, 300-301 ; chil
dren, 109-110, 131 ;
conditions of life, 106-
122; courts of jus
tice, 284-285 ; cultural
conditions, 131 - 145 ;
dances, 138 ; domestic
slavery, 112-114; edu
cation, 110, 297 ; family
life, 106-111, 144 ;
health conditions, 312-
316; houses, 114-122;
industry, 139-142 ; in
tellectual attainments,
133-135; labour, 206,
298, 302-304 ; marriage,
106-109 ; medicine,
135, 152, 316; mental
characteristics, 131-
133 ; moral ideas, 110,
144-145 ; musical in
struments, 138 ; navi
gation, 260 ; political
institutions, 123-130,;
practical skill, 135-137;
property, 145 ; protec
tion of, 298; racial
divisions, 92-107; re
ligion and ceremonial,
144, 146-154 ; social
and political organiza
tion, 143 ; taxation,
290, 291, 295, 299-
300, 303 ; trial by or
deal, 153, 302 ; village*,
114-122, 279, 285;
women, position of,
110-111
Navigation, inland, 37,
40, 41, 48, 136, 217,

INDEX

329

228, 231-247, 254-257,
259, 2C0
Nebula, 211
Nopoko R., 32, 104
.Neutrality, Declarations
of, 15, 19, 23,24, 280
Nhowa, 210
Niabola R., 21
NiadiKvvilu basin, 14
(JSfiagaki R., 21. 22
ySiakawanda, 22, 23
Niam-Niam tribe : see
, Azande
-Niangara, 48, 79, 104,
* 284, 240, 248
Niemba R., 208, 209
Niembo, 252
Nieuwdorp, 199
Nile R. 8, 11, 16-19,21,
22, 27, 33, 35, 47, 48,
' 62. 103, 172, 173, 222,
234, 248
Nime-Chiama plateau, 14
Ninagongo, Mt., 23, 51, 81
Niolta, 49
NiziR.,80Nkabwa, Mt., 20
N'Kombo R., 25
Noki, 15, 24, 26, 252, 254
i;. Norwegian population,
817 ; trade, 273
Nouvelle Anvers, 43, 94,
192, 296 ; climate, 67
Ntata tribe, 117
Ntombo Mataka cataract,
14
Numa Mts., 49
Numeration, native mode
of, 134
Nya Lukemba, 259
tfyamaronga I. *22
Nyangwe, 41, 42, 75, 88,
196, 197, 216
Nyanzi R. , 38, 72
Nyassaland, 206
Nyemba R., 97
NziR., 49
Obenge Benge, 243
Oil, 157, 250, 255, 272,
310 ; ships, 250 ; tanks,
250, 255, 256
Oil palm, 72, 78, 79, 83,
140, 144, 157, 158, 165-
167, 183-186. 271
Okapi, 87, 88
.Onions, 158. 169
Orientale province, 278,
279 ; population, 800,
801, 317
Oso R., 32
Oxen, 248

Paints, 142
Palabala massif, 218. 219
Palladium, 216
Palm, 80,82,85,117, 118
Palm-nuts. 184, 292 ; ex
ports, 265-267, 271.
274
Palm-oil, 10, 173, 292;
exports, 262, 265-267,
271
Pandanus, 140
Pande, 250
Panga, 77, 116, 241
Pania Antombo, 313
Pania Mutombo, 119, 244.
249
Panta, 24
Panthers, 87
Pa paw, 157, 165
Papyrus, 72, 81, 84, 86,
137, 238
Parrots, 90
Pastoral pursuits, 8, 9,
47, 157, 170-172, 199,
201, 290, 294
Pastorale, La, 199, 201
Pelicans, 90
Penfold I., 257
Peres BeniSdictins, 22 8
Peres Blancs, Les, 163,
201
Piassava, 173, 188
Pigs, 158, 172
Pikoti Mts., 49
Pilipili, 169 '
Pine-apple, 140, 157, 165
Pioko R., 40
Pipe-line, 250, 255
Plant cultivation. 10, 72-
86, 157-158, 173-194
Plantations, 155. 156, 164.
167, 173, 178, 180, 182-
183, 185, 188-194, 290,
292, 307
Plan ta tions eoloniales (La
Luki), 189, 307, 311
Plantations du Bas-
Congo, 307
Plantations Lacourt, 189,
307, 311
Platinum, 30, 216
Pleurisy, 815
Pogge, Mt., 46
Pointe Noire, 11, 221, 235,
257
Poko, 48, 79
Police, 279
Polvgamy, 106, 107, 144,
302
Pompora and Koni Hills
region, 55
Ponthierville, 207, 214,

215, 222-225, 238, 252,
260 ; railway, 224-225
Population, 299-802 ;
European, 316-319
Porcupines, 89
Porte d'Enfer, 222. 224
Porterage, 134, 136, 234,
241, 248, 260
Ports, 253-280
Portugal, 12, 13, 38, 216,
252. See also Frontiers
and Treaties
Portuguese population,
317; shipping, 258 ;
trade, 261, 273, 317
Portuguese Kabinda, 38
Postal service, 290, 293,
294
Potatoes, 161, 200
Pottery, 137
Protestant missions, 296,
297
Public debt, 295
Public services, directors
of, 277, 317-318
Pulmonary diseases, 315
Purslane, 169
Pweto, 234, 249, 250, 260,
313
Pygmies : see Batwa
Pythons, 90
Raffia, 173, 188. See
Eaphia palms
Rafts, 136-137
Raids, 302
Railways, 8, 186, 217-
235 ; freight rates,
219,221,228; gauge,
219, 220, 223, 224,
235 ; imported ma
terial, 271-273, 292 ;
passenger and goods
traffic, 221,225,228;
projected extensions,
11, 217, 220, 228-
235, 247, 260, 305
Beira, 229-231, 239
Benguella, 228, 231
Boma to Chela, 189,
Dar-es Salam to Lake
Tanganyika, 11, 217,
Grands Lacs, 213, 222-
225,310-312
Kabalo to Albertville
(L.Tagnanyika),217,224, 225, 233, 259
Kambove to Bukama,
204
Katanga, 217,225-234,
247, 310
Kigoma to Dar-es-

330

INDEX

Salam, 213, 217, 224,
233, 260
Kindu to Kongolo, 223,
225
Lobito Bay to Katanga,
228-232, 810
Lower Congo, 216, 217
Matadi to Leopoldville,
40,217-228.228,231, 232, 235, 236, 215,
250, 261, 264, 266
Mavumbe, 221, 222,
285, 251, 311
Rhodesia, 225-227
Sakania to Bukama,
217, 225-231, 234,
249
South Africa, 217, 225-
227
Stanleyville to Mahagi
(projected), 305
Stanleyville to Ponthier
ville, 224-225
Rainfall, 9, 48, 61, 63-66,
67-70, 198
Ramie, 193
Raphia palms, 72. 73, 75,
118, 139, 140, 157, 158,
166-167, 173, 187-188
Rapids, 39, 40, 217, 222,
234, 238-243, 245, 248,
255
Rats, 89
Red Point, 37, 254
Reedbuek, 88
Reed -grass, 80
Reeds, 81, 137
Regional survey, 37-59
Reichard, 279
Rejaf, 235, 248
Religion and ceremonial,
144, 146-154, 293, 296.
See also Missions
Reptiles, 90
Revenue, 292-295
Rhinoceros, 87, 89
Rhodesia, 9, 23, 24, 27,
53-55, 198, 203, 204,
206, 213, 249 ; railways,
225-227 ; trade, 272,
273
Riba Riba, 44, 280
Rice, 157, 158, 163-164,
194-196, 271
Rivers, 31-37 ; riverports,
260
Rodents, 89
Roman Catholics, 296,
297
Romee, 63, 238
Root-crops, 157-161, 194
Rope-making, 140

Rosettes, 87
Rubber, 10, 75, 79, 82.
83, 173-183, 221, 222,
234, 259, 269, 286, 290,
291, 306, 307 ; exports,
262-264, 271, 274, 275,
292; licences, 290 ; tax
on, 290-292
Rubi R., 41, 95, 234, 241.
248
Ruchuru plain, 51
Ruchuru R., 8, 35, 50, 81
RuhuruR., 50
Ruisi R., 22, 51-52, 81,
171, 260
Rukeri R., 22
Ruki R, 33, 35, 42, 94,
115, 185, 236 ; naviga
tion, 242-243
Ruwe, 30, 209, 210, 212,
231, 250
Ruwenzori, Mt., 20, 50,
75, 80
Sabinio, Mt., 20, 23, 51
Safo, 157, 165
Sahoa, Mt., 228, 229
Sailing ships, 258
Sakania, 227, 252; rail-T
way, 217, 225-231,234,
249
Salisbury, 230
Salonga R., 33, 242
Salt, 57,216 ; springs, 216
Sampwe, 86, 313
Sandoanks, 237, 239, 243,
245
Sand-fleas, 315
Sandstone, 30, 57
Sanga R, 26, 36, 37
Sango language, 105 ;
tribe, 105
Sankuru district, 78, 278,
279, 283 ; population,
300, 301
Sankuru R., 30, 34, 41,
46, 57-59, 65, 69, 78, 98,
99, 121, 190. 197, 232,
243, 244, 249. 307
Sansikua R., 218
Sapa R., 229
Savanna, 71, 73-85 ; pro
ducts, 156-174; vil
lages, 114-125, 188
Scarlatina, 109
Scientific research, 297,
319
Sculpture, 137
Seaports, 258-259
Semliki plains, 49
Semliki R, 20,32,35,50,
75, 80, 88

Sendwe, 44, 222, 223, 238»
Senecio Johnstonii, 81 , j
Servico agric >le, 7, 8
Ses.imuiri, 157, 167-168
Sh'ari R., 32, 33, 49, 80
Sharp, A.", 279
Sheep, 157, 172, 201
Shifumanzi, 249
Shipping, 246, 253, 257-
260, 293 "
Shrews, 89 "
Shrubs, 76, 79, 81
Shute ravine, 219
Sido basin, 21
Siku M'Bidi, 207
Silver, 216
Simkat company : see
Societe industrielle et
miniere du Katanga
Sisi hill, 21
Skins, animal, 142
Slates, 30 ;
Slavery and slave-deal
ing, 12, 112-114, 284,;
290, 291
Sleeping sickness, 294,
302, 312, 313
Small-pox, 314-315
Smiths, native, 140, 141
Soap, native, 165. 167r
194
Society anonyme beige d$i
cables telegraphiqiies,*
251
anonyme beige pour le
commerce du Haut-
Congo, 305,311
anonyme Citas, 246,
< 260,310,311 *
anonyme d'agriculture
et plantations au
Congo, 189, 307 !
anonyme des huileries
du Congo beige, 184-
186, 246. 266, 306,811
anonyme des pfitrole's
au Congo, 250, 310,311
anonyme Urselia, 189,
307
anversoise du com
merce au Congo, 305,
306
anversoise pour la re
cherche des mines au
Katanga, -286, 309,
311
beige industrielle et
miniere du Katanga,
810,311
Belgika, 307, 311
Belgo-Katanga, 309-
811

coloniale de construc
tion, 226
commercialeet miniere
du Congo, 226, 311
des chemins de fer
vicinaux du Ma
yumbe, 221, 310, 311
des plantations colo-
niales(LaLuki),189,307, 311
des colonisation agri
cole du Mayumbe,
189, 307,311
des cultures au Congo,
311
desrecherches mini&res
du Bas-Katanga (the
j Bakat),208,209,309-311
desrecherches minieres
Lufira-Katanga, 309,
* 311
equatoriale congolaise
Lulonga - Ikelemba,
307
forestiere et commer
ciale du Congo beige,
311
generale de Belgique,
308
geologique et miniere
des ingenieurs et in-
dustriels beiges, 309.
811
Internationale forest
iere et miniere du
Congo, 211, 213, 306,
310, 311
miniere congolaise, 309
priniere de la Tele, 213,
310, 811
Ininiere et industrielle
.1 du Katanga, 309
Urselia secunda, 189,
I 307
Soio R., 229
Sohgololo, 39
Sofcerers, 149-152, 154
Sorghum, 157, 162
South African railways,
217, 225-227; trade,
" 226,272,273
'Springs, 57, 216
Squirrels, 89
Stanley, H. M., 12, 261
Stanley Falls", 32, 35, 44,
95, 103, 296, 302
Stanley Pool, 14-16, 41,
42, 94. 217, 219. 220,
222, 235-237, 257, 306
Stanleyville, 30, 36, 60,
163,'l64, 171, 179, 186,

INDEX
192, 195, 215, 222-225,
234, 236-238, 248, 252,
260, 278, 283, 297, 307,
311 ; railway, 224-225
Stanleyville district, 278,
281, 283, 291 ; popula
tion, 300
Star of tlie Congo mine,
204, 227, 252
Starlings, 90
Steamers, 220, 232, 233,
238-247, 255-260, 272
Steppe, 71, 80, 82-85;
products, 157, 162, 165,
170-173
Sudan, the, 17
Sudanian languages, 94,
102-105
Sudauian negroes, 102-
105 ; cultural condi
tions, 131-142
Suez Canal, 230
Sugar-cane, 158 ; false, 80
Sun-birds, 90
Swakopmund, 252
Sweet potatoes, 157, 158,
160, 200
Swinburne rapids, 98,
243
Swiss milk, 273 ; popula
tion, 317 ; trade, 317
Tabora, 224
Tampa, 218, 219
Tam-tam, or drum, 133,
138
Tanganika - Moero dis
trict, 278, 281, 283,
313; population, 300,
301
Tanganyika Concessions,
199, 207, 226, 228, 231,
250, 307, 308
Tanganyika, L., 8, 11, 15,
17, 19, 22, 23, 27, 29,
31, 49, 51, 52, 75, 82, 86,
89,92, 96,97, 122, 127,
144, 145, 207, 213,216,
217, 223-225, 233, 234,
241, 245, 250-252, 259
Tanganyika railway, 217,
224, 225, 233, 259
Taro, 157, 160-161
Taxation, 107, 290-295,
299-300
Tele R, 210, 310
Telegraphs and tele
phones, 250-253, 290,
293, 294
Temperature, 9, 61-63,
67-70
Tena, ML, 48

331
Termites, 90, 91
Terns, 90
Territorial administra
tors, 279, 318; divisions,
278-279 ; tribunals, 283
Terveuren Museum, 7,
293, 294, 297
Textile goods, 271, 272;
plants, 170
Thermal springs, 57, 216
Thompson, J., 279
Thunderstorms, 66
Thys, Colonel, 220, 308
Thysville, 40, 216, 218,
219, 251
Tick fever, 315
Timber, 75, 85, 205, 222,
271
Tin, 56, 208-209, 216,
233 ; mines, 228, 234,
242, 304
Tippoo-Tib, 302
Toa, 68, 201, 260
Toads, 90
Tobacco, 158, 169-170
. 272
Tomatoes, 169
Tombe R., 40
Tonkfushere tribe, 99
Topaz, 213
Topoke tribe, 96
Tortoises, 90
Trade and commerce, 11,
140, 141, 155, 165, 167,
184, 187, 259, 261-275,
286, 287, 291, 303-312,
316-317
Tragelaphs, 88
Transcongolais, 231, 232
Transit trade, 273-275
Transport, 136-137, 173,
186, 194, 195, 198, 200,
209, 234, 239, 240, 248,
310,311 ; freight rates,
221, 222, 246, 247
Treaties : Anglo- Belgian,
(1894) 16, 17, 19, 23,
24, (1906) 18, (1915)
21
Belgo-German, (1911)
204
Belgo - Portuguese,
(1885) 13, (1891) 24,
25, 26, (1913) 26
Franco-Belgian, (1894)
16,* 19, (1907) 16
Trial by ordeal, 153-154,
302
Tropical Medicine, School
of, 293
Tsetse fly, 91, 201, 248,
249, 312, 313

332

INDEX

Tumba, L., 42, 96, 243
Tumba tribes, 96
Tungila R„ 25
Tungsten, 216
Turtles', 90
Turumbu tribe, 96
Typhoid fever, 316

Ubangi district, 87, 90,
172, 178, 186, 278, 279,
283, 296, 313 ; popula
tion, 300
Ubangi R., 8, 15, 16, 26,
32, 33, 35-37, 41, 42,
45. 62 74, 77, 94. 102,
104, 105, 136. 220 235;
navigation, 239-240
Ubangi-WelIeR.,32, 105
Uele, Bas, district, 278,
283 ; population, 300,
301. See Welle
Uele, Haut, district, 278,
283 ; population, 300,
801. See Welle
Uere, 64
Uganda, 249
Uguha, 97
Uia, Mt., 40
Ulindi R., 32, 51, 52, 75,
97
Umangi, 252
Umbrella-tree, 78
Union miniere du Haut-
Katanga. 204-206, 209,
210, 228, 270, 304, 308,
311
United Kingdom : see
British
U6vo Nuovo R.. 25
Upemba, L , 56, 231
Upemba rift-valley, 55-
57, 86
Upland rice, 157
Upoto, 42, 48
Urua, 97
Usengwe R. 228
Uvira, 52, 252, 260

Vankerchovenville, 240
Vegetables, 158-161,168-
169, 200. 286, 306
Vegetation, 9, 71-86
Venereal disease, 316
Venzo R, 14
Victoria Falls, 226, 230
Victoria, L., 252
Villagps : architectural
structure, 114-122,135;
political organization,
123-127
Vipers. 90
Virunga Mts., 51
Vissoke. Mt., 23, 51
Vivi, 62, 255
Voandzeia, 157, 168
Volcanoes, 51
Voro rapids, 240
Vultures, 90

Wages, 304
Wagons, 248
Waka, 242
Wamba R., 25, 34, 58,
244, 306
Wanga tribe, 132
Wangata tribe, 115-117
Wango Wango R. 15
Wanguli tribe. 101
Wankie, 226, 227, 272
Wankie Company, 204
Wanyabongo, 171
Wapai tribe, 1 03
War-dance, 138
Warega tribe, 96, 97, 107-
109, 111, 135, 136; vil
lages, 116, 117
Wasps, 91
Waterbuck, 88
Waterways, inland, 8,
235 247
Wau I., 22
Weaving. 187, 189
Welle region, 28, 29, 162,
168, 170, 171, 197, 215,
241, 247, 248; climate,

64, 68, 69; physical
features, 47-49 ; vege
tation, 79. See also
Uele. Bas and Hant
Welln R.. 11. 16 32, 33,
35, 48, 64, 74, 75, 79, 95,
96, 102-105. 117, 118,
136, 234, 235, 241, 248,
296, 313; navigation,
240
Welle-Ituri watershed, 47
Wemashi rocks, 29, 30
Were R., 33, 103
West African Telegraph
Company, 251
Wheat, 157, 163
Winds, 66
Wireless stations, 252,
253
Wissmann Falls, 243
Wissmann Pool, 34, 46
243
Witchcraft, 138
Woermann Line, 259
Woodwork, 137, 141
Yakoma, 102, 105, 240
Yakoma tri be, 105
Yambata, 64
Yambuya, 44. 241
Yams, 157-160
Yei, 248
Yei R., 103
Yema, 14
Yumbi, 251
Yungu tribe, 99
Zambe R., 310
Zambezi R., 9, 15, 28, 24,
26
Zebras, 87
Zenze R., 13
Ziaka, Forest of, 78
Zinga, 239
Zircon, 216
Zole Pass, 218
Zona Gongo, 218
Zongo, 45, 239

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