YALE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 3 9002 06089 2339 YALE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Bought with the income of the WILLIAM C. EGLESTON FUND I.D. 1207 A HANDBOOK OF SIBERIA AND AECTIC RUSSIA Volume I GENERAL Compiled by the Geographical Section of the Naval Intelligence Division, Naval Staff, Admiralty LONDON : PUBLISHED BY HIS MAJESTY'S STATIONERY OFFICE. To be purchased through any Bookseller or directly from H.M. STATIONERY OFFICE at the following addresses : Imperial House, Kingsway, London, W.C. 2, and 28 Abingdon Street, London, S.W. 1 ; 37 Peter Street, Manchester ; 1 St. Andrew's Crescent, Cardiff ; 23 Forth Street, Edinburgh ; or from E. PONSONBY, Ltd., 116 Grafton Street, Dublin. Price 7s. 6d. net Printed under the authority of His Majesty's Stationery Office By Frederick Hall at the University Press, Oxford. NOTE The region covered in this Handbook includes besides Siberia proper, that part of European Russia, excludmg Finland, wMch drams to the Arctic Ocean, and the northern part of the Central Asian steppes. The administrative boundaries of Siberia agamst European Russia and the Steppe provinces have been ignored, except in certain statistical matter, because they follow arbitrary lines tMough some of the most densely populated parts of Asiatic Russia. The present volume deals with general matters. The two succeeding volumes deal in detail respectively with western Siberia, including Arctic Russia, and eastern Siberia. Recent information about Siberia, even before the outbreak of war, was difficult to obtam. Of the remoter parts little is known. The volumes are as complete as possible up to 1914 and a few changes since that date have been noted. No attempt, however, has been made to give any account of the social, and political and economic conditions which are the outcome of the Russian revolution of 1917. Russian statistics have never been very trustworthy. As regards Siberia, when given separately from Russia and Central Asia, they are seldom of recent date. Such statistics as are obtainable are given in the chapters to wMch they refer. All figures relatmg to population must be accepted with caution. The Admiralty will be glad to receive corrections and additions. CONTENTS chap. page Transliteration of Russian Characters ... 10 Maps of Siberia and Arctic Russia . . . .13 I. General Geographical Features .... 15 * Position, boundaries and extent — West and East Siberia — Main geographical divisions — Rivers — Lakes — Coasts. - II. Climate . . . 28 General ... characteristics — Temperature — Pressure and Winds— Precipitation — Climate and Agriculture — Climatic Regions — Freezing and thawing of the Rivers of Siberia. III. Vegetation 44 The Tundra. — Coniferous Forests — The Amur Forests — The Pacific Forests — Alpine Vegetation — Wooded Steppes — Kirghiz Steppes — Transbaikal Steppes. IV. Animal Life, Fisheries and Hunting . . . .51 Animal life — Fisheries : A, Arctic Russian ; B, Western Siberian ; C, Eastern Siberian — Products of Wild Animals. V. Native Tribes of Siberia and Arctic Russia . . 93 Classification : I. Palaeo-Siberian Tribes ; II. Neo- Siberian Tribes : (i) Finno-TJgrian, (ii) Samoyedic, (iii) Turkic, (iv) Mongolic, (v) Tungusic. VI. Colonization of Siberia 187 Elements of Immigrant Population — Distribution and Number of Colonists— The present System of Colonization — The Exile System — Colonization of the various Pro vinces^ — Distribution of Russian Population — The Yellow Question and Colonization — Encouragement of Coloniza tion in Arctic Russia. VII. Religion in Siberia 216 Russian Religion: History — The Clergy — Church Government — The Orthodox Religion — Raskolniki — Sha- VIII. Hygiene 228 Climatic complaints — Zymotic diseases — Nervous diseases — -Want of Sanitation. IX. Agriculture . .... 232 Western Siberia — Eastern Siberia. 8 CONTENTS CHAP. PAGE X. Live-Stock 248 Domestic animals — Apiculture — Dairy Industry. XI. Timber Industry 261 Timber and Timber-trade — Sawmills — Wood Industries XII. Mineral Resources 271 Iron — Copper — Gold — Silver — Zinc and Lead — Platinum — Asbestos — Graphite — - Mica — Petroleum — Other Metallic Ores — Coal — Salt — Precious Stones and Building Materials. XIII. Manufacturing Industries 297 Kustarni Industries — Factories — Chinese Industries in the Far East. XIV. Natural Resources and Trade of Arctic Russia . 305 Timber — Agriculture and Stock Breeding — Mineral Wealth — Fur and Eider-down — Industry and Trade. XV. Divisions, Administration and Towns . . 309 Siberian Boundaries — Governments and Territories — Administrative System — Administrative Districts — Siberian Towns — Local Government. XVI, Roads and Telegraphs . . . . . . 319 Roads and Travelling— Sledging — Telegraphs and Cables — Wireless Telegraphy. XVII. Railways 334 "General Considerations — The Siberian Railway — The Amur Railway — The Ussuri Railway — The Altai Rail way — Other Siberian Railways — The Murman Railway — The Arkhangel-Vologda Railway — New and Projected Railways. XVIII. Historical Notes 356 Prehistoric Races — Early Relations with Russia— The Early Conquerors — Attempts to conquer the Amur Region —The Treaty of Aigun— The Peking Convention — Russia and Japan— Russian Advance in Mongolia. Appendix. Weights and Measures — Money — Time — Calendar . 366 Glossary INDEX .... ... MAP .... . .... General Orouraphical Map . . . /„ yochd 370 374 10 TRANSLITERATION OP RUSSIAN CHARACTERS A a a 3? Mm?/ i 7c a E % ' % S 6 ¦ b Be v r J 8 g h in foreign works A&Sdp d E e , e Ye when initial JK *S7o ok zh zi i Kk k A*A ^L i M m JC Hh^ 0 o nuJTppi8C c Tin T M 771 m i r rt o P rs t TRANSLITERATION OF RUSSIAN CHARACTERS 11 Qt.Sf&J? f H H kh tsch X X St III in Hi tU sh rb "b 6 s bi bi o/7/ bb/ T> t ib 71 9 3 mute i mute ye e K) 10 K) yB ya 0 e to M H 2/ i The combinations bi M and 1 M are transliterated NOTE In the above table the principal forms of the letters of the Russian alphabet, printed and cursive, wMch occur in official Russian maps are given. In actual practice little or no distinction is made between printed and cursive forms, and consequently they have not been separated in tMs table. In the case of each letter only the commonest form of the small type is given, but in nearly all cases any form. of the capital type, reduced in size, may be used. TMs system is the same as that used by the Admiralty except as regards il wMch the Admiralty transliterate tz instead of ,ts. The War Office system differs from the one adopted m tMs book by transliteratmg jk by j instead of zh. The sound of tMs letter is represented by the French j, wMch is the equivalent of zh m English. The Royal GeograpMcal Society's system is the same as that of the Admiralty. All proper names have been transliterated from official Russian maps. In the frequent cases of disagreement between different maps the 40-verst, or failing that the 100-verst map, has been preferred. Only words indicating geograpMcal features as bay, lake, &c, have been translated. Russian words capable of translation wMch form the whole or part of a proper name have not been translated, but transcribed into Roman characters, e. g. Byeli, Nizhne. The only excep tions to these rules are m the case of names m common EngUsh usage such as WMte Sea, New Siberia Islands, &c. ; and names that were originally English or French or of other foreign languages and have been adopted by the Russians, as de Castries Bay, Nordenskjold ArcMpelago, Jeannette Islands, Valentine Bay, &c. In order to simplify reference to Russian maps the adjectival endings showing gender of all Russian names have been retained. The result of this is a difference in the versions of the same name applied respectively to a bay (feminine in Russian), a village (masculine), or a church village (neuter). NOTE MAPS OF SIBERIA AND ARCTIC RUSSIA The only official map of Siberia which covers the whole country is the Map of the Oceans, Seas, Rivers and Lakes of Asiatic Russia and Adjoining Lands, scale 100 versts to an inch (1 : 4,200,000), published by the Ministry of Ways and Commumcations, 1905. This map is in four sheets. It is coloured to show the dramage areas of the chief rivers. No attempt is made to show relief. There is much detail in relation to rivers, towns, villages, and tracks, but the map is untrustworthy m many parts. Moreover it is badly printed from worn type and somewhat illegible. The topographical section of the Russian General Staff publishes a Map of the Frontier Regions of Asiatic Russia, scale 10 versts to an inch (1 : 420,000). There are twenty sheets in all of various dates from 1886 to 1911. The country covered is from about lat. 58° N. to northern Mongolia, but in western Siberia the sheets go north almost to the Ob delta. All Russian Central Asia is covered. The map shows relief by hill shading, but a great deal of it appears to be imaginary. Beyond the better known districts along the chief rivers and i the railways this map cannot be relied upon. Roads and tracks are shown and a great many names are marked. Rivera are clearly indicated m blue. The map is generally legible. Little reliance can be placed on the altitudes, given m feet. The Ministry of Ways and Communications also published in 1911 a Map of Communications of Asiatic Russia, scale 100 versts to an inch (1 : 4,200,000) m tMee sheets. The map shows roads, railways and navigable rivers, as well as tele graph lines. There are rough mdications of topographical relief. The map is clear and legible if somewhat diagrammatic, 14 MAPS OF SIBERIA AND ARCTIC RUSSIA but like other maps of Siberia is far from accurate in many parts. The Ministry of Ways and Communications also publishes a Map of Communications of Asiatic Russia in one sheet on a scale of 300 versts to an inch (1 : 12,600,000). The last edition revised to date was published in 1916 (Series No. 269). The map is clearly printed and gives much accurate informa tion. It covers also European Russia. TMs map is a great improvement on the larger scale map of communications. The best small-scale map of Siberia is m two sheets in the Atlas Marksa, Petrograd, 1910. It shows Siberia on a scale of 1 : 10,000,000. The Ministry of Agriculture, Emigration Department, published in 1914 a large Atlas of Asiatic Russia, with tMee volumes of text. It contams a number of economic maps but no new topographical work and no maps on a scale as large as 40 versts to an inch. Special maps of parts of Siberia are noticed under the chapters to which they refer. Of European Russia there are maps on a scale of 10 versts to an mch (1 : 420,000), of wMch a new edition, but with few corrections, was issued m 1914. The Ministry of Ways and Communications publishes a Map of the Railways, Roads, and Waterways of European Russia on a scale of 40 versts to an inch. The last edition is dated 1913, and there are nine sheets, of wMch Nos. 2 and 3 cover most of Arctic Russia. This map is much better executed than the smaller-scale one of Asiatic Russia.* All the maps referred to above are in Russian. The only good map of Siberia in Roman characters is a small scale one (1 : 7,500,000) in Stieler's Hand Atlas (1916). It should be noted that the transliteration of Russian characters by the German system is liable to disguise many of the names. Maps of the Amur River and Lake Baikal on a scale of 1 : 1,750,000 are included in Volume III. CHAPTER I , GENERAL GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES Position, boundaries, and extent — West and East Siberia — Main geographical divisions — Rivers — Lakes — Coasts. Position, Boundaries, and Extent Siberia is bounded by the Ural Mountains on the west, by the Aretic and Pacific Oceans on the north and east. In the south-west the generally accepted frontier runs from the sources of the River Ural in the west across the Central Asian steppe lands to the Tarbagatai Mountains, and thence by a devious course that does not coincide with the watershed eastward to the River Argun and along the Argun and the Amur to the Pacific. The western part of this boundary, agamst Russian Central Asia, is an arbitrary one with no counterpart m geographical features. Siberia in fact is often taken to mclude the two eastern steppe provinces of Akmo- linsk and Semipalatmsk. The northern but not the south ern parts of these are certainly Siberian ' in character, while the same applies to the western steppe province of Turgai, which, however, is always excluded from Siberia. For the purpose of this book the steppes in general are included without adherence to admimstrative boundaries. The eastern part of the southern boundary is against Chinese Mongolia and Manchuria and near the Pacific for a few miles against Korea. In its western part the Uryankhai region south of the frontier is nominally Mongolian but actually in Russian occupation. The total land frontier is about 10,000 miles long and the sea frontier twice that length. Siberia, excluding the steppe regions, has an area of about 4;80G,000 square miles, which is 1J times the area of Europe, 2\ times the area of European Russia, and 40 times the- size 16 GENERAL GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES of the British Isles. Its latitudinal limits are 49° N. to 77° 42' N., and it stretches from long. 59° E. to 174° 24' E. The Steppe regions included with Siberia in this book add about 450,000 square miles. The name Siberia is supposed to be derived from the Russian word CnGHpt, which m the sixteenth century mdicated the cMef Tartar settlement on the Irtish, and was afterwards extended to mclude all Russian possessions m Asia. Later it ' was restricted to its present application. West and East Siberia Siberia may be conveniently divided into two unequal parts, western and eastern, of wMch western Siberia is the basin of the Ob, and though the more important of the two divisions, is only one-third of the area of eastern Siberia. The con trast between the south of Siberia with its great fertility, and the north with its barrenness almost as extreme, is easily recogmzed, but it is a contrast that holds cMefly in the west. The contrast between western and eastern Siberia is not so strongly marked and is often overlooked. The conception' of Siberia as a vast plam rising with the gentlest gradient from the sea is true only for the west, or more strictly speaking for the Ob basin, and, in Arctic Russia, for the Pechora basin. East of the Yenisei these conditions do not hold. The elevations become considerable, and east of the Lena the sur face is too irregular to be described as a plam. Low shores comparable with those m the west only occur about the mouths of the great rivers. In the extreme east the mterior higMands reach the sea and leave only small and disconnected areas of plain along the coast. Western Siberia extends through a great range of latitude and merges into the steppes of Central Asia and the plams of European Russia. Eastern Siberia is much narrower from north to south, and narrows progressively towards the east. Mountains cut it off from Central Asia and restrict its inter- course'with the west, In the Amur basin it opens naturally to Manchuria, WEST AND EAST SIBERIA 17 Western Siberia has thus a large area in temperate latitudes not far removed from Europe, and fit for agriculture, while eastern Siberia lies mamly in more northern latitudes, far removed from Europe, and its wide expanses of forests, leave httle scope' for agricultural development. The physical link between western and eastern Siberia is Lake Baikal and the land route that with difficulty rounds its southern end. Main Geographical Divisions The mam features of the relief of Siberia are comparatively simple, and consist of certam well-defined regions. Two high plateaux occupy the heart of Asia, and extending from extreme west to extreme east cover nearly two-fifths of the area of the continent. The western plateau, includmg Anatolia, Armenia, and Iran, is outside the region under consideration, but much of the eastern plateau, extending from the Pamirs and the Himalayas north-eastward towards the Bering Strait, lies withm Siberia. This plateau includes Tibet, Chinese Turkes tan, the Gobi desert, Mongolia, and much of Manchuria. A great part of it is desert and little of it is suitable for agri culture and human settlement. It forms a buffer land between that Asia which turns towards the Pacific and the Indian Oceans, tropical and sub-tropical m the main, and that wMch faces the Arctic Ocean and has its principal relations with Europe. The plateau lands have always formed an obstacle to the mterirnnglmg of the peoples on the two sides and have discouraged the meeting of east and west. North of these plateaux and their high bordering ranges lies a broad alpme zone of rugged mountains and deep valleys. This zone averages about 150 miles in width, and its peaks rise to 5,000 or 6,000 ft. It includes the Altai Mountains and the Barguzinsk and other mountams around Lake Baikal. North-west of the alpine zone comes the belt of high plams at an elevation of 1,500-2,000 ft. and with an average width of 200 miles, and beyond them, farther to the north-west, lie the low plains, not over 500 ft., which slope down gently to the Arctic Ocean. 18 GENERAL GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES Similar general physical features are repeated on a smaller •scale to the south-east of the high plateaux. Volcanic activity has played Httle part in Siberia. On the north-west border range of the high plateaux a few volcanic formations occur, but there are neither active volcanoes nor is there any historic record of one. In Kamchatka, however, the Pacific ring of volcanoes touches Siberia, and several active volcanoes occur, including Klyuchevskaya (16,130 ft.), said to be the loftiest volcano in Asia. To these distinctive orograpMcal features of Siberia may be added certain details. The High Plateaux The eastern plateau of Asia, the only one of the two which concerns Siberia, covers over one-fifth of the contment and extends 5,000 miles from south-west to north-east. It is widest in the west and middle, narrows towards the north-east, and is bordered by lofty ranges on all sides. Though called a plateau it is by no means of a uniform altitude, but is cut into terraces sharply defined from one another by escarpments which form ranges rising 500 to 1,000 ft. above the general level. The highest of these terraces is m the south and in cludes Tibet. It averages 12,000 to 13,000 ft. m height. Next in height is the terrace that lies on the north of the plateau, stretching from about long. 87° E. to long. 127° E., and mcludes north-west Mongolia and much of the Transbaikal region of Siberia with the Selenga, Vitim, and Aldan plateaux. This terrace has an average height of 3,000 to 5,000 ft. In addition to the escarpments which fringe the terraces there are a number of disjointed ranges, many of which run north-west and south-east, and others more or less parallel to the greater ranges. These still further diversify the surface of the plateau and give it the appearance of a region of great structural com plexity. The plateau forms the water-parting between the Arctic and Pacific dramage. No stream crosses it from one side to the other. But on its surface there are few well-defined watersheds between the rivers except the escarpments wMch MAIN GEOGRAPHICAL DIVISIONS 19 fringe the terraces. In many cases adjacent rivers are separated from one another only by marshes. In the east and north-east the Mgh plateau is forested, but in the centre and the west it is a desert, and it is httle more productive in the south. The Mgh plateaux of Siberia are built of gneisses, schists, clay-slates, and old Milestones, all of Archaean and Palaeozoic age. On these old rocks occur in places Jurassic and Tertiary beds which are due to fresh-water lakes in those periods, at a time when the lowlands to the north were submerged and the proximity of the sea caused greater precipitation on the plateaux than is now the case. The Great Border Ranges Along the north-western and the south-eastern sides of the great plateau are contmuous lofty border ranges. The north western range is the most continuous m Siberia and in it occur the greatest heights. The contmuity of this range is badly shown on most maps of Siberia, and its nomenclature is some what confused. The Tienshan, the Sayansk, the Ulan-Burgasi, the South Muya, and the Aldan Mountains are all parts of the north-western border range. It is 17-25 miles wide and 6,000 to 8,000 ft. Mgh in the west, decreasing in the north-east to 4,000 and 3,000 ft. The south-east border range of the great plateau is known as the Great Khmgan Range from China to the Amur River and thence to the north-east as the Stanovoi Mountains, mcludmg the Dzhugdzhur, Kolimsk,1 and Anadir Mountains. There is still some doubt about the exact course of the northern end of the Great Khingan and its junction with the Stanovoi Range. In most maps of Siberia it is repre sented as crossing the Amur at the confluence of the SMlka and there terminating, while the Yablonoi Mountains are repre sented as running eastward from the head streams of the Olekma, forming the northern boundary of the Amur basin 1 This is the original use of the name Kolimsk Mountains, which is more generally but erroneously applied to the range east of the Kolima River. B 2 20 GENERAL GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES and joining the Stanovoi Mountains which continue to the north-east. There seems to be no mformation to support this suggestion, which originated arbitrarily in the days when little was known of the Amur basin. The supposed continuity of the Stanovoi and Yablonoi Mountains has no existence, and the Stanovoi Mountains in reality are of the same structure and origin as the Great KMngan Range, wMch crosses the Amur in the vicinity of the River Kumara, about 600 miles east of the confluence of the Shilka. More light, however, is needed on the junction of these ranges. The Great Khingan Range is about 1,000 to 2,500 ft. above the level of the plains to the east, but it rises Httle above the general level of the plateau, so that, viewed from the west from the surface of the plateau, it has hardly the appearance of a mountain -range. Its crest is 3,000 to 4,500 ft. The Stanovoi Mountains are little known, and their north-eastern termination is uncertain. They seem to mamtain the general features of the Great Khingan Range. The continuity of the north-western range is broken in places by great trenches or gently graded slopes which give access from the plateau to the plams beyond. These trenches are the most important orographical- features m Central Asia, for they link the lowlands of Siberia and the Transcaspian steppes with the high plateau and China. The most striking is the so-called Dzungarian trench, down which runs the head- stream of the Irtish from its source on the plateau to Lake Zaisan. As it descends the Irtish receives many tributaries from the Mongolian Altai, which stand above the northern side of the trench. The Dzungarian trench presents an easy route, and was one of the ways by which the Mongols spread west wards to nearer Asia and Europe. Farther east the Selenga River descends to Lake Baikal in another trench and affords a much-used route via Kyakhta between Siberia and China. By the lower part of this trench the Siberian Railway climbs to the plateau and by an eastern branch of this trench, down which flows the Uda, the Siberian road ascends to Chita on its way to the east. MAIN GEOGRAPHICAL DIVISIONS 21 The Vitim, Olekma and Konam trenches are others along the range, named from the streams which flow down them. The Alpine Zone The broad zone of alpine highlands lymg north-west of the plateau is a complex mass of ranges and spurs separated by deep vaUeys which are often swampy and strewn with boulders. The Altai, Baikal and Barguzinsk Mountams are part of this region. It has an average width of about 150 miles and a length of about 2,000 miles. The summits range from 5,000 to 8,000 ft. Towards the north-east it becomes lower and less rugged as it meets the Arctic Ocean. The so-called Kolimsk Mountams (see above) are the most striking features of the alpme foreland in the north-east. A longitudmal valley 10 to 25 mfles wide is often noticeable between the border range and the alpme foreland. Most parts of this valley are occupied by secondary tributaries of the mam rivers. The valley floor has an elevation of 1,000 to 2,000 ft. The alpme foreland is built of granites, syemtes and crystalhne slates. In it occurs the deep depression m which Hes Lake Baikal. The greater part of the alpine foreland is densely forested, except where the peaks rise above the limit of the tree growth, and Httle of it is accurately known. The wild inhospitable nature of the region and the virgin forests offer few inducements to its penetration by man except where rich gold deposits occur, as m the Altai Mountains and the Yemseisk district. In places, however, the fertiHty of the mountam valleys is attracting Russian colonists. Routes tMough the region are difficult. Much skill was required to carry the Siberian Railway round the south of Lake Baikal. The alpine foreland occurs also to the south-east of the Great Khingan Range. It is 70 to 150 miles wide m CMna, but disappears towards the north-east and is lost below the waters of the Sea of Okhotsk. The High Plains Beyond the alpme foreland Hes a broad zone, about 200 miles wide, of high plains at an elevation of 1,500 to 2,000 ft. They 22 GENERAL GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES have few mountams, the only important ones being the Yeniseisk and Verkhoyansk Mountams, but the deep-cut ^ gorges of the rivers draimng from the plateau and the alpme j zone give a hiUy appearance to the plams. The plams are composed of more or less horizontal strata of Upper Devoman, Secondary and Tertiary ages in wMch the rivers have easily cut valleys 400 to 800 ft. deep. The high plams are forested. in the wetter north-east but are steppe lands m the drier south-west. On the south-eastern side of the plateau there is a belt of high plains about 100 miles wide. A range of gramtic and schistose mountams caned indifferently the Little Khingan, the Bureya and the Dousse Aim, runs along these plams parallel to the Great Khmgan Mountams. Beyond these mountams, still farther east are the Sikhota AHn Range of the Maritime Province and the ranges crossing SakhaHn and Kamchatka. The Low Plains That part of Siberia which has most economic importance excludmg only the Amur vaUey, and mcludmg practicaUy the whole of western Siberia, comprises the low plams. They are seldom over 500 ft. in elevation, except where a few mountain ranges occur, and they slope gradually down to the Arctic Ocean. In some places an escarpment separates the high from the low plains : in other places the transition is gradual. The gradient of the plains is very gentle, being less than a foot per mile in the west. This gentle gradient is continued beneath the sea and gives shoal water far to the north of Siberia in the Arctic Ocean. Between the Urals and the Yenisei there are no hills of any importance. East of the Yenisei are the Pitski Range and the Tunguska Mountams on the borders of the high plains, the Syeverma Mountams (3,000 ft.) north of the Lower Tunguska, the Birranga Moun tams in the Taimir Penmsula, the Vilyuisk Mountains west of the Lena, and the Verkhoyansk and Orulgan Mountams (4,000 ft.) east of the Lena. The highest peak in the Verk hoyansk Mountains is said to be 7,900 ft. Farther to the MAIN GEOGRAPHICAL DIVISIONS 23 east the plains are more diversified and much narrower. They scarcely merit the name of plains as they merge into the plateau region of the north-east. The low plams of Siberia are of Palaeozoic rocks deeply overlaid with post-glacial deposits showing that their emer gence from the waters of the Arctic Ocean is recent from a geological standpomt. Many gigantic boulders scattered over their surface were no doubt dropped from floating icebergs. The south-western part of the plains is semi-barren steppe- land beyond the confines of Siberia, but farther north these give place to rich meadow lands where the ramfall and black earth afford the best possible conditions for corn-growing and cattle-raismg. Farther north the grass lands give way to forests, which in their turn thin out and disappear in the treeless swampy tundra which fringes the Arctic Ocean from Scandinavia to the Bering Strait. The tundra is useless for cultivation and settlement. Across the western plains there are no obstacles to communi cation m any direction except the swamps of the tundra, which are impassable in summer, and the dense forests. The Plains of Arctic Russia The characteristic features of the low plains of Siberia occur farther west in Arctic Russia, but their continuity is mterrupted by the low folds of the Ural Mountains which extend from about lat. 50° N to the Arctic Ocean. Their summits vary from 2,600 to 5,000 ft., and the greatest height is Telposiz (5,530 ft.) m about lat. 64° N. The Urals are low and wide, and consist of three discontinuous ranges in the south, between which there are many routes. North of lat. 60° N. they are more compact and continuous. The range becomes lower as it approaches Baidaratskaya Bay, and reappears in the low hills of the Yamal Peninsula. Two branches run from the Urals towards the north-west. The first is the Timan Range, which crosses the plains, from .about lat. 60° to 62° N. to the Kanin Peninsula. Its greatest height is about 750 ft., and its average height considerably less. The second range is 24 GENERAL GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES the Pai-Khoi, which runs from about lat. 67° to 68° N. to VaigaCh and Novaya Zemlya. For the rest Arctic Russia east of the White Sea is low and swampy like north-western Siberia, and covered with forest and tundra. The Kola Peninsula West of the White Sea the country differs. The Kola Peninsula is geographically an extension of the mountamous region of Scandinavia. The interior is elevated and the north coast high and steep. Tundra in the north and meagre orests in the south cover the pemnsula. South of the Kola Peninsula is the low-lying lake-studded region on the west of the White Sea, in reality an eastern extension of the Fiimish lake plateau. Rivers Across the plains of Arctic Russia and Siberia many great rivers drain from the highland regions in the south to the Arctic Ocean. The uniformity in the direction of flow and the other characteristics of these rivers find their explanation in the relief of the land. The largest rivers are the Ob, Yenisei, and Lena with their many tributaries. They aU rise in the central high plateau and drain through the alpine fore land to the plains across which they flow with sluggish, wmding courses whose length is dependent on the breadth of the plains. Further east, where the highland region trends northward towards the coast, the rivers are necessarily shorter, swifter, and more direct ; but the Yana, Indigirka, KoHma, and Omolon show on a smaller scale most of the characteristics of the rivers of the west. The narrowness 9f north-eastern Siberia and the proximity of the highlands to the sea cause the eastward drainage to flow in short rapid streams. The only exception is the Amur, which is comparable to the northern rivers. Like them it drams from the high plateau, across, the alpine foreland and the plains. The chief respect in which it differs from the other great Siberian rivers, in addition to its Pacific outlet, is that a great part of the courses RIVERS 25 of the mam river and the tributaries are on the high plams and the plateau. The rivers of Arctic Russia, rising m the Urals, are neces sarily shorter than those of western Siberia, but m other respects the Northern Dvina and the Pechora are similar to the Ob. Importance of the Rivers Their long courses over gently sloping plams give the Siberian rivers certain characteristics which have had a great Mfluence on the history and development of Siberia. In the first place, the absence of a very decided slope means that the rivers wind a great deal, and have ill-defined watersheds which are easily crossed. * In the second place, the gentle gradient of the plains makes the rivers slow and navigable almost to their sources. Lastly, the northward course of most of the rivers results in their waters swinging to the east, owing to the rotation of the earth, and as the rivers erode easily m the soft plam, their right or eastern banks are generafiy high and suitable for settlements, wMle their left or western banks are low, ill-defined, and liable to inundation. In their plain courses the rivers are sometimes several miles wide, shaUow, and studded with sandbanks and islands, which are often completely mundated in times of flood. Their channels change from year to year, and their depth varies with the season. Yet despite all drawbacks the rivers form the cMef highways of Siberia, and their value is enhanced by the vastness of the plains, the dense forests, and the swampy tundra, aU of which make land travelhng difficult if not impossible. There are no towns of any importance in Arctic Russia and Siberia which are not on navigable water ways. Of aU the physical features of Siberia, it is the rivers that have had the most progressive mfluence on the country, the Ob, the Irtish, and the Yenisei most, and the Lena least of aU the great rivers ; but as population spreads eastward even the Lena will take its share. Railways will never replace waterways : they wiU make east and west 26 GENERAL GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES routes, but will feed and be fed by the waterways. Railways! lmk Siberia to the outer world, and in a measure advertise it,' but the rivers do the work of real progress and settlement. The cMef disadvantage of the Siberian rivers is that most of them flow north, and so give access only to the Arctic Ocean, and all of them are closed to navigation by ice for more than i half the year. The northern exits of the Ob, Yenisei, and ! other rivers have so far made them of use principaUy for internal commerce, and militated agamst their value as gate ways of external trade. But there are signs that this will not always remain the case to the same extent (see Vol. II, Chapter IV). In the southern part of the plains, the region of most value for human settlement, the tributaries of the different systems closely approach one another, and the basms are so dove tailed that by short and easy portages there is water com munication from one end of Siberia to the other. This facili tated the penetration of Siberia by the Cossacks. Passing from the Ob to the Yenisei and Lena they reached the Sea of Okhotsk. And it was probably due to their missing the Amur and being led further north by the waterways to unmviting shores that Russia's entry into the Amur basin was so long delayed. Her claims on the Ussuri and the Yellow Sea coast came too late to be firmly established before Japan had begun j to look westward. The extent of the Siberian plains is so vast that many parts are at a considerable distance from a navigable waterway. In the north, where the rivers are fewer, and many run direct to the sea, this isolation of certain areas is most marked. Some of the northern regions away from rivers or drained j by small mdependent streams are almost unknown except to wandering tribes. Lakes Siberia has many lakes, particularly m the west. The largest He in the alpine foreland in the south. Lake Baikal : covers an area of nearly 13,200 square mile.s, and is 400 miles LAKES 27 long and 18 to 66 miles broad. Lake Zaisan, which lies outside Siberia proper, on the course of the Irtish, is 707 square miles in area. The Kirghiz and Baraba steppes are dotted with small lakes, many with ill-defined margins. On the Selenga and Vitim plateaux there are also many small lakes. In the lower part of the Amur basin are several larger lakes, including Lake Kada and Kizi near the mouth of the Amur, Lake Odzhal further up, and Lake Khanka (1,700 square miles) in the Ussuri valley, partly within Chinese Manchuria. Coasts The coast-lme of Siberia has a great length, but Httle of it is important, as traffic to and from Siberia is principaUy overland via European Russia. The northern coast-line is stfll imperfectly charted except m the extreme west. It is blocked with ice for the greater part of the year, and m no month is navigation free from difficulties on account of ice. The coast of Russia west of the White Sea is the only part of the Russian Arctic coast which is approachable all the year round. The Pacific coast of Siberia is less inhospitable, is faced with deeper water, and has several good harbours, but it opens to an unproductive hinterland, and is blocked with ice for much of the year. These drawbacks decrease progressively towards the south. Consequently the most important seaport, Vladivostok, Hes at the extreme south of Russian Pacific territory. The coasts of Siberia and the off-lymg islands are described in detail in subsequent chapters in Volumes II and III. CHAPTER II CLIMATE General characteristics — Temperature — Pressure and winds — Precipita. tion — Climate and Agriculture — Climatic Regions — Freezing and thawing of rivers of Siberia. General Characteristics The climate of Siberia is typicaUy continental, and is characterized by a great range of temperature between wmter and summer ; a reversal of pressure conditions, and conse- , quently of wmds, between wmter and summer ; and a small ] amount of annual precipitation. In a general way it is com parable with the climate of European Russia, but is more" extreme in all respects. The wmter is long and very cold, but generaUy calm and dry with little cloud to mterfere'with the bright sunshme. The cMef populated parts of Siberia lie between lat. 50° N. and lat. 60° N., and so receive, roughly speakmg, as much msolation as the British Isles, but the ex treme north has a certam period of darkness m midwinter. January is the coldest month. SnowfaU is seldom deep. The months of vegetative growth are May to October, with a mean temperature of about 56° F. m western Siberia, and about 53° to 60° F. m eastern Siberia, but only the tMee months of June, July, and August can reaUy be regarded as summer. Most of the precipitation occurs in that period. a In September the temperatures begin to fall rapidly. Spring J and autumn are short seasons and are scarcely noticeable except in the south. , The causes of these characteristics are to be found in the ' physical circumstances of the country. It is a compact land mass open to the north by gently slopmg plams, but closed j to the south by mountains which serve to a great degree as GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS 29 climatic barriers. The moderating influence of the ocean can be felt only in the extreme east, where the Dzhugdzhur and Stanovoi Mountams lie near the coast, and prevent the oceanic influences penetrating far mland. The only ocean to which the plams of Siberia lie open is the cold Arctic Ocean, which is so encumbered by ice for a great part of the year, that it has little beneficial mfluence on the climate. Lastly, the country rises towards the south, except m the extreme west, and so the temperatures are lower than they would otherwise be, despite the comparatively low latitudes of that part of Siberia. Temperature The mean annual temperature of practically the whole of Siberia is below 36° F., and of aU, eicept the extreme south, below 32° F., but these figures convey little because of the great seasonal range of temperature. The winter temperatures are much lower, and the summer temperatures slightly higher than the latitudes suggest. The greatest extremes occur in the north-east between the Aldan and the Arctic Ocean, where Verkhoyansk, m lat. 67° N., has a January mean of — 60-7° F. and a July mean of 59-7° F., or a range of over 120° F., probably greater than occurs elsewhere on the face of the globe. Other places m eastern Siberia much farther south experience very low wmter temperatures, such as Yakutsk m lat. 62° 1' N., which has a January mean of — 46-0° F. From tMs pole of cold m the Yana and Lena region wmter temperatures increase m all directions. Even to the north along the shores of the Arctic Ocean the mid- wmter temperatures are not so low as at Verkhoyansk. At Sagastir in the Lena delta, m lat. 73° 23' N., the mean of February, the coldest month, m two years' observations, was — 36-4° F., and the Pram, m her drift across the Arctic Ocean, had a January mean no lower than —31-9° F. In the east the waters of the Pacific m wmter carry comparatively high coastal temperatures north as far as the Chukchee Penmsula, but the faU westward to the low temperatures of the interior 30 CLIMATE is rapid. Thus the January mean of Vladivostok^ is 4-8° F., of Petropavlovsk m Kamchatka 13-8° F., but of Nikolaevsk — 10-1° F. To the west and particularly the south-west of the pole of cold the increase m winter temperatures is more gradual. Yeniseisk has a January mean of — 10-1° F., Tomsk of -3-3° F., and Tobolsk of -2-2° F. Even m the Steppe provmces the January mean ranges from — 4° F. m the north to 17-5° F. at Lake Balkhash m about lat. 45° N. A January mean above freezing pomt does not occur north of Tashkent and Bokhara near the southern frontier of Asiatic Russia. In north-west Siberia the Atlantic influences make themselves felt to a small extent ; thus Berezov on the Ob in about lat. 63° 40' N. has a January mean of — 10-6° F., and Arkhangel in 64° 32' N. has a January mean of 7-5° F. This mfluence is considered further on p. 34. The freezmg of Siberian rivers is considered at the end of tMs chapter, and ice m the polar seas in Vol. II, Chapters I and IV, and Vol. Ill, Chapter II. In summer the highest temperatures occur m the south and south-west, and' there is a decrease, towards the north and east coasts, but the distribution of temperature conforms to latitude much more than in wmter. The shores of the Arctic Ocean have a July and August mean generaUy weU above freezing point, thus Sagastir m the Lena delta has a July mean of 40-3° F., and the Fram, m the Arctic Ocean, had a July mean no lower than 32° F. As far south as the Arctic Circle the increase of temperature is comparatively rapid, but south of the Arctic Circle it becomes more gradual. In the east temperatures as a rule are slightly Mgher than m cor- respondmg latitudes in the west, but this small difference disappears in the south. The extreme south of Siberia has ' a July mean of over 71° F., and in the Steppe provinces the July mean goes as high as 80° F. On the east coasts the Pacific makes itself felt as a coolmg influence, and the July isotherms, \ like the January ones, run roughly parallel with the coast from > Sakhalm to the mouth of the Anadir. Thus Okhotsk in lat. i 59° 21' N. has a July mean of only 55-2° F., or about 11° F TEMPERATURE 31 lower than Olekminsk, m the mterior in much the same, lati tude, and Petropavlovsk in lat. 52° 53' N. has an August mean of 58-3° compared with 66-9° F. at Yeniseisk on about the same parallel. Despite the low summer pressure over Siberia these maritime mfluences do not penetrate far iMand. Lake Baikal exercises locaUy the functions of a sea in reducing summer temperatures in its vicinity. Pressure and Winds The low winter temperatures of Siberia result in an ex tensive Mgh-pressure system developmg over the country at that season. The frozen ocean to the north aids m its de velopment. In January the highest pressure lies SW. of Lake Baikal, and extends thence to the NE. and SW. The pressure decreases towards the NW. of European Russia, where a comparatively low pressure area extends from the Atlantic over the Barents Sea, and towards the east, where a wide low pressure system lies over the North Pacific. Lake Baikal causes a local weakenmg of pressure m the heart of Siberia. As a result of these pressure conditions over Siberia the wmter wmds as a rule are light, generaUy from the SW. in the north, and from the E. and SE. m the south. But calms are charac teristic of a Siberian wmter, and consequently the mtense cold is tolerable, and has comparatively little ill effect on vegeta tion and human activities. In March the centre of high pres sure moves northwards to the Arctic Ocean, and by April the pressure over Siberia and the Pacific is almost equalized, while in May the rapidly rismg temperature results m the formation of an extensive low pressure system over the country, which reaches its greatest development in July. The reversal in pressure conditions results m inflowing currents of air through out Siberia. In western Siberia westerly and northerly winds prevail, m the Taimir region cool northerly winds, and in the north-east easterly winds. On the Ussuri and Maritime regions there is a more marked monsoon effect owing to the close proximity of the cool ocean to the comparatively warm 32 CLIMATE land. Vladivostok has a prevalence of warm south-easterly wmds during summer. As a result of the low pressure the summer wmds of Siberia are often strong, and gales occur at that season. The moun tains of the south form a fairly effective barrier agamst I southerly air currents, but .fohn wmds, warmed by their descent from high altitudes, not mfrequently blow m the northern valleys of the Altai and Sayansk Mountains. PRectpitation Precipitation tMoughout the whole of Siberia is slight and occurs chiefly in summer. It is least in the far north, where it is less than 8 ins. m the year, and it mcr eases towards the south, reachmg its maxima of 18 Ms. or over m the south-west and the Altai region, and 20 ins. or more m the Amur region. In Kamchatka, where the monsoon is weU marked, the total annual fall is 40 ins. or more. In the Steppe provmces m the far, south-west the ajuiual precipitation again decreases towards the Sea of Aral, where it is under 4 ins. In the Tienshan Mountams, however, between the steppes and Chmese territory, the annual amount rises to three or four times that figure. As regards seasonal distribution, summer, as aHeady stated, is the time of most precipitation. On an average 50-55 per cent, of the annual amount falls durmg June, July, and August: The daily fall is generally slight. The southern part pf the Steppe provmces are again an exception, for they receive most, of their scanty ramfall in winter. The only parts of Siberia| proper that receive an appreciable amount of wmter precipij tation are the Vasuigan swamps and the Ishim steppes m the west, and SakhaHn and Kamchatka m the east. The Arctic, coast, the Transbaikal, and the upper Amur regions are par ticularly dry in wmter. Cloudmess is a general accompaniment of the rainy season. Drought is characteristic of many parts of Siberia, although the country is well supplied with great rivers. It must be remembered, however, that these rivers have their sources in PRECIPITATION 33 the mountains of the southern frontier lands, where rainfall is more abundant than on the plains ; and furthermore, that their stoppage by frost for more than half the year, and the slight loss they suffer from evaporation, except for a few weeks, are factors which combine to conserve their water-supply. Lastly, the frozen subsoil of the greater part of Siberia and the gentle gradients of the plams, especially in the west, make dramage slow, and give the country a wet appearance despite the small amount of precipitation that falls. Climate and Agriculture The mfluence exercised by the climate on most aspects of human activity m Siberia is noticed more particularly in the chapters on agriculture and communications, but attention may be drawn here to a few more general relations between cHmate and agriculture. The high summer temperatures, if they were unaccompanied by cloudmess and rainfall, would be disastrous to agriculture. As it is the clouds temper the heat, and the ramfall is so evenly distributed tMoughout the summer months that agriculture receives the maximum benefit from it. However, a smaU dimmution in. the annual ramfall is most serious, as there is no margm to spare. In the Steppe provmces, where the summer ramfall is sHght, and the summer temperatures very high, agriculture can be practised only along the rivers of the far south where irrigation is possible. In the Amur region the abundant summer rams favour agriculture while the monsoon region, mcludmg Kamchatka, has too much ram, m relation to its low summer temperatures, for agriculture to flourish. The scarcity of snow m winter, throughout most parts of Siberia, allows the ground to freeze to great depths even hi the south of the country. A permanently frozen subsoil extends north and east of a line drawn from the Kanm Penin sula, on the White Sea, east by Berezov on the Ob to Turuk- hansk on the Yenisei, thence south-east to Ilimsk and round the north and east of Lake Baikal, and west to the Uryankhai region : the lower Amur, Ussuri, and Maritime regions are SIBERIA C 34 CLIMATE excluded from this area. In summer the surface soil, m the area so defined, thaws to certam depths. Tree growth is not prevented, as the roots spread out lateraUy when they reach the frozen soil. In fact, some of the finest forests of Siberia are in this region. Provided a district has a sufficiently long and warm summer, the frozen soil actually assists cereal cultivation. The short roots of cereals do not reach the frozen subsoil, which on the other hand ensures a supply of water in the upper layers, and so saves the crops from disaster m case of drought. Of course, over the greater part of northern Siberia cereal cultivation is impracticable on account of the shortness of the summer and the waterlogged soil. In western Siberia, with its greater wmter snowfaU and its higher wmter temperatures, the sofl does not remain per manently frozen. In other respects, however, the lower wmter temperatures of eastern Siberia are not more unfavourable to agriculture than the higher temperatures of western Siberia, for both are too low to allow work on the land m wmter. Frosts which occur as late as early summer and as early as August or September are most mjurious to agriculture. In some agricultural regions July is the only month m wMch frost never occurs. Climatic Regions While practicaUy the whole of Siberia experiences the same type of climate, the country can be divided Mto certain climatic regions. These regions have no clearly defined boundaries, and they merge imperceptibly mto one another. The differences between their climates is in degree rather. than m kind. The regions are as foUows : 1. The Arctic region stretching from Lapland through.] Arctic Russia and Siberia to Bering Strait and extendmg southward to about lat. 64° N. in the west, and about lat. 67° N. in the east. Summer is very short and the temperature does not rise above 60° F. Wmter is long and cold with a January mean of -10° F. to -40° F. except m the west. , Spring and autumn scarcely occur. RainfaU m summer and CLIMATIC REGIONS 35 snowfaU in winter are both slight. TMs region has neither so severe a winter climate, nor so warm a summer climate as east-central Siberia (Region 3). The climate of the Kola Peninsula and the White Sea district forms a sub-region characterized chiefly by a milder wmter than the rest of the region. This is due to the warm Atlantic drift, the influence of which is felt chiefly on the Murman coast but to a lesser extent in the White Sea and Kamn region, and rapidly disappears on the mainland farther east. The winter climate of Novaya Zemlya, particularly on the west side, feels its influence in comparatively high tempera tures and in amount of precipitation, and Franz Josef Land may do so m exceptional years. The summer climate of this sub-region differs little from that of Arctic Siberia. Temperature and Precipitation in Arctic Siberia * Precipitation {incites) Jan. mean July mean Range June-Aug. Annual total °F. °F. °F. Franz Josef Land —11-5 36-1 47-6 1 ? Obdorsk -16-4 56-5 72-9 in 11-1 Tolsti Nos -28-8 51-8 80-6 2-0 12-0 Turukhansk —18-7 59-5 78'2 7-5 14-0 Sagastir : Lena delta —36-4 (Feb.) 40-3 76-7 ? 1 From1 -31-9 32-0 63-9 ? 1 Temperature and Precipitation in Arctic Russia Precipitati ion (inches) Jan. mean July mean Range June-Aug. Annual total °F. ° F. °F. Kola 11-8 54-8 430 4-0 8-0 Arkhangel 7-5 60-4 (Aug.) 52-9 6-0 15-5 Kem 12-4 58-3 , 45-9 •> 15-0 Troitsko-Pechorskoe —1-1 60-2 61-3 ? ? Karmakul: Novaya 2-3 (Feb.) 43-2 40-9 1-7 12-5 Zemlya 2. West-central Siberia is the chief populated region of Siberia and mcludes the south part of the Tobolsk Province, 1 The mean of the temperatures taken in the Pram from October 1893 to July 1896 during her drift in the ice from between lat. 77° 30' N. and lat. 85° 55' N. C 2 36 CLIMATE most of the Tomsk Province, the south of the Yeniseisk and Irkutsk Provmces, and the northern parts of the Steppe provinces. Both wmter and summer are warmer than m the Arctic region. The January temperature varies from 0° F. to -10° F., and the July temperature from 64° F. to 70° F. Early mornmg frosts may occur as late as June or as early as September. The mean annual rainfaU is about 16 to 20 ins., of which more than half falls M the tMee summer months. On account of the high temperatures summer, like wmter, is a period of clear weather despite the ramfaU. Temperature and Precipitation in West-Central Siberia Precipitation (incites) Jan. mean July mean Range June-Aug. Annual total o y. °F. ° F. Bogoslovski -2-2 62-6 64-8 8-0 16-5 Tobolsk -2-2 66-4 68-6 9-5 18-0 Ish'im -3-8 66-0 69-8 9-0 17-5 Narim -7-4 67-4 74-8 ? ? Tomsk -3-3 65-6 68-9 10-0 200 Kurgan -1-fi 68-7 70-2 1 ; Yeniseisk -10-1 66-9 77-0 6-5 17-0 Krasnoyarsk -3-6 66-7 70-3 ? 1 Barnaul -2-2 67-1 69-3 5-0 12-0 Irkutsk -7-4 65-1 72-5 8-5 16-0 3. East-central Siberia is the largest region and mcludes most of the Yakutsk Province except the extreme north, the north of the Irkutsk Province, and the Transbaikal Provmce. The climate is the most extreme m the whole of Siberia, and is characterized by the great severity of the wmter rather than by exceptional warmth in summer. In January the mean temperature ranges from —60° F. m the north to —4° F. in the south, but some parts of the south on account of their considerable elevations have a January mean much lower than —4° F. The absolute minimum recorded is —90° F. at Verkhoyansk. Several months may occur during which the temperature remains below — 20° F., but on the other hand great ranges, may occur in any month except July. July has a mean temperature rangmg from 60° F. to 70° F CLIMATIC REGIONS 37 Precipitation varies from an annual total of 5 or 6 Ms. to 17 or 18 ins. Snowfall is nowhere heavy and the Transbaikal Province is almost snowless. Temperature and Precipitation in East-Central Siberia Precipitation (inches Jan. mean July mean Range June-Aug. Annualtotal °F. °F °F. Kyakhta -1S-4 67-1 85-5 7-5 10-0 Olekminsk -33-3 66-0 99-3 7-5 11-0 Yakutsk -46-0 66-2 112-2 6-5 12-.0 Verkhoyansk -60-7 59-7 120-4 ? 5-0 Novi-Selenginsk -15-7 70-5 86-2 9 j Verkhne-TJdinsk -17-3 66-2 83-5 4-5 8-0 4. Amur and South-east region. — This has a somewhat anomalous climate, for not only is much of the region farther south than any other part of Siberia proper, but it is the only region that is Mfluenced by the ocean to any great extent. The Amur vaUey shows climatic features Mtermediate between those of the Transbaikal and the south-east coast region, which has January means above zero and in which thaws may occur in any month. A few miles inland the continental low temperatures occur. Strong wmds on the coast may make the wmter, despite its higher temperatures, much more unpleasant than M the colder but calmer Mterior. Wmter minima as low as —27° F. have been recorded at Vladivostok. July means are about 65° F. to 70° F., decreasmg towards the north, but summer may be chiUy on account of strong wet wmds. Monsoon Mfluences cause heavy summer ramfall, decreasmg from the coast mland. As a rule more than half the total annual precipitation falls m summer. Dense fogs are common on the coast M' summer. SakhalM and Kamchatka are extreme examples of this type of climate, but their sea-girt position redeems them from the severity of the continental wmter and mitigates the summer heat. Rainfall is heavy all the year round. Ayan, on the west coast of the Sea of Okhotsk, with a total annual faU of 44J Ms. gets the same heavy ramfaH, but the northern coasts of the Sea of Okhotsk get comparatively little. 38 CLIMATE Temperature and Precipitation in the Amur Region and on South-east Coast Precipitation (inches) Jan. mean July mean Range June-Aug. Annual total °F. °F. °F. Nerchinsk -21-3 65-3 86-6 11-5 16-0 Blagovyeshohensk -13-7 70-3 84-0 11-5 20-0 Khabarovsk -13-2 69-4 82-6 12-5 22-0 Sofiisk -30-8 59-5 90-3 ? 1 Nikolaevsk -10-1 62-2 72-3 6-5 n'-s Vladivostok 4-8 69-4 64-6 6-0 15-0 Olgi Bay < 8-9 68-0 59-1 90 20-5 Alexandrovsk (Sakhalin) - 0-6 62-0 (Aug.) 62-6 7-5 22-5 Okhotsk -15-9 55-2 (Aug.) 71-1 3-5 8-0 Petropavlovsk (Kamchatka) 13-8 (Feb.) 58-3 (Aug.) 72-1 6-5 48-0 5. The Steppe region of the south-west has extreme con tinental conditions of climate but with great summer heat more marked than severe winter cold. The January means range from about zero to 10° F. and the July means from 70° F. to 80° F. Rainfall is slight at all seasons and much of the region is practically a desert. However, the best agri cultural region in Siberia lies where the steppe merges Mto West-central Siberia (Region 2). Strong wmds sometimes occur in wmter with driftmg snow and in summer with driven sand. Only the northern part of the Steppe region is considered M this book. Temperature and Precipitation in the Steppe region Precipitation (incites) Jan. mean July mean Range June-Aug. Annual total ° F. ° F. ° F. Semipalatinsk 0-5 72-0 71-5 2-5 7-5 Freezing and Thawing of the Rivers op Siberia The rivers are frozen over in 5-20 days of frost, the length of time varying with the severity of the frost. It is noteworthy that the smaller polar rivers, especially those lying between the Ob and the Yenisei and the Yemsei and the Lena, freeze far more rapidly than these great rivers with their enormous FREEZING AND THAWING OF RIVERS 39 basms and warmer waters coming from the south. Rivers like the Taz or the Khatanga are unable to attain a high temperature during the short summer. The early freezing of the rivers between Lake Baikal and the Pacific is probably the result of the mountainous character of these regions, where cold is felt earlier than in the neighbouring districts. Several small rivers and streams flowing into the VerkMie-Vitim in the marshy Bargunsk forest, some of them runnmg tMough deep ravines, remain covered with ice tMoughout the year. The tables here given for the opening and closing of the rivers do not correspond with the opemng and closing of navigation. The rivers are not navigable for at least a week after the breaking up of the ice, and often for a f ortiiight or more before the river is actually frozen over. The dates given are the average for a varying number of years. An estimated date is given in brackets where actual figures were unobtamable. The dates according to the Russian calendar would be 13 days earlier than those given here. Western Siberia Average Average date date of of breaking freezing River. up of ice. over. Atbasar at Atbasar .... May 7 — Ayaguz at Sergiopol April 5 Nov. 27 Biya at Biisk . May 5 Oct. 23 Charish at Byeloglazovo . „ 4 „ 21 Chulim at Ust-Chulimskaya „ 8 „ 23 ,, „ Nazarovskoe . „ 12 „ 18 „ „ Bogotolskoe „ 9 „ 19 „ „ Achinsk „ 8 „ 23 „ „ Tutalskoe „ 18 „ 14 „ „ Ziryanovskoe . „ 12 „ 19 Irbit at Irbit . . .i „ 5 » H Irtish at Lake Zaisan April 30 „ 21 „ „ Krasnoyarsk „ 25 Dec. 6 „ Ust-Kamenogorsk „ 30 ., 2 „ „ Semipalatinsk . „ 30 Nov. 26 „ „ Yamishevskaya . May 2 „ 24 „ „ Pavlodar . „ 6 „ 22 „ „ Omsk „ 14 „ 18 „ „ Tara „ 15 „ 18 „ „ Tobolsk . „ 14 ,, 20 „ ,, Samarovskoe „ 28 „ 19 40 CJLillVLAT.E River. Iset at Yekaterinburg Ishim at Akmolinsk „ „ Petropavlovsk „ „ Ishim Kartisak at Kartisak Kiya at Mariinsk . Ob at Barnaul „ Kolivan „ Kolpashevo . „ Narim . „ Timskoe „ Aleksandrovskoe „ Surgut . „ Pesk fishing station „ Kondinskoe . „ Obdorsk Om at Kainsk „ Omsk Pishma at Tahtsa . Polui at Obdorsk . Pyazina at Vedenskoe ,, „ Zaostrovskoe ,, ,, mouth . Sosva at Berezov . Tavda at Nikolsk factory Taz . . . . Tobol at Svyerinogolovskaya „ ,, Kurgan „ „ Yalutorovsk „ „ Blinnikova „ „ Tobolsk . Tom at Kuznetsk . „ „ Polomoshnaya „ „ Tomsk Tura at Verkhoture „ „ Turinsk „ „ Tyumen TJi at Troitsk . Uvelka at Troitsk . Eastern Siberia Abakan at Ust-Abakanskoe Aldan at Ust-Maiskaya . Amga at Sulgachinskskaya „ „ Amginskaya Amur at Pokrovskaya ,, „ Albazin „ „ Chernyaeva Average Average date date of of breaking freezing up of ice. over. May 11 Nov. 12 „ 5 „ 17 ,, H „ 13 „ 13 ,, 14 „ 3 ,, 9 „ 12 „ 13 ,, 8 „ 23 ,, 14 ,, 21 „ 15 (Nov. 21) » 22 Nov. 18 >, 20 (Nov. 18) „ 26 Nov. 16 „ 30 „ 15 „ 24 „ 16 „ 28 „ 16 June 16 „ 9 May 17 Nov. 14 „ 14 „ 13 ,, 4 „ " June 11 Oct. 27 Nov. 1 July 9 (one year) Oct. 14 Aug.4 (one year) » 7 June 3 Nov. 12 May 15 „ 17 June 10 „ 4 May 5 „ 21 „ 8 „ 16 7 „ 20 ., 7 ,. 14 „ 20 „ 17 „ 10 „ 29 , 9 ,. 25 „ 13 ,, 17 „ 13 ., H 7 ., 17 „ 8 ,. 12 April 27 „ 20 May 1 „ 17 [A April 30 Nov. 30 May 31 Oct. 30 June 2 (Nov. 30) May 29 Dec. 4 „ 13 Nov. 19 „ 16 .. 18 „ 16 ., 26 EASTERN SIBERIA 41 Average Average date date of River. of breaking freezing up of ice. over. Amur at Blagovyeshohensk . . . May 12 Nov. 25 „ ,, Raddevka „ 12 (Nov. 25) „ Yekaterino-Nikolskaya „ 10 Nov. 28 „ Mikhailo-Semenovskaya „ 2 (Dec. 2) „ Khabarovsk „ 6 Dec. 7 „ Mariinsk „ 23 Nov. 24 „ Nikolaevsk June 1 „ 25 Anadir at Markovo „ 19 Oct. 27 Anabar at mouth of River Krilya-Kan — ,, 20 Angara (Upper Tunguska). , at Irkutsk .... April 22 Jan. 25 , „ Usolskoe May 11 „ 8 , „ Olonskoe „ H „ 3 , „ Verkhne-Ostrovskaya „ 10 „ 6 „ Balagansk „ 20 Dec. 20 , „ Malishevka „ 19 ,, 21 , „ Shiveri . „ 23 „ 17 , „ Ust-Udinskoe (May 24) „ 15 , „ Podvoloshnaya May 27 „ 13 , „ Bratski-Ostrog „ 24 ., 7 , „ Pyani Poroga (May 27) „ 6 , „ Padunskoe June 1 ,, 8 , ., Shmanek May 26 „ 9 ,. Voroveva (May 26) „ 5 , „ Karapchanskoe May 26 Nov. 29 , ,, Kezhemskoe . „ 28 „ 15 , ,. Boguchanskoe „ 26 „ 18 „ Pinchuga „ 26 „ 22 „ ,, Ribinskoe „ 29 (Nov. 30) Argun at Olochinskoe April 26 (1875) Nov. 19 „ „ Argunskaya May 16 „ 21 „ „ Urovskoe „ 17 „ 20 „ „ Pokrovskaya „ 17 „ 16 Balei at Gorokovskoe April 29 „ 12 Barguzin at Barguzin May 10 ,, 12 Biliktui at Biliktuiskoe (mouth „ 9 „ 29 Biryusa at Biryusa „ 15 ,,' 21 „ ,, Kontorskoe „ 13 „ 27 Byelaya at Maltinskoe ,, 11 „ 20 Chikoi at Baikhor . „ 15 „ 21 „ „ Kudarinskaya. . 8 „ 23 Chima at Cheremkhovskoe „ 16 ,, .16 Gizhiga at Gizhiga . June 7 „ 2 „ 14 Uga at Znamenskoe — Him at Nizhne-llimsk May 18 „ 9 Indigirka at Russkoe Uste June 29 Oct. 16 Ingoda at Titovo . , . .. Chita May 13 „ 10 Nov. 15 „ 17 , „ Kaidalovo „ 14 (Nov.,19) 42 CLIMATE Average Average date date of River. of breaking freezing up of ice. over. Ingoda at Knyaze-Beregovaya . . . May 16 (Nov. 19) „ „ Raz-Makhnina „ 17 Nov. 20 Irkut at Shchinkovskoe . „ 2 „ 18 „ „ Tunkinskoe ,, H „ 18 „ „ Smolenskoe „ 14 „ 19 ,, „ Irkutsk ,. 14 » 5 Iya at Tulunovskoe „ 15 „ 23 Kan at Kansk ,, H „ 25 „ „ Antsiferskoe „ 12 „ 18 Khara-Ulakh at mouth June 23 (one year) — Khatanga, near mouth June 28 (one year) Oct. 12 „ at Khatangskoe July 7 „ 19 Khilok at Petrovski Zavod May 23 Nov. 17 Khor .... April 30 Dec. 13 Kirenga at Kirensk May 21 Nov. 22 Kolima at Urocheva June 6 Oct. 25 „ „ Sredtie-Kolimsk „ 11 „ 24 „ „ Nizhne-Kolimsk „ 18 ,, 17 Kukhtui at Okhotsk ,. 2 Nov. 29 Kuta at Ust-KutskOe May 20 — Lena at Kachugskoe „ 17 Nov. 17 „ „ Verkholensk „ 19 „ 17 „ „ Ust-Ilginskaya . ,. 20 , 13 „ „ Ust-Orlinskaya . „ 18 , 9 „ „ Omoloevskaya . „ 18 , 14 „ ,, Kirensk ., 24 , 4 „ „ Vitimsk ;, 25 , 21 „ ,, Nyuiskaya June 3 , 19 „ „ Olekminsk. .. 1 , 19 „ „ Yakutsk . „ 10 , 12 „ ,, Markha „ 6 , 10 ,, „ Bulun „ 16 , 2 „ „ (mouth) July 8 Oct. '15 Lower Tunguska, see Angara. Maya at Ust-Maiskaya . May 29 Nov. 10 Nercha at Nerchinsk „ 14 „ 9 Oka at Ziminskoe . „ 15 „ 23 „ ,, Bratski-Ostrog (mouth) „ 23 „ 19 Olekma at Troitskoe „ 30 „ 16 Olenek at mouth . July 16 (one year) Oct. 13 Onon at Aksha May 5 Nov. 25 ,. „ Ust-Ilya . „ 12 „ 20 Oya at Yermakovskoe „ 1 „ 24 Penzhina at Penzhina June 12 (one year) Oct. 23 Pyasina at Vedenskoe Nov. 1 „ „ Zaostrovskoe . July 9 (one year) Oct. 14 „ „ mouth Aug. 4 (one year) May 8 „ 7 Selenga at Novi-Selenginsk Den. 1 ,, ,, Verkhne-Udins k „ 9 N 3v. 22 EASTERN SIBERIA 43 River. Shilka at Mitrofanova „ „ Monastirskoe . „ „ Stryetensk „ „ Pokrovsknya Suifun at Razdolnoe Suputinka at Nikolsk-Ussuriski Taimir at mouth Tuba at Kuraginskoe (Lower) Tunguska at Preobrazhenskoe „ „ „ Monastirskoe (i Turukhan at Yanov „ „ River Bayukta mouth „ „ Turukhansk Uchur at Yarmank Uda at Udski-Ostrog Uda at Nizhne-Udinsk . „ „ Verkhne-Udinsk . Upper Tunguska, see Angara. Ussuri at Kozlovskaya . „ „ Khabarovsk Vilyui at Nyurba . „ „ Vilyuisk . Yana at Verkhoyansk „ „ Kazache . Yenisei at Minusinsk Abakanskoe . Krasnoyarsk . KazachinskoeYeniseiskNazimovo Verkhne-Imbatskoe Turukhansk . Potapovskoe . Luzino . Selyakino Tolsti Nos Golchikha (mouth) . Zalara at Zalarinskoe Zavitaya at Mikhailovskaya Zeya at Blagovyeshohensk Average date date of of breaking freezing up of ice. over. May 10 Nov. 23 ;, n ,. 17 „ n „ 21 „ 18 „ Ifi April 18 Dec. 11 „ 16 „ 4 July 23 (one year) Sept. 29 May 7 Dec. 6 oe „ 21 Nov. 1 loutlf June 10 Oct. 31 » H „ 13 „ H ,, 21 „ 6 Nov. 3 May 24 — „ 7 Nov. 25 „ 14 „ 17 „ 13 „ 25 April 30 „ 28 May 6 Dec. 8 June 1 Oct. 29 „ s Nov. 2 „ 11 Oct. 23 .. 17 „ 9 May 11 Nov. 29 „ H Dec. 4 „ 12 „ 5 „ 15 Nov. 26 „ 19 Dec. 2 „ 18 Nov. 28 „ 29 „ 21 June 8 ,, H „ 20 (Nov. 14) „ 19 Nov. 4 „ 19 (Nov. 14) „ 25 Nov. 3 July 2 „ 5 June 23 Oct. 30 May 4 Nov. 15 April 25 „ 21 May 11 „ 26 CHAPTER III VEGETATION The Tundra — Coniferous Forests — The Amur Forests — The Pacific Forests — Alpine Vegetation — Wooded Steppes — Kirghiz Steppes — Trans baikal Steppes. The vegetation of Siberia remains m its origmal state, and man has effected few changes. Broadly speaking, there are three great types of vegetation, very unequal M the areas they cover. In the north along the Arctic Ocean is the tundra, while an immense forest covers the rest of Siberia, with the exception of the steppe-lands in the south-west. The first two of these divisions extend into Arctic Russia. The Tundra The tundra stretches in a band 20 to 200 miles wide from west to east of the Russian Empire along the Arctic shores. The southern limit averages about lat. 68° N., but m the Pechora and Ob basins the boundary recedes south to about the Arctic Circle, in the Khatanga basin it advances to about lat. 72° N., and in the far east it trends south to the northern end of Kamchatka. All the far north-east from about long. 160° E. to Bering Strait is covered with tundra. Tundra m an impoverished form occurs on the Arctic islands north pi Russia and Siberia. While the term tundra is often used to convey the sense of a treeless Arctic plain, it really has reference oMy to the special type of vegetation wMch is generaUy found associated with Arctic plains. Tundra frequently occurs also on considerable elevations, as in the Taimir region, the Chukchee Peninsula, or the far east generally. The vegetation of the tundra is chiefly grasses, sedges, and THE TUNDRA 45 herbaceous plants, among which are many bulbous species. Cold waterlogged soil and want of humus militate against plant life. The only trees are dwarf birches (Betula nana) and wiUows not exceeding a few inches in height and generally creepmg on the ground. Low bushes of heath, azalea, and arbutus also occur, but only m sheltered nooks do the trees or bushes grow to any height. Mosses and Hchens, including the reindeer ' moss ' are numerous, and in the east are the principal plants. In general character the tundra is umform from Russia to Bering Strait, and for that matter all round the Arctic Ocean, even if the species of plants differ. In level places it is more swampy than in the hilly parts, and peat forms extensively. It is frozen and snow-covered for 8 or 9 months in the year. In the summer the surface thaws, but the subsoil remains frozen : the tundra for a few weeks is bright with flowers and ahve with msect life, MeludMg mos quitoes, but at that season it is almost impassable to man. It is quite useless for agriculture, and has no economic value except for reindeer breeding. Coniferous Forests The comferous forests or taiga begm gradually where the tundra ends. The polar Hmit of trees is largely determmed by dry cold winds in winter which are hostile to all tree growth. The forests never reach the north coast, but in some sheltered river valleys such as those of the Ob, Yenisei, and Lena, a few badly developed trees reach the delta, and, gener ally speakmg, the rivers seem to carry the forests northward into the tundra region. The taiga in one form or another extends from the Pacific through Asia, Russia, Finland, and Scandmavia, to the Atlantic. Southward it extends to the confines of Siberia, where it gives way to the steppes of Mon golia and Russian, Central Asia. The forests vary a good deal in appearance and species, but are everywhere with a few small exceptions either solely or principally coniferous. In Arctic Russia the chief species are the Scots pine (Pimis sylvestris), the Norway spruce (Abies excelsa), and the silver 46 VEGETATION fir (A: pectinata) ; M the Urals the Siberian fir (Abies sibirica), and the Siberian larch (Larix sibirica). The deciduous trees which occur are oak, elm, ash, maple, and apple. In the drier parts of the taiga of western Siberia the commonest species are the Siberian fir, the so-caUed Siberian ' cedar ', or stone pine (Pinus cembra), the spruce (Picea obovata), the silver fir, and the Siberian larch. These are the prevaiHng trees in the Yenisei basm, the basM of the upper Ob, and the Altai region. Deciduous trees are rare. In the wetter region of the basins of the middle and lower Ob and the lower Irtish the taiga is marshy and has thick, impenetrable undergrowth. Larch is rare, and the Siberian fir predommates, but there is also an admixture of deciduous trees such as birch and aspen. Thickets of poplar, alder, and willow fringe the streams, and there are some birches. Berry bushes are frequent except M the swampy parts, and include the wortleberry, bilberry, Arctic bramble, raspberry, and red and black currants. The Altai Mountains have the same coniferous forests as western Siberia, but they are more open and the trees grow tall. In places there is undergrowth, but as a general rule it is absent. The forests extend to an altitude of about 5,000 ft. on the southern and 6,000 ft. on the northern side. On the -south the flora is richest, and rhododendrons and azaleas appear. The southern part of the marshy taiga of the Ob basm is known as the Vasuigan swamps. They are most fuUy deve loped in the northern part of the region between the Ob and the Irtish, but also stretch north of the Ob, and consist of swamps covered with dense thickets of birch, alder, aspen, Siberian cedar, pmes, and a few larcftes. The Russian name is urman. They are practically impassable except m winter. In time of spring floods these urmans are so much Mundated that they are termed the Vasuigan Sea. The forests of eastern Siberia are very uniform from the Yenisei basin eastward to the Amur region and the Stanovoi Mountains. In the north they merge gradually tMough CONIFEROUS FORESTS 47 a region of gnarled and stunted trees into the. tundra. The Siberian fir and the eastern larch (Larix daurica) are the prevaiHng species, but the Siberian ' cedar ' (Pinus cembra) and the Scots pme also occur. The spruce (Picea obovata) and the Norway spruce go as far east as the Lena. On the whole, however, the forest of east differs from that of west Siberia maMly in less luxuriant growth. Undergrowth is not so frequent, and the hilly nature of the country gives fewer areas of marshy taiga. Furthermore, the poor rainfall and the cold dry wmds during the long severe wmter do not favour tree growth. The forests on the whole are open and low. Along the river banks, however, and m more sheltered places the trees grow taller and thicker. In the upper Lena basm the forests are more of the western type, and the Scots pme and the Siberian larch grow to a large size. The Amur Forests East of Lake Baikal and m the Amur region the vegetation changes. The Transbaikal is a transition region between the eastern and western floras, but among forest trees all the widespread species of the northern taiga are found. In the eastern part foHage trees make their appearance. These are of species different from, though aMed to, those which occur M the northern forests of Russia, the oak, the elm, and charac teristic species of the hazel and wild apple. Bushes that are typical of MongoHa also make their appearance. In the Amur region the divergence of the vegetation from that of eastern Siberia M general is more pronounced. The flora is characterized by a great variety of forms and by the luxuriance of some species. Plants which are typical of China and Japan occur, and even representatives of the North American flora. In the northern part of the basin the forests are like those of eastern Siberia M general, but different species appear, until nearer the Amur the forests have an entirely different appearance, owmg largely to the presence of many deciduous trees. The eastern larch, the Siberian fir, the Siberian spruce, the Scots pine, and the yew occur as well 48 VEGETATION as another species of spruce, the ayan pitch pine (Picea ayanensis), and the white cedar or^Manchu pine (Pinus mand- shurica), which replaces the Pinus cembra of the north and west. Among deciduous trees are the oak, elm, lime, maple, walnut, ash, aspen, willow, hornbeam, and apple, all of distinct eastern species, and the cork tree (Phellodendron amurense). In the upper and middle Amur regions deciduous woods are commoner than coniferous woods along the river, and wide meadows of natural grass land often occur, but m the lower Amur region coniferous forests again prevail. The Sikhota AHn Range and the Maritime Provmce generally are also forested. In the north the forests are mamly of larch, Siberian fir, and white cedar, but in the south deciduous trees are more common, and the oak as well as the Siberian cedar are the characteristic species. These forests are typical of the Ussuri region. The Pacific Forests • The northern taiga continues to the shores of the Okhotsk Sea, and occurs in Kamchatka and SakhaHn. The eastern larch (Larix daurica) is the prevaiHng species, but the Siberian fir and Siberian cedar are common, mingled with a few birch, alders, and shrubs, Mcluding the clematis, wild rose, and honeysuckle. The herbaceous vegetation is more promment than farther west, and the forests undergo a change in appear ance. The upper limit is at a low altitude, and the trees are dwarfed on account of the strong winds. In the forests of Kamchatka the trees are more widely spaced, and the Siberian fir and the cedar are the commonest species, mixed with wMch are a few deciduous species in- cludmg the birch, alder, and poplar. Some natural meadows occur. SakhaHn, in the south, has forests like Kamchatka : in the north the forests rather resemble those of Okhotsk, the eastern larch being the chief species. ALPINE VEGETATION 49 Alpine Vegetation AlpMe vegetation occurs at varying altitudes on the highest mountams m eastern Siberia. In the Altai it begms at about 6,500 ft. ; in the Sayansk Mountams at about the same altitude, but in the Dzhugdzhur and Stanovoi Mountains and M the Verkhoyansk Mountams at gradually decreasmg altitudes towards the north until it merges into the Arctic tundra. The general aspect of the alpme vegetation is much like that of the tundra except M the absence of swamps. Between the alpme vegetation and the forests lies a belt of rich mountam pasture, comparable with the high pastures of the European Alps and contaimng many of the same species. Wooded Steppes Steppe land is rare in Siberia proper, and occurs in large areas only m the west, where it is found to the south of the taiga. The Ural forests and the Vasuigan swamps give way to the Ishim and Baraba steppes, which extend M a strip about 100 to 200 miles wide from the Ural slopes to the Altai region. These are Mtermediate between the forests to the north and the true steppe lands to the south. Firs gradually disappear and are replaced by birches, aspens, and wiUows, which occur M clumps and along river banks, in a general expanse of rolHng grass lands. In the northern part of the Ishim and Baraba steppes trees are frequent and swamps and urmaiis occur. Southward the swamps are replaced by numerous small lakes, many of which are saline, and trees become less frequent until M about lat. 55° N. true steppe lands begM. The Siberian Railway runs across the Baraba steppes. In the upper Ob basin these steppe lands are wider than to the west, and extend from the railway south to Semipalatinsk and east to Biisk and Kuznetsk. The Ishim and Baraba steppes have a fertile soil consisting largely of black earth (chernozem), a kind of loess, rich in humus, and are the most valuable agricultural region in Siberia. A detached area of wooded steppes lies farther east between AchMsk and Minusinsk. 50 VEGETATION Kirghiz Steppes True steppe lands begin south of the wooded steppe and He outside Siberia proper. They cover the region known generally as the Kirghiz steppes. To the north, bordering the Baraba steppes, are the feather-grass steppes stretchmg from the Caspian steppe lands of Russia to the Yemsei basm, with a breadth of 200 to 270 miles. Trees are rare, and are repre sented only by a few birches, aspens, willows, alders, ashes, and poplars in the wetter places. Dwarf bushes, many of them thorny, are characteristic, includmg broom, hawthorn, and tamarisk. The herbaceous flora is rich and embraces many flowering plants. Feather grass (Stipa) is characteristic. To the south the climatic conditions peculiar to tMs region become intensified. Rainfall decreases and summer temperatures increase. The change is reflected in the vegetation, wMch assumes a semi-desert appearance as' the steppes become more arid. The steppe lands of western Siberia are chiefly of value for horse and cattle breedmg. On account of the want of rainfall there is little scope for agriculture. Transbaikal Steppes In eastern Siberia natural steppe land is rare, for chmatic conditions are more favourable to the development of forest, but in the Transbaikal region between the south of Lake Baikal and the River Argun there are considerable areas of steppe lands, m general appearance not unHke the mountain pastures of the Altai Mountams. This is best developed in the vaUeys. The higher ground of the Yablonoi and other ranges is covered with forests. These Transbaikal meadow lands are exceUent for agriculture. In the south towards the frontier of Siberia they pass mto the dry steppe lands of Mongolia. CHAPTER IV ANIMAL LIFE, FISHERIES AND HUNTING Animal Life — Fisheries : A. Arctic Russian ; B. Western Siberian ; C. Eastern Siberian — Products of Wild Animals Animal Life The land may be divided into four zones with special geograpMcal characteristics, wMch are differentiated to some extent by their fauna. In the north (1) the Arctic or tundra zone, with ice or remdeer-moss, has its special group of animals ; westward is (2) the taiga belt of coniferous trees, where M the depths of the forest there are not many wild ammals ; it is rather the skirts of the forest and the clearings made by the axe or fire to which animals resort, and m such clearings and at river fords the trapper finds them ; (3) farther south the open steppe has fresh demzens, and finaUy (4) the Mgh mountains of the Altai and Sayansk Ranges introduce a new element. No hard and fast line, however, can be drawn between these belts, and there is considerable overlapping. Special Characteristics of Siberian Fauna Among the characteristics of Siberian fauna are to be noted : (1) The ammals as a rule are of greater size ; some varieties are twice as large as the corresponding breeds in Europe. (2) White predominates, even among domestic ammals : many ammals, Hke the ermine, Arctic fox, and hare, are wMte during the winter months. (3) In excep tional circumstances there are huge migrations. Most famous are those of the lemmings, wMch move in vast armies regard less of natural obstacles, swimmMg estuaries, where they become the prey of kiUer whales or seals, and often plunging mto the sea. d 2 52 ANIMAL LIFE, FISHERIES AND HUNTING Land Mammals There are found m the south the tiger, panther, snow- leopard (Felis irbis), lynx, and two varieties of wild cat. The tiger and snow-leopard do not reside north of Lake Balkhash, or the River Amur, but occasionally stray beyond. The tiger is not infrequently found near CMta and witMn 120 miles of Nikolaevsk, and is often met with in the jungles of Primorsk, in which 120 to 150 are shot or poisoned every year. Tigers gave great trouble during the construction of the Ussuri Rail way. The natives view the tiger with superstition. The tiger is originally a Siberian and MongoHan animal, wMch has only reached India in comparatively recent times ; the Indian tiger has much shorter hair than the northern variety. The lynx is comparatively common m aU mountamous parts of Siberia ; its fur is regarded as very valuable. The panther is found in the Primorsk forests. The steppe-cat is found in the Kirghiz steppes, and there are two varieties of wild cat in the Altai. It may be observed that the domestic Siberian cat is very fine, rivalling the Persian, but the European cHmate does not agree with it. In Tura black cats are speciaUy bred for their fur. The woH is found aU over Siberia ; in the tundra it hunts the remdeer, and on the steppes the roe. The wolf is driven from the reindeer by shouting at it. Often a wooden clapper , is hung round the neck of the leadmg remdeer : it makes a noise as though of a man ehoppmg wood, and keeps the wolves at a distance tfll they have become habituated to the sound. Wolves, when hunting m smaU packs, are not danger ous to human beings. The sohtary wolf is a retiring creature and anxious to avoid observation. In the north it is hunted not merely to protect the remdeer, but because the fur is valuable for caps, mittens, &c. The Alpme wolf is found in the Altai. The fox is found in many species over the whole country. North of lat. 60° is the Arctic fox (Vulpes4agopus), distin guished by its short, blunt ears, long, bushy tail, and very long hair in wmter. In the summer its upper parts are of a ANIMAL LIFE 53 brownish colour ; in the wmter its whole coat turns white. It is found on the continent and on the islands of the Arctic Ocean, but is less common in eastern than m western ISiberia. It is dimimshmg m numbers, owing to the reckless way in which it is trapped. The cubs are trapped in the burrow. AH trappmg of the fox-cub and sale of the cub-skms should be prohibited, nor should it be permitted to catch it when young, for its summer coat is of Httle value. The wmter coat is exceptionally valuable for its downy fur and its colour. One variety of it is the blue fox, so called from its slaty colour, wMch is found chiefly in Arctic Russia and Kamchatka ; it is valuable and scarce ; its colour remains the same throughout the year, but its hair is longer in winter. The red fox of Siberia has a deeper, richer red than our variety, and a much more bushy tail. Its sMn is esteemed, but not so much as that of the blue fox. Another very valuable species is the black or silver fox ( V. argentatus) which has black hair with silver tips. The bulk of the skins exported by the Koryaks are fox skms. In the steppes, ranging from European Russia to the Amur, is. the steppe-fox or corsac, a sort of repre sentative of the Indian species. Foxes are usually MUed with clubs or trapped, so as not to spoil the skin : they are also poisoned with strychmne. The raccoon dog, a native of Chma and Japan, is found in the Amur basM : it is highly valued by the Manchu for its wmter skm : m summer it is eaten. Wild dogs are found M the south up to the snow-Hne. Bears are found tMoughout Siberia. In the n6Vth is found the Polar bear (Ursus maritimus) wherever there are seals, which it hunts either along the beach or on the sea-ice. It arrives on floating ice, and lands on the coast, but does not penetrate far inland, and though known to have gone up the Gulf of Yemsei as far as Tolsti Nos, it generally does not leave the vicMity of sea-ice, for it is reaUy a sea-mammal. Its fur is used for floor-rugs and is very durable. The brown or Kamchatkan bear (Ursus beringianus) is found across the centre of Siberia, wherever there are forests. It is hunted for 54 ANIMAL LIFE, FISHERIES AND HUNTING fur and food. In the southern mountain ranges that adjoin the steppe district and by the Amur is found a black bear, ( Ursus tibetanus) and several other species occur in the south. The bear is sometimes snared, sometimes hunted. Where fish abound, the huntsman waits for him by the rivers. The bear cage is a standing feature of the villages of many tribes, especially of the Goldi and the Gilyaks. The bear takes part in many religious ceremonies (see Chapter V). The group of MusteHdae is of great economic value because of the trade in their furs. Most important of aU is the sable (Mustela zibellina), a variety of marten. Its furs were the great lure Mto Siberia of the Russian trader M the sixteenth century, and for many years were the form in wMch yassak (tribute) was paid. It dishkes the proximity of human habitations and retires more and more to umnhabited parts, and has been seriously diminished in numbers. There are, however, many in Kamchatka. An order was made by the Russian Government that from February 1, 1913, to Octoberl5, 1916, no sables should be kfiled nor sable fur sold tMoughout Siberia. It is a difficult animal to hunt. It possesses a down which is entirely dark and of bluish tinge, and long, soft, glossy, black hair : the finest sable fur is tipped with sHver. The farther north the sable is found the better is its fur, and it varies somewhat in tint in different parts of Siberia. It is found up to lat. 68° N. The best sables are found in the Vitimsk and Olekma regions, and in the neighbourhood of Ner chinsk and the headwaters of the Amgun and Zeya. The Sakhalin sables are of little value. White sable found in the Barguzin region is very rare and valuable. It is hunted in the beginning of winter. The kolonok (Mustela sibirica) is used as a substitute for the sable, especially to provide artists' ' sable ' brushes. At Irbit fair 50,000 skins are sold annually. Other animals of the same type are the marten, of which there are three varieties in the Altai and upper Yenisei, and the cognate, but smaller weasel and polecat. The ermine is Valuable, and is becoming correspondingly rare in some districts : the best ermines come from Ishim and the Baraba ANIMAL LIFE 55 steppe : the sMns are rarely over a foot in length, and they are sold in lots of 40 together, known as 'timbers'. The ermine is usually trapped. The glutton (or wolverine) is a much larger member of the same sub-family. It has powerful teeth, is almost entirely nocturnal in its habits, and is usuaUy active through the winter : it swims streams and ascends rough-barked trees in search of food. It inhabits a belt across the middle of Siberia excluding the extreme north. It is also found in the north of Sakhalin. The glutton is no longer common. The skunk is taken for his fur in large numbers in the south of the Tomsk Government and in the Amur region. The badger is found right across Siberia as far north as lat. 53° N. The otter is found throughout Siberia up to the Arctic Circle and on SakhaHn, but is becoming rare. It is most hunted on the Amur for trade with the Manchu and Chinese, who value its fur highly. The remdeer is most widely spread, being found not only m the northern tundras, but among the Soyots in the Sayansk Mountains, where there is plenty of lichen. The domesticated remdeer has been described elsewhere (see chap. V, p. 103). The wild reindeer is hunted for food in winter ; it is also used for interbreedmg with the domesticated animal. In the north is also found the elk, the largest member of the family : the flesh is edible, the taste resembling some thing between vemson and mutton. Its skm is also valuable ; in many years there are 10,000 elk skins in the market of Yeniseisk. Its importance along the Amur is shown by its name bayu, a Tungus word meaning * the animal '. There are several varieties of the American wapiti (Cervus canadensis) in the south of the country. The number of- wapiti has been greatly diminished by the sale of their horns to the Chinese, and the Russian Government have issued a prohibition which forbids their being shot on the Russian side of the frontier. The wapiti is distinguished by the great size of the fourth tine of the antlers. 56 ANIMAL LIFE, FISHERIES AND HUNTING Closely akin to the wapiti is the maral deer, which is domesticated in the Kirghiz country, the Altai, the middle Amur, and the Ussuri region : it is bred for the sake of its horns, which are sawn off when M the velvet, to produce from them a powder called panty, in high request among the Chinese for medicinal purposes. Western physicians beHeve that it has no medicinal value, but merely quickens the heart's action. It is sold for 30s. a lb. Another member of the family that produces an article of value is the musk-deer (Moschus moschiferus) , which is hunted in the Altai, Sayansk, and Amur regions, and in Sakhalin, for the sake of the musk obtamed from it. It is caught in winter, when the more vigorous climate makes it migrate from its ordinary home to somethmg more accessible to hunters. Its flesh is eaten, its skin used for clothing, and its thin leg bones made mto arrow-heads. The roebuck is represented by two species, Capreoluspygargus in the upper Yemsei and Altai region, and C. manchuricus, which migrates from Manchuria Mto the Amur region m spring. It supplies abundant food. The sMn and horns are sold to the Chinese. Other members of the famfiy found M Siberia, are the common stag, rock-deer, spotted deer, and siku. The last named is found in the island of Askold near Vladivostock. There are several kmds of big-horn, but the Ovis poli of the Pamirs, which is sometimes said to be found m the Tienshan, is never really found so far north. The real 0. ammon, or argali, is found in the Altai ; its wrinkled horns curl so much that they often make more than a complete circle. It lives amid the forest on mountains between 3,000 and 4,000 ft. ' high, and is difficult to secure. Its cMef enemy, the wolf, hunts it to the neighbourhood of its lair, so that the young may have a share. Travellers who refer to argali among the lower heights of the KirgMz region probably mean O. sairensis or some closely allied species . Between the Lena and Indigirka 0. borealis occurs, and m Kamchatka 0. nivicola. The saiga antelope (Saiga tatarica) extends as far east as long. 92° E., and another species is found in the Primorsk region. A gazelle ANIMAL LIFE 57 (Gazella gutturosa) is found m the steppes near Kosh-Agach: it is usuaUy M colour of a light fawn, with white limbs, cheeks, underparts, sides, and rump ; its tail is short, with a brown tip, and it has no dark face-markmgs, Hke most gazeUes. Among the Altai there are a large but rapidly dimmisMng number of ibex (Capra sibirica), graduaUy bemg driven mto the more remote vaUeys. It has very long horns, which are sold to the Chinese for the same purpose as those of the maral. The Kalmuks are very wasteful M hunting, and uMess checked wUL exterminate the game of their region There are wUd oxen and wUd goats among the Sayansk Mountams. The musk ox (Ovibos moscatus) is rare, if not extinct, in Siberia. It has been reported from SakhalM. The pricMy hog is found m the southern portion of the steppe region and the steppe lands of the east. The wild boar occurs in the east mostly m Transbaikal and the Amur region. The wfid ass (kulan) is found upon the KirgMz steppe : farther south, but outside the Hmits of tMs book, is found the famous PrezhevalsM horse. There are numerous species of rodents. Most important from the commercial pomt of view are the squirrels, the sale of whose skms is enormous : oMy the skins of Russian and Siberian squirrels are marketable. They are used for a great variety of articles, such as gloves, hoods, and carriage-aprons. The squirrels are of various colours, of which the black are most esteemed. Black squirrels eat mushrooms, brown squirrels cedar-cones, red squirrels hazel-nuts. Squirrels are found throughout south Siberia, especiaUy in the forests, but there are none M Kamchatka. Besides the common squirrel there are to be found striped squirrels and flymg squirrels. In the centre of Siberia the squirrel is much hunted. In the Transbaikal Province tMee million are Mlled annually. Squirrels are usually shot with guns having a small bore, and with bullets the size of a pea, so as to injure the skm as little as possible. The marmot found in the south, though 58 ANIMAL LIFE, FISHERIES AND HUNTING much more frequently beyond the frontier, is of commercial value, because of the export of its skM to Europe, where it is sold as imitation sable. A variety of the marmot is the tarabagan, wMch is common in Transbaikal. Related to the marmot is the bobac (Arctomys bobac) wMch lives in the plains and stony Mil lands, and the suslik, alike the friend and enemy of man, the former by reason of its flesh, wMch is esteemed a dehcacy by the dwellers in the steppes, and the latter because its energetic burrowmgs make it a pest to agriculturists. It has been found speciaUy mjurious along the Lena. It is sometimes called the pouched marmot, because of its big cheek-pouches. Both it and the lemming (Lemmus obensis) store their food in winter. The lemming is said to protect its food against the depredations of other animals by covering it with poisonous plants. In eastern Siberia the Kamchadals remove the creature's store of gram and roots, but replace it with caviar or remains of fish, so that a regular trade is instituted between man and beast. The migrations of the lemming have been aHeady noted (p. 51). The beaver is only found west of the River Yenisei, m the streams of north and mid-Siberia ; but it has grown very rare, and at the present time has almost disappeared. It has a commercial value not only for its skin, but for the castoreum (beaver's cod) obtamed from it. The ush-kan, or Siberian hare, is spread over the country : it is grey in the summer and wMte during the winter, and has very long hair. About 1,000,000 or 1,200,000 skms are sold a year, half of them at Irbit. The Siberian peasants neglect it as a means of food, and oMy unwillingly' eat its flesh. The polar pika hare comes as far south as lat. 47° N. Other rodents are the vole, hamster (west of the Ob), jerboa (south of the Steppes), and hairy- nosed porcupine (at greater altitudes). The rat is a great pest, but its activities are somewhat restricted by building store houses on poles. Sea-mammals The sea-mammals of Arctic Russia and western Siberia are not nearly so important as in eastern Siberia. The seals \ ANIMAL LIFE 59 found are the true seals (Phocidae), in both west and east, but the sea-bears or fur-seals (Otaridae) only occur in the east. True seals have a great commercial value by reason of their hides, their blubber, and the oil produced from their fat. But they are extremely destructive of the fish : in many places where the seal appears, the fisherman abandons his occupation, knowing that his task is useless On the arrival of the hozhya (' leather :) as he calls him. In places like the Kola Peninsula they ought to be kept down much more energetically, for the protection of the fisMng Mdustry. At Ponoi the seal-hunting in March and April is very profitable. In the Kara Sea there are no seals ; so that region is without attraction for polar bears. Seals ascend the Amur as far as Eri M about lat. 51° N. In Lake Baikal and up the Selenga is found a distinct species, P. baicalensis, which is hunted for its skin. The fur seal (Otaria ursina) occurs in great numbers in parts of the northern Pacific, including the Commander Islands, Robben Island, and the Pribilov Islands ; there at the end of May or early in June the males arrive : then about the middle of June arrive the females, and give birth to their young. The pups are black when born, but in August have a fresh coat of grey fur. The promiscuous kiUing of fur seals when in caH out at sea led to the protracted disputes in connexion with the Bering Sea arbitration. The sea lion (0. Stelleri) visits the Pacific coasts in autumn. No fur seals occur in the Arctic Ocean. The walrus is found in the islands of the Arctic Ocean, and at various points west of the Lena (between which and the Bering Strait it is never found), e.g. Ponoi and the Kara Sea. It no longer occurs in the Sea of Okhotsk. It is differentiated from fur-seals by the absence of external ears, by the structure of the teeth, including the presence of tusks, and by its more substantial build. It is hunted for the sake of its blubber, its hide, from which are manufactured harness and sole leather, and its tusks, the ivory of which, however, is far less valuable than elephant ivory. Its breedmg season is from April to June. 60 ANIMAL LIFE, FISHERIES AND HUNTING The chase of the bowhead or right whale has decayed in the Sea of Okhotsk and Bering Sea. The firmer whale (Balaepoptera) is found along the coasts of Arctic Russia and eastern Siberia. The whale ' fisheries ' of Finmark are active, but those of the Kola Penmsula are feeble. There were two for a time at Port Vladimir and Ara Bay, but they closed for lack of capital. During their short period of activity they kUled 300 whales. A weU-developed whale fishery might do great busmess, but it might have to face the antipathy of fishermen in other parts of the coast on the same grounds as those on which the Norwegian fishermen attacked the whalers. These reasons were, first, the whales were thought to drive away the Greenland seal wMch preys on fish, and secondly because whales feed on capelan, a kind of salmon which pursues the cod Mshore, so that the destruction of whales reduces the number of cod. The beluga or'wMte whale (Delphinapterus leucas) is found in these waters. Its skin is cut into broad strips and sold to the Samoyedes and Yuraks for reindeer harness. Birds There are said to be 285 species of birds in the whole of Siberia, few of wMch are unknown in Europe. The cMef lme of demarcation of species is thought to be the watershed between the Yemsei and Lena, but so much of the country east of that boundary is unexplored that it is difficult to bo very precise on the subject. Seebohm, M Ms book The Birds of Siberia, has given a great deal of information about the birds of Arctic Russia and the vaUey of the Yemsei. The Arctic zone has few permanent residents : only the ptarmigan, snow-bunting, raven, snow-owl, and Icelandic falcon are found there always, but with the return of summer the tundra becomes full of bird-life, and it is the breedmg- place of a vast variety of birds from the beginning of May. They are bountifully provided by nature with berries that have been frozen throughout the wmter, and with swarm3 of mosquitoes. The commonest of these summer visitants ANIMAL LIFE 61 seemed to Seebohm to be the Asiatic golden plover. But few birds stay longer than the beginning of wMter, when they migrate to the belt of coniferous taiga further south. Edible birds. — It is difficult to say what a native of Siberia wiU or wiU not eat, and it is probable that his taste in the flesh of birds is as cathoHc as in other forms of food. It is enough, therefore, to mention the most important of the birds that can be eaten. Duck of various Mnds, including a long-taUed species, are common over all Siberia, especiaUy m the lake district north of the Kirghiz and Baraba steppes ; around Narim they assemble at different lakes : they are frightened from one to another, their way being netted m advance. They are thus' caught and then killed by having their necks bitten through. They are found in great numbers along the lower course of aU the Siberian rivers. Geese are found m multitudes as far north as the mouth of the Yemsei. The goose faUs an easy prey in the moulting season, when it cannot fly. Among other edible birds are ptarmigan, wiUow-grouse or kuropatka, swans, hazelgrouse, pronounced as especiaUy deHcate eating, caper cailzie, blackcock, partridge, and hedthcock. In the neigh bourhood of Biisk and Novo-Nikolaevsk, woodcock, hazelhen (or ryabchik), and quails are common from May to the end of August, and during the thresMng season 5,000 birds, mostly quails, are netted. In hunting the capercailzie a bariring dog is used, which has an irritating effect on the bird ; the hunter then gets in a shot, while its attention is ^distracted. The same practice is adopted in hunting the elk. Birds valuable for plumage. — Most valuable of aU is the eider duck, found along the shores of Arctic Russia, by reason of the down that is obtained from it. But the dweUers along the Pomorski coast are killing off these ducks for the sake of their flesh and pillaging their nests for eggs. Grebes are of economic value : crested grebes used to be shot m great numbers m the TyukaHnsk district in order to make muffs. Magpies, wMch are particularly frequent in the steppe district west of the Ural, are of value for the feathers, which are 62 ANIMAL LIFE, FISHERIES AND HUNTING exported. A thousand are taken annuaUy in the Biisk district. The pigeon for religious reasons is never molested among the Russians. The seaguU enjoys a Hke immunity for the same reason among the Samoyedes. FISHERIES A. Arctic Russian Fisheries Speaking generaUy, there are three main kmds of fisMng on the north coast of Arctic Russia : (1) In the open sea there is fishmg for cod, haddock, flatfish, and woH-fish. (2) Along the coast there is fisMng for herrmg and navaga. (3) Up the rivers there is fisMng for salmon and certam freshwater fish, including also salmon-fishing along the coast. There is some hunting of sea-mammals also along tMs coast. Murman Coast Cod. — The main fishing here is for cod (Gadus morrhua), the year|y average catch being 10,000,000. The fisMng-season is from the end of March till the end of August. As the cod comes from Norway, the fishmg begins on the west coast first and works eastward. It employs the local inhabitants, and about 3,000 men from the districts of Kem and Onega. The cod-fishing is done in smaU saihng boats (shnyaks), wMch are worked by four men and a boy, who has to roU up and dry the nets : this crew is caUed an artel, the name appHed to what corresponds to a trade union m Russia. The men who come from the White Sea are exploited by procruters or factorists, who supply them with their vessel, their tacMe and suppHes for themselves and their famihes, M return for wMch they are entitled to one-third of the catch, but the value of the goods supphed is deducted when accounts are squared, and as the valuer both of these goods and of the fish caught 'is the procruter himseH, the fisherman finds himself more and more in his power. The course of the warm Atlantic waters varies, so that the ARCTIC RUSSIAN FISHERIES 63 voyages are regulated by the existing currents. UsuaUy the fish are at somethmg between seven and twenty mUes from the shore and at a depth of from 120 to 150 fathoms. One way of fishing is with Hnes, 180 fathoms long, but this needs a great deal of muscular exertion, and is not adopted except by poor fishermen. The other and more effective method is to use ' garthns ' or great Mies (yarns), wMch are sometimes five mUes long, made of rope of the thickness of the Httle finger with finer ropes of from 3 ft. 6 m. to 4 ft. 8 in. in length attached to it at intervals of about 2 ft. 4 in. About 5,000 hooks are attached to a yarns, and these are baited with capelan (a smaU oUy fish Hke a smelt), or sand-eels, sandworms, or the inside of crabs . The yarns is lowered to the bottom of the sea and taken up agam after six hours. Over 1,200,000 hooks are used each year on the Murman coast. Other fish caught on tMs coast are turbot (Rhombus maximus) , haddock (Gadus aeglefinus), coal-fish or saith (Gadus virens), wolf-fish (Anarrhichas lupus), flat-fish (Pleuronectidae), comber or sea-perch (Serranus cabrilla), eelpout (Lota vulgaris). The herrmg -fishMg on this coast is practicaUy disregarded, though herrings are numerous. The GreeMand shark is the inveterate foe of the whale, and whales have been captured wMch show traces of combat with this relentless enemy. Sharks come in pursuit of cod, and can be caught with a line on the Murman coast, but despite the value of shark-liver and the oil extracted to adulterate cod-liver oil, the fishing is only casual, and not properly developed. From those sharks whose sMn is not too rough is made shagreen for smoothing or polishing wood. The shark is never eaten, on the ground that it is a great eater of human flesh itself ; and it is an enemy to the fisherman, because it despoils his yarns. At certain places on the west coast of the Murman are fat-melting works for the fat of sharks and stock-fish. Prices of fish. — The price per pud of fish on the Murman M the last decade of the nmeteenth century was as foUows : cod lOd. to 2s. Id., haddock 2\d. to 10d., wolf -fish 3fd. to 8fd., coal-fish 2%d. to l\d., turbot 2s. 3d. to 2s. Qd. The prices for 64 ANIMAL LIFE, FISHERIES AND HUNTING fish products were cod-Hver Is. 3d. to 2s. Qd., shark -Hver, haddock-liver, and coal-fish-Hver \0d. to Is. 5%d. Another fish product is the fish-guano made of the discarded portions of fish, especiaUy torn and dried fish -heads. The total value of the Murman fishery in 1897 was £48,158. Winter employment of fishermen. — An auxUiary trade for the fisherman to carry on during winter is carpentering, e. g. they manufacture the wooden packing-cases M which the fish are exported, and find it very remunerative. There are government salt depots along this coast. White Sea The maM fishing is for salmon, herring, and navaga, wMch is done m home waters, and is more especiaUy the work of the old men, women, and chUdren, wMle the more enterprismg and active men do deep-sea fishmg for cod or go seal-hunting, starting out for these employments early M the spring. Salmon. — The salmon-fisMng lasts from the middle of May till the beginning of November, but the best salmon are caught in August and September when the salmon come up the rivers to spawn. The fishmg is done at the estuaries of the bigger rivers by means of dragnets, trammel-nets, &c. Higher up the rivers it is done by zakots or weir traps : close to Kem is a zabor (a sort of fence trap) made of logs embedded in the bottom, in which a large net (morda) is inserted. Salmon of large size (about 22 lb.) are thus caught. The spring-catch is for local consumption, the fish caught early m the year having less taste than the others ; the autumn catch is sold to dealers. Herring are caught along the PomorsM coast mostly from the end of June till October, but the fisMng continues in winter. To the north-west of Kem the best fisheries are Kan dalaksha, Keret, Kovda, and Knyaz Bay, from which about 25,000,000 fish are obtained in the year. The fish are salted and sMpped to Arkhangel in barrels of 27 lbs., but these are so badly put together that the fish deteriorates and only realizes a low price. To the south-east of Kem the principal ARCTIC RUSSIAN FISHERIES 65 fisheries are Soroka, SMzhnaya (from each of which the annual catch is about 5,000,000), Sukhona volok (with an annual catch of 2,000,000), Virma with an annual catch of 1,500,000), and Sumski (with an annual catch of 1,000,000). The herring is caught with poke-nets, sweep or drag-nets, &c. The whole catch is sold on the spot to dealers, the fish being either frozen or smoked. The usual price is Is. to 3s. per 1,000. A fish loses its value if it is frozen and then salted ; so the winter- catch is eaten fresh. In the neighbourhood of Sumski there are several smoke-drying sheds, in which 5,000,000 herrings are annually smoked. Navaga. — The navaga (Gadus navaga) is a fish aMed to the cod. The season for fishing is from November to January, and it is done tMough holes in the ice. It is so easy that it is an occupation usuaUy left to the children. The navaga is caught cMefly by the mhabitants of Kolezhma, Sumski, Shuya, and Nyukhcha. Those caught at the first two are about twice the size of those caught at Shuya, and aiverage about 1 lb. 14 oz. A load of good navaga, consisting of about 4,000, costs from 16s. to £2. In February the navaga, having spawned, becomes lank and tasteless : m March it migrates. Other WMte Sea fish are cod, flat-fish, woH-fish, gwymad (Coregonus lavaretus), but these are not an object of export- trade, but are oMy for local consumption. There are two fish also, the lumpsucker (Cyclopterus lumpus) and father lasher (Coitus scorpius), which are not eaten by the inhabitants, but dried and given as food to the cattle. The KareHans, especiaUy at Pongamskaya and Keret, hurit marine ammals. Gulf of Mezen to Kara Sea The fishmg along tMs coast is of much less importance. The mdustry is almost entirely in the hands of the Samoyedes. Owmg to the absence of markets they deliver their catch to monopolists. The Russian dealers supply tackle, &c. to the natives, whom they orgamze m small groups on a system that closely resembles that of the procruters with the Pomors. 66 ANIMAL LIFE, FISHERIES AND HUNTING Marine ammals are hunted, when they are brought down on floating ice by the northerly winds : among these are the walrus, GreeMand seal, sea-hare (Phoca leporina), and white whale (Delphinapterus leucas). The seal blubber is sent to Arkhangel, thence to Russian and foreign markets. Along the Gulf of Mezen during August and September there is fishing for salmon and nyelma, and in November and December for navaga. The waters round Kamn Penmsula and KolgueV Island were for a long time untouched, despite their vast supply of cod and flat-fish, but lately very large plaice have been caught by British trawlers and other foreign boats. About a hundred steam trawlers in these waters make an aggregate haul of 40,000 tons, chiefly plaice. Lake and River Fish In 1897 there were caught 1,192 tons of lake and river fish, valued at £13,112. The chief districts m which they were caught were Pechora, Kem, and Kola, the best salmon being found in the Northern Dvina, Onega, Mezen, Pechora, and Varzuga. In Lake Imandra M the Kola Penmsula Engelhard caught salmon, graylmg (Coregonus thymallus), gwymad, trout, and salmon-trout. The nyelma (Coregonus leucichthys), a salmon with wMte flesh, is found m these lakes and rivers. In the Pechora are found the peliad (Coregonus peled), the omul (C. omul), a salmon with wMte flesh, of primary importance farther east, and the chir (C. nasutus). The Coregonus is the characteristic salmon of the Arctic Ocean, as the Oncorhynchus is of the Pacific. In the Dvma is the sterlet (Acipenser ruthenus), a smaUer member of the sturgeon tribe and the one wMch penetrates Mghest up the rivers. B. Western Siberian Fisheries The Ob Basin The basm of the Ob constitutes the whole of western Siberia, and all the fisMng centres are either along its waters WESTERN SIBERIAN FISHERIES 67 or along those of its confluents or the lakes from wMch its waters are fed. The chief are on the lower waters of the Ob and Irtish, on Lake Zaisan and the upper Irtish, and on Lake Chani near Kainsk, the fishery of wMch is stimulated by the immediate contiguity of the Siberian RaUway. There are other places where there is fisMng, as in Lake Marka-Kul and the lakes of the KirgMz steppes, but in these it is a secondary and subordinate occupation of the inhabitants. In the Ob 42 species of fish are known, the most abundant families being the Cyprinidae with 15 species, and the Salmonidae with 12 ; among others are three species of sturgeon (the sterlet, the sturio, and the ossetr), two of perch, two of cod, and pike is extraordinarily abundant. There are but slight differences between the fish of the Ob and the Irtish. Regions of the Ob basin. — Varpakhov divides the Ob basin into tMee regions — lower, middle, and upper — differentiated to some extent by their species of fish. The first region mcludes the Ob estuary and extends as far as Berezov. The characteristic conditions of the region are masses of water with a very slow current or stationary, and abundance of ' sands ', i. e. stretches of clear water with sandy • or rocky bottoms. The chief fish of this part are chub, navaga, seld (C. merki), a member of the salmon tribe with wMte flesh, salmon, pidchian (or sig), chir, muksun, a broad fish with large bright scales and smaU head, sturgeon, pike, roach, gremille, pehad, and eelpout, some of these being common to the whole river. The second region extends from Berezov to about lat. 54° N., up both the Ob and the Irtish and their tributaries, comciding approximately with the wooded territory. The type of fish found especiaUy m this region demonstrates the abundance of lake and marsh, e.g. crucian carp, tench, sterlet, and other fish. Salmon and muksun are found in great numbers here as well. In the third or upper region which extends from lat. 54° N. to the sources of the Ob and its confluents the characteristic fish include trout, grayling, seld, Gobio fiuviatilis , and taimen(Salmo E 2 68 ANIMAL LIFE, FISHERIES AND HUNTING fluviatilis) which gives its name to many villages. The nyelma, a very popular fish in Siberia, is the commonest in the whole river. Of course there are no very marked boundaries between these tMee zones : sometimes, for instance, sterlet, which is characteristic of the central region, descends to the. Ob estuary, or graylmg, a typical fish of the mountam streams, is found in the tributaries of the lower Ob. Some fish may be regarded as local, wMch always mhabit the river, while others, wMch are migrants, visit it from the Gulf of Ob or cross from one locahty to another. Migration of fish. — The movement of great masses of fish takes place everywhere after the ice breaks, especiaUy about the middle of May. These movements do not take place simultaneously with the various kinds of fish. The first arrival is the peliad, foUowed in order by the muksun, the nyelma, the pidchian, the chir, the sturgeon, the eelpout, and last of all the seld. They ascend slowly, making about 40 nines a day. Many of them (the muksun, nyelma, and pehad) make for the sori (shaUow backwaters wMch dry up m hot weather), and then when in early autumn there is later abun dance of water they move up the river and spawn M its higher waters and in those of its upper tributaries. Others, such as the pidchian and chir, spawn m the lower Ob, and the seld only comes mto the lower Ob and its tributaries. The sterlet spawns m flooded meadows. The sturgeon goes up to the upper Ob and spawns on the way : m the autumn some sturgeons remain M the river, but more go down to the sea where they are caught M great numbers by the natives in the Gulf of Taz. Sometimes the grampus or kiUer- whale arrives in the lower Ob : its appearance is the signal for the fish to leave the river and go up the backwaters, where an occasional grampus wiU follow them. The Zamor. — There is one special phenomenon of the Ob that deserves attention, as it has a great influence upon the fishing. It is caUed the dur or zamor, or ' the dying of the water'. In December and January the accumulation of protoxide of iron brought down by the tributaries of the lower WESTERN SIBERIAN FISHERIES 69 Ob that flow tMough tundra and marsh, coming over the lower surface of the ice, proves fatal to the existence of aU Hvmg ,tMngs. It gives the water an unpleasant taste and smeU. The process goes on unequaUy, first in the shaUow parts, and reaches from the middle of the stream to the shores. In rapid and deep places the zamor does not exist, and the fish do not die. The instinct of the fish makes them escape before the zamor can destroy them. Pike, roach, and nalim go mto tributaries where the waters are not so corrupted, sturgeon and sterlet to the mouth of the Ob, and some of the sterlet up the Irtish. The zamor graduaUy extends up and down the river, and by the end of the wMter the central and lower regions of the Ob are lifeless. On the Irtish tMs phenomenon is found up to the viUage of Semeika. The effect upon the fisMng is obvious ; the great mass -movements of the fish towards the sea are obstructed by fish-dams. Instinct forbids retreat up stream, and multitudes of fish are accordingly caught. Methods of capture. — The favourite instrument of capture is caUed gimga. It is Hke the morda of European Russia, but larger. It is made of long thm twigs, on a substructure, which costs at least £100 to erect, so that it is a method oMy witMn the reach of those who are possessed of capital. The fish trying to escape the massive obstructions come to the gaps where the gimga is set, and faU ready victims. The gimga is so close-woven that even quite small fish are caught by it. The number of gimgas at various points of the river differs M accordance with the breadth from 40 to 100. The part where the majority of them is set is between Berezov and Obdorsk ; 500,000 fish are sometimes caught M one day. In the lower course of the Irtish and M the Ob near its estuary instead of gimgas, there are set with the obstructions cherdaks : these are four-cornered sacks made of netting, attached to long poles by means of which they are lowered and raised. These methods are employed in the summer fishing as weU as in winter, and on a smaUer scale by local fishermen when the fish are leaving the sori. A good deal of fishing is done with nets : 70 ANIMAL LIFE, FISHERIES AND muimiinu big nets 4,200 ft. long and 70 ft. high, or haH-nets more simply constructed and of smaller dimensions. These are employed generally on the ' sands ' . In the neighbourhood of Tobolsk there are 120 of these ' sands '. The big traders employ the first Mnd, the half -nets bemg used by those of humbler means. A large amount of ice-fishing is done especiaUy M the reaches of the Irtish between Tobolsk and Semeika (where the zamor stops). The ice is divided Mto sections, and snares armed with hooks are let into the water through the holes that are made M it. In some places 800,000 hooks are let down, but the catch is not great, varying from ten to four hundred puds. The fishing industry. — About 10,000 men take part m the fishmg industry of the Ob. The poorest are the impoverished Samoyedes and Ostyaks, men who have lost their remdeer and taken to fisMng : an epidemic among the remdeer always adds to the number of fishermen. But, with the exception of the Reindeer Samoyedes and a few fur -hunting Ostyaks, aU the mhabitants of the uncultivated north along the Ob are engaged in fishmg. The great centre of the Mdustry is Tobolsk on the Irtish, which is the head-quarters of the six big fishmg firms that erect the largest dams. Every spring, as soon as the ice clears, the summer expedition proceeds down the river from Tobolsk. They give pay on an average of about 30 roubles a month and provide certain supphes : at the begMMng of October they return to Tobolsk. About 1,000,000 puds (15,000 tons) are taken annuaUy, of the value of between £300,000 and £400,000. 50,000 puds are taken annuaUy to Irbit fair M February from the middle Ob. Farther north the winter catch is kept tiU the summer and sold to the summer- fishing expeditions. Fish are transported by sledge, a weight of about 20 puds to each sledge, the transport Mdustry necessi tating the existence of a race of winter-dweUers along the Ob. Sterlets are caught in wmter near Tobolsk, fetching 5-8 roubles the pud in that city. Good sturgeon are caught on the river, weigMng 8 puds and contaming half a pud of caviar . The sturgeons of the Ob are much bigger than those of the Irtish. Pike are sometimes so numerous on the Ob that they WESTERN SIBERIAN FISHERIES 71 are sold for only 12 kopeks, but tMs is not surprising as a company of 50 or 60 can take in one season up to 7,000 puds. 350,000 puds of fish are carried annually on the Siberian Rail way, 200,000 on the Perm-Tyumen Railway. Centres of fishing industry. — Besides on. the Irtish below Tobolsk, and the Ob below the mouth of the Tom, fishing is one of the chief occupations of the population along the Rivers Om, Tom, and Chulim, and higher up it is of importance to a large number of inhabitants of the Altai district, not only on the Ob between Barnaul and Biisk, but on tributaries hke the Kondom in the Kuznetsk district. No statistics are furmshed, but there is a generally prevalent local belief that the fish are on the decrease. On the Ob itself it has been calculated that the fish exported from the different regions are as foUows : Obdorsk 300,000 puds, Berezov 150,000, Samarovskoe 75,000, Surgut 90,000, Narim 90,000. Fish products. — Several canning factories have been erected. Caviar is obtained from the roe, and isinglass from the bladder of the sturgeon. Besides these two important products, the sturgeon is of importance for its fat, dried sturgeon bemg fatter than smoked salmon, and for its spinal cord, wMch is eaten raw or else dried and cut into small pieces and used for baked fishcakes with fish inside and dough outside, whUe it furmshes a constituent m selanka, a soup wMch is the Russian national dish. Poziom is prepared from sterlet, sirok, and muksun : the fish is spht open, freed from bones, salted, dried in the air and shghtly smoked. In summer the fish taken from the Ob are dried and salted, in winter they are frozen. Lake fisheries in Western Siberia Lake Zaisan is the centre of a considerable fishing industry, partly in the hands of Cossacks, partly in the hands of Kirghiz. Carp, trout, nyelma, and sterlet are found, but roach and perch are more numerous. The fisMng begins at the end of April and continues till the end of August. The height of the fishing season is June, after wMch the fish begin to go down 72 ANIMAL LIFE, FlSHEJttiES AND Hui\iiinu the Irtish. Pavlodar on the Irtish is in a district where fishing is very important. Lake Chani. — This lake has the great advantage of bemg served by the Siberian Railway. About 100,000 puds are exported annually. The principal fish are pike and crucian. The River Ural is practicaUy outside the sphere of tMs book, but is important for its protected fishery, especiaUy for the sturgeon. C. Eastern Siberian Fisheries The principal fisheries in eastern Siberia are the lower Yemsei ; Lake Baikal and the rivers that flow mto it ; the Lena and other rivers of the Yakutsk Government ; the Okhotsk and Kamchatka fisheries of the Pacific ; the Amur and its estuary ; and the coast of the Ussuri Province (south west fishery). The Yenisei Basin As an important industry the fishing of the Yemsei is practically concentrated in its lower waters. The fish most sought in these waters are the sturgeon, the sterlet, the nyelma, the omul, the muksun, the seld, the gwymad, the chir, and the sig. Most of these make long migrations up and down the river to spawn ; many sturgeons stay in the deep pools of the river, at any rate during the winter ; they begm to go up the Yenisei when the ice melts, at the end of May or the beginning of June. A good many fish stay in the estuary throughout the winter ; some fish, like the sterlet and chir, keep to the river all the year, and are never found at its mouth. Altogether, about fifteen varieties are caught for the purposes of trade, including the sturgeon, sterlet, muksun, nyelma, and omul. So that the caviar may retain its quality, the sturgeon is often kept alive in floating fish-tanks ; it is said that the omul which migrate are fatter than those which stay in the estuary all the year. The fishing is done partly by Yenisei-Samoyedes, Yuraks, and some Dolgans, Tungus, and Ostyaks, partly by non resident Russians. The work of the natives is exploited by EASTERN SIBERIAN FISHERIES 73 Russian buyers, who, as a rule, do not give money, but goods on credit, a system which leads the fisherman into perpetual debt. The Russians who live along the river fall victims to it as well as the natives. The natives, who own fishing-places, usuaUy let them cheap and act as fishermen. Primitive methods are employed in preparing the fish, with little regard for cleaMiness, so that a rotten smell is a constant accompani ment of fish from the Turukhansk district ; the preparation of caviar is equally primitive. Every year, at the begmnmg of June, boats contaimng the necessities for the season are rowed or towed down the river, reaching Dudinka in about three or four weeks, droppmg fishermen and supplies at the river-stations as they go. The traders buy some of the natives' winter catch, and reach Yemseisk again at the beginnmg of August. After ten days they start on their second voyage, and about the beginning of October the expedition is back again at Yeniseisk with the men and the summer catch. The first voyage only brings back strongly salted fish, the second brings back what is less strongly salted ; some of it is dried. What they cannot carry is often brought by sledge to Krasnoyarsk during the winter. For salting, as on the Ob, steppe salt is used ; the proportion is usually about 180 lb. of salt to 700 lb. of fish. In the rest of the Yemseisk Government the fish trade oMy amounts to about £5,000 a year. About 3,000 puds reach Minusinsk from the upper Yemsei. Lake Bozhe, in the Achinsk region, also produces a certain amount of fish. But most of the fishing is only for local consumption. The fishing in the Yenisei is done principally by seines, with, as a rMe, five men to a net. The big employers of labour usually make combinations of two or three, and have a tug ; they completely control the smaller workers. The rich men have nets of nearly 20,000 ft. in length, but the natives have to be content with much smaller nets. Besides nets, there are also dams of interlaced branches stretched across the river. In the wmter some fish, especially sturgeon, omul, and muksun, are caught under the ice. Hunger and 74 ANIMAL LiiiS, iiSHEJKJiEiS AND liui^niMv* curiosity make them fall at this period ready victims to any bait. Absence of good communications has greatly restricted the fish-industry of the Yenisei. There is no camiing, and the attempt to send frozen fish by rail to Russia has been a failure, despite the demand for such supplies. The present amount exported south annually is about 175,000 puds, including about 155,000 puds of summer-salted fish and 20,000 puds of winter-salted fish, but the market is almost entirely confined to the Yemseisk Government, with Yemseisk and, to a lesser extent, Krasnoyarsk as centres of the trade, though a few of the fish from this region go as far as Tomsk and Irkutsk. The best fish are found a long way north, and it is oMy possible to make one voyage within the year for the summer catch. About 175,000 puds are caught in the Yemsei and the shallow tundra lakes by the local population and used for the needs of themselves and their dogs. The annual value of the Yenisei fisheries, including export fish, is about £80,000. Lake Baikal The Baikal fishing-region includes Lake Baikal itself, the lower reaches of the rivers that feed it, especiaUy the Barguzin, the Selenga, and the Upper Angara, and the lagoon-Hke • lakes along the shores of Lake Baikal, termed sori. The principal fish of these waters are the sturgeon (wMch is found in the Lower Angara and Lake Baikal, and fished for in the latter during the winter through the ice), the omul, the chir, the gwiniad, the graylmg, the roach, the crucian, and the burbot. There is also a mysterious fish, the golomyanka (Comephorus baicalensis), wMch lives oMy in the profoundest depths of this lake, and is about 10£ ins. long. In Lake Baikal there is further a species of seal (Phoca baicalensis). In other parts of the Transbaikal Government are found, besides most of the fish of Lake Baikal, pike, carp, tench, and silurus. In Lake Frolikha, near the north extremity of Lake Baikal and communicating with it by a river of the same name, is a special kind of trout, not known elsewhere (Salmo erythreas). EASTERN SIBERIAN FISHERIES 75 The main fishing in the Baikal fisheries is for the omul, of wMch 500,000 are taken yearly of the value of about £20,000. During the wmter the omul keeps in the deepest waters of the lake ; in the spring it begins to approach the shores and enter the small Mlets along them; towards September it moves in masses to the estuaries, up wMch it goes to spawn ; it ascends the Upper Angara for more than 60 mUes : at tMs period the ' runMng-catch ' is made. Later, when it has spawned, it goes back to the lake, and the ' swimmmg-catch ' takes place. When the lake is frozen, it is caught under the ice by nets let down to a depth of 100 to 150 fathoms. The wmter catch is put on the market frozen, the summer and autumn catch salted. The implements for taMng fish in Lake Baikal greatly vary, nets and ' bagnets ' being used where the fisMng is on a large scale. Bagnettmg is carried out by small companies ; there are also net associations, where each member supplies a settled number of fishing-nets and ropes. Lena and Kolima The Lena and Kolima region is of very little industrial importance owing to the absence of means of communication, but none the less a great deal of fisMng goes on to satisfy the needs of the inhabitants. For most of them fish is the staple food, and has the same importance that gram has for the inhabitants of agricultural districts. The natives eat cMefly small fish. Thus 94 per cent, of the inhabitants of the Yakutsk district are engaged in fisMng, and it is the occupa tion of 92 per cent, m the Kolima district, and 87 per cent, in the Verkhoyansk district, and of 68 per cent, in the Olekminsk district. It is possible that the Kolima fishers will find an outside market for their fish, as since 1911 there has been regular steamer communication with Vladivostok. The amount of the catch of the district, including the adjoM- ing lakes, is estimated at from 4,000 to 5,600 puds. At present the only market for the Lena fishery is the minmg district. 76 ANIMAL LIFE, FISHERIES AND HUNT1JNU The chief fish are sturgeon, sterlet, muksun, nyelma, gwyniad, chir, bass, common gremiUe, dace, pike, and burbot. A great number of herrings are found in the estuaries of both the Lena and the Kolima. Crucian carp is specially common. Fishing is most vigorous on the lower reaches of both rivers. About 25,000 puds are exported annuaUy by steamer from Bulun up the Lena to Yakutsk. The Aldan, with its tributary, the Maya, is also prolific pa. fish. The fishmg on the Kolima is vigorous, so far as the conditions aUow, but the river is frozen for 268 days in the year. The fisMng on that river is mostly done by companies, but, even though clubbmg to gether, they have very insufficient implements. At ninety -nine fishing-stations along its lower waters there were oMy fifteen entire nets in all, the remaimng fishermen contentmg them selves with broken parts. The methods of preparation are as inadequate as the fishing-tackle ; caviar is hardly prepared, and is often tMown away, as the natives do not eat it. Frozen fish is frequently eaten like cheese, cut into thm slices and palled stroganin. The sturgeons are very large, often weighing as much as 200 lb. The coast dwellers hunt for seals, especially in March and April. Okhotsk-Kamchatka This district in the Pacific extends from Udskaya Bay, where the River Uda flows into the sea (in lat. 55° N.) to the mouth of the River Anadir (in lat. 65° N.), taking in the coasts of the peninsula of Kamchatka and of the Commander Islands. It is divided into a western and an eastern section by Cape Lopatka, the southern point of Kamchatka. • In the Pacific the conditions of the industry and the species of fish are entirely changed. Instead of a Russian monopoly there is keen competition with Japan. In fact the Japanese had got the fishing trade almost entirely into their hands, before the Fishing Convention was made in 1907, wMch gave them free rights of fishing, except in certain specified bays and river mouths. Even now a great deal of fishing is under Japanese control, and the market for the fish is largely EASTERN SIBERIAN FISHERIES 77 Japanese. In the western section only one bay (Penzhina Bay) is excluded from the convention ; in the 1,850 miles of coast in the eastern section sixteen bays and gulfs are excluded, but yet in oMy one of these (Avacha Bay) is the industry carried on by Russian enterprise. Several areas have been closed to all fisMng since 1913 in order to conserve the fisheries. These include the mouths of the Ulya, Urak, Okhota, Kukhtiii, Kola, Tau, Yana, Arman, Ola, Yama, Takhyama, Nayakhan, Gizhiga, Tigil, Bolshaya, Osernaya, Kamchatka and other rivers. The fish of the Pacific differ largely from those of the Arctic Ocean and of the rivers that 'flow into it. The charac teristic Salmonidae are not Coregoni, but Oncorhynchi. The principal salmons of the Pacific that ascend the rivers that flow into it are six in number. (1) The chavucha (S. orientalis), confined to Kamchatka and the Sea of Okhotsk, the largest of the tribe, but a fish that has not yet established itself in European markets ; it is a fine fish with good flavour, averages 15 to 20 lb., and is often six feet long. It supplies the best caviar, experiments showing that the best comes from fish over four years old. (2) The goltsi (S. collaris), a Mnd of sea trout, ascends the rivers to the head waters, and returns in the foUowing spring. (3) The keta (Oncorhynchus lagocephalus) or dog-salmon, is the commonest of all in these waters, except in south Kamchatka (where the chavucha is most prevalent) ; it weighs nine or more pounds ; a man can catch 1,000 in a day. It is of inestimable importance to the natives ; its sMn pro vides them with sails, dress, and boots ; it is preserved in various manners, and forms the chief food of the inhabitants of Primorsk ; its caviar, which is of a pale red colour, is now regarded as of value, though previously it was thrown away. The keta is a very timorous fish and avoids clear water : it comes in great shoals. (4) The gorbusha (O. proteus), the humpbacked or Alaskan pink salmon, is less choice : it weighs from four to eight pounds, or occasionally even ten. It is found in all the rivers. (5) The krasnaya (O. lycoodon) or red salmon is smaller than the chavucha and appears a fortnight 78 ANIMAL LIFE, FISHERIES AND HUNTING after it. It weighs eight pounds, and salts better than other species. (6) The kizhucha (0. Sanguinolentus) is most plentiful about the beginning of August. It weighs four or five pounds. Herring and cod, though numerous, are not articles of trade. OMy in Gizhiga and PenzMna Bays, when there is scarcity of salmon, do the inhabitants make use of herrings for themselves and their dogs. Yet they advance on the east coast of Kamchatka, when the ice breaks up, so closely packed that they can be dug out, it is said, with a spade, and towards the beginning of June they almost block certain places like the mouth of the Kukhtui River near Okhotsk. There are a great number of cod also about the Commander Islands, but the natives do not touch cod, and the trade in them is entirely in the hands of Americans, who salt them for Japanese and Chinese consumption. The cod are so numerous that sometimes, when breeding, shoals of cod reach a length of \\ miles and a depth of several feet. There are other fish also, the mikisha (Salmo purpuratus) largely a Kamchatkan fish ; the valek, a fish of Okhotsk ; the korzhukha, a Mnd of smelt, and the uiki (S. socialis), wMch frequent the west coast of Kamchatka, where there are hardly any herrings, but of all these the natives take no stock. Farther north, m Anadir Bay, there are pike, grayling, dorse, and malma, as well as salmon, but, though there has grown up a fishery that aims at commercial value as well as the satisfaction of local needs, it is difficult for it to be exploited properly at that distance. About 350,000 are caught ; the fish goes maMly to Japan, wMch receives two-thirds of the total, amounting to nearly 10,000 tons ; some also goes to Vladivostok and some to Petrograd direct. The inhabitants of Markovo secure about half a mulion red salmon, in addition to the white. The local population makes large stores of dried fish (onkoli) for their own food and that of the dogs. So far as local consumption is concerned, there are two periods of fishing in the year : (1) in spring, when the hungry inhabitants, who have had difficulty in eking out their winter EASTERN SIBERIAN FISHERIES 79 supply, feed themselves; the earliest arrivals being plaice, haddock, and shad, and the western Kamchatkan coast beMg visited before the north coast of Okhotsk ; and (2) the summer fisMng, wMch has to supply the wMter needs of their dogs and themselves ; tMs begins in mid-June in Kam chatka. Commercial fisMng is largely M Japanese hands. For the whole Far East the fisMng-stations are put up to auction every year at Vladivostok by the Department of Domains. The total amount realized m 1913 was £31,419 ; the amount tMee years before was oMy £9,700. The number of Russians that take up the fisMng-stations is increasing ; M 1910 oMy 5 per cent, were taken by them, in 1912 22 per cent. In 1913 there were 148 stations in western Kamchatka, of which oMy 9 were Russian, and 61 in the eastern Kamchatka region, most of which were Japanese. There were also 39 Russian river stations in Kamchatka. There is a strong tendency in Kamchatka to look for better customers than the Japanese, who beat down prices. But the cost of freight makes it ahnost impossible for the fish of tMs region to compete with those of the Amur. Again all labour and supplies have to be brought from Vladivostok. Not oMy is the distance from Japan considerably less, but the workmen are paid less, their food costs less, and they have a large supply of schooners and steamers for handling the fish. The only commumcation between these uninhabited districts and Vladivostok or Niko laevsk is by sea during a short sailing season by the limited steamer service of the Volunteer Fleet, and all nets and material have to be brought a long distance. The Japanese fishermen secure abundant supplies from Hakodate by their own vessels. Canning has been started in Kamchatka with some success ; the work is mostly done by Japanese firms. The chief canneries are on the Osernaya, Bolshaya, Kamchatka, Palana, and Kolpokara rivers. In 1913 the total output of tinned salmon in Kamchatka was 137,314 cases of four dozen lib. tins. The extent of the salmon fishery in Okhotsk and Kam chatka can be realized from the numbers of fish taken in 1913, 80 ANIMAL LIFE, FISHERIES AND HUNTING which were : Okhotsk, 500,000 ; western Kamchatka, 33,500,000 ; eastern Kamchatka, 11,800,000. The herring catch in these districts totaUed about 188,000. Besides this salmon in 1913 there were prepared in Okhotsk 213 tons of caviar, in western Kamchatka 1,134 tons, in eastern Kamchatka 1,034 tons. There are various ways of preparing fish : one, caUed yukola, of a crude nature, is oMy applied to fish intended for the consumption of natives or dogs ; the form of fish- preserve wMch is most exported is caUed balyk. It is exported from Okhotsk to Vladivostok and Yakutsk, and from Petropavlovsk and Ust-Kamchatsk to San Francisco and Vladivostok. Seal Fisheries of Commander Islands One special marine industry is the huntmg of the sea bear or fur seal, wMch supplies ' sealskm '. The centre of tMs, as of the cod mdustry, is the Commander Islands, where the creatures congregate M the summer. In the course of the last twenty-five years they have greatly dimMished owing to immoderate fishing in the open sea. In 1890 no less than 55,435 reached the market, but in 1911 oMy 200. In 1912 a proMbition agamst kUlmg them for the next five years came into force. During tMs period there is every reason to hope that the breed will have been regenerated and restored, especially as huntmg these animals in the open sea has been proMbited by the WasMngton International Commission for fifteen years. With the renascence of the sea bear it is hoped that the Commander Islands will recover in prosperity and population. Amur Fishing districts. — There are tMee fishing districts in this region : (1) Nikolaevsk, the most important, comprises the lower Amur for 200 miles above its mouth, the Amgun, the Amur estuary, about 130 miles of the coast of Sakhalin, and about 860 miles of the coast of the Okhotsk Sea from Udskaya EASTERN SIBERIAN FISHERIES 81 Bay to the Amur estuary. (2) Mariinsk, from Troitskoe to Sofiisk, a reach of about 263 miles, (3) Khabarovsk, above the last district as far as Khabarovsk, a reach of about 107 miles. In the Nikolaevsk district there are three Mnds of fisMng viUages : fish-catching stations, salting stations which buy but do not catch fish, and viUages which do some fishing incidentally. Leaving out of account the many villages in the last category, in 1913 there were 111 fishing stations leased from the Government at a total annual rental of £32,000 and 28fisMng stations leased from the municipality of Nikolaevsk at a total annual rental of £17,000. In the Mariinsk district there were 27 and in the Khabarovsk district 3 commercial fishing stations. In the two latter districts all the stations were Russian. Other stations were given free of charge to certain viUages in order to ensure their food supply. The fisheries of the River Ussuri are entirely in the hands of Cossacks or natives who fish for their own needs with primitive methods. Pronge, lying south of the Amur mouth, used to have an im portant fish trade with Germany. The Volga caviar merchants have a station in this region which was reported to be very successful. Japanese fishing. — Up to 1899 the Japanese invasion so completely monopolized the fisMng industry that hardly any- tMng remained over for the Russian population or Empire ; in that year foreigners were prohibited from fishing in the Amur and its estuary, and Russians were forbidden to use foreign labour. Under these conditions development of the fishing industry became possible, and it has been especially stimulated since the Russo-Japanese War. In 1907 a convention was con cluded with Japan by wMch the Japanese were admitted to the same fishMg rights as the Russians. From tMs converr- tion all rivers and thirty-four bays in the Far East fisheries were exempted, and it is practically in these alone that Russian fishing prospers. In the Amur estuary foreigners are allowed to prepare but not to catch the fish. The chief '¦ buyers in the Amur fishery were originally the Japanese, but they SIBERIA I F 82 ANIMAL LIFE, FISHERIES AND HUNTING have lost their market by trying to force down prices. The catch in 1910 was so good that it enabled the trade to send great quantities to Europe, and the business thus inaugurated has continued. In 1912 the fish trade with Japan from the Maritime Province was practically extinct. Amur fishery. — The conditions of the fishing Mdustry on the Amur have greatly improved. The fact that better prices now obtain ought to stop the excessive fisMng that formerly prevailed, but probably stringent regulations will have to be introduced. In the remoter districts the rule that fish may not be caught witMn two versts of a river mouth is constantly disregarded. A fish hatchery is to be established at Nikolaevsk by the Government, wMch is alive to the danger of the rapid exhaustion of the fisheries under the present method. With a view to encouragmg local consumption the experiment is to be made of giving fish a prominent place in the rations of the troops. The Amur stations are being equipped according to the latest plans with refrigerators, electric-light instaUation, and all processes that make for cleaMiness. Salmon. — The most important fishery is for salmon, and then for sturgeon. Besides the fish specially named there are about fifty varieties of less commercial value. The salmon of the Amur are the keta, which enters the river from the end of June, and the gorbusha, wMch ascends the river at intervalsfrom the middle of August to themiddle of September, often gomg up-stream 1,200 miles. On the lower Amur the average weight of the spring keta is 4 lb., of the autumn keta 9 lb., and of the gorbusha 2£ lb. In 1913 the catch on the lower Amur, exclusive of the Nikolaevsk district, was about 1,340,000 keta. In the Nikolaevsk district the catch was about 18,260,000 keta, and 7,500,000 gorbuslia. In 1913 there were sent 46,031 tons of fish and fish products by rail via Khabarovsk. The trade has become so much stimulated that special storage-houses are to be built at Moscow and Vladivostok. The fish for the Russian market is either frozen or salted, and sent in 25-pud barrels ; for Japan EASTERN SIBERIAN FISHERIES 83 it is dry-salted in the Japanese way, without barrels. There is a rapidly growing trade in salmon-caviar, especiaUy the roe of the keta, which used formerly to be thrown to the dogs, but 3,652 tons of it were in 1912 carried by railway in refrigerators. There is some trade also in train-oil made of fishes' livers, about 10,000 gallons being secured in a^month and a half. There is only one canning factory in this region : in 1913 it turned out about 100,000 tins of salmon, each of 1 lb. Scientific investigation has revealed a good many facts about the Amur salmon. It is a migratory fish, that lives in the sea and ascends the river only at spawning -time. The young fish make their way down to the sea and live there for tiiree or four years, after which they assemble in large shoals, and ascend the river against the current for more than 1,200 miles. In their life as river fish their colour and appearance change. After spawmng they become weakened and are swept down by the current, while so many die of exhaustion that there is a general belief that all fish that enter the river succumb. Sturgeon. — Sturgeon-fishing on the Amur is mainly a winter industry, but there is serious danger of the fish being exter- mmated. The Government have had little success in attempt ing to limit the season from June 15 to the melting of the ice and to prevent the use of drag-nets. FisMng goes on all tMough the year, even during the spawning season. Large specimens are aHeady scarce, the average being from 30 to 40 lb. In winter they are caught by hooks through holes in the ice in large pools. wMch the natives know them to frequent. The consumption is almost entirely local. In 1913 the total catch was 147 tons. The Government imposes a tax of fe£. per lb. The better Mnd is caught in the neighbourhood of Khabarovsk, though the sturgeon is much more plentiful near Nikolaevsk. A certain amount of caviar is shipped to Vladivostok. One special form of sturgeon on the Amur is the kalug, or white sturgeon. F 2 84 ANIMAL LIFE, FISHERIES AND HUNTING Sakhalin The fishing in Sakhalin is losing importance. Here besides the keta and gorbusha, which swarm in August, herring is a common fish ; it is used almost entirely as fish-manure, which is exported to Japan. In 1913, a bad year for herring, the total catch in the fourteen stations in Russian SakhaHn was about 200,000 salmon and 4J miUion herring. About 274 tons of herring manure and an equal amount of salted salmon were exported to Japan. SmaUer quantities of fish and caviar went to Russia. The Gilyaks engage in herring- fishing, when the keta season is over. To the Gilyak fish is the principal form of food. His supply for winter is almost exhausted by December, though there is fisMng for dorse in Baikal Bay during the winter. Then comes a time of great hardship. In April the seals appear, but before their arrival comes the haddock, which is hooked tMough holes in the ice. Then come herring and halibut (Pleuronectes hippoglossus), which sometimes weigh more than 100 lb. Trout (Salmo fario) appears in the rivers, but the next great catch is the ide (Idus melanotus), which is caught by baskets in the rivers. The smelts (Osmerus eperlanus) are so numerous that they are often ladled out of the water. An aUy to the Gilyak fisherman is the grampus or killer -whale, a voracious ammal wMch drives fishes and seals before it up the rivers or on to the coast ; in return for these services the natives give it a friendly reception if they meet it alive, and inter its body with due rites if it is washed ashore. The Gilyak have a special type of weir or dam for catcMng fish ; this, as well as a Japanese weir, is constantly used also on the mainland. The South-west The sea-coast of the Ussuri district of Primorsk is known as the south-west region. It extends from the boundary of Korea to Cape Lazarev at the south of the Amur estuary. In this region seven bays, including Peter the Great and Imperatorskaya Bays, are excluded from the convention. EASTERN SIBERIAN FISHERIES 85 North of Peter the Great Bay the industry is principally in Japanese hands. The reservation of the fishing-rights in this bay for Russians has put an end to Chinese and Korean trade, and the proximity of a good market in Vladivostok has greatly helped Russian industry. Steam-trawling is begimiing in tMs bay, the first trawler being British-built. Fish caught in this way are salted. The cMef fish caught in these waters is herring ; it approaches the shores and enters Peter the Great Bay about the middle of November, comes again through the end of December, January, and the begimiing of February, and pays a final visit in April. The principal herring fisheries, however, are north of Imperatorskaya Bay. Besides the herring, the keta and gorbusha are also obtained. Other fish, like the smelt, flounder, mackerel, and dorse, are of much less economic importance. Counting the three most important fish, the catch M 1913 was about 41,000,000 herring, 658,000 gorbusha, and 138,000 keta. An important fishery is that for trepang (Holothuria edulis), the CMnes'e name for the Golden Horn of Vladivostok, applied to the beche-de-mer or sea-slug. It is found on rocky bottoms along the whole coast of the Primorsk, but is especially common in the neighbourhood of Peter the Great Bay. The Chinese spear or net it. There are two seasons, from the end of March to June and from mid-September to October. The average catch for a fisherman is 120 a day. They weigh about six pounds when dried. In 1913 about 9 tons were exported from Vladivostok. In 1913 about 125 tons of dried crabs went to China and Korea. There is a considerable market for shrimps. Products of Wild Animals Fur Fur is the oldest established trade of Siberia. Originally the lure of the invaders, it was for many years the form in which the subject tribes paid their tribute. Siberia is extremely 86 ANIMAL LIFE, FISHERIES AND HUNTING rich in fur-bearing animals, but with the growth of civiliza tion and the destruction of the forests, they are being driven further and further north, the number of many breeds is being seriously diminished, and rigid restrictions on their capture have to be introduced, if they are to survive. As a rule, the colder the climate, the better is the quality and colour of the coat. The lower the latitude, the less silky is the fur, and the hair is apt to be ' harsh ' in the tropics, lacking in softness and depth. In western Siberia the most important parts for fur-bearing animals are the Berezov, Surgut, Turinsk and Obdorsk districts in Tobolsk, and the Narim district of Tomsk. In certam parts of Tobolsk Government hunting is the cMef occupation of a large section of the population, providing them with the means of existence, e. g. along the Rivers Vakh and Yugan ; for the inhabitants of the valleys of the Rivers Agan and Torum-Yugan it is as important as fisMng, and for those of the lower Ob it often supplements fisMng and remdeer- breeding. In the Narim district of Tomsk it is one of the main industries, as much as fishing, for the Ostyaks, and is an addition to the industries carried on by Russian settlers. In the Kirghiz steppes there is hunting, but it is prMcipaUy for sport ; it is oMy the poor who trade with the proceeds of the chase, though they do secure a certam number of wolves, foxes, and ermines. The chief fur animals found in western Siberia are, in the Tobolsk Government, the squirrel, fox, ermine, and hare, and in the Berezov tundra the Arctic fox ; less common are the kolonok, sable (diminishing greatly in the Turinsk district), brown bear, wolf, and, beyond Obdorsk, the polar bear, on the shores of the Arctic Ocean; in Tomsk, of most importance are the sqmrrel, kolonok, sable (greatly decreasing), fox, ermine, bear, hare, and skunk. In Yeniseisk hunting is the chief occupation in the north, and also in the Turukhansk and Angara districts. -Elsewhere it is only supplementary. The deer, the Arctic fox, the hare and the squirrel are the chief animals. The others are rare PRODUCTS OF WILD ANIMALS 87 and small. In the Irkutsk Province the natives are nearly all trappers. The Kirensk and Verkholensk districts were once well stocked with animals, but they are rapidly declm- ing. Nearly all the fur ammals are found here, the squirrel being the commonest. In Yakutsk hunting is still the principal occupation of nearly all the inhabitants, but the decrease in the game is rapidly making it secondary to fishing. How ever, fur is stiU the basis of barter with the natives. In the Amur and Maritime Provinces hunting is the chief means of livelihood for the natives, but M the Amur Province not for the Cossacks. In the Amur the natives are chiefly occupied with hunting the sable for its fur, while the Russians mamly hunt the roebuck for its leather. A number of valuable ammals are found in the Maritime Province. (For a detailed description of the fur animals, see pp. 52-59.) The great centre of the trade in Siberia is the Irbit fair, though the December fair at Ishim also has importance, especially for the sale of sqMrrels' fur. But besides these big centres there are many smaller fairs arranged at the close of the huntmg season, which is usually the early winter. The huntmg is often done by co-operative groups, who share profits. The fur trader often deals with these people, directly traffickmg in things like tea, sugar, tobacco, gunpowder, and manufactured goods.wMch are Mdispensableto the inhabitants, for the furs wMch they have come to buy. The smaller fairs are losing their importance. But the fur trader is often the agent of a bigger man, and the fur passes from hand to hand tiU it reaches one of the great fairs. The agents of the larger firms, principally German and English, push farther and farther inland. It is difficMt to give accurate figures of the number of animals Mlled, and the amount of fur secured ; we do not know how much is used in local consumption, in manufactur ing clothes for the inhabitants, but the figures of Irbit fair are accurately known, and furnish the best evidence of. the present state of the trade.. Irbit fair takes place from February 8 to March 10. It is supposed that two-thirds of 88 ANIMAL LIFE, FISHERIES AND HUNTING what is for sale there comes from the country west of Lake Baikal. What is not sold at Irbit usually goes on to Nizhne- , Novgorod. A great deal of sable is not sent to Irbit, but direct to Moscow. Now, owing to the restriction on killing sable (mentioned on p. 54), wMch may be contmued, sable appears to a much smaller extent among the sales at Irbit. The most important centre and distributmg point of the fur trade is London, the next most important is Leipzig, near which place, at WeisseMels, there is a gigantic industry in dressing the skins of Russian grey sqmrrels and maMng them into linings. Irbit used to be eighty miles from the railway : the opening of the branch that goes through Irbit and Turinsk from the Perm-Tyumen Railway to the Tavda may do a great deal to recreate the greatness of the Irbit fair by making it more accessible ; but it looks as though the importance of fairs would be lessened, as the traders are more and more maMng their purchases at the place of production and dealing with the trappers on the spot. In 1910 the total sales at Irbit amounted to £729,000 ; in 1912 prices had risen from 15 to 20 per cent., and the total amounted to £833,000 ; m 1917 with a great mcrease M prices the sales totalled £724,160. The sales m 1912 Mcluded 4,535,000 squirrel-skins, 1,500,000 rabbits, 12,250 sables, 200,000 ermines, 1,500 brown bear, 180,000 kolonok, 16,500 grey wolf, 14,000 to 15,000 fox. ' Very fine sable sold for £42 each ; black fox sMns were scarce, and fetched anything from £21 to £105 ; grey wolf sMns were sold from £1 5s. to £3 lis. In 1914 the total value of squirrel-sMns alone was £228,000, but in 1915 there was a great drop in the sale of these to £90,000. In 1916 business was rather slack. The chief fur-sales were as follows : about 3,500 badgers ; 1,500 bears, the price being about £3 4s. 5|d!. per sMn ; 60,000 black cats fetching up to Is. 5\d. per skin ; 10,000 Orenburg marmots ; 1,000 pine martens from £1 12s. 2\d. to £1 18s. 1\d. each ; 500 stone martens, £1 7s. lid; 6,000 mink; large quantities of red fox ; small quantities of Yeniseisk white fox at £3 4s. 6^- ! 7,000 Obdorsk white fox, ranging from £2 5s, to £3 per skin; PRODUCTS OF WILD ANIMALS 89 some Pechora white fox at £2 13s. 8d. ; about 100 silver fox, ranging from £16 2s. to as much as £107 each ; about 4,000 reindeer fawns sold up to 7s. 6d., the same number of summer reindeer sMns sold from 10s. M. to 15s. Q\d. ; only some 3,000 sable, the lowest price being £2 15s. \0d., the highest £8 lis. 2d. ; squirrels were very numerous, and fetched high prices, the best with full tails (3,000,000), realizing from 8s. Id. to 9s. The Chinese bought up most of the dark ones on the spot, and only about 500,000 of them were offered for sale, less valuable types fetcMng lOd. or Is. ; 1,000,000 white hares sold up to Is. \\d. for the best ; about 250,000 white pole-cats from 3s. 5d. to 3s. 9d. ; wolves were much in demand, about 2,000 were sold, fetching £1 18s. Id. The best from Turukhansk sold from £3 0s. Id. to £3 15s. Id. Fur-fairs are held at the confluences of the cMef tributaries of the Amur, at Albazin, for instance, and Blagovyeshchensk. In the Uda district, where the sable is especially good, the fairs are at KMcha on Lake Orel, Burukanskaya on the Tugur, and at the mouth of the Uda. There is an important fur-fair, on a much larger scale than these, at Nikolaevsk. As the natives of this region remove the heads and claws of the bears from religious motives, the bear-skins here are not of much value. In the far North-East the Anyui fair, once of the first importance, has declined considerably, since the Chukchee prefer to barter most of their furs with the Americans on Bering Strait. Only the most valuable furs are sent to the Anyui, as for these Russians give better prices. A number of furs, wakus, and mammoth-tusks now reach Vladivostok by sea from Gizhiga. The Russian traders at the Anyui fair all come from Yakutsk. At one time the Kyakhta fair, where Chinese merchants bought the peltries, was of great importance, but this is now no longer the case. There are many small fairs throughout the north and east. The fur sold at those in the south goes to Yeniseisk and Irkutsk. But the great fur-market of the north is the Yakutsk 90 ANIMAL LIFE, FISHERIES AJMJJ Jiu.iyx.uMur fair, which is held in July. The following table shows the number of skins sold : Price. 1902. 1905. 1913. £ s. d. Sable . 2,640 3,000 . — White fox 8,400 14,000 20,000 (in 1911-12) up to 2 14 0 Fox 844 5,000 Red fox 1,000 Grey fox 100 2 12 1 Kolonok 220 1,000 Ermine . 900 12,000 10,000 5 9 Squirrel . 73,500 300,000 70,000 1 2 Black bear 100 In the average of the total amount of sMns of fur-bearing animals in the international markets, the share of Russia and Siberia is as follows : All Russia. Siberia. 15,500,000 15,000,000 5,250,000 5,000,000 1,100,000 700,000 200,000 150,000 300,000 150,000 8,000 6,000 215,000 70,000 SquirrelsHares . Ermines Kolonok Skunk. Brown bear Sable . A word or two may be added about the last-named ammal. Its numbers had fallen so alarmingly that a law has been passed forbidding its slaughter from February 1, 1913, to October 15, 1916, with a permanent close time from February to October in each year. The Moscow Fur Association has pressed for a renewal of this law for another tMee years. In Kamchatka the danger of the sable becoming extinct was recogmzed some years ago, and reserves were marked out witMn wMch the hunting of sable was proMbited. A recent expedition has staked out two large sable-reserves in the Sayansk district. Sable sMns range from 15 to 20 in. in length, and from 5 to 8 in. in breadth. In gemune sable the outer covering of hair is especially delicate in quality and beautiful in colour, having a riqh blue tint, and varymg from 11 to 2J in. in length, while the pelt is very soft, but PRODUCTS OF WILD ANIMALS 91 durable. In Kamchatka, SakhaHn, the Maritime Province, and the Barguzin district of the Transbaikal the sable holds the first place. It is, indeed, the most valuable of the fur animals. The best black sables come from the Yakutsk Province, notably the Lena district, the lightest and least valuable from the Ob and the Yemsei. The Kamchatka sable is browner than the others. The fur of the kolonok (' Tartar sable '), which is really yeUow, can be dyed so as to resemble sable with such success, that expert judges often cannot tell the difference. Another animal for wMch protection is necessary is the wMte fox. Though it is found tMoughout northern Siberia, it is in great demand for imitatmg the rarer black and silver fox furs, and is rutMessly hunted in consequence. The Indigirka is now the centre of the white fox hunting, the sMns being bought up by the agents of the Ust-Yansk and Yakutsk merchants. In 1911 good skins fetched from 15s. to 30s. there. The squirrel appears in the largest numbers in the fur- markets. The farther north and east the ammal is found, the darker, tMcker, and more valuable is its fur. Next to the squirrel comes the hare. The best squirrels come from the Lena, but the ermines from that region are the least valuable. Tiger-hunting is a regular occupation m winter on the lower Amur. In 1912 fifteen were killed and twelve caught alive. Of these ten were sent to Hamburg for sale. In some years 120 or more are Mlled. The bile, heart, and claws are sold to the Chinese, who make from them a powder, which is supposed to produce courage. Game The export of game is small. In 1909 it was about 1,200 tons, worth £53,000 ; in 1910 about 1,800, worth £73,600. But Siberia abounds in edible birds of many kinds—duck, geese, hazel-hens, ptarmigan, &c. — and the export might be much increased if the business were better organized, and 92 ANIMAL LIFE, FISHERIES AND HUNTING more ice-wagons were supplied on the railways. The prmcipal place for the export of wildfowl in western Siberia is Barnaul. Fossil Ivory The collecting of fossil ivory is a regular Mdustry among the natives of the far north. The mammoth tusks are found principally along the Arctic Ocean. Those near the shore are usuaUy smaller than those Mland. The New Siberia Islands are a favourite hunting-ground, the waves washing the tusks out of the sand-dunes in stormy weather. On the mainland these are most commonly found embedded in the earth banks of the smaUer streams, the spring floods exposmg them to view. The natives make their way to the Arctic Ocean or the adjacent islands with their dog-sledges in AprU, returning in November, when the ice is firm agam. The Yakutsk fair is the cMef market for fossil ivory, wMch is little inferior to ordinary ivory. Nearly twenty tons were taken in 1913, the price at Yakutsk being about £5 10s. for 36 lb. A certain amount is brought to the fairs in the Tobolsk Government. The Chukchee possess beautifM breast- ornaments made of fossil ivory. The flesh of the mammoth is eaten by the natives, apparently without harm to them selves, but Europeans will be loth to follow their example. CHAPTER V NATIVE TRIBES OF SIBERIA AND ARCTIC RUSSIA Classification : I. Palaeo-Siberian Tribes. II. Neo -Siberian Tribes: (i) Finno- Ugrian, (ii) Samoyedic, (iii) Turkic, (iv) Mongolic, (v) Tungusic Classification The inhabitants of Siberia may be considered in three groups, correspondMg to the different periods at wMch the country was settled. (1) The first group are the descendants of the pre-Mstoric inhabitants, who have always existed in the country, or else entered it at an early period of which for Siberia there is practicaUy no knowledge. Such are the Chukchee, the Koryak, the Gilyak, and these are the aboriginal inhabitants. (2) Secondly there are races who settled in Siberia during the great movements of population which took place M Asia from the third to the thirteenth century. Such are the Finno-Ugrian tribes — for Mstance, the Vogul, and perhaps the Samoyedes — who came from the south of the Altai Mountams M the third century ; such the Turiric tribes, Yakuts and Tartars, who came from the regions of the Oxus, perhaps m the eleventh century or earher ; such the Mongols, a people akm to the Turks, coming from the regions of the Himalayas Mto Siberia in the time of the famous Jenghiz Khan, early M the thirteenth century ; such are the Buryats. (3) Thirdly there are the Russian colomsts, who have come more or less continuously into Siberia ever since the notable expedition of the Cossack Yermak, in 1580. The tendency to expand eastward is very distinct in Russian history. With regard to Siberia, Russian historians are fond of comparing the stream of immigrants to a military column, wMch has thrust itseH along a broad belt of territory stretching east and west, from the south of the Ural Moun- 94 NATIVE TRIBES OF SIBERIA tains to the vaUey of the River Amur. The territorial belt thus settled, more densely than any other part of the country, begms on the west, between Verkhoture to the north and Troitsk to the south, and stretches eastwards between Tobolsk and Petropavlovsk ; between the Tara and the Om the belt narrows, broadens a little between Tomsk and the Biya, and, as a compact mass, ends about Nizhne-UdMsk, with the rivers which flow into the Yemsei. In its eastward march from the Urals the column of immigration has tMown off outposts, as it were, wMch form settlements along the Ob, Yenisei, and Lena ; and graduaUy the Amur vaUey is bemg penetrated. By this more or less thickly settled belt of colonization, the native races have been divided Mto a northern and southern portion ; but far the greater number of them lie to the north, along the valleys of the great rivers that flow into the Arqtic Ocean. A few native stocks are said to have disappeared altogether, or to have been absorbed ; some, Hke the GUyaks and Chuk chee, in the far corners of the land, are practicaUy intact ; some, like the Irtish-Ostyaks, have preserved their nationahty even amidst Russians ; some by Mtermarriage have, exercised a greater influence upon the Russians than the Russians have upon them ; this is especially true of the numerous tribes of the Yakuts, whose customs, dress, and even language, have to a great extent been adopted by the immigrants. TMs mixing of Russians with native stocks is commonest on the outskirts of the belt of settlement, along the Yemsei and Lena. It is the converse of what happened, in the Middle Ages, in Russia itself, when native stocks from central Asia invaded the country, and intermarried with and were absorbed by its inhabitants. OMy where the immigrants are com paratively thick in Siberia, do the natives become Russiamzed. In this way new types have arisen in Siberia ; in addition to pure native stocks, there are native stocks infused with Russian elements, stocks whose dominant element is Russian, but who have been distinctly affected by native elements ; and finaUy there are the pure Russians, who, from Hving in CLASSIFICATION 95 the novel conditions of life, social and geographical, of Siberia, have themselves become a new type, different from the western Russian. It is difficult to make a satisfactory classification of the tribes of Siberia. The name, Palaeasiasts or, better, Palaeo- Siberians, has been applied to those indigenous stocks, wMch bear no clear relation to the other races that inhabit the world, but their own mutual relations are very indeterminate. To the rest, sometimes called loosely the Ural-Altaic stock, is given the name of Neo-Siberians. The word Mongolian is used too loosely for the purposes of scientific classification, sometimes so as to cover all the yellow races, including the Palaeo-Siberian tribes ; at other times for the Ural-Altaic stock, so as to include together Finns, Tartars and Turks ; again at other times, and more accurately, it is applied to one branch of tMs stock, i. e. that of wMch the Kalmuks and Buryats are members. Palaeo-Siberians. — To the Palaeo-Siberians can be assigned without further defiMtion of their relations to one another the foIlowMg not very numerous tribes : Chukchee, Koryak, Kam- chadal, GUyak, YukagMr with their branch the Chuvanzi, Ostyak of Yemsei ; outside Siberia are the Ainu, Aleut, of whom some live in the Commander Islands, and Eskimo, of whom a small number have returned to Asia. Neo-Siberians. — The Neo-Siberians can be divided into five fairly clear branches : (1) the Finno-Ugrian, which is practi cally confined to western Siberia and Europe ; (2) the Samo- yedic, which extends along the north coast beyond the Yenisei, and has one branch, the Soyots, among the Sayansk Moun tains ; (3) the Turkic ; (4) the Mongolic, whose great repre sentative is the Buryat ; and (5) the Tungusic, which includes the Manchu and many of the tribes of northern Manchuria. Altogether the number of these natives in Siberia is roughly a million. Many of the tribes are dying out ; few only, like the Yakuts and Buryats, are increasing in numbers and have set their impress upon the Russians who have settled among them. 96 NATIVE TRIBES OF SIBERIA In the more barren parts for instance among the marshes of the Irtish, or in the regions towards the Arctic Ocean, where there is little or no scope for agriculture, and where huntmg and fisMng are almost the oMy occupations, the number of natives is not Mcreasmg. But M the more fertUe parts of the country, M the best parts of the river-vaUeys, in the middle and south, the native stocks do tend to Mcrease. It is in these parts also that the process of Russification is most clearly taMng place. GeneraUy speaMng, it may be said that the annual number of births among the natives is satis factory; diminution in their numbers comes from a dispro portionately Mgh death-rate, particularly among infants. Nominally most of the natives are Christian, and belong. to the Orthodox Greek Church. But the old superstitions and the old gods to a great extent prevaU among them, wMle the more outlying tribes have hardly been touched by CMistiamty at aU. They stiU have their images, magic, and medicme- men, their sacrifices, and their taboos ; polygamy and loose morality are not uncommon ; in places, even slavery exists ; the blood-feud is handed on from generation to generation. Amid cold and dirt, they five fives which to the western mind appear to be of unrefieved discomfort, brihgMg with it painful diseases, unreHeved by any medical help, and oMy aggravated by the brandy for wMch they greedily offer their wares. I. The Palaeo-Siberian Tribes Chukchee Territory.— -The Chukchee territory proper lies east of Chaun Bay and north of the Anadir. But now, owing to their growing herds, the Chukchee have spread even as far as the Indigirka inthe west, over the AnyM to the Omolon, and to the River Opuka and the Polpol Mountains on the Pacific. The few who reached Kamchatka have been largely assimilated by the Koryaks (see p. 106). Their territory consists chiefly of tundra with a fringe of forest, the camps lying mostly along the rivers, which are separated by bare watersheds. In CHUKCHEE 97 autumn they seek the edge of the forest for shelter, in summer the hills near a small glacier, or preferably the open tundra. A camp wanders about 100-150 miles, following the same track each year. If the ground proves unsatisfactory, another may be chosen, so long as it is not already occupied. It is worth noting that by entering the Anyui and Omolon territory the Chukchee have put an end to the migrations of the wild reindeer between the Omolon and Chaun Bay. Hence the Yukaghir (see p. 113), who live almost entirely upon them, are rapidly dying out. The villages of the Maritime Chukchee stretch from Cape Erri to Anadir Bay, except for a few Eskimo settlements. Name. — The word ' Chukchee ' is generally derived from , cau'cu (rich in reindeer). It is the name by which the Reindeer Chukchee distinguish themselves from the Reindeer Koryak or the Maritime Chukchee. But both Reindeer and Maritime Chukchee call themselves li'i-yi-lulit (those of gemiine language) as distinct from other tribes. Language. — The Chukchee language is very similar to that of the Koryak. Though rich in words and pliant, it is less vital than Koryak and it has virtually no dialects. The similarity of the Chukchee language, as of their stature and features, to those of the Indians on the other side of Bering Strait is said to be noteworthy. The dominant position of the Chukchee is shown by the way in wMch they force other tribes and even the Russians to speak their language. Even on the Kolima and the Anadir they speak very little Russian. Numbers. — The Chukchee probably number about 12,000. The greater part are reindeer-breeders, who inhabit some 650 camps. Thanks to their success with their herds they are increasing steadily and are the most powerful tribe in the east of Siberia. Relations with the Russians. — Since the failure of their attempts to subdue the Chukchee in the eighteenth century, the Russians have left them virtually independent and the relations between them have been, on the whole, excellent, 98 THE PALAEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES Many parts of the peninsula have never been visited by a Russian. The power of the Chukchee chief whom the Russians recog nize is barely nominal. Since 1889 a tribute of 247 roubles is paid by the Chukchee at the Anyui fair, but most of it comes from wealthy reindeer-breeders, and apparently the Russians are again obliged to give very substantial presents to secure it, now that the fair is so rapidly decfining. Tribal divisions. — There are two great divisions of the tribe, Reindeer Chukchee and Maritime Chukchee. There is considerable evidence, apart from tradition, to show that the Chukchee were at one time entirely a maritime people which only turned its attention to reindeer-breeding by degrees. Their folk-tales are generally of the sea and the dog figures more largely in their religiousdife than the reindeer, though it has long ceased to be used by the Reindeer Chukchee for driving and is kept chiefly for religious reasons. Some of their stories point to their having migrated from the south, as do their names "of the months. The process of transforma tion is still going on. Many of the Maritime Chukchee have a few deer in the herds of friends and thus gradually acquire the means of starting as breeders. Even the EsMmo are following their example, for the depredations of American whalers are rendering the livelihood of the Arctic people who live on sea-mammals more and more precarious. Not that reindeer-breeding is without its risks. In a bad winter many owners may lose half their stock. But it is more profitable and more stable, on the whole, and many coast viUages have already ceased to exist. Social organization. — The family is the permanent Chukchee unit, but the camp is the economic unit. It generally consists of a few families, perhaps of ten to fifteen persons in all. Rich people generaUy divide their herds, forming new camps. Permission to join a camp must be granted by its members. Each camp has its master, who is also called ' the strongest man ', and lives in the ' front tent ' . The maritime villages only occasionally have such a master. The commoner unit with CHUKCHEE 99 them is the ' boatful ' of eight rowers and a helmsman who commands, and whose nearest relatives form the crew. The catch is divided among them on a regular system. The ' strong man ' has more influence in the village than in the scattered camp. Murder within the family group is dealt with by the family alone and dangerous or disagreeable members are sometimes done away with. Murder outride the family entails a blood-feud ; for revenge is a duty. A group of Mndred families is called varat (i.e. ' collection of those who are joined together '). But tMs bond of union is nowadays very loose. Physical appearance and characteristics. — In appearance the Chukchee are well-built and healthy though heavy, and the well-fed reindeer-breeders are wonderfully strong. The nose is large and well -formed, but the lower part of the face is dis proportionately heavy. Except on the Pacific coast, the hair is black. That on the face is scanty, but a moustache is the sign of manhood. The sMn of the Maritime Chukchee is darker than that of the Reindeer. Women are more often of the Mongolian type, but many are as fair and shapely as the average of the wMte race. On the whole the stock is pure. Marriages with Russianized Creoles are perhaps increasing, owing t(5 the prosperity of the Chukchee, but they are generally cMldless. There is a marked decrease of sypMlis in the present generation owing, perhaps, to the precautionary measures taken in the last. But the country is liable to be swept by epidemics of measles and other diseases. The Chukchee are easily angered, but quarrels are usually settled by fights or wrestling-matches. Murders are still fairly numerous, however. The language is notably poor in terms of abuse . The Mndness of the Chukchee towards suffering, even in ammals, is most noticeable, as is their gentleness with children. They are also wonderfully generous towards other tribes. In time of famine a rich breeder near the Kolima will kill hundreds of ammals for hardly any return. Some of the Lamuts (see p. 103) on the Chaun tundra get half their food from the Chukchee. Though there is now no ill-feeling towards G 2 100 THE PALAEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES foreigners, the Maritime Chukchee are more hospitable than the others and less given to stealing. The Reindeer Chukchee are continually robbing each others' herds, the theft being punished by a fine or a thrashing, where the victim is strong enough to enforce his rights. The Chukchee are slow-witted and easily cheated in business. Their qmnary- vigesimal system of counting is clumsy in the extreme and they can oMy keep track of the more notable ammals in their herds. They have no remedies against disease except magic. Their endurance of cold is astonisMng. Women will sew in the open snow half naked, because the exertion makes them so hot. They are not clean. They even call themselves the ' non-wasMng people '. Fishing. — Seal-hunting is the cMef occupation of the Maritime Chukchee. They use light harpoons for stabbmg the seals tMough their blow-holes M wmter, when they do not net them.. For stalkmg them in the open they use heavier ones, but these are being rapidly superseded by guns. Wal ruses are much less common, though since the Americans no longer hunt them they are a little more numerous. On the Pacific coast they are most easUy killed during their migrations between Kresta Bay and Cape Dezhneva. Walrus and wMte whale are the favourite food. The Chukchee skM-boats are made out of one or at most two walrus-Mdes. They are light and can carry more than a whale-boat, but they are easUy holed. Whale-boats are being more and more used, but owing to the scarcity of wood they are difficult to make. Hunting. — The Reindeer Chukchee, in addition to breeding remdeer, also hunt the wild reindeer when they cross the Anadir between the mouth of the Main and CMkayeva. They leave the Polpol Mountains in March and continue crossing in June, beginning to return in JMy. Some twenty Chukchee families on the middle Anadir live on notMng else and each gets 100-200 deer in a year. Non-migratory deer are also shot and mountain sheep are higMy prized. Wolves, bears,. and wMte or red foxes are trapped, wMle birds are snared. North of the Anadir there is comparatively little fisMng. CHUKCHEE 101 Bows and spears are still used in quarrels and every Chukchee wears a knife on his hip. The Chukchee make themselves snow-goggles out of leather or wood, with narrow slits for the eyes. The armour of walrus-ivory, seal-hide, or iron is now kept only as a curiosity. The Chukchee dogs are poor, though the. Maritime Chukchee eat them in time of famine. The excellent Anadir dogs fetch high prices among the Chukchee. Dwellings. — The Chukchee tent is large and round with an oblong inner room wMch is the cMef habitation. The three central poles have a sacred character. The tent is always set to the same points of the compass and the left side belongs by custom to the master. The inner tent is lit by a single lamp and the main evening meal is eaten there. Guests strip to the waist, while the family is naked except for a belt, as the heat rapidly becomes stiflmg. The stench is intolerable. Older and tMnner sMns are kept for the summer tent. Clothing. — The cMef garment of a Chukchee is a heavy double loose-fitting reindeer-fur sMrt, the collar of wMch can be tightened with a string. His boots and trousers are also double and of the same material. In these and Ms cap he can sleep in the open in winter. The Maritime Chukchee buy the cast-off clothes of their Reindeer bretMen, who never wear them two winters running. In very bad weather they also wear a cape or a long great-coat. The women wear long boots and clumsy combinations, the sleeves of wMch so interfere with their work that they frequently keep one arm and breast bare. The Chukchee woman tattoos very little. Food. — The Maritime Chukchee live largely on sea- mammals, the Reindeer Chukchee on meat, but each at times craves for the other's diet. The Reindeer Chukchee are not squeamish. They will eat meat or entrails in any state of decomposition. They drink large quantities of tea and all the alcohol they can get and are inveterate smokers. Like the Koryak, they make an intoxicant from a musMoom. Birth and marriage. — The Chukchee are prolific, many families having from 5 to 9 children. 102 THE PALAEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES Marriage is not permanent. A man may change his wife. As a rule, however, the marriage is broken by her relatives reclaiming the bride. There are also ' group-marriages ' of 10 couples, in which the husbands have a right to each other's wives. But this tie is never made between people in the same camp. On the death of a husband his brother succeeds him, keeping the dead man's reindeer herd for Ms cMldren. Polygamy is rare among the Maritime Chukchee, as they cannot afford to support two wives, but not uncommon among the Reindeer breeders. Death. — Chukchee funeral rites are largely a protection against the evil influence of the dead. The body is drawn up through a hole in the roof or the back of the tent and all traces are removed to prevent the dead man's return. It is taken to the burial-place on a sledge. Here it is opened, the organs examined, and the cause of death proclaimed. The throat is then cut. The corpse is either exposed or burned. It is afterwards visited, to see whether it has been carried off by beasts — the best sign. On the fifth day the tent is moved to another place, but sacrifices are afterwards made at the grave. The usual abode of the dead is thought to be under ground. Those who die sudden or violent deaths dwell in the Aurora Borealis. Religion. — Vairgit among the Chukchee are the benevolent beings to whom sacrifices are made, and they live in the 22 directions of the Chukchee compass. The chief one lives m the zenith ; and Midday, the Sun, and the Pole-Star are very important. Others live in the reindeer and the wakus and in the winds. There are three classes of kelet or evil spirits, (a) invisible spirits, bringing disease and death ; (b) blood thirsty spirits, the enemies of warriors ; (c) spirits wMch assist the shaman. The kelet is fond of the liver. Hence the opening of a corpse to discover what kelet has attacked its liver. According to the Chukchee there are from five to nine worlds one above the other, connected by a passage under the pole-star. Other parts of the sky are also inhabited. The object of Chukchee ceremonial is to maintain the CHUKCHEE 103 welfare of the community, and incantations are the leading feature. The chief festivals are the autumn and winter slaughterings, the ceremonial of antlers and the sacrifices to the New Moon, the Fire, and for Luck M Hunting. More over, each family must perform a thanksgiving ceremony twice a year. Sport. — The Chukchee are fond of sport. They wiU travel enormous distances to race their reindeer M the spring. There are also foot races and wrestling matches. Reindeer -breeding. — The Chukchee reindeer herds, wMch are probably the most numerous M the world, are the most important economic feature m far north-eastern Siberia. It is therefore convement to include in this section a general account of reindeer-breedmg in eastern Siberia with more particMar reference to the Chukchee. The Chukchee laid the foundations of their present pros perity M their raids on the Koryak herds during the eighteenth century, but the prmcipal increase has been during the last fifty years. The son of a chief who used to be looked on as very wealthy because he owned two herds, possesses five to-day, wMle his brother-in-law and his cousin each own tMee. The Chukchee deer are imperfectly tamed and readfly run wUd agaM. MUkMg is out of the question and they are difficult to manage M harness. The breed is undersized with short head and legs, heavy body, and thick antlers, and is dark m colour when compared with the Lamut. It is good for food, fattening quickly and keeping its condition. But it cannot be ridden and is much weaker than the Lamut, which is of twice its value. A Lamut fawn is exchanged for a fuU-grown Chukchee deer. Hence the Chukchee use Lamut deer M harness and seU their own to the Lamut for food. CrossMg between wild and tame animals is common, the wUd deer visiting the Chukchee camps M the rutting season. The fawns are much valued for racing, as they are swifter and have more mettle than the others. Their pedigree is preserved for three or four generations. A cross between 104 THE PALAEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES a wild doe and. a tame buck is especiaUy prized. In colour the deer vary from dark grey to hazel, the fawns being darker than the full-grown animal. They live from twelve to fifteen years. They begin to shed their coats in spring and finish by midsummer. The hair thickens rapidly. By- September it is suitable for winter clothes, for wMch fawn- skins are used. The skins of full-grown animals make tent- covers or rugs. In winter the herd lives almost entirely on reMdeer moss, in summer chiefly on reed-grass and wUlow-shoots. In late summer and early autumn both moss and grass are necessary to fatten the herd. This is most important, because if a herd does not fatten then it wiU never fatten and there is a risk of losing the fawns in spring. In the autumn the deer wiU eat mushrooms, bird-dung round the moulting-places, and even young mice or birds. They are very fond of human urine and are so excited by the smeU that they wiU charge a man who is making water near them. The natives M the camps are very careful m consequence. They use urine to attract the deer when troublesome and it is the most effective means of revivMg an exhausted deer on a long journey. If snow falls late, it is bad for the deer as they cannot walk on ice. The herd must not remain too long in one place because their constant scraping hardens the snow so that they cannot reach the moss. Large herds move every few hours and are therefore leaner than small ones. Hence sufficient space is essential. But summer pastures will stand much more wear and tear than the winter ones. The deep snow of the forests makes it almost impossible for the deer to find food there. Trespassing is a serious offence, as once two herds get entangled it is very difficMt to separate them. Calving goes on from mid-March to the end of May in the herds, three weeks earlier than in the wild state, with the result that many fawns die. During summer the bucks are kept away from the fawns and does. Does often rut in their first year. Hence the rapid increase of a herd. The Chuk chee are careful in selecting animals for breeding. Gelded CHUKCHEE 105 .deer or barren does alone are driven. In an average herd the percentage is 12 breeding bucks, 10-15 sledge-deer, and 60 or 70 half -grown fawns. In a large herd there will be 30 bucks to 1,000 does. Wolves are the chief enemies. Hoof- swelling, caused by walMng on dry ground, is the principal malady. The first frost cures it, but it often causes a number of deaths. Ticks are troublesome. Far more serious is the scabies that carries off whole herds when it pays its periodical visits. The herds require careful attention during the breeding- season and still more in summer when they are troubled by insects. Even the women then help to watch them, as the least thing causes a stampede. The herdsmen are often bound to stay two or three nights without sleep. In summer they have to carry everytMng themselves, including the sMns of slaughtered animals, and the weight the less active will carry so as to leave the others free is astounding. But in winter a couple of boys can watch a herd for weeks. Deer are caught with the lasso, and a good lasso is worth a fat buck. The YukagMr on the Omolon, who only use their animals for riding, keep them in sheds during winter, allowing them two small graylings a day for food. Poor men anxious to own a herd take service with a big breeder. They must work hard, but with luck may own 100 deer after five years. The least timid animals are chosen for driving and broken in during the first year. With the Lamut deer tMs is easy, but often very difficMt with the Chukchee. One ammal is used for a pack-sledge, two for driving. One woman will lead 10 or 15 sledges fastened one behind the other, but a wealthy family may travel with 40-60 in several lines. With good going well-fed deer will do 200 miles in two days, but they need instant rest if tired, and spare ammals are therefore usually taken. Dogs have far more endurance. Thanks to their herds, the Chukchee are much better off than the fish-eating tribes and they are always called in to stave off famine, as well as to supply food in ordinary times — at the Anyui fair, for instance. But the highest famine price 106 THE PALAEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES for a deer is 16s. 8d!. and their ordinary value is only a cake of brick-tea and a packet of tobacco in fair time. On the Anadir, with its salmon and its wild deer, a sMUing is the usual price. Eskimo The EsMmo are not a Siberian tribe, but a number of them have crossed over from America and have settled along the west coast of Bering Strait from Cape Dezhneva to Cape Bering, either in villages of their own or in common with the Maritime Chukchee, with whom they are identical in material civilization. They are most numerous near Cape Dezhneva and between Capes Chaplin and Ulyakhpen. They number about 1,600, including those on St. Lawrence Island and the Diomede Islands. Their language is said to be closely con nected with that of the Aleuts. Most of those round Cape Chaplin speak a little English. They smoke as much tobacco and drink as much spirits as they can obtain. When their customs and beliefs differ from those of the Maritime Chuk chee, they are of American origin. A dying EsMmo is placed in a specially built snow hut or tent, according to the time of year. He is carried in by a back entrance, all signs of wMch are then removed. He is visited occasionally by relatives, but at the approach of death he is left altogether alone. The EsMmo are a maritime people and hold that their dead live under the sea. The road tMther is very difficult and a soul may die again on the way, but once there a man has all he can desire. Koryaks Territory. — The Koryak tribe extends from the Stanovoi Mountains to the sea and on the west side of Kamchatka as far south as lat. 55° N. The north-west boundary of their habitat is now the River Varkhalan ; they used to extend along the west shore of the Sea of Okhotsk. Name of tribe. — The name ' Koryak ' is not used by them selves, but probably derived from neighbouring tribes. Its derivation is quite uncertain. KORYAKS 107 Racial affinities and language. — They seem to be closely related by race and language with the Chukchee, but their language is not reduced to writing. There are four main dialects of it spoken by (1) the Koryaks of north Kamchatka, (2) the Remdeer Koryaks of Kamenskoe, &c, (3) the Alutor Koryaks, (4) the Kereks in the NE. The main division of the Koryaks is into Reindeer and Maritime Koryaks ; the manner of life of these two branches of the race has made them develop on wholly different lines ; there is little intermarriage between them because of the difference of their mode of housekeeping ; the Reindeer Koryaks intermarry with the Chukchee, the Maritime Koryaks with the Kam- chadals. The Reindeer Koryaks have advanced less far in civilization, but they are generally given a better character. The Reindeer Koryaks are mainly in Gizhiga and Petropav lovsk ; there are few in Anadir, none in Okhotsk. Numbers. — In the census of 1897 the population was distributed as follows : Gizhiga . . 4,434 (2,389 Reindeer : 2,045 Maritime) Petropavlovsk 2,675 (1,284 Reindeer : 1,391 Maritime) Okhotsk . . 244 ( 0 Reindeer : 244 Maritime) Anadir . . 177 ( 75 Reindeer : 102 Maritime) Total . . 7,530 The population increases in the intervals between epidemics and famines, but the Koryaks have suffered from many scourges : sypMHs (called the YukagMr or Chuvanzi disease, because of the route by wMch it came to them from Russia), two forms of arctic hysteria, small-pox, and measles, the spread of wMch was attributed by them to their shortage of professional shamans. Relations with Russians. — The Russians first came into contact with them about 1640. Until 1712 the Koryak refused to recognize Russian sovereignty, but not until 1764 did their opposition cease. From 1649, when the fortress of Anadirsk was built, the Cossacks tried to exact tribute from 108 THE PALAEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES them. But wars have now ended for them, even with the Chukchee, their secular foe. The relations between the Russians and Koryaks are not altogether happy ; the Koryaks resent the Cossacks' demand for transport free of cost, and see in every traveller an official, and so an object of suspicion. They like better the Americans, who practise ' contraband ' hunting of sea-animals ; from them they suffer no harsh exactions, arid receive supplies much more cheaply than from the Russians. They also appreciate their alcohohc liquors. Few Maritime Koryaks and no Reindeer Koryaks have learnt Russian. Social institutions. — The Russian Government have divided them into clans, but these were territorial designations and have become misleading owing to migrations. Their own social unit is the family, though families related by marriage have a tendency to draw together ; there are even cases of fraternizing with unrelated families ; members of such alliances were formerly bound to help one another in war, but the absence of war has abolished this aspect of the alliance. Physical appearance and characteristics. — The Koryaks arc described by Jochelson as below average height. They arc well developed, have broad shoidders and good muscles. Their hair is usually black (78 per cent, of the men, and 53 per cent, of the women have black hair), bald heads are rare among them. Their eyes are narrow, but not peculiarly Mongolian ; their nose is of moderate width ; they have little hair on the face ; their sMn is bronze coloured. Their speech is slow, and they talk in a lazy manner unless they are excited. Travellers give very diverse accounts of their character, but their marked characteristics seem to be obstinacy, austerity, and dauntlessness. They are said to be hard to deal with, uMess their customs are understood ; if displeased, they are churlish, rude, and quarrelsome ; if in good humour, they are friendly and jocose. They are trutMul and straightforward and do not flatter. They are hospitable and treat their families and animals with kindness. KORYAKS 109 Art. — They have highly-developed artistic skill, and make carvings in wood, ivory, whalebone, and horn. , Among their arts are basketwork decoration and rugs made of reindeer- sMn, with ornamental patterns of the black and white fur of the young reindeer. Occupations. — Their main occupations are fisMng, hunting, and reindeer-breeding. Fishing takes place only during the summer months. The fishing implements are of a primitive Mnd, little affected by the Russians. They are as yet un familiar with seine-nets. They use nettle-fibre, which they spin in a primitive and imperfect manner. They use skin- boats constructed like those of the Eskimo ; a large boat is nearly 30 ft. long with a maximum width of about 8 ft. between the gunwales. It is covered usually with sMns of the thong-seal, the use of wMch is spreading to other parts where the walrus is disappearing. The Koryaks steer with an oar ; they are not really good seamen, though better than the Kamchadals. They also use kayaks (boats for one man) and, in northern Kamchatka, dug-outs. Hunting for sea- mammals is of great importance ; they hunt for ground-seal and ringed-seal throughout the year, except in the winter months ; the principal period for thong-seal is September and October. Their chief weapon is the harpoon, but they also use the maUet for stunning those creatures that have fallen askep on shore. During the fisMng season the Koryaks are too busy to trouble about the seals. The whale industry is long dead : the Koryaks do not go far enough out to sea, but American whalers occasionally bring them dead whales, from wMch the skin, blubber, and whalebone have been removed. The only ammals killed by the Koryaks on land for the sake of food are wild reindeer and big-horns. There are but few of the former ; the latter are hunted principally in autumn. They hunt ammals cMefly for their fur ; the bear (which also furnishes food) is hunted four times in the year, (1) in summer, when it goes fisMng ; (2) in autumn, when it hunts berries ; (3) in winter in its lair ; and (4) in spring in self-defence. Hunters among the Maritime Koryaks train dogs, which do 110 THE PALAEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES not drag sledges, to attack bears. Foxes, especially red foxes, are clubbed, trapped, shot, and poisoned. There are some grey wolves in the tundra. The sable is now rare ; so are the ermine, otter, and glutton. Reindeer-breeding is stillin a primitive stage (see pp. 103-106). It may not be more than a thousand years old. Left to themselves, the reindeer readily return to the wild state. However, the Koryaks will domesticate wild reindeer. Rein deer-breeding necessitates a wandering Hfe, as the herds m search of their food paw up all the snow. The use of dogs for driving is probably very old. Dog-breeding necessitates settled habits, as it requires large stocks of animal food for the winter. The main food of the Siberian dogs consists of fish. The Maritime Koryaks (as also the YukagMr) build roomy sheds at the side of their houses for their dogs. When spring comes and the sledge is no longer employed, the dogs are given no food, but have to hunt for it. They are very fierce while driven. Should a team of dogs meet harnessed reindeer they will, unless prevented, inevitably tear them in pieces, and a meeting of two dog-teams will lead to a serious encounter, if not forcibly prevented. The average number of dogs possessed in one household among Maritime Koryaks is ten. Dwellings and furniture. — The habitation of the Reindeer Koryaks is an outer tent with an inner tent for sleeping ; the Koryak tent usually has three or four inner sleepmg- tents (polags) of small dimensions (6 ft. square and 4 or 5 ft. Mgh) partitioned off with light poles and skin curtains. A camp seldom contains more than three tents. They have four main removals in the year : (1) in October they put up their tents in the river valleys under the protection of Mgh banks among poplar and aspen groves ; (2) in spring, at the end of March, before the fawning period begins, they descend to the open tundras on the lower courses of rivers ; (3) in July they ascend the mountains to be near the river sources ; (4) in autumn, at the time of the fawn-festival, they return from the ridges to the tundras and river- valleys. The KORYAKS 111 Maritime Koryaks have their dwellings underground, or half underground : one type is described as like an hour-glass in shape ; these are permanent buildings of wood, varying in size ; they used to be more spacious than now. Among the Kereks as many as twenty-five persons often live in one house. During the winter the lower entrance is closed, and the house is approached by a ladder, or rather a, log of wood with holes for the feet, inconveniently small for Europeans. The descent into the interior is disagreeable when there is a smoky fire. In the summer-time the ladder is removed. They import metal kettles, prizing especially copper ; for water they use skin or wooden buckets. The atmosphere inside the huts is such that the Koryaks usually sleep naked ; sometimes their clothes are put outside for the parasites to freeze off them. The fire-drill is only used ceremonially. Clothing, food. — They dress in deer-skin, their costume con sisting of a koilanka (or frock), trousers, boots, and leggings. In summer their clothes are of dressed skins, in winter of skins with the hair remaining. They are passionately fond of tobacco, wMch they chew, but rarely smoke. A favourite intoxicant is made of fly-agaric, a kind of fungus, but women never take it ; it is a poison, wMch if taken in very great quantities will kill ; it is used by shamans to produce an ecstatic state. Brandy, though forbidden, finds its way among them : it is popular, especiaUy with older people. The ordinary food is fish, reindeer meat, dried salmon, and seal's blubber with rancid oil. Birth, marriage, and death. — The mortality of infants up to one year is enormous, and the number is increased by putting to death any cMld whose mother dies during or soon after confinement, as artificial feeding is impossible. The penalties for unchastity are very severe, and illegitimacy is almost unknown. Polygamy is rare ; the ' elder ' in the settlement is often polygamous, but most cases of polygamy are due to the observance of the levirate law, by wMch a man has to marry Ms deceased brother's wife or owing to the barrenness of Ms first wife. The future bridegroom has to 112 THE PALAEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES serve for Ms bride ; the period of service may be anytMng from six months to three years. If a man does not please his future father-in-law he can be sent away after many years of service without any reward. Money cannot be substituted for service. The preliminaries of marriage are arranged by the ' matchmaker ' (asking one). The actual ceremony is by seizure. When a Reindeer Koryak dies Ms body is dissected to find the probable cause of death, and the Maritime Koryaks stab the dead man in order that the cMld in whom Ms body is reincarnated may not die of the same Ulness. The dead are burnt, except by the Kereks, who let down their dead in funeral attire into the sea. Parenticide is now abandoned ; even the tradition has disappeared in some places ; but it seems to have been a general practice, in order to spare the sick and aged unnecessary suffering. Now relatives take good care of a dying man. Other customs. — Only clotMng and ornaments are personal property among the Koryaks. The wooden ' guardians , household appurtenances, house, nets, and skin-boats are family property. The reindeer are the property of all the members of the family, but the movements of the herd are directed by the father. The Koryak can count better than the Chukchee. He has two bases of computation, 5 and 20, and in counting uses both hands and feet. Religion. — The Maritime Koryaks have adopted -CMis- tiamty and renounced many of their superstitions ; the Reindeer Koryaks retain much of their primitive religion, as do also the Maritime Koryaks of Penzhina Bay and north of AlutorsM Cape. However, the combined influence of traders and Cossacks has made them abandon a good deal of their religion. It was among the Koryaks that the shamans were first affected by Christianity. In the Koryak houses are wooden images of ' guardians ' ; they receive homage as containmg a vital principle in them and having had incantations pro nounced over them. KORYAKS 113 The chief reHgious festivals among the Koryaks are : (1) Among the Maritime Koryaks : (a) Whale festival. (6) Putting away the whale-boat for winter. (c) Launchmg the skm-boat. (d) Wearing of masks. (2) Among the ReMdeer Koryaks : (a) Ceremony on the return of the herd from summer pastures. (b) Fawn festival. (c) Remdeer races. (3) Ceremomes common to both ; (a) Bear festival. (6) WoH festival. (c) Ceremomes m connexion with fox-hunting. The reindeer races are religious, M honour of the One on High, whUe dog-races and foot-races are secular. Every owner of a large reMdeer herd arranges races once a year, usuaUy about the close of winter. Sometimes the host sacri fices the reMdeer that he has been racmg. Yukaghir Territory. — The Yukaghir origmally extended from the Lena to the Anadir and from the Verkhoyansk Range to the Arctic Ocean ; now they are principaUy to be found above Verkhne-Kolimsk, along the vaUeys of the Yasachnaya and Korkodon, and M the region of Alaseiskoe. They are a very ancient tribe, who have been gradually pushed northwards. They were once very numerous, for tradition says that the northern lights were the reflection of their innumerable camp-fires. Name of tribe. — The word Yukaghir is not used by them selves : it seems to be a Tungus word, judging by its termina tion, and probably means the * distant ones '. Sauer says that they call themselves Andon Domni, which is probably an incorrect rendering of Odud omni the ' people '. Racial affinities and language. — It is difficult to trace SIBERIA I H 114 THE PALAEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES strong racial affinities for them ; most of them now speak • the Tungus language, but there are survivals of their own tongue, which seems to have been highly inflected, and very rich in suffixes and case-endMgs : it has two dialects, one spoken by Yukaghir and Lamuts who Uve with them on the Rivers Korkodon and Yasachnaya, the other spoken by the Yukaghir and Yukaghirized Tungus on the tundra between the Rivers Kolima and Indigirka. Numbers. — The Yukaghir are dymg out : their marriages are mostly sterile, and they are a sickly breed. The latest figures of their numbers give them oMy 754, of whom 388 are males. With them must be mcluded the Chuvanzi, a branch of the Yukaghir who live round Markovo, and who number 453 (236 males), but they have either become Russianized or have faUen much under the influence of Chukchee or Koryaks. Divisions. — The Anaul formed a division of the Yukaghir living on the Anadir ; they were fishermen and had no reindeer ; they have partly died out and partly become Russianized. The tribal name Odul has been adopted by the Yukaghirized Tungus of the tundra ; the Tungusized Yukaghir caU. themselves DutM. There has been much Mtermarriage with Tungus and Lamut, so that the regMar type of Yukaghir has largely disappeared. , Like the Chukchee and Koryaks they can be divided Mto ReMdeer and Maritime tribes ; they have also been classified from the names of the rivers along wMch they Hved (viz. Alaseya, Omolon, Kolima, Kongma, Korkodon). Relations with Russians. Social institutions. — At the time of the Russian conquest they had a weU-orgamzed clan system, but it is now much in decay. The only tribal umty that they seem to recognize is that they do not make war among them selves ; no traditions survive among them of a common tribal ancestor. Such clan system as they had was disregarded by the Russians, who .have composed clans, wMch are little more than associations for paying tribute. The Russian law aUows the natives to settle their own affairs (with the exception of capital YUKAGHIR 115 offences, such as murder and mutilation) according to the customs of the people concerned. The elder, who under the Russian system replaces the ' old man ', is authorized to pumsh the clansmen with imprisonment and even physical chastise ment. Severity, however, is not often reqmred among the law-abidmg and timid YukagMr. Under the native system the prominent personages in the clan life were the ' old man ' , the shaman, the ' strong man ', and the first hunter : the last two offices may be combmed in the same personage, and the last is the only one whose duties have not faUeri at all Mto desuetude. There used to be a class of captive slaves caUed po (hired labourers were caUed nicil) ; among these women had a better position than men. Physical appearance and characteristics. — The Yukaghir are of short stature ; on the average they are the shortest people in north-east Siberia ; the men's waists are small, and they have slender and supple figures, moving and dancing grace fully. The women have stout waists, and as a rule short clumsy figures ; but there are no really stout figures among either sex. Their children look very weak and sicMy, and their young men effeminate. The hair of the Yukaghir is usually dark brown ; the hair on his face is scanty ; the eyes are dark-brown and more widely open than those of Mongol peoples ; the complexion is either brown as the Chukchee' s and Koryak's, or it is yeUow as the Tungus'. They are the most timid tribe M Siberia, and wUl submit to any treatment te avoid an oath or curse. They are hospitable to a fault, a fact which is known by their neighbours the Yakuts, who make protracted stays among them and eat up their fish. Though mild and Mndly, they do not readily forgive an offence. but their fear of Russian administration is such that they do not often commit murder ; for -the same reason they are accus tomed to render services to the Russians without any remuiiera; tion. A desire to imitate the Russians has l&Lthem to wash, and , soap -is popular among them.;- at the. same, time tiiey regard lice on the person as a sign of good health. They are extraordinarily honest and truthful, and wiU spare no effort 116 THE PALAEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES to pay off the debts incurred by themselves or inherited. Despite irregularities in their Hves, they are basMM and modest in speech. Occupations. — Their cMef occupations are hunting and fish ing. They hunt the squirrel, glutton, and fox, m order to obtaM in their place, tea, sugar, and other requirements. The rifle has taken the place of the bow. They capture remdeer wMle swimming, havMg discovered the place where they will come down the river when driven by mosqMtoes . The hunters kiU reMdeer for the entire group that aBcompames them during the period of the chase ; for fear of the evU eye they give a portion of their booty to strangers. Their oMy domestic ammals are dogs and reMdeer ; they do not breed horses or cattle, but the Yasachnaya Yukaghir hire horses of the Yakuts for the squirrel-hunting season. They use hemp for fisMng- nets, and horsehair has replaced the flexible willow-branches that they previously used. They have such wide-meshed nets that, as they say themselves, ' a bear coMd get tMough.' But they have other means of catching fish. A bad fishmg season and a bad reMdeer year lead them almost to starvation. They say when the fishing is bad : ' there is an old man m Verkhne-Kofimsk, whose heart is harder than Russian iron, and he won't let the salmon out of Ms cave.' Dwellings and food. — They Hve during summer in conical tents (urus) made of thM poles, and during wmter m smaU houses made of hewn logs. They are more particular than the Koryaks or Yakuts about their food, and will not eat rancid meat. They are great smokers. Such funds as are over from the purchase of tobacco are used for buyMg brandy, but they will not drink alone. They share their pleasure with the whole family, including infants in arms. Birth, marriage, and death. — New-born chudren used to be kiUed if the mother died in chudbirth. Sterifity was regarded as a pumshment sent by dead relations, and the shaman would be resorted to in order that such resentment might be modified, , Before marriage, chastity is not expected of girls, but YUKAGHIR 117 indiscrimmate bestowal of their favours is disapproved. Marriage is endogamic, but there are strict laws proMbitMg marriage between near relatives. A man serves tMee years for a bride, and if he is then rejected has no compensation. Polygamy is practised : a man will sometimes spend part of the year in the house of one father-in-law, and the rest m that of another. The Tungus and YukagMr have to some extent borrowed one another's marriage customs. The dead used formerly to be placed on platforms wMch were raised on poles. In the KoHma district it was a custom to distribute the flesh and bones among the relatives of the deceased : these were dried and put M leather bags and then worn as amulets, caUed ' grandfathers '. Religion. — A nomMal CMistianity has not affected the Yukaghir much. Shamamsm has a much greater hold upon him. Even the CMistian Yukaghir has no Church ceremony tUl a year or more after Ms marriage. Kamchadals Territory. — The name may be appHed either strictly to the prmcipal tribe who Mhabit the pemnsula of Kamchatka, or more vaguely to some wandering tribes north of the penM- sMa. There are some tribes, too, Hke the Palanzi, who Uve m the ostrog north of TigUski, and the Olyutorski, who Hve along the Pacific behmd the cape wMch bears their name, who have close racial affimties with them and the UMnzi between Cape Ozerni and the River Timlata. Name. — ThenameKamchadalis given them by the Russians : they caU themselves Itelmen, and are caUed Konchalo by the Koryaks. Racial affinities and language. — The race is mamly a half- breed between the aborigMes and Siberian emigrants or escaped convicts : the pure Kamchadals are very rare. They have many attributes, especiaUy M costume and customs, m common with the Mongols, but share more with the'dweUers in north-east Siberia and north-west America. They are found in the Kuril Islands, especially in Shumshu, the 1.18 THE PALAEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES northernmost of the group. The language cannot be assigned to any known group : it is very guttural, and has many in flexions and prefixes. The vocabulary is very poor, there being only one word for the sun and moon. It is most spoken in the south and in the north about Penzhinskoe, where it is purest ;, but it is disappearing, and most of the tribe speak Russian. Divisions. — There are tMee divisions of the Kamchadals : one group occupies the vaUey of the River Kamchatka, the second the west coast from Bolsheryetsk to Oblukovma, the tkird the. Kurds, where they are found together with the AMus._ ........ Numbers. — Drink and UMesses have reduced the population. The last figures give 2,805, of whom .1,415 are males, but it is not. known precisely wMch. tribes were mcluded M this numeration, and the real Kamchadals are possibly only half that number. They are not a very prolific people : women usuaUy have only four or five cMldren. Relations with Russians. — SMce the suppression of the revolt in 1731 the Kamchadals have been qMet, and they are now largely Europeanized : European have taken the place of native dances ; the native costume is discarded for something like that of a Russian peasant ; they have also largely given up their extreme fondness for dirt. Physical appearance and characteristics. — The true Kam- chadal M general is below the common height ; Ms figure is round and squat, his eyes smaU and sunken, his cheek bones promment, Ms nose flat, Ms hair black, Ms beard scanty, Ms complexion brown or yeUow. He is mfld-tempered and honest, an easy prey to traders who deceive him, apt to get drunk, lazy, and apathetic, with no thought for the future, but careless and Mdifferent. They used to be a warlike and revengeful people, but they are now more remarkable for then readiness to oblige and their hospitahty. LansdeU attributes to them a custom of tactfully rehevmg themselves of a guest whose protracted stay tMeatens to exhaust their stock by .serving Mm a dish called tolkootha — the dish is found among KAMCHADALS 119 Tungus tribes also — which consists of a mixture of meat, fish, and vegetables. The guest takes the Mnt and departs the next day. Occupations. — Their cMef occupations are, fisMng, especiaUy for salmon, and hunting. The efforts of the Government to Mtroduce cattle-breedMg have failed ; agricMture does not flourish, as corn wiU not ripen (except round Klyuchevskoe) ; gardemng prospers better, as roots will grow. Their method for catchMg saMion, as described by Demidoff, is to fix rows of Mcfined birch-stakes across a river from one bank to the other with only a narrow aperture on one side for canoes. Attached to these poles a Httle below the surface of the water and a few yards apart, are set two or tMee long wicker baskets accordMg to the width of the river. The fish, which come up, are unable to proceed on account of the stakes : they then make their way through the gaps leadmg mto these baskets, out of wMch M ward-turned spikes prevent them from escaping. When the natives go to coUect their catch, they lift part of the basket out of the water and secure the fish with iron- edged gaffs through a smaU door at the top. In this way they manage to take 2,000 fish in a day. They seldom use seMes, but almost always common nets, made of packtMead purchased from the Russians, or of nettle-fibre : they also use harpoons. They hunt reindeer, big-horns, foxes, otters, beavers, hares, and sables : special methods have been adopted to protect the last, wMch would otherwise become extinct. They trap bears, and show great patience when they lie M ambush for them. Their chase is attended with certaM superstitions : they abstaM from wasMng themselves, they are careful not to pronounce the name of an animal that they hunt for fear of M-luck, and not to make the sign of the cross. They mvoke their god Kutkhu and sacrifice M his honour the first ammal that they catch. They are indefatigable walkers, but are also experts m drivMg sledges and training sledge-dogs. When in a team, the most intelhgent dog is selected as leader ; the others are harnessed two and two behind. A cry of tag-tag makes them turn to the right, a cry 120 THE PALAEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES of kougha sends them to the left. The harness is of leather : it is passed over the dog's breast and is joined to the sledge by a strap 3 ft. long in the manner of a trace. If the driver strikes the ice with his stick (oshtol) they go to the left ; if he strikes the side of the sledge they go to the right ; if he places the stick in front of the sledge, they stop. The dog- sledge is practically their oMy means of communication and horses are very rare. Dwellings. — Like many other Siberian tribes they five in different Mnds of huts during summer and wmter. The former (balagans) are erected on posts about 12 or 14 ft. Mgh ; their corneal roof is covered with a kind of thatch made of bark ; the cooking is performed in the middle of the room where they all eat and sleep together ; there are no wmdows and the doors are so low that they scarcely admit the Hght. The staircase is merely a beam jagged M an irregMar manner ; if it is turned with the steps, or notches, Mward, it is a sign that the residents are not at home. One advantage of the height of the hotise is that they can dry their fish out of the reach of the dogs. Their winter houses (izbas) are of wood : they are made of trees placed horizontally with the interstices; filled with clay ; the interior usually has two rooms, wMch can be warmed, as in Russian inns and small houses, by a stove set between them. The insides are tidy and often decorated. Windows are made of skins of salmon or bladders of various animals. Clothing, food. — Lesseps in 1790 describes their costume as an outer garment (parka) made of skins of deer or other - animals, tanned on one side, and long breeches of similar leather ; next the sMn is worn a very short and tight shirt of nankin or cotton, the woman's being of sUk. They wore fur caps. A recent traveller, Demidoff, says that now their costume resembles that of a Russian peasant — a blue cotton shirt under an old brown jacket, broad trousers tucked mto topboots, and a military cap. Their boots are made of rein deer hide, the soles being stitched on to seals' throat-skins round the calves. In summer they Wear boots of goats' or KAMCHADALS 121 dogs' sMns tanned. Their principal food is dried fish ; some fish they allow to become putrid in a hole and then eat them. Birth, marriage, and death. — Births take place in pubHc, with relatives and neighbours gathered round. Infanticide is prac tised, women giving their undesired offspring afive to the dogs ; if twins are born, one of the pair must be MUed ; so must a cMld born during a storm uMess incantation can remove the evU that would ensue. A man's bride is usuaUy selected from the next viUage, not from Ms own ; he serves for her, but is given compensa tion if he faUs M his sMt. He has to capture his bride as among the Koryaks, but the ceremony is more of a reality. Marriage is oMy forbidden between parents and children. Virginity is not required M a bride. Divorce is easy. The dead are eaten by dogs ; children are buried in hoUow tree-trunks. Religion and superstition. — Their chief god is Kutkhu, the supreme beMg ; Ms wife with them is caUed Kakee, Ms son Trel-Kutan, Ms daughter SM-Shakels. Their mythology is crude and obscene. Volcanoes and hot springs are the abode of evU spirits (Kamuli). Sacrifices are not made to the gods, but to the many spirits good and bad with wMch they people heaven and earth, the greatest of whom is Pikhlyash. There is little professional Shamamsm among them ; every old woman and woman in man's clothes is counted as a witch. There was a class among them caUed Koekchuk, who were treated as women ; it is possible that , they were captive slaves who were purposely rendered effemMate to make them less dangerous, and who therefore were made to share the woman's Hfe. Certain trades were regarded as unmaMy ; if a man became a tailor or shoemaker, he was regarded as a koekchuk. Gilyaks Territory. — The Gilyaks extend along the coast of the mainland on either side of the mouth of the Amur, from 122 THE PALAEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES Tugurdki Bay on the north-west to the Mamia Rmzo Strait on the south-east, and they also occupy the northern part of Sakhalin down to lat. 50° 10* N. on the west shore and to about lat. 51° N. on the east shore, the southernmost settlements being respectively Porokolan and Chamr-vo. Name. — The name by wMch they know themselves is Nibch ( = the men), but the Russians have caUed them GUyaks, a modification probably of the Chmese designation for the Kflor or Kiler. Racial affinities and language. — They present one of the greatest ethnological problems in all Asia. They have been variously claimed as a branch of the AMu (the race that inhabits south Sakhalin and Yezo), of the Tungus, and of the Tartars — an error wMch is repeated m the name ' GuH of Tartary ' apphed to the sea between SakhaHn and the con tinent. Some of their characteristics have been regarded as Caucasian, and it has been supposed that there was a large iMusion of the blood of Russian adventurers from the seven teenth century. Were it not for their language they might be regarded, so far as then' physiognomy and bone structure goes, as a branch of the Tungus ; in many of their customs they approximate to their neighbours, such as the Olcha and Goldi, but their speech is qmte distmct and cannot be classified. It is an isolated tongue like that of the Koryaks and Yukaghir, and even one unacquainted with the language can on the most casual traMmg distingmsh it from any Tungus speech. It is harsh and f uU of consonants ; sibUant, nasal, and guttural sounds prevaU. It has many words borrowed from other languages, but apart from its vocabMary it bears no close resemblance to any Mongol language. As far as language goes therefore, the GUyaks must be classed among the Palaeo- Siberians, but it is possible that they are a people, Hke the Normans and BMgarians, who have learnt the language of the conquered, and that a great iMusion of Mongol blood in the past has profoundly modified the real type. Divisions. — There are, however, three types of GUyak physiognomy, one of which approximates to the Ainu, GILYAKS 123 another to the Mongol or Tungus, while the third is typically GUyak. There is also a geograpMcal distinction between those of the maMland and the two tribes which five on SakhalM, Smerenkur on the west, and Tro on the east. .: Numbers. — Their numbers are now 4,649, of whom 2,556 are males. They are dymg out. Their women have few cMldren. Six is considered a large famUy. Because the population is dwindfing, clans have had sometimes to adopt individuals or whole groups. Relations with Russians.— -The GUyaks have been less spoUt by civUization than many tribes. They have been known to the Russians since the seventeenth century. For years they succeeded M keepmg the CMnese traders out of their land, and they have not become demoralized by intercourse with CMnese and Japanese. But the acquisition of GUyak land by Russian settlers has not had a good effect on them Social institutions. — They have a MgMy developed clan orgamzation, with its common fire, common enemies, common obHgations of revenge, and common thusind. The last is the name for the compensation exacted M place of blood-revenge and M recompense for certaM crimes. Physical appearance and characteristics. — The typical GUyak is below medium height, of stronger buUd than Ms Ainu or Tungus neighbours ; he has a weU-developed chest, moder ately broad shoulders, short neck and fairly big head, but smaU hands and feet. There is no superfmity of fat. The complexion is brown, the hair is less abundant than that of the Ainu, but grows longer on the head and more freely on the face than among the Mongols and Tungus. The eyes are small and sparide with a dull light, the Hps have been called 'voluptuous', the nose is rather flat, the cheek-bones pro- mment, and the eyebrows are bushy. They do not shave the head, but wear the hair tied up in a thick tad or in tresses. They are an energetic people and temperate in the use of spirits. They prize their tribal and individual liberty. Their principal faults seem to be avarice and covetousness, and the islanders have had a reputation for theft. Their 124 THE PALAEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES aloofness from civMzation has made them less ready than other tribes to adopt habits of cleanhness. Occupations. — The men's occupations are mamly huntmg, fishing (for sturgeon, salmon, &c), and trading. They are adventurous in huntmg the bear, but their courage is not equal to entering the water, and, though fishermen, the GUyaks cannot as a rMe swim. They are expert m the use of bow and arrows, and are good mountameers. In rowing the GUyaks scull, but puU the oars alternately. In fisMng they* use m some parts gUl-nets and semes, and m others scoop-nets ; for their nets they use the stalks of the nettle in place of flax. The man's work takes him much from home : a great deal of work at home is done by women, who occupy a low memal position. Slaves are bought from the Amus and Goldi. They do not, however, hold or seU their own people as slaves. There are not many slaves, as a female slave costs more than a wife. The slaves have no rights at aU ; they have to perform the heaviest housework, hewing wood and drawMg water. Dwellings. — Their yurta is a wooden house, of wMch the interior is often divided into an ante-room and an inner room wMch is inhabited. In the centre of the room burns the fire with a hole in the roof above it for the smoke to escape. The windows are of fish-skm. The waUs and the floors are made of trunks of trees, the interstices bemg filled up with birch bark or leaves, and the roof bemg covered with birch bark. They used to domesticate ermine to MU the rats and mice, and the Manchus suppfied them with cats at a Mgh price, but always castrated so as to keep the monopoly in their hands. Their winter dwelhngs are M smaU groups of from two or three to a dozen. In 39 villages CoUMs counted 140 houses. Clothing, food. — In wMter they dress in dog-skMs or the skms of the fox or woH. In summer they wear fish-skin, wMch has given them the name of Yupitatse (' fish-skin people ') among the Chinese. They often wear blouses of Chinese pattern. Their boots are of seal-skin or sometimes GILYAKS 125 cotton. Men and women dress much alike, but the woman's garb is distinguished by metal disks round the bottom of their blouses. The skMs of salmon are stripped off very dexterously ; they are then beaten with a maUet, so as to remove the scales and render them supple. This gives them waterproof clotMng. They live almost entirely on fish. But occasionaUy they eat ammals MUed in the chase and even dogs, as do the Ainu and American Indians. The fish is prepared with herbs, roots, and traM oil ; sometimes they procure a Httle miUet or rice from the Manchu and Japanese in exchange for furs. They do not cultivate the ground themselves. The use of bread, tea, salt, and sugar they have learnt from the Russians. Bread is regarded as a very great deHcacy. Marriage and death. — Chastity is not demanded m a bride. Marriage is exogamic. There seems to be no settled form of marriage, and there is a certaM amount of polygamy. The price of a bride is the cMef bar to polygamy, but it is on the other hand a great Mcentive to mdustry. Death is supposed to result from the action of evU spirits. Burial rites are of an imposMg character. The body is first burnt on a funeral pyre, and a small wooden house is erected over the ashes after they have been carefMly coUected. The deceased's favourite dog, wMch has been previously fattened, is killed over the grave. Other customs : the tiger and the bear. — If a man has been kiUed by a tiger, superstition forbids any ceremonies at the burial of Ms body. The tiger is much feared, and his appear ance is supposed to portend evU. Their most characteristic ceremomes are connected with the bear, who is called Mafa (CMef Elder). There is a bear cage near every vUlage, and in January of each year there is a solemn bear -sacrifice, and at other times a procession M wMch the bear takes a less exacting part. A bear must not be kUled by surprise, for they fear Ms posthumous anger ; they always catch or Mil him in fair fight. It is regarded as a happy death to be kUled by a bear. 126 THE PALAEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES Religion and superstition. — The Mghest benevolent god of the GUyaks is Ytsigy accordMg to Schrenk, but according to Sternberg they caU Mm Kurn, by which name also they call the Universe. The ' owner ' of the mountain is called Pal ; the ' owner ' of the sea is Tol. Every natural object has a life of its own and an ' owner '. In their befief also Sak halin conceals an immense deity. There are besides a great number of spirits, good and bad. Such is their befief in the gods' ordering of the world that they wUl not save a man from drowning for fear of thwarting the wiU of a heavenly power. Ancestor-worsMp permeates their reHgion, and supports their clan-system. They have many taboos, and among the most rigid of their restrictions is the custom by which no one but a clansman may remove Me from a yurta. This is so strict that a stranger must always be careful to fimsh a pipe before he leaves a house. The GUyak seem to have been indebted to the Goldi for much in their ritual, customs, ideas, and art. Among the GUyaks of SakhaHn are a number of isolated settlements of Oroke (a Tungus tribe). The southern hafi of the island is inhabited by the Ainus (a Palaeo-Siberian tribe), but their habitat is entirely included in the part that belongs to Japan. Ostyaks of Yenisei Territory. — This tribe lives along the course of the middle Yenisei and its tributaries between Miroyedikha, near the mouth of the Lower Tunguska, and Yemseisk. They are most numerous about Sumarokovo. They were probably once more widely extended. Name of the tribe. — Though called Ostyak, they have nothing to do ethnologically with the Ostyaks of the Ob basin. They do not even, it appears, belong to the Ural- Altaic stock. They call themselves Tindigyet. Kanacketand Din (people). Racial affinities and language. — Their origin presents a difficult problem, which seems to defy solution. They are OSTYAKS OF YENISEI 127 thought to be a remnant of the primitive people who were the origMal inhabitants of Siberia, the centre of whose civifization was further south. Their language is unhke any other known tongue. Most of the river-names in the neigh bourhood of the River Tom belong to it. Numbers. — They are now not as many as 1,000 in number, and they are dimmishing. Their principal foes have been sypbiHs and alcohol, both of which have had deplorable effects M reducmg their numbers. Relations with Russians. — They have become deeply in debt to Russian traders, sometimes owing as much as 500 roubles. They do not intermarry or have sexual intercourse with Russians. Physical appearance and characteristics. — Their faces are of two types : one is short and broad with heavy cheek-bones, typicaUy brachycephaHc, the other approximates more to the Aryan type, and is longer. Their hair, though dark, is finer and Hghter than that of any other inhabitants of the Yemsei vaUey. They have not the cMef Mongolian characteristics : e.g. their eyes are not oblique. Occupations. — Their principal occupations are hunting, fishmg, and reindeer-breedMg, but they have oMy taken to the last in recent times. They hunt elk and squirrels. For fishing they use canoes, not made of birch bark, but hoUowed out of the trunks of trees. A bad season in fishing or squirrel- hunting impoverishes them badly, and epidemics of anthrax among their herds have brought about the decay of the tribe. But despite their poverty they seem a contented people. During the fishing season they live in birch-bark tents along the river banks. Costume. — The special feature to notice is the men's habit of wearing a handkercMef round the head, as is so often done by women in other lands. Religion. — NominaUy members of the Russian Orthodox Church, they have remained comparatively faithful to their old traditions. 128 THE PALAEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES Aleuts' The Aleuts are found M the Aleutian Islands, wMch now belong to America, but a few of them are found in the Com mander Islands, off the coast of Kamchatka. They are of low stature, but weU shaped ; they have dark faces, black eyes, long black hair and short necks. They are nominaUy CMis- tians, but seem to have assimUated more of the bad habits of professing Christians, than of their doctrines. II. The Neo-Siberian Tribes (i) Finno-Ugrian Tribes Lapps Territory. — The Lapps in Russia occupy the whole of the interior of the Kola PemnsMa, and some five on the coast in the Ponoi district. They extend west mto Norway, Fm- land, and Sweden. Name. — Their own name for themselves is Same, and for their country Sameland. Racial affinities and language. — The Lapps are a branch of the Finno-Ugrian tribe. Their language M some respects resembles the MordvMian speech, but the general system of conjugation and declension is Hke Finnish, from wMch tongue, however, it differs phoneticaUy by its great number of diph thongs and consonants. Numbers. — In 1897 there were 2,040 Lapps M Russia, of whom, 1,590 were in the Kola Lapp district and 450 m the Ponoi district. Divisions. — Among the divisions M wMch the Lapps are grouped are the Lyavozersk Lapps and Ponoi Lapps. The former, numbering 349, are in four viUages, and have been little influenced by Russian manners ; the latter, numbering 450, are in six villages, and have been much influenced by Russian customs. The two groups speak a different dialect from one another and are mutually very suspicious. They are not divided, as in Finland, into Fisher and Reindeer LAPPS * 129 Lapps, but each famUy as a rule practises both occupations, tendmg reMdeer M wMter and fisMng in summer. Relations with Russians. — Different parts of the country have been differently affected ; the most Russified have been the dweUers M the Ponoi district, and along the coast generaUy there has been much inter breedmg with Russians and Nor wegians. The race is losMg its national characteristics and is degenerating. In 1897 the popMation of the whole of Kola PenmsMa mcluded 6,020 Russians, 850 Finns, 230 Norwegians, as opposed to 2,040 Lapps. Physical appearance and characteristics. — The Lapps are the shortest and most brachycephafie race in Europe. They are a dwarfish and thick-set people. In complexion they are generaUy fair, with long shaggy hair, wMch is usually dark- brown, with a good deal of yeUowish hair on the face,' the beard bemg often cut to a point. The eyes are narrow, but set horizontaUy, the nose is broad, the mouth big, the chin poMted, the cheek-bones high and promment, but not so prominent as those of the Samoyedes, who altogether have a more Mongofian look. They are cleaner and have more pleasant manners than the Samoyedes ; they are not intel lectual, and, unHke the Fimiish Lapps, from whom they also differ M dialect and creed, they are unable to read and write. Occupations. — In spring and summer the Lapp faimUies engage m fishmg, especiaUy for salmon, M regions which the custom of each viUage defines fairly closely. The summer viUages are found from 10 miles north of Voronmsk eastward to Paitspahk and the sources of the River Ponoi, and south to the Umpjavr Lake. Many of them migrate to the sea- coast with their reMdeer. Lake Imandra, on the old post- road from Kola to Kandalaksha, both M summer and wmter, has Lapp viUages around it. Remdeer-breeding is their great occupation, but they are very unscientific and unbusinesshke in their attention to it. In summer, when they do not want the deer for traveMng purposes, they let them roam in freedom, on the bare heights of the Mterior, when they become half-wfid, breed at wUl, and sometimes stray away altogether. 130 THE NEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES In winter they are left near the winter village, feeding on the reindeer ' moss ' which they reach through the snow by pawing with their hoofs. There they stay till some time in May, when the new-born calves can be marked. The consumption of the Hchen necessitates the removal of the Lapps' viUages every 15 or 20 years, but a minor migration takes place each year in April or May, when they pack up the windows and more valuable things, abandon the viUages, and go off to their summer quarters. Each famUy generaUy possesses from fifty to two hundred reindeer, but real Mde- pendence is only attained by those who have as many as tMee hundred. Really rich men have a thousand or more, but such wealth does not make them change their simple Hfe. The boat-sledge in wMch the reindeer is driven is called kereoshka ; the Lapps drive without the harray or long pole which is customary among other reMdeer peoples. GeneraUy speaMng their sledges and methods of driving are mferior to those of the Samoyedes. In winter the Lapps do some business in the transport of goods. They trade with Russians and Zirians, who exchange knives, powder, and other objects of barter for their reindeer- skins. They leave aU enterprise on the sea itself to the Russians and KareHans. Dwellings. — The settlements of the Lapps are called pagosts. They have summer and winter vUlages, the former near the sea-coasts and lakes, the latter near the forests, where they herd their deer. The summer-dweUMg, caUed a viezha, resembles a Samoyede chum, but is not covered with skins, but with branches, tree-bark, and turf. The wmter- dwelhng, caUed a tupa, is a smaU, smoky, sod-covered timber hut, some 150 to 200 square ft. in area. These huts are always m groups or villages. A good example of a Lapp settlement is the village of Lyavozerski, on the west of the Lujavr lake and on the south bank of the Varmyok stream. In 1887 it contained 61 males and 63 females, in 19 wooden huts and 7 turf huts. The church was nearly two mUes to the west, where the village had origmally been, until want of wood and lichen caused its transference. LAPPS 131 Clothing and food. — In summer the Lapps dress like Russian peasants, common features being a grey cloth jacket and high wooUen cap with a tassel at the top. There is nothing distinctive about the women's dress, which is usuaUy a calico sarafan. The Lapp has no strong prejudices in favour of a national costume, and is ready to wear whatever he can get hold of. In winter they wear garments of reindeer skin. The pesk is a fur garment with the hair outside, somewhat like the . Samoyede suvik, but without the mittens being attached to the garment. Instead of a hood they have detachable caps. They wear short fur boots, known as kadzhi, and also longer boots made of remdeer-skin, called yerra, with the hair removed above the knee. Throughout the winter they have for food remdeer-flesh and dried and salted fish. At various times they get snow- cMckens, water-fowl and their eggs, and berries. Religion. — They have assimUated Russian religion, just as they have assimUated Russian customs, but it may be questioned whether the adoption is not even more external. They have a name for bemg very superstitious, and an association of wizardry and vaticmation goes with the name of the Lapp. Karelians Territory. — The bulk of the people of tMs name five M the Governments of Olonets and Arkhangel, and there are con siderable numbers at Tver and Novgorod. The country wMch bears their name is part of the district of Kem in the Govern ment of Arkhangel, lymg to the north of Pomorland or Pomoria. Racial affinities and language. — They are closely alhed to the Finns, but are a distinct tribe, and show certam differences as the result of having come much more under Russian than Swedish Mfluence. They are first mentioned M the mnth century. The tribe to wMch they belong overran most of the south-west coast of the WMte Sea tUl the fourteenth century, when they spread eastward and occupied the banks i 2 132 THE NEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES of the Dvina. They speak a tongue like, but distmct from, the FMnish of Fmland : the spoken tongue is corrupt and has become mixed with a number of Russian words, but among the Karefians farther to the south-west was coUected the Kalevala, the great FMMsh epic. Relations with Russians. — They have come much under Russian influence, and, unHke the FMns, have never been sub ject to any other European nation. But owmg to their remoteness they have preserved their customs more than their western neighbours. Those of them who five near Russian settlements can usuaUy speak Russian, though they speak their own language among themselves. Physical appearance and characteristics.— The Karefians resemble Russians : their eyes are usuaUy blue, their hair is brown or ruddy ; their forehead is low with hair cfipped down over it, level with their eyebrows and hangmg down eveMy behmd. They are sfighter M buUd and better pro portioned than the Finns. They show themselves more enterprisMg, vivacious, and sociable, but they exMbit less perseverance. Occupations. — Their occupations are very various. Agri culture means a great struggle agamst the forces of nature. The best and most lucrative employment is the fellmg, trans port and floating of timbers for the saw-mills. River- and lake-fishmg provide oMy a smaU Mcome, and have nothmg but local importance ; but they also do sea-fishmg m the Gulf of Kandalaksha for salmon, herrmg, and marine animals. Hunting of game in the forests was profitable, but it has died out since the law M 1892 agaMst trappmg. The people require good guns to secure success agam. The carrymg trade with Fmland was more prosperous before the Finns opened a shop in almost every viUage, a step wMch greatly reduced their trade with the Karefians. Houses and furniture. — The Karelian houses are buUt on a sort of permanent scaffoldMg : they are reached by ladders. The door is generaUy on the left, and a corridor divides the rest of the habitation from the store-shed. On the ground KARELIANS 133 are sheep-pens and cattle-sheds. The Mtchen utensils are poor, consisting as a rule of nothMg but a kettle, a water-tub and a few spoons. OMy those who are weU-to-do have any tMng Hke a samovar, but earthenware is imported from Arkhangel. Clothing and food. — The men wear an outer dress of grey cloth, somewhat Hke the smock frock of the Little Russians, underclotMng of coarse Hnen, and boots of yeUowish leather with leggMgs attached. Their head-dress is anytMng that they can find M the way of hats or caps. The women's smock- frock is much Hke that of the men, and they wear a sarafan of striped or printed caUco. For footgear they have shoes and for headgear kercMefs or headbands. In winter long sheep-skm coats are worn. Those who traffic across the border of their district are apt to imitate town fasMons. Their principal food is ukha or tchi (a soup of fish and vegetables). Most mix their flour with bark and straw. On hoHdays they eat fish-cakes (ribniki) : on fast-days their fare is salted musMooms and edible fungi stewed with turmps and potatoes. When the harvest is good, they brew a sort of country beer, caUed braga, but vodka is not drunk among them. Tea is a luxury of the rich, but is much appreciated when obtaMed. Religion. — They belong to the Orthodox Church. Zirians Territory.— This important tribe is found in the Governments of Perm, Vologda, and Arkhangel : it Mhabits part of the Pechora district of the Arkhangel province, and the whole of the Ust-Sisolsk district and two-thirds of the Yarensk district of the provMce of Vologda. Its centre is Ust-Izhma. Formerly the Zirians extended further west. Name. — There are many forms in which their name is spelt : they are known variously as SyryeMans, ZyreMans, Siriamans, ZiriaMans, Zyrians and Zirians. Their own name for them selves, however, is Kami. Racial affinities and language. — Like the Permyaks and 134 THE NEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES Votyaks, they are part of the Permian branch of the Finns. Their language was early reduced to writing, but they have no literature nor written memorials. It is sufficiently like the language of the Permyaks for the two peoples to be mutuaUy intelHgible. It is freely supplemented by Russian words and has a Samoyedic element M the vocabMary associated with reindeer, for they have derived from the Samoyedes the art of breedmg and herdMg deer. A grammar of their tongue has been published by the celebrated Finn, Castren. Numbers. — It is estimated that there are 85,000 altogether in European Russia, and another 1,000 M Asia along the lower Ob. In 1899 they formed 60 per cent, of the popMation of the Pechora district, distributed as foUows : 1,780 M Ust- Kozhvinskoe, 1,730 in Kevda, 5,590 m Krasnoborsk and 12,000 in Mokhcha, the total number beMg 21,120. Relations with Russians. — In the ninth century the Finns and Russians were fivmg M amity together m north Russia, the Finns paymg tribute. The Zirians have been M constant- relations with the Russians, have learnt much from them, and are likely to be absorbed by them. It seems probable that they wUl lose their language : they sMg Russian songs without any idea of their meanMg, and have adopted much that is Russian in customs and costume. The most important change is that they are ceasmg to be nomadic. They have assimilated the vUlage Mstitutions of the Russians. Physical appearance and characteristics. — The Zirians are ;i people of medium stature and robust frames : they arc blond and grey eyed : they do not differ greatly M appearance from an ordmary peasant of Arkhangel. The best Zirians are those that dwell about Ust-Izhma, and those who five at Mokhcha. These are vigorous and vivacious, and devote themselves with success to commerce. The other Zirians are apt to be inert and unenterprisMg. Outwardly the Zirians are very devout, and most of their viUages have a weU-bmlt church. They are noted for their hospitaUty even when they are very poor. Their morals are incfined to be easy. Occupations. — Their chief source of prosperity is reindeer- ZIRIANS 135 breedMg, an occupation M wMch they have been engaged for a very long time. The prosperity of the Mokhcha and Izhma Zirians can be seen from the numbers of reMdeer wMch they possess. In the Pechora district in 1896 there were 276,315 head of reMdeer. Of these the Samoyedes owned 49,950, the Mokhcha Zirians 194,520, the Russians and other Zirians 35,245. A herd of 500 reindeer is calculated to bring in £50 per annum clear profit, and single Zirians possess as many as 4,000 reindeer each. They employ Samoyedes on wages as labourers and herdsmen. They seldom know them selves how many deer they possess. They slaughter about one-fifth of their stock annually. The Zirians are also engaged in agriculture, hunting, and trade. The cross-Ural trade in the wares of the Samoyedes is very largely in their hands. Dwellings. — The Zirians five m log -houses (kerkas), of much the same style as those of Russian peasants. The house has two rooms, one a rather untidy HvMg-room, with a Russian stove (i. e. a brick stove buUt Mto the wall) in it ; the second, a reception-room, oMy used on particular occasions, with a Dutch stove m it. Between the two rooms is an entrance- haU, which opens Mto a poviet or general store-shed. This store-shed is entered by a slopmg incfine of logs. Often a steam bath-house is found near by, beside a river. The Zirians use the bath-house several times M the week, and in summer plunge straight from the bath-house into the river. Their vUlages are often of substantial wooden houses. In places like Ust-Izhma and Mokhcha, where there are weU-to-do Zirians, there are houses of two stories. In their case the lower floor is like an ordmary kerka, as above described, but the upper floor has a sort of drawMg-room, with stuccoed ceiling and painted floor covered with remdeer skMs. Clothing and food. — The ordinary winter costume is a malitsa made of reMdeer sMn : tMs is a huge fur overcoat, in form Hke a sack, worn with the fur inside, having a high coUar and mittens attached to the sleeves. The suvik is a larger maHtsa worn with the fur outside and having a hood sewn to the collar. The Zirians wear high boots (pimi) with 136 THE NE0-SIBER1AN TRIBES the fur outside ; m summer they wear no cap, but oMy a sort of hood. Their principal articles of diet are meat, fish, and milk : bread and vegetables have oMy a secondary place. They are slovenly in dressing their meals, never wasMng meat or fish ; the latter they find it difficult to keep, owMg to scarcity of salt. They are fond of vodka, with deplorable results ; they also brew from barley -malt a sort of kvas and beer. They appreciate tea, but they mix it with pepper, onions, and aniseed. Religion. — They were converted to CMistiamty m the fourteenth century by St. Stephen, who translated the gospels into the Zirian tongue. They are members of the Orthodox Church. Voguls Territory. — The VogMs (also known as the Maniza) are found on both sides of the Ural MountaMs, but the bulk of them live between the mountains and the Irtish and Ob, extendmg as far north as the River Sosva : they are most numerous about the River Konda. The European Voguls are found m the Government of Perm, between the headwaters of the Pechora and the Urals. Formerly they extended further south and west. Racial affinities and language. — They are a branch of the Ugrians, and so a FMMc people : their language is aMn to the Hungarian and to the Ostyak speech. Numbers. — Their numbers were estimated in 1912 as being 7,476, of whom 3,720 were males. Of this total about 2,000 live in Europe and the rest m Siberia. They appear to be decreasMg M numbers. Physical appearance and characteristics. — They are not unlike the Ostyaks, havMg round broad faces, broad noses, prominent cheek-bones, and black hair, and are smaU in stature. They are said to be the least sociable of the Siberian aborigmes. Occupations. — Like the Ostyaks, they are mostly hunters and fishers : they have little pasturage, and practically no VOGULS 137 agriculture. There are certam rules for the preservation of game that they scrupulously observe : they remain only a certam time M one encampment, and no encampment may have more than five yurts M it, and they must be at least ten miles from any other encampment, because the smoke from their dweUings drives away game. Consequently they Uve M isolated groups, a practice which would either encourage their lack of sociabUity or account for their reputation as unsociable. They rear reindeer, but have few horses. They trade with Samoyedes, Ostyaks, or Russians, principally in furs, goMg as far north as Obdorsk for commercial purposes. Clothing and food. — They usually wear Russian dress. They either make or used to make summer clotMng of nettles gathered M September, and woven into garments. Their food is prmcipaUy fish or reMdeer meat. A somewhat liberal interpretation of what was fit for food has become more restricted with the growth of civilization. Marriage and death. — A hunter may have more than one wife, according to Ms means, but the umon is easUy dissolved and the husband often fives alone. When a Vogul dies the body is taken out not tMough the door, but by a window or speciaUy made hole. The graveyard is usuaUy M a forest, the body beMg brought there by reMdeer, wMch have to be slaughtered m a particMar manner. The body is laid M a boat or in a coffin shaped like a boat. After the funeral there foUows a feast. Religion. — They are nommaUy CMistians, but a good deal of Shamamsm survives among them. Other Finnic Tribes The other FMMc tribes faU outside the scope of tMs book. The Permyaks are scarcely to be distingMshed from the Zirians, whose language they can understand. They are found M the Government of Perm, and particularly on the River Kama. The Votyaks are a numerous race, about 250,000, found M the south-eastern part of the Government of Vyatka ; they are physicaUy weak, and have no striking mental quaUties. The Volga Finns, the Mordvinians, number 138 THE NEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES about 1,860,000, and Uve on the middle Volga about Kazan, Kostroma, and Vyatka, and also M Ufa and Orenburg. Ugrian Ostyaks Territory. — The Ostyaks five in the region of the lower Irtish and the lower Ob from its junction with the Irtish to lat. 67° N. Eastward they extend as far as the Tomsk district and the Yenisei. At the time of the Russian Conquest their abodes extended much further than now. Remains of their fortified places, destroyed by the Cossacks m the sixteenth century, are to be seen in several parts of the country, many of them bemg found in the neighbourhood of Obdorsk. Name. — They caU themselves As Chui or As Yakh (i.e. people of the Ob), and of tMs the name Ostyak by wMch they are called is a corruption, imless it is a corruption of the Tartar name for them Uemtak ( = barbarians) . The northern Ostyaks caU themselves Handocko (= the men). Racial affinities and language. — They belong to the Fmno- Ugrian tribe, and are members of that Ugrian branch of wMch the Vogul and Magyar are also members. They are closely related to the Vogul, but that did not prevent them from bemg constantly engaged in warfare with them tiU both were conquered by the Russians. They aU speak one language, but there are three or four leading dialects. The speech of the Ostyaks round Berezov is Hke Vogul and so different from the language of the Ostyaks round Obdorsk that the dweUers * in the two districts cannot understand one another. The Ugrian languages seem to have become separated from the other Finnish tongues before the development of the system of conjugations and declensions. The Hungarian tongue has come much under European influence and is much more highly developed than either Ostyak or VogM, but it presents certaM close affimties. The Ostyak has a difficMty M pro nouncing the letter /. The purest dialect is said to be at Surgut. Numbers. — The numbers estimated in 1912 were 17,221, of whom 9,012 were males. The numbers seem to be de- UGRIAN OSTYAKS 139 creasMg ; iMant mortahty is very high, and they are much afflicted by famine. Divisions. — The Ostyaks are ordinarily divided into Ob Ostyaks and Irtish Ostyaks. The difference is not merely geograpMcal, for the Irtish Ostyaks are superior in develop ment to the rest of their race ; they lead a more settled life than the Ob Ostyaks who are mostly nomadic. The ' Ostyaks ' of the Yemsei are a whoUy different race. Relations with Russians. — In the fifteenth century the Irtish Ostyaks were much Mfluenced by Syrgan settlers from East Russia, and M the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries they were much Mfluenced by the Tartars. In 1897 certain southern Ostyak viUages stiU spoke Tartar, and Mohammedan Mfluence appears m certaM popMar customs, for Mstance, in the avoidance of eating pork, and M the custom of women covering their faces before strangers. Russian civilization has for years now been makmg great advances, chiefly tMough the marriage of Ostyak men with Russian women, rather than vice versa. Thus many Ostyak viUages M the Irtish region speak oMy Russian, and although old men may speak Ostyak, the young men are not learnMg the tongue of their fathers. The trade between the Ostyak fishers and the Russian merchants from whom they purchase corn for bread, the use of which has become greatly extended, has helped the RussMcation of the Ob Ostyaks ; and another aid to tMs resMt is the adherence of the Ostyaks, at any rate nominaUy, to the Orthodox Church. They pay yassak, but are free from military service. Social institutions. — A tribal system has never taken root among the Ostyaks. They are divided mto clans each of wMch is reaUy a large family. Groups of the same are ruled by a knyaz (prince) an hereditary office. The clans are artificially divided by the Russians into radi with territorial names. Physical appearance and characteristics. — The Ostyaks as a whole are a people of oMy moderate stature, generaUy about 5 ft. 3 ins., to 5 ft. 4 Ms. In type they are doHchocephafic, long-headed, as distinct from the Samoyedes who are 140 THE NEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES brachycephafic, their heads being almost as wide as they are long. As the region of the Ostyaks approaches the Samoyede country, the brachycephalic type appears among them too. The more northerly Ostyaks are not qmte so weU developed as those of the south. These latter are weU buUt and have a distinctly tMck-set appearance. AU, however, look much the same ; they have round, flat faces, broad and rather flat noses, projecting cheek-bones, dark, narrow eyes, and yeUow or yeUow-grey complexions. Their hair is long, smooth, and black, or chestnut coloured. There is very Httle hair on the face ; M the northern regions the Ostyaks appear to pluck it out. The Mongofian type is more noticeable among the women than the men. The purest type is found among the fishers of the Ob, for the remdeer-keepers are largely mter- mMgled with the Samoyedes. In temperament they are kmd, gentle, and friendly ; they are very honest except in the neighbourhood of Russian settlements, where the contact of civMzation has made them adopt ' business methods '. Knowledge and art. — In general the Ostyaks cannot read or write. In the Little Konda volost, some viUages have been taught to read and write by discharged soldiers, and in the Atfimskoe viUages on the Ob they are completely RussMed. But the ordinary Ostyaks have now given up even sign-writing. They understand counting by tens, but have no knowledge of figures. They are skilled in handicraft, carvMg in wood and bone, and making beautifM decorations by scratching on bark, to ornament their vessels and baskets. The women make fine embroidery on finen woven by them selves from nettle, hemp, or flax. Hemp or flax is obtaMed from merchants ; the nettle is gathered locaUy, dried, broken, and the fluff separated from the cover. BeautifM ornaments are also made with beads. The Irtish Ostyaks have a fairly good colour sense, tMough contact with Russians, but those of the north and east have Httle capacity for distingMsMng between different shades. They reckon distances by the UGRIAN OSTYAKS 141 tdip, or Ostyak verst, wMch is five times longer than a Russian verst. For smaUer measures, they have the fathom, wMch is the distance between the extremities of two out stretched arms, from finger-tip to finger-tip, or from the ground to the finger-tips of the upraised hand of a man of middfing stature. They measure also by a span, the distance between the pomts of thumb and forefinger, and by the breadth of the middle of the hand, from forefinger to little finger. One hundred paces is sometimes expressed as ' as far as a marksman can shoot ' (with an arrow). The smallest measure of time for the Ostyaks used to be the time required for a kettle to boU — something under one hour (see p. 165). Sunday is the oMy day of the week wMch has a proper name. The rest are numbered, 1st, 2nd, 3rd from Monday onwards. The Ostyak's folk lore is tinged with sadness. They have an origMal music and poetry, improvised baUads accompanied with pantomimic action, and they also mdulge M dancing. Their musical instruments are the dombra, wMch is a long instrument of pine-wood, shaped Hke a boat, with five strings of reMdeer-sMews, and the ' swan ', an Mstrument m the form of a bird with eight or ten strings of brass wire. Their idea of medicMe is to bleed patients with an Mstrument consisting of a pike's jawbone fixed on a wooden shaft. They encourage even cMldren to smoke tobacco, as a means of preventing tMoat and lung trouble. Occupations. — In pomt of development, they stand between the nomadic and the settled stage of existence. They are not pure nomads, for most of them have fixed dweUMgs, wMch they inhabit M wMter. On the other hand, they have practicaUy no agricMture ; oMy m the south M the volosts of the Narim and upper Demyanka do they tiU the soU. The rest of the Ostyaks maMtam themselves cMefly by fisMng and huntmg, fivmg m wooden or earth huts M wmter, and leadmg a nomadic fife M tents during the summer. A smaU proportion, in company with the Samoyedes, own remdeer-herds m the neighbourhood of Berezov and Surgut. The farther north they dweU, the more nomadic and less 142 THE NE0-SIBER1AJN TKliSUS developed are the Ostyaks. They use tents in summer rather than huts and depend maiMy on the reMdeer for providing them with food, clotMng, and the means of transport. Although the lower Irtish lands are sMtable for agriculture, the Ostyaks there, as elsewhere, devote themselves to fishing, hunting, and the coUectMg of berries and nuts. Such agriculture as there is, is done by Russian Mhabitants. The harvest and fishMg seasons syncMomze ; Russian peasant famUies engage in both occupations, by dividing the. work among the various members of their famUy. But the Ostyaks are said to have too smaU farMHes to do tMs. Fish'mg, although very good on the Irtish and Ob, is not very Mghly developed among the Ostyaks. They use cMefly Russian fishing tacMe, and as tMs is expensive, the vUlages or famUies to whom the best water or sandbanks belong, lease out these to Russians, for rents varymg from 20 to 300 roubles (£2 2s. 6d. to £31 7s. 6d.) for a good fishMg station ; as much as 1,270 roubles (£135) has been paid for a sandbank in the Ob, with a neighbouring by-stream. Those who do not possess sMtable sandbanks fish for themselves and gain 100 to 140 roubles per man. They catch sturgeon tMough the ice in winter by MgeMous methods. Hunting of the elk and reindeer goes on in the regions of the Irtish and Ob, cMefly M wMter. The Ostyaks hunt on snow-shoes, with dogs, and use muskets of an antique pattern, often flint-locks, produced near Tobolsk at a price of from 2 \ to 4f roubles (5s. 4d. to 9s. Id.). In remoter districts, even M the Irtish river system, bows and arrows were used at any rate M recent years, cMefly for shooting squirrels and ducks. Hunting brings in from 40 to 80 roubles per man. Forest-fires have greatly decreased its value. The skin of an elk brings in 5 to 6 roubles (10s. 6d. to 12s. 9d.) locaUy, that of a reMdeer 1 to 1-50 roubles (2s. Id. to 3s. 3d.)-. / The gathering of cranberries and cedar-nuts affords con siderable employment to the Ostyaks, and it reqmres little or no capital. The woods are leased out by the viUage communities which own them, as are the fishing-stations. UGRIAN OSTYAKS 143 The cranberry hedges are burnt out about every ten years, to get rid of old growths. The cedar-nut woods have suffered not merely from forest-Mes, but from cutting for building- purposes. The . best cranberry hedges are in the Konda district, where one man can gather 36 to 48 lb. a day, and one famUy during the season can coUect 13 cwt. to 2| tons. In the eastern districts where the cedar-woods have suffered from Me and cutting, the economic condition of the Ostyaks has deteriorated. Formerly a famUy made £10 to £20 from coUecting cedar -nuts ; now in a good year, which means about one M four, they make £4 to £7. The average price is 2| roubles (5s. 4d.) per pud (36 lb.). The woods belong to the viUage; commumties ; any one can procure the right to gather nuts m a wood during the season for 1 to 1 J roubles (2s. Id. to 3s. 3d.). Horses and horned cattle are kept oMy for household purposes. MUk is used M the family ; in the Irtish district a little is made Mto butter and sold. Most of the good agricultural land M the Irtish district has passed Mto the hands of Russian peasants. The rest of the land is held by the viUage communities, which lease it out, but cannot legaUy ahenate it, as it is Crown land and pays tribute. But as Ostyaks die out, the Russian Government acquiesces M their land passMg to energetic Russian peasants. Economic conditions. — There is a remarkable system of credit among the Ostyaks. Fish, meat, and berries do not supply aU they require ; they need M addition bread ; tobacco, tea, and brandy are also in common use. A male Ostyak has also to pay somethMg over six roubles (12s. 9d.) M direct taxes. To obtain ready money for'aU this, they could sfell their wares M town, but the time and expense involved in transporting goods over a distance of, say, 60 to 200 miles is proMbitive. To meet tMs difficulty there are Russian traders who supply the Ostyaks with flour, tobacco, &c, also with money to pay taxes, sufficient for the year's needs. In return they receive the raw products of the Ostyak. At the end of the year, the value of these is reckoned against the value 144 THE NEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES of the goods advanced by the trader. If there is a balance in favour of the Ostyak, it is given to him in goods ; if there is an adverse balance, it is carried over agaMst Mm to the next year as a debt in the trader's books. The cheapest wares, such as fish, are oMy taken by the trader for sale on commission, in the town. The sum received is handed over to the Ostyak, mMusthe commission, and minus the cost of transportation, wMch is 10 to 15 kopeks for 100 versts, about 2\d. to 4d. for 66 miles. The Ostyaks cannot read or write, and therefore have to trust to the trader to keep Ms books properly. Among the northern Ostyaks, where' the same credit system prevaUs, a notched stick is used for registering values ; the stick is split, and one haH is kept by the creditor, the other half by the debtor. The Russian trader makes considerable gains, with a capital varymg from 20 to 100,000 roubles (£2 to £10,500). But he may also suffer considerable losses if an Ostyak on Ms books dies M debt. Ostyaks appear to be seldom free from debt. They qmckly spend the money wMch they obtam for leases of river-stations, and then often become mere labourers at the rate of about 3 roubles (6s. 5d.) per month to those to whom they have granted leases. Dwellings. — An Ostyak viUage numbers from four to twenty houses, arranged without any order. Besides such wmter viUages, there are summer vUlages, consisting of huts of beams rougMy put together, used oMy during the fishmg season. But the southern Ostyaks have given up the use of these, and make a living by residmg continuously m their winter vUlages. Fishers who go off on fisMng expeditions together, erect a temporary hut and live in it as if one f anoily. The fixed dwellings of the Ostyaks are of two kmds. To the north and east they are made of earth, but about Tobolsk and Berezov of timber. These last are of one, very occasionally of two stories, like those of the neighbouring Russian peasants. The wmdows are generally of glass , but sometimes only of sMn. The houses have one, two, or three rooms, but in winter the whole family lives in one room, on account of the UGRIAN OSTYAKS 145 cold. Round this room are benches fixed to the wall ; there are holy pictures, an enormous table, a great wooden bedstead, and a stove buUt of clay. The earth-huts of the other Ostyaks are of the same pattern, but on a much smaller scale. Near the wMter dweUMgs of the Ostyaks are sheds for stores . The horses are kept away from the house, generaUy M the open, sometimes in a wooden shelter ; horned cattle are provided with a shelter. Clothing and food. — The Irtish Ostyaks are in the habit of wearing Russian apparel, except that M winter some of them adopt the Samoyede costume, as Mdeed Russians do too. TMs consists of an outer garment and an Mner garment (malitsa) both made of dog-sMn pr remdeer-sMn, and a fur cap. The rest of the Ostyaks wear much the same dress as this in wMter. In summer they wear oMy one skM-garment with another of red cloth above it. Leathern trousers, leathern stockings, a belt with reqmsites hanging from it, and shoes of reMdeer-sMn complete their costume. The women wear stockmgs made of fish-skM : otherwise their dress does not differ from that of men, except that they have a piece of drapery with which to cover their faces. For food they eat mamly reindeer-flesh and fish, preferring to eat them raw. They regard the former as a great preventive of scurvy. Poziom (dried fish) and varka (the stomach and entrails of fish soaked in oU) are much eaten by them. From Russian merchants they have learnt the use of bread, and it is spreading among them. They make what is caUed burduk of meal boUed with water and fish-bones. Marriage and death.— Marriage is exogamous, though the clans are not composed of blood-relations. A price is paid for the bride. The Ostyaks are buried M forests. No grave is dug, but the body is laid on the ground and covered with inverted skins. In the north they stiU bury the dead in canoes. Religion. — For about a century the Ostyaks have been baptized, and CMistianity has made some progress among them. On the Irtish and Ob the old customs are largely 146 THE NEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES forgotten, but in the north the nomadic reindeer-breeding Ostyaks are stUl pagan. They recogmze good and bad gods, and pay homage to the god of the thunder and the spirit of the River Ob. A special sanctity attaches to the bear. They swear their most solemn oaths over its pate, and when they have killed and eaten one they are carefM to coUect and bury its bones. The loss of one wiU entaU some mischance at the next bear hunt. They apologize to the bear for killing Mm, sayMg that the real responsibMty rests not with them, but with the Russian who suppHed the gun and gunpowder. (ii) Samoyedic Tribes Samoyedes Territory. — TMs important tribe extends along the north coast of European and Asiatic Russia from the shores of the WMte Sea to the banks of the River Khatanga. They are most numerous in the province of Arkhangel. In old accounts of voyages Samoedia was always the country between the Pechora and the Ob, but they reaUy extend almost to the Lena. They have come northwards from the Altai, driven out by the Turco-Tartars M the fifth century A. D., and they may be the people traces of whose primitive civilization are found M the vaUey of the upper YeMsei. Their present mode of life recaUs the ' reindeer-civilization ' of primaeval times in middle Europe. Name. — There are various spelfings of the name : the form adopted in this book is that most frequent M Hterature, but the pronunciation seems to be more Hke Sam-yad. The word has been supposed to mean ' seH-eaters ', or has been other wise explained as 'raw-eaters'. Probably, however, it has no such barbarous connotation, but is to be associated with Suomi, the name by which the inhabitants of FMland call their country. The Lapps and Karefians also have simUar names for themselves. The Samoyedes caU themselves Hazovo (i. e. the men), and Nyanydz ; the Ostyaks call them SAMOYEDES 147 Orghoy and Vorkho, names wMch recaU the word Ugrians, by which name the Mhabitants on both sides of the Ural are caUed. The name Samoyede occurs M a chromcle of 1096. Racial affinities and language. — They are usuaUy distin guished from the FMno-Ugrian tribes, but are closely allied to them. The language resembles FMMsh, but has more suffixes : it is agglutMative and polysyUabic, and is sonorous and pleasant to hear. There are tMee dialects and twelve sub-dialects. Numbers. — It is difficult to be at aU sure of the numbers, as the methods and dates of computation M Europe and Asia differ. A rough estimate of the numbers is about 20,000. In Arkhangel provmce M 1897 there were computed to be 6,748, and in Asia M 1912 they were estimated at 12,502. In Novaya Zemlya there are about 100 Samoyede settlers. Another reason for caution M dealMg with the question of Samoyede numbers is the uncertainty whether they include the southern tribes closely allied to the Samoyedes. There has been a sUght Mcrease at any rate in Europe sMce the middle of last century, and probably the gloomy prognostications that the race will die out are unwarranted, as they are better adapted to the land in wMch they five than any one else. But their marriages are not very fertUe, one mother seldom havMg more than two or tMee cMldren, and they have to face four deadly foes, sypMHs, scurvy, smaU-pox, and spirits. Divisions. — Of the Samoyedes proper there are four main divisions : (1) The Yuraks, who extend from the White 'Sea to the Yemsei, a vigorous, brave people, who are mostly reindeer- nomads, but who also do some hunting and fisMng and show great daring in their expeditions. Their chief centres are in the neighbourhood of Obdorsk, where there are about 6,000 of them, and near the Gulf of Mezen, where there are about 5,000. There are five sub-dialects of their speech. (2) The Tavgi Uve M the Taimir Peninsula from the Yemsei to Khatanga Bay. There are about 1,000, most of whom are remdeer-nomads. K 2 148 THE NEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES (3) The Ostyak- Samoyedes, whose number is uncertain, but who are estimated at about 3,000, live in the zone between the tundra arid the taiga. They are almost entirely hunters, there being merely a few reindeer-nomads in the northern part of the district, and they own but few reMdeer. (4) The Yenisei-Samoyedes live along the Yenisei : they live mostly by fisMng, do some huntmg and oMy to a slight extent are reindeer -nomads. There are only about 350 of them. There is further subdivision into tribes : for Mstance m the Yamal Peninsula there are ten different tribes, each with its fixed boundaries for reMdeer -pasture. Relations with Russians. — Their connexion with the Russians, at any rate M Europe, is of long standMg : m the eleventh century we hear of them payMg tribute to the Novgorodians. Their present relations with their Russian masters are believed to be good, but a readMess to do work without pay suggests, apart from their natural willingness to obHge, traditions of forced labour. They have been protected m their occupation of the tundras by law since the sixteenth century, and they resist and resent encroachments on the part of the Russians and Zirians, but, being bad men of business, they easfiy faU into a position of dependence upon them. They have been impoverished M the south by the loss of their hunting-grounds, as Russian civiHzation has spread northward. On the Yenisei the fisher -folk are less independent than the other Samoyedes, and the Russian traders are apt to be despotic with them. But there is certainly no general desire to grind them down or treat their rights disrespectfuUy : the adult Yurak pays an annual tax of about £1, wMch is not a very heavy impost. Social institutions. — In 1835 the Samoyedes were given considerable powers of sefi-government. In their own affairs they are governed by -starshinas (elders or mayors) — the name has generaUy replaced the earlier one of knyaz (prince) — one of whom is elected for each tundra. He is the intermediary between the Samoyedes arid the Russian admimstration : he is the ruler and judge of his little community, collects the SAMOYEDES- 149 yassak (tribute) and pays it M to the Russian Government. All offences except the most serious are settled accordMg to their own customs. A further law of 1892 recogMzed and sanctioned native councUs ; the munyak meets annuaUy, their meetings beMg held in winter; there must be a repre sentative of each clan present ; women are excluded from themeetMgs. The starshina is elected for three years. Russian Mfluence has greatly strengthened Ms hands, and his power is probably greater than when he had the more exalted title. Physical appearance and characteristics. — Accounts of the temperament and stature of the Samoyedes differ as much as do those of their numbers. It is probably difficult to generalize. about a people so widely extended and so markedly divided. In height there is a general agreement that they are short : a man 5 ft. 6 Ms. woMd be accounted a giant, and the men are about 4 Mches taUer than the women. In appearance they resemble the Ostyaks, but they are brachycephafic, or rather, mesocephaHc. They have straight, glossy, black hair, wMch is usuaUy bound with thongs in two bunches ;' their skM is sallow ; their eyes narrow, oblique, and far apart ; their faces broad, flat, and round '; the nose flat and open ; the cheekbones promMent ; the lips tMck. They are mostly beardless. They are often of good appearance despite their short stature, are stoutly buUt and very muscMar. There is some admixture of Russian blood, and the race is found to be less pure M the west than in the east. On the west side of the Pechora a SlavoMc and Teutonic strain shows itself M the breed : so there are some Samoyedes in these parts with Hght hair, fair skMs, and eyes ' of Gothic type '. TraveUers differ as to then- honesty, but the general verdict is M their favour : at any rate they are known to adhere strictly to their word when given. They have energy and natural MteMgence, but are tMiftless. They are sociable, and extremely hospitable, both to strangers and their feUow tribesmen : they are constantly smUMg and laughMg, and dehght in gossip ; they are very fond of cMldren, who treat their elders with confidence and without fear. They are 150 THE NEO-SIBER1AN TRIBES more Mdependent than the Ostyaks, and the Yuraks especiaUy are brave and daring. They are a dirty people, and never wash ; nor do they change their clothes, untU they are worn out. ' But their teeth are wMte, partly because they are accustomed to chew pine-resin. They are fond of . music, though their music is much less developed than that of the Ostyaks, bemg rudimentary and monotonous. But the Samo yede likes to possess himself of the dumbra of the Ostyak. Occupations. — The chief occupations are reindeer-breeding, hunting, and fishMg ; before their northward migration they practised agricMture, but very few practise it now. The Yuraks and Tavgi are maMly reMdeer-breeders, and, as such, nomadic ; but the Samoyedes are capable of settfing down. At Kozhva, in the Arkhangel provMce, where there is some stationary population (in 1892 there were 38 huts) the people are engaged partly m growMg barley, partly M rearing cattle, partly in fishing. But the Samoyedes who have ' settled down ' often live in Russian and Zirian vMages without a regular occupation. The nomadic Samoyede is on the march with his tent for four months every year ; he migrates south M winter and north in summer. A rich Samoyede — the richest are in the Yamal PeMnsMa — may have as many as 5,000 reMdeer, and the further north one goes Mto the tundra, the richer are the Samoyedes found to be. They seem to have no affection for their deer, but regard them merely from the pecumary poMt of view. Some of them, especiaUy the Ostyak Samoyedes, are more engaged M hunting, and to some extent in fishing. Communal hunting of the wUd remdeer still survives among the Samoyede. WMte and blue foxes are trapped and snared, and geese and other birds are caught during the moMting season. In hunting they used to employ a bow and arrows, but M their place they now use clumsy and primitive flint-lock muskets, and employ a gun- rest in shooting. So a native industry M bows and arrows has died out without any counterbalancmg addition to their resources. The fisherman is looked down upon by the reMdeer owner. There is a weak industry on the sea coast in hunting SAMOYEDES 151 marine ammals ; but the Mcapacity and lack of enterprise of the Samoyedes put them at the mercy of monopolists : they do not even carry their goods to market, but have them transported by the Russians, who use the Samoyedes' own reMdeer for the purpose. Most of the Samoyedes' implements are of bone and stone. But with three metal tools, his axe, his borer, and his knife, he is very dexterous. The Samoyede women are expert in sewMg : they use reindeer-sinews for thread, preparing them first by chewMg. The Samoyedes trade in much the same way as the Ostyaks (p. 143) : they bring their peltries to Berezov, Obdorsk, and other markets ; but the Zirians, whom the Russians caU the Jews of the tundra, have got most of the Samoyede trade into their hands. East of the" Urals money is Httle 'Used, but in bartering with the Samoyedes oMy articles of practical use are serviceable : to think of them as savages and bring them glass beads is the worst of mistakes. Dwellings. — The migratory Samoyede lives in a chum. TMee or four famMes usuaUy travel together. A chum is made of about twenty M-poles, sharpened at each end, driven Mto the ground and with their tops lashed together. Over these are tied large pieces of • birch-bark, reaching from the top of the poles to the ground and secured in their place by stones or lumps of earth. The cMmney is an orifice of two feet or so between the tops of the poles and the edge of the birch- bark. In wMter the chum is covered with reindeer-sMns, weU caulked with moss. In the centre of tMs tent is a large flat stone on which the fire is made. The fire serves for UlumMant as weU as heat, for they do not use lamps. The part of the chum that faces the entrance is holy, and must not be contamMated by the presence of women, as they are unclean. Clothing and food. — The common dress of both sexes is a red cotton shirt and thin cloth trousers, with skin stockings (luipti) and long deer-skin boots (pimi) which are almost alike in the costume of men and women. In snow seal-skin boots are worn Mstead as beMg more waterproof. Over the shirt is worn the malitsa, a smock-fike garment made of reMdeer- 152 THE NEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES sMn, with the hair worn inside ; it has a hole for the head to be tMust tMough, and at the neck there is attached a close- fitting . hood, whUe mittens (rukavitsa) are attached to the sleeves. It is tightly girded round the waist, so as to make a sort of bag. Over this is worn a wMte deer-skM (suvik), cut in the same pattern, but without the rukavitsa ; Mstead of these it has bands of red flannel about the wrists : M tMs garment the hair is worn outside. Women do not wear the suvik but ' a long, loose, buttoMess sMn-coat, reachmg to the calf of the leg, folded over the breast and secured round the waist by a belt. At regular mtervals there are eight or nine strips of reMdeer skM with MterveMng pipMgs of red and green flannel '. The woman wears a cap detached from the robe with hair outside and elaborately adorned. The oMy ornament in male attire, as a rale, is a belt of thongs with metal buttons : both sexes wear charms, especiaUy the tooth of a bear. Their principal food is reMdeer meat, wMch they like to eat raw or half-putrid. They care more for quantity than quality. One favourite deficacy with them is the gullet of the reMdeer. The young reindeer is good to eat, but the old reindeer, if not hung, is very tough. They are fond of vodka, and are ready to sell a reindeer for tMee Htres of it. They chew tobacco, but do not smoke it, but they make snuff by grinding down tobacco. In some parts a certain amount of rye-bread is made, where the flour is mixed with water and fermented. Marriage and death. — Monogamy is general, but there is no objection to polygamy. Few Samoyedes, however, have more than two wives, though some rich men have as many as four in separate chums. The father oMy keeps part of the kalym paid by the bridegroom, wMch may amount to as much as thirty fox-skins and three hundred reMdeer (an actual case) ; the rest is given to his relations. He gives as a dowry a chum, some reindeer, sledges, harness, meat, and clothes, amounting in value to the kalym paid, wMch is returned in case of divorce. A Samoyede will sometimes sell SAMOYEDES 153 Ms wife for some teams of reindeer or exchange her for the wife of another man. Interment of the dead has been the custom with the Samoyedes since their conversion to CMistianity. Graves are viewed with superstition, and the head is averted M passing the grave of any one who is not a relative. The graves are merely rude wooden boxes, often rifled by wolves and foxes. Beyond the mouth of the Ob below the earth Hes the world of the future life, where the shadow will live as long as it has lived on earth while the soul is reincarnated. Religion. — A 'conversion' to ChristiaMty, wMch had been preceded by a considerable assimUation of CMistian ideas and ethics, has not prevented the retention of a good deal of the primitive rehgion of the Samoyedes. They have a feefing that the God of the CMistians cannot be supposed to know much about remdeer ; so in that part of their fife wMch is related to their herds, they make their appeals to their native divMities . At the head of these is Num, the giver of Me, a higMy exalted bemg who wiU not even deign to glance at the earth, as being Unclean. Of him there are images made caUed chaddi, wMch are carefuUy kept out of sight. Besides Num, they believe in Aa, a devil, tadebtsi, spirits, and hegi, household gods. These last can be approached directly without a mediator, but for the tadebtsi the intervention of the tadebeys (Shamans) is necessary ; they are the embodiment of the divine spirit on earth. There is no particMar temple for their rites, but they resort to certain places onhUls. The island of Vaigach is accounted especiaUy holy, and there above all places the devout Samoyede woMd wish to be buried. Tribes akin to the Samoyedes Besides the Samoyedes, properly so-caUed, there are tribes further south, closely akin to them. Of these may be named the Beltirs, Kaibals, Kamassins, Karagasses, Motors, and Soyots. Some of these are largely mixed with a Tartar strain. The Beltirs five by agriculture and cattle-breeding on the Abakansk steppe ; they profess Christianity ; their 154 THE NEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES language is Hke that of the Sagai Tartars. The Kaibals are on the upper Yenisei ; they are hardly to be distinguished from the Tartars of the MMusmsk district ; they support themselves by rearing cattle. The KamassMs, who also have a large Tartar admixture in their language, five M the Kansk district of YeMseisk. They are herdsmen or agricMturists. The Karagasses, north of the Sayansk Mountains, are losmg their distinctive features. They number to-day 345, including 83 ' warriors '. Of the Motors one section entered CMna and was exterminated ; the other section has been merged among the Tuba and Soyots. Soyots The Soyots are probably a division of the Samoyedes, who live in the extreme south of Siberia near the Kitoisk Moun tains. They are a small and rapidly disappearing tribe, isolated from the rest of the world among their cold and bare mountains. Their settlements are at Lake Ulchir, Kitoi, Tsagan-Khar, Oplik-Gol, Samart, Dzhatkhak, and Khonshon. They live entirely by hunting for sable, sqmrrel, and bear, and procure their own requirements (such as powder, lead, tea, flour, and salt) by the sale of their fur. They make use of horses, but more often of reindeer, for driving and hunting. They Hve in wooden yurtas in different places in accordance with the season of the year, the winter ones being built on the edge of the taiga so that they can procure firewood. The position of the others is dictated by the necessity of procuring food for their horses and reindeer, wMch have to graze all the year round, as they have no means of makMg hay near their yurtas. These huts are foui -cornered erections of wood, with an openmg in the roof for the smoke from the fire which is always burMng. They live amid incredible dirt and never wash, their only method of cleamng beMg by licking. Their religion is sometimes Lamaism, sometimes Shamanism. They speak the Buryat language. A few years ago there was one old man who could speak the Soyot language. Some few of them speak Russian. Their one food is zamvran : i. e. green SOYOTS 155 brick tea, boiled with milk, flour, remdeer-fat, and salt ; they never eat bread and only rarely reindeer meat. Their imple ments for eating are a small wooden cup of Mongol workman ship, which the owner always carries about with Mm, and a kmfe, without a sheath, hanging from the belt. They suffer much from various diseases — colds, complamts of the stomach, and sypMlis. (iii). Turkic Tribes The Turkic tribes have often been classed with the Mon- gohan, but it is now more usual to separate them. The differ ences are more marked in language and religion than in physiog nomy and other racial characteristics. There is a considerable blendmg with FMMc and Samoyedic stocks, and in some cases it is difficult to say to wMch of these branches of the Ural- Altaic group a particMar tribe like the Karagasses shoMd be attributed. In western Siberia the great group of Turkic peoples is the Tartars, wMle M eastern Siberia their chief representative is the Yakut. The Turiric people have pene trated Siberia from northern Mongofia, preceding in their movement the great Mongol Mvasions of the thirteenth century. It was these Mvasions wMch caused the Yakuts to move from the region M wMch they had settled round Lake Baikal to the basM of the Lena. The Tartars spread farther west, and there are weU over a mUfion of them M European Russia alone. Siberian Tartars Territory. — In Siberia the Tartars are found west of the Yenisei. They are cut into two distinct portions ; a northern group, consisting of the Baraba and Chulim Tartars, occupies the Baraba steppe and the Chufim basin to the east of it, and a southern group, separated from them by the Siberian RaUway and the stream of Russian immigration,, occupies the Altai and the Abakansk steppe M the basin of the Yenisei. Name. — There are various names for the different groups of mhabitants, but they are coUectively called Tartars, or, with more correct spelling, Tatars. 156 THE NEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES Racial affinities and language. — As stated above,, they are distMct from the Mongolians, though sometimes classified with them, and many of the tribes have become much Mter- mixed either with FinMc or Samoyedic peoples or with other peoples of Turkic stock. In some cases too they have grown to have a strong resemblance to the Caucasian peoples, with whom they have Mtermingled. - - In language those of them who have kept their own speech resemble the Ottoman Turks, but some tribes, like the ChMim Tartars, have lost their own tongue, and others Hke the ' Kalmuks ' of the Altai have a large number of Mongol words in their vocabulary. Numbers. — The number of Tartars in Siberia is reckoned (1912) at 176,124. They constitute nearly a third of the Turitic stock M Siberia. Divisions. — North of the Siberian RaUway, M the district between Tobolsk and Tomsk, are two Tartar peoples : (1) The Baraba Tartars, of whom there are about 55,000, Uve in the Baraba steppe between the Irtish and the Ob. They are an agricultural people, who have given way before Russian encroachment, and live now in vMages among the marshes and woods. (2) The Chufim Tartars are very few. They five on the River Chufim, a tributary of the Ob : they have almost entirely given up the use of their native speech, and five for the most part like Russian peasants. South of the Siberian RaUway there are two main groups : (1) The Altaians, of whom there are various subdivisions: the Tartar Kalmuks (about 12,000), who are not reaUy Kal muks at aU, as the real Kalmuks are MongoHan, wMch this Altaian people are not despite a Mongoloid appearance ; the Teleuts or Telengites (about 5,800) M the Kuznetsk district ; the Chern or Black Forest Tartars, farther north on the River Biya; the Shors, about 11,000, on the Rivers Tom and Mras-su ; and the Lebed Tartars, along the River Lebed. (2) The Abakansk Tartars, on the Abakansk steppe in the valley of the upper Yenisei, in the neighbourhood of Minusinsk, SIBERIAN TARTARS. 157 have become much RussiaMzed and lost many of their national characteristics. Relations with Russians. — Many of the tribes are adopting Russian, costume and habits, and some Hke the Chufim Tartars are losMg their native speech. On the whole relations between the Russians and Kalmuks are, friendly, though extensions of the activities of Russian tax-gatherers are sometimes actively resented. The Kalmuks, probably . as so closely resembling the Mongols in appearance, are not — or at any rate were not lately — aUowed to perform military service for the Russians, though it is likely that they would make good soldiers. Social institutions. — The Altaians are divided into clans, but the separation is not very marked, and people of various clans five together M the same village. In this they differ very much from their western neighbours, the KirgMz. The clans are known as seoks (generations), of which there are supposed to be twenty-four, but it is doubtful whether the number has more than a mystical sigMficance. People of the same seok regard themselves as related to one another. Physical appearance and characteristics. — The Altaians, if they may be taken as representative, have flat, broad faces, smaU foreheads sloping backwards, little eyes turnMg upwards at the corners, small eyebrows, promMent cheek bones, snub-noses too smaU for the face, large mouths with thick lips, wMch display two rows of strong white teeth. The chin is poMted, and they have Httle or no beard.. Their complexion is dark, their hair and eyebrows deep black, the hair bemg stiff and bristly. As a rule the men shave off a good part of it, leaving oMy a patch on the crown of the head, wMch they plait into a queue. They tend to be short and broad-shouldered, but do not look very strong, probably because of the poor nourishment of a large number of the people. Their legs are bowed — at any rate this is the case with the Kalmuks — because they have Hved M the saddle from their earHest years. The women are smaUer than the men, but look stronger : it is they who do a great deal of the hardest 158 THE NEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES work. They have a general reputation for bemg honest and industrious. They are also an imaginative people, and the Kalmuks have a considerable store of legends ; they are exceedmgly fond of their own regions, as their songs show. Their chief vices are dirtiness and drink. Occupations. — They are mostly nomadic, and pursue a pastoral Me, but the Baraba Tartars engage M agriculture. The Kalmuks are great equestrians, and are brought up to the art of ridMg from their earHest years. They carry most of their possessions about M sacks on their horses' backs. There is a pecMiar breed of horses in the Altai, but it is seldom found pure now, being much mixed with Russian, Kirghiz, and MongoHan stocks. The Altaian horse has a beautiful, erect, ' dry ' head, large eyes, a deep curb-dimple, a broad tiiroat and finely set nervous ears. The neck is dry, smewy, and short in proportion to the length of the ammal ; the chest is broad. The withers are not particMarly Mgh, and die away with the back. The shoMders are slanting, the upper part of the thigh strong and sinewy, the knee broad, the pastern steep and short : the hoof is steep and smaU, very firm, and except for a large frog, has a normal form. Most have a bright colour. The height is 4 ft. 2f Ms., the length 4 ft. 9 ins. Besides its beautiful bodUy form, the Altaian horse is dis tinguished for speed and cleverness. They also have a special race of horned cattle : the cows give plentiful good mUk. The Altai MountaMs are a paradise for cattle-breedMg, the numerous streams and short grass offering good nourishment for horses and horned cattle ; there is also good pasture for sheep and goats. There are no harmful insects, and the pastures are free from snow M wmter, so that the animals can get their own food. Dwellings. — The Tartars five in yurts, wMch are Hke those of the Kirghiz, but their viUages are less exclusive than the auls of the Kirghiz, more families dwelling together. Clothing and food. — They wear a sort of shirt with a cape ; the sleeves of the shirt are long, reacMng half-way down the hand ; the shirt is held together by a girdle, and is made of SIBERIAN TARTARS 159 some blue Russian cloth, or blue or brown Chinese material. They wear trousers of the same material, wide and reacMng just below the knee. Sometimes the trousers are made of roe-leather. The shirt hangs free over the trousers, just below the waist. The footwear consists of shoes without heels, reacMng to the knee, made M summer of dressed sheep skin, and M wmter of undressed skM with the hair outside. They wear felt stockings projecting about two inches above the stock of the shoe, and between the stocking and stock of the right leg they put their tobacco-pouch and pipe with the stem projecting. Over their shirt they wear a cloth jacket, with sleeves reaching to the elbows, and with long pockets hanging down. Above tMs they may wear a leather coat in summer or a skm coat M winter, with a belt holding a pouch, knife, &c. On their heads the Altaian Tartars wear a tMee- cornered hat, the pomt beMg behmd, with erect rims. It is made of lamb-skM, and is covered with some yeUow material, . with a red oval flap sewn on the top. From the corner behmd hang two red ribbons, one and a haK feet long. They eat mutton, whether the meat of the domestic sheep, or of the big-horn that frequents the Altai ; they are also fond of the flesh of horses. Though they own large herds of cattle, they do not eat them. Religion. — The Baraba Tartars are Mohammedans. The Southern Tartars are either CMistian or heathen. One of the outward and visible signs of CMistiamty is the absence of a queue on the top of the head ; another is monogamy. They have many superstitions, and Shamanism is prevalent among them. Polytheism is common. Other Tartar Branches In the above description the Altaians and more especiaUy their western branch, the Kalmuks, have been dealt with. A few words wiU suffice about the other branches. The Teleuts in the eastern Altai have much the same appearance as the Kalmuks, but they are more settled, and engage M agriculture. Their language and poetry is of much the same character. 160 THE NEO-SIBERIAN TRiBiUB The Shors five mostly by fishing, and are very poor. In lan guage, religion, and costume they have become much assimi lated to the Russians. Closely resembling them are the Lebed Tartars. The Chern Tartars live by hunting, trade, and cattle-breedMg. One profitable product of their land is wUd honey. They also sow barley and wheat. They are extremely poor. Kirghiz In addition to these tribes of the Altai and its northern foreland, there is the important Turitic stem of the KirgMz, with its two great branches, the Kara-Kirghiz and the Kazak. Kara-Kirghiz The first-named, whose appeUation means ' black ', are reaUy outside the area described m tMs book. They are ' found M great numbers in the government of Semiryechensk, especiaUy in the neighbourhood of Lake Issuk-KM and m the steppes south of Lake Balkhash. They number M aU about 800,000, of whom 700,000 are M this government. They are governed by tribal rMers, elected by themselves, who enjoy uMimited authority and with whom the Russian admMistration interferes but little. They carry on a vigorous trade in Hve-stock breeding — horses, cattle, sheep, goats, pigs and camels. Kazak-Kirghiz Territory. — This great people are found from Lake Balkhash to the Aral and Caspian Seas and to the lower Volga, and also in the regions of the upper Irtish and Ob. Name. — The name by wMch they are always known among themselves is Kazak, which means ' rider ' and is the same word that we know in the form Cossack. But the Russians, since the word Cossack has come to mean sometMng very different, call them loosely, but conveMently, Kirghiz. Racial affinities and language. — They shoMd be carefuUy differentiated from the Kara-Kirghiz, though they share so KIRGHIZ 161 many of their customs and ways of life, for they differ in physiognomy and language. The Kara-KirgMz seem to have come from the Altai, the Kazak-Kirghiz from Asia Minor. Their language is TurMc in structure, but contains a large number of Mongolian, Arabic, and Persian words. Numbers. — They are said to number between two and three mUHons, and increase steadily as one goes further south. Divisions. — They are divided into tMee Hordes, which are subdivided Mto races and tribes. The Great Horde Hves in the region south-east of Lake Balkhash from Semipalatinsk to the Ala-tau Range, the Middle Horde occupies the watershed between the Aralo-Caspian basM and the River Ob, the Little Horde is maiMy between the Aral and Caspian Sea. A fourth Horde, caUed the Inner Horde, has been settled since 1801 in the Orenburg district. The Mgher orders of the Kirghiz are divided into WMte Bones (Ak-sijuk) and Black Bones (Kara-sijuk), accordMg as they are descended from khans and ' saMts ' or other ancestors. Social institutions. — They choose their own khans, who have authority M their respective tribes, but Httle beyond them. These appoMtments are confirmed by the Russian Govern ment. The real rulers are the elders, who are appointed by public election. Rigorous puMshment is dealt out to the brigandage and raids which arise from inter Ltribal feuds. Physical appearance and characteristics. — They are alfied ethmcaUy to the Mongolians, and preserve strongly marked Mongofian features though with admixture of FMnish and IraMan blood. They are middle-sized, square-bmlt, and incfined to be stout. They are brachycephalous with small slanting eyes, which are usuaUy black, Mgh cheekbones broad, flat nose, smaU mouth, long black hair, and very little beard on the face, which is usuaUy of a yellowish-brown hue, but occasionaUy fair. Their hands and feet are small. They are an honest and trustworthy people, but have a sullen and imfriendly manner, and more so, the nearer that they dwell to civilization. They are more warfike than the Kara-Kirghiz. They are a hardy, long-lived people, but suffer from dirl;, SIBEBIA 1 L 162 THE NEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES smaU-pox, ophthalmia and syphilis. They are very fond of recitation, but have no dances. Their musical instruments are the kobys, a string instrument, and suvusya (a kMd of shawms). Occupations. — The Kazaks have vast flocks and herds, which constitute their main wealth, and they are admirable horsemen. They are employed in the mines and in fisMng. Dwellings. — They are nomadic and have no settled homes, though apt to fix their summer tents year after year at the same spot, when they are driven by drought and Msects to the upper mountam pastures. They five M yurts, wMch are circMar tents of Hght wooden framework with coverings of red cloth' or felt, and a hole at the top for Hght and ventUation. The whole can be set up or puUed to pieces M a few mmutes : its weight is about 10-12 puds (360-430 pounds), and it makes a load for two camels. The height is from 8 to 15 ft., the diameter from 10 to 30 ft. The wmter yurts (zimovkas) have coverings of felt two or tMee times as great. An mvariable feature of the yurt is the kazan or large iron pot M the centre. Clothing and food. — The !ordiaairg dress, is a chapan, a flowing robe ; the number worn is-defermmed by the season of the year and the material by the wealth of the wearer. This is fastened by a girdle of sUk or leather, which contams Ms knife, tobacco-pouch, and other mseparable accessories. Broad sUk pantaloons are worn, and black or red leather boots. There is little difference m the costumes of the two sexes. A malachad envelopes head and neck and most of the face. Sometimes three pairs of shoes are worn : first a loose pair of thin embroidered leather boots (with moccasm soles), then felt boots (pimi) of soHd wool about one Mch tMck, and then stout leather boots, aU coming weU above the knee. Sometimes there is also worn a stout overcoat reachmg to the knee, lmed with curly-wool sheep-sMn. For food they devour horseflesh and vast quantities of boUed mutton. Instead of bread they eat balamyk, a mass of flour fried in dripping and diluted M water. They drink kumis (fermented mare's milk) in large quantities. KIRGHIZ 163 Marriage and position of women. — The women are restricted less than is usual among Mohammedans. It is customary for a Kirghiz boy Mst to marry a woman older than himself, to gMde his footsteps in married Hfe ; some ten years later he weds a younger wife, and his earlier spouse is relegated to the position of dowager. Religion. — Like the Kara-Kirghiz, the Kazak-Kirghiz are SunMte Mohammedans, but their belief is of a lax kMd and largely tinged by Shamanism. They have few muUahs, and make few pUgrimages to Mecca, though they revere the tombs of their local ' saints ', which are a promment feature in the steppe landscape. They have a month of fasting caUed Urazah. The chief prescription of the Koran for which they show respect is polygamy, but that is restricted by their limited means. Yakuts Territory. — The Yakuts occupy the vaUey of the Lena for almost its entire length : in the north they extend from the Khatanga to the Kolima, m the south from the sources of the VUyui to the Sea of Okhotsk. Name of tribe. — They caU themselves Sokha or Sakhor : there is still in the neighbourhood of Minusinsk a Tartar tribe caUed Sekho, who may have retaMed the name from a time anterior to the northward migration of the Yakuts. They owe their name Yakut to their Tungus neighbours who caU them Yako or Yakot. One branch is found between the Yemsei and Khatanga Rivers m the Government of Yeniseisk, who are known as Dolgans or Tolgans : they are a fishMg, nomadic folk. Racial affinities and language. — The Yakuts belong to the TurMc branch of the Ural-Altaic stock, and their language presents close resemblances to that of the Turks. There is a Yakut grammar by BoethHngk (published in 1851). Numbers. — Includmg the Dolgans, they are computed at 226,739, of whom 113,330 are males. Their marriages are fertUe, with an average of about ten to a family, but less L 2 164 THE NEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES productive as one goes north. They are McreasMg in numbers and absorb a large number of Russian settlers, who learn their language and adopt their customs. History and relations with Russians. — They were expelled from the? Baikal region about the thirteenth century by the Mongol Buryats, and driven northwards. They had to go far north to escape the depredations of their Tungus neigh bours, but they have now proved themselves considerably their superiors, and their settlements are extendmg south agam, whUe the Tungus are givMg way before their superior civilization. The Cossacks found them M 1620, at a time when they were the prey of mternal dissensions. Social institutions. — They are divided mto uluses, naslegs, and aga-usa (clans). Over the ulus, the biggest division, presides the golovd with an uprava, a kMd of pofice-court ; several naslegs go to make up the ulus : they are administered by a district council under a district elder caUed kujas. The nasleg consists of from one to thirty clans, the clan sometimes being composed of a few Mdividuals, sometimes of several hundreds. The,' councU of elders of the clan, wMch used to decide aU leg&rVand economic-questions, was caUed ogonyor. The Russians used to tax the Yakuts- in. furs ; now they tax them m com. A poU-tax of 4 roubles is or was levied on them, the richer among them payMg Mcome tax as weU. The clans were origMaUy very large, when the Yakuts owned great herds of horses ; now that cattle-rearing predominates, the herds and the clans have become smaUer. A clan by its own laws is responsible for the crimes committed by its members ; sometimes one clan makes an alliance with another, celebrated by joint sacrMce and festival (ysyakh). Marriage- gifts are also a symbol of reconcMation between clans, and compensation for damage done M their feuds. Physical appearance and characteristics. — The Yakuts differ from one another in physique more than any other Turkic or Mongol people. Those that are weU-off and can get enough to eat are from 5 ft. 10 Ms. \to 6 ft. tall : they are well-pro portioned with good chest-measurement, and are robust YAKUTS 165 and active ; but in the north, owMg to severity of climate and badness of food, we find a very different type : they are below medium height, with a sickly complexion, and, unlike most Yakuts, are Mdolent. OrdMarUy they are thick-set, robust, and muscMar. They have black wiry hair, which the men cut close to the head, except the ' Shamans who grow it long and tie it up beMnd, dark and ^elongated eyes, broad flat noses, narrow foreheads, smaU round beads (the men's faces are long, the women's oval), little\beard. The women are somewhat" ungamly, and do not add\to their attractions by the paint and excessive ornament thaf^they affect, and the adoption of European costume stiH further dimMishes their charms. The mode of speech of the Yakuts is slow, discon nected and abrupt. They are described asNgood-tempered, orderly and hospitable, with moire energy than their counten ances suggest. They are capable of enduring a long strain, and are patient under privation ; but they lack MdeperiSerice^ and need stimMus : it is said of them : ' the more you beat them, the better they work.' They are apt to faU mto debt, mostly to their own feUow-countrymen, for the more enter - prismg among them have earned the reputation of being the Jews of Siberia. They are fond of noise, song and dance ; their improvised songs have deadly monotony as they consist of eternal repetitions of one phrase. They measure distance M terms of time ; for Mstance a kess is the distance done M the time it takes a kettle to boil, a sufficiently elastic term (see p. 141). They are passionately fond of cards ; when givmg their horses rest on their journeys, they mstantly produce their cards, and are ready to stake anytMng. They are great eaters and drinkers, great smokers of tobacco, and extra- ordMarily fond of sleep. They are probably the most intelli gent of the Siberian native tribes, though the Buryats are better educated; They carve figures of human beings which they fashion out of mammoth -tusks : but these are rigid and lifeless, with only an outward resemblance to what they repre sent, and much inferior to those of the Koryaks. Even these 166 THE NE0-SIBE1RIAN TRIBES specimens of their plastic art are rare and merely made for commercial purposes, to sell to the Russians. They take no pleasure in them themselves. Occupations. — Their principal occupations are lookmg after horses and cattle : the former has been their Mdustry for a very long time, the latter has been more recently adopted. They also hunt and fish, and search for fossU-ivory. Cereals have been introduced Mto their country and are becommg acclimatized. They smelted the iron-ore of the VUym vaUey long before the Russians came, and they manufacture their own tools. Yakut steel is very flexible, but very good. They have oMy lately begun to breed dogs. They regard the dog as an unclean ammal, and as havmg no hat (soM) ; they are harsh to their dogs \. it is a gross offence against good manners to introduce a dog into a Yakut's house ' because of the evil spirits that sit on its taU ' . Their habit of horse-breedmg led,, to them setting the yurtas at a considerable distance from one another, because it was necessary to have plenty of pasturage for their big herds ; if they had exhausted the pasturage near home, it would have been necessary to send the horses a long way, which would have meant risk from the negligence or dishonesty of the keepers. Dwellings and furniture. — Their wmter-dweUMgs are yurtas made of logs : the doors are made of raw Mdes, the waUs of logs or wicker, caulked with cow-dung and flanked with banks of earth to the height of the wmdows. In place of glass they have in the wmdows either skMs or sheets of ice wMch are kept in place by slanting poles, and frozen afresh into their positions at intervals by pouring water round the edges. The roofs are flat and covered with earth. The door faces east, and is protected by projecting boards. Inside the yurta is divided mto two ' apartments ' : one is for the cattle, the other divided into sections for the famUy. In the middle is a round chimney made of wood, but guarded against risk of fire by a tiiiek covering of clay. In this chimney are placed cross-beams, from wMch they hang their kettles and pots. Their chief cooking utensU is a large iron pot ; this was so YAKUTS 167 valuable when the Russians Mvaded their territory that the price demanded for it was as many sable-skin's vag would fill it. In the summer they live in corneal tents of bir^h-bark ; the poles of which these are made are about 20 ft. long, jtaited at the top ; these are covered with pieces of flexible bfraJiL bark, ' handsomely worked along the edge with horsehair^ tMead.' Clothing and food. — The Yakuts are capable of standing extreme cold, and are found going about in very light attire M wMter, wMle their children sport naked m the snow. Their costume differs less M the various seasons than that of other Siberian peoples. Those who live M the Okhotsk region have partly adopted Russian costume, and partly retained the native dress — the kukhlyanka and tarbass. They also wear the sarafan (a long overcoat without sleeves), but not the orna mented cloak (made of fur of special cut) and the beaver cape, of wMch their compatriots in the Yakutsk region are so proud. Their breeches come oMy down the tMgh, and they have long boots (farri) wMch come above the knee. Their summer- dress is the robashka (overshirt) and balachon (blouse) ; in wmter they wear costumes of sMns. The women are adept M maMng up fur-garments. Their dress oMy differs from that of the men by its greater length and ornamentation. The principal food of the. Okhotsk Yakuts is dried fish ; the Mland tribes eat horseflesh with avidity : they prefer it to beef, and rarely MU oxen for food. One special dish of theirs is caUed tar : it is a mixture of meat, fish, various roots, grass and the under-bark of spruce, fir, or larch, pounded in a mortar ; tMs is put Mto sMmmed-mUk mixed with water to wMch is added a Httle flour (when avaUable), and the whole is boUec1 Mto a kMd of porridge. They gather their bark harvest M spring, when the sap is rismg. Their special Mtoxi- cant is kumis (fermented mare's mUk) \ they also drink large bowls of melted butter. Another of their delicacies is jelly extracted from reMdeer-horns and flavoured with pMe-bark. They collect huge quantities of berries and cedar-cones for food. I'hey are also. great consumers of tea. 168 THE yfEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES / Marriage and fieath. — The clans consist of blood relations. Their marriages are exogamous, but the influence of their neighbours, the YukagMr, has led the Arctic Yakuts to introduce endogamous marriage, and the frequent sexual J^Ktions that take place before marriage are always endo gamous. The marriage ceremony contams an exchange of gifts, the bridegroom brings kalym, the bride anna (dowry). When the Cossacks came, they found polygamy general, owMg no doubt to the nomadic character of the people, the Yakut havMg a wife in every pasture ; but tMs is not much practised now, partly because the Mgh price of the kalym is a deterrent, partly because girls die more frequently than boys M infancy, as they are not so carefuUy tended. When an important man is buried Ms best horse is kUled and eaten, and the head and hide m one piece are set up as a memorial. In the case of a woman a cow takes the place of a horse. Religion and superstition. — The Yakuts have been nommaUy CMistian since the begirmMg of the eighteenth century, when the Tsar declared that they had merited tMs privilege, of wMch many of them remamed absolutely unconscious. They go to church, but have a very hazy idea of their nommal reHgion. Their native chief god is,Tangra. They have also many malevolent spirits, who are distinguished by the names of colours ; cattle and horses are sacred to the spirit whose colour they bear. They have many customs and superstitions. No woman other than the hostess may give anythMg to eat or drink to a male stranger before the fire-place, but must walk round the chimney to present it. It is wrong to wash plates ; such waste wiU produce scarcity ; earthern vessels are cleaned by beMg burnt ; it is not felt then that anythMg is wasted because the food thus consumed is an offering to 1he fire, wMch also receives a smaU spooMM as an offering of thanks. Every Yakut has two names, by one of wMch he is never caUed. BURYATS 169 (iv) Mongolic Tribes Buryats Territory. — The Buryats live about the shores of Lake Baikal in the Provinces of Irkutsk and Transbaikal. They extend from the frontier to the Lena valley and the north-east end of Lake Baikal, and from the River Ingoda to the River Oka. There are 11 tribes of them, 4 west of Baikal, 7 east. Racial affinities and language. — They are the principal Mongol tribe M Siberia, and speak a Mongol dialect, distMct aUke from the Hterary Mongolian language and from the speech of the Kalmuks, who are closest to them in racial affmity. This tongue they have preserved in comparative purity, as knowledge of reading and writing is common among them, and they have books of their own for which they employ the Manchu alphabet. There are three distinct dialects of it. Divisions. — The north-west group of Buryats are known as Bargu-Buryats, the south-west group as Mongol-Buryats, and the eastern group as Aga-Buryats. The first two groups claim their descent from two different ancestors, Bukha Noyna and Bargubata. The Buryats round Novi-Selenginsk claim as their ancestor Jenghiz Khan. He it was who forced this people northwards in the thirteenth century, when they arrived on the upper Amur. Numbers. — The population of the Buryats is McreasMg. The most recent estimate is 288,599, of whom 175,717 are males. About three-Mths of these live in Transbaikal and two-fifths m Irkutsk. Relations with Russians. — The Russians conquered them in the seventeenth century after a vigorous resistance, but smce then they have been among the most peacefM and trust worthy of the inhabitants of Siberia. They join the Cossack regiments of the Transbaikal, and even in 1761 there was a regiment of Selenginsk Buryats. They do not chafe at havMg to perform rMfitary service, which probably is not an unwelcome interlude in the life of the yurta. 170 THE NEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES Social institutions. — The Russians have developed their native clan-system, groupMg several of their yagans (clans) into admiMstrative clans. The head of the clan is caUed shelenga (elder). The group of clans is caUed vyedomstva and is presided over by a taisha. One feature of the coUective life of the clan is the co-operative hunt, wMch sometimes lasts for months. Over it presides the tubuchi, whose office is often hereditary. Another coUective act of a clan is its tailgan, a pubhc sacrifice offered on behalf of the clan. Physical appearance and characteristics. — The Buryats are broad-shoMdered, inclined to be stout. They have big heads, square faces, small slanting eyes, Mgh cheekbones far apart, broad and flat noses, low foreheads, thick Hps, swarthy and yeUowish complexion, jet-black hair and scanty beards. The hair is cropped very close except on the crown of the head where it is made to grow M a long queue that hangs down at the back. In temperament the Buryats are pMegmatic and patient ; they lack enterprise, but have a certam amount of energy as shown in their hard work as agricMturists : it seems scarcely fair to say of them that they are oMy made to work by the stimulus of hunger. They are fond of drink and tobacco, and even smaU children smoke. They are an inteUectual people, and under the influence of Lamaism have books of their own. Occupations. — Their principal occupations are rearing cattle and horses, and they show great attachment towards their horses. They also hunt and fish, and under Russian Mfluence cMtivate to some extent rye and wheat. When they have taken to agricMture, they have proved better farmers than the Russians, beMg indefatigable M manuring and irrigation. They are speciaUy adept at silversmith work, which is known throughout Siberia as bratski work, bratski ( = brothers) being a name of the Russians for the Buryats. They are also successfM as leather workers and M the mamifacture of textile fabrics. Dwellings. — Their yurtas are not in rows, but scattered ; and they are surrounded by large enclosures ; at a distance BURYATS 171 from the groups of their dweUings are the large enclosures (ugugi) where the cattle graze durmg winter and where huge crops of hay are obtaMed during the summer. They are so much attached to the life of the yurta that when they Uve in houses they make a hole m the roof and have a fire in the centre of the floor. Clothing, food. — In summer they dress in silk and cotton, but M wMter M fur and sheepskins. A wealthy bride's dowry wUl sometimes consist of as many as 40 cases of the richest furs. Their staple food is boiled mutton. They drink a great deal of brick-tea and blend with it rye-meal, mutton-fat, and salt. In the north they use wood as fuel, in the south camel's dung (' argols '). Marriage and death.- — -Marriages are arranged among the Buryats by two famMes exchanging daughters ; if there are only sons a kalym has to be paid, which consists of so many cattle. The bride receives a dowry, which counterbalances the kalym. They used to burn their dead, but the practice is now forbidden by the Russian Government. The bodies of shamans are still sometimes burnt before being placed M the trunks of trees ; if not, they are exposed on an aranga (plat form). At the burial of a Buryat a horse (kholgo) is sacrificed. In former times the old people were got rid of by compelling them to swaUow strips of fat. Religion. — The nomMal religion of the western Buryats is ChristiaMty ; of the eastern Buryats Lamaism, the northern form of the Buddhist refigion. The Lamas (who constitute a large part of the popMation towards the CMnese border) are greatly reverenced ; they lead ascetic lives, are forbidden the use of spirits and tobacco, do not take ammal-Hfe, and are cehbates ; they engage m mdustry outside their refigious avocations. The cMef of their refigious houses is the datsan by Lake Gusinoe, where the Chambo Lama presides. A weU- known feature of their religious system is the prayer wheel. The native reUgion is polytheistic ; each class of gods seems to have a departmental head, but there is no Supreme Being. 172 THE NEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES Buryats who have married Russian wives often adopt CMis- tiaMty. But Shamanism wiU die hard ; if it has annexed the symbol of the Cross for its rites, it shows scanty signs of falling otherwise under its influence. (v) Tungusic Tribes Tungus Territory and racial affinity. — The name of Tungus is applied not to one tribe, but to a whole group of tribes that extend from the Yemsei vaUey to the Pacific Ocean, broken up Mto widely-scattered groups, and, by intermarriage with their neighbours in different parts, developing very different characteristics. It is extraordinarUy difficMt to aseertam whether the account given by traveUers refers to one particMar tribe or to some widespread characteristic of the group. Thus one traveUer, findMg Tungus to the north and east of Yakutsk, describes them as ' perhaps the wUdest, as they are the filthiest, of any Siberian tribe. They are comparatively few (at most some 4,000) and are yearly dimiMshMg M number. They profess no religion, are nomads, and gaM a Hvmg by fishMg and selfing furs to Russian traders, who by the aid of vodka and debauchery are slowly but surely decimating them '. He does not add a word to give anymdication that there are other Tungus tribes to whom this account would be utterly Mapplicable, as, for instance, the Goldi with their elaborate art. It is necessary, therefore, to be very cautious in accepting statements about the Tungus as a whole. The Tungus are a branch of the Ural-Altaic group, and include some tribes Hke the Manchu and the Solons who hardly come Mto Russian domuiions at aU. They stretch from the Taimir PenMsula along the YeMsei vaUey, across the Vitim plateau to the sea-coast almost from Korea to Kamchatka. The Amur and Ussuri are Tungus streams. Along the Arctic Ocean not oMy are they found m the Nisovaya tundra, but also between the Yana and Kolima Rivers, and certain Tungus tribes, the Lamuts and Olennye, continue along the Anyuisk and Stanovoi Mountains into the Chukchee TUNGUS 173 PeMnsMa. The Tungus proper are chiefly in the neighbour hood of the Tunguska rivers, and between the Lower and Middle Tunguska is found one special branch of them, the Chapogir. Some of the tribes along the Amur are hybrid tribes, which are oMy half-Tungus, but have retained a form of Tungus speech ; others have had their characteristics profoundly modffied by neighbourhood and intermarriage with southern peoples. Name of tribe. — Their diffusion over north-east Russia is probably responsible for the simUarity of so many implements and customs, as they have been adopted by their neighbours. Nansen attributes to the influence of the Tungus the practical identity of type of certam thMgs (e. g. dog-sledges) M various parts of this vast region. Their name seems to be ChMese : Tunghu = the people. The Samoyedes caU them Aias ( = younger brothers), which implies a late immigration. History. — Their oldest home was Manchuria. Political upheavals M CMna and the conquering hordes of Jenghiz Khan drove them northwards, where earHer branches of their people (the SucheM of history) had akeady gone. The Russians found them on the Yenisei at the beginning of the seventeenth century — the first mention of their name is M 1612 — and M the foUowmg century they had severe struggles with their strong neighbours the Yakuts. Divisions. — The eighteenth-century explorers divided them mto Horse-Tungus, ReMdeer-Tungus, Dog-Tungus — to which some have added the names of Cattle-Tungus, Taiga-Tungus, and Steppe-Tungus, the last bemg another name for Horse- Tungus. For purposes of Russian admimstration the Tungus proper have been divided Mto Sedentary, Nomadic, and WanderMg Tungus. The former are only 1 per cent, of the whole number ; they are found chiefly in Transbaikal, have intermarried with Russian settlers, and have forgotten their language. The Nomadic Tungus are cattle-breeders,who change their abode according to the season of the year, each clan havmg its own special region reserved for it. These constitute about 50 per cent, of the Tungus population and are found in the 174 THE NEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES Transbaikal and Yakutsk Provinces. The WanderMg Tungus frequent the rivers, except in Transbaikal, and wander at large without a special region being assigned them. They pay little in taxation ; they have preserved their nationality and language best. These are about 45 per cent, of the Tungus. Besides these tMee divisions there are about 4 per cent, who, like the Buryats, have joined the Cossack regi ments. These are entirely exempt from taxation. The 3rd regiment of Transbaikal Cossacks is entirely composed of Siberian natives. There are two great divisions of the Tungus breed. The first is the North or Siberian : to tMs may be assigned the Tungus proper and the Chapogir, Lamuts, and Olennye of northern Siberia, and further south two groups divided on a finguistic basis, to one of wMch belong the Orochon, Manegir, Birar, KUe, to the other the Olcha, Oroke, Negda, Samagir. The second is the South or Manchurian : to tMs are assigned two groups, on a linguistic basis, the first, with strong Mongofian influence, the Daurians and Solons, the second the Oroche, Manchu and Goldi. The physical and finguistic differences do not exactly correspond : thus the Olcha are scarcely distinguishable from the GUyaks, who speak a totaUy different kMd of language, while the Samagir, who belong to the same linguistic group, closely resemble the Goldi. Agam, M another finguistic group we find that the Manegir and Birar resemble physically the Manchu, the Orochon the northern Tungus. Numbers. — The popMation of the Tungus is, altogether, 76,507 ; of the Tungus proper, 62,068, of whom 31,375 are males. The numbers are diminishmg, owing to epidemics and famines. Physical appearance and characteristics. — Broadly speaking, there are two types of Tungus, which can be caUed North and South. The North Tungus are differentiated by their extremely short stature ; they are said not to average more than 5 ft. 4 ins. They have moderately big heads with longish faces, broad at the cheeks, but narrowing to the forehead; the nose is flat and broad ; the hands and feet are small. The TUNGUS 175 South Tungus are taUer ; the hands and feet are distinguished by their comparative size from those of their neighbours, though a European woMd not like to try wearing their boots. Their heads are moderately small, with a broad square brow and an almost straight and not particMarly tMck nose ; the cheek-bones are more promMent than those of the North Tungus and the cheeks are hoUow ; a certaM amount of red shows tMough their ofive complexion. Both breeds have black hair ; the beard is thin and short : the eyes are dark- brown and sunk. The mouth is wide, the Hps thM. The Tungus have no tendency to obesity, but their figures are usuaUy sfim, wiry, and weU-proportioned. The Tungus are a frank, good-natured, and hospitable people : they have been caUed by Castren the ' nobility of Siberia '. They are said to be very honest, and f aU an easy prey to the Yakut, who trade with them. A Tungus wM not receive a present uMess he can give one M return, often of greater value. Keane describes them as ' cheerful under the most depressMg cir cumstances, persevering, open-hearted, trustworthy, modest yet seH-reHant, a fearless race of hunters, born amidst the gloom of their dense pMe-forests, exposed from their cradle to every danger from wUd beasts, cold, and hunger. Want and hardsMps of every kMd they endure with surprismg fortitude.' Despite the fact that some of them enter mUitary service, they do not amalgamate with the Russians, who have not become assimUated to them, as they have to some extent to the Yakuts and Buryats. Social institutions. — The orgaMzation of their famUy and clan system is fairly strong : it has been retamed most among the nomadic tribes ; but CMistiaMty and western civilization have had a disintegrating effect. The Mdividual has little existence apart from Ms family : it is as f amilies that they go m quest of new hunting-grounds, whereas an Mdividual never leaves his famUy. A group consisting of less than 100 is caUed a clan (tagaun) ; above that number it is an orda. The members of a clan may not marry each other. The clan used to be governed by a daruga whose office was hereditary ; but 176 THE NEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES in the eighteenth century the Russians appointed native admmistrators, whose office was maiMy to coUect taxes. The clan-names are usuaUy those of ancestors, but are sometimes derived from geographical features ; the Russians also give names to groups formed by themselves arbitrarUy out of disintegrated clans. Occupations. — They are not given to agricMture, but most of them are reindeer people, and the names of some of the tribes like Oroche (Oron= reindeer) suggests that others once were. They hunt fur-bearing ammals, the most valuable of which are the black fox, wMch is rare (his skM is valued up to £100), and the sable — a good sable-skin fetches from 50s. to £10. One method of securing the sable, if he takes refuge in a hole, is to cut off Ms retreat with fine tMeads covered with bells, so that if he makes a dash out by mght his movements may become known. The Tungus use the reindeer not only for drawing sledges but for riding ; they use a bridle twisted round the horns, and support themselves by staffs. When they are reduced to poverty by the loss of their reindeer they live on fish. In summer the nomadic Tungus come to the coast to fish. In March, or at some appomted time, the Tungus assemble M their nomad camps to pay the yassak. Yurta and herd aHke are left M the charge of the wife durMg the hunting season. The woman has to do aU the work of the house : she has to prepare the skin for the boots, sew the clothes, skin the reindeer, and make the meals ready. Dwellings. — They have no towns, vMages, or houses as a rule, but only tents, of which there are seldom more than 2 or 3 together. In summer the yurta is made of birch-bark, in winter of skins or, more rarely, logs. It is constructed with perpendicular sides, and a corneal roof with a vent-hole for the smoke. It is divided into sections, the best of wMch is taken by the owner of the tent ; the others are for the grown up cMldren, and sometimes the labourers ; but these usuaUy have separate tents. One yurta wiU contain six or eight of these divisions. The quite poor construct their yurtas of fish-skin and not reindeer-skins. TUNGUS 177 Clothing, food. — Of so widely scattered a people, who dwell some of them near the Pole and others on the Chinese borders, it is impossible to describe the costume in general terms. One common costume described consists of a parka (blouse), dacha (sleeveless cloak), pantaloons worn by men and women, and cap and boots of reindeer sMn. Their main food is the meat and milk of reindeer, dried fish, and a sort of cheese. They do not care for a vegetarian diet. Krahmer attributes to them the dish tolkusha, wMch has been described among the Kamchadals. Marriage and death. — The son grows up in Ms father's house ; he has no property of Ms own ; the father takes even the furs that his son's skUl m hunting has secured. When he is married he has Ms own section of the tent. The Tungus girl is free m her choice of a husband, and gets her own share of ' the inheritance, though less than that of her brother. Marriage is exogamous, but in the north, as with the Yakuts, we find tribes that are endogamous ; so, too, there is polygamy M YeMseisk, but few Tungus are rich enough to afford the kalym for more than on,e wife. The Tungus never burn their dead. The corpse is usuaUy sewn up in reindeer-sMn, and then sometimes put m a wooden coffin set on high posts. Among the pastoral people round Lake Baikal it is interred in the ground. On returning from the funeral these latter try to obhterate their tracks, or cut down trees to bar the way, in order that the spirit of the dead man may not pursue them. Other customs. — The Tungus dance is pecufiar ; they stamp on the ground while they repeat again and again one particular word. They have few musical instruments. . The mfluence of CMna on the southern Tungus has led to the development of beautiful forms of art. Religion. — In the south a good number of the Tungus are BuddMsts, but in the north Shamanism prevaUs. The acceptance of CMistiaMty has' led rather to a disintegration of clan customs than an improvement of faith and morals. The Tungus is generally credited with being very superstitious. SIBERIA I M 178 THE NE07SIBERIAN TRIBES A. — Chapogir, Olennye, Lamut Of Tungus tribes there are found in the north, the Chapogir between the Lower and Middle Tunguska, who may be a clan rather than a tribe, the Olennye between the Chaun and the Anadir, to the north of the Stanovoi Mountains, and the Lamuts who dwell m the Verkhoyansk and Kolima districts of Yakutsk, along the north shore of the Sea of Okhotsk and along the west coast of Kamchatka. They are about 2,000 in number, but are dyMg out. They are smaU and wizened, a nomadic people, who ride reMdeer and drive them in sledges. They are excellent shots, and some few of them are given to fishing. They five in big corneal tents, covered M winter with undressed reindeer-sMn, m summer with tanned sheep-sMn; these tents are easUy struck, and they move rapidly. They retain their primitive simpficity and are very religious. Their CMistiaMty, however, is tinged with Shamamsnu Few among them can speak the Russian language. B. — Orochon In the Amur basin are a large number of tribes, who are whoUy or partially Tungus. The most widely spread of these is the westernmost of them, the Orochon (or Oronchon or Orocheni). Their name implies that they are a reindeer people : we may compare Oroke, Oroche, and probably Olcha, with I substituted for r, though of these tMee oMy the Oroke still have reindeer. They dweU in the district north and east of Baikal as far as the SMlka, and along the ShUka and Amur to the confluence with the Oldoi, and northwards along the Olekma vaUey almost to Olekminsk. They resided originally in Yakutsk and emigrated to the Amur M 1825, occupying part of the territory of the Manegir. Those that live to the north of the Amur are caUed Ninagui, those that live to the south are caUed Sholgon. RavensteM describes them thus : They are small and spare, with thin limbs. They have flat faces, very small and sleepy-looking eyes, of black or brown colour, noses often large and pomted, large OROCHON 179 mouths with thin Hps, broad cheeks. Their hair is black and smooth ; their eyebrows are tMn, and their beard is short. The Chinese tax-collectors, to whom their women were freely offered, have left their stamp on the physiognomy of many of the mhabitants. Their ordinary costume is a fur or leather frock (gulama) with short and wide leather drawers girt round the waist, and a belt, attached to which are a great number of tMngs in daUy use. The dress of the women is much the same, oMy longer. Unmarried girls can be recog nized by their headbands embroidered with beads and adorned with buttons, copper coins, and small pieces of tin. They are a nomadic tribe. Their tents are coMcal, easUy buUt and removed. They have some twenty poles stuck in the ground to form a circle of from 10-14 ft. M diameter, tied together about 10 ft. above the centre. The frame is covered with birch-bark, and that agaM with skMs of the reindeer and elk. In front there is an opening to serve as a door, and above a hole for a chimney. When they remove temporarily they leave the frame and , merely remove the bark and skins. The seat of honour opposite the entrance is never occupied by women. In front are scaffoldings for dryMg fish and meat, and storehouses for keepMg what they do not carry away on their excursions ; these are never locked, but no one thinks of robbing them. In catcMng fish they use harpoons for large fish and a snare (samolov) for smaU fish. The Orochon are nominally Christian, but keep up a good deal of the old Shamanism. They wear teeth and claws of aMmals as amulets, and erect idols made of wood and fur in their yurtas. C. — Manegir What is said of the Orochon is mostly applicable to their eastern neighbours, the Manegir (Manyargs, Manegr), who five along both banks of the Amur from the mouth of the Oldoi to the mouth of the Zeya, and up that river and its tributaries to about lat. 54° N. Their languages are closely aMn, both accenting on the last syllable, while their more m 2 180 THE NEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES northerly Tungus neighbours accent on the penultimate, but in their physical characteristics the Manchu type is more discermble, whUe the Orochon more resemble the northern Tungus. The great difference between them is that, whereas both tribes are nomadic, the Orochon employ reindeer, the Manegir horses. In reUgion they are defimtely Shamamst. They dweU on the river-banks in summer and frequent the taiga M winter. They have large herds of horses. They are said to keep their horses in condition by not feedmg them for a day before a long journey, and for five or six days after returning. D. — Birar Further dowri the Amur, after a short Mterval, where a corner on the left bank is occupied by the Daurians, come the tribe of the Birar (caUed by Middendorff Bural or Byral Tungus). These dweU M the vaUey of the Bureya and its confluents as far as the prairie extends, i. e. up to about lat. 53° N. Down the Amur they are found to the mouth of the River Dichun. They are closely akin to the Manegir, whom they resemble in physiognomy and language, both borrowing words from the CMnese, Manchu, and Daurians. Like the Manegir, they are Horse-Tungus. E. — Kile East of these agaM, on the valleys of the Urmi and Kur, but not reaching to the Amur, are the Kile. IMormation about them is extremely scanty, but they seem to have been formerly a tribe of reindeer-nomads, who have settled on the River Kur and taken to fisMng and hunting. Possibly the tribesman whom Middendorff caUs Guragr was one of these, i.e. Kur-dweller. F. — Negda, Sanagir, Olcha, Oroke These tribes form a second group of Amur-Tungus, con nected together by their language. The Negda (Nigidals or Neidalz (Russ.)) follow the course of the Amgun to its con- NEGDA, SANAGIR, OLCHA, OROKE 181 fluence with the Amur. They oMy occupy a few poMts beyond the Amgun. They seem to be a blend of Tungus and Gilyaks. The Sanagir (Shanogir) are mostly along the upper and middle course of the River Gorin, but the mouth, Hke that of the Kur, is occupied by the Goldi, whom physicaUy they closely resemble. They have not always been distingmshed from the Negda. The Olcha (Manguns) occupy the lower waters of the Amur from the mouth of the Gorin to Bogorodskoe and to the sea at dp Castries Bay. Physically they present a Tungus type, but with great modifications ; they are said by Schrenk to be a cross between the Tungus and the Gilyak, and Gilyak influence is discerMble M their language ; others have held them to be more definitely of Mongol origin. They are less energetic than the Gilyak, and have not to the same extent kept out the Russian traders, who have had a demoralizing influence upon them. They keep dogs in large numbers, and have a special table in their houses reserved for feeding them. The Oroke are the last tribe M this group. They occupy settlements along the east coast and in the Mterior of SakhaHn. They number 749, of whom 395 are males. As early as 1709 there are allusions to reMdeer-holding inhabitants of Sakhalin. Mamia Rinzo caUs them Orotskoe. Klaproth thinks that the Manchus gave the name of Oron to aU the Tungus people. Their character is said to be rough and unbridled. They have no permanent habitation, but dwell in yurtas easUy removed. They own reindeer, as their name imphes ; a man is supposed to be weU off who owns twelve. They do not shave their heads, but aUow the hair to fall over the shoulders, or tie it up in a pigtaU wMeh hangs down behind. The clothes are made of fish-skM, seal-skM, and deer-skM, the latter beMg speciaUy used for the trousers. The women's gowns are ornamented with brass decorations, and they have linen aprons, the material beMg procured by trading journeys to the Amur. For hunting they use bows and arrows and spears, Their food consists of fish, meat, roots, and herbs. 182 THE NEO-SIBERIAN TKIUUB G. — Daurians Of the south or Manchurian group the Daurians come up to the Amur below Blagovyeshchensk and occupy the right bank from that town down to Kadagan. PhysicaUy they are hard to distinguish from the Manchu ; they have oval and intellectual faces ; their cheeks are less broad than those of their other Tungus neighbours ; the nose is rather pro minent, the eyebrows are straight, the skM tawny-coloured, and the hair brown. There is a theory that they are the remaMs of a CMnese-Mongol military colony; but although their language contaMs many Chinese words, it is notable that among the names of animals those that are CMnese are the names of marketable animals, the others beMg Tungus. They are a tall, strong 'people. They have assimUated Chmese customs to a great extent. The upper classes shave their heads in front and grow pigtafis beMnd ; the lower classes do not shave their heads, and twist their pigtafis round their hair. The men wear long blue coats of cotton, loose linen trousers fastened at the knee or made Mto leggmgs, CMnese shoes or boots made of sMn. They have a kaftan of fish-skin or other skin, and a belt to which is attached a case that contains their most requisite accessories (knife, chopsticks, tinder, small copper pipe, and tobacco). The women dress in blue cotton gowns with short loose sleeves, above which they wear a cape or mantle of sUk reacMng to the waist ; they carry their youngest chUdren on their backs. They are primarily a people of huntsmen, but fish also : during the wMter they secure fish on the Amur by ' malleting ' : the fish are visible tMough the ice and are stunned by a blow at the top ; a hole is then made m the ice and they are secured. Their houses are set M square yards with a fence of stakes or wicker-work about them ; they have a framework of wood covered with mud, the roof is covered with sedge or grass. UsuaUy the Mterior is not divided ; when it is, the entrance-room, where the chUdren and domestic animals are congregated, is used as the kitchen. During the summer they have windows made of paper soaked in oil, DAURIANS 183 during the winter they cover their windows with matting. Outside many of the houses are shrines containing idols with basins of mcense set before them ; another refigious decora tion is the long pole with votive skuUs adorning it. H. — Solons The Solons (shooters) are a tribe which are important in north Manchuria, but a mere handful of them live across the Amur. They are nomadic, and even their women hunt on horseback ; they have horses, dogs (used for hunting), sheep, oxen, and camels. Both they and the Daurians have large Mongol and even Chinese admixture. I. — Manchu The Manchu are the aristocracy of these tribes ; they have a proud Mstory and have given a dynasty to China. Their real home is up the vaUey of the Kirin, a tributary of the Sungari. They have more marked features than any of their neighbours, tMcker, more arched noses, less thin lips, bigger mouths, taUer stature. They are found in the neigh bourhood of Blagovyeshchensk, but there are very few beyond the Amur (the number of the whole tribe is 3,340). They are fishermen, and have boats either made of the trunk of a hoUowed tree, >or flat-bottomed made of planks. J. — Oroche The Oroche five along the coast of the Ussuri region from de Castries Bay to about lat. 44° N. Their speech resembles that of the Goldi, but we have little Mformation about it ; the resemblances are more in vocabulary than in pronuncia tion. They have had their physical type modified by inter course with the GUyaks in the north and with the CMnese in the south : the latter have had' a demoralizing effect upon them ; they have settled among them, sometimes for agricul ture on a smaU scale, sometimes for fishing, gold-washing, and so on. The South Oroche (Tazi) have been especially 184 THE NEO-SIBERIAJN TR1±}J£» affected by tMs intercourse. The Oroche are said to have a repMsive physiognomy. They are very short ; their heads are proportionately big, their extremities smaU ; their complexion is less dark than that of the Amu and the hair less thick, the beard being almost Ml. Their hair is black or brown, their eyebrows are strongly marked ; their faces are flat and almost square ; the forehead is low, round and somewhat receding, the cheekbones prominent, the eyes smaU and slanting, the nose small and snub, "the mouth big, the lips tiiin. The population is 2,407, of whom 1,329 are males. Despite their name sigMfying ' reindeer-keepers ' they are now a fisher-folk. K. — Goldi Territory, divisions. — The Goldi live along the Amur and its tributaries the Ussuri and the Sungari. There are tMee divisions of them, differentiated more by the dialect that they use than by any other pecuharity: (1) from the mouth of the Gorin where they are contermmous with the Olcha to the Gion Mountam, (2) from the Gion MountaM to the mouth of the Ussuri and up that river ; (3) from the mouth of the Ussuri up the Amur and Sungari. TMs last group is caUed Kilens : the name Khodz is given to those Goldi who five below Khabarovsk. Intercourse with Chinese. Physical appearance. — The Goldi have acted, as transmitters of culture : they have absorbed much that China had to teach them and have m turn greatly affected the tribes beyond them, especiaUy the GUyak, who owe to them many features in their art, customs, and ideas. Their physical type has been modified by tMs Mtercourse also, and some of them present certaM differences in appear ance from the northern Tungus. The face is round or oval with the well-known ' Mongol ' characteristics : broad cheek bones, oblique small eyes, broad, thin, low nose. But the other type is found not less frequently : there is a certam breadth in the cheeks, the eyes are less oblique, the nose is higher and more arched, the lips are thicker. Both types have black hair and eyes (occasionally grey), and have bony GOLDI 185 and muscular frames. Their beard and moustache are poor. They have one form of tattoo wMch is used by both sexes, viz. four spots on the forehead arranged as a cross. In character they have been described as timid, good-natured, and honest. Numbers. — They number 5,016, of whom 2,640 are males. Occupations, dwellings, clothing. — It is difficult to describe with great accuracy their ideas and way of Me, because the traveUers to whom most of our detailed iMormation is due have not been carefM to distingMsh them from their neigh bours. Their chief employment is fisMng, for which purpose they use smaU birch-bark canoes for one man, and also larger boats of tMee principal planks, mostly of cedar-wood, fastened by wooden pegs and caulked with willow-bark, of about the length of 15 ft., adapted for crossmg shallows and capable of carryMg saUs. They are expert oarsmen and are serviceable to the Russians in that capacity. They employ dogs to tow their boats upstream. They have an ingenious method of recovering the harpoon after they have tMown it ; there is a fish-bladder attached by a fine 35 ft. long and that, as it floats, mdicates where it is. One method of securing fish when they descend the Amur is to fix firmly to the bed of the stream a row of tressels connected by cross beams, and the Mterstices Mled by wickerwork of wfilows : in a gap M the latter the Goldi put their fishing-nets and secure large catches. When they have dried their fish they sometimes protect them agamst the assault of birds by chaiMng an eagle m the vicMity. They do a certain amount of hunting, but have settled habitations, and are not nomads, though they may be absent from home for a long period. They are also good smiths and make beautiful ornamental Bpear-heads. Agriculture is confined to the cMtivation of smaU plots of land in which they grow vegetables and tobacco surroundMg their dweMngs. These latter are on the fines of Chinese houses ; they are built of poles with beaten clay between, or a mixture of clay and straw. The floor is covered with clay, and has a hole with charcoal in it, kept burning 186 THE NEO-SIBERIAN TRIBES summer and wmter, for the purpose of fighting pipes. These houses are about 30 or 40 ft. square, and wUl accommodate sometimes 30 or 40 people. Their costume varies, and they are most receptive of alien fasMons. The same man wfil wear at different times a Russian overcoat, a Chinese dress or a fish-skin suit. The women are MgMy skilfal M needle work and embroidery, and tastefuUy adorn their skirts and bodices. Customs. — In a popMation where men are M a majority there is naturaUy no polygamy. They are Shamamsts in religion, and bury their shamans and other great ones M huts ; the bodies of the poor are bestowed M coffins placed M trees out of the reach of wUd beasts. Their favourite amusement is wrestfing, and the singing of improvised songs. CHAPTER VI COLONIZATION OF SIBERIA Elements of Immigrant Population — Distribution and Number of Golonists — The Present System of Colonization — The Exile System — Colonization of the various Provinces — Distribution of Russian Population — The Yellow Question and Colonization — Encouragement of Colonization in Arctic Russia. Elements op Immigrant Population Early Colonization : Cossacks The colomzation of Siberia has been a long process, at first gradual, and recently very rapid, that has extended over more than three hundred years. The conquests of Yermak in the reign of Ivan the Terrible were soon followed by the arrival of the first colonists. It was in 1593 that the first settlers arrived : they came from the town of Uglich, and had been too zealous in making known the plot against the Tsarevich Dmitri. But the earliest settlers were not as a rule exUes, but either traders attracted by the fur trade, or Cossacks whose settlements were extended across the continent to protect the new settlers. In 1637, Yakutsk was founded, and about the middle of the century Khabarov occupied the banks of the Amur (see Chap. XVIII). In the eighteenth century, when the borders of Asiatic Russia had become res tricted, Transbaikal was largely occupied by Cossacks from the Don, and their descendants have constituted a hereditary military caste and have formed the nucleus of future military colonies in the Far East. The Cossacks have had special privileges as settlers : in central Siberia they are granted 60 acres of land per man. But it is difficult for them to combine their functions of settlers and soldiers, and the individual Cossack is usually so much a worse colonist as he has discharged 188 COLONIZATION OF SIBERIA his mihtary duties effectively. (For the origin of the Cossacks see p. 357.) In the eighteenth century a line of forts was constructed along the River Irtish, from Omsk in a south-easterly direction as a protection agaMst the wild tribes of the Kirghiz steppes : the military occupation of this district preceded the advent of civilian settlers, which was not really developed till near the end of the Mneteenth century. Exiles But another and very different source of immigrants soon began to be drawn upon. The first recorded mention of exile to Siberia in any Russian legislation is in a law of the Tsar Alexis Mikhailovich in 1648. ExUe was largely used at first as a means of getting rid of disabled criminals, men on whom some savage sentence of mutilation had been carried out, and, as was natural to expect, such men were useless as colonists. Then at the close of the seventeenth century it was regarded as desirable to send exiles to popMate new terri tory : an extensive criminal code supplied large contingents when exile was the recognized penalty for such different offences as fortune-telling, snuff-taMng, driving with reins and setting fire to property accidentally. The discovery of mineral wealth added a fresh incentive : rich mines were found at Yekaterinburg, and tMs together with the establish ment of manufactories in Irkutsk led to a large demand for labour, wMch was met by extensions of the puMshment of exile to fresh crimes. In the year 1753 capital punishment was abolished in Russia, and its place was taken by perpetual banishment to Siberia with hard labour. The exiles dispatched to Siberia fell under three designa tions : they were either criminal, political, or refigious. In 1900 exile to Siberia was abolished, though in 1904 it was restored for political offences and the number of political exiles was greatly swelled by the revolutionary outbreaks of the period of ' Vladimir's day '. In 1906 45,000 political exiles entered Siberia. For a longtime the exiles (kolodniks) were ELEMENTS OF IMMIGRANT POPULATION 189 driven in herds from one village to another without any proper arrangements being made for them, and they were often starved on the way. At the beginning of the Mneteenth century more satisfactory arrangements were made : in 1811 a suitable force of regular guards was organized to convoy parties of exiles, and all exiles were furnished with identifying documents (stateini spiski) to show who they were and wMther they were bound. In 1817 etapes (ostrogs) were established along the main roads ; they stand now easily identified in the villages in western Siberia, often, it is said, the most cheerfM-looMng bMlding in the commuMty. In eastern Siberia they are usuaUy outside. In 1823 a bureau of exile-administration was established in Tobolsk, wMch has since been removed to Tyumen, and through that has passed the endless procession of exiles, political and criminal. No record of them was kept until 1823 : since that date to 1898 there have passed by 700,000 exiles ; and with them 216,000 voluntary followers (dobrovolni). The criminal prisoners fall under two heads : (1) katorgeni rabotniki (criminal convicts), who are sentenced to hard labour ; (2) poselentsi, who are condemned to shorter periods of imprisonment. During tMs same period 187,000 criminal exiles with 107,000 companions have entered Siberia. Since 1870 the government has done its best to keep apart the criminal from the peaceful colonists. From that date the convicts were confined more and more to the Lena territory and parts of the Far East, wMle until recently the northern part of the island of Sakhalin retained by Russia has been almost exclusively a penal colony. The political exiles have been maiMy in west and central Siberia. A great terror to life has been added by the escaped convicts (brodyagi) in various parts of Siberia. Escape is easy ; one writer in 1902 says that one-tMrd of the transported escape all control and wander, rob, and terrorize. On the other hand the political exile who settles in the country often adds the most enlightened element of the populace to the commuMty : such men settle in the towns ; they open shops and enter into the social life, being readily trusted and hospitably treated by the inhabi- 190 COLONIZATION OF SIBERIA tants, and they found a progressive public opiMon. They have been among the best sections of the commuMty, and have added much to the development of the country : some of them have been among the most enterprising of its explorers : e. g. Bogoras, whose work on the inhabitants of the Chukchee Peninsula is the most important contribution to our knowledge of that district. Some political exiles have become the trusted agents of the government in the districts to wMch they have been sent. The exiles who were sent for religious reasons need a special word. The great occasion for their bamshment arose from the opposition to the reforms of Nikon in ecclesiastical matters, and, afterwards to those of Peter the Great in social and political affairs. Nikon in the middle of the seventeenth century had tried to make the ritual of the Russian Church conform more exactly in certain small matters with that of other branches of the Eastern Church, removing certain errors from the liturgical books. To a conservative opposition tMs was apostasy, and when Peter came, Nikon was Antichrist. So there arose great numbers of dissenters (raskolniki) : their first great division was into Popovists or supporters of the priesthood, and Bezpopovists who felt that the priesthood was hopelessly vicious, as the Church had become apostate. Both parties believed in Apostolic Succession, and the Popo vists had carried with them in their secession a bishop through whom the succession from the apostles might be transmitted ; but he died before he could consecrate a successor. There was even some talk of cutting off Ms hands that their ' laying on ' might convey the gifts of the Spirit, but, as the words of consecration could not be said, the idea was abandoned. They had therefore to depend upon runaway priests. The Bezpopovists resorted to other and more direct methods of a continuance of spiritual grace : e. g. they would stand looking upwards with their mouths wide open, that spiritual blessings might reach them from heaven by that means. These raskolniki are ascetic, industrious, and abstemious, abstaimng entirely from alcohol and tobacco. They are the ELEMENTS OF IMMIGRANT POPULATION 191 predominant element among the settlers of Transbaikal, at any rate among those who have been settled for any appreci able period upon the land : the Don Cossacks are nearly all raskolniki. They are not a learned folk, but at the same time they encourage elementary education sufficient for reading the Bible. There are other sects, some of wMch indulge in extrava gances that contravene all morality. Among the more peculiar sects are the Skoptsi, found chiefly in settlements round Yakutsk. In deafing with religious dissent periods of persecution and toleration have alternated, but the raskolniki now constitute as much as 10 per cent, of the population of the whole Russian Empire. Enforced Settlement on lines of Communication Besides the actual exiles another class of settlers should be mentioned, viz. those peasants who have been bound to settle at appointed places in order to maintain communications along the roads, and the yamshchiks who drive travellers along the various sections of the post-roads. Free settlers The last element in the immigrant population of Siberia and much the most important is that of the free settlers, whether helped by the government or not. Voluntary immi grants (samovolni) settled of their own accord in the remotest parts of Siberia, and founded communal colonies as in Euro pean Russia. Being quite cut off from their Mndred by reason of the immense distance, they intermarried with the Cossacks or with the natives. Where the Russian element has not been very strong they have even adopted the language of the natives among whom they dwell. Thus the Russians who live among the Buryats and Yakuts have often adopted their language. The descendants of these settlers are the Siberiaks who have lost their national sentiment wMle retaining many of the habits and customs of Russians. TMs resMting 192 COLONIZATION OF SIBERIA race is shorter and of darker complexion, of lower morals but stronger independence. During the eighteenth century and for a considerable portion of the Mneteenth the Russian government did what it could to discourage the samovolni. But of recent years the warmest encouragement has been given to free settlers in Siberia by the Russian government. This was made possible by the abolition of serfdom in 1861 ; not till then coMd the Russian peasant leave Ms native soil. For the first 300 years of Russian occupation sometMng like 3,000,000 persons immigrated from European to Asiatic Russia. But there was a marked increase in the number of immigrants in 1896, and since the Russo-Japanese War more have arrived than the numbers during the three previous centuries. In 1914 the sum of £3,000,000 a year was voted for the development of colonization in Siberia, whereas previous to 1896 only £100,000 had been voted and in 1906 £500,000. Between 1909 and 1913 the area of new land surveyed and parcelled out for colonization was 18,000,000 desyatins (i. e. 75,850 square miles), and 350,000 families were settled. To this have to be added 6,000,000 desyatins (25,000 square miles) of land belonging to old mirs (viUage communities) brought under cultivation during those same years. Distribution and Number of Colonists ColoMzation has been mainly directed to the black earth zone, through which run the Trans-Siberian Railway and the great Siberian road. It extends from about lat. 58° 30' N. to 55° N., though in the Altai district the region of colomzation comes as far south as lat. 51° N., where there has been a great inrush of colonists since the ' Cabinet ' estates of about 200,000 square miles were tMown open for general colonization in 1906 ; between 1896 and 1909 one-third of the 3,000,000 immigrants to Asiatic Russia went to the Altai district. In the same period about 900,000 went to the Steppe region, about 258,000 to the Tobolsk region, and about 300,000 to the east of Lake Baikal. The Tomsk Government (outside the DISTRIBUTION AND NUMBER OF COLONISTS 193 Altai) attracted nearly 500,000 and the Yeniseisk Government nearly 400,000. Only 18,000 went to Turkestan. The growth of colomzation can be shown by the following figures. From 1870 to 1890, 500,000 settlers entered Siberia ; from 1896 to 1905, 1,078,000. The years that followed the Russo-Japanese War have shown even greater numbers of coloMsts, as the following table shows : — Year. Settlers entering Asiatic Russia 1906 1907 427,339 1908 664,777 1909 619,320 1910 316,163 1911 189,791 1912 201,027 1913 234,877 During the five years between 1909 and 1913, 75,850 square miles were parcelled out for coloMzation and settled by a new popMation of about 1,500,000. During this period also about 6,300 miles of road were constructed. The decrease in the number of emigrants in 1910 was attributed to the Mst of a succession of good harvests in southern Russia. There is a marked decline in the number of emigrants who return each year to Russia. Excluding khodoki (see below) and migratory labourers, the percentage of returning colonists has faUen to about 4 per cent, a year. This applies to all the districts except the provinces of Yeniseisk and Irkutsk, and in those two colomes special climatic conditions had reduced many coloMsts to destitution. The Present System op Colonization Selection and tenure of land The coloMzation of Asiatic lands is directed by the MiMstry of AgricMture. Every effort is made to secure that immigration shall be popular, and to encourage the development of the remoter parts. By now the more attrac-- 194 COLONIZATION OF SLBUK1A tive parts for settlement are practically all occupied, including the districts through wMch the railway runs and the imperial lands in the Altai district, but settlers can obtain loans from the State if their land is in the taiga where much clearing has to be done, or in the steppes where deep wells have to be dug, or in the far east on account of its great distance. The loan for difficult regions or lands in the far east may be 400 roubles, and in Transbaikal 250-400 roubles. These loans are on easy terms : notMng at all is paid for the first three years, and after that the debt is paid off in instalments for the next 10 years. Sometimes the second half of the loan is remitted altogether. One condition, however, is always eMorced, and that is that a khodok goes out in advance to view the land. A khodok is a man who is sent out to see whether the land is suitable for coloMzation. One khodok may re present several families, but not more than five. He usually goes a year before the intending settler, and after selecting the land returns to Russia. He must travel with a certificate, which is given gratuitously. From April to June is the best season for judging the land, but the settlers themselves go out before the winter is over for fear of losing their chance of securing the land that they wish : sometimes they commence their occupation before the snow is gone, which precipitancy may lead to very disappointing resMts for them. Khodoki are not included in the table given above. Privileges of emigrants Other privileges are coMerred on settlers. For the first five years they are exempted from taxation, and for the next five years they oMy pay a half. Settlers above the age of eighteen have their military service postponed for three years. In the eastern parts of the Amur General Government and in Turkestan settlers over fifteen have six years' postponement of service. Such Russian coloMsts as inhabit the lower valleys of the Lena and Yenisei are altogether exempted from military service as an inducement to continue their struggle agaMst the forces of nature. Should the elder son die wMle the younger PRESENT SYSTEM OF COLONIZATION 195 is in the ranks, the latter is immediately given his discharge and goes back to the farm. Further, the government has started depots for agricultural machMery of modern type. In 1909 there were 64 of these depots, in 1913 there were 300. In 1898 the value of the agricultural machMery imported into Siberia was 211,900 roubles ; m 1913 it was 8,400,000. Again, in Ms first year the new coloMst is supplied by the government with enough seed-corn to enable Mm to sow three desyatins of land. Along the routes there are hospitals for the immigrants, who travel in fourth-class carriages (those carriages marked as accommodating 40 men or 8 horses) at a cost of 3 roubles for 1,000 versts, wMch means less than Is. for 100 miles. CMldren under 10 are carried free. Baggage, horses and cattle are taken at very low rates. There are tMrty stations arranged for the distribution of land, the largest of wMch is at Chelyabinsk. At Chelyabinsk, Kansk, and Stryetensk a large number of houses have been erected for the temporary accommodation of the immigrants. Along the lines are stations where free medical aid is given. Hot food is served out free of charge to cMldren under 10 and sick people. Those who fall victims to infectious diseases are given free treatment in government hospitals. Ninety-six per cent, of the land in Siberia belongs to the State : oMy in the Amur territory is it ever purchased. The usual amount allotted is now from 8 to 15 desyatins to each male member of a family. The Cossacks have had land allotted to them on a more liberal scale, each male having been given in central Siberia 60 acres, in the Amur General Govern ment 100. New land for ' freehold ' farms is allotted in parcels of 25-50 desyatins of arable land to each family irrespective of the number of males. An immigrant from Russia gets on an average a farm nine times as large as that wMch he had in Europe. The land is conveyed to the settlers by letters of allotment : it continues to be state-property, but for the perpetual benefit of the settler, who has no right to sell or mortgage it. N 2 196 COLONIZATION OF SIBERIA All the land set apart for communes of immigrants is now carefMly surveyed, parcelled out and assessed for loans and taxation. Conditions of colonization and sources of emigration The great incentive to colonization from Russia is that the peasants in Europe occupy plots wMch only require work for from 60 to 75 days in the year, and cannot find work in the neighbourhood. In Asia they are assigned allotments large enough to give them work for the whole year. They come maiMy from the northern part of the black earth zone in middle Russia, and to a less extent from Lithuama and the Governments of Perm and Vyatka. They are apt to retain the local characteristics of their old home ; thus the settlers from the Government of Poltava tend to dislike innovations, and those from the Government of Mogilev do not generally bear a good- name as efficient colonists. Every year the Russian government points out what tracts of country are open to coloMzation, where villages may be buUt, what improvements have been made in irrigation. The coloMal villages are definitely planned and scheduled before they contain a single inhabitant. The sites of villages are often determined by strategical considerations, the military authorities reqmring a certain number along the line of tMs or that Mil or valley. The class of Russians who are allowed to settle in Asia is determined by the government. Thus in 1914 the government declared that the following might settle beyond the Ural : ' all peasants and those engaged exclusively in agriculture, and also artisans, workmen, factory-hands, merchants and shopkeepers. People of other classes must, before emigrating, apply to the governor of the province in wMch they live.' It further publishes a summary of information showing intending colonists exactly what their status and privileges will be. Those who belong to forms of religion that discountenance military service are not allowed to settle in certain provinces (e. g. Semiryechensk). THE EXILE SYSTEM 197 The Exile System Improvement in Condition of Exiles To the outer world Siberia has been more associated with the exile system than with any other fact, and novelists, journalists, and travellers have made its features familiar; but the long march of many months along the roads has given place to the more rapid transit by the arestantski wagons on the railway, and the abolition of exile for ordinary criminals has completely transformed its associations. For some years there have been no processions of convicts, the katorgeni shaved on the right side of their head, the posdentsi shaved on the left, nor daily tramps of 20 miles from etape to etape, with military guards relieving each other at the intermediate stages (poletape). Relations of Exile with Colonization The effect of the exile system on coloMzation has been bad. For a long time the exiles were not sent to unoccupied land, when their period of detention was over, but were attached to existing settlements, though not exceeding a proportion of one-fifth of the older inhabitants. After that an effort was made to detach the actual convicts : they were sent farther away, while the political exile, who had usually not been bamshed to so remote a region, took part in the urban life. The political exiles are of two Mnds, those who have been sentenced after a legal trial, and those who have been bamshed by the more arbitrary system of admiMstrative order from the MiMster of the Interior. These two classes of prisoners are divided into those with rights and those without. The former can occupy land and earn wages ; the latter are re stricted to a certain number of small trades and their annual turnover is limited. They are employed generally on wharfs, railways, &c, and in remote districts on post-roads at the current rate of wages. A certain amount of convict-labour was also employed on railways, with some success in central Siberia, but without success on the Ussuri Railway. 198 COLONIZATION OF SIBERIA Eight months of work on the railway were allowed to count as a year of imprisonment. Gangs of escaped convicts (brodyagi) have always been a terror to remote regions. These brodyagi find it easy to get away, and the inhabitants leave out food for them, not so much from charity as from policy, that they may be discouraged from taMng it forcibly. If any of the brodyagi are found dead with wounds in front no particular questions are likely to be asked about their death, as it will be assumed that they have been killed by somebody in self-defence. It is oMy when they are found dead with their wounds behind that investigation is made. The scattering of the prisoners through Siberia was less a wrong to them than to the country. Their actual treatment seems to have compared favourably with the treatment of criminals in most countries ; but the permanent element that survived in the country, apart from the political prisoners, did not make for its welfare . For every fifty-seven inhabitants Siberia has received one criminal or political prisonei, and M 1898 (two years before the abolition of the penalty of exile) the number of transported persons was 298,574. It must be remembered also that a large proportion of the exiles (from 1867 to 1876, more than 50 per cent.) had been banished because they had been found refractory or otherwise undesir able by their mirs at home, so that the land was beMg filled by drafts of those who would presumably make the worst settlers. Transportation again does not contribute to colonization owMg to the large proportion of unmarried persons. But, worst of all, the country had a bad name, and the development of its great resources was thwarted by its penal associations which acted as a deterrent to those who would have made its best colonists. Colonization op the various Provinces Tobolsk. — This was the province in which colonization was first encouraged, when colonists were settled along the banks of the Rivers Tura, Tavda, Tobol, and Ob. It is the province, too, in which are the largest number of political exiles. In COLONIZATION OF THE VARIOUS PROVINCES 199 1910 a writer speaks of them as numbering 40,000. Among these are a very large contingent of Poles, many of them the descendants of former exiles : there were many Poles bamshed in 1758, 1831, and 1863. For a long time Tyumen was the great centre of organization of settlers on the land. Now these functions are mainly performed at Chelyabinsk ; there the settlers are arranged into parties and sent under super- Mtendence to the district which they are to coloMze. They have to wait for formal permission to settle, but tMs precau tion is merely taken in order to prevent debtors from abscond ing. In May 1896, when the great rush of immigrants to Siberia began, there would be as many colonists on a par ticular day passing through Chelyabinsk as the whole popula tion of the town (viz. 17,000) . Since the opemng of the steppes the rush for Tobolsk has considerably dimimshed, but the population is still decidedly increasing. In 1858 it was 1,021,266; in 1897 it was 1,438,484 ; in 1911 it was estimated at about 1,975,239. Ninety-three per cent, of the population -is Russian : the rest of the popMation includes about 40,000 Tartars; Bokharians, and Kirghiz, 20,000 Ostyaks, and 15,000 Samoyedes and Voguls. The bulk of the popMation is in the south of the province. Seventy per cent, live in the steppe districts of Kurgan, Ishim, Tyukalinsk, and Yalutorovsk. In the Tyukalinsk cfistrict there have been since 1802 colomes of Finns, descendants of prisoners taken by the Russians in the war against Charles XII of Sweden. Tomsk has seen a' more rapid increase of its popMation than any other province, the extension of colonization being espe ciaUy due to the opeMng of the Cabinet estates in the Altai to general colonization. The northern part of the province is Crown land under the MiMstry of AgricMture, but the southern districts (BarnaM, Biisk, and Zmyeinogorsk), wMch are Imperial lands, are the most thicMy popMated. Since 1865 there has been a constant increase of immigration into these regions ; in the last decade of last century, 300,000 settlers arrived, and so attractive are the prospects that this rich mining district presents that no facilities are now given 200 COLONIZATION OF SIBERIA to new arrivals by the government. The Altai district has been kept clear of exiles. By 1900 practicaUy all the available land for colonization along the Siberian Railway had been taken up. But land has also been allotted in the taigas of Tomsk, Chulim, and Mariinsk, and the black earth of the taiga is extremely good, when the ground is cleared. The increase of population has been phenomenal : in 1858 it was 694,651 ; in 1897 it was 1,929,092 ; it was estimated in 1911 at 3,673,746. Of this population 93J per cent, is Russian ; one city, Kainsk, is predominantly Jewish. Other elements in the population are Ostyaks in the north, Samoyedes (about 6,500), Tartars and Bokharians (' Kalmuks '), and Teleuts or Telengites in the Altai. Steppe General Government. — The Russians first arrived in these parts in the sixteenth century. The type has become much transformed by cross-breeding, and has grown to approxi mate to that of the Siberian steppe-dweller. Mifitary occu pation long preceded the coming of peaceful colonists. Their settlements along the River Irtish and along the Busk line in the Tomsk Government guarded the country against Tartar invasion : as many as 5,174,949 desyatins were occupied by troops ; but it was felt towards the end of last century that the Cossacks did little for the civilization of the wild nomadic tribes. In 1868 there was not yet a single peasant settlement. In 1875 a cry was raised for peasant immigrants, when the Governor-General of 'the Steppes stated that the civifizing effects of the Cossack settlements were very indifferent, and accordingly a survey of the Akmolinsk steppe was ordered. The Russification of the Kirghiz on the steppes has been due much more to methods of peaceful penetration by traders and settlers than to the military occupation of the country, though in Akmolinsk the proportion of Cossacks to the whole popMa tion was 109 to the thousand, and in Semipalatmsk 42 to the thousand. In mtroducing the peasant settlers every effort was made that they should encroach as little as possible on the rights of the native tribes. As in all provinces where there are many Cossacks, raskolniki abound, and in some parts COLONIZATION OF THE VARIOUS PROVINCES 201 (e. g. round Kokchetav and Petropavlovsk) a certain number of Cossacks, estimated at 1,700, are Mohammedans. The greatest element in the steppe population is now the peasants : in AkmolMsk they are 54-2 per cent., though in Uralsk they are only 16-5 per cent. The Cossacks are most in Uralsk, where they are 75 per cent., while the artisans, gentry, and official class are most in Turgai (48 per cent.) and Semipala- tmsk (41-6 per cent.). The Kirghiz are still considerably the largest section of the popMation. The popMation has grown enormously iri Akmolinsk, less in Semipalatinsk, the figures being in AMuolinsk in 1858, 277,451, in 1897, 678,957, and in 1911 (estimated), 1,443,721 ; in Semipalatinsk in 1858, 217,451, in 1897, 685,197, and in 1911 (estimated), 873,760. Yeniseisk. — The bulk of the land in this province lying to the north is stony and swampy and unfit for cMtivation. The district of Turukhansk, which comprises more than two- thirds of the territory, oMy contains a small proportion of the popMation. FMly 80 per cent, of the inhabitants live in the district of the railway. The most favoured part of all is MinusMsk, where, attracted by the best climate in Siberia, a large number of settlers have planted themselves at their own risk. In 1907 the Government Survey Staff surveyed and prepared for incoming colonists unoccupied territory to the extent of 102,600 desyatins. When the Russians settled in this district they drove the native inhabitants either north to the tundras or south to the Minusinsk steppes. The native inhabitants include in the north, Ostyaks, Samoyedes, Tungus, Yuraks, and Yakuts ; in the south, ' Kalmuks', Teleut Tartars, Chern Tartars, Sagais and Abakansk Tartars. In the AcMnsk and MMusinsk districts the native popMation was growing in 1900. The Russians, however, are about 90 per cent, of the popMation. Yemseisk had 303,256 inhabitants in 1858, 559,902 in 1897, and in 1911 they were estimated at 966,409. Irkutsk. — The conditions M this province have been much the same as in Yemseisk. In both, the bulk of the population is settled along the railway. But more than in Yeniseisk 202 COLONIZATION OF SIBERIA the district was used as a dumping-ground for convicts. Before 1900, convicts to the number of 950 to 1,000 were forwarded annually. Until the Siberian Railway was opened there was very little immigration into tMs region, but it is now rapidly developing. In 1896 grants of 15 desyatins per man were made. Native populations, which a few^ years ago were reckoned' at 21 per cent, of the whole, include Buryats, Tungus, Tartars, Ostyaks, and Soyots. In 1858 the popMa tion was 222,533, in 1897 it was 506,517, and in 1911 it was estimated at 750,000. Yakutsk. — There is little that can be called coloMzation in this vast territory. Russian popMation is only found where there are mines : even the posthouses along the Lena post- road are largely kept by Yakuts, and where the Russian population is sparse it has adopted the Yakut language. In 1897 the population was 261,731 ; in 1911 it was estimated at 277,187. Transbaikal. — The conditions of this territory are some what special. Peasant colomes are rare ; most of the settlers pass through it and fix their habitations in the Amur district. In 1900 it was estimated that oMy 12 per cent, of the settled land was occupied by peasants, whUe 45 per cent, belonged to the natives and 35 per cent, was in the hands of the Cossacks. But only 27 per cent, of the total area of the Transbaikal is cultivated at all, 40,000,000 desyatins lymg waste. There are a great number of exile-settlers in this district, the abode of many who have become vagrants not being known. The most famous exiles of this district were the Dekabrists, as those who took part in the plot of December 14, 1825, are styled. These were made to construct their own prison in Chita, and by their improvements in draining and levelfing transformed the place from a village mto a prosperous settle ment, now the capital of the province. The Cossack occupa tion of the province dates from the middle of the seventeenth century ; in the eighteenth century it was more fMly eMarged and orgamzed. When in the fifties of last century the Amur region was absorbed by Russia, Transbaikal Cossacks were COLONIZATION OF THE VARIOUS PROVINCES 203 transferred there. The land assigned to the Cossacks amounts to 3,000,000 desyatins : it is under the management of the commuMty represented by the stanitsa or village and the sotnya or group of a hundred soldiers. A great number of raskolniki live in this territory. It was the scene of exile of the famous dissenter Avakum. The Russian element in the population in 1900 was estimated at 64 per cent. The peasants are settled principally in the Selenginsk, Verkhne- Udinsk and Chita districts ; the Cossacks occupy the land near the frontier and the villages of the Rivers Dzhida, the lower CMkoi, the Onon, the Ingoda, the Shilka, and all the eastern portion of the territory. Sometimes their settlements alter nate with peasant villages. The native tribes are the Tungus and the Buryats : the former are chiefly in the districts of Chita, Selenginsk, and Barguzin ; the latter mostly in the same districts and Verkhne-Udinsk. The growth of popula tion has been steady : in 1858 it was 352,534 ; in 1897 it was 664,071 ; in 1911 it was estimated at 868,790. Amur. — -The beginning of Russia's colonization of the Amur territory was in the spring of 1857. A regiment of three sotnyas of Transbaikal Cossacks was ordered to settle with their wives and children along the Amur. They came down the river on rafts and were settled in stanitsas along the river at distances varying from 12 to 18 miles, the distance being determined rather from the desire of keeping up commuMcations than the suitability of the places for agriculture. Their task was to defend the frontier towards China and to provide postal com- mumcation between the Amur district and Transbaikal. The original settlers suffered terribly from the natural difficulties with which they had to contend, so that, although it was a peacefM occupation, the casualties were equivalent to those of a campaign ; later, in 1877, an inundation spoilt most of the land assigned to the Amur Cossacks. In four years from their first arrival they had established throughout the Amur basin 60 viUages with a popMation of 11,850. The land had been previously umnhabited with the exception of the con fluence of the Zeya and Amur, where Chinese Manchus lived. 204 COLONIZATION OF SIBERIA In 1869 peasant colonization began, the first settlers being religious sectaries from the Tauric and Samara Governments. There are a large number of raskolniki in the territory, esti mated at 10 per cent, of the population, the most prominent being the Bezpopovists and MolokaM (milk-drinkers). Immi gration is now on a large scale, even where no government assistance is given, and despite the journey of a month or six weeks required to reach this region. Whole families are added to communes which still have free land at their disposal. Colonists, where there are fifteen or more famUies from the same place, form a commune together, which receives its name according to the desire of the settlers. Nansen gives the figures of the total population in 1911 as 286,263, of whom 43,959 were non-Russians : that is to say, mostly yellow men. At Blagoslovennoe, at the junction of the Samara and Amur, there is a settlement of about 1,000 Koreans. Manchu-CMnese are found maiMy along the river for 44 miles below Blago slovennoe and for 14 miles inland. In 1897 the population of the territory was 118,570. In 1911 it was estimated at 286,263. Maritime Province (Primorsk). — FollowMg on the occupa tion of the Amur territory came the occupation of the Ussuri district. Battalions of Cossacks from the Transbaikal had orders to settle along the Ussuri : the coloMzation of the district began in 1859, but progressed slowly. As in the Amur territory, the original settlers suffered terribly, and were assigned land without proper care being taken to see whether it was suitable for coloMzation. The actual journey to their new settlements took a year and a half. A big inundation of the Ussuri added to their troubles, and their morale was not improved when they were joined by an army which had been sent there for a punishment. They had difficulty in resisting a CMnese revolt in 1868, and many of them became dependent on the Manses (Manzi) for money help and found them rigorous and exacting masters. In 1882 an experiment was made ; a three years' trial Avas to be given to 250 families brought annually from Odessa at the cost of the Government, COLONIZATION OF THE VARIOUS PROVINCES 205 315,000 roubles per annum being assigned for the purpose. Altogether to the Ussuri district there have migrated between 1859 and 1913 about 250,000 Russian peasants, exclusive of the Cossack population : some of the new settlers came from Siberia, some from European Russia. The Cossacks were posted along the Ussuri valley, but further investigation was made to see how much room there was for more settlers, and in 1911 the coloMsts were granted Cossack land to a reasonable extent ; the Cossacks, who had the pick of the land, not being as a rale very good settlers. In another part of the province, saUors stationed at the mouth of the Amur have been allowed to retire after 15 years' service, have received a plot of land, and have been permitted to send for their wives and children at the expense of the Government. The Russian popMation is settled mainly in the valleys of the Rivers Suifun, Lefu, and Suchan, about Lake Khanka, along the right bank of the Sungacha and Ussuri, and in the district about Olgi Bay. The great increase of immigration after the Russo-Japanese war found the local authorities unprepared, and the defective arrangements had a prejudicial effect in later years. Nansen gives the figures of the total population in 1911 as 523,840, of whom 360,437 were Russians ; but these figures do not include the Chinese and Koreans, who work during the summer and then return to their homes. The number of settlers from 1900 to 1909 was 142,674, and in the year 1913, 13,011. Kamchatka is the name for the territory detached from the Maritime Province, including all that is north of lat. 56° N. It is not at all adapted for colomzation. The attempts made in past years have been practically abandoned. OMy a few Russians are found at isolated points, and the entire popula tion in 1911 was only estimated at 36,012. Investigations into the possibility of colonizing Kamchatka are proceeding. Sakhalin. — By the Convention of March 18, 1867, Russia and Japan secured the common right to occupy unappro priated places all over the island. This caused a keen com petition between them, but Japan had the advantage of being a close neighbour, and the Russians were forced either to 206 COLONIZATION OF SIBERIA draw settlers from Europe by the inducement of great privi leges, or to found settlements of unmarried soldiers, a system which was valueless for the purpose of peopling the country. The Russians had not enough men to occupy the desirable places in the island ; so they erected posts which bore inscrip tions to show that occupation had taken place. This method was promptly copied by the Japanese. In 1869 a party of 800 convicts was sent to Sakhalin, and when it became a penal colony all women sentenced to hard labour were for warded to tMs island from European Russia ' with a view to secure the family principle '. All exile settlers receive grants of land and a loan from the Government for the orgamzation of the household ; on obtaining a good character they are allowed to settle in the Amur and Maritime territories. On April 25, 1875, the Japanese share in Sakhalin was exchanged for the Kuril Islands, but by the treaty of Portsmouth (1905) Russia lost all the island south of lat. 50° N. In 1897, while the island was entirely in Russian hands, the popMation was estimated as follows : Official class (military and civil) 2,500 Peasants 8,000 Exile settlers 7,500 Exile convicts 7,000 The population of what remains to Russia was estimated in 1911 as 8,849. The colonization of the Far East has been a matter of the first political importance for the protection of the Russian Mterests, but a great deal has to be done to make it a success M view of the special difficulties. The loans, usually of 150 to 200 roubles, are too small ; there is a great dearth of roads and no sufficient organization of development m road -makmg ; there are no possibilities of a large sale of the produce of the farms M the neighbourhood ; greater efforts should be made to secure that the new conditions shall be approximated as much as possible to the old conditions of the settlers. DISTRIBUTION OF RUSSIAN POPULATION 207 Distribution op Russian Population in Siberia The growth of popMation in Siberia, maiMy due to immigra tion, has been very remarkable. A population which at the end of the eighteenth century was about 1,500,000 is now estimated at more than 12,000,000, including districts of Central Asia. Even in the forty years between 1858 and 1897, before the great wave of immigration, it had doubled itself. The same rapid growth may be seen in particMar towns ; as one Ulustration Novo-Nikolaevsk may be mentioned. It was founded in 1896, and in 1913 it had a population of 70,600 inhabitants. The areas inhabited by Russians are the following : In the north along the great rivers we find Russians in isolated districts along the Ob : e. g. Narim, the confluence with the Irtish, Berezov, &c. The Yemsei valley and the Lena valley down to Yakutsk are settled by Russians and so are lateral strips of land between, along the river Vilyui and to the Lower Tunguska ; further east there are isolated points, such as Verkhoyansk and Nizhne-Kolimsk. The black earth belt is the chief zone of Russian occupation : the northern boundary of settlement runs by Verkhoture, Turinsk, Tobolsk, Tara, Kainsk, Tomsk, Yemseisk, thence along the line of the Upper Tunguska to the upper Lena ; the southern boundary runs south of the great Siberian road and Siberian railway from Verkhne-Uralsk to Omsk ; thence along the River Irtish till it nears the Mongolian frontier. The boundary lme of the Russian district theri runs north almost to Mariinsk ; then with a detour to Mclude the district round MMusinsk, the lMe runs south of the great Siberian road to the south-west corner of Lake Baikal and along the eastern shore of the lake. There are ' islands ' of Russian occupation about the Kirghiz steppes, e. g. Kokchetav, Atbasar and Karkaralinsk. Other districts in Eastern Siberia occupied by Russians are : (1) The Selenga valley to Kyakhta. (2) The region from Chita to the confluence of the Rivers 208 COLONIZATION OF SIBERIA Shilka and Argun, including all the district between the rivers from a line drawn SW. from Chita to the Mongolian frontier. (3) The left bank of the Amur to Khabarovsk. (4) Both banks of the Amur from Khabarovsk to Nikolaevsk. (5) The Ussuri valley arid the district between Vladivostok and Olgi Bay. (6) Okhotsk. (7) Certain districts in Kamchatka. The Yellow Question and Colonization Advantages and disadvantages of Chinese labour A Russian in the eastern provinces woMd find it difficMt to say whether it was hardest to get on with or without the labour of the yellow races. On the one hand the presence of workers who are frugal and content with low wages, of great sMll and application, is likely to be a formidable menace to the position of the Russian immigrants, and the immigration of a yellow population, all of them able-bodied, so that soon there will be one oriental labourer to every able-bodied Russian, seems likely to justify the warmng of Li Hung Chang that Russian interference with China woMd turn Siberia into a Chinese province. On the other hand there is no doubt that the resources of the land have been enormously developed by Chinese labour ; we have oMy to compare the appearance of Vladivostok, where Chinese labour has been largely employed, with that of some purely Siberian town to realize how depen dent these eastern provinces are for their prosperity on the yellow man. In Vladivostok, Russian paving had to be taken up almost as soon as laid and replaced with the work of Chinese labourers ; a quay erected by Chinamen soon replaced one clumsily erected by Russians. Russia has to face the problem whether her eastern provinces shall be developed efficiently by the labour of aliens who will surpass her own popMation in numbers and resources, or whether the yellow races shall be excluded and the provinces be less completely developed. Already, in 1904, of 487 industrial undertakings 192 belonged YELLOW QUESTION AND COLONIZATION 209 to Orientals and employed no Russians, while 295 belonged to Russians but employed yellow labour. In the villages the Chinese secure a monopoly of trade among the local popMation, supplying them with all necessaries. At present the policy is directed towards exclusion, and it is oMy surrepti tiously that Chinese labour can be employed in the Amur and Ussuri valleys ; at least that was so just before the present war broke out, but with the able-bodied men called up for military service it is likely that the rigour of the policy iMtiated by the Governor-General of the Priamur will have to be considerably modified. Strength and distribution of Chinese In the Ussuri district the original masters of the land were the Chinese tribes of Manses (Manzi), and they have to a con siderable extent reinstated themselves in their old position, by the money help that they have given (at usurious interest) to the Cossack and peasant settlers and by their bullying methods of trading with the native inhabitants. They are in a very strong position, as under the terms of the Treaty of PeMng (1860) Chinese offenders on Russian soU have to be tried by Chinese magistrates even for minor offences. In the interior of tMs same region the Chinese have vUlages of their own wMch are governed by their own headmen. The rutMess treatment of the Chinese at Blagovyeshohensk in 1900, when numbers of them were driven into the river and drowned there, checked for a time Chinese settlement along the Amur, but the shortage of agricultural labour during the Russo- Japanese War gave an opportunity to the Chinese that they did not neglect, and the immigration of the yellow labourers received a great impetus despite the fact that Russian prestige demanded a reduction in their numbers and importance. It was always easy to cross the frontier unperceived, and the Russian bank of the Amur and Ussuri was more popular than the opposite bank in their own territory. In 1904 the propor tion of CMnese to the Russian popMation in the Amur and Ussuri districts was 16 per cent. In 1908 it was 24 per cent, SIBERIA I O 210 COLONIZATION OF SIBERIA UMike the Koreans they do not attempt to settle permauently on the land. In Transbaikal the spread of Chinese immigration was even more decided, especially in ,1909. The CMnese merchant is found as far west as Irkutsk, and in the country east of Baikal the Chinese small trader reigns supreme . Every where much labour is wanted and the Chinese are indispensable. Nor will they be less indispensable because the Government orders that they shall be dispensed with. A passage from a Russian author will illustrate the way in wMch Russian needs are met by labour and commodities from over the Chinese frontier : ' A man in Khabarovsk, for instance, lives in a house built by Chinese labour of Manchurian timber : the stove is made of Chinese bricks. In the morning the Manchu vanyka brings water from the well. In the Mtchen the CMnese boy gets the Tula samovar ready. The master of the house drinks his Chinese tea, with bread made of Manchurian flour from a Chinese bakery. The CMnese and Koreans come and offer their produce, eggs, vegetables, fruit from Shanghai and so on. The boy runs to the bazaar to fetch Mongolian meat and cooks the dinner. The mistress of the house wears a dress made by a Chinese taUor, and the master gets into his chetchuncha when the warm weather begins. In the yard a Korean is at work chopping wood.' Koreans The Koreans are an important element among the immi grants. They began to cross the border in 1860. Bad years of harvest and the extortions of the official class had driven them from their country. In 1869 there was wholesale immi gration from Korea to the Ussuri district, and after that there has been a steadily increasing mflux. In this country there is a great deal of undeveloped land, mostly prairie with scattered trees. TMs land is in the hands of Cossacks who live in the villages and spend their time in the taverns wMle the Koreans to whom the land is leased actively develop it. They are more efficient farmers than the Russians and their results are correspondingly better. They do not blend YELLOW QUESTION AND COLONIZATION 211 * at all with the Russian inhabitants, for instead of living in villages they dwell in tents in the middle of" their fields. Though pre-eminently agricMturists, some of them settle in the towns near the scattered gold-mines. In 1882 there was an edict that none but Russian subjects shoMd acquire land M Siberia : only m exceptional circum stances could the Governor-General give leave to foreigners. An agreement was made with the Korean Government that Koreans who had immigrated before 1884 could be admitted to Russian citizensMp, and later arrivals coMd remain in the country for a short time, but must then sell their immovable property and return to Korea. This was not put in force till 1891, when many Korean settlers were given land by the Chinese in Manchuria. Besides the temporary occupation of land for short periods, there is an annual migration of Koreans who work in these provinces from the spring to the autumn, but return home for the winter. Japanese The immigration of the Japanese has been maiMy after the Russo-Japanese War. The Japanese artisan is to be found tMoughout eastern Siberia ; in crafts he is superior to the average Siberian, and immeasurably so in diligence, sobriety, and general trustwortMness. The Hunghuses There is a further danger which menaces alike the Russian settlers and the orderly yellow inhabitants. This comes from the Hunghuses, bands of robbers, whose origin is uncertain. It seems probable that they have been maiMy recruited from criminals escaping from justice and other dregs of the CMnese popMation, who were attracted to northern Manchuria by its remoteness, and, when there, took to gold-mimng, a capital offence when unauthorized. At first a disorderly rabble, they are now armed with Mauser rifles of German military pattern. They have long been a terror to the peaceable Chinese occupants of the district between the Ussuri and the o 2 212 COLONIZATION OF SLBlfiKIA Amur. They have penetrated into the Russian territory of the Maritime Province, drawn tMther by the attraction of the poppy-beds, and the desolate character of the interior of the province has given them many opportumties of working mischief, though they stand in much more awe of Russian authority than of Chinese. However, with the withdrawal of the bulk of the male popMation, owing to the European War, and the weakening of the village fortifications, the Hunghuses were greatly strengthened. There have been sporadic raids on Russian settlements, culminating in a serious attack on the port at Olgi Bay, to repel which a Russian armed force had to be landed. Russian Views on Yellow Labour Russian writers show great alarm at the growth of yellow labour and its competition with that of the white man, who has to be fetched from a greater distance and whose standard of comfort and proportionate demand for wages is higher. It has been pointed out that Russian labour can be brought into competition with Chinese by the introduction of labourers from the west, who have no intention of settfing. Some hundreds are brought by the special emigrant tariff ; ' they arrive in the spring and leave in the autumn, and earn several hundreds of roubles more than the cost of their journey. For public works it is no good makMg a demand of labour from the coloMsts : they are far too busy during the first years in meeting their own requirements, and cannot spare time and labour even under the inducement of good pay. The Koreans are regarded as more dangerous than the Chinese, because of their desire of settling permanently on the land. The alarm takes the form of a demand for a huge staff of supervisors and inspectors, and a strict registration of the number of yellow immigrants. A partial attempt in 1906-7, in part of the Primorsk Province, showed that there were in one region oMy of the Ussuri district 14,000 Korean Russian subjects and 26,000 Korean foreigners, and these numbers should probably be increased by 10,000, as the enumeration only took place in the most populated southern portion of the district. Other YELLOW QUESTION AND COLONIZATION 213 demands have been that those suffering from contagious diseases shall be prohibited from entrance, that the frontier shall oMy be crossed at certain points and then with the sanction of the Russian consM, that annual permits shall be held and paid for and a fine exacted if they are not renewed. But the most insistent demand is that in all Government enterprises Russian labour shall be made to replace the labour of the yellow man, even though it cost more. The question of their settling on Crown lands is also urgent : many Chinese and Koreans are said to be settled owing to some illegality, and Russians do not view with equanimity the occupation of a large amount of agricultural land by yellow men. Encouragement of Colonization in Arctic Russia SMce 1876 the Russian government has been encouraging the colonization of the Murman coast and has offered many inducements to settlers, whether Russian born or naturalized foreigners. Among other privileges these settlers were exemp ted from actual military service and passed into the naval reserve. They were excused the payment of state taxes and were allowed to receive, without duty, foreign goods, imported in Russian or foreign ships direct to the coast. But this regula tion had to be modified, for it led to the wholesale importation of intoxicating liquors and general drunkenness. In conse quence the importation of foreign spirituous liquors was prohibited. Other privileges granted to Murman settlers were : state loans of from £5 to £15 granted at the discretion of the government and repayable in six years ; free timber for bmlding or a subsidy of £10 to £20 for the purchase of timber ; and the right to hunt fur-bearing animals and to fish without licences. These conditions applied also to any nomadic Lapps who wished to settle definitely on the Murman coast. FMns and Norwegians were the earliest settlers to be attracted, and later came Russians. The establishment of a regular IMe of steamers between Vardo and Arkhangel, under government subsidy, helped the movement. The Finns and Norwegians kept to the west and the Russians farther 214 COLONIZATION OF SIBERIA east. There are Finn villages on Bolshaya-Volokovaya Bay on the west of Ribachi Peninsula. Many of the settlers are m viUages on Pechenga GMf, where the Pechenga Monastery is situated. Teriberskaya Bay and Gavrilova Bay are well peopled. Kola IMet is another centre of viUages, and here are the most important settlements on the coast, Kola, Murmansk, and Alexandrovsk. Preponderating Advantages] A writer in the Journal of the Arkhangel Society (Mr. 0. M. Latitin), in 1912, strongly advocates the coloMzation of the extreme north of European Russia. Against the rigorous climate and the absence of means of commuMcation he sets the great natural wealth of the region : its mines, meadows, forests, and its rich supply of animals, birds, and fish. Conditions of colonizing Crown Lands In order to attract educated brains for the development of these resources he feels it essential to allow a free choice of land from the Crown provinces on the following conditions : (a) Crown land should be valued proportionately from 10-20 roubles (£1 Is. 4d. to £2 2s. 8d.) a desyatin (i. e. the value of the rent for 100 years — at present the Crown receives 10 or 20 kopeks (2\d. to 5d.) a desyatin for the northern forests) ; (b) unreserved rights of woriring the forests or mines shoMd be granted, with the proviso that for forest material a tax should be levied according to the already existing tax, of which 30 per cent. shoMd be paid by the owner to the Crown in part payment till the whole is paid ; the remaining 70 per cent. should be applied for the benefit of the owner to develop such industries as tar-boUMg, pitch-distiUing, cattle-breeding, or agricMture. The right of owning large tracts shoMd be distributed among all classes; large tracts should be allotted at distances of not less than 40 or 50 versts (26 to 34 miles) from one another, so that new settlers or the aborigines in the districts between shoMd have good models of reformed methods of agriculture to copy. COLONIZATION IN ARCTIC RUSSIA 215 Roads are the first essential condition. There is likely to be obstruction to the coloMzation of the Kamn and Timan tundras from the Samoyedes on the strength of an edict of Ivan Vasilovich (April 15, 1545), but there should not be a pedantic insistence on the terms of an obsolete edict in view of the good which will be done to the Samoyedes themselves, who, having lost nearly all their reindeer and being reduced to abject poverty, could learn something of rural economy from their new neighbours, and would fare as prosperously as the Samoyede village of Kolvinsk on the River Usa in the Pechora district. The writer referred to sees no insurmountable obstacle to the colonizing of the whole of the north, from the coast of Norway to the mouth of the Yenisei, and suggests the employ ment of convict labour to effect his object. Various proposals have been made for the construction of railways in north-eastern Russia, with a view to linking the Ob navigation with ports on the Barents Sea and facilitating Siberian trade. Though these railways would be mainly concerned with through traffic they would help to open up the country and overcome some of its greatest disadvantages to coloMsts. CHAPTER VII RELIGION IN SIBERIA Russian Religion : History — The Clergy — Church Government — The Orthodox Religion — Raskolniki — Shamanism. Russian Religion History The Russian Orthodox Church is a branch of the Eastern Church. In 988 Vladimir was converted and had his subjects baptized in platoons in the Dnieper. For a long time the Russian Church was in close dependence on Byzantium, but with the fall of the Eastern Empire Russia, who had graduaUy asserted her independence, took her place as defender of the faith : in the sixteenth century the patriarchate of Moscow (transferred from Vladimir and before that from Kiev) was recognized by the patriarch of Constantinople. Nikon, patriarch of Moscow, in the middle of the seventeenth century, carried out a series of reforms consisting largely of the correc tion of errors which had crept into the rites and liturgical books ; but, although he insisted that he was oMy reverting to the practice of the primitive Church, his reforms were met with much vehement opposition led by the Tsarina. The Starovyeri (Old Believers) would not consent to such changes as the use of Alleluia three times (in honour of the Trinity) instead of twice (in recognition of the human and divme nature of Jesus Christ), nor for the same reasons to the use of three Mstead of two fingers M giving the blessmg. Ana themas were as ineffective as appeals to reason, and the fact that they were anathematized in the year 1666 made the ScMsmatics tMnk of the number of the Beast in the Book of Revelation and anticipate the reign of Antichrist. From this RUSSIAN RELIGION ' 217 time dates the great schism, which led to exUe and the forma tion of many dissenting bodies. Peter the Great asserted Ms authority by keeping the patriarchate vacant for twenty years, and then, in 1721, establishing in its place the Holy Synod, consistMg of ecclesiastics nomMated by himseU, with the Procurator-General, a layman, as Imperial Representative. The Holy Synod now contains the metropolitans of Moscow, Petrograd, and Kiev, the Archbishop of Georgia, and other bishops sitting in rotation. The Clergy The clergy are divided into Black (regular or monastic) and WMte (secMar), whose brown "habit belies their name. The former must be celibate, and aU bishops and high digni taries of the Church are drawn from among them. Their ranks are archierei (metropolitans, archbishops, and bishops), archimandrit (abbots), and igumen (priors) : below these are the monks. The wMte clergy are divided into protopopes or protierei (parish priests of the largest churches, or of churhes with others under them), popes or priests, and deacons, lectors, &c, the minor rank being recrmted largely from intendMg students who could not pass their exammation. The priests must be married ; if a priest loses his wife he is not permitted to marry again. The parish priests are poorly paid and their Hves are a constant struggle agamst poverty ; but they have ample spare time, as they have practically no duties beyond the holding of services, and visiting their flock is entirely at their own discretion : so they can devote them selves to agricMture. In the remoter parts of the north-east the priests are known to act as commercial agents, and are sometimes at once the purveyors and the victims of drink. The viUage priest Hves M a house built for Mm by the peasants and draws Ms scanty income from diocesan funds : there are no tithes, and the bMk of Church property was absorbed by Catherine the Great, though Nicholas I restored to the Church what had remained in the hands of the Crown. 218 RELIGIOJN UN HLUJukia Church Government There are 66 dioceses (yeparchia) in. Russia. The foUowing are whoUy in Asia : Tobolsk, Omsk, Tomsk, Krasnoyarsk, Irkutsk, CMta, Yakutsk, Blagovyeshohensk, Vladivostok, and Turkestan (of wMch the see is VyerM) ; the foUowmg are partiaUy so : Yekaterinburg and Orenburg. They correspond as a rMe with the divisions Mto governments. They are divided mto rural deaneries, wMch consist each of from 10 to 30 parishes, many of wMch, especiaUy M Siberia, are very extensive and have scattered popMations of several thousands. The parish church is usuaUy under a prikhod (corporation) consistMg of priest, deacon, two diechoks (beU-ringer and reader), and a widow who prepares the sacramental bread. A parocMal councU determmes the sum due from each house holder for the upkeep of the Church. The number of parishes in Siberia is being increased ; arrangements were made for 101 new parishes to be suppfied with priests m 1911. Distinguishing Features of the Orthodox Religion A few distingmshing points in the orthodox church may be noted. The CouncU of Nicaea M 787 is the last ecumemcal councU that they recogMze ; they do not admit the papal supremacy ; they have the Scriptures in. the vernacular, though it is not modern Russian, but old Slavomc, that is the language of reUgion and reHgious strvices, apart from the sermons, wMch are in Russian (the Slavomc language is taught in schools) ; they do not befieve m the procession of the Holy Ghost from the Son as weU as the Father, and omit the filioque clause from the Nicene Creed. Most Russian churches are rectangMar buUdings with five domes, the largest being in the middle. The prmcipal entrance is at the west, where there is usuaUy a detached campanUe. The church is divided by an ambo (or ikonostas) into nave and sanctuary. In the former stand the worsMppers, there being no seats or benches. On the ikonostas are sacred pictures or ikons, in front of which lamps are burning. Pictures RUSSIAN RELIGION 219 are aUowed, and even bas-reHef, bA statues are forbidden. Opposite the central door tMough the ikonostas, wMch can be used by the priest alone, is the altar (prestol), on wMch is laid a New Testament and the host. It is forbidden to pass m front of the altar. During the services Jo instrumental music is aUowed, but the beautiM hymns of the Eastern Church are usuaUy sung in tMee parts by men and boys. The congregation constantly joM m the appeal Gospodi Pomilui (Lord have mercy upon us). The commumon is administered m both kinds to the laity, but the bread and wine are mixed together M a spoon. ChUdren are given water and wine alone tUl they are seven and can go to coMession. Mass is oMy celebrated once a day. Attendance at least once a year is eMorced by law. Baptism is by immersion and anoMting with cMism immediately after takes the place of confirmation. There are many fasts besides the regular fasts of Wednesdays and Fridays throughout the year. The chief ones are (1) Lent, (2) St. Peter's fast, from Whit-Monday to June 29, (3) the fast of the VirgM Mary, from August 1 to August 15, (4) St. PMfip's fast, from November 15 to December 26. Besides tMs the monastic clergy always fast from meat. Festivals have a demorafizmg effect ; much of the vodka- drinkMg is especiaUy connected with them ; tiU 1907 it was a crime puMshable by law to work on a hoHday. Raskolniki (Dissenters) The differences between Popovists and Bezpopovists. have been described under the account of colomzation (see p. 190). The former made advances towards reconciliation in 1862, on the basis of accepting orthodox priests, but retaMMg the unre vised books. TMs led to further division: There were now (1) those who recogMzed the metropohtan and tMs com promise, (2) those who recognized the first but not the second, (3) those who recogMzed neither. There are some offshoots of the Bezpopovists : (1) the Philippovsti, foUowers of one Philip who burnt Mmself in 1743 : these exalt self-immolation into a prMciple ; (2) the Stranniki (pilgrims) ; (3) the Byeguni 220 RELIGION IN SIBERIA (runners) : both these r^pct legal marriage ; (4) the Nyetovsti (deniers) deny the necessity for common worsMp ; (5) the Molchalyniki (mutes) wiU not utter a syUable under torture. Besides these there are (1) the Khlusti (Aa,geUa,nts), who subdue the flesh, but i|tdulge in ecstatic forms of worship : they are a secret society and are nominaUy members of the Orthodox Church. They were founded in 1645. (2) The Doukhobors, ' spiritual fighters,' who hold conscientious objections against military service, and were therefore made to live M Trans- Caucasia. When service became compulsory there they went to a home found for them by the Society of Friends in Canada, where they have lived holiest and industrious Hves. (3) The Molokani (mUk-drinkers), founded M 1765. The name is given them because they drink milk during fasts, but their tenets resemble those of the Quakers. (4) The Skoptsi (eunuchs), who advocate castration for the ' kingdom of Heaven's sake '. The more moderate of them aUow absolute chastity to take the place of self -mutilation. These last two sects are the most prominent in Siberia, the former being found along the Amur, the latter in the Yakutsk ProvMce. Other forms of belief Of other creeds there are M aU Russia about 12,000,000 Roman Cathofics and 7,000,000 Protestants (includmg FiMand), 5,000,000 Jews, 14,000,000 Mohammedans, and 500,000 Buddhists. There are Lutheran and Roman Catholic churches in Omsk, Tomsk, Krasnoyarsk, and Irkutsk. Jews are found M great numbers at KaMsk, Buddhists among the Buryats in Transbaikal, and Mohammedans not only among the Tartar tribes, but also to a considerable extent among the Cossacks in the neighbourhood of Petropavlovsk. Shamanism From end to end of Siberia, despite the ban of the Russian authorities, the primitive religion of northern Asia survives and exercises the strongest influence upon the inhabitants. Converts to Christianity and Buddhism still resort to it, and SHAMANISM 221 it even affects Russian officials and peasants who come to the country, and has among its adherents many of the half- breeds who have grown up in the land. It has the character of a primitive religion, and is probably much older than BuddMsm. It may have been the earfier religion of the Mongofian people, south of Siberia. It has more magic than theology about it, and its doctrinal core is not very great ; it is M its forms and outward manifestations that it is reaUy important. It is always difficult to acquire exact Mformation from the Shamans themselves, who are M fear of the Russian authorities ; and the ritual of Shamamsm attaches itself readily to the different racial religions and mythologies. Religious doctrines of Shamanism. — It is therefore extremely hazardous to venture on a general description of the religious beliefs that underfie Shamamstic forms, but perhaps it may be summarized as follows. The umverse consists of a number of layers or strata, separated by a Mnd of intermediate space or matter ; there are seven upper layers, wMch constitute the kmgdom of light, whUe below the earth are seven or more nether layers, wMch form the kingdom of darkness. Between these Hes the earth, subject to mfluences from above and below : above are the good spirits (aiy), below are the evU spirits (abassy). In the seventh layer above, M Mgh heaven, reigns Ai Toion, perfect and gbod ; m the fifth (or the Mnth) below is Erlik Khan, the AMiman of tMs dualistic system. Shamans alone possess power over this spiritual world, and tMs power is exercised more over the bad than the good, not necessarUy for evil ends, but because the good spirits need less propitiation and are naturaUy inclined not to do mischief. In accordance with the nature of the spirits over whom they exercise Mfluence Shamans are known respectively as wMte and black. In fact the whole faith has been known as ' black faith ' in opposition to ' yeUow faith', i.e. Buddhism. These spirits are largely the spirits of ancestors, and so Shamanism is closely associated with what constitutes so large a proportion of primitive cMts, viz., ancestor- worship. Shamans among the Yakuts (the tribe among whom this cMt 222 .KJ^XjUjUUIN UN DlJ5Jl/rviA is most fuUy developed) have tMee spirits, dmdgyat, wMch is indispensable (the same name is appHed to the iron breast- circle of the Shaman, which he wears as a symbol of Ms office), yekyua, which is Mdden away but incarnates itself at times in ammals, and kaliany, impish and miscMevous, a sort of secondary personality. Derivation of name. — The word shaman is uncertaM M derivation. There is a SansMit word iramana (= religious mendicant), the Pali form of which, sramana, has the same mearfing. On the other hand there is a Manchu word saman wMch means ' one who is excited ' and tMs word is found among the Tungus. Differences between Palaeo - Siberian and Neo- Siberian Shamanism. — There is a considerable difference between ShamaMsm as practised among the Palaeo-Siberian tribes (Chukchee, Koryaks, &c.) and among the Neo-Siberians (Yakuts, Tungus, &c), though the mfluence of the Tungus, widely spread among other tribes, has greatly modified the ShamaMsm of north-eastern Siberia. With the Palaeo- Siberians ' famUy ' shamaMsm is more frequent than ' pro fessional'. The head of the house wiU shamanize, and m the absence of the father (e. g. among the Chukchee) the mother wiU take Ms place as family shaman. There is also found a kMd of communal shamaMsm. Among them also women are more important than men as shamans ; women bemg of a more nervous and excitable temperament are more natural recipients of the shamaMstic gifts ; it may be noted that women are the most frequent victims of Arctic hysteria (menerik). On the other hand the Yakuts assign an Mferior position to women, and wiU oMy resort to them as shamans in the absence of men. Further, among certam Palaeo- Siberians (Koryak, Kamchadal, Chukchee, and Asiatic Eskimo) appears that extraordmary phenomenon, the sup posed change of sex, by wMch men come to behave as women and women as men. The change goes tMough various stages ; the person who undergoes the transformation wiU first mani fest the change by arranging his hair as a female ; then he SHAMANISM 223 will adopt woman's dress ; then he wiU change his voice and his general habits, performing the occupations of a woman M the house ; finaUy he wiU seek a ' husband ' and Uve with Mm M homo-sexual relations, whUe at the same time often havMg a female concubme and begetting chUdren. Public opmion disapproves of this homo-sexuafity, but is discreet M its utterances on the subject, as such transformed shamans are held to be particMarly dangerous. The ' soft-man ' has Ms kele (spirit) husband, who wM protect him : M fact even without sex -transformation a shaman often has a kele wife, as weU as Ms own. The ' husband ' chosen by the shaman is usuaUy selected from among his near relations.' Women are transformed' to men M the same way, with the correspond ing change of dress, voice, and occupation, and the adoption of a ' wife '. The Koekchuks of the Kamchadals have been especiaUy described M their place. Another distinction between the Palaeo- and the Neo-Siberians is that among the latter the dualism of good and evU spirits with their attendant black and wMte shamans is much more emphasized. The ' wMte ' shamans take part m spring festivals, marriage ceremoMes, fertilization rites, and the curing of diseases among the Yakuts : the ' black ' shamans deal with evil spirits, but are not necessarily malefic : they shamamze to assert their prestige ; they foreteU the future ; they caU up spirits and wander Mto spirit-land. The Buryats speak of great ' contests ' between black and wMte shamans, who ' hurl axes at one another at a distance of hundreds of mUes '. The black shaman is not a popular person, and is sometimes killed by the Mhabitants. The grave of a black shaman among them is guarded by an aspen, and the body is fastened to the earth by a stake taken from tMs tree. Among the Samoyedes there is no distinction between black and white shamans. It wiU be seen later that there are marked differences in the actual performances of the Palaeo- and Neo-Siberians. The ' call'. — ShamaMsm is sometimes hereditary. TMs is what woMd be expected both from the recurrence of medium- istic gifts M famUies and from the greater ease of keeping 224 RELIGION IN SIBERIA secrets known to members of the famUy alone. A shaman is often subject to hysteria, but can control MmseH between the fits. Before entering on his vocation a shaman has often had severe nervous affections. The ' caU ' comes M various ways. We hear of a Gilyak boy of twelve, who had Ms call during a deep sleep, and when awakened threw himself about and spoke with different intonations. To the Tungus a former shaman appears m a dream. An Ostyak wM seU to another the spiritual gifts that have come to Mm. Among tribes m the Altai the caU is involuntary. Among the Chukchee there is great fear of the ' call ' : the Chukchee youth is afraid that it wUl come to him ; when it has come, he segregates MmseH and is abstracted m manner, he sleeps much, and is carefuUy guarded lest he shoMd freeze to death during sleep. The Buryat chUd is supposed to be caUed at a very tender age : its soul then, it is imagmed, goes away to be trained among the ' West Tengeris ' if he is to be a white shaman, among the ' East Tengeris ' if he is to be a black shaman. When he reaches adolescence, certam symptoms begm to be revealed. Among the Samoyedes the novice, at about the age of 15, is entrusted to an old shaman. Novitiate and training. — A ' call ' to a shaman means that he has come under the protection of one or more spirits : Ms eyes have a distinctive appearance : the expression is said to be a combination of shyness and cunnMg, and it is aUeged that the shaman can often be picked out from other men because he has this look. Long periods of preparation foUow ; the trammg mcludes lessons m smging, dancmg, drum-beatmg, ventrUoquism, and other tricks, and the power of concealing fatigue ; and stages of consecration, wMch differ among the various tribes. The novice is conscious of the solemnity of his profession, and usuaUy has a strong feeling that he has to consecrate Ms gifts for the good of Ms feUow men : he is told not to demand high prices from either rich or poor, and, if he is asked to attend to a rich and a poor man, to attend to the latter first. Considerable danger is felt to be attached to the profession, as ' the spirits will kill SHAMANISM 225 a shaman who in any way disobeys them ' ; but there are compensations, for he is usuaUy safer than anybody else from the anger of his fellow men, on account of the sacrosanct character of his callmg. But no persecution will make him give up his shamanism : a shaman, whom Stadling met, who was a CMistian nomMaUy, used to confess once a year to the priest (and present Mm with a blue fox skin). It is worthy of note that the tribe which has probably developed shamanism more than any other is the Yakuts, who have been nominally CMistians for upwards of 200 years. Classes of Shaman. — Shamans are of various Mnds. Among the Chukchee there are tMee kinds of professional shamans : the first practise ecstatic ravings, the second foretell the future as prophets, the third utter Mcantations ; these last agam are subdivided Mto good and bad, and are distinguished by their red and black coats respectively. With the Yakuts they are divided Mto Great, Middle and Little Shamans in accordance with the degree of their powers ; the first has Ms dmdgyat (horn Ai Toion himself ; the second has dmdgyat, but it is not of so powerful a Mnd ; the third has nothing that deserves the name of dmdgyat, but is only an abnormal neurotic person, ' who can cure trifling ilMesses, interpret dreams, or frighten smaU devUs away '. Originally among the Yakuts there was more of woman-shamanism, as among the Palaeo-Siberian tribes. The Altaians, besides the shaman (foam), have other personages of a simUar Mnd. These are (1) rynchi, who foretell the future during attacks of pam ; (2) telegochi (guessers) ; (3) yarinchi, who divine by the use ,of a bladebone ; (4) kollkarechi, palmists, who divine from the hand, (5) yadachi who control the weather by means of a stone (yadatash) found M a defile, where winds blow continuaUy : to obtam this stone they must swear away all that they have. Professional dress and equipment. — The shaman has a pro fessional dress when engaged on his occupation. Among the Neo-Siberians the four most general features are the coat, the mask, the cap, and the iron plate about the breast. The costume is less complicated among the Palaeo-Siberians. 226 RELIGION IN SIBERIA The Chukchee for instance have no special dress : they merely desire originaHty, and wiU wear any coat that they think wM impress. Sometimes the Chukchee have adopted Tungus designs on the coat without knowMg their meanmg. The coat is most elaborate among the Neo-Siberians. Attached to it are pieces of metal each with a name and meaning of its own. Among the Altaians not aU shamans are entitled to wear the coat and the cap. The mask is of skm, wood, and metal, painted and ornamented with a great beard. The iron plate (dmdgyat) is handed down from shaman to shaman. The pieces of metal are supposed to have a soul and to be capable of resisting rust. Among the Yakuts there are here ditary blacksmiths who are associated with the shamans, and manufacture their properties. The most characteristic em blem of shamanism is the drum. A special meaMng is attached to it by the Yukaghir : they call it yalkil (guH), as the gulf into which the shaman dives to reach the spirits. So too the Eskimo think that the souls of the shamans descend into the lower world of the goddess Sedna. Some of the north-eastern tribes (e. g. Koryaks) strike the drum from below. The word for 'drum' is everywhere the same (tungur), whereas the coat has various names, which suggests that it is later. The drum is rare among the Buryats, who have one special accessory, viz., the horse -staves : of these two are of wood, two of iron, but the latter are only bestowed on a shaman after his fifth consecration. The wooden ones are cut for the novice. These horse-staves represent the horses on which the shaman takes Ms flight to the upper and lower worlds. There is also a shire, a box which contams the sacred emblems (horse-staves, &c), wMch the shaman ac- qmres the right of hokfing after his fifth consecration. The sun, moon, and secondary deities are represented on it. The Buryats also have a musical instrument used oMy by shamans, a sort of Jew's harp caUed homus. Shamanistic rites. — The nature of the shainanistic per formances can be best realized by describing two : the first is as it would be given among the Chukchee, the second as SHAMANISM 227 among the Yakuts. The first is given when it is almost dark : the shaman begins to beat the drum softly and to sing plaintively : the song imitates the cries of aMmals, which seem to proceed from various corners of the house. Then suddeMy the song ceases : when it is over, the shaman is found lying exhausted. Sometimes the shaman uses a hieratic language, a mixture of Yakut, Yukaghir, and Koryak words : shamans cannot remember what they recite in their semi-hypnotic state, and genumely do not understand the language they use. A variety of conjuring tricks are per formed. Among the Yakuts the performance appeals to rather higher emotions. The shaman kneels on a white mare's skM, bows to the four corners of the earth, and sprinkles the ground with water from Ms mouth. After other rites, the shaman begms to play his drum, and utters wUd cries imitating aMmals. Then he chants an mcantation, the spirits come, the shaman f aUs, leaps, and dances ; members of his ' con gregation ' hold him by leather thongs, lest the spirits should make away with him. In the south Yakut district he is un fettered. After these movements he approaches Ms patient, drives away the cause of the UMess, and prescribes what sacrifices must be made to the powerful spirits whose servant he has bamshed. His prophetic gifts do not leave him at once, but he foreteUs future events". He goes a mystic and symbohc journey tMough the strata of the uMverse announcing the various pomts M his travel that he has reached. Despite the trickery there is evidence of considerable mediumistic powers ; there is use of auto-suggestion in the trances and probably a skUful handhng of hypnosis. One of the eariiest accounts of shamaMsm was published in CMna in 1747, written in the Manchu language. For the subject generally, see M. A. Czaplicka, Aboriginal Siberia, from wMch the above examples are taken. p 2 CHAPTER VIII HYGIENE Climatic complaints — Zymotic diseases — Nervous diseases — Want of sanitation Climatic Complaints There is no reason for regarding the climate of Siberia, despite its rigours, as unhealthy, unless the nervous com plaints mentioned later have any connexion with the wmter darkness and cold. Settlers M Siberia, Mcludmg exUes, suffer no ill effects from the climate, whether m the far north or in the agricultural regions of the south. The great cold of wmter, it is true, is liable to cause frost-bite, but with adequate shelter and sufficient nourishment, the risk of this provmg serious is small sMce strong wmds are rare M wMter, and m their absence great cold is quite endurable with safety. Snow-bfindness is not uncommon in spring and autumn, but the lack of wmter snow M many parts, the darkness of the northern wMter, and the general prevalence of green trees to relieve ' the eyes minimize the occurrence ¦ of this trouble. Zymotic Diseases Apart from climatic mfluences, however, there is much disease among most native tribes in Siberia. Measles is common, especially among the Koryaks and Yukaghir, and has devastated whole villages. Smallpox is endemic m many parts : it is said to have caused a steady reduction in the numbers of the Yukaghir and Tungus. Tuberculous disease is prevalent, though seldom diagnosed on account of the absence of medical officers in most parts : it was very probably introduced by Russians. Sibe ian boil plague, a form of anthrax which also attacks cattle, is found from the Urals to ZYMOTIC DISEASES 229 the ChMese frontier, especiaUy M summer. It occurs in both external and internal forms. The latter is generally fatal in one to four days. Goitre is reported principally from the Lena vaUey, where it is most prevalent among women, and from the Amur region. Syphilis is rampant throughout Siberia. Ophthalmia and other diseases of the eye are very common : some are due to snow-blmdness, as noted above, others to venereal disease, and others to the smoky nature of the interior of all native huts. Leprosy occurs in the Lena, KoHma, and Amur regions, Sakhalin, and elsewhere. It is generaUy associated by the Gilyaks with eating fish, especially one species of salmon. Cholera is never absent from the Amur and Maritime Provinces, and every few years assumes the proportions of an epidemic. In 1910 a violent epidemic of cholera raged in Vladivostok, Khabarovsk, Blagovyesch- chensk, and Nikolaevsk : most of the victims were Chinese and Koreans. In the same year an epidemic of plague intro duced from Manchuria Mto the Amur region was successfully fought by the use of injections. The last epidemic of typhoid in the same region was in 1908. Thus the Amur and Maritime Provinces seem to be the least healthy parts of Siberia owing to their proximity to any diseases rampant in China, Korea, and Japan. Nervous Diseases CertaM pecufiar forms of nervous affection are common among the natives of Siberia, and are known coUectively under the name of Arctic hysteria, because, as far as Siberia is con cerned, they are confined to the polar and subpolar regions. They are, however, closely akm to nervous affections of the natives of Java, AbyssMia, South Africa, Madagascar, Brazil, Peru, and elsewhere, and particularly the Malays, and so, properly speakmg, are not peculiar to Arctic lands, although - they are probably accentuated by the darkness, and are certaMly most prevalent during winter. Hardships increase the occurrence of hysteria : m times of famine whole villages may suffer from it. It is noticeable also that sedentary people 230 MYUlENJi; suffer far more than nomadic people, who are better inured to hardships. Arctic hysteria is most prevalent among Neo-Siberians, but is found also in certain forms among Palaeo-Siberians. Euro pean exiles from Russia to Arctic Siberia seldom suffer from it. Many forms of nervous disease are Mcluded under this head, quite apart from the hysterical manifestations of the shamans, which are looked upon by the natives as an m- spiration, but are not impossibly connected m origM with Arctic hysteria (see Chapter VII). A common form is ex pressed in timidity and fright, with an inclination to repeat all visual and auditory impressions. Another type is brought on by sudden shock or pain, but it is sometimes periodic and recurs without apparent direct cause. The patient is afflicted with spasms or falls into a trance, howls or dances, and the fits are often followed by extreme exhaustion or prolonged sleep for several days. In some symptoms this form closely resembles epilepsy. It is sometimes accompanied by marufestations of erotic mania, and by Yakuts, Yukaghir, and others is ascribed to the mfluence of evil spirits, but looked upon as a disease. All these forms seem to be commonest among people who have recently moved into Arctic regions. Melan cholia and so-called voluntary death are other forms of hysteria. Melancholia occurs chiefly among people domiciled in Arctic Siberia, and is not uncommon among the inhabitants of other far northern lands. Voluntary death is also common among the tribes of northern Siberia. Old or Mfirm people request their relatives to put them to death : this, however, may be the outcome of a desire to escape suffering, and it is doubtful if it can be looked on as a form of hysteria. Want op Sanitation The difficulties of combating disease throughout Siberia are very great. Most of the natives are dirty and devoid of the most primitive ideas on sanitation. Owmg to the vastness of the land over which they roam, no adequate medical super vision is possible. At the same time it must be remembered WANT OF SANITATION 231 that the state of health of the majority of the tribes in Siberia has little Mfluence on the Russian settlers who, by the nature of the land, are more or less confMed to certam regions, where measures of preventive medicine, even if difficult, are not impossible. The state of the Siberian towns (see p. 313) leaves much room for improvement M matters of sanitation and health. CHAPTER IX AGRICULTURE Western Siberia — Eastern Siberia Western Siberia The peasant population of western Siberia constitutes about ninety per cent, of the whole, and it is nearly aU engaged, directly or indirectly, in agriculture. The agricMtural dis tricts of western Siberia are the Government of Tobolsk, excluding the districts of Berezov and Surgut, and the Government of Tomsk, excluding the district of Narim, but in the steppes agriculture is only practised successfuUy in parts of the districts of Kokchetav, Atbasar, and Petropavlovsk in the Akmolinsk territory, and in the Semipalatinsk, Pavlodar and Zaisan districts of the Semipalatinsk territory. In 1911 over 10,800,000 acres were sown in Tobolsk and Tomsk, i. e. 36 per cent, of the whole sown area of Asiatic Russia. In the steppes over 5,400,000 acres were sown. Cereals, root crops, and fodder Three zones of agricultural land. — (1) North of lat. 58° N. there is a region in which agriculture is oMy sporadic. It consists largely of urmans (swamps), wliich are qMte un- suited to tiUage ; the arable lands are either the more elevated parts of the river valleys, which are not submerged, the uvals (inclined banks), or level ground surrounded by yars (abrupt precipices). North of lat. 60° N. hardly any cereals are grown ; corn is planted as far north as Berezov (about lat. 64° N.), but is of no economic importance in those parts. (2) Between lat. 56° N.x and lat. 58° N. the region is an almost perfectly flat plain, with deciduous trees predominating WESTERN SIBERIA 233 over comfers. Swamps, though extensive, occupy less of the total area : there are plateaux as well as river vaUeys used for agricMture. Lands suitable for cereals are often spread over great tracts. The river valleys are hardly ploughed at aU (except for the uvals), as being too liable to inun dation. (3) South of lat. 56° N. the region is variegated with many smaU lakes divided by ridges with sloping sides. There are islands of fertility with flat spaces between that are entirely barren. The wUd cherry growMg on unploughed soU is a sign of its fertility. It grows on the west Ishim steppe, but not on the east Ishim and Baraba steppes. Much of this region is particularly adapted for wheat. The west Ishim steppe is the most fertile region ; the Baraba and east Ishim steppes closely resemble one another. The Baraba steppe has great variations in itself ; it is least fertile in the north, where it becomes swamp, most fertile in the south, where it reaches to the foothills of the Altai. In the Kirghiz steppes few cereals are grown, as the Kirghiz eat little bread of any sort, but a great deal of meat. Soils. — In the river vaUeys there prevail very sticky clayey soils, partly grey, slightly tinged with humus, partly black. There are two Mnds of black soil : (1) argillaceous chernozem or black soil, on the raised ground, the most fertile of all the soUs, (2) a black earth which is poor and barren and of a peaty character, only adapted for oats. In the middle region especiaUy there are what is caUed byeliks, where a very thm layer of turf (2 or 3 Mches tMck) Hes over a stratum of almost unproductive Hght-grey clayey soil (9 or 10 inches thick), superimposed on a reddish -yeUow clay. These are oMy of use with manure, and have to lie fallow for twenty-five years after three or four crops, as only the top layer nourishes cereals. In the south region the predominating soU is a dark brown, friable, clayey soil, with a large admixture of white sand upon a reddish clay subsoil. In the Baraba steppe upon the broad sloping ridges black soil is everywhere, and on the narrow and more abrupt ridges a clayey soil. The soil 234 Abr-KJUUXiX un,£j along the raUway has a loamy substratum with a surface of black earth (14 to 24 ins.) which is entirely stoneless. Crops vary in accordance with varieties of soil. Wheat grows best in south-west Tobolsk, the Kainsk and Mariinsk districts of Tomsk, the Altai and parts of Akmolinsk territory where there is a sandy black soil ; in aU these parts it is more than half the grain sown ; barley and spring rye are adapted to the brownish soils of the central part of Tomsk, where the soil is iMertile ; east from Tomsk grows wmter rye, and oats are commonest along the great Siberian road. In the northern districts wMter corn occupies the cMef place. In aU Asiatic Russia spring corn considerably predominates over winter corn. Methods of cultivation.- — In the agricMtural parts of Siberia it is usual to sow the land for two or tMee years, and then for a year to leave it f aUow ; after tMs to sow it again for one or two years, and to repeat the process till it shows that it needs a rest. Then, when certain signs known to the peasants present themselves, it is reploughed. During the early part of the period the more exhausting grains are sown, such as wheat and rye ; towards the end of the period, barley and oats. In the region of Lake Zaisan there is Mtensive culture by irrigation There are irrigating canals (aryks) from which little runlets are .taken all over the fields. The water is let on first before ploughing, and then, accordMg to the weather, from two to four times more, whUe the plant is growing. After eight crops the field requires either three years' rest or manuring. It is always the same crop, because during the harvesting the old seed would drop Mto the soil and spoil next year's crop. Agricultural improvements. — Many improvements have been made in the system of agriculture in western Siberia. Ferti lizers are employed to a greater extent, and there are many mechanical appliances introduced. A large amount of agri cultural machinery is imported to meet a growing demand. Large wholesale purchases are made, especiaUy of reapers, mowers, and rakes. The United States, with a widespread WESTERN SIBERIA 235 orgaMzation in the villages, have an almost complete mono poly, except for ploughs, which have hitherto been usuaUy of German make. Chelyabmsk, Novo-Nikolaevsk, and Omsk are the chief centres of distribution, and there are others at Kurgan, Petropavlovsk, Pavlodar, Semipalatinsk, Tatarskaya, Karachi, Kamen, Barnaul, and Biisk. At a station on the River Irtish, near Omsk and also at Novo-Nikolaevsk, ex perimental work is being carried on ; arrangements are made under the Colonization Department for testing kinds of ma chMery and implements introduced into Siberia. Specimens of suitable machines are on view for farmers who visit the place. The value of sales was M 1910 £497,000 ; in 1911 £680,000 ; M 1912 £840,000 ; M 1913 £730,000. The pur chaser usually makes the first half of his payment during the first year and the rest m instalments. Bad debts are rare. There are many agricultural depots scattered through the country, organized by the Government ; but the private store has some advantages in the peasant's eyes over the Govern ment depot ; he has it more at his mercy, for it gives him long credit, and he can keep it waiting for his money, whereas he is at the mercy of the Government depot himself. All agri cultural implements enter the country free of tax. Grain elevators are being erected at the cost of the Treasury, but in order to secure them more speedUy the Siberian co operative societies are undertaMng the construction of ele vators at their own expense. At Aleksyeevsk M Omsk district an elevator of 1,600 tons capacity has been completed ; it is provided with all the necessary grain-dryMg and cleaning appliances. This is the case, too, with the station at Mishkina. Eight credit societies are erecting an elevator of 6,025 tons capacity at the station of Kochenevo. At Omsk and at Kula- chinskoe in the Omsk district graM stores are to be buUt. A large elevator of 16,070 tons capacity is projected for Novo-Niko laevsk. Agriculture has been stimulated along the fine of the great Siberian road owMg to the fact that this was formerly the one artery of commerce, and a large population was wanted 236 AGRICULTURE for the work of transport and mnkeeping. But the road has formidable competitors in the steamers upon the rivers and in the Siberian Railway ; its monopoly has gone, and a large proportion of the population has taken t6 agriculture. Milling. — Most of the cereal products are exported from Russia in the form of graM, and so miUing has suffered. But the Tomsk Government contaMs a fair proportion of miUs, among which wheat mills predommate with a return of £600,000. Flour miUs are found prMcipaUy M the districts of Tomsk, Biisk, and Barnaul, and M the neighbourhood of Novo-Nikolaevsk. The mills are weU set up. Export of cereals. — Siberia supplies the deficiencies of European Russia M bad seasons, so as to enable the Russians to export the reserves which woMd otherwise be retamed for home consumption. Much goes to the non-agricultural parts of Siberia, especially the mines. Some was formerly used for vodka and other spirits. But the export of Siberian cereals is not great in proportion to the output of the country, and in comparison with that of European Russia it seems negligible. The cost of transport is very heavy. A German authority states that the cost of transport of a ton of wheat from Chelya binsk to the mouth of the Rhine amounts to £2 16s., whUe the carriage of the same quantity from India costs only 12s. There is still a large amount of land of great agricultural value unsown, and there are considerable opemngs for trade, especially if a serious effort is made to replace the German trade in ploughs. Hay. — In 1914 in western Siberia 12,892,918 acres were under hay, with an output of 7,358,100 tons ; M the steppes there were 9,271,773 acres, with an output of 3,546,500 tons. Hay-cutting is done near the big towns and along the post roads. Potatoes. — Potatoes are grown further north than the Hmit within which cereals are profitable, e. g. at Samarovskoe, at the confluence of the Ob and Irtish. Other crops grown in the same region are rape and cucumber. Fruit is of little importance. Some cherries are grown at WESTERN SIBERIA 237 Kurgan ; in Tyumen there are a few smaU fruit gardens, and apples are grown at Tomsk, under the care of the University. Melons and water-melons are grown by the peasants for their own consumption. Flax and hemp. — Flax is grown almost universaUy ; hemp especiaUy M the black earth districts. These are grown mainly for the seed, whence comes an edible oil, which is of great importance for Russians as a substitute for butter on fast days. The fibres serve especiaUy local needs for ropes and Hnen. The flax is good, but weak : the peasants cannot handle it properly, and it has but small Mternational value. In the BarnaM district the hemp is of low quaUty and badly worked up. It is estimated that this district might produce ¦4,800 to 8,000 tons of hempseed and the same amount of Unseed. At Omsk there is a steam oU-seed and colour miU, wMch manufactures various oils from linseed, hemp, and sunflower seeds, to the extent (in 1901) of 645 tons, and colours to the extent of 81 tons. Sunflower. — From the seeds an oil is extracted and used for the same purposes as those from hempseed and Unseed. It is grown especiaUy M the Altai and at places along the Irtish. Tobacco. — Altogether in Siberia in 1914 there were 18,198 plantations of tobacco, with an area of 1,984 acres. They yielded 4 tons of Turkish tobacco and 1,570 tons of lower quality. The chief tobacco-growing districts of Siberia are along the Irtish, south of Omsk, M the Cossack settlements, where about 160 tons are produced a year. The plantations are all small, and most of the work is done by women. About 30 per cent. j£ consumed locally ; the rest goes to the neigh bouring fairs and to Omsk, where there is a tobacco factory, doing very good business, chiefly in cigarettes (£40,000 in 1903). The common Russian tobacco is mahorka, which is grown in Omsk and Petropavlovsk districts, and is chiefly used in the manufacture of cheap cigars. The peasant is showing a tendency to abandon mahorka M favour of cheap cigarettes. The import of tobacco goods by rail is increasing. 238 AGRICULTURE Woodland produce Cedar cones. — The Pinus cembra produces a cone wMch is much esteemed for the oU extracted from its seeds. It is found especiaUy in the Narim district, the northern parts of Tomsk and Marfinsk districts, and the mountamous parts of Biisk and Kuznetsk districts. The chief market is Tomsk. In a good year, which is once m four or five, 4,800 to 6,400 tons are gathered, the season being from the middle of August to the middle of September. The price is from 3s. to 5s. per pud ; the average turnover of a labourer is from about 12s. to £1 18s. In order to obtain the cone the trees are cut down if they are difficult to climb. Wild fruit. — Great masses of bUberries and cranberries are exported from Turinsk, Tara, and Tobolsk districts. Rock- cherry, obtained in Tomsk district, is dried and ground to flour, and on fast days is boiled with honey and water and eaten as a kind of jam. The nut trade is especiaUy developed in the Surgut, Tara, and Tobolsk districts of Tobolsk and the Narim and Mariinsk districts of Tomsk. In the Kuznetsk and Biisk districts the nomads do the nutting. Mushrooms are put on the market, dried and salted. Eastern Siberia Cereals, root crops, and fodder In spite of the climate agriculture is maMng rapid progress in eastern Siberia, especially since the Government began to encourage the transfer of the land from the commuMty to the peasants. The settlers generally seem to make a decent Hving and to improve in appearance. When the first difficulties have been overcome, they are better off than they were in Russia. The land which is most accessible and most favourably situated for agriculture has already been occupied. New immigrants can no longer hope for natural grass-land, but once the taiga has been cleared, the soil is generally good. Manure is only begimiing to be used in some parts of EASTERN SIBERIA 239 Transbaikal. The ramparts of it that often stand round Siberian towns and villages are left undisturbed. '^ When the old land is exhausted, the peasant ploughs up a new plot. But now that he usually owns his land, he may be willing to make improvements, and adopt a less wasteful system of agriculture. A system of rotation of crops is generally followed ; it varies in different districts. Eastern Siberia is by no means self-supporting in agri cultural produce. Some 200,000 tons of wheat enter the Transbaikal, Amur, and Primorsk Provinces annually from Manchuria alone, while Irkutsk, Yeniseisk, and Yakutsk re ceive large supplies from western Siberia. The cMef peculiarity of agriculture in these provinces is the great preponderance of spring over winter grain. Even m the Transbaikal, Amur, and Maritime Provinces spring graM is less than 1 per cent, of the total. The long winter and sfight snowfaU make it almost impossible for winter grain to ripen. Yeniseisk and Irkutsk. — Though cattle-raising is the chief occupation, agriculture is steadUy extending. Spring crops predomMate, but wMter corn is sown on 28 per cent, of the cMtivated land. In Irkutsk especially rye is the chief crop, then oats and wheat. Buckwheat, miUet, potatoes, lentils, flax, and hemp are grown. In Achinsk rye and winter wheat do well because of the early winter and deep snow. In the Minusinsk district there is an area of dry steppe, surrounded by rich black earth, where a considerable agricultural popu lation prospers. The warm dry summer enables spring wheat to ripen here before the autumn frosts. Beetroots and water melons do weU near Minusinsk. Hay is good and plentiful throughout these provmces. The MMusMsk region alone has a trade in flour with Krasnoyarsk and the lower Yenisei. Some 4,000 tons are produced by about six steam or water mills, none of which has a capacity of more than 1,600 tons. There is a smaU steam-mill at Krasnoyarsk, one of 1,600 tons capacity at Cheremkhovskoe, and a couple of good-sized mills in Irkutsk 240 AGRICULTURE and the neighbourhood. There are also some 20 water-mills for local use along the Yenisei. The soil round Minusinsk is particularly favourable to beets, and a beet-sugar manufactory has been established there. The Provinces east of Lake Baikal. — The territory east of Lake Baikal still needs large quantities of imported corn. Some 200,000 tons of wheat enter the Maritime, Amur, and Transbaikal Provinces every year from Manchuria for the use of the people and the troops. The Government is always the largest buyer. It is estimated that the Priamur alone could produce at least 600,000 tons more gram than it does at present. The Government proposes to put a duty on Man churian corn, in order to encourage local agriculture, and to lower the freights on gram and flour from western Siberia. But it is held in Blagovyeshohensk, wMch is the agricultural capital of the Priamur, and the third m importance of the flour-milling towns of the Russian Empire, that, so far from excluding Manchurian wheat, this wiU oMy enable it to be sold at a higher price across the river. Indeed, the Russian mill-owners in KharbM, who produce most of tMs imported flour, are in no way perturbed by the proposal. The campaign against Chinese labour has seriously raised the price of Hving, and the suggested duty will raise it still further. The Colonization Department also mtends to buUd grain- elevators along the Amur railway. The Government has been advised to build elevators of a capacity of 9,000 tons and a flour-mill of 18 tons capacity per diem at Aleksyeevsk. Smaller elevators are to be established at Bochkarevo, Bureya, Malinovka, Tigda, Yekaterinoslavka, and Gondatti. The ex tension of credit among the peasants is also to be encouraged. In spite of these suggestions and the advantages offered by the opening of the railway and other improvements in the means of communication, there is little prospect of these pro vinces being able to produce their own food for a long time. Moreover, there is always the danger of over-production, with a consequent sharp fall in prices. Russia is one of the world's granaries, and it might not be easy to find a profitable EASTERN SIBERIA 241 market for surplus Siberian grain, owmg to the inaccessibility of the country. Hence many authorities are of opiMon that the future of the east Siberian peasant lies in stock-raising and dairy-farmmg rather than in corn-growing. But the Governor-General of the Priamur hoped that the budding of a good harbour at Nikolaevsk would ensure to the steamers the prosperity wMch is tiireatened by the opening of the Amur RaUway, and also establish a large bean and grain industry on the Sungari and the Amur between Blagovyesh ohensk, Nikolaevsk, and KharbM. Transbaikal. — The Transbaikal is sparsely populated. Cattle-farming is much more developed than agriculture. But the quafity of the land is excellent. Spring corn is the chief cereal, forming 50 per cent, of the total crop. Then come wheat (16 per cent.) and oats (15 per cent.). Barley, buck wheat, and in places mMet, flax, and hemp are also sown. But harvests are uncertain, and there are frequent local fafiures. Artificial irrigation is necessary in the principal agricMtural districts, such as the Nerchinsk and Aksha, the natives usMg ditches for the purpose, but the irrigation should be systematized. In the Selenginsk district the sowing takes place early in May and the harvest in August, before the autumn frosts begM. Potatoes are grown everywhere for local use, but other vegetables only on a smaU scale. Considering the high prices realized,, it is surprisMg that they are not more cultivated. Amur and Maritime Provinces. — Agriculture is at present the chief occupation in the Amur Province, but in the Maritime Province, in spite of the richness of the soil, the climate is not favourable to its development. There is little snow in winter. Hence the land freezes so deep that the subsoil remains frozen -throughout the year. In summer the rainfall is heavy. Damp is the chief enemy. Clover and fodder-grass do not flourish, and there is much rot. Of some 567,000,000 acres only about 850,000 were sown in 1906. But the area under crops is steadily increasing, especially in the Ussuri region and on the Zeya-Bureya plain. SIBERIA I Q 242 AGRICULTURE Amur Province. — At the time of the first Russian invasion, the Daurians on the Amur were great agriculturists. The soU along the raUway, which freezes to a depth of 200 or 300 ft., consists of a sticky clay that only thaws for 3 ft. This is covered with coarse grass or scrubby vegetation. But the Zeya-Bureya plain is very fertUe, and is now largely settled. Fields of corn extend as far' as the eye can reach. • Between 1907-10 an average of 220,892 tons of cereals was produced, and the output should increase rapidly. The foUowing are the statistics of the 1911 harvest : Tons Tons Oats . 118,000 Beans 56 Wheat . . 110,200 Millet . 1,200 Rye 2,500 Corn 19 Barley . 980 Hemp and flax 140 Buckwheat . 600 Potatoes 21,900 Potatoes do weU, averagmg 12 cwt. to the acre. The Amur Province is the best market for agricultural machinery in eastern Siberia. In 1910 there were 43 steam miUs, 111 water-mills, and 60 windmills in the Amur ProvMce. Blagovyeshohensk possessed 9 steam-mills. There were also 38 rice and groats mills in the Amur and Maritime Provmces. The foUowing table shows the flour produced M 1911 by the Blagovyeshohensk miUs. Of the 100,806 tons of grain used, 37,250 came from the Amur Province, and 63,556 from Manchuria. The 1,310 tons of rye were all grown in the provmce. Flour produced for : Wheat. Rye. Tons. Tons Blagovyeshohensk . . 28,200 400 Mining districts . 8,560 84 Zeya-Pristan . 6,250 56 Commissary Department . 6,500 620 Other markets . 19,900 140 Total 69,410 1,300 In the same year Blagovyeshohensk imported from Man- EASTERN SIBERIA 243 churia 2,347 tons of wheat flour, and from Odessa and other places 305 tons. In the short summer, carrots, potatoes, tomatoes, cabbages, even water-melons, and of course beets, do well almost every where on the newly-cleared land by the Amur RaUway. The Chinese and Koreans grow most of the vegetables. Blago vyeshohensk is entirely supplied by the Chinese across the river, with whom the Russians cannot compete. Maritime Province. — The mountainous character of the Maritime ProvMce as a whole is not favourable to agriculture. The fertile territory lies to the south, round Nikolsk-Ussuriski and Lake Khanka, and in the Ussuri valley. The winter is long, with Httle snow, wMle an annual precipitation of 22 Mches of ram falls between May and September. Fogs are common iii the south, and many parts of the province suffer from floods. These are especially frequent on the Iman, while east of Lake Khanka in the Prikhankoisk region 500,000 acres of arable land are made useless by inunda tions in summer. It has been proposed that the district shoMd be reclaimed by improving the outflow through the Sungacha. In 1910, 80,192 acres were damaged by frost, 'floods, insects, and other causes. The Russians had to learn from the Koreans how to protect their fields from floods and fogs. The Cossacks, who own large tracts of land, preferred to let it to these skilled farmers, whom the Government policy of Russifying the region is steadily driving out. It is impos sible for a Russian peasant to compete with a Korean, not merely on account of the extraordinary sMU of his intensive farming, but on account of his low standard of living. The average size of a holdMg in the Maritime Province is about 15 acres. Means of commumcation are very defective, but the Government is building new roads. Farmers are also encouraged to sow soya beans, flax, hemp, and beets, for wMch the country is better suited than for grains. Indeed, the beets are so good that there is talk of starting a beet-sugar • factory M Vladivostok. An agricultural school, the first in Q 2 244 AGRICULTURE the Far East, was to be estabfished at Nikolsb-UssurisM, the centre of the flourishing farming district M the south. The yield of the various crops M 1911 was as foUows : Bushels. Tons. Wheat Rye . Barley Oats . . 2,197,249 231,317 197,837 • . 3,836,784 Buckwheat Millet Soya beans Flax and hemp . 15,274 6,0493,3092,944 There are 115 steam-mMs, 220 water-iMUs, and 139 wind mills in the Maritime ProvMce. Until some attempt at drainage is made, and the old coarse grass is removed, the hay in the Ussuri district wiU always be rank. It often smeUs so disagreeable that cattle refuse to eat it. .. Potatoes are a very important crop. Vegetables do weU and seU weU, but the Chinese and Koreans reap most of the profits. Considerable success has been obtained m fruit-growMg, and attempts are being made to establish it on a busMess basis. At Barabash an apple is said to have been produced not inferior to the Californian varieties. It is hoped that in time the large imports of fruit, especially from Japan, will become unnecessary. Grapes of a poor quality grow wild in the southern Ussuri district. The inhabitants make wine from them for local use. Sakhalin. Wheat, barley, oats, spring corn, and even winter rye are sown, mostly in small patches by ex-convicts. Three- to four-fold is a good harvest. Vegetables, notably potatoes and cabbages, do pretty well. The soil is good in places. Yakutsk and the North-east. — A recent commission has decided that agriculture could be advantageously carried on in the Yakutsk Province. Hitherto it has proved most suc- cessfM in the Lena valley and on the Olekma and Aldan. The flourishing Skoptsi colonies near Olekminsk and Yakutsk grow wheat, summer rye, barley, and oats. These Skoptsi import modern agricultural machinery, and own two or three steam flour-mills. Most of the Yakuts grow wheat. In fact, grain already ripens at about lat. 64° N. Barley ripens in EASTERN SIBERIA 24S 71 days, spring corn in 92, oats in 82, and wheat M 76 days. But the harvest is very moderate. Vegetable-growing in a smaU way is carried on as far north as the KoHma and the Verkhoyansk regions. Barley some times ripens near Verkhoyansk. The Skoptsi of Markha, near Yakutsk, are remarkably successful with vegetables, especially potatoes and cabbages. But the natives of the tundra are too busy fishmg M summer to waste their energies on occu pations so unremunerative as agriculture and vegetable- growmg. The bleak shores of the Sea of Okhotsk are very uMavourable to agriculture. Even potatoes will not ripen near the mouth of the Uda, though barley and excellent vege tables are grown Mland round UdsM-Ostrog. Yet cabbages and even cauliflowers do well M the more sheltered region of Yamsk. In Kamchatka the rich black earth and com parative dryness of the soU between Verkhne-Kamchatsk and Klyuchevskaya make agriculture possible in the vaUey of the Kamchatka, and barley and vegetables ripen round Petro pavlovsk. Indeed, vegetables such as potatoes, beets, carrots, radishes, and cabbages are grown in most of the villages of the peninsula. In the Petropavlovsk district over 100 acres are sown with vegetables. Potatoes and turnips have ripened at Siktyakh, on the Lena, and there are several small kitchen gardens at Markovo on the Anadir. The example of Alaska shows that there is no reason why the growmg of vegetables should not be widely extended in these regions. Opium and Tobacco The Ussuri region is very favourable to the poppy, and it used to send a quantity of opium to China. Russians are not addicted to the drug, but the Cossacks, who are not good agriculturists, readUy let their land to the Chinese grower for £10 an acre. They are thus enabled to live in idleness, and they rapidly become demoralized. Not only does the poppy exhaust the ground, but it diminishes the output of beehives in the neighbourhood by 75 per cent. Moreover, it attracts Chinese of a very undesirable type. In 1911 some 10,000 acres 246 AGRICULTURE were under poppy, and much more. is probably grown UHcitly in the remoter districts. Its sale, except as a drug, is Ulegal M Russia, but there is a large contraband ChMese traffic. Indeed, so alarmmgly has the trade Mcreased, that the growing of the poppy is to be prohibited by law. In 1913 the crops were destroyed by order of the Government. Some tobacco is grown in the Yeniseisk and Irkutsk Pro vinces. About 600 acres were under tobacco M the Maritime Province in 1911, Cedar-nuts Cedar-nuts, which give good oU, are gathered for eating M the Amur Province, and M much larger quantities on the upper Yenisei and the upper courses of the tributaries of the Angara. In the Sayansk taiga, especially, the Mdustry is organized on a commercial basis. September and October are the months for coUecting. Wooden mortars are used for husking the cones. The forests He in the heart of the Sayansk taiga. In a good season, which occurs every 4-5 years, 800 tons are sent to Krasnoyarsk from the Yenisei. CHOPS Or SlBEEIA AND STEPPES Mean crop 1913. (1908-12). Tons. Tons. Wheat . . 3,215,920 2,069,250 Barley 254,460 158,110 Oats 1,899,310 1,239,240 Rye 888,020 739,090 Hay . 11,549,860 1914. Buckwheat 58,840 Millet . 202,500 Maize 5,870 Leguminous cro] )S . 31,930 Potatoes . 1,637,500 EASTERN SIBERIA 247 Area under Crops in 1911 Potatoes Province. Total Culti vated Area. Cereals. & Legu minous Crops. Flax. Hemp. Acres. Acres. Acres. Acres. Acres. Tobolsk 3,821,500 3,679,060 64,416 51,529 26,495 Tomsk 7,183,380 6,822,341 174,250 91,950 94,840 Akmolinsk . 1,801,730 1,687,035 40,073 69,473 5,146 Semipalatinsk 628,200 617,190 7,680 2,400 930 Irkutsk 993,300 960,600 23,500 1,300 7,900 Yeniseisk . . 1,223,000 1,159,100 34,840 9,280 19,780 Transbaikal 929,700 907,400 20,700 1,600 Yakutsk 33,800 32,600 1,200 Amur 698,500 683,940 13,200 400 960 Primorsk 656,200 604,700 40,500 8,130 2,870 Sakhalin 5,700 4,560 1,140 Total . 17,975,010 17,158,526 421,499 234,462 160,521 CHAPTER X LIVE-STOCK Domestic animals — Apiculture — Dairy industry Domestic Animals In western Siberia the raising of Hve-stock is a great occu pation of the inhabitants, though more to meet their own needs than for the purposes of trade with other nations. In eastern Siberia, especially with regard to horses and cattle, it is better developed than agriculture, but is still far from sufficing for the needs of the country. The figures for the principal five-stock in 1911 were as foUows : Province. Tobolsk . TomskAkmolinsk Semipalatinsk Yeniseisk Yakutsk . Irkutsk Amur Transbaikal PrimorskSakhalin . Province. Tobolsk . Tomsk . AkmolinskSemipalatinsk YeniseiskYakutsk . Irkutsk . Amur Transbaikal Primorsk . Sakhalin . KJtWbbti, ztiieep (coarse wool) 749,672 900,201 624,215 2,173,733 2,469,049 2,403,724 1,064,229 1,289,061 2,064,462 957,926 856,830 2,792,699 494,157 500,139 724,004 88,138 241,674 135 287,518 354,622 203,518 101,206 75,231 11,836 591,588 1,003,145 1,021,967 109,516 171,618 4,640 1,797 4,315 7,865,885 6,619,480 9,851,200 Sheep Goats. Pigs. (fine fleece) 3,251 20,713 154,786 23,118 64,168 508,253 27,125 133,185 45,359 13,251 8,063 4,775 7,472 123,307 217 29,468 79,452 83 48,200 103,082 119,366 200 91,187 74 1,400 71,520 358,445 1,179,590 DOMESTIC ANIMALS 249 Horses predommate among the Kirghiz, who breed them for transport, meat, and kumis, which is manufactured from their mUk : the Elirghiz ride wherever they go, however short the distance. When they change from a nomadic to a settled Me, the number of their horses decreases and that of their cattle increases. The tribes of the Altai largely breed horses ; from their mares' milk a spirit called terasum is prepared. In the rest of Siberia the horses are bred maiMy for farm-work or to act as post-horses. The chief breeds m Siberia are the Kuznetsk and Kirghiz. In the south of Tobolsk the native horse is mterbred with the KirgMz variety. This cross-breed is of extraordinary speed and stayMg power. The horses in Tomsk are bigger ; they are not so swift, but can carry great weights. The Siberian horse is usuaUy smaU, easUy satisfied as to food and water, and can endure heat and cold. It is fast, but not extremely strong : its normal load does not exceed from 720 to 900 lb. OMy the superior sort of dray-horses draw 1,000 to 1,080 lb. (or, for a short distance, 1,260). There is but little breedMg with Engfish and American horses, except for the carriage-horses of very rich men. But high-stepping horses thus bred can be seen at certain places, e. g. Tyumen and Tomsk. There are certam breedMg-places, especiaUy in the Tomsk Government, where staUions are kept ; their number was much Mcreased in 1912. Besides these there are stud farms M the Tomsk, Tobolsk, and Semipalatinsk ProvMces. Horse- shows have been introduced M the towns of Tomsk and BarnaM and the viUage of Bryukhanovo, in the Tomsk Govern ment. In eastern Siberia horse-breedmg is an important Mdustry. The Transbaikal horse is the best known and most popular in the southern districts. The Cossacks of the Amur prefer it to any other, and it is the oMy breed used in Sakhalin. It is smaU, thm, hardy, and weU suited to endure a rough Me. It is 12 or 13 hands high, can draw a load of 1,000 lbs., and cover any distance at 40 miles a day in a troika. So light is 250 LIVE-STOCK the snowfaU in the Transbaikal and Amur Provinces that it can graze aU the year round in the open. The vostretz grass (meadow-grass) of the Transbaikal, wMch affords almost better food in winter than in summer, keeps the horses M condition there. In the Amur ProvMce, where there is no such grass, they get thin in winter, though they quicMy fatten agam in spring. But the breed degenerates rapidly there. The Government has recently started stud farms with good stallions in the Transbaikal and Yakutsk Provmces M order to improve the breed. In the Transbaikal the average price of a horse is about 5 guineas, at Blagovyeshohensk from 10 to 20 guineas. In the Yakutsk ProvMce the ugly Httle Yakut horse, with its shaggy coat, displays astomshmg endurance. It often Hves out of doors M wMter, and is even used withM the Arctic circle. Cattle. — The Siberiaks are much more careless about their cattle than the emigrants, for they aUow them to remain out in the wMter without any shelter except such as is given them by their coats, which are as a rule very tMck. Cattle- raising is especiaUy developed M the Tyukafinsk district of Tobolsk and in the KaMsk steppe and about the ChuHm M Tomsk. Cattle have Mcreased M value ; formerly they were worth about £1 each ; latterly they could command from £2 to £4. The local prices for meat range low ; so it is more profitable, when possible, to use them for dairy purposes. Consequently there has been a decfine M the hide and meat trades. The export of cattle themselves is inconsiderable — in 1911, 65,000 head (£250,000). The great commercial centres of the cattle trade are Petropavlovsk and Omsk (where the raUway crosses the Ishim and the Irtish). From the former meat is exported to European Russia at the rate of 30,000,000 tons a year. Further west there is not enough cold storage for trade, but some firms are estabfishMg cold storage plants along the railway. In the steppes cattle are bred for meat, as weU as for dairy purposes, but the meat is mostly for local con sumption, and of little economic value, though a certain amount is exported frozen in winter to Petrograd, Moscow, DOMESTIC ANIMALS 251 and the far east from the region between Petropavlovsk and Novo-Nikolaevsk ; there is no export in the summer. Some time ago a German company was said to be organizing the export of Siberian meat, especially veal, to Berlin. Both the Yemseisk and Irkutsk Provinces are poorly off for cattle. But stock-raisMg is the chief occupation of the nomads of Mmusinsk, AchMsk, and Turukhansk, and of the natives of the Balagansk and Verkholensk regions. The Mmusinsk district alone has enough for its own needs. In southern Yeniseisk each peasant possesses, on an average, 2 horses, 5 cattle, and 10 sheep. All the oats and hay are kept for food for the stock in the winter. Large herds of the fine, fleshy Soyot cattle enter the Irkutsk Province every year through the Sayansk Range for the supply of meat to Siberia. As many as 30,000 cattle are said to reach Irkutsk by a single track. The animals are kept in quarantine for a fortnight and are medically examined before crossing the frontier. In Transbaikal cattle-raising is very successful, especially among the nomad tribes. Thanks to the vostretz grass, it should be capable of considerable development. There is even a co-operative society, with its centre at Chita, which engages in purchasing cattle for the army. As many as 150,000 hides are annuaUy exported from this province. They are used to cover tea-chests. Owing to the rough life the effects of attempts to improve the breed have only become visible in the last few generations. The average price of a cow is £3 15s. ; of a pair of buUocks, £10 15s. In the Amur and Maritime Provmces the cattle are Man churian or Korean. As they are never mUked at home, they oMy give mUk while the calf is with them. In Blagovyesh ohensk cows of local breed cost from £8 5s. to £12 10s ; buUs from £8 6s. 8d. to £12 10s. Some authorities believe that the future of the Amur ProvMce lies M cattle-breedMg rather than in agriculture, and vigorous efforts are to be made to en courage it. At present the greater part of the meat supply comes from Manchuria. In 1907, 5,000 head of Manchurian cattle and sheep were imported. The cMef fairs are at 252 LIVE-STOCK Blagovyeshohensk, Khabarovsk, Nikolsk-UssurisM, and Vladi vostok. AustraUan meat has been imported Mto Vladivostok in small quantities. The cattle are of small breed ; the average live weight of cows is 510 to 650 lb., of buUs 800 to 930 lb. ; the Altai breed is bigger. On account of the rigorous climate of Siberia it is little use to import foreign breeds. A small number of Simmenthal and Allhausen cattle have been purchased at Moscow and introduced into Siberia, but oMy by the well-to- do. Cattle as a rule are free from tubercMosis, but suffer from Siberian plague and from foot and mouth disease (yashchur). Quarantine regulations have practicaUy extinguished rinder pest, which in certain years, such as 1884, wrought great disaster. Despite the primitive nature of their keep, the Siberian cattle stand the climate well. Sheep. — The ordmary Siberian sheep is of a poor breed ; it yields little meat, very little taUow, and Mferior wool. The Kirghiz sheep vary in colour ; they are grey, wMte, black, and sometimes red ; the Kirghiz prefer the grey and wMte, as their wool fetches a better price M the markets. They are shorn twice a year, yielding from four to six pounds of unwashed wool, wMch is largely used for felt, both for local needs and in the factories of western Siberia. The KirgMz sheep in winter cannot get at their food tMough the snow ; so they follow in the wake of the horses and cattle, and eat what pasture is left for them. One type of KirgMz sheep has a tMck pad of fat on its rump, wMch affords much taUow. Tallow factories are common M the western Siberian towns, but there is not enough to meet the local needs, and tallow is imported. Since 1900 a breed of fine-fleece merino sheep has been introduced ; it is of Spanish origin and was reared M the Crimea ; it prospers M the Semipalatinsk and AkmolMsk Governments, and in the Altai M the Zmyemogorsk district. The average yield of unwashed wool is 13 lb. to 15 lb., the best rams yielding up to 36 lb., the best ewes up tq 22£ lb. The wool sells at Kharkov from 16s. to £1 4s. the pud. The DOMESTIC ANIMALS 253 sheep are brought by considerably reduced tariffs to the steppe and Altai regions. The wool exported to European Russia in 1911 was worth £400,000. A considerable quantity of the wool goes to Irbit and thence to Nizhne- Novgorod and the interior of European Russia by rail and water, or else by the Irtish to the Perm RaUway, and so by the Kama and Volga to the centre of Russia. In old days the sheep that found no place M the fresh-meat market were sent to the salgani and salted for the winter, and sold for as little as Id. or \d. the lb. ; now oMy a small amount of meat goes to the salgani. Sheep-breedmg seems likely to become an important in dustry M the YeMseisk and Irkutsk Provmces, now that the merino sheep has been acclimatized in central Siberia. The plams of the Yenisei have been found to be suitable for sheep- farmmg on a large scale, and it is probable that the numbers are already far greater than in 1911. The soil yields excellent forage and M a good season sufficient hay can be obtained for several years. The cost of transferring flocks from Russia is heavy, but the Government is providMg subsidies for this purpose and for the development of new sheep-farms. The sheep are kUled for their wool and their tallow. There is as yet no regMar demand for mutton. Indeed an elaborate system of refrigerators woMd have to be organized before it woMd be possible to find and supply a regular market with meat. In Transbaikal the sheep are large, with an average height of over 2 ft. The wool is coarse, tiiick, and of medium length. The average price is £1 12s. 2d. In the Amur Province the absence of dry pasturage is unfavourable to sheep. The few that are bred are Mongolian. Goats are bred by the KirgMz, Cossacks, 'and Russian peasants. The Mdustry of preparing goat's hair coverings is developing among the emigrants M Turgai. Large numbers of goats are kept by the natives of Transbaikal. In 1914 there were 114,105 there. Pjgrs.— The Russian pig is a strong animal, and stands the 254 LIVE-STOCK discomforts of temperature and crowding well. It is oMy the Russian popMation who keep pigs east of the Ural ; the Kirghiz, being Mohammedans, are not allowed to eat or keep them. Development of the bacon industry promises well, because the growth of dairy -farmmg has meant abundant supplies of butter-milk for pig food. The amount of bacon exported went up from 700 tons in 1908 to 4,800 tons m 1911. There is a proposal for a British company to acquire the waste lands along the banks of the Ob, and to place them under grass-cMtivation for breedMg bacon-pigs, so that there should be ultimately an enormous bacon-export by the Kara Sea. Kurgan contaMs a sausage factory, and there are at least two bacon factories M Siberia. In Yeniseisk, Irkutsk, and Transbaikal pig-breeding is carried on extensively. In Transbaikal the animals are Man churian and of poor quality. They are small and lean, but they increase rapidly. The breed is bemg improved by imported swine. The average price is £1 12s. 2d. Pigs are not numerous in the Amur Province, but M the Primorsk the pig-industry is considerably developed, especially on the Ussuri. Greater care might make it more successfM than it has proved hitherto. Here also the breed is Manchurian. Camels are bred by the Kirghiz, and in a few cases by Russian emigrants : those with sMgle humps are larger, and supposed to be stronger than those with two. The camels are better cared for by their masters than the cattle are ; they are very sensitive to cold, and so wmter forage is stored for them. They are used for transport purposes and also for their mUk and hair, which is obtamed once a year in the spring, giving an average of 12 lb. per camel. The camels in the Transbaikal, of wMch there were 10,992 in 1911, are strong and of great endurance. A pair of them can carry 20-25 cwt. The average price is about £10 15s. Reindeer are found in great numbers in the north of Tobolsk Government and to some extent in the Narim district of Tomsk. It is very difficult to obtain any idea of their numbers, but they have been estimated at 515,000 in Tobolsk, DOMESTIC ANIMALS 255 and 2,000 M Tomsk. To the Ostyak and Samoyede who possess them, the remdeer means everything — milk, meat, clothMg; travellMg, and traction. There are small herds of reMdeer in the Amur and Irkutsk ProvMces. In 1906 there were said to be 515,000 reMdeer in the Yeniseisk ProvMce, principally in the Turukhansk region, 95,360 reMdeer M the Yakutsk Province, 80 per cent, of them beMg M the Verkhoyansk and Kolima districts. In the Kamchatka Province, including the Chukchee PeMnsMa, there were 287,000 remdeer. These numbers can only be approximate. The Chukchee have the largest herds of reMdeer M the world. In the north reMdeer and sledge dogs are the oMy domestic animals. Maral deer are kept m the Altai, along the upper Irtish, and M the southern regions of the Yeniseisk and Irkutsk ProvMces. They are a kMd of wapiti, wMch are kept M special farms (maralniki). Their horns, cut off in the velvet, are sold to the CMnese, who extract from it a drug (panty), much esteemed by them, but of very doubtfM efficacy. The price of horns fluctuates very much, depending on the state of the markets : it commonly varies from 14s. to £1 per lb. But those horns wMch are sold with the frontal bone are considerably dearer — £10 or even occasionally £20 per lb. — as it is then necessary to kill the animal. As the horns attain a weight of 101b. and the average weight is 5 or 6 lb., and the keep costs practically nothing, it can be seen that this form of deer-breeding is very profitable. In Transbaikal the izyubr or wapiti (Cervus canadensis), which closely resembles the maral, is bred instead, while in the Primorsk, in addition to the izyubr, the aksis, the most valuable of all these deer, is found. The horns of the aksis fetch from £3 to £3 10s. per lb. Of the 10,000 deer of this type in maralniki in Asiatic Russia in 1911, 3,125 were in the Maritime Province, especially near Olgi Bay and the Suchan River. The Mdustry is likely to develop still further. The kabargi or musk-deer (Moschus moschiferus) is also being bred commercially ; it is Mghly 256 LIVE-STOCK valued by the Chinese for the medicMal properties of its musk and its horns. Poultry, the. — There is a certam export of eggs from Kurgan. Owing to the presence of many lakes and ponds, duck- and goose-breeding might have considerable development, but it takes a long time to start. Siberian geese are comparatively small. Apicultuke This is a very old industry M Russia, recorded as long ago as the eleventh century ; the Russian prMces used to levy tribute of wax and honey on their conquered subjects. The bee has had almost a sacred character because of the wax candles used M religious worship. The decay of the industry is said to be due to the drymg up of the steppes, and M some parts to the destruction of the forests ; but there are parts of western Siberia in which it is very active, expeciaUy the districts of Kuznetsk, Biisk, Zmyemogorsk, and Ust-Kameno gorsk ; there is also some beekeeping as far north as the district of Tomsk, and "among the Urals, where there are artels for beekeepmg, e. g. at Verkhne-TagUsM. In the Achmsk and Minusinsk districts, in the south of Yeniseisk, there are over 45,000 hives. The Little Russians have here introduced the latest methods. Apiculture in the Amur Province is on a small scale, but growing rapidly M import ance. It is concentrated along the Byela, the Khara, and the Zavitaya, where 92 villages carry it on on commercial fines with 2,757 Mves. In 1911 44,345 lb. of honey and 4,434 lb. of wax were sold. The climate and vegetation of the Amur Province are very favourable to apicMture. Its slow growth is due to the fact that the peasants find other work more profitable. Bee-keeping is also very successfully carried on in the Maritime Province, notably round Nikolsk-Ussuriski. Besides artels in certain places other help is given to bee keepers : a considerable number of expert instructors is available, and local government bodies sell bee-culture equipments at reduced rates, where desirable. It is estimated APICULTURE 257 that the collective output of Siberia is about one-fifth of the output of the whole Russian Empire. The most recent figures available are those for (a) private owners m 1910, and (b) peasants M 1908. Number Honey. Average price Wax. Average price of hives. per pud. per pud. (tons). £ s. d. (tons). £ s. d. 682,878 1,765 16 .6 197 2 0 8 75,296 154 17 2 20$ 2 1 9 640,892 1,657 12 1 183 1 3 (a) Siberia Steppes (5) SiberiaCentral Asia . 71,686 313| 10 3 31 Daiey Industry The dairy Mdustry has developed with more astonishing rapidity than any other undertaking M Siberia. Before 1893 oMy toplennoe (boUed or melted butter) was manufactured M Siberia ; it sold at an average of 12s. per pud, and required 32 puds of milk to produce one pud, the average price of mUk bemg 4%d. or 4§d. per pud. It is still made by the Russian peasants but not exported. In 1893 the first dairy farm was begun near Tyumen by the English wife of a Russian. The new article sold at from £1 to £1 4s. the pud, and required 20 or 22 puds of milk for one pud. In the course of ten years the amount developed, under government patronage, to 32,000 tons, worth about £2,500,000. The growth of the mdustry was so astonishmg that between 1900 and 1902 the number of dairies had increased by 91 per cent. Government encouraged it by granting loans, for wMch the live-stock of the peasants was sufficient security, and subsidies to vUlage communities for establishing dairies. In 1903 an additional £200,000 was granted for starting dairies on the artel system, by wMch several peasants distributed the pro ceeds in proportion to the amount of milk provided ; it becomes a general or public dairy when the group is extended so as to Mclude the whole village community. Further, the Government established technical dairy schools at Kurgan, Omsk, Kainsk, BarnaM, and ZmyeMogorsk, a central labora- 258 LIVE-STOCK tory at Tomsk, and local laboratories in five other centres, and refrigerating stores began to be erected along the railway. Butter is small in bulk and can be profitably exported. The export trade, which began in 1897, is mainly in the hands of firms in Moscow, hitherto largely managed by Germans and Danes. Lately more interest has been taken by British com merce in this industry, but only one or two British firms have established offices in Siberia, and only one British house has regular offices in its own name at the principal centres of export. Siberian cheese also finds a ready market at home, but the better grades are also sold throughout Europe. Siberian milk contams an exceptionally high proportion of fat. The pasture is rich, and the cattle eat much and drink little. Owing to its richness the average yield is 1 lb. of butter to 20-05 lb. of milk, whereas in Denmark it is to 28 lb. The Siberian cow is long lived ; its meat is mferior, so that most are kept for dairy purposes ; fodder cannot be exported at a profit, and will therefore contmue to be cheap in the country. Cattle are now fed scientifically on preserved fodder. A cow brings in from 14s. to £1 Is. a month m accor dance with the season. The Government aim at havmg an artel dairy M each village ; any one of average Mdustry and inteUigence after three months' framing at a dairy school is competent to be engaged by an artel to direct their labour. There are instruc tors with about ten dairies under them, who have usually been Germans or Danes. Most of the dairies work with hand- or horse-power, steam being less applicable in out-of-the-way places. Pasteurization of mUk is bemg introduced, and cement floors in dairies are to be obligatory. The dairies purchase milk from neighbouring farmers and cream from those more distant. Many farmers churn their own butter and sell it to the dairies to be rewashed, tested, classified, packed and sent off to the market-centres. The cost of milk at the dairies is 4d. a gallon ; the price obtained for butter varies from 9%d. to 8%d. a pound. In 1910 15 butter factories produced up to 7,500 lb. ; 30 between 7,500 and 12,500 lb. ; 15 up to DAIRY INDUSTRY 259 18,000 lb. ; 11 up to 25,000 lb. ; 8 up to 40,000 lb. In 1912 there were 1,060 dairies in Tobolsk, and 2,042 in Tomsk. Of this total of 3,102, there were 1,784 in private hands, and 1,318 managed by artels (42-5 per cent, of the whole). Everything is done to help the export trade, which is directed to the Baltic ports by butter trains, wMch take precedence of all other goods traffic. They start from Novo- Nikolaevsk during the summer (especially in June and July) ten to fourteen times a week. The ice-trucks have a carrying capacity of from 7J- tons to 22J tons. The tram is made up at the various butter-transit centres with ready -loaded trucks as far as Chelyabinsk, and reaches the number of twenty-five trucks. Among the chief centres of the trade are Omsk, wMch is a sort of clearing-house for exportation of butter, and Kurgan, wMch is the main distributing-point for home and foreign markets, and where all butter exported is subject to a prelimMary investigation by state officials, members of the Agronomical Organization. On arrival at the ports, especiaUy Riga (and WMdau before the war), it is loaded on special refrigerators, and so on to the steamers wMch convey it to London, Hamburg, HM1, and Copenhagen, of wMch the last named does a considerable amount of re-exportation. The sea-freight to British ports costs about 5d. per pud. There are extensive refrigerators at the chief loadMg stations. TMs is the mam route of the butter trade, but the Kurgan Farmers' Association has been pressmg the importance of pusMng the trade in south European Russia, and there is a great openMg for it in the Far East, wMch depends on tinned Canadian milk and tinned Australian butter. It is said that Siberian butter actually improves by bemg kept in cold storage, even up to six months. A fewfigures will show the rapid development of the industry and its present proportions. Starting from notMng in 1893, the export of butter in 1903 was 35,225 tons, the principal centres beMg Kurgan, wMch exported 8,227 tons, and Novo- Nikolaevsk, tMough wMch came the Altai butter, which exported 8,066 J tons. In 1912 there was a great development ; B 2 260 LIVE-STOCK the transport by the Siberian raUway increased by 9-9 per cent, between April and October on the transport during the same period the year before. To eastern Siberia 7,800 tons were exported as compared with 5,000 tons the year before. A larger proportion of what was sent west was sold in the interior markets of Russia. The exports to Britam increased ; those to Germany and Denmark decreased. There were exported from Siberia, chiefly from Tobolsk and Tomsk Governments : in 1910, 63,814 tons, worth £5,836,900 ; in 1911, 70,377 tons, worth £6,553,800; in 1912, 71,934 tons, worth £6,800,000. In 1913 the amount exported was 76,000 tons, worth £7,160,000, and for home consumption 71,500 tons, a total of 147,500. The war caused a great decrease owmg to abnormal conditions and the closmg of the Baltic ports, but even in 1914 there went from BarnaM 24,130 tons, and from Omsk 18,252 tons. Dairy-farming is of much less importance M eastern Siberia. Yeniseisk only supplies 1-2 per cent, of the Siberian dairy produce on the market. In Transbaikal the cattle are small and yield little milk ; tMs is especiaUy true of the Buryat cattle, Mongolian in origm. Dairy -farming is slowly increasing m the Maritime Province. In 1911 this province only contamed five co-operative dairies, but in 1913 there were eighteen. In 1911 local butter cost from Is. lid. to 2s. 2d. alb., but in 1913 it was oMy Is. 2d. Nearly all the dairy produce is the work of the four summer months. The local dealers often have contracts with west Siberian firms. Hence the butter fails to become known locally. Proposals have been made for buUdmg cold-storage plants at Vladivostok. Cows have been known to give milk in Sredne-Kolhnsk and Verkhoyansk, and even further north, but cattle-raising can never be profitable in these regions. CHAPTER XI TIMBER INDUSTRY Timber and Timber Trade — Sawmills — Wood Industries Timber and Timber Trade In comparison with the vast area of Siberia covered by forests, the timber Mdustry is mconsiderable. The absence of communications, the fact that much of the timber grows M Maccessible parts, the destruction of the forests in those parts, Hke the banks of the Ob and Irtish, whence it is most easUy transported, the bMk of timber, and therefore the difficMty of transportmg it, are among the causes which have produced such a discrepancy between the productivity of the land and the economic results. Extent of Forests. — It is estimated that there are altogether 853,000,000 acres of forest M Asiatic Russia, of wMch the largest part is unexplored, while a considerable portion towards the north consists of valueless trees. The State is the owner of 642,000,000 acres, of which 39 per cent, is classified as rich forest soil. This is a small proportion, for 80 per cent, is so classMed M European Russia. Next to the State the Crown is the prmcipal owner with 54,000,000 acres, principally in the ' cabinet ' estates of the Altai.1 The State forests are divided into forestry districts, wMch are sub-divided into allotments. Of these State forests of Asiatic Russia up to January 1, 1912, oMy 8,300,871 acres were organized, and only 67,924,917 acres are investigated, these two amountmg to something like 12 per cent, of the whole. In 1912 and 1913 another 1 No information is available as to the disposition of the Crown estates since the revolution. 262 TIMBER INDUSTRY 44,075,900 acres were organized and investigated, and it was hoped that by the begMMng of 1915 nearly a quarter of the whole area of State forests would have been thus dealt with. The average Siberian forestry district exceeds the wooded area of all Great Britam (3,037,500 acres). The average allotment is 311,850 acres, but tMs computation includes a great part of the northern district, wMch is prac tically valueless. No wood of economic value is obtamed north of lat. 60° N., though larches grow to lat. 68° N. on the east side of the Urals. The height and diameter of the northerly trees are small ; they grow very slowly, and their wood is weak and poor. Taller and better trunks are oMy to be found at some isolated, dry places, but, uMess trees grow conveniently close to one another, they are not of much commercial value. Trade. — The Siberian timber trade, as a whole, is disappomt- ing. In 1911 in the whole of Asiatic Russia 1,800,750,000 cubic feet of timber were assigned for sale, but oMy 10 per cent, was sold. From the State forests of Asiatic Russia m 1910 were realized £423,400 ; M 1911, £407,900 ; m 1912, £425,900. The value of each desyatin (2-7 acres), was rougMy Is. \Q^d. in AkmolMsk ; \\d. in Tobolsk ; l^d. or lfd. m Tomsk. As regards the State forests of Siberia oMy, m 1911 there were 558,002,916 acres, of which 211,087,351 were worked directly by the Government. The birch-bark, bast, &c, produced were about 1,260 tons. The total amount of pro duced material was 126,662,011 cubic feet. The gross receipts were £273,293, and the net profit £60,994. Administration. — Paid forest guards are appointed to look after the forests of western Siberia, and the peasants are supposed to see to the forests put at their disposal. The administration only allows that part of the forest to be cut each year which is specially assigned, and control is exer cised over the raftage and steamer-wharves. The Forestry Administration is undermanned. A law was passed in 1889 that those engaged in the timber trade shoMd, under pay ment of a deposit, replant the forest land laid bare. But TIMBER AND TIMBER TRADE 263 this is seldom done, most deposits are forfeited, and only 14 per cent, is replanted. Forest fires are a frequent calamity ; they are caused mainly by the burning of the grass in spring and by sparks from engines. The latter cause, coupled with the hewmg of wood to meet the needs of the railway, means that there is never much forest in the neighbourhood of the lmes. Severe storms also do much damage where the wood is thin. The Western Provinces. — The most recent figures for the State forests m the western provinces are as follows : Forest Allot- Area : acres. Suitable Forest Districts. ments. Soil : acres TobolskTomsk . Semipalatinsk Akmolinsk 33 27 11 15 497 190190 302 170,828,817 91,837,876 9,299,254 6,130,293 45,563,15622,047,425 5,818,675 1,119,344 In the Tobolsk Government the best timber is thought to be m the valleys of the Tavda, Tura, and Pelim ; estimates differ considerably, but the more sanguine assign to these valleys about 27,000,000 acres of good timber. In Tomsk the forest belt is in the north part ; the south part is half forestless, but the Kuznetsk and Marimsk districts and the Altai mountain region are forested, though in many parts the forest is not at all dense. In the mountainous parts it is very difficMt to cut the timber because of the precipitous places in which it grows. When felled, it is apt to fall into ravMes below, not only bemg lost itself, but smashing other trees m its fall. There is no possibility of raftage on the rivers there because of their swiftness. Some timber is transported by camels across the Kirghiz steppe. But on the steppes and in considerable parts of the Governments of Tomsk and Tobolsk, the amount of forest is not enough for local needs. Timber trees in Western Siberia. — The principal woods of Western Siberia are white cedar or cembra pine, pine, spruce, fir, larch, oak, ash, and birch (see Chapter III). Of these white cedar and larch are most valued for building, larch 264 TIMBER INDUSTRY being especially used for boat-buUdmg, also for beams and telegraph poles. Birch is used for fuel and bMkfing, and the birch spinneys in the neighbourhood of towns rapidly disappear. The roofs of the houses of peasant and native are made of birch bark. Siberian cedar is of value because of its softness ; it can be used for certam Mnds of furmture and pattern work, and it is worth exporting despite the cost. Timber Trade in the West. — The most important place for the timber export trade M western Siberia is Tyumen ; an enterprising sawmill proprietor from Arkhangel used to send timber to Kotlas by rail ; thence it went to Arkhangel by steamer and so to London. The wood suffers from ' blue mould ' on the voyage, and so does not fetch as high a price in England as would be anticipated, and the transport is very dear. It is difficMt during the short summer to bring pine- trunks to the saw so dry that they avoid turning blue. OMy first-class timber can be exported because 'of the cost of trans port to Arkhangel and Petrograd by rail, and the export by sea by the Kara Sea route is negligible. Eastern Provinces. — The forest areas of eastern Siberia have been very imperfectly surveyed. Little reliance can be placed upon official estimates, for there is a general tendency to exaggerate the wood resources of the country. Thus in 1908 a commission gave the wooded area of the Yakutsk Province as 540,000,000 acres. Such an estimate must include very large treeless spaces. In Yeniseisk, Irkutsk, Transbaikal, and Yakutsk the absence of suitable waterways makes the develop ment of a lumbering industry out of the question, uMess the northern sea-route from the mouth of the Yemsei can be opened to regular navigation. There is, however, considerable local consumption. The supplies of Me-wood in the immediate neighbourhood of the large towns and the principal mining- centres are, to a great extent, exhausted. Wood has to be rafted down the rivers, notably the Yemsei and the Angara. The building of the railway has greatly increased consumption, and the price of firewood has doubled in many places. Larch is the tree most used. Very fine woods of it are still found on TIMBER AND TIMBER TRADE 265 the Yemsei, especiaUy on its middle reaches. The Sayansk region, where trees grow at an altitude of 3,700 feet, has particularly fine forests, the taiga being almost impenetrable m many places. The wood M the north and north-east is, as a rule, of poor quality. There is good timber, mamly larch, fir, spruce, and birch, in Sakhalin, but there is no suitable harbour for export- mg it. Nor woMd it be possible to find a profitable market for the timber M the valley of the River Kamchatka, the oMy place m the Kamchatka PemnsMa where it does well. A certam quantity of timber and firewood is annually rafted down the Lena, and a little also down the Kolima and Yana. In spite of the wide extent of the forests, the price is high owmg to the scarcity of labour and the exorbitant rate of wages. Lumber Industry in the East. — The Siberian lumber Mdustry is at present confined to the Amur and Maritime Provinces. It is stiU M its mfancy. The extent of the area under timber is uncertaM, and it is impossible to give exact figures, as much of it is unsurveyed. A report for 1913 gives the total area of forest land in the far east as 110,052,000 acres, of wMch 30,840,000 are in the Amur ProvMce and 71,463,000 m the Primorsk. In the Amur Province five-sixths of this area is Government property, and most of the rest belongs to the Cossacks ; in the Maritime ten-elevenths of the area belongs to the Government. The forests cannot compare with those of North America in density. They generally lie along the sea-coast or in the river-valleys. The best timber districts in the Maritime ProvMce are Nikolaevsk, with 33,000,000 acres, Khabarovsk with 14,245,000 acres, and the lower Amur with 12,150,000 acres. Concessions. — The government forests are under the Depart ment of DomaMs, with head-quarters at Khabarovsk. Areas that are for sale are knocked down to the highest bidder, who is obliged to deposit the royalty on the number of trees to be felled for one year. Felling tickets to cut small quantities of timber may be obtamed from local authorities. 266 TIMBER INDUSTRY Hitherto forest grants have been limited to four years, but the term will almost certamly be extended to twelve, as a concession of four years was found too short for profitable working. Royalties. — A royalty is levied on all timber. It is calcu lated on the cubic measurement of the logs sold, and varies according to the size and Mnd of timber. Formerly con cessions lying more than from 6| to 10 miles from a raUway, a navigable river, or a bay, paid at a lower rate. Now, however, the tax is uniform, and it is hoped that tMs change will help to extend the range of forest-work and thus Mcrease the revenue, wMch fell considerably short of the expenditure. But the absence of roads makes it unprofitable to fell timber at any distance from the rivers. Owing to the Mgh raUway rates only 10 or 12 per cent, of tMs can be profitably exported. The Rivers and the Timber Trade. — The Amur and its tribu taries provide an ideal artery for timber-rafts during the summer months, and when the suggested harbour improve ments are carried out at Nikolaevsk, it should afford a good outlet for the trade in spite of the shortness of the open season. Export on a large scale is at present hampered by the poor harbours and the length of time during which the rivers are frozen, as well as by the difficulty of procuring labour. Present State of the Trade. — So unfavourable were the economic and labour conditions in 1912 that oMy 12 out of 106 con cessions were taken up, and only 17 Mms instead of the usual 20 or 30 were engaged in the trade. A recent forest- congress made the following suggestions : 1. The prohibition of the import of Manchurian wood for the railways. 2. A duty on all Manchurian wood. 3. A minimum tariff for the export of wood by the Ussuri Railway. 4. Better naming and classification of timber. 5. Free choice of labour. This means in practice the right to employ Chinese. The enforcement of the first recommendation woMd do TIMBER AND TIMBER TRADE 267 little good because the railways use mainly hard wood — oak, larch, and birch — whereas the Priamur produces chiefly soft wood, such as pine, fir, lime. Classification of timber. — The kedr or white cedar is the oMy tree at present in such demand that it is cut in large quantities. The best forests in the Maritime Province are found near the sources of the Iman and Khor. The gram is much finer than M Manchuria. The average of square logs is 19 inches, the maximum 28 Mches. In Vladivostok it fetches from l\d. to 8d. per cubic foot, but from 60 to 70 per cent, of this represents railway freight. In the harbours of the Maritime Province the cost is from 5%d. to 6^d. alongside vessel. Most of the best goes to Great Britain. Larch suitable for use under water or for telegraph-posts is to be had tMoughout the northern regions of the Priamur. It costs about 5d. to 5%d. alongside vessel. Larch, fir and spruce, with some birch and aspen, make up the northern forests. The price may be given as 4%d. to 4frf. on board. Oak and ash of moderate quality are found in many places, but are used oMy for firewood. The oak is said to be rich in tanmn. The oak in the interior of the Maritime Province is of better quality. The pitch pine (Picea ayanensis)is fairly close-grained, white, and very light, and is exported in large quantities to Australia. Excellent yeUow pine is found in the very large forest between Blagovyeshchensk and Chita, and also along the Zeya and the Bureya. It is at present quite untouched, but the cost of cutting and rafting makes it doubtfM whether it could be delivered at Nikolaevsk for h\d. per cubic foot, as suggested. In any. case only the higher grades of wood, from 18 to 20 per cent, of the total output, are suitable for export to Europe. The Government takes most of the remainder. Home Consumption. — The local needs are considerable. The railway and the steamers take more and more every year. A large quantity of timber is annuaUy floated down the Zeya and the Bureya, especially to Zeya-Pristan, Blago vyeshchensk, and other stations, for use in the mining camps 268 TIMBER 1JN-UUSX.K1 or on the railway. Moreover, the capture of the Amur fishmg industry by the Russians from the Japanese has greatly Mcreased the demand for wood for packMg purposes, and a certam amount is needed for match-maMng. There is no attempt at reafforestation. Exports. — The export trade is growing steadily and the tar industry developing. The total amount of timber exported from the Priamur in 1910 was 1,617,650 cubic feet, in 1912, 2,272,570 cubic feet. Vladivostok is stUl the cMef timber port, though the fact that the timber must be brought there by rail is agamst it. In 1912 more than half the timber was exported from Vladivostok, 687,548 cubic feet bemg sent to Great Britain, 316,624 cubic feet to Japan, 37,070 cubic feet to China, 51,997 cubic feet to Korea, and oMy 1,545 cubic feet to Russia. By far the greater part of the wood exported was kedr, except to Japan, which took 307,204 cubic feet of aspen for matches. Vladivostok is also the natural outlet for the excellent Manchurian timber, and a considerable portion of the exports come from over the border. The cost of sendmg the timber by rail and the absence of adequate docks are serious drawbacks to Vladivostok. But preparations are bemg made for bmlding a new timber -port, where four vessels can load at once. Imperatorskaya Bay, whence the Oriental Timber Company sendfe over a million cubic feet of timber (25 per cent, larch, 75 per cent, fir) annually to Australia, is the oMy other timber- port of note. Exports to Australia are likely to increase steadily, for Australia is looking to Siberia to supply her with the soft woods which her own forests do not produce in suffi cient quantities. This company also sends planks and furni ture wood to the British Isles, ash to Japan, and logs and boards to Denmark. In 1911, however, 110,000 cubic feet of white pine were exported from Ternei Bay to Australia, and 374,000 cubic feet of pit props were dispatched from Olgi Bay. In the same year timber was exported from Posiet Bay for the first time, to the amount of about 100,000 cubic feet. Tyutikha Bay also plays a small part in the timber -trade. TIMBER AND TIMBER TRADE 269 The Governor-General Gondatti was fully alive to the im portance of the industry, and on the completion of the Amur Railway he proposed to agitate for a branch line from the Ussuri Railway to Imperatorskaya Bay and Olgi Bay. Aspen, which is found everywhere, is sent to Japan for match-maMng, but there is no reason why the industry should not be established in Siberia. The oak of good quality, but small dimensions, wMch grows in some parts of the interior of the Maritime Province in small quantities, is beginning to be exported. With better management the Priamur forests should be able to supply China with much of the timber she now imports from Japan and the United States. Sawmills The annual turnover of the sawmills in Siberia is about £300,000. The prmcipal ones M western Siberia are at Tobolsk Tyumen, Omsk, Novo-Nikolaevsk, and Tomsk, with others servmg a smaller radius at Barnaul and Biisk. The great saw mills at Novo-Nikolaevsk deal principally with wood from the neighbourhood of the Ob, between Barnaul and the railway. The wood is cut mto logs of 21 feet. The best wood has a diameter of from 12 to 16 in. ; trunks are found with a diameter of 35 in., but in that case the heart is no longer good. In big sawmiUs that work day and night as many as 20,000 trunks are sawn through M the year at each frame. The railway greatly stimulated the amount of sawmill work, for much of the wood was used on it, and it provided means of transport. Sawmills are usuaUy lit with electric light. In the town of Irkutsk the sawmUl industry is consider ably developed. The wood comes from Lake Baikal and the valleys of the Angara and Irkut. Logs are sent even to Transbaikal. Blagovyeshohensk, where there is a prosperous sawmill Mdustry, is the centre of the timber trade on the Amur. The Government has already established tMee mills of Swedish type on the north bank of the Amur, and has taken over 270 TIMBER INDUSTRY another at Sviyagino on the Ussuri Railway. It also proposes to build a large mUl of the latest American pattern, but it has not yet selected the site. At Alexandrovsk in Sakhalin there is a government sawmill supplymg local demands. In 1912 the sawmills in the Amur and Maritime Provinces and Sakhalin numbered 62, with an annual output of 2,050,000 logs. Wood Industries The manufacture of veneer and tMee-ply m the neighbour hood of Vladivostok is steadily increasing. Several factories for the makmg of barrels for the Amur fisMng industry have been established in and round Vladivostok. At Spasskaya (Yevgenevka), on the Ussuri Railway, a factory exists for the chemical treatment of wood and the production of turpentine, tar, wood alcohol, vmegar, resm, and potash. CHAPTER XII MINERAL RESOURCES Iron — Copper — Gold — Silver — Zinc and Lead — Platinum — Asbestos — Graphite — Mica — Petroleum — Other Metallic Ores — Coal — Salt — Precious Stones and Building Materials. The mmeral resources of Siberia, especially of the east, are very little known. The merest begmning has been made with their development. But they will undoubtedly take the first place M attracting much-needed capital to the country in the near future, especially to the remoter regions. Iron The iron deposits M the Urals are second oMy to those of south Russia in the part they play in the iron mdustry of the empire. The output of pig-iron from the Urals m 1913 was 896,817 tons. There were 75 iron works, including 13 belong- mg to the Government, at that time active in the province. The output has fallen off somewhat during the war. In western Siberia the railway has proved fatal to such attempts as have been made to establish an iron industry. The demand is not sufficient to support a large foundry. The old mines away from the raUway cannot now compete with the Ural foundries. The Bogoslovski works, for instance, can send their goods into the heart of the Ob basin on their own steamers by the Tavda and the Irtish. The Tomsk region perhaps offers the best prospects for the estab lishment of a successful iron industry now that the Altai RaUway is open. On the Telbes, a tributary of the Kondoma, near Kuznetsk, are rich deposits of magnetic ore within 272 lVlll\JUJi,ALi j^Jiouujvujio 20 miles df beds of good cokMg coal. The deposits at Gurevskoe, some 150 mUes to the north of these, only contain Mferior ore and do not promise a prosperous future to the smaU foundry that works them. All the Altai beds are Crown property. There is also a small factory at Abakanskoe in the Mmusinsk region, where there are plentiful deposits of ore, but its output is diminishing. Some twenty iron beds have been located in the Kirghiz steppes, more especially near Karkara- linsk. They have not yet been properly examMed and are too remote for profitable workmg, but M some of them the percentage of ore is high and there is coal near. Iron deposits also exist near Tyumen, from which the owner annually extracts his statu tary 170 tons by the most primitive methods in order not to forfeit his concession. In eastern Siberia even the Nikolaevsk foundry, at one time the largest in the country, situated on the River Oka, 30 miles from Bratski-Ostrog, in the neighbourhood of excellent ore, has been obliged to close down. Iron is found m several parts of the valleys of the Yenisei and its tributaries, such as the Abakan and the Angara ; M the vaUeys of the upper Lena and the Kirenga ; near Misovsk on Lake Baikal ; and on the Tsagan-Khuntei Range, west of the Khilok vaUey, near where the range is crossed by the post-road. In the Nerchmsk district several deposits are known, but they have been little investigated. It is so plentiful in the southern regions, which are the centres of the gold and silver mining, that the whole range there has been called iron. The Balegmsk deposit of magnetic ore supplies the Petrovsk iron works which are on the railway. They were buUt to supply the needs of the Nerchmsk Crown lands and have never been very productive. The machMery is quite obsolete. Hitherto only red oxides have been treated. The deposits are extensive and there are said to be large supplies of magnetic ore quite untouched m the neighbourhood. Iron is plentiful round Yakutsk. It also exists in the valley of the Amgun, near the mouth of the Amur, where it should be capable of profitable working, round Olgi and . IRON 273 Vladimir Bays, as well as in the penmsula of Kamchatka and near Due in Sakhalin. A rich deposit has recently been discovered near the junction of the Samara and the Amur. , The irregularities of the compass between Plastun Bay and Cape Povorotni poMt to the existence of extensive iron-beds in the Maritime ProvMce. The deposits near Vladimir and Olgi Bays are commercially the most promisMg, though the nearest fuel, the timber on the Sikhota-AIM, is 13 mUes away and Olgi Bay is not too good a harbour. Hitherto they have been almost unex- ploited, but now that the export of ore is no longer prohibited, a profitable market lies ready to hand in Japan. A blast furnace is to be buUt at Mramorni PoMt, near Olgi Bay. Eastern Siberia has till now been largely supplied with pig-iron from Germany. Copper Copper has been worked M Siberia from time immemorial. Prehistoric or Chud excavations, as they are called, are frequently found in the west. They often gave the first mdication of the presence of the metal to the early prospectors. The output of copper M the Russian Empire rose from under 10,000 tons M 1906 to 34,300 in 1913 and there is no reason why the country should not supply its own needs at an early date. The industry is protected by a duty on imported copper and the price of copper in Russia is high in consequence. The rapid growth of the output dates from 1907, when the Myed (copper) Syndicate, which combined the companies and regulates the trade, came Mto existence. The Urals hold the first place ; then come the Kirghiz steppe and the Caucasus. These three regions produce over 90 per cent, of Russian copper. In 1913 the Urals produced some 16,000 tons, the Caucasus 9,900, and Siberia 5,600. British capital has played an important part in the develop ment of copper-mining. The Kishtim Corporation, a British concern, produces nearly half the copper in the Urals and 274 IV! LIN JJi-TAi AU rM£U(D\J\jJLM\j±^to more than one-fifth of the total Russian output. It is the only company in Russia which smelts its own ore and refines it at its own works. Next to the Kishtim rank the Bogoslovski works, which are the oldest in the Urals, having been founded by Demidov in the eighteenth century. There are other works in the TagUski, Iset, and Sisertsk districts. Verkhoture is a considerable smelting centre. In the last few years diamond drillMg, carried on by British firms, has revealed large bodies of copper-bearing pyrites. The Russians are adopting this method. Experiments are being carried out at one of the Ural works for savmg the sulphuric gases given off during smelting. In the Kirghiz steppe at least 200 outcrops of copper have been located, mostly in the Karkaralmsk district. The deposits are rich and coal is abundant. The absence of railways makes it impossible to work anythMg but rich seams at a profit. The Spassky Company, which is now m British hands, and has recently acquired control of the Atbasar works, is by far the largest and most successful in this region, in spite of the difficMties of the conditions of working. In 1914 the output was 4,683 tons ; in 1915, 3,450 tons. The construction of the Southern Siberian Railway should bring about a great improvement. There are also copper deposits in the Semipalatinsk region. In eastern Siberia copper has been found in the MMusmsk region, near Verkhne-Udinsk, and in the Argun and Onon basms, where, however, the veins are poor. In the Maritime Province there are deposits near Vladivostok wMch produced 13 cwt. in 1911, as well as near Konstantinovskaya on the Suifun, and round Dzhigit Bay, where they contain as much as 80 per cent, of ore. Copper-ore has also been discovered near the mouth of the Kolima, at the confluence of the Big and the Lena, in the peninsula of Kamchatka, and elsewhere. GOLD 275 Gold Gold-mining is steadily declinMg in importance, in western Siberia, but in the east it is the one productive industry. It has done more to open up remote districts than all the emigration agencies. NothMg but a gold-rush could bring about the sudden rise of towns like Bodaibo or Zeya-Pristan. Extent of deposits. — The extent of the gold deposits in Siberia, but especiaUy m eastern Siberia, is very imperfectly known. Gold is found in the alluvial deposits of many of the rivers, but oMy occasionally in sufficient quantities to repay working by old-fashioned methods. Areas suitable for dredg- Mg extend for thousands of miles M the eastern provinces ; and if modern dredgers were employed, the results would be surprising. At present the chief centres of the industry are the Urals, the lands which belonged to the Imperial Cabinet in the Barguzin and NercMnsk districts, the Zeya and Bureya basins and their neighbourhood, the Amgun system and the mines near Lake Chlya, and lastly the Olekminsk and Vitim goldfields on the Lena. Of these the Vitim mines are by far the most important, producing a quarter of the total gold output of the Russian Empire. The Lena dramage area is said to contain the richest alluvial gold district in the world. The principal areas of gold-bearing rocks in Siberia have been estimated as follows : — sq. miles. Urals .... 60,000 Yenisei and Altai . . . 280,000 Transbaikal . ... 20,000 Lena, Vitim, Vilyui . ... 160,000 Amur and Okhotsk . ... 360,000 880,000 TMs may be compared with the total area of gold-bearing rocks M the United States, including Alaska, of 265,000 square miles. Output. — Between 1908-13 the average annual output of gold m Siberia was one and a half million ounces troy, with a marked tendency to decline, especially in western Siberia. The official estimates are not to be trusted. The amounts S 2 276 MINERAL RESOURCES received at the Government laboratories where the gold is smelted, especially in the east, are often double those recorded and a good deal of the metal never reaches the laboratories at all. The official estimates are as follows : 1910. 1911. lb. troy. lb. troy. Blagovyeshchensk . . 21,548-7 19,012-5 BodaiboNikolaevsk Zeva-Pristan . . . 2,615-4 2,889-0 1,525-4 23,070-6 14,502-6 Krasnoyarsk Private laboratories 39,153-6 36,251-1 4,140-9 5,098-5 The figures for the Yekaterinburg, Tomsk, and Irkutsk laboratories for these years are not to hand. In 1913 the eight Government laboratories of Siberia smelted 106,901 lb. troy of gold ore compared with 104,155 lb. in 1912. The increase was due entirely to the settfing of the Lena strike. Bodaibo produced 7,200 lb. more than in the previous year (1912), when the output was 24,704 lb. troy. Conditions of working. — With the exception of Alaska, Siberia is the least favourably situated of the world's gold centres. Owing to its climate, work is only possible M summer. Most of the gold is found in places where the ground never really thaws. If the summer is dry, there is not enough water for washing ; if it is cold and wet, the ground does not thaw and floods are troublesome. Population is everywhere scanty and roads almost non-existent. The cost of bringmg machinery, especially in summer, from the railway to the diggMgs is almost prohibitive, whUe the prices of the most ordinary necessities of life are doubled and trebled. Concessions. — No foreigner may possess freehold property in Siberia, and a special tax of 8 per cent, is levied on land or mining claims leased to foreigners, who may not prospect for gold within 100 versts (66 miles) of the sea-coast of the Primorsk Province or of the shores of the Sea of Okhotsk, upon Sakhalin or the adjacent islands, or within certain districts of the Yeniseisk Province bordering on the Chinese GOLD 277 frontier. In this region foreigners have considerably less freedom than Russians, as well as in the Cabinet lands in the Altai and NerchMsk districts. But even here a foreigner may receive special permits for prospecting. A prospector may stake out as many claims as he likes. One man has been known to possess over 750. But he must take measures for workmg them withm a certaM time. There is a large traffic in worthless claims. The local officials, to whom commissions must be paid, are often untrustworthy. Much foreign capital has already been lost in Siberian gold-mMes and investors are chary of risking more. The principal British gold miMng companies in Siberia are the Lena Goldfields, the Orsk Goldfields, and the Siberian Pro prietary Mines. The Lena Goldfields held until 1915 over 50 per cent, of the shares of the Lenskoie Gold MiMng Company of Russia. They have now sold the greater part of their holcfings. State of the Industry. — Except in the Urals and to some extent in the west, the gold worked M Siberia is still almost entirely aUuvial. Though rich quartz deposits are known to exist, quartz mining could only be profitably carried on at a few places m the west. But when the country is better developed there will be a great future for such mining. As the more accessible placers become exhausted, the general tendency is for large concerns to supersede small ones. More scientific methods are now essential to success. Dredgers alone can work profitably and they are not easy to procure. The Russians have little practical knowledge of mining and can only make the richest claims pay. The incapacity of the Russian engMeers and workmen, many of whom have never seen a dredger, accounts for the frequent breakdowns and poor results. When dredgMg is regularly established and thoroughly understood, many of the abandoned dumps will be profitably worked. The latest methods of working hydraulic sluices are unknown in Siberia, where the climate militates against their introduction. 278 MINERAL RESOURCES At present the Siberian gold industry is going through an unsatisfactory period of transition. The old methods are no longer adequate and the new are only beginmng to be intro duced. In 1912, 57 mines out of a total of 129, belonging to 48 different companies, were woriring in the Amur district. A committee of investigation was appointed and various suggestions were made such as the regulation of the labour- supply, the diminution of taxation and greater facilities for credit, as well as the throwing open of the 100 verst reserve along the coast. Owing to its accessibility, tMs region would rapidly attract prospectors. Between 1889 and 1909 miMng machinery was imported duty free and the abolition of this privilege was undoubtedly a blow to the gold industry. In recent years the Government proposed to assist it by voting large sums for prospecting and for bmlding a number of dredgers. But the success of companies with large capital and good machMery, such as the Lenskoie and the Orsk, shows the fines along which the gold industry wM ultimately develop. It is noteworthy that American engmeers are more successfM than British, who have gamed their experience m South Africa and know nothing of the conditions of Russian mining. British companies are now employMg them. Labour. — The labour-supply lies at the root of the diffi culties. Railway buildmg attracted a number of miners and the Government is domg its bes^ to exclude the Chmese wherever possible. A man who could prove that he had worked on the gold-fields was exempted from military service in the present war. The life of the miner is hard in the extreme. He is as often as not obliged to work in water. Except in a few of the largest concerns, the workpeople are not well treated. They are provided with firing and lodging, but their quarters are often badly overcrowded and Mvariably filthy. The managers are tyrannical. The men are com- peUed to buy at the company's stores. If they complain or threaten to go elsewhere, they are liable to be dismissed. It is true that a law of 1902 declares that the labourer is to GOLD 279 have suitable quarters and to be supplied with food and clothMg at special rates, which vary in different districts. But the scandals revealed by the Lenskoie strike show how easUy these regulations can be evaded in the remoter districts. The mine stores are often more profitable to the owners than the mines themselves. When the lot of the Siberian miner is contrasted with that of the well-paid, well-fed miners of the Alaska gold-fields, it is not surprismg that the work does not attract the most desirable elements. The miners are continuaUy runnMg away. The buildmg of the Amur Railway has greatly thMned their numbers. The sale of alcohol is absolutely prohibited, though a small quantity is distributed free to the men. But there is a large iUicit traffic in liquor, which the mimng police are unable to check. AU gold visible to the naked eye is the property of the workman who discovers it and he receives 75 per cent, of its value. This unprofitable arrangement has been adopted to discourage theft. In their spare time the men may wash for themselves, on condition that they sell their gold to the companies at a fixed price. Indeed, many companies habitually leave all but the richest ground to be worked by private individuals, generally Chmese or Koreans in the eastern provmces, who pay a rent of gold to the owners and sell them whatever additional gold they may procure at fixed rates. This arrangement is very profitable to the companies. But there is, of course, a large illicit gold trade for which the seUers of contraband alcohol are largely responsible. It is smuggled over the border by Chinese, who also smuggle in ChMese spirits. At a recent mining congress it was said that in the Transbaikal, where most of the gold-mining is in the hands of Chmese and Koreans, they carry away seven times as much as they declare. This may well be an exaggeration, but it throws much light on the prevaUing state of affairs. Urals and Western Siberia. — Gold-mining is on the decline in these districts. As everywhere else in Siberia, dredgers are becoming more and more necessary for successful placer- mining, but the Ural fields are held to be of low grade. In the 280 MINERAL RESOURCES more accessible districts quartz-mimng is steadily superseding alluvial mMMg. In the Urals gold procured by quartz- crusMng and saved by chemical processes already exceeds the gold obtaMed by washing. In 1913 the Urals produced 110,000 oz. troy of gold, worth £399,208. The Orenburg and Yekaterinburg districts are the richest. The mines in the Miyas district still hold the first place in the Urals . The Sissert Company and the Kishtim Corporation both obtaM gold as a by-product in their copper-mines. In the Semipalatinsk Government there is considerable activity in gold-mmmg, but here too placer-mining is giving way to quartz-minmg. The quartz veins are especially rich in the neighbourhood of Ust-Kamenogorsk, less so round Lake Zaisan. Near Ust-Kamenogorsk the quartz yields nearly 5 to 15 dwt. to the ton, but the gravel produces barely 5 grains to the ton. Hence, in spite of the cheapness of labour, placer-mining can hardly pay. The richest mines lie 40—46 miles south-west of Ust-Kamenogorsk. As tMs district is within the zone closed to foreigners, they can only prospect there by special permission and the native owners are fully aware of the value of their holdings. There is a good steppe road from the mines to Ust-Kamenogorsk. The gold-industry in the Tomsk district is in fuU declMe. Even the introduction of hydraulic machMery has fafied to revive placer-mining in the Altai. A British company is experimenting in mining for gold M the old cabMet sUver- mines in the neighbourhood of Zmyeinogorsk m the same region, and if it succeeds it wUl certamly extend its operations. The only prosperous gold-mMMg region is that of the Marimsk taiga. The first dredger in western Siberia was established here. The output of placer-mining is fallmg off, but rich vems have been discovered in the quartz of the BerekM mine. These are being worked, and, according to official returns, they yielded in 1904 about 1 oz. troy to the ton. The veins had not then been thoroughly examined. The mines are well situated, being 45 mUes from the railway and 65 from Mariinsk. GOLD 281 Yeniseisk Province. — In the south-west corner, near the River Abakan, are several mines. Of these the Bogom- Darovanm, fitted with thoroughly modern machMery, is very rich. It is one of the few profitable reef gold mines M Siberia and it produces some 17,100 oz. troy of gold annually, a quarter of the amount being obtained by the cyanide process. The introduction of dredgers has revived the gold-industry in the YeMsei basin, wMch was the oldest m Siberia. The southern portion of the district lies between the Pit and the Angara Rivers ; the northern is to the east of the Yenisei, in the upper basMs of the Teya and the Kalami, tributaries of the Stony Tunguska. The pay-streak is from 2 ft. 4 in. to 8 ft., the overburden from 2 ft. 4 in. to 24 ft. The district is remote, but the mine owners refuse to combine to build a road through the taiga, though the cost of transport is at present very heavy. Many of the mMes in the south are connected by telephone. Irkutsk Province. — There are no mines of importance south of the raUway. The Olekma- Vitim system embraces all but a negligible quantity of the mming. The Bodaibo district is the most important gold-mining centre in the Russian empire. The powerful Lenskoie Com pany, formerly controlled by British Mterests, has a virtual monopoly. It produces some 13 tons of gold a year, which is a quarter the annual output of the whole empire. The gold is alluvial. The pay -gravel lies from 50 to 150 ft. under the surface and the streaks are from 4 ft. 8 in. to 9 ft. 4 in. thick. The over-burden is peat. The placers can only be worked with considerable capital. Wood is scarce in the neighbour hood and the subsoil water requires careful regulation. The yield of gold is from 82 to 205 grains to the ton of gravel. About 4,000 men are employed here and up-to-date macMnery is used. The transport difficulty adds greatly to the working expenses, but there is now a light railway 15 miles long from Bodaibo to the Vitim. It costs Is. to bring 12 lb. of goods from Irkutsk to Bodaibo alone. Hence the mining companies 282 MINERAL RESOURCES are among the chief advocates of tlie building of a railway to the Lena. Most of the tributaries of the Vitim are thought to contam gold, but they have been very imperfectly explored. The Olekmmsk mines were formerly the richest in Siberia, but since the best placers have become exhausted they have been thrown into the shade by the mines on the Vitim. The River Bolshoi-Patom, one of the richest centres on the Lena, is said to have yielded 14,000 oz. troy of gold in 1911 and the whole of its banks have been staked out in claims. The building of the Lena Railway would undoubtedly imtiate a new period of prosperity for this region. Gold has been found on the upper reaches of the VUyui and its tributaries. The gold-yield at ChodmsM, some 80 or 90 mUes above Krestyatskaya, is said to be large. Gold also exists on the upper reaches of the Nai, a tributary of the Aldan. The government assayMg and gold-smelting laboratory is at Bodaibo. Transbaikal. — There are two important centres, Barguzin and Nerchinsk. The Barguzin goldfields lie in the Barguzin valley and near the sources of the Vitim, but of recent years the output shows a considerable fallmg off. Though the gold- yield is sometimes 41 to 82 grains to the ton, the veins are very small and there is a quantity of sUver mixed with the gold. Belgian engineers are trying the experiment of thawing the ground here by a process of steam heating. Gold is found almost everywhere M the crown lands in the Nerchinsk district, except in the south-east and north-east. The mines possess the same characteristics as those round Barguzin. British companies have been experimenting lately with a view to leasing. Attempts to introduce the most modern machinery have not been very successful owing to climatic difficulties. The output of the Transbaikal was about 171,000 oz. troy in 1909. Amur Province. — For mining purposes the Amur Province is divided into two districts, the Bureya and the Amur. At GOLD 283 present the former is the more important. In 1911 these districts produced £443,830 of gold, of which five-nmths came from the Bureya. The Amur goldfields are of far greater extent than those of the Lena. AUuvial gold has been found throughout the basins of the Zeya and its tributaries, and in the Bureya basin, especially upon its tributary the Niman. New deposits were discovered durMg the building of the western section of the Amur RaUway. Most of the Amur gold is so fine, yieldMg from 0-04867 to 0-13114 oz. troy to the ton of gravel, that only the best machMery coMd make mining profitable. A quarter of the diggMgs worked yield over 40 grains of gold to the ton, but the pay-gravel is often less than 2 ft. 4 in. deep, sometimes even less than 7 inches. When the yield is less than 40 grains to the ton, and the pay-strata are less than 2 ft. 4 in. thick, profit is very doubtful. These strata often lie under an over burden of 9 ft. or more, and in some places, notably on the Niman, the mining is underground. HoldMgs are often very large in the Amur Province. The Upper Amur Company owns goldfields in the Rivers Zeya, Zhalmda, GUM, and Aldan. At least a third of those worked are sub-leased. Little machinery is used. The Orsk Company has claims on the lower Amur. Zeya-Pristan, with a government gold laboratory, is the flourishmg capital of the Zeya gold industry. Blagovyesh ohensk, at the mouth of the Zeya, also possesses a laboratory. The openMg of the Amur Railway should greatly benefit gold-mMMg M this region. Maritime Province and Kamchatka. — The Primorsk region is the wealthiest. In the Amgun basin, near Kerbinski, the mining is all surface mining. The pay-gravel is from 4 ft. 8 in. to 7 ft. thick, the over-burden 3 ft. 6 in. to 14 ft. Owing to the nearness of the coast and the scarcity of labour machinery is much more used. But difficulties of communication and the dearness of food make a high yield of gold necessary for success. The Amgun mines were long worked at a loss. The Orsk mines, owned by a British company, situated on Lake 284 MINERAL RESU UKCUS Chlya, near Nikolaevsk, are now the most successful in the neighbourhood. Two powerful electric bucket -dredgers are worMng, and the profits, even during the war, have steadily increased. In 1912, 21 placers were being worked here, and the mines were responsible for a quarter of the £216,604 of gold produced by the province. The Ussuri district comprises the southern part of the province, and here ChMese and Koreans have long ago exhausted the more accessible deposits. In 1911, £6,818 of gold was produced, in 1912 only £1,916. Recently, however, placers have been discovered on the Iman, which are estimated to yield £1 per ton of gravel. A small quartz vein on Askold Island near Vladivostok was profitably worked for some years. The official gold-smelting laboratory for tlie Maritime Province is at Nikolaevsk. Gold is known to exist at many places on the Sea of Okhotsk, and is said to exist in the centre of Sakhalin. A gold-bearing belt is believed to extend for some 120 miles along the Okhotsk coast between the Uda and Ayan. Rich deposits are reported in the Anadir region, in the Chukchee Peninsula near Cape Dezh neva, and on the River Volshaya in the Anadir region. The Volshaya mines have remained idle since 1907, but the deposits are said to contain about 240 grains of ore to the ton of gravel, and might therefore be profitably worked, in spite of the remoteness of the region and the absence of wood. A large expedition was sent out in 1914 with a view to reopening them. Silver The output of sUver M Russia reached its zenith M 1887, with 33,800 lb. troy. In 1910 the output was 19,476 lb. : Urals, 13,356 lb. ; Caucasus, 5,508 ; Altai, 612. The fall m the value of silver, the discovery of rich goldfields, and the labour difficulties, account for the dimmution. In the Urals silver is produced chiefly as a by-product, notably in the Kishtim, Blagodat, and Verkhne-Iset mines. There are many other deposits. Over 3,000 deposits are known to exist in the Altai, of which only some 30 have been worked. The Zirya- GOLD 285 novskoe mines are the richest, but even they are almost shut down. There are others in the neighbourhood of Zmyeino- gorsk. The sUver-works in the Kirghiz steppes are very primitive. In the south-eastern portion of the NerchMsk Crown lands 500 deposits of silver-lead ore are known to exist. The richest are the Kadainskoe, on a tributary of the upper Argun. SUver is also found in the zinc mines of Tyutikha Bay (see below). Zinc and Lead The zmc and silver-lead mines near Tyutikha Bay M the Priamur have been most successfuUy worked. In 1911 the output was 24,030 tons of zmc, 4,451 tons of silver -lead, and . 72 tons of copper ore. In 1912, 25,000 tons of zinc were sent to Europe, mostly to Antwerp, to be smelted. But the late Governor-General, Gondatti, insisted that henceforth the smelting shoMd be done on the spot, and a smelting furnace was consequently built. The Tyutikha mines lie 24J miles from Tyutikha Bay, with which they are connected by a railway of 60 centimetres gauge. The ore contains nearly 50 per cent. zMc, little silver, and about 5 per cent, copper. Other claims are being taken up in the neighbourhood. The Tyutikha company has just located new deposits near Im- peratorskaya Bay. Zinc and lead ores are beMg mined M the Altai by the Irtish Corporation. From Riderski mine the ore is taken by a 3-ft. railway, 70 miles long, to Ust-Kamenogorsk, whence it is shipped by the Irtish to the smelting works at the Ekibas-tuse coalfield near Pavlodar. ZMc is also said to exist in the Yakutsk Province. Lead-ore has been found at Ust-Orlinskaya on the Lena, where the content is said to be 81-75 per cent, of pure lead. Silver- bearing lead also exists in the Altai and in the Nerchinsk district, but with the present means of communication it is not likely to be exploited. In 1915 eastern Siberia produced about 48,300 tons of lead, as compared with 30,000 tons in 1913. 286 MIJNERAL. KlUiSUUKCliW Platinum Ninety per cent, of the world's platinum comes from the Urals. But m spite of the high price the output has fallen from 99,820 oz. troy in 1912 to 79,000 in 1916. The richest placers are rapidly becoming exhausted, and the others can oMy be worked at a profit with dredgers. More than half the output comes from the Verkhoture region, notably from Tara River on the Tagilski estate. Platinum is found in some quantities on the Sosva and Lozva and other rivers. Traces of it occur in the Tomsk and Mariinsk districts, notably M the gold mines of the Chumish basin, in the YeMseisk goldfields round the Pitski Mountams, near the Vitim goldfields, and on the Uni Bolski in the Amur Province. The natives M the Aldan valley are said to use it for bullets. Hitherto platinum has been sent abroad to be refined, but M 1915 an export tax of 15 per cent, ad valorem was placed upon unrefined platinum with a view to encouragmg the erection of refineries at home. Asbestos Asbestos is mined almost exclusively near Yekaterinburg, and before the war was virtually aU exported to Germany and * the United Kmgdom via Riga. The output M 1913 was 16,661 tons. In the Irkutsk ProvMce asbestos is oMy worked in the Angara district. The quality is good. On the Mongol- Dabanski gold-placers, which belong to the Crown, but are now worked out, there are very rich asbestos and mica mines. They are on a tributary of the Didi, which is a tributary of the Oka, and are 75 miles from Ziminskoe. In Yeniseisk there are asbestos mines on the left of the River Kamishta, a tribu tary of the Abakan. The asbestos lies in dolomite veins up to . 4| ft. in thickness, but only one-seventh is of commercial value. It is found also on the River Karagan in the same government, in the Altai ; 150 miles south of Biisk, on the Katun ; in Transbaikal near Shilkinski ; and in the neighbourhood of the Nerchinsk tin-mines. GRAPHITE 287 Graphite Hard and clean graphite has been found in considerable quantity near Turukhansk on the Yenisei, and 130 miles west of Irkutsk, on the Mongolian border, as well as in the Kirghiz steppe. Graphite of excellent quality comes from the neigh bourhood of Cape Dezhneva. It also exists on the Lower Tunguska, near the River Bukhalova and near Souznaya on the Amur. But nowhere is it exploited to any extent. Mica Mica is found M the Krasnoyarsk region, but has not been sy'stematicaUy worked, at Kandakova on the River Tasyeeva, a tributary of the Angara, as well as on the River Kan near the mouth of the River Varga. It is also reported in the Nizhne- UdMsk district, and on the Mama, a tributary of the Vitim. On the southern shore of Lake Baikal the quality of the _ mica found is good and the pieces usually large. Petroleum A belt of large petroleum-bearing rocks about two-thirds of a mile wide stretches along the shores of Lake Baikal as far north as Barguzmski Bay. In Sakhalin naphtha springs exist near Niski and NabUski Bay, close to harbours accessible to sea-gomg vessels. There are lakes of petroleum near the Nutovo River, and petroleum which flows of itself has been discovered at a depth of 1,000 ft. A larger oil-sand should be reached at 2,000 ft. The oil is said to be without benzine, and it can therefore be used for fuel immediately. Expert opMion compares it favourably with that of Baku. Other Metallic Ores Tin of good quality has been found near Nizhne-Sharonai, Olovyannaya, and elsewhere between the Onon and the Ingoda, but it is little worked. There is every sign that this region is a genume tin district. The Government recently was said to be instalfing here the Mst tin-smelting works in Siberia. 288 MllMiltALi Jt.nifcUUiUJJBiO Antimony. — The important antimony deposits at the Ak- hatolskaya mines in the Urals are being carefully investigated. Antimony also exists in the Urals near the Verkhne-Neivinsk works and in the silver mines 10 miles north of Blagodat. ' It is found in several mines in the Yeniseisk Government, and in more than one river in the Minusinsk district. In the Trans baikal a spring near the Kadainskoe silver mines is known as the antimony spring. Antimony deposits stretch along the mountain top 7 miles from Zabilovo in the Amur Province. The vein reaches a thickness of 3 J ft. Mercury. — Quicksilver has been discovered in the Verkhne- Iset district in the Urals ; the veins seem numerous and rich, but have not been fully investigated. Deposits of cinnabar are said to exist near Lake Ayamskoe. Cinnabar also occurs in the Bogoslovski district ; at IldekansM, m the valley of the Urov, a tributary of the Argun, where the veM is rarely more than 2 inches tiiick ; M the Amga basM and M Kam chatka. But it has not been worked in these regions. Radium has been found on the Ayakhta, a tributary of the Pit, which flows into the Yenisei. The Kamchatka provmce is believed to have deposits of iridium, palladium, and osmium. Thorianite has been discovered in the black slimes of the placers on the River Boshagoch in the NerchMsk region. Rich deposits of wolfram exist in the Urals and near Klyuchevskaya on the Ingoda, and near the Onon m the Transbaikal. Manganese is found at Nizhne-TagUski and elsewhere m the Urals, and is said to exist in the valley of the Angara. Molyb denum is found in the Kirghiz steppe and Transbaikal. Osmiridium occurs in the Kishtim mines m the Urals, in the Nizhne-Udinsk district, in the Dzhila river system in the Transbaikal, and in the gold-placers of the Troitskosavsk district. It is nowhere regularly worked. Coal There are large deposits of coal in Siberia, but most of it is only of small importance. Many of the deposits, however, COAL 289 are not yet worked, and it is probable that some of the coal in eastern Siberia will prove to be of good quality. In many coalfields the want of a local market prevents extensive exploitation. While the population is scattered, as it is in most parts of Siberia, and while timber is abundant, coal cannot be produced cheaply enough to be used as fuel except in the immediate neighbourhood of the beds. The railways are the great consumers, and are steadily increasing their demands. Manufacturing industry is still too little developed in Siberia to require great quantities of coal, and export is economically practical be only from the coalbeds of the far east. Urals. — Coal occurs on both flanks of the Urals. All these deposits are properly speaking M European Russia. The beds on the western side have been worked for many years, but those on the eastern side are only beginning to be developed. The wholesale destruction of forests, and consequent increased demand for, and enhanced price of coal makes it probable that these deposits wiU play an important part in the industrial activities of the Ural region. UMortunately, however, this coal wM not coke, and is therefore useless for metallurgical works. Hence coal is imported from the Donetz region of southern Russia. In 1914 the production of coal in the Urals was 1,170,412 tons, and was McreasMg annuaUy. On the other hand, M some factories peat is beMg used as fuel, and machMery for compressMg peat has already been installed in places. On the lower Ob m the neighbourhood of Berezov is an extensive coalfield, but up to the present this has not been worked. Kirghiz Steppe. — East and west of the Pavlodar-Karkara- finsk road are a number of coal outcrops which poMt to the existence of large deposits apparently scattered in isolated basins of small size. OMy the Karagandinsk mine, 134 miles north-west of Karkaralinsk, which supplies the Spasski copper works, at present possesses commercial importance. The coal has moderate coking qualities, but gives nearly 40 per cent. ash. The seams are from 3 to 20 ft. tiiiek. The Ekibas-tuse 290 MINERAL RESOURCES mine is being worked on a large scale, and a railway has been built to the Irtish, by which zinc and lead ores are brought for smelting from Riderski in the Altai. The coal is coking coal, and there are two seams of variable thicMiess wMch have been traced for over 4 miles at a depth of about 400 ft. The lower seam has little ash. The output in 1917 was 80,000 tons. The completion of the Southern Siberian Railway will give increased importance to these mines. They are owned by a British company, the Irtish Corporation. Kuznetsk. — The Kuznetsk beds, M the Altai region, extend from Sudzhenka on the railway to 40 miles south of Kuznetsk. On the west they reach the Ob M places, on the east the slopes of the Ala-tau Range. The total area is estimated at about 5,000 sq. miles. The quality varies considerably in different parts of the beds. Floods and the irregMarity of the seams cause trouble at the State mine at AnzhersM. The seams, ten in number, are from 3 to 45 ft. thick. The Sudzhenka coal, which is coking or semi-anthracite, is taken almost entirely by the railway. Small quantities only are sent down the Tom for local use in Tomsk from the Kolchugino mine, wMch sup plies the inconsiderable needs of the ironworks M the neigh bourhood. The shaft here is 25 ft. deep. A French company working this coalfield failed, and there is now no minmg. The Yurga-Kolchugino Railway, now extended to Kuznetsk (see Chapter XVII), should at last make it possible to exploit these valuable coal beds. Cheremkhovskoe. — Important beds of coal lie round Cherem- khovskoe, 70 miles west of Irkutsk. They produce nearly 5,000,000 tons annuaUy. The coal is maiMy ligMte, and much inferior to that of Kuznetsk. The beds cover about 90 sq. miles, and lie at a depth of more than 98 ft. The seams are horizontal with an average thickness of 9 ft. The railway is the chief consumer. Coal is used in the electric works in the town of Irkutsk, but not for heating purposes in private houses. Yenisei and Lena Basins. — There are also considerable deposits in the Yenisei valley near DudMka and in the Minu- COAL 291 sinsk region. There are said to be deposits in the Lower Tunguska and ChMim valleys. In the Lena vaUey coal has been located at a number of places, throughout its middle course and as far north as Bulun. On the west side of the Lena the deposits extend beyond the mouth of the Markha, a tributary of the Vilyui ; on the east side along the Aldan, beyond the mouth of the Maya. The coal, which is of recent origin, is not worked. Transbaikal. — In the Transbaikal a number of coal deposits, maiMy lignite, have been located ; along the shores of Baikal with outcrops near the lake, and in the valleys of the streams round, including the Uda and the Chikoi ; at seven points in the valley of the Khilok and at two near Lake Gusinoe. A seam near Pereemnaya, on the south-eastern shore of Baikal, is worked for the lake stearners, but the output is smaU. Large lignite beds exist in the valley of the Ingoda, one being at Novaya-Kuka, only 4 miles from the railway. Coal also occurs at several points in the valleys of the Shilka, Onon, and Argun. The deposits on the Argun have not been explored, but as the region where they occur is treeless, they may be of importance. About 1,500,000 tons are produced annuaUy from these deposits along the Transbaikal Railway, but the quality is iMerior, giving oMy half the heat of the Cheremkhovskoe coal. Amur Province. — Coking coal of fair quality has been found about 30 miles from the mouth of the Dep, a tributary of the Zeya, on its right bank, but the amount seems to be small. In the Bureya vaUey several deposits of better quality have been found. Extensive deposits of brown coal have also been located at several places along the Amur and the Amur Railway, notably near Khabarovsk. Maritime Province and Sakhalin. — There is much coal, mostly of a poor quality, in the Maritime Province. Of 27 deposits 10 are being worked. The principal sources are a large lignite mine near Vladivostok, yieldmg upwards of 200,000 tons annually for the railway, a couple of small t 2 292 MINERAL RESOURCES mines on Amur Bay, the Government mines at Suchan, 60 miles from America Bay, and the Due, Alexandrovsk, and other mines in Sakhalin. The Suchan mine, which supplies the Government require ments, is run at great expense and on non-economical fines. It is connected with the Ussuri Railway by a branch 93 miles long, but this can handle oMy 133,000 tons at most in a year. The output rose from 105,496 tons in 1908 to 206,783 in 1912. The quality of the coal for steam-raising has been much criticized and its calorific value is comparatively low. The coal is of three sorts, bitumMotis, anthracite, and coking, the percentage of volatile matter beMg respectively 27 to 30, 6 to 8, and 22 per cent. It was expected that the briquette works on Golden Horn Bay would turn out 3,200,000 bri quettes in 1914. There are said to be indications of both brown and anthracite coal along the coast of the Maritime Province as far north as de Castries Bay. A Government engmeer, who has recently visited the Mongugai coal-field, which lies some 12 mUes iMand from the western shore of Amur Bay on the Mongugai River and is only 24 miles by land and water from Vladivostok, estimates that it contains some 5,000,000 tons of good anthracite coal, very similar to Welsh coal. The field is much cut up by eruptive rocks and heavily faulted. If a smaU harbour, with a narrow-gauge line, were built, 150,000 to 200,000 tons could be delivered annually at Vladivostok at a cost of about 10s. a ton, instead of the 18s. or more charged for Japanese coal, of which some 12,000 tons are imported into Vladivostok every year. Mines near Alexandrovsk in Sakhalin are connected to the sea by a railway 7J miles long. The absence of a harbour has prevented the exceUent Due coal from being worked on a large scale. In 1912, 24,322 tons were produced from five pits. The Government is putting the mines up for auction for 36 years on condition that the lessee shall build a harbour for general use. The mMes could certainly produce large quantities of coal at a moderate COAL 293 price if properly worked, as the seams are thick and lie hori zontally, whUe timber is abundant. In quality it is said to be equal to Welsh coal. ExceUent bitummous coal has also been discovered at the mouth of the PUevo near the Japanese frontier. Kamchatka. — There is a large deposit of brown lignite at Baron Korfa Gulf, north of Kamchatka. SimUar coal occurs on the shores of Gizhiga and PenzhMa Bays, as well as at several places on the west coast of Kamchatka and elsewhere in the Kamchatka provmce. Salt The Urals produce about 20 per cent, of Russia's salt, in spite of the fact that the Mdustry there is not developing rapidly. The Orenburg deposits are among the richest in Russia, which contams some of the largest salt-beds in the world. Salt is an important, but little developed, Siberian mineral. In the west it is chiefly found in a number of lakes in the Semipalatinsk territory, on both banks of the Irtish, in the AkmolMsk region and in the Government of Tomsk. The out put varies considerably, as the deposits in the lakes depend on the weather. In 1911 the output of salt in western Siberia was 129,000 tons, one-sixth of the total output of the Russian Empire ; in eastern Siberia about 10,600 tons. In the Kirghiz steppe seven lakes are controlled by the Government and leased for worMng. All .the other lakes of the region, many hundreds in number, are left for the use of the Kirghiz, but the salt they yield is less pure M quafity. Most of them could oMy produce pure salt by the artificial basin system. Chief among the reserved lakes are the five west of Pavlodar, of which by far the most important is Lake Koryakov, 12 mUes from the town. Its salt is considered the best in Siberia. In 1905 it produced over 32,000 tons. The method of procuring the salt is quite primitive, no machinery bemg used. Lake Karabas is another important salt lake, west of Semipalatinsk ; 294 MINERAL RESOURCES it supplies the needs of that town, as well as of Biisk, Zmyeino- gorsk and Zaisan. This lake also belongs to the State. The salt is collected in the most primitive way and loaded on to camels. In the Tomsk Government, in the Baraba steppes, are a number of salt lakes, of which Lake BurUnskoe, some 70 miles to the north-east of Pavlodar, is the most important. It produces by far the greater part of the output in this region. The salt is comparatively pure : it is used by the peasantry and in the fishing industry on the Ob. Eastern Siberia abounds M salt, but the richest deposits of rock-salt and the best salt springs lie M districts too remote for profitable working. Most of the salt is obtained by evaporation from salt lakes, as, for instance, near Abakanskoe in the Yeniseisk ProvMce. In this provmce evaporation produces 7,500 tons a year, about the same quantity as m the Irkutsk Province. The industry flourishes in Transbaikal, especially round Novi-Selenginsk, Ust-Kiranskaya, and Troit- skosavsk. There are a number x>l bracMsh lakes, of which Baruntorei is the largest, in the southern part of the district. Lake Borzinsk near the Chinese frontier is the only salt lake in the NerchMsk district, and the salt does not settle there every year. The most important saltworks m Siberia are at Ussolye near Irkutsk on the Lower Angara. They produced 10,000 tons in 1907. Work is only carried on m summer, owmg to the cost of fuel. If the price of salt feU below about id. per lb., it could not be produced at a profit. The Ust-Kutskoe works on the upper Lena have an output of some 1,600 tons annually for local use,butthey are unfavour ably situated. The salt is plentiful. Very large deposits of rock salt exist on the Vilyui and its right tributaries near Suntarskaya. The salt is contained in red clay and is every where accompanied by gypsum. On the right bank of the Kyundyaya, a right-hand tributary of the Vilyui, salt forms two masses in a mountain of red clay and gypsum. During the spring floods some of its tributaries, notably the Kampents- zyaika, become quite brackish. At present there is no market SALT 295 for tMs exceUent salt owing to the absence of means of com mumcation. As many districts are totally devoid of salt, the Government keeps salt-depots for supplyMg local needs in the remoter regions of Siberia. Glauber's Salt. — In the northern portion of the salt lake system of western Siberia, i.e. on the Baraba steppe, the lakes always contaM a considerable amount of salts other than common salt, principally sulphate of sodium (Glauber's salt). In eastern Siberia Glauber's salt is produced from Lake DoronMsk M the BarguzM district, and also from the exten sive deposits M the Minusinsk region, close to the left bank of the Yenisei. Lake DoronMsk likewise contains vast deposits of sMphate of soda, which is also produced from a couple of smaU lakes m the south of the AchMsk-MMusinsk region, the Kiransk Lake in the Transbaikal, and M the neighbourhood of Verkholensk on the upper Lena. In the Tomsk Government hot mineral springs occur only M the mountainous districts. The Rakhmanovski and Byelo- kurikha springs, both in the Biisk region, near the Mongolian border, are the best known. The Transbaikal is rich in mineral springs, most of them cold. Very few of them have been exploited or even explored. They are especially numerous near the Shilka and M the Chita region. In Kamchatka mineral sprmgs are likewise common, their healmg quaUties being often appreciated by the natives. There are sulphur springs on the middle Lena. Precious Stones and Building Materials Marble and lapis lazMi are common M the Irkutsk and Transbaikal regions. Very fine lapis lazuli has been produced in the vaUey of the Malaya-Bistraya, a tributary of thelrkut. Marbles, garnet, asphalt, &c, are found along the Talaya and Slyudyanka, which flow into Lake Baikal. Ashirite, a rare Mnd of emerald, is found to the NW. of KarkaralMsk m the Kirghiz steppe and alabaster in the immediate neighbourhood of Semipalatinsk. 296 IVlllNJKJKAL .KJM3UU.rwJ.EiD The Transbaikal is the richest district for precious stones. On the ' granite mountain ' Adun-Chelonsk, near the conflu ence of the Onon and the Borzya, topaz, beryl, aquamarine, tourmaline, crystals, and other stones have been found. Very fine topazes* come from the Nerchinsk Range, between the Unda, a tributary of the Skilka, and the Urulyungm, a tribu tary of the Argun. Neither of these districts is at present regularly exploited. Garnets in small crystals are also found on the Onon, 56 miles from NercMnsk. On the eastern shores of Baikal, near Barguzin, there are fine rubies and almondines. The basins of the'Byelaya, a tributary of the Lower Angara, and its tributaries, the Iret and the Onon, contain nepMite, which is highly prized by the Chmese. Some of the blocks weigh 9 or 10 cwt. There is nepMite near Cheremkhovskoe. Jasper exists near Zhigansk on the Lena. The jasper and porphyry of various colours from the Altai are celebrated. They come especially from the valleys of the Alei and Charish and are polished at the Kolivan works. From the eight quarries working in the Altai come porphyry, bluei and green jasper, malachite, granite, marbles, breccia, smoky topaz, coloured quartz, agate, and chalcedony. Near Olgi Bay is a mountain said to consist entirely of marble, to which a railway has been projected. Marble is also found on the upper Yenisei, on the southern and eastern slopes of Baikal, and in the basms of the Onon and the Argun. Lime, building-stone, and common clays are found almost everywhere. Fire-clay and fire-resisting sandstone are worked near the mMes M the Kirghiz steppe and the Irkutsk Govern ment. Kaolin and white clay for porcelain are worked M several places M the Irkutsk Government. Felspar and quartz for glass factories are obtained from deposits M the Baikal MountaMs. CHAPTER XIII MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES Kustarni Industries — Factories — Chinese Industries in the Far East Kustarni Industries The characteristic Mdustrial feature of western Siberia, as of European Russia, is the Kustarni (peasant or cottage) Mdustry, performed m the houses of the cottagers, some times as the wMter or nocturnal occupation of an agricMtural folk durMg the hours of their unemployment, sometimes as the main occupation of the inhabitants. Several of the old settlers have given up agriculture for peasant industries, but many of these industries are decaying, and the railway by its distribution of the commodities accelerates their fall. Some patterns remain traditional in one family for generations, and the older these traditions, the better and finer is the work produced. Those who are responsible for developing these industries, try as far as possible to revive the finer and more artistic work wMcfi has had a tendency to give way before cheaper and newer products. In eastern Siberia these KustarM industries are less developed, and the more easterly the provMce the less is the degree of development. In the KirgMz steppes, where there is a considerable amount of peasant weaving, the KustarM trades flourish more among the KirgMz than among the Russian inhabitants. The only exception is a Mnd of tanMng industry established by recent immigrants. In western Siberia it was estimated about ten years ago that there were altogether 13,000 factories, employing 33,000 workpeople and producing about £4,000,000 worth of* manu factures. As these numbers include the bigger factories in 298 MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES some of the towns it shows that only about two people in one house are employed on the same tMng. UsuaUy aU the inhabitants of one vUlage are employed in the same industry, and even all the viUages on one road wiU have one or two staple occupations. So on the road from Kurgan to Yaluto- rovsk all the many viUages that the traveUer passes manu facture wool or leather. Some examples of Kustarni industries in western Siberia may be given. About Tyumen, a great centre of industry, the Kustarni manMactures are cooper- work, sieves, turned utensUs, carts, furniture of a rough kMd, sledges, pitch, the wooden parts of horses' coUars, Russian ploughs, and in the Kamen volost of the same district carpet maMng, with bright flowers and animal patterns. The wool, colours, and designs are bought from traders — formerly vegetable colours were got from the Samoyedes, now aniline dyes are used : the Russians love bright colours. Round Turinsk and Tobolsk much carpentering work is done, but in Tobolsk fishing nets and carvings from mammoth ivory are also made, and in Turinsk anchors because of the fisMng. TMoughout south Tobolsk wool and skm products are manu factured. At Kurgan and Turinsk they make plough-shares, at IsMm ropes and rough agricultural macMnery, at Sama- rovskoe leads for the fislung-nets. TMoughout the Tobolsk Government they make plaited bast-work, harness, skm boots, wool products, axles, distaffs, and troughs. In the Tomsk Government at Kuznetsk and Tomsk there are smiths and joiners, at Barnaul they make metal pots for milk and the special skin coats known as ' barnaulkas ', and at Biisk cedar- nut oil. The Ministry of AgricMture has tried to improve the technical Miowledge of the peasant-workers by estabhshing educational workshops, of which there are now seven in the Tomsk Government, givMg instruction M such tilings as weavMg, furMture-maMng, carpentering, the manufacture of agricultural machines, cart-building, pottery, and tanMng. In eastern Siberia labour is scarcer and dearer, and the standard of workmanship is much lower. In Irkutsk and KUSTARNI INDUSTRIES 299 Yemseisk woodwork of various Mnds comes first in importance, especiaUy in the neighbourhood of the big towns ; second comes the dressMg of sheepsMns and wool products ; then weaving and metalwork, wMch are much less advanced About YeMseisk there is pottery, and near Irkutsk boot- maMng. In Transbaikal coopers' work alone is of importance. In Yakutsk one special form of Kustarni industry should be mentioned, the fine work done M mammoth ivory by the Yakuts. In the Amur and Primorsk Provinces cottage in dustries hardly exist at aU, but the government is doing its best to organize them, as offering exceUent employment, especiaUy in the remoter districts, durMg the winter. In structors are brought from Russia, schools are opened, and assistance is given in procuring raw material and orgamzing sales. It is thought that wooden articles for local use, such as furMture, sledge runners, &c, coMd be made at home. Charcoal burnMg, the dry distiHery of wood products and the maMng of rough tools and pottery might be taken up, as weU as weaving, coopering, tanning, and shoemaMng. In the Primorsk seven workshops and schools have been or shortly will be estabfished. In Amur and Primorsk £23,000 was to be spent M 1914 to promote these industries. Factories In the towns bigger factories have grown up, some of which have been estabfished for 70 or 80 years, as, for instance, the celebrated glass factory 28 mUes west of Krasnoyarsk, estab lished about 1840 and employing normaUy 400 and at special seasons 800 workmen. It is difficMt to define very clearly the distinction between the Kustarni and bigger factories ; very often the same industry is carried on in both, or a factory may be merely an aggregation of KustarM workers. The cMef occupations of Siberian towns are distUfing, brewMg, tanning, soap and taUow factories, flour-iMUMg, saw-milling, weaving, oU-milling, rope-making, glass-making, brick-making, pottery. In the Russian Far East the managers of factories are usually foreigners, especially . Japanese, until the Russo- 300 MANuFAuxu.K,iNG ilN'DuisiRin.o Japanese war. SkiUed labour was supplied by the Chinese, unskiUed by Koreans. The retaU trade was cMefly in the hands of the Chinese. Distilling and Brewing The distUlation of spirits, especiaUy vodka, is the oldest and most firmly established industry in Siberia. Vodka dis tilleries supply oMy the state, wMch has its own retaU shops, and export a limited amount to other countries. There are about 60 distilleries in Siberia, of wMch the most important is at Semipalatinsk, in wMch in 1906-7 6,000,000 litres were produced. Other important distilleries are in Kurgan, Tomsk, and the neighbourhood of Omsk. Spirits are distiUed from rye, wheat, and potatoes. Before the proMbition of vodka Siberia could not satisfy its own needs under tMs head, but imported from Russia. There is a KustarM industry in the distilfing of samosidka (a Mnd of vodka) from corn, but tMs is only for local consumption. Breweries before the war were usuaUy in the hands of Germans and Austrians. The chief Mnd of beer manufac tured was a fight lager beer of German type. Nearly aU the towns of any importance have their breweries, producmg between 600,000 and 1,200,000 Htres per annum. The work is usually done in wmter. The beer produced is of fair quality, like the ordinary Russian beers, but with a somewhat Mgher proportion of alcohol. Besides beer, mead and kvas are brewed. There are yeast factories at Omsk and Irkutsk. Animal Products Tanneries work both for local use and export. The largest, which are at Tyumen, work some 60,000 cattle hides and 10,000 horse Mdes per annum. The next largest are at Busk. The chief supply of raw hides for western Siberia comes from Kurgan, Semipalatinsk, Barnaul, and the great market for these commodities at Petropavlovsk. There are no tanneries FACTORIES 301 in Mongolia ; so a considerable amount of finished products go into that country, some of wMch had previously been sent out of it as untanned hides. This constitutes much of the trade which passes from Biisk along the Chuya track. A resident at Kyakhta has bought a Tyumen tannery in order to facifitate the trade through Kyakhta. Other places where tanMng is important are Petropavlovsk, Tomsk, Novo- Nikolaevsk, Barnaul, Zaisan, Omsk, Semipalatinsk, Zmyei- nogorsk, and Irkutsk. The Lena goldfield is largely supplied by leather from Ussolye near Irkutsk. Tanning is a fre quent KustarM mdustry as well. TaUow, soap and candles are a common industry, especially in Tobolsk and northern AkmoHnsk. Export is made by raU to Russia, especially to Moscow, Petrograd, Kazan, and Urakovo. Ninety-three per cent, is exported in winter, for the pacMng expenses are less heavy then, as the use of casks is not obligatory. Petropavlovsk and Kurgan are the chief places of export. The KirgMz cattle supply the material. The soap and candle factories supply the commonest sorts for local needs. For superior wax candles the church has a monopoly with factories in Tobolsk and Krasnoyarsk. The principal soap works are in Petropavlovsk, Omsk, Tomsk, and Blagovyesh ohensk. Other Mdustries connected with aMmal products are wool- dressmg, especiaUy at Tyumen and Irkutsk, and weavMg. The carpets of Tyumen have .been akeady mentioned. Timber Products The saw-mUls of Siberia (a very important industry) are described M Chapter XI. The carpentering and coopering are mamly KustarM work. A paper factory in a vUlage near Tyumen employs about 300 workpeople and has an output of about £30,000 worth. There is boat-bmlding on the Tavda, at Tyumen and at MMusMsk. Carriage-buUdMg is an industry at Tomsk, and to some extent at Omsk and Irkutsk. There 302 MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES is an establishment for the preparation of raUway sleepers near the raUway station of Omsk. There are several match factories at Tobolsk, Tomsk, Tyumen, and in the Biisk district. The Tomsk establishment is the best ; there 300 hands produced dafiy 350 chests or 32,000 boxes (1903). The other places employ about 100 hands. The phosphorus (where used) is obtained from works in Perm, the other materials being of local manufacture. Siberia provides for itself in the match industry, successMlly competing with Japan in the far eastern regions. Metal Foundries and Engineering Works Along the railway Hne are engineering works and works for repairing the railway. Next to the raUway works the best equipped workshops are those attached to the techmcal high school in Tomsk and some industrial schools in Omsk and Irkutsk. River steamers and engines are bunt at Tyumen and Blagovyeshchensk. There is a beU-foundry at Tyumen, a brass-foundry at Barnaul, a nail factory at Irkutsk, and a factory of agricultural macMnery (the superior kinds are imported) at Omsk. In eastern Siberia there are two iron and five copper foundries at Blagovyeshchensk, besides mechanical factories at Khabarovsk and Nikolsk-Ussuriski. Glass and China Bottle-glass, window-glass, and rough table-ware are the oMy glass manufactured in Siberia, the superior Mnds bemg imported. The cMef glass factory is the one mentioned above west of Krasnoyarsk, the workmen of which are Europeans, not Siberians. There are others near Kurgan, Biisk, Tomsk, Minusinsk, and Irkutsk. Some of these employ about 100 workpeople. In the east there are two glass factories, one in the Amur Province and one in Nikolsk-Ussuriski. There is one large china and porcelain factory in Siberia, at Khaita, on the Byelaya, about 90 miles from Irkutsk. It produces some 483 tons of less fine ware for Siberian use only. A Moscow Mm supplies most of Siberia. FACTORIES 303 Brick, Pottery, and Cement Brickworks are very general near the Siberian towns. The brick factories are often worked by steam. Although the Siberian houses are bmlt principally of wood, the founda tions are generaUy of brick, and so there is a larger demand for bricks than might be expected. Prices range Mgh : often about £1 for 100. In 1907 the principal steam brick-works were two in Tomsk, wMch produced three mUlion bricks a year each, two at Krasnoyarsk, worMng much below their capacity, two at Irkutsk, wMch produced one to two million bricks, but of wMch one had suspended work. Other im portant brick-works were in Omsk, Novo-Nikolaevsk, Cherem- khovskoe, and Aleksandrovskoe ; at these bricks were made by hand. Pottery is little developed. The peasants replace it with numerous substitutes of wood and bark, wMle blue and wMte enamel ware (Austrian and Polish) has considerable vogue. There are, however, potteries near Tyumen. The most im portant pottery is at Polovinnaya on the Byelaya, 64 miles west of Irkutsk, where boats can reach the factory. The clay here is good. Cement ' works are found in Nizhne-Udinsk, where one produces about 50 tons annually. Two others in Transbaikal manufacture for local needs, and another was established in 1907 near the Ussuri Railway at the cost of £100,000. Oil Another large industry is the manufacture of vegetable oil, the milling of wMch goes frequently with that of grain. The oil is mainly from flax and hemp. Among the principal oil mills are one at Ust-Kamenogorsk for sunflower seeds, and one at Petropavlovsk, for linseed (500 tons per annum). MiUs abound aU over western Siberia ; from the Urals to the Ob they are mostly windmiUs, east of the Ob they are mostly watermUls. In 1910 there were 1,041 oil-miUs in the Tomsk Government. 304 MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES Miscellaneous A few important factories not otherwise classified may be mentioned. In Irkutsk and Khabarovsk are cigarette-case factories ; Irkutsk contains ten printing works (there are others at Omsk and Tomsk), two steam sausage manMactories, and a pearl-barley factory. Barnaul has a soda factory and a considerable rope factory with an output worth £2,500 a year, and there is another at Minusinsk. Usually rope- walks are a Kustarni industry. At Kolivan there are stone- polisMng works wMch belonged to the Cabinet of the Tsar. Vases are fashioned of marble, jasper, and breccia, but the conditions of the industry are said to have remamed primitive. Near Posiet Bay, Olgi Bay, and other bays in the Maritime Province seaweed is the basis of a valuable iodine industry. An iodine factory has just been built at Nakhodka Bay near Vladivostok, and in 1916 it was expected that 8,000 tons of the weed would be dealt with. It is now to be cut with hooks and not torn up by the roots. Chinese Industries in the Far East An edible seaweed, variously named, sometimes called " sea colewort ', is coUected in the south of Primorsk, whence some 1,600 tons are annuaUy sent to Japan and CMna, and in Sakhalin, whence some 2,700-3,200 tons are annuaUy ex ported. The quality depends on the dryMgi, but as tMs must be done on stony ground, and as three days of sun without moisture are essential, the process is not easy. There are three qualities : the best from the Maritime Province goes to Shanghai, the rest to Chefoo. Mention has been made of the panty made from deer horns (see p. 56). To tMs should be added the gentian root wMch is found in the depths of the virgin forests along the tributaries of the Ussuri, and wMch is supposed by the Chinese to possess marvellous properties as a medicine. It seUs according to its age, the older the more valuable, at £5 to £23 a pound. The CMnese have attempted to grow it in Russian territory, but the cMtivated root sells for only 25s. a pound. America meantime exports £160,000 worth of the root to China annuaUy t CHAPTER XIV NATURAL RESOURCES AND TRADE OF ARCTIC RUSSIA Timber — Agriculture and Stock-breeding — Mineral Wealth — Fur and Eider-down — Industry and Trade Timber The most valuable asset of northern Russia M Europe is its forests. In the Government of Arkhangel, in 1897, it was estimated that out of 211,356,000 acres 81,000,000 were foreste— the waste land amounted to 129,000,000 acres, while oMy 756,000 acres were avaUable for agricMture. Along the Murman Railway there are great timber areas, mostly spruce and pMe. As there is a good supply of water-power and •' wMte ' coal in the neighbourhood, these coMd be profitably exploited. SawrMUs are the prmcipal Mdustry of tMs govern ment, but their number might be Mdefinitely increased, and the material sawn up might be exported M its manufactured form : at present it is mostly logs and sawn wood that are exported. The carpentering that is done m the country oMy meets the needs of the local popMation (see p. 132). SawrMUs have been erected at Keret and at other settlements along the White Sea coast, and also on Kola Inlet. Large timber concessions on the Pechora River were made in 1916. A cognate Mdustry is the manufacture of pitch and/ tar, the most important occupation in parts of the Shenkursk district and in other parts of this government. This might be usefuUy developed. At present local conditions differ considerably ; the rate of taxation on the possessor of the woods varies, but is usually too high, especially M the extreme north, where the period of production is shortest. In the state lands of Arkhangel the peasants have certain privileges, 306 RESOURCES AND TRADE OF ARCTIC jsubq-ia e. g. free use of wood for heating the ' kettles ' ; M some parts the by-products are taxed. When the country is deforested by the tar Mdustry, care shoMd be taken that the cleared land is used for agriculture, and not allowed to decline into marsh-land. At present a large part of the population are employed on tMs Mdustry, but it needs fostering by supplying means of transport, lowering the taxes, arranging for a system of credit, MtroducMg techmcal improvements and experimental stations, and securing that the wood left over is utilized in the sawmiUs of the north coast region. There are extensive works m the district of Velsk between Arkhangel and Vologda, where special atten tion is paid to the production of tar. Pitch is exported principally to the United KMgdom from Arkhangel. Agriculture and Stock-breeding Agriculture is only remunerative in the Shenkursk district near the Vaga, m the southern portions of Khohnogor, Onega, and Pinega, and on the ' summer ' shore of the south coast of the White Sea. The principal crop is barley, to wMch a large proportion of the farm lands is devoted, and wMch is probably three times as extensive as rye, the next largest crop, which grows, however, up to AskMo m the estuary of the Pechora. Oats and buckwheat are grown less extensively. The local harvests, however, oMy meet the needs of one- tMrd of the popMation. Other crops of tMs region are potatoes, peas, beans, cabbage, turMps, carrots, spmach, sunflower, hemp (both mezenskaya and a larger kMd), and flax. The Juravski expedition of 1909 reported most favour ably on the prospects and present condition of agricMture in the northern Pechora district, adcfing that bad harvests there had never been remembered by the peasants. There is a floating gram-elevator at Arkhangel, the oMy one M northern Russia. Cattle-breeding could be made very successfM. The Kholmogor breed, established by Peter the Great, by inter breeding the local cattle with others Mtroduced from Holland, AGRICULTURE AND STOCK-BREEDING 307 is famous for its size, beauty, and milk-producmg powers. The aUuvial meadowland along the Northern Dvina, Mezen, and Pechora is good for cattle, and at small expense the swamps of the Arkhangel Government coMd be turned into land covered with rich grass. Of the 756,000 acres available for agricMture 540,000 were pasture land M 1897. There were at that date M the Government of Arkhangel 114,962 cattle, 145,590 sheep, 52,109 horses. It is estimated that the tundras of this region feed nearly 300,000 reindeer. Mineral Wealth The mmeral resources of the country are little developed. As long ago as the cMonicles of 1558 gold was recorded in the sand of the Rivers Kola and Tuloma. There are traces of silver, lead, and zMc everywhere on the Murman coast, and iron and copper are present elsewhere in the Kola Peninsula. Copper used to be worked centuries ago on the Tsilma, a tributary of the Pechora. Ores with 80 per cent, of lead have been found on the River Varsina. Coal is found near Onega ; naphtha in the Pechora district, and the UtkMski oUfields M the Cherdm district of Arkhangel are said to resemble those of Pennsylvania ; a railway projected from BogoslovsM to the WMte Sea will open them up. On the ' summer ' coast of the White Sea there is found a rich clay for porcelain of a" bluish-white colour. Fur and Eij>er-down The fur trade has decreased considerably, and M 1902 serious measures had to be taken in order to preserve what was left of certaM valuable animals, e. g. the ermine and the Arctic fox. In 1897 there were killed in the Arkhangel Government 386,771 wild animals, and 242,666 brace of birds, with a total value of £12,388. Much the largest number of aMmals were squirrels, viz. 384,189. In comparison the rest were negfigible. Second in order came foxes, of which oMy 1,092 were Mlled. u 2 308 RESOURCES AND TRADE OF ARCTIC RUSSIA Eider-down is obtamed from AMov Island, where the nesting-places of the ducks are protected. Industry and Trade Most of the industrial occupations of the inhabitants have been already recorded. Besides these should be mentioned the tallow mdustry which is strongest m the Kola district, and the chamois leather Mdustry, wMch is strongest M the Pechora district. In 1897 the manufactures of the Arkhangel Government were worth £773,160. Among the Mdustries were shipbuilding, leather, canvas, cordage (though most of the hemp is exported for the fleets of other countries), nets, and potash. CHAPTER XV DIVISIONS, ADMINISTRATION, AND TOWNS Siberian Boundaries — Governments and Territories — Administrative System — Administrative Districts — Siberian Towns — Local Government Siberian Boundaries : Political and Geographical The governments Mto which the Russian Empire is divided disregard the geograpMcal boundaries of Siberia. The governments of Perm and Orenburg, wMch are European, cross the Ural MountaMs and Mclude about 150,000 square mUes of Asiatic Russia, and the south-west portion of Siberia is Mcluded in the general government of the Steppes (govern ments of AkmolMsk and Semipalatinsk), wMch is admiMstered from Omsk, and the northern portion of Turgai, wMch belongs to Central Asia poHticaUy, woMd geographicaUy be assigned to Siberia. Governments and Territories The groupmg of the admiMstrative districts has constantly changed and further changes are imminent. The old division into Western and Eastern Siberia is given up ; Western Siberia used to consist of the governments of Tobolsk and Tomsk, while the other admmistrative divisions constituted Eastern Siberia. Now in all Siberia there are four governments (Guberniya), Tobolsk, Tomsk, Yeniseisk, Irkutsk ; eight territories or provinces (Oblast), Yakutsk, Transbaikal, Amur, Maritime (Primorsk), Kamchatka, Turgai, AkmolMsk, Semipalatinsk (of which the last three belong to Central Asia and the Steppes), and one division, Sakhafin. Sbme of these are Mcluded under general governments : the general govern ment of Irkutsk Mcludes Irkutsk, Yeniseisk, Transbaikal, and Yakutsk ; the general government of the Amur (Priamur) 310 DIVISIONS, ADMINISTRATION, AND TOWNS includes Amur, Kamchatka, Maritime, and SakhaHn, and the general government of the Steppes Mcludes Akmolinsk and Semipalatinsk. The old Maritime ProvMce is now divided at about 56° N., the northern part stretchmg thence to the Bering Strait being caUed Kamchatka ; it has also been decided to transfer the residence of the governor of SakhaHn (i. e. that part of the island north of lat. 50° N. wMch Russia has retained since the Treaty of Portsmouth, 1905), to Nikolaevsk, and to form a new district to be known as the NevelsM district, McludMg together with northern Sakhalin the central part of the Udsk district in wMch Nikolaevsk lies. Also the boundaries of the Amur provMce are to be eMarged by the addition of the south-east portion of Transbaikal, and two new districts (Selemdzha and Zeya) are to be formed. Administrative System1 Tobolsk and Tomsk are admMistered on the same system as the Governments of European Russia, and the Eastern provinces wiU be admMistered similarly, with civU governors taking the place of military governors except M Kamchatka. Where the European system prevaUs there is a general admiMs trative councU, presided over by the deputy-governor, directly under the authority of the Minister of the Interior. Over it presides a civU governor representing Mm, who is assisted by councillors nomMated locally and approved in Petrograd. UsuaUy the business is deputed to committees as below : (1) Under the MMister of the Interior — Department for (a) Urban Affairs, (b) Peasant Affairs, (c) Justice ; Prison Committee, Education Board, Land Valuation Staff, Public Health Department. (2) Under the Imperial Finance MMister — A local branch of the Imperial Treasury for assessMg local and imperial taxes. (3) Under the MMister of Agriculture — AgricMtural Organ- 1 At the time of the Russian revolution in 1917. ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM 311 ization Committee, Local Immigration Committee, Land Survey Staff. (4) Under their respective central bureaus — MMistry of Trade and Commerce, Local Department of Justice, Local Military Authority. There are eight members elected to the Imperial Duma from Siberia by mdirect vote. Each provMce is divided Mto uyezds (districts), each uyezd Mto volosts ; each volost Mto vUlages, those with a church beMg styled selo, those without a church beMg styled derevnya. Over the uyezd presides a uyesdi nachalnik, over the volost a zasidatil, over the viUage a starosta. Administrative Districts Tobolsk. Pop. (estimated 1913), 2,005,000. Area, 539,659 square mUes. Capital, Tobolsk. Districts : Tobolsk Tyumen, Kurgan, Tara, IsMm, Tyukafinsk, Berezov, Surgut, Turinsk, Yalutorovsk. PoHce divisions, 30; volosts, &c, 270, rural commuMties, 2,609 ; • other settlements, 4,760. Tomsk. Pop. (estimated 1913), 3,919,000. Area, 331,159 square mUes. Capital, Tomsk. Districts : Tomsk, BarnaM, Biisk, KaMsk, Kuznetsk, Mariinsk, ZmyeMogorsk. PoHce divisions, 31 ; volosts, &c, 294 ; rural commuMties, 3,194 ; other settlements, 3,350. BarnaM is the head-quarters of the Altai Administration and the centre of the ' CabMet ' estates (i. e. belonging to the Tsar). Irkutsk. General Government. Capital, Irkutsk. Irkutsk. Pop. (estimated 1913), 733,000. Area, 287,061 square mUes. Capital, Irkutsk. Districts: Irkutsk, Balagansk, Kirensk, Nizhne-UdMsk, Verkholensk, Vitimsk. Police divi sions, 25 ; volosts, &c, 116 ; rural commuMties, 579 : other settlements, 2,336. Yeniseisk. Pop. (estimated 1913), 982,000. Area, 987,186 square miles. Capital, Krasnoyarsk. Districts: Krasnoyarsk, Achinsk, Kansk, MinusMsk, Yemseisk, Turukhansk, Usmsk. PoHce divisions, 21 ; volosts, &c, 103 ; rural communities, 1,639 ; .other settlements, 1,464. 312 DIVISIONS, ADMINISTRATION, AND TOWNS Yakutsk. Pop. (estimated 1913), 328,000. Area, 1,533,397 square nodes. Capital, Yakutsk. Districts : Yakutsk, Olek- mmsk, Sredne-Kolimsk, Verkhoyansk, VUyuisk. Police divi sions, 15 ; volosts, &c, 47 ; rural commuMties, 383 ; other settlements, 337. Transbaikal. Pop. (estimated 1913), 920,000. Area, 236,868 square miles. Capital, CMta. Districts : Chita, BarguzM, Aksha, Nerchmsk, NercMnsM Zavod, Selenginsk, Troitskosavsk, Verkhne-UdMsk. Police divisions, 25 ; volosts, &c, 141 ; rural commuMties, 951 ; other settle ments, 791. Amur (Priamur). General Government. Capital, Kha barovsk. Amur. Pop. (estimated 1913), 241,000. Area, 172,848 square miles. Capital, Blagovyeshchensk. The government is military and divided Mto Cossack regiments and battafions. PoHce divisions, 7 ; volosts, &c, 23 ; rural commuMties, 325 ; other settlements, 259. Maritime Province (Primorsk). Pop. (estimated 1913), 604,000. Area, 295,664 square miles. Capital, Vladivostok. Districts : Khabarovsk, Udsk, Ussuri Cossack, South Ussuri (Nikolsk-UssurisM), Iman, Olgi. Police divisions, 19 ; volosts, &c, 47 ; rural committees, 941 ; other settlements 1,031. Kamchatka. Pop. (estimated 1913), 39,000. Area, 503,777 square miles. Capital, Petropavlovsk. Districts : Petropav lovsk, Okhotsk, Gizhiga, Commander Is., Chukotsk (Chukchee), and Anadir. Police divisions, 4 ; settlements, 254. Sakhalin. Pop. (estimated 1913), 14,000. Area, 15,334 square miles. Capital, Alexandrovsk. The province is divided into two districts, AlexandrovsM and Timovsk. Police divisions, 4 ; rural communities, 35 ; other settle ments, 35. Steppe. General Government. Capital, Omsk. Akmolinsk. Pop. (estimated 1913), 1,492,000. Area, 229,609 square miles. Capital, Omsk. Districts: Akmolinsk, Atbasar, Kokchetav, Omsk, Petropavlovsk. Police divisions, ADMINISTRATIVE DISTRICTS 313 26 ; volosts, &c, 223 ; rural communities, 1,182 ; other settlements, 579. Semipalatinsk. Pop. (estimated 1913), 862,000. Area, 184,631 square miles. Capital, Semipalatinsk. Districts : Semipalatinsk, Karkarafinsk, Pavlodar, Ust-Kamenogorsk, Zaisan. Police divisions, 20 ; volosts, 163 ; rural communi ties, 1,094 ; other settlements, 608. Of the other provinces of the Steppe General Government, Uralsk does not concern Siberia, and Turgai does oMy M its north-east portion. The district of Uryankhai, round the upper waters of the Yemsei, is nominaUy part of Mongolia, but is 'under the Russian sphere of influence '. Siberian Towns Origin. — The old towns in Siberia are either, like Yaluto- rovsk, built on the site of some Tartar city, or, like Irkutsk and many others, they were originally stockaded forts erected to keep the natives qmet and to form the centre to which they brought their ' yassak '. Other towns have owed their origin to special conditions : so Yekaterinburg grew up in the eighteenth century as the centre of the Ural mining district, and more recently Bodaibo as a mining centre in the Lena country and Novo-Nikolaevsk as the place where the Siberian railway crosses the Ob. Appearance. — Siberian towns are seldom of an impressive appearance. Most of the private houses are of one story and of wood, though a disastrous fire in Irkutsk in 1879 led to an order that aU further buildings in that city should be of stone, so that it has a more distinctive appearance. The public bmldings and churches are usually of stone, and are often well bmlt, and some fine cathedrals have recently been buUt. A common feature in Siberian towns is the triumphal arch, usuaUy erected to commemorate the visit of some Tsar or Tsarevich. The bigger towns possess a number of schools, and there are several good libraries and museums. The bigger towns all possess theatres, and Krasnoyarsk has a very 314 DIVISIONS, ADMINISTRATION, AND TOWNS fine park. There are often good private residences of brick or stone. The shops, even when well stocked, make a poor display, as it is not customary to show the goods in the window. With, but few exceptions the hotels are poor, except for the cuisine, and travellers have to bring their own bedding. In the older towns the centre often has irregular and winding streets, but the rest of the town is laid out with extreme regularity in paraUelograms. The streets are broad : paving, where it exists, is of wood, and the sea of mud in the middle of the street engMfs (as at Khabarovsk) the cement with wMch it is attempted to give it a surface. The station is often at some distance from the town, and in its vicinity a considerable settlement usually springs up. Industry and Commerce. — Siberia is not a manufacturing country ; many of the factories, even in the towns, employ merely tMee or four hands ; but factories on a bigger scale are developing in some of the western towns. The commonest industries are tanMng, soap-boiling, brick-maMng, mUHng, brewing, and the distiUing of brandy or vodka. Near the miMng districts there are also smelting works and laboratories for the assay of precious metals. Some towns owe their im portance to the exchange of goods, and there are places especially where Europe and Asia exchange their goods as in Kyakhta, where the teas and furs of China are brought to the great exchange courtyard, and Petropavlovsk, where the materials and Asiatic goods of the Kirghiz steppe are brought to the historic Barter Court. The more southerly towns have weeMy bazaars, and others have annual, or, more frequently, bienMal fairs of great importance. All important towns are described in the chapters on the various rivers in Volumes II and III. Local Government There have been since 1894 mumcipal Dumas in certain of the towns. In these the citizens elect a town council (gorod- skaya duma) whose term of office is four years ; and this in turn appoints a board of aldermen (gorodskaya uprava). The LOCAL GOVERNMENT 315 former is deHberative and legislative in its functions, the latter deHberative. Both boards are under the presidency of the mayor (gorodskoe golova). The electors are all who pay the apartment-tax (kvarterni nalog). The Mir. — The institution of Zemstvos, or provincial assemblies, has nevfer been extended beyond European Russia, except in the Asiatic part of Perm. The great difficulty has been that Siberia is almost exclusively a country of peasants, and contains no educated or landowning class. The propor tion of inhabitants who cannot read is very large, and to such a commuMty an institution like the Zemstvo has been regarded as inapplicable. But since the emancipation of the serfs, in 1861, the Mir ( = ' world'), or folk-moot of the viUage com muMty (a very ancient institution), has been orgamzed, and has had seH-government. It is the assembly of the peasants, and no one except a peasant can have a vote in it. With this body rests the allocation of viUage lands. It assigns to each family a hut and yard and a sMtable amount of land, taking care that there is a proper proportion of arable, pasture, and forest-land. The average amount for each famUy is about 40 acres, but an additional amount is assigned to each male member. A new division is made every fifteen years, and a majority of two-thirds can re-aUotland. Smce 1906 a peasant can hold his land M perpetiiity. A certam amount is always set aside for common pasturage. The chairman (selski starosta) is elected annuaUy — M some places trienMaUy — by the male Mhabitants, the widows, and the wives of absent male residents . The decisions of the Mir are aUowed to be unanimous, a defeated minority withdrawing its opposition. The Mir has also judicial rights M petty cases. Powers of the Mir over individuals. — It is not usuaUy an enlightened body, and it is apt to be a check on progress. Its traditional wisdom is likely to set itseH agamst uMamUiar experiments in farrMng, and it puts obstacles M the way of free movement about the country, for it is afraid of losMg the proportion of the taxes paid by the Mdividual who wishes to migrate. It used even to send for members of the com- 316 DIVISIONS, ADMINISTRATION, AND TOWNS muMty who had tMiven M the towns and compel them to return under an armed escort to their native viUages. Those who do migrate do not cease to be members of their Mir, and frequently one who has prospered M town life continues Ms membersMp of the viUage community and the payment of Ms quota of the taxes. Taxes are low ; the total of the direct peasant-taxes paid M the whole of the YeMseisk Government amounts to £90,000, wMch works out at three shillMgs per head per annum. Custom aUows the Mir to prevent any one it chooses from sharing in its debates, and the law permits tMs, provided such ostracism is not eMorced for more than tMee years. But there is a more extended power that it exercises, for it can bamsh any undesirable person from the commuMty, wMch usuaUy means in European Russia that such a one is sent to Siberia. In many years half the prisoners sent to Siberia have been so banished. Volost courts. — The Mirs are combmed into volosts (cantonal assemblies) which elect an elder (starishna) and smaU tribunals (volostnye sud) for settfing certam civil and crimmal cases. The starishna (like the starosta M the Mir) is assisted M Ms decisions by a, pizar (secretary), who often becomes the leadmg authority in the viUage, as the one person m an uMettered commuMty who has any education at aU. The pizar is usuaUy out of touch with the peasant class by birth, habits, and educa tion ; he is Mdifferent to their welfare, and, bemg M-paid, is constantly on the look-out for means of improving his position. While the muzhiks (peasants) wear the national dress, the pizar emphasizes Ms importance by wearing ' Ger man ' dress. In 1911 an attempt was made to get rid of these volost courts ; they were eventuaUy retained, but put under the supervision of local boards of magistrates, who constitute in tMs instance courts of appeal. In the volost the vote is not necessarUy unanimous, but there may be a majority. What is dispensed m these courts is patriarchal justice based on customary law. Civil cases involving less than the value of 100 roubles come witMn their competence, as also do more important cases, provided that both parties to the suit agree LOCAL GOVERNMENT 317 to such an arrangement. They can exact fines up to 3 roubles or MMct seven days' arrest. They are also charged with mamtenance of order M the Mir and M the family. There is no appeal (other than in cases of bamshment) agaMst the volost-court, uMess it has acted ultra vires. Such appeals are lodged before the assembly of rural surveyors. Other forms of lower courts. — Besides the volost-courts, wMch apply maiMy to the normal Russian settler, there are other varieties of lower courts. In the military lands of the Cossacks there are stanichni courts, wMch deal not oMy with the affairs of the Cossacks, but with those of the tribes under their jurisdiction. The courts operate under the jurisdiction of the atamans of their districts. Appeals are lodged before the Cossack ' ProvMcial Economic Admmistration of the Cossack Armies '. The judges are elected by the Cossack assembly. In the Steppes the narodni court proceeds according to customary right (adat) or the written MusMman law (shariat). For the latter there exist special MusMman lawyers (mufti). These courts exercise extensive jurisdiction M civU and criminal affairs : e. g. they can puMsh theft with imprison ment for a year and a haH. The narodni judges (kazi-bii) are chosen at the tMee-yearly sessions of the volost delegates. They must be thirty -five years of age and must have certain educational qualifications. In the Buryat districts of the Transbaikal ProvMce there are special tribal courts, wMch settle the affairs of the Buryats on the basis of existing Buryat customs, wMch are founded on the ground of old Mongol steppe laws. They have jurisdiction M certam Mnds of civil cases, where there is no limit to the amount of claim ; m others the limit is assigned at £200 : M crinfinal cases they can inflict fines of £30 or imprisonment of six months for a first offence. There is an appeal agaMst their decisions to the rural surveyors. They were established M their rights by a law of 1901. Among the more vagabond nomad tribes there are so-caUed verbal courts (slovesnaya raprava), m wMch the procedure is by word of mouth. Another system, caUed the Turkoman system, is employed m central Asia. 318 DIVISIONS, ADMINISTRATION, AND TOWNS Bureaucratic control of local government. — These democratic elements are counterbalanced by restrictions from a central and bureaucratic authority. There is a power of general supervision lodged M the ' district committee for the affairs of peasants '. From 1899-1912 there were rural supervisors (zemski nachalniki), but their place has now been taken by the reformed cantonal courts, indirectly elected by the Mirs, whose jurisdiction is confined to peasant cases. The zemski nachalnik among other functions used to admmister the zemski smet, i.e. that proportion of the imperial taxes wMch is aUotted by the Imperial Treasury for such purposes as roads, bridges, &c. In those towns wMch have municipal mstitutions tMs is administered by the town councU. Principal officials.— The governor of the province appoints over each district (uchastok) an official (ispraimik or uyesdi nachalnik) who acts as his representative and is the local commissioner of police. He M turn appoMts Ms commissaries (stanovoi pristav), who are a sort of subordmate police- officials, acting as an alternative to the volost-courts for those who care to bring their cases before them ; but tMs often involves travelling some distance, and, even when they are accessible, they are usuaUy ignorant and UHterate men, without any knowledge of the law. He also appomts the krestyanski nachalnik, who coUects the taxes, and the mirabui sud or justice of the peace. There are appeal courts consti tuted of these latter, together with two representatives of the volost-court. There is a justice of the peace for every tMee or four volosts. IMormation about the government of the various native tribes wiU be found M the chapter that deals with them, under the headings of the separate tribes. CHAPTER XVI ROADS AND TELEGRAPHS Roads and Travelling— Sledging— Telegraphs and Cables— Wireless Telegraphy. Roads and Travelling The Trakt and other main roads. — The great military road of Siberia, caUed the Trakt, was definitely constructed early m the eighteenth century, though there are references to such a road as early as the sixteenth century. Four main roads converge on Omsk, passmg through the Urals by way of the towns of Verkhoture, Yekaterinburg, Zlatoust, and Verkh- ne-Uralsk : from Omsk the great road passes by way of Tomsk and Krasnoyarsk to Irkutsk, Chita, and Stryetensk. The old important route of the tea trade goes south Mto ChMa from Verkhne-Udmsk, whUe beyond Chita an Mferior road continues to Blagovyeshchensk after which a better road goes to Khabarovsk. OMy very bad roads go on to Nikolaevsk and Vladivostok. Other important roads branch off to the north from Tulunovskoe and Irkutsk to Yakutsk and beyond, to the south from Omsk to Semipalatinsk and the CMnese frontier via Kosh-Agach, from Gryaznukha to Barnaul, and from AcMnsk to Minusinsk. Along the lines of the Rivers Lena and Amur the roads are a less popular method of communica tion than the rivers, wMch are navigated in summer by steamers and used by sledges as frozen roads in winter, the posthouses being often along the banks of the rivers and away from the roads. Seasons for travelling. — The worst seasons for traveUmg m Siberia are the autumn, when the frosts are begmmng, and the spring when they break up. These two seasons are called in Russian rasputitsa. In summer travellers in the steppe 320 ROADS AND TELKUKAJ^JiiS districts suffer much from the dust, which often rises above the axle-trees, and is ready to be converted Mto a sea of mud by the rain ; M winter the travelling is mamly by sledge, and the frozen rivers add available roads. The Lena and the Amur are staked with double rows of pine branches to indicate the tracks. Posting. — Along aU the mam roads are posting-houses at irregular intervals, usually about 12 to 20 mUes apart. There has long been an efficient posting system in Russian Asia ; m fact an effective organization of the posts was made in Siberia earlier than in Europe. The Government appomts the post masters, and they are allowed to make such terms as they choose, but the ordinary tariff is 1| kopeks the verst for each horse in western Siberia, and 3 kopeks in eastern Siberia and the north generally ; m addition there is a Government tax (pogron) of 10 kopeks per horse on each stage. Among the nomad tribes the traveller has to use tents (yurtas) mstead of posthouses, and the route wUl change accordMg to the season of the year. There is no fixed rate of payment, but the charges depend upon the local Russian official. The posthouse is usually the nucleus of a small population, the position of which it has determined. Those who breed and provide posthorses are exempt from the imperial poU-tax (17 roubles). At each posting station 15 to 30 horses are kept, and about one-third of that number of tarantasses, provoloki (two-wheeled cars), sledges and drivers in attendance. It is customary for travellers to purchase their own vehicles for the journey : sometimes if they are fortunate they can seU them advan tageously at the end of their route. Thus M places beyond Lake Baikal, like Stryetensk, where iron axles are not manu factured, it is easy to sell at a profit a tarantass which possesses these advantages. But a traveUer from the east to the west is not likely to make a good bargain, when he seUs his carriage at the end of his journey. Those who do not travel with their own vehicle, must travel na perekladnikh, changmg their tarantass at every stage, and adding considerably to the delays which are already vexatious enough. It is also possible ROADS AND TRAVELLING • 321 at times to travel M a carriage that the owner wants returned to his residence. Travellers are served with horses M the order of their arrival, but methods are adopted to discourage racing on the road, so as to pass other travellers who are farther ahead on the same stage. The mail service, which carries no passengers, ¦ takes priority of private traveUers, and it is not uncommon for a traveUer who has seen his fresh horses harnessed to his tarantass to have them removed and transferred to the imperial mail which has arrived. A further necessary delay occurs at Mtervals when the wheels are taken off to be greased. The horses and drivers do not go beyond their next posting ' stage, though sometimes by arrangement a returning team and driver wUl exchange places with those who meet them. It is difficMt to arrange to stop between the posting-stages. The Podorozhna. — Formerly it was necessary to have a podorozhna, or Government permit to travel, in order to avaU oneself of the advantages of the posting system, but this re quirement is now obsolete, though the podorozhna stUl coMers advantages. It is especially important in districts where there are many political exiles and where the restrictions on travelling are numerous, and even elsewhere a driver may refuse to supply the horses, dogs, or reindeer required. TraveUers who refer to the needlessness of it are thinking of the better known parts, where its claims to give priority of treatment are somewhat in dispute. Posthouses. — -Posthouses are all on the same model. Like the other houses of the villages they are of logs. The only distinguishMg mark is two wooden piUars painted black and white, surmounted by the imperial arms in front of the entrance. They differ M cleanliness and comfort, but not in architectural plan. In all there are at least two rooms, one for the postmaster and his family, the other for the traveUers. In a few there may be a cot or two, but ordMarUy there is merely space to lie on the floor, the traveller bringmg with him such bedcfing or rugs as he chooses. The rooms are about 20 ft. by 18 ft., and are heated by a huge brick -stove in the S1BEKIA I X 322 ROADS AND TELEGRAPHS party-waU. The floor has no carpet, and the oMy furniture as a rMe is a smaU table and two hard wooden chairs, with sometimes a wooden sofa or bench along the waUs. Those near the towns are the dirtiest, and traveUers wM find them selves almost everywhere much troubled by Msects and some times rats. The best are on some of the side routes ; thus on the Kupetski track, which leads south of Lake Baikal to Kyakhta, the posthouses are much better than on the Great Post Road. On the waUs is a regMation price list of food and drink, but M most cases this document merely deals with the hypothesis of what would be charged if the food were there. Normally all that can be obtaMed is hot water, salted fish, and black bread, though M western Siberia mUk and eggs are fairly plentifM. Meat is rare, and seldom good. TraveUers should bring their own food, as weU as their beddMg and a supply of rope and a hatchet for repairs on the road. Each posting-station is provided with a black book for complaMts. A record is also kept of the time of arrival and departure of each visitor, if there is a clock on the spot. Even m hotels in the towns the washing accommodation is of the most limited and primitive sort. Yamshchiks. — The yamshchik is changed at every stage with the horses. He expects a gratMty (caUed na chai, ' for tea '), which is sometimes 10 kopeks, but more usuaUy 15 from prudent travellers, for, although there is supposed to be a regulation speed of 12 versts an hour, the pace to some extent depends on the generosity of the driver's employer. An ordinary stage of about 16 miles will be done M a little over two hours, and for a journey day and Mght 200 versts is considered good. Three hundred versts can be secured by a special effort, but is regarded as cruel to the horses. The driver is provided with a whip, and a curry-comb of a primitive kind attached to the handle of his whip for removmg ice from the horses' coats. Care should be taken that the yamshchik conveys the traveller for the whole distance that he has cov enanted, and does not deposit him at an intermediate stage. Horses. — A team of horses is called a troika, being normally ROADS AND TRAVELLING 323 tMee ; but often a larger number are employed, sometimes as many as seven. The middle horse goes under the big wooden bow (duga), which is often elaborately carved, and to it are attached beUs, which are only allowed to be rung on the high road, and removed on enterMg a town. The middle horse trots m the shafts, whUe the others gallop with their heads turned far out. Sometimes where the roads are bad, the horses are harnessed tandem. The horses are poor M appear ance, but splendid for goMg : they are usuaUy 14 to 16 hands. Every horse is given six hours' rest at the end of a stage. Vehicles. — The ordMary conveyance is a tarantass, a rude, strong carriage of four wheels without springs, suited to its purpose of transit over these rough and joltMg roads. The body of the carriage is borne on two long, elastic poles, which rest on the axles of the front and back wheels. In front is a box for the driver. In the carriage is no seat, but passengers, of whom there is room for two, He on the floor, which is covered with straw, which traveUers wM supplement with pMows and mattresses for night travelling. BehMd is a sort of hood, and the whole back part of the carriage can be cut off entirely by stretcMng a tarpaulM to the coach box when it is wet. The luggage can be strapped behMd. The shafts are made fast to the duga to keep them clear of the horses' sides. Two- wheeled cars are caUed provoloki, and are especiaUy used M the taiga. A more primitive and rougher kMd of conveyance is the telega, which is often used as a cart to carry luggage, and as such often accompanies the convoys of prisoners who march to their distant settlements M Siberia. In towns there are other kinds of vehicles : e. g. M Tomsk the droshki is a low jaunting-car, M which two traveUers sit back to back on a plank about 18 inches wide ; in Irkutsk the droshki has been compared to a sort of hoodless bath-chair. Condition of Roads. — The regMation breadth of the main roads m the western parts is 21 ft., and of the smaller roads 14 ft. : the great breadth of the road is due to the cheapness of the land. At the side are broad stretches of grass for riding x 2 324 ROADS AND TELEGRAPHS and walkMg, and even for driving, when that becomes im possible on the road. Also the telegraph fine has a broad space where all trees and bushes are removed, and there also it is possible to ride and drive, when necessary. Even bigger departures from the road are not unusual. One traveUer mentions that east of Tomsk there is -practicaUy no road, but the yamshchiks take their own route. Another traveller records that it is not uncommon M the part west of Irkutsk to leave the road, and take a short cut through the taiga by a track. The methods of road-makMg are primitive. Ap parently the best surfaces are in the Government of Yeniseisk. In the Governments of Tobolsk and Tomsk the roads are very muddy ; east of Irkutsk they deteriorate, and beyond Lake Baikal they are the worst of aU. The centre of the road is often cut to pieces by the big caravans that pass over it, especially in early autumn, to such an extent that traffic is almost impossible. The best part of the Trakt is between Krasnoyarsk and Irkutsk ; near Kansk it has been declared excellent, with a hard even surface. Verdicts pronounced on special parts of the road differ exceedingly ; near Abatskoe, where the roads from Tyumen and Tobolsk meet, a motor- driver has pronounced it a sea of mud, stretchMg wide on both sides of the road, and oMy passable by the Mdication of thev telegraph posts, and between that pomt and Omsk the ruts were said to be sometimes 20 mches deep. The ruts are so marked m many roads that yamshchiks wUl sometimes refuse to accept vehicles of greater width. In the vicMity of many towns the roads are bad ; speciaUy uMavourable com ments have been made on them at Tomsk, near Bogotolskoe (at the boundary of western and eastern Siberia), AchMsk, west of Krasnoyarsk, and west of Chita, where a somewhat sandy track is described as winding capriciously through the depths of a thick forest. The road from Irkutsk to Lake Baikal at Listvenichnoe is described as good, and the road on the south-east side of the lake as difficMt but good. A par ticular portion of the road will change its character very rapidly, and different accounts of its surface are given by ROADS AND TRAVELLING 325 different traveUers who have passed over it at comparatively short Mtervals of time. Streets in Towns. — In the towns conditions are at their worst : there is no regular pavmg. Nansen describes the streets of Yeniseisk as ' muddy and full of deep ruts '. Along the sides of the streets are wooden planks to serve as footways : usuaUy these are fringed with a line of posts to mark them off from veMcular traffic, when roadway and footpath alike are under snow. Theft. — Thieves, who are often escaped convicts (brodyagi), are alleged to frequent certain parts of the roads ; parts that have been speciaUy indicated are between the Lena and Irkutsk (1904), and the parts of the Trakt between Nizhne- Udmsk and Kutulikskoe (1889). The brodyagi were often in alliance with the yamschiks ; they were usually armed with bludgeons, but did not carry firearms. Verst-posts, telegraphs, &c. — Along the sides of some of the roads are verst-posts with square tops cut in such a way that the traveUer can easUy see the distance that he has traversed from the last posting-station and the distance that he has to pass before reachMg the next. At the posting-stations are boards affixed which show the distances to Petrograd and other important towns. There are telegraph stations along the important roads, the lines of telegraph being usually in broad lanes at the side of the road. It has been recorded by one writer that in some places over the steppes the telegraph wires are laid along the ground for 20 or 30 versts in order to avoid the violent storms that sweep over those localities. This is said to be especiaUy true of the neighbourhood of Mariinsk and Krasnoyarsk. At the entrance to villages are gates, guarded by a watchman : these are kept closed during the summer, to prevent animals straying mto the village, but are open durMg the winter. Bridges: and ferries. — Bridges are Mmsy and short-lived wooden structures, with low hand-rails. For all the wider rivers there are ferries. On the Yenisei near Krasnoyarsk the river is crossed where two islands lie in mid-stream. The 326 ROADS AND TELEGRAPHS islands are reached from the banks by ferries, and are umted by a short bridge. Among other places on the great post road there are ferries at Omsk, Dubrovinskoe, Tomsk, Marfinsk, Achinsk, Bolshe-Kemchug, Kansk, Nizhne-UdMsk, and Zimm- skoe. There are four kinds of ferries — (1) one kMd is pro- peUed by horses, who work it by being driven round in circles — there is an example of this found at Tomsk ; (2) a second Mnd is propeUed by oars ; (3) a third Mnd is a pendulum- boat, which takes advantage of the current of the stream — there is an example on the Yenisei near Krasnoyarsk ; (4) and a fourth is a cable-boat worked by a wheel. Sledging The normal method of traveUMg throughout Siberia during the wmter and M northern Siberia durMg the whole year is by sledgMg. The sledges are drawn by horses, reMdeer, or dogs in the various districts, horses bemg employed m the south, and remdeer and dogs in the north, the latter exclusively by certain tribes such as the Kamchadal. Nature of ordinary sledge. — The ordMary sledge is called a narta : it is a narrow vehicle from 9 to 14 ft. long by 30 ins. broad, fitted with a movable hood (koshma), which can be drawn completely over during storms or severe cold : the traveUer must beware of letting it rest on his face during sleep, for it may cause frost-bite. The narta is a very Hght vehicle, and pitchejB heavily when it is traversing rough ground. The traveller can lie at fuU length. The runners are usually made of birch poles, and the fabric is kept together with cords, as nails would be jerked out almost at once. A Samo yede sledge has two large thick runners curved up at the end in front to a height of two feet. On each side are four up rights, placed rather close together towards the rear. These slope upwards and inwards until at 2 ft. they are umted together by stout bars, which act as cross-overs and make the floor of the sledge : the long pieces are called bereznyas ; on this floor is put the luggage, and the driver sits on it or just in front. In some parts of Siberia the driver sits beside SLEDGING 327 a perpendicular ' bow ' of stout wood which rises some 4£ ft. from the ground, about one-third of the distance from the front to the back of the sledge. He avoids obstacles by pulfing this way or that by means of the ' bow '. The harray is a stout steel-shod stick 15 ft. M length with a cord attached to the end ; it can be used as a brake by putting it between the runners, or the sledge can be anchored to it. The point can be used for testing the ice when crossMg a river. Other kinds of sledges. — There are also the balog, a sort of famUy sledge or gipsy-car on runners, covered with tarpaulin and skMs, which can even contam a cooking-stove ; the vashok, which is entirely enclosed ' like a huge brougham on runners ' ; the kachovka, a great open sledge, roughly made of wood and matting, and with no covering save a piece of matting or felt to spread over the recumbent travellers ; the pavoska, which is described as a large, deep, roughly-buUt sledge, open in front, but covered m at the back with a canvas hood lined with tMck felt : the driver's seat consists of a flat board, from which slope outwards and downwards a pair of stout poles to save the vehicle in case of collision. Reindeer harnessed to sledges. — Between two and five rein deer are normally used for the sledge, though as many as eight were seen by Nansen drawing a balog. The Lapps, who have bigger reindeer, only use one at a time. A rein deer will draw a load of -400 lb. over snow, and to a sledge which had a load of 800 lb. of blubber only two were harnessed. The Samoyede harnesses his reMdeer by an ingenious system (described at length in Jackson, Great Frozen Land, p. 115), which compels each deer to do his share of the work, by a couple of chulki (' tackle-blocks ') made of wood or wakus ivory, through which the trace runs from the near to the offside reMdeer. The same writer drove three reMdeer for 120 versts (1 Samoyede or Reindeer verst = 4 Russian versts) withm 12 hours without feeding them, and they went the last 10 versts as well as the first, and were quite fresh after two days' rest. The reindeer is independent of roads ; he will find his food under the snow, which he scrapes away with 328 ROADS AND TELEGRAPHS his hoofs for a depth of 2 ft. or more, but ice may cut him off from his moss, and then he wiU soon be in poor condition. All that he requires is protection from wUd beasts, among his special enemies being the wolverine, black bear, and polar wolf. If unharnessed at any time he must be hobbled, or he wUl return even 40 or 50 mUes to rejoM the herd. His most frequent complaint is hoof-sweUMg. (For the breedMg and habits of the remdeer see Chapter V.) Reindeer riding. — The reMdeer is sometimes ridden, but not on the back, which woMd cripple it. The saddle is on the shoulders, and the rider gains his seat by means of a pole in his right hand, not touchmg the saddle with his hands. To keep his seat he practises a swMgMg movement, balancing himself with his pole, but it is unwise to put it to the ground to steady himself, for he will probably be dismounted. AgaM, if he grips with his knees so that the cushion slips back, the reMdeer, feelmg the weight, wUl bend under his haunches and deposit the rider on the ground. The Soyots use reMdeer for riding among the Sayansk Mountains, as their food is more easUy available than that of horses. They ride with two reindeer, one servmg as pack-animal and relief. A Soyot, whose average weight is 4 puds in his furs, can ride a reMdeer, wMle a Russian cannot. Dogs harnessed to sledges. — The dogs employed by the Samoyedes are like Eskimo dogs, but somewhat smaller ; those used by the Kamchadals are said to resemble wolves. Usually there are 6 or 8 dogs M a team. Most tribes are Mnd to their dogs, and M some places (as along the Yenisei) they are even given the warmest place over the brick-oven to sleep on when they come M tired, and whoever may be there has to vacate it for them. They can go 60 miles at a stretch without bemg fed. In the Yenisei district a good sledge dog is worth 160 roubles, but such are not easily obtaMed, for a dog is of very little use for draught purposes unless he has been reared by his owner. A young puppy can be bought for a rouble. Older dogs are seldom bought, except for breed ing purposes. When running in the sledge dogs, who have SLEDGING 329 known one another sMce they were puppies must be paired : it is the only way of securMg peace ; but dog teams will fight one another when they get the opportunity. Ordinarily a dog country is apart from a reMdeer country ; but if the dogs get scent of a deer, they wiU become unmanageable. When dogs begin to paw the snow it is said to be a sign of a comMg storm. The team dogs of eastern Siberia serve tUl they are 10 or 12 years old, but begin to deteriorate after 6 or 7 years. They suffer frequently from rabies in the spring, but sometimes continue to be harnessed, though muzzled, when rabid. They also suffer from palsy and cramp : their feet are apt to become sore and are often made to bleed. Sometimes then they are put mto shoes, but they greatly resent this treatment. They can draw considerable weights. HavUand describes a pack m which each sledge with eight dogs coMd draw 1,440 lb. of goods and two men, and the leader by Mmself coMd draw 180 lb. on the sledge. On a good surface they coMd travel as much as 66 miles in 3 hours. The Russian, Koryak, and Kamchadal dogs feed exclusively on fisfi, the Chukchee dogs on intestines of seal and the blubber of seals, whales, and walrus. Telegraphs and Cables Siberia The telegraph system has been extended m Siberia M recent years, but there is stiU no close network of wires. Away from the raUways and the chief rivers few places are on the system, and the north is almost devoid of telegraphic f acUities. The trunk system consists of a lme more or less followMg the raUway between west and east and finkmg the telegraphic system of European Russia with Vladivostok, and via the Chmese Eastern RaUway with KharbM (Harbin), Mukden and the ChMese telegraphs. Most telegrams between Europe and Siberia pass either by Yekaterinburg or by Chelyabinsk, but the South Siberian Railway, when buUt, will afford a route via Orenburg. Russian Central Asia has its own lines of telegraphic connexion with Europe. 330 ROADS AND TELEGRAPHS From this trunk lme, which traverses the most populated regions of Siberia, several branches run to north and south, but except M western Siberia there are no alternative routes to the main fine, withM Russian territory. The Amur telegraph fines through the Amur and Ussuri districts form an all-Russian route alternative to the more direct route through Manchuria along the Chmese Eastern RaUway. The four chief lMes to the north more or less foUow the four great rivers. From Omsk a lme runs north along the Irtish to Tara, across country to Tobolsk to avoid the swamps of the lower Irtish and thence down the Ob to Kondinskoe and Berezov. From Tobolsk a branch leaves this Irtish-Ob lme and goes south-west to Tyumen where it joMs the trunk lme along the Siberian Railway. From Krasnoyarsk a lme runs north to KozacMnskoe and follows the Yemsei to Yeniseisk and Turukhansk. On both this and the Ob Hne telegraph stations are widely separated M the north. From Irkutsk a lMe runs north-east to the Lena at Manzurskaya and then follows the Lena to Yakutsk with branches to Bodaibo and to VUyuisk. From Yakutsk a lme goes across country, following the rough track to Okhotsk. This is the most northerly Hne M Siberia. In Kamchatka there is a line between TigilsM and Petro pavlovsk, but it is said not to be in worMng order. Lastly at Chita the Amur line branches from the old trunk line wMch runs through Manchuria to Vladivostok along the railway. The Amur line leaves the railway at Stryetensk and keeps near the Shilka and the Amur to Khabarovsk where it turns south up the Ussuri to Vladivostok. A branch line from Khabarovsk follows the Amur to Nikolaevsk, sending branches across the northern end of the Sikhota Alin Range to de Castries Bay and to Cape Lazarev, whence cables cross to Sakhalin. On Sakhalin there is a line from Cape Pogobi to Alexandrovsk and Due. The Amur line continues eastward from Nikolaevsk to Chnuirrakh Point at the Amur mouth. The southern branches from the west and east trunk telegraph fine are more numerous. Most westerly in Siberia TELEGRAPHS AND CABLES 331 is a branch from Petropavlovsk to Atbasar and AkmolMsk M the steppes. From Omsk a very important lme runs more or less along the Irtish to Semipalatinsk, whence it continues southward to Sergiopol, Kopal, Vyemi, and Tashkent M Russian Central Asia, connecting with the lines to Krasnovodsk on the Caspian Sea and to Orenburg in European Russia. This southern line sends several branches towards Mongolia, to Zaisan, Chuguchak, Kuldzha and elsewhere. At Chuguchak (Tahcheng or Tarbagatai) and Kuldzha there is connexion with the Chinese telegraph system. Another branch leaves the trunk line at Novo-Nikolaevsk and goes by Barnaul and Biisk to Kosh-Agacfi on the Mon golian frontier. From there to Kobdo, where the Mongolian telegraph system begins, telegrams are carried by Cossack post. In 1913 Russia was granted a concession by Mongolia to extend tlie telegraph line to Kobdo. A fourth important branch leaves the trunk line at Achinsk and goes to Minusinsk and GrigorevsM on the frontier. In the Baikal and Trans baikal regions there are several short lines southward to places on the frontier, including those from Kultuk to TunMnsk, Verkhne-Udinsk to Troitskosavsk (meeting the Chinese tele graphs at Kyakhta), and CMta to Mangut. Finally there are (a) the coast line northward from Vladivostok to Tyutikha Bay, wMch is being continued northward in order eventuaUy to meet the Amur telegraph line ; and (b) the line southward from Vladivostok to Novo-Kievskoe near the frontier of Korea. Considerable difficulty is experienced in erecting telegraph wires M many parts of Siberia on account of the thick forests, swamps and other obstacles, but the difficulty of upkeep is still greater. Trees fall and Mterrupt communication, and natives are continually stealMg the wire. Siberian telegraphs seldom work satisfactorUy, and there is generaUy delay, not always unavoidable, M the transmission of messages. The only submarine cables touching Siberia are M the far east. Two cables, belonging to the Great Northern Cable Company of Copenhagen, connect Vladivostok with Nagasaki in Japan ; and there are Russian cables from Lazarev and 332 ROADS AND TELEGRAPHS de Castries Bay across the Straits of Tartary to Cape Pogobi arid to Alexandrovsk, respectively, in Sakhalin. A Japanese cable also runs between Alexandrovsk, Todo Shima, a Japanese island off southern Sakhalin, and Hokushu. There are no cables to Kamchatka or across. Bering Strait to America. Arctic Russia In Arctic Russia, except around the White Sea and on the Murman coast, the system of telegraph lines is little better developed than in Arctic Siberia Murmansk and other ports on the Murman coast are linked with the Russian telegraph system both along the route of the Murman Railway and round the coast of the Kola Peninsula. All White Sea ports and most places on the Northern Dvina also have telegraphic connexion, but in the Pechora region Ust-Tsilma is the oMy place with a telegraph line with the exception of a few stations in the extreme upper reaches. There is no telegraph line to Siberia north of the railway. There is no permanent through telegraph line to FiMand north of Lake Ladoga, but a Russian military line runs from Rovaniemi to Pechenga. The Russian and Norwegian systems meet on the Voriema River, but are not connected. There are submarine cables from Alexandrovsk to Peter head, Scotland, and from Alexandrovsk to Arkhangel. Wireless Telegraphy In recent years several wireless stations have been buUt M the far north and in the north-east, and others are projected. On the Murman coast there are stations on the Ribachi Peninsula, at Alexandrovsk, Murmansk, TeribersM, and Svyatoi Nos ; on the White Sea at Kandalakska, Kem, Solo- vetski, Arkhangel, Sosnovets Island, Cape Voronov and Kanin Nos. The nearest Norwegian stations are at Ingo, near the North Cape, and one at Green Harbour, Spitsbergen, each with a normal range of 480 miles. To facilitate the naviga tion of the Kara Sea three stations have been erected, on Yugor Strait, on Vaigach, and at Cape Mare-Sale on Yamal WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY 333 respectively, each with a normal range of 150 nautical miles. Others M Novaya Zemlya and elsewhere are projected (sec Vol. II, Chap. V). A station at Obdorsk on the Ob delta is contemplated, and one at Dickson Island at the mouth of the Yenisei (range 1,700 miles) has been. in operation for several years. In the far east there is a. station at Okhotsk (range 130 nines) which commuMcates with one at Nayakhanskoe on Gizhiga Bay (range 130 miles), one at Novo-Mariinsk at the mouth of the Anadir (range 130 mUes), and another at Markovo farther up the Anadir. Stations are reported to be under construction at Yamsk on the Sea of Okhotsk, and at Sredne-Kolimsk on the Kolima. On the Amur there are wireless stations at Khabarovsk (military), at Nizhne-Tambovskoe (military) and at Niko laevsk at the mouth (range 240 miles). The Nikolaevsk station communicates with one at Petropavlovsk in Kamchatka (range 240 miles). A second station is contemplated in Kamchatka at TigilsM on the west coast. Stations are pro posed on Bering Island and on one of the Commander Islands. The station at Nikolaevsk also communicates with one at KerbMsM on the Amgun (range 170 miles). On the Ussuri there is a military wireless station at Iman. At Vladivostok there are three wireless stations, one belonging to the army and two to the navy. Japan has several stations withm range of Vladivostok. A number of the Russian vessels which ply in far eastern waters as weU as the Russian ice-breakers are fitted with wireless installations. There are no Russian wireless stations on Bering Strait, but stations are proposed at Providence Bay and Cape Dezhneva. The nearest United States stations of long range are those at Fort St. Michael and at Nome on Norton Sound in Alaska, both controUed by the United States Army, and those at Unalaska M the Aleutian Islands and at St. Paul M the Pribilov Islands, both operated by the United States Navy. The station at Nome communicates with the one at Novo- Mariinsk. CHAPTER XVII RAILWAYS General Considerations — The Siberian Railway — The Amur Railway— The Ussuri Railway — The Altai Railway — Other Siberian Railways — The Murman Railway — The Arkhangel-Vologda Railway — New and Projected Railways. General Considerations Progress in Construction The total mUeage of Russian railways open to traffic (47,480 mUes M 1914) is large M comparison with that of other countries, but small M proportion to the area of the Empire. Of tMs total about 8,000 mUes are M Siberia. Railway construction in the Russian Empire was proceedMg, before the war, accordMg to a defiMte plan. For the years 1914-19, a programme was drawn up for constructing about 2,330 miles of lMe each year, but the Commission under General Petrov had been of opiMon that somethMg more hke 4,000 miles each year were necessary for the needs of the Empire. The Russians build railways very qMckly, so that they have been able after the outbreak of a war to make radical and timely improvements M 'their system of communica tions. In the course of the war with Japan they were able to fiMsh the Circumbaikal section of the Siberian Railway in January 1905, a work of immense difficulty, as the section coritaMs 40 tunnels. Meanwhile a lme had been laid across the ice on Lake Baikal, from Baikal to TaMihoi, a distance of 25 miles. The work was accomplished between February 9 and March 1, 1904, at a laymg rate of about \\ mile a day. From the outbreak of war M 1914 to the spring of 1916 a thousand miles of the Murman Railway were built, and GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 335 large sections necessary to complete the Amur Railway were constructed. Military Importance In the Russian Empire railways are particularly important from a mifitary pomt of view, owMg to the vast distances between place and place, and owMg to the state of the roads. Considerable advance in road-makMg took place M the first thirty years of the nmeteenth century, but with the advent of railways, less attention has been paid to roads. There are very few roads M the Russian Empire wMch can support artillery, or wMch could allow a railway-fine to be laid along their surface. The rivers, though sMtable for transport, suffer from many disadvantages ; the Volga, for Mstance, runs Mto the Caspian, wMch is a closed sea ; the great Siberian rivers are all frozen M wmter. Nevertheless, the rivers and canals of Russia have great possibilities M the development of mifitary transport. Characteristics The prominent characteristics of Russian railways are, Mst, that they are cheap to build, costing about £10,500 per mUe in Europe, a little over £5,000 per nule m Asia. TMs cheapness is partly due to the general flatness of the country, and the straightness with which the fine is traced. A second characteristic is that tunnels are few ; they are avoided, for Mstance tMough most of the course of the Mlly Amur Railway, by steep gradients and sharp curves. A third characteristic has been already mentioned, the straight tracMg of the line, so that towns are left on either side. The straightness of the track makes the measurement of distances off a map more approximately accurate than might otherwise be expected. Fourthly, most of the lMes are sMgle, but with embankment or bed provided for a double track. Gauge The standard Russian gauge is 1-524 metre (5 feet) ; there ' is a large number of small branch and feeding lines (in 336 RAILWAYS European Russia) which have a narrow gauge, varying from 1 -006 metre to 0-75 metre (3 ft. 3J in. to 2 ft. 5£ in. ). The wide gauge admits of heavy loading of trucks, but this advantage cannot be much used as the rails are not sufficiently heavy, nor the road-bed good enough, to take very heavy trains. But great improvements have been effected in recent years, especially on the Siberian Railway. The lessons of the Franco-Prussian War gave a great- impetus to strategical railway bMldMg M Russia. The broad gauge was adopted, it is said on the advice of an American engMeer, Major Whistler, to prevent the German and Austrian rolfing- stock in time of war bemg put on to the Russian lines. The German and Austrian gauge is 4 ft. 8| M, The Japanese gauge is 3 ft. 6 in., but 4 ft. 8| in. was adopted as the standard in 1916. In the Russo-Japanese war, after the battle of Mukden, the Japanese narrowed the gauge on the Southern Manchurian Railway, but it took them 39 days to do it for 34 miles. It has since been widened, see p. 342. The Germans, however, claim to have means for dealing rapidly with the task of converting the Russian gauge. Owing to the width of the embankment it is obviously easier to con vert a broad gauge to a narrow one, than vice versa. Permanent Way In Russia in Europe, the sleepers are said to be sunk M the permanent way, so that the track can be used for marching. The surface of the bridges, which is open, would have to be covered, if the tracks were to be utilized for tMs purpose. This practice of sinking the sleepers seems to have been fol lowed in a large number, if not in aU the sections of the Siberian Railway. The railway tracks in Russia are often the oMy unflooded roads to be found in a large district. Rolling-Stock The amount of rolhng-stock is not so great as in Germany or Austria, and owmg to the great distances it is difficult to collect much together for a particular purpose at any one GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 337 place. In 1911 there were 21,121 locomotives, burning either coal, oil, or wood ; 24,487 passenger coaches ; 469,063 goods wagons. But all these were said to be rather old. It is difficult to add new rollmg-stock rapidly from Russian work-shops ; construction is retarded by the necessity of bMldMg different types of engines, some to use coal, others wood, others oil. In 1910 the Russian locomotives were stated to be 30 per cent, less powerful than those of Germany. The average speed is 13 miles per hour, on fast trams, 33 miles. The want of sufficient rolfing-stock was still noticeable M 1916. But locomotives and cars were imported in parts from the Umted States to Vladivostok, and were erected in shops created during the war at Pervaya-Ryeka, on the maM lMe five miles outside the city. In spite of the marshy, low-lyMg nature of the country, wMch necessitated much filHng-M, a large system of sicfings and workshops was completed by the begMMng of 1916. At Mst only 5 or 6 cars were erected each day, but the output was expected withM a short time to reach 100 to 150 a day. Loading Capacity The broad gauge admits wagons with a large carrying capacity. Ordinarily a wagon can take 32 to 40 men, or 6 to 8 horses. Most cars for carryMg men are heated with a stove. A military traM lias from 30 to 50 wagons, 35 to 40 being the commonest number. In its composition, a field- Mtchen is also frequently included. Thfe American cars purchased in 1915-16 were of the bogie type, 42 ft. long, and could carry 2,400 poods, i. e. nearly 39 tons. 14,000 of these cars were under order from America at the begMMng of 1916, along with 450 American locomotives. As well as the newly constructed shops at Pervaya Ryeka, the macMne- shops of the Chinese Eastern Railway at Kharbin were much used, being able to erect 4 or 5 locomotives per diem. Stations Most of the Russian stations are some distance, varying from \- mile to 10 miles, from the town or village after which 338 RAILWAYS they arc named. On the Chinese Eastern Railway the distances are sometimes even greater. The station's are divided into classes from I to V. Class I is designed for changing locomotives and personnel of passenger trains ; Class II for dealing in a similar way with goods trains. Class III is designed for maintaining locomotives and personnel for local work. Class IV is designed for occupation by traffic staff only. Class V exists for the same objects as Class IV, but on a smaller scale. On the Siberian lme at any rate the objects of the classes have been to a certaM extent coMused ; thus Classes I-III have all engMe depots, and have been classified only accordMg to size. All Classes IV and V have arrangements for watering locomotives, as well as livmg accommodation for traffic staff. A ' crossMg ' is a point on the line, witfi (on the Siberian lme) two loops in addition to the through track, and with skfings. There is a pointsman and accommodation for Mm at each crossmg. When a line is doubled, the crossings may be eliminated. The stations of Russian railways generally have low broad platforms. In addition, bemg generally some way distant from their town or village, many stations have wide open spaces near by, very sMtable for paradMg troops prior to entraining or on detrainment. On the Siberian Railway, the stations of Kharbin, Irkutsk, and Baikal have not these open, spaces. For off-loading trams, ramps have to be used. Lifting appliances, cranes, &c, are not commonly used or provided. Most of the larger stations, even down to Class IV, have good buildings, many of stone, which are constructed on a generous scale. Military Personnel and Control The military personnel dealing with railways consists of 17 battalions, comprising 77 compaMes. There is a field- railway park with 100 kilometres (62 miles) of line, and there are field-railway depdts. The lmes are .divided into districts, allotted to the transport lMe-commandants and station- commandants. In war, all the lines, at least in the theatre GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 339 of operations, go under military control. A railway-battalion consists of two compames of constructors, two of ' exploita tion ' employes, and two compames of reserve. There are three railway-battalions in the engMeers of the reserve. Government and Private Enterprise About 69 per cent, of Russian raUways are State-owned. AU the Siberian Railway to the station of Manchuria, was buUt and is worked by the Government ; this is true also of the Amur Railway, wMch runs entirely through Russian territory. Several new branch fines, the Slavgorod RaUway, the Altai RaUway, and the MMusMsk RaUway are buUt and worked by private enterprise. The ChMese Eastern Railway is under a private company, rather closely related to the Government. The private lmes are said to be better con structed than the lmes built by the State. Civil Control TMee official bodies deal with the railways : (1) the MMistry of Ways and Communications, wMch deals with the technical and admimstrative mechamsm of the railways, Mcludmg construction ; (2) the MMistry of FMance, which deals with the raisMg of capital, with tariffs, and kMdred matters ; (3) the Control of the Empire, which inspects receipts and expenses, and makes up the complicated accounts between them. These bodies regulate private as well as State lines. Defects in Management Circumstances have prejudiced the successful workMg of the Siberian Railway system. The lme is made up of separate raUroads, each havMg its own Mdependent administration and its head-quarters in Petrograd. The control over these raUroads has not been properly co-ordMated ; overlappMg is constantly occurring ; the different managements have never tried to work with one another for the improvement of the whole system, but have merely looked after their own sections. The Mitiative of local officials has been hampered by circular Y 2 340 RAILWAYS instructions sent out by the Mimstry of Ways and CommuMca- tions. The system for watering engines is cumbrous and Mvolves long delays. The Siberian Railway History The idea of the great Siberian Railway is said to have been origMatcd by Count Muraviev-Amurski, who became Governor of Eastern Siberia M 1848. He founded Nikolaevsk at the mouth of the Amur M 1850. His idea was to connect the Maritime ProvMce with Russia ; when the construction of the Siberian Railway was actually taken m hand m 1891, it was Mtended to carry out Muraviev's idea by bMldMg the line all the way through Russian territory, avoidMg Manchuria. The earliest definite proposal was that of an English engmeer called Dall, who put forward a plan for a horse-railway, to be laid from Nizhne-Novgorod by way of Kazan and Perm, to a Siberian port on the Pacific. After 1870 the railways of Russia took a steadily eastward trend. In 1877 the fine to Orenburg was opened, and M 1878 the Ural Railway-, ending at Tyumen. By the year 1890, there were tMee lMes which had claims to be used for the great extension on to Vladi vostok : one was the Ural RaUway, a very important one on account of the mines and iron-works adjacent to it. The second was the Samara-Zlatoust Railway encfing at Miyas. The third was the Samara-Orenburg line. The Samara- Zlatoust line was chosen as it offered the shortest route tMough Nizhne-Udinsk, and as it ran through the fertile black-earth region of western Siberia. The buildMg of the line was begun in 1891, M different sections, and completed during the Russo-Japanese War, M 1905. Only Russian labour and Russian material were used, except perhaps on the Circumbaikal section which was finished in a hurry during the Russo-Japanese War. At various poMts along the route, steamer-wharves were made on the rivers, saw- mUls and foundries were opened, and these still exist and offer means for railway-construction. THE SIBERIAN RAILWAY 341 Chinese Eastern Railway The original Mtention was that the Siberian Railway should run from Samara to Vladivostok by way of Stryetensk and Khabarovsk. But as the route from Stryetensk to Kha barovsk (now called the Amur Railway) offered technical difficulties, an alternative route was adopted, through Man churia, which was ChMese territory. In 1896 an agreement was signed between the ChMese Government and the Russo- ChMese Bank, for the formation of the Company of the ChMese Eastern Railway. This railway was to be built to connect the Transbaikal Railway with the South Ussuri RaUway. The Company was given the power to work coal pits and to engage M other industries ' M ChMa '. The share holders can only be Russian or Chinese subjects. The Russian Government undertook certain financial guarantees with regard to the ' obligations ' of the ChMese Eastern Railway, but not with regard to its share-capital. The Company was to be under a Directorate, which was to sit in Peking and Petrograd. There were to be a chairman and nine directors, the chairman beMg named by the ChMese Government, the directors to be chosen by the shareholders. The fine is to be leased to the CMnese Eastern Railway Company for 80 years, and at the end of this period is to pass, without any payment, into the possession of the ChMese Government. The luggage of passengers, and all goods, in passage from one Russian station to another over the Chinese Eastern RaUway, are free from ChMese customs. In the tracmg of the fine, viUages, towns, and cemeteries were to be left aside. The gauge of the Chinese, Eastern Railway was to be the same as the Russian (5 ft.). After the Russian Government obtained a lease of the Laio-tung Pemnsula in 1898, the ChMese Eastern Railway was extended from KharbM to Dairen and Port Arthur (614 miles). By the Treaty of Portsmouth, August 1905, Japan took over the southern section of tMs lme, from Port Arthur to Kuan- cheng-tsu (467 mUes). From KharbM to Kuan-cheng-tsu it remaMs under the Chinese Eastern Railway Company. The 342 RAILWAYS fine from Kuan-cheng-tsu to Port Arthur is now called the South Manchurian RaUway, and smce it was taken over by the Japanese has been converted from a 3 ft. 6 M. to a 4 ft. 8 J M. gauge. In practice the goods are transferred at Changchun, 1 mile south of Kuan-cheng-tsu. The CMnese Eastern Railway is really under the Russian MMistry of FMance, which controls it tMough the Russo-Chmese Bank. Amur Railway The disadvantage of the Manchurian route, from the Transbaikal Railway to Vladivostok, is that as far as Pogran- ichnaya, 144 miles from Vladivostok, it does not run tMough Russian territory. It is for tMs reason that the Amur Railway, connecting the Transbaikal fine with Khabarovsk, and so by the existing north Ussuri Railway, with Vladivostok, is so important. It runs all the way tMough Russian territory, has embankment for a double track, and wUl probably M time become the mam artery of commuMcation with the old Siberian Railway. It runs some way north of the river Amur, instead of along its valley, so as not to be too near the frontier M case of war (see p. 347). Capacity The Siberian RaUway was rather hurriedly and cheaply built. The ballast was thm, and the raUs were only 54 lb. to the yard. They were afterwards replaced by 72 lb. raUs. A report of October 1915 states that the fine has been relaid with a stUl heavier raU, apparently 80 lb. per yard. The wooden bridges are also said to have been replaced by bridges of steel and' masonry. WhUe the Siberian and TransbaUial Railways were only smgle-track, the number of traMs that could pass each way in a day was 10 J (21 in aU on the lme) on the Siberian Railway, 1\ on the Transbaikal. During the Russo-Japanese War the Transbaikal Railway is said to have been worked to take 12 trains a day each way. THE SIBERIAN RAILWAY 343 Effect of Double-tracking The doubling of the track between Omsk and Kafimskaya (with the exception of the part round Lake Baikal) and the strengthenMg of the IMe in the mountaM sections permit 34 traMs now to proceed M either direction. The through lines at the stations can take 60 trucks. The bridges were buUt for a single hne, and many of them have yet to be adapted for a double line, even in the part where the fine is already doubled. General Description The name Siberian was originally applied to the railway from Samara" to Irkutsk. From Irkutsk to Manchuria was known as the Transbaikal RaUway, in the days when Lake Baikal formed a huge gap in the line, traversed by a train- ferry from Baikal Station to Misovaya. To this was added the Circumbaikal Railway, completed during the Russo- Japanese War in 1905. On the Siberian Railway the old line from Yekaterinburg joins the Moscow-Samara fine. Chelyabinsk to Ob. — From Chelyabinsk to the River Ob, the line passes tMough a fertile, black-earth country, very good for agricMture, especially in the Ishim and the Baraba steppes. The oMy difficMties are the Rivers Tobol, Ishim, Irtish, and Ob. The country is studded with clumps of dwarf elms and wiUows, which are only good for foewood. The population is agricultural and pastoral. As far as Chufim (802 miles from Chelyabinsk) the greatest grade is 1 in 165, the curves 1,750 ft. ; from Chufim to Ob the grade is 1 in 135, the curves 1,750 ft. Ob to Irkutsk.— From the Ob to Irkutsk, the line goes through hiUy country, with some large rivers, the Tom, Yaya, Kiya, Chulim, Yenisei. There are a number of smaller rivers to be crossed, and, as the vaUeys are fairly close together, the maximum grade is frequently reached. The country is thickly wooded, and there are very few clearings. After Achinsk the country becomes mountainous. At the Mgher elevations the forests consist of giant comfers. Forests are traversed for 200 miles in long stretches of 25 to 45 miles without a break, 344 RAILWAYS The population consists maiMy of settlers along the postal road from Tomsk to Irkutsk. A great deal of earthwork had to be used in the construction of this part of the railway, and in many places the embankment reaches 19 or 20 ft. in height. From Ob to Achinsk the grades are 1 in 111 and 1 in 125, the minimum curve 1,750 ft. From Achinsk to Kansk, the grade is 1 in 66-6, mimmum curve 1,050 ft. ; from Kansk to Nizhne-Udinsk, 1 in 57, and 1,050 ft. ; from Nizhne-Udinsk to Zima, 1 in 91, and 1,050 ft. ; from Zima to Polovinnaya, 1 in 57, and 1,050 ft. ; from Polovinnaya to Irkutsk, 1 in 111, and 1,050 ft. Since these figures were obtained in 1908, the track has been doubled from Omsk to Kariinskaya, and oppor tunity was probably taken to ease the grades and to widen the curves in many places. Indeed, the Transbaikal sections, which in 1907 were stated to be the weakest links of the rail way, are now, since the doubling of most of the track, spoken of as the best portion of the whole line. From Marimsk to Irkutsk, the railway follows the Great Siberian Post Road more or less closely. Only between Krasnoyarsk and Kansk is it distant between 18 and 19 miles, owMg to topographical difficulties. Transbaikal. — The Transbaikal Railway presented great difficulties in construction. After leaving Irkutsk the line foUows the left bank of the Angara to the shore of Lake Baikal. In this section retaining waUs were necessary to protect the toe of the embankments from the action of the river, which has a speed of 7 ft. per second. The Cireumbaikal section starts from Baikal station, and for 52£ miles, to Kultuk, foUows the sinuous and rocky southern shore of the lake. The banks of the lake are 900 to 1,300 ft. above the water-level. It is in this section that tunnels are first found on the Siberian Railway. Between Baikal and KMtuk there are 40 tunnels, with a total length of nearly 4£ mUes. Between Kultuk and Misovaya the line has to take the slopes of the ShamansM Spur (at 96| miles from Irkutsk), the slopes of the Khamar-Dabansk (at 100£ miles) ; at lOlf miles it penetrates the spur of the Kerkidal. From 115 miles to 125 J the line THE SIBERIAN RAILWAY 345 leaves the lake. From 173 miles it follows a plain until Cape Malmovskaya is reached at 176J mUes. The country is almost unmhabited, and the soil nearly always frozen. Besides the tunnels, there are many cuttings in the hard rock ; the deepest cutting is said to be 74 ft. On the Circum- baikal portion of the fine the grade is 1 in 125, with mMimum curve of 1,050 ft. After Misovaya the IMe loses its mountaMous character, till it ascends the Tsagan-Da Range at 372 miles from Irkutsk. The vaUey of the River KMlok is weU cultivated. At 609 mUes the line takes the summit of the Yablonoi Range, at about 3,137 ft. above sea-level. In descendMg the line falls 1 M 57, witfi curves of 1,050 ft., for a distance of 8 mUes. Tfie valley of tlie Ingoda presented great difficulties, as it is wMdMg and tlie mountams are steep and come so close as to leave only a small strip free, which is often overflowed. The IMe foUows the left bank of the Ingoda, and it is only m a few places that the embankment can be said to have sufficient room. The upper Shilka valley is just as bad, with rocky slopes to be crossed, some as much as 6 miles broad. Along the Transbaikal line there is plenty of stone and timber (Siberian larches, pine, M). The grades and curves are as foUows : from Irkutsk to Baikal, 1 in 1,075 on curves of 1,260 ft., and 1 in 143 on curves of 1,050 ft. ; from Misovaya to Karimskaya, 1 in 107-5 on straights, 1 in 143 on curves of 1,050 ft., with the foUowing exceptions : at about 372 miles from Irkutsk, and again at about 609 miles, the grade is 1 in 57 on straights, and 1 in 66 on 1,050 ft. curves ; at Karimskaya for 13J miles the grades are 1 in 66. From Karimskaya to Manchuria the grade is 1 in 106 on straights, 1 in 143 on minimum curves of 1,050 ft., except that for 19J miles near Buryatskaya (743 miles from Irkutsk) and 5£ miles near Borzya (at 864 \ miles) there are grades of 1 in 57 on straights and 1 in 66 on minimum curves of 840 ft. The watering of trains is difficult on the Transbaikal Rail way. The ground is permanently frozen ; even in summer,' 346 RAILWAYS although the soil is thawed for 3 to 10 ft., the ground beneath remains frozen to a depth of 120 ft. Water-pipes therefore cannot be buried below frost-level, in order to prevent them from freezmg. On the Transbaikal RaUway the suction and delivery pipes were placed in galleries, warmed by steam or hot water or hot air. Steam is only used for warming short lengths of suction-pipe. The delivery pipes, for distances up to 800 ft., are warmed by warm water in circulating pipes ; for lengths of more than 800 ft., air calorifers are used, about 800 ft. apart, with ventilating pipes specially heated, to cause the air to circulate. These galleries are usually buUt below the ground level, or if built above the ground, are banked m. In winter, the rivers are frozen solid, except the Selenga, Uda, Chita, Argun, and Onon. Across the River KMlok, at 484 miles from Irkutsk, a dam has been bmlt ; the shfices are closed at the commencement of the frost, and thus a large pond of solid ice is formed. The ice is then cut away in blocks, and thawed by steam in a tank. Water is obtained in tMs way from December to the middle of March. Manchurian Sections. — After crossmg the Manchurian border near Manchuria station, the line runs tMough a flat steppe district, as far as the Great KMngan Mountains, the slopes of which it takes near Myandukhe at 1,1 33£ mUes from Irkutsk (189 miles from Manchuria). The slopes of the Great KMngan are richly wooded. The summit of the pass is penetrated by a tunnel at 1,176 miles, at a height of 3,355 ft. above sea-level. The tunnel, which is 3,383 J yds. long, is cut tMough sandstone, not bricked, and is very wet. There is an old deviation, used when the tunnel was being bmlt, 12J miles long, with steep gradients. After Barim, at 1,229 miles from Irkutsk, the steppe country begins again and is more fertile than the country to the west of the mountains. From Tsitsihar to KharbM, the line passes over a plateau without trees and almost without inhabitants. After Kharbin, which is M a marshy district, the line goes through mountainous country all the way to Vladivostok. There are three tunnels about 1,761 miles from Irkutsk. At Pogranichnaya is the terminus THE SIBERIAN RAILWAY 347 of the Chinese Eastern Railway. Between this station and Grodekovo on the Ussuri Railway there are six tunnels. Before reacMng Vladivostok there is a deep cutting. Be tween the stations of Eaparisov, 36 miles from Vladivostok, and Nadezhdinskaya, 28 miles, the permanent way is to be changed and a tunnel 2,450 ft. cut. From Nikolsk-Ussuriski to Vladivostok the line is1 double. The grades on the Chinese Eastern Railway are in the MU sections 1 in 57 on straights and 1 in 66 on curves. The curves are 1,400 ft., with a few of 840. On the plain, the maximum grade is 1 in 125, compen sated to 1 in 165 on curves 2,100 ft. By the treaty of Ports mouth (1905) tMs line may not be used for mifitary purposes* In 1939 China has the right of buying it. It was reported in 1901 that Russians had begun the construction of a secret standard gauge railway from the CMnese Eastern Railway, about 70 miles west of Khailar, southward tMough Manchuria. The railway was said to have been Mult for about 300 miles by 1902. TMs statement was proved to be untrue. The report possibly originated in a line to some quarry laid during the construction of the Chinese Eastern Railway. The Amur Railway The Amur Railway consists of a portion of the old Karim- skaya-Stryetensk IMe, as far as Kuenga, to which point it follows, first the Ingoda valley, and then the Shilka, wMch is formed by the confluence of the rivers Ingoda and Onon, near the station of Onon. The Shilka, like the Ingoda, is winding, with steep banks. The IMe follows its left bank along a ledge hewn out of the rock. At Kuenga the line branches north up the right bank of the River Kuenga (which it crosses near Ukurei), and then north-east. It goes through a Mlly and wooded country, little peopled, more or less parallel to the SMlka valley at distances from it varymg from 16 to 80 mUes as the crow flies and out of artillery range from the CMnese side of the Amur. There is a bad road -along the north bank of the SMlka, and a road is being made along the 348 RAILWAYS railway. The embankments and bridge supports are bmlt for two tracks although the present line is single. It is said to be capable of taMng nine trains a day each way with ease, to have few tunnels, and that normally the maximum grade provided for is 1 M 100 with minimum curves of 1,050 ft. On the spurs of the Great Khingan and Lagar-Aul the grade is 1 M 71 with curves of 820 ft. The head-quarters of the Amur Railway are at Aleksyeevsk on the River Zeya. All the artificial work in connexion with the lme is to be of a permanent nature ; the weight of the rails is 22 lb. per runnMg foot. The perma nent way is badly laid, and floods have done the fine great damage, so that by the middle of 1917 it was being used comparatively little. The Amur Railway is a reversion to the origMal course projected for the railway to the PacMc, and it has been necessary to return to the adoption of this course now that the Manchurian Railway is no longer under Russian control smce the war with Japan. The construction of the first section (Kuenga to Uryum, 122 mUes) was begun M 1908, and con tinued through the next two years, traffic bemg partiaUy started M the wMter of 1910. In 1912 two passenger trams ran in this section every 24 hours. The next section from Uryum to Kerak (398 miles) was commenced in 1910, the third section from Kerak to the River Diya near the Bureya (435 miles) in the spring of 1911, the last section to Kha barovsk (302 miles) M the spring of 1912. The central portion was completed in 1914, and the whole, McludMg the great bridge over the Amur, the longest in Russia, in 1916. The work was to be done exclusively by white labour with no help from the yellow races. The workmen were to be maiMy reservists who it was hoped woMd, on the completion of the line, form military colonies in the Amur and Primorsk terri tories. The difficMties in construction were greater than in any portion of the Siberian RaUway. The lme ran tMough an almost uninhabited district, to which roads had to be made, and the difficulties of water supply were enormous, because the rivers froze in winter, .and such supply as there THE AMUR RAILWAY 349 was could only be procured by excavating to sources below the river-bed which did not freeze. The marsMness of the ground M the central section added to the difficulty. Many parts of the route were only to be traversed on horseback or on foot, and during the thaw and in the rainy season from June to August were entirely Maccessible. The country opened up by tMs railway is being rapidly populated : big villages are growmg up where the line crosses the Zeya and the Bureya, the village of Surazhevka havMg been made already mto the town of Aleksyeevsk. The western part of the fine abounds m gold and there are coal deposits on the lower reaches of the Bureya. It is ascertained that 300,000 coloMsts can be suitably settled in the district east of the Zeya ; twenty industrial settlements are growmg up along the lme, and a successful future for the timber Mdustry is anticipated. The Ussuri Railway At Khabarovsk the Amur Railway joms the Ussuri RaUway. The lme follows the right bamk of the Ussuri River, crossmg frequent tributaries and high watersheds formed by the out- spurs of the Sikhota AIM Range. Beyond Kruglikov the country becomes fiat and marshy agaM, and then the line passes through virgM forest of gigantic cedar and larch, MtertwMed with wUd vMes and creepers. At Gedik the Mghest poMt on the line is reached, 445 ft. above sea-level. To Muravievo-Amurskaya the IMe continues to follow the right bank of the Ussuri, of which the left bank belongs to Manchuria. The country is hilly and wooded. The fine is from 2 to 26 \ mUes from the river. After crossing the Ussuri, the IMe enters the swampy Prikhankoisk basM along Lake Khanka, after wMch it crosses the watershed between the Lefu and Suifun Rivers. At Nikolsk-UssurisH the line joms the maM raUroad to Vladivostok. The double track between these two places is now completed. The grades are as follows : for the first 228 miles from Khabarovsk (i. e. to 2 mUes before Ussuri), 1 in 100 M curves up to 3,500 ft., and 1 in 125 in 350 RAILWAYS curves of 2,100 ft. ; from there to Nikolsk-UssurisM the grade is 1 M 125 in 2,100 ft. curves. The Altai Railway The railway from Novo-Nikolaevsk to Barnaul and Semi palatinsk was opened in November 1915. It opens up an important miMng district, and the advisability of con structing such a line was demonstrated by the fact that from its opening the number of passengers was much larger than the builders anticipated. The IMe could not carry all the passengers, and many were compelled to wait several days. Daily traMs with cars of 3 classes were running regu larly, the cars beMg new and comfortable. When the fine was Mst used the station-bmldings were unfinished, and a dining-room oMy was opened m BarnaM. A branch IMe runs from Altaiskaya to Biisk. Other Siberian Railways Three other important branches from the maM line of the Siberian Railway have recently been opened. From Tatarskaya, 105 mUes east of Omsk, a IMe goes south east Mto the KulundMsk steppes to Slavgorod. It was bmlt by private enterprise. The whole region it traverses was practically umnhabited in 1907 but by 1912 was beMg rapidly settled by emigrants. It is proposed to extend this lme to Semipalatinsk, and to fink Slavgorod to Pavlodar on the River Irtish, and to Barnaul on the River Ob and the Altai Railway. From Yurga, 385 mUes west of Krasnoyarsk, there is a short IMe, via KolchugMo, built by private enterprise to tap the coal-fields lying north of Kuznetsk, wMch town is the terminus of the railway. The Mmusmsk lme leaves the Siberian RaUway at Achmsk and extends through hilly country to MMusMsk on the River Yenisei. It passes through a fertile region with considerable coal and iron resources. Three short raUways bmlt for miMng purposes are not con nected with the main Siberian Railway. One is between the OTHER SIBERIAN RAILWAYS 351 coal mines of Ekibas-tusc and the River Irtish. It is 70 mUes long and is of standard gauge. A second is from the zinc mines of RidersM to Ust-Kamenogorsk. It is 70 miles long and has a 3 ft. gauge. The last runs from Bodaibo to the Vitim, a distance of 15 miles. It is narrow gauge. The Murman Railway The total cost of construction is estimated at £2,200,000. From Zvanka, 76 miles from Petrograd, a line has been constructed by the Olonets Railway for 176£ mUes to Petro zavodsk. This has been bmlt with French capital but taken over by the Russian Government. From Petrozavodsk to Murmansk the line is divided into 3 sections : (1) from Petro zavodsk to Soroka where the IMe reaches the White Sea, opened in 1915, (2) from Soroka to Kandalaksha, opened in 1917, (3) from Kandalaksha to Murmansk, opened m 1916. The last section was constructed by British engineers. Traffic had started on the third section before the middle section was completed, but, wMle it was being made, traffic was taken from Kandalaksha to Kem or Soroka by sea. " The whole railway is of Russian standard gauge and is the property of the Russian Government. The line is single and there are passing sidings every 10-12 miles. The line wiU afford oppor tunities for exploiting timber and wood-pulp. At present its chief importance is strategic. Between Petrozavodsk and Kem the line traverses wild and almost uninhabited country, full of forests and lakes. From Kem to Kandalaksha it passes through a succession of small lakes, swamps, and virgin forests. The third section goes across the Kola PenmsMa, wMch is unmhabited but for the coastal strip. This part of the lme, however, was of com paratively easy construction, and the material for it was sMpped direct to Kola. The section between Murmansk and Kem becomes almost unworkable in summer owing to the swampy nature of the country. No great speed can be obtained. The rest of the line is firmer. Russian. American. 21ft. 13 ft. 9 ft. 8 ft. 9 in. 7 ft. 3 in. 7 ft. 9 in. 20 tons 39 tons 352 RAILWAYS Probably six trains a day could pass each way in case of necessity. There are two patterns of trucks, the Russian and the American. Large numbers of the latter are being used. The closed trucks have the following dimensions : Length .... Breadth .... Height .... Carrying capacity Arkhangel-Vologda Railway This IMe was narrow gauge at the outbreak of the war. To cope with the Mcreased traffic via Arkhangel, a third raij for standard-gauge rolling-stock was laid from Arkhangel to Nyandoma (214 miles). Thence to Vologda (180 miles) a standard-gauge line was laid beside the narrow-gauge fine. Later the narrow-gauge IMe between Nyandoma and Vologda was converted to broad gauge, thus givMg a double track on this part of the railway. It was then proposed to double the fine from Arkhangel to Nyandoma. In 1916 the maximum number of trucks that coidd be dealt with in a day from Arkhangel was 475. New and Projected Railways The most important schemes of railway-construction are : (1) The Southern Siberian Railway, wMch is under construc tion, will link up the Altai Railway from its present termmus at Semipalatinsk to Orsk, passMg by AkmolMsk and Atbasar. From Orsk it is to be prolonged to uMte with the Tashkent line at Martuk Station. It is anticipated this line wiU greatly stimulate emigration from the less productive provinces of European Russia into lands where there are miUions of sMtable acres waiting for development, but at present too far from any railway for coloMzation to be possible. (2) The railway already constructed from Poletaevo to Troitsk will be continued to Fedorova and Kustanai in the northern part of the Turgai Province. NEW AND PROJECTED RAILWAYS 353 (3) A line from Petropavlovsk to Kokchetav in the north of the Kirghiz steppe has been mooted. It will be about 100 miles long and will serve the country between the Ishim and the Irtish. (4) A lme was opened on January 11, 1917, from Yekaterin burg by way of Irbit and Turinsk to Saitkovo on the Tavda ; . it is proposed to continue it to Tobolsk. (5) A very important line has been projected from Soroka on the Pomorski coast to the River Ob, a distance of about 1,000 mUes. It was originally mtended to have the terminus at , Arkhangel, but tMs idea seems to have been given up in favour of a termMus at Soroka, where a harbour for vessels of larger draught can be constructed. Such a railway is of immense importance M order to bring about the commercial success of the Murman Railway. The route presents no great difficulties of construction, and would not entail the climatic difficulties that attended the construction of the Murman Railway. In 1916 both routes (to Arkhangel and to Soroka) were being surveyed. The line, as originally proposed, was to run from Arkhangel to Pinega and then through the Ukhta district, and over the Pechora River at Troitsko- Pechorskoe to a landing-stage on the River Ob near Chema- shevskoe (63° N. lat.). There is to be a branch on the east side of the Urals to the Nadezhdinski works on the Bogoslovski Railway linMng up with Yekaterinburg. It is anticipated that the cost will be £10,032,000 ; it is estimated that the annual goods traffic over the line will be from 30 to 45 mUlion cwt. The objects of the line are to develop the forest regions of northern Russia, , to stimulate the mining of the northern Urals, and to provide Siberia with an important outlet for its trade. The length of the line will be about 1,000 miles. Another proposal, which has more to recommend it, is to extend the Vyatka-Kotlas line north-west to meet the Murman Railway at Soroka on the White Sea. (6) Closely related to these schemes is the project for the so-called Arctic Railway from Obdorsk, or some place on. the River Ob near by, across the Ural Mountains to a pprt in the SIEBBii I Z 354 RAILWAYS eastern Barents Sea. This would obviate the difficult passage of the Kara Sea and make a good outlet for the trade of Siberia. The Urals afford fairly easy passes for such a railway. The former proposal for a port on the Gulf of Baidaratskaya has been abandoned in favour of a port near the mouth of the River Pechora, possibly near the entrance to Khaipudir- skaya Bay. The length of the line wiU be about 300 miles. Narrow gauge is proposed. The cost, exclusive of harbour works, is estimated at about £2,250,000. (7) Other proposals are a line from AcMnsk to Yeniseisk, a trunk line from Tyumen to Tomsk, crossmg the River Irtish at Tara, and a line north to Tara from the existing railway fines. Early in 1917 it was decided to accelerate the construc tion of a line from Yaroslav in European Russia by way of Kostroma, Krasnoufimsk, Ufalei, and Ishim to Tomsk. (8) It is proposed to connect the gold-minmg district of the Lena with the Siberian Railway by a IMe from Tulun which will reach the Lena valley at Ust-Kutskoe (94 miles). The inhabitants of Irkutsk are anxious that the lme should go from Irkutsk via Zhigalovskaya and for this reason are agitatmg to improve the river-bed between Ust-Kutskoe and Zhigalovskaya. It is further proposed to carry the IMe on to Bodaibo on the Vitim via Kunerma, the distance bemg 1,000 miles from Tulun. (9) There is talk of a railway either from Misovaya or from Verkhne-Udmsk to Kyakhta in order to bring the Mongolian markets into connexion with the main Siberian IMe. This railway is to be constructed at government expense, and had been approved by the Council of MiMsters M 1913. It is understood that it was arranged M 1915 to extend tMs lme to Urga, because the fall of Tsingtau and the expulsion of German trade from nearly all the far east has given Russia great opportunities of acquiring fresh markets in CMna. (10) An agreement was signed on March 27, 1916 for a new railway to be constructed connecting the Chinese Eastern Railway at Tsitsihar with Aigun on the Amur, and continuing a few mijes along that river so as to be opposite Blagovyesh- NEW AND PROJECTED RAILWAYS 355 chensk. A branch lme will run from Mergen about halfway along this route to KharbM, wMch will increase the agricul tural importance of tMs district ; farther north timber and miMng are more important Mdustries. The length of these lines will be about 650 miles M all. (11) A short lme is projected from de Castries Bay to Sofiisk on the lower Amur. (12) A line was strongly advocated by the late Governor- General of the Priamur to fink the Ussuri Railway with Olgi Bay and Imperatorskaya Harbour, which would be of great service for the export of timber. (14) AccordMg to the Russian press the committee under the chairmanship of the Assistant MMister of Ways and Com- mumcations Mcluded M the estimates of 1917 the execution of an economical and technical survey df the railroad from Aleksyeevsk to Nikolaevsk on the Amur. Z2 CHAPTER XVIII HISTORICAL NOTES i Prehistoric Races — Early Relations with Russia — The Early Conquerors — Attempts to conquer the Amur Region — The Treaty of Aigun — The Peking Convention — Russia and Japan — Russian Advance in Mongolia. In preMstoric times Siberia, especially in the south-west, was far more densely populated than it is at present. Neo- litMc remains are numerous. Many peoples have doubtless been driven into the inhospitable north before successive waves of emigration. Prehistoric Races In the Yenisei valley and tMoughout the south-west of Siberia there are found a number of tumMi contaimng the remains of a Mghly-developed bronze civilization, when gold and silver were also largely worked. These are generaUy thought to belong to a primitive Yeniseian race. In the third century the Uigurs, a Turkic stock, are said to have overrun the country during the time of the wanderings of the Huns, and the resulting people are generally known as Ugro-Samoyedes. They built tumMi over their dead, wMch they adorned with monoliths. These were sometimes simple pillars, but were more often carved into human likenesses, many of them with astomsMngly realistic features. These monoliths occur throughout south-western Siberia, but are most common in the Minusinsk district, where they invariably face north and south. Iron and bronze implements are found in large numbers in the tombs, but gold and silver are rare. The Ugro-Samoyedes were great agricMturists, irrigating 1 These notes are not carried beyond 1916 and so do not include the Russian Revolution of 1917. PREHISTORIC RACES 357 wide tracts of land. Modern settlers not infrequently open up and use their canals to-day. Eight centuries later these Ugro-Samoyedes were subdued by another TurMc stock, also MgMy civilized, wMch maintained its power till- the Mongols under Jenghiz Khan swept over the land and utterly destroyed its civilization. Early Relations with Russia By the end of the eleventh century the energetic merchants of Novgorod had penetrated into Siberia, or Ugra, as it was then caUed, as far as the present government of Tobolsk. In the fourteenth century they even established settlements on the Taz. These flourished until the Russian Government closed the Kara Sea. Not only Russian, but Dutch and Eng lish merchants, and even Russian emigrants, used the Kara Sea route at this time until embargoes were placed upon it. But in 1662 the Ostyaks destroyed the rapidly-decaying settlements on the Taz. These men of Novgorod were mere fur-traders, with no idea of conquest. But meanwhile the people of Moscow were systematically advancing towards the Urals, and during the sixteenth century began to enter into close relations with the tribes on the other side. Tartar hordes had recently brought them into some Mnd of subjection. In 1555 Ediger Khan, who had united the small Tartar principalities into a Mngdom, consented to pay a tribute of 1,000 sables to Moscow in return for a protection wMch the Tsar was in capable of affording, though he welcomed the tribute. The Cossacks ' The conquest of Siberia was the work of the Cossacks. These are not, as is generally supposed, a body of irregMar horse, but a section of the Russian people with special duties and special privileges. Thus in 1851 Count Muraviev con verted the Nerchinsk peasants into Cossacks. The Cossack unit is the stanitsa or village . They hold their land in common and have the right to let it. They are liable to military 358 HISTORICAL NOTES service between the ages of 18 and 48. They receive a money- allowance from the Government, wMch also supplies them with arms, but they must provide their own equipment and their own horses, if mounted. Large stretches of land are reserved for them, usually on the frontiers. They are divided into sotnyas, each of which mannages its own affairs. The Early Conquerors Yermak, the first conqueror of Siberia, was a tracker on the Volga, then a pirate on that river among the Don Cossacks, till his success attracted the dangerous attention of the authorities. He fled to the Stroganovs, the great merchant family of Perm. They had long coveted the rich furs of Ugra and were only too glad to make use of Yermak to satisfy their ambitions. They provided Mm and Ms 800 men with everytMng they required for their expedition, including three priests and a runaway monk. In 1580 Yermak reached the Tura, wintering where Tyumen now stands, and in the following year he took the famous fort of Isker, or Sibir, near Tobolsk, froin wMch the name of Siberia is sometimes derived. Ivan the Terrible rewarded him with a free pardon for his early misdeeds. By 1584, when he was drowned in the Irtish, Yermak's conquests extended from the confluence of the Ob and the Irtish to the Tagil and the Tura, and he had secured them by forts at Tyumen and Tobolsk. The romantic story of the conquest of Siberia recaUs that of Mexico or Peru. It was made possible only by the help lessness of the natives in the face of firearms. Yermak's success shook the cohesion of the Tartar power, and his conquests therefore survived Ms death. A stockaded ostrog,s garrisoned by a few Cossacks with a gun or two, could hold down an enormous expanse of country in the wild northern regions. But the Cossacks were as yet unable to overthrow the stronger barbarian orgamzations of the south. Hence they followed the line of least resistance towards the east and the north. Thus Berezov was founded in 1593, 11 years before Tomsk. Furs were to the Cossacks what sold was to THE EARLY CONQUERORS 359 the Spamards, and these were still to be found iii plenty in the sparsely inhabited districts into which they penetrated. Moreover, the Cossacks were born sailors. We find Yermak for instance, damnfing a stream with sails in order to secure sufficient water for his boats. Their natural method of progress was to sail down one river, haul their boats over the portage, and then sail down another. And none of the principal rivers of Siberia runs south. Yeniseisk was founded in 1618, and 12 years later the Lena was reached. The Yakutsk ostrog dates from 1637. Ostrogs were also estab fished at Tomsk, Turukhansk, Olekminsk, Irkutsk, and other places. The conquerors met with little effective resistance from the scanty population, though the Tungus were only subdued, after a desperate struggle about 1623. Access to the Pacific Ocean As there are no tributaries connecting the Lena with other great eastern rivers by easy portages, the Cossack Buse, who was sent to collect tribute from the northern tribes, sailed down the Lena in 1638 and out at its western arm to the Olenek and the Yana. In 1639 he discovered the Indigirka. The hardships endured by the Cossacks on these expeditions in the unknown Arctic Ocean were often terrible, and, unlike Yermak, they soon began to treat the natives with the utmost cruelty. In 1644 Nizhne-Kolimsk was founded on the Kolima. Four years later the Cossack Dezhnev, after whom the Russians have justly re-named East Cape Cape Dezhneva, made his wonderful voyage round the coast to the Anadir, saifing through the Bering Straits 80 years before Bering rc-discovcred them. On the Anadir he was joined by other Cossacks, who had come from the Kolima by land along the Anyui and over the watershed. The Okhotsk ostrog was built in 1647, m spite of the fierce resist ance of tlie Buryats. By 1697 Kamchatka was explored to Cape Lopatka and an ostrog bmlt at Verkhne-Kamchatsk. But there were serious mutinies and quarrels among the 360 HISTORICAL NOTES Cossacks and their leaders in this remote district, which was highly prized on account of its wealth in furs. Attempts to Conquer the Amur Region In 1643 Poyarkov started up the Aldan and then sailed down the Zeya and the Amur to its mouth, returning by the Sea of Okhotsk to the mouth of the Ulya, then back to Yakutsk by the Maya. His name is commemorated in Poyarkova on the Amur. TMs remarkable voyage lasted three years. We now meet with the second great name among the Siberian conquerors, Khabarov, the merchant of Olekmmsk, who occupied a position on the Lena not unlike that of the Stroganovs at Perm. In 1649-50 he fitted out an expedition to the Amur, taking the much shorter route along the Olekma. He seized Albazin, then sailed down the Amur and wintered at the place which now bears Ms name, Khabarovsk, where he successfully resisted the attacks of large CMnese forces. Compelled to retreat, he estabfished a post at the mouth of the Zeya. The fact that he instinctively selected Albazin, Blagovyeshchensk, or Ust-Zeya as it was then called, and Khabarovsk for Ms posts — all places which have since proved to be of primary importance in the history of the river — is a strUdng proof of his foresight. He also insisted from the first that at least 6,000 men were necessary for the conquest of the Amur, and he would probably have succeeded in the enterprise, had they been forthcoming. But such an army could not have been raised or even supported in Siberia at this time. MeanwMle the Russians were advancing in the Transbaikal, the natural base for an attack on the Amur. In 1649 Verkhne- Ucfinsk was founded, and by 1654 Nerchinsk, on the other side of the watershed. Then Beketov, after whom Beketova ori the Amur is named, pushed along the Ingoda and the SMlka till he reached the Amur proper, thus discovering the quickest way to the river. The Cossacks still maMtained their hold, but the Chinese, exasperated by their raids along ATTEMPTS TO CONQUER THE AMUR REGION 361 the Ussuri into the heart of Manchuria, were determined to drive them out, at all costs. In 1655 they failed to take Kumarskaya with an enormous army, and for a time Russian prospects looked brighter. But even Tolbuzin's heroic defence of Albazin in 1684 and 1685 was unavailing. His name is preserved in Tolbuzina, close to Albazin, on the Amur. The numbers of the Cossacks were inadequate for their task, and Russia, weakened by internal troubles, ended by ceding the Amur to CMna by the Treaty of NercMnsk (1689). The eighteenth century was marked by the beginning of the scientific exploration and orgamzed settlement of Siberia. Numerous expeditions were sent to subdue the tribes of the north-east, notably the Chukchee, but they were never more than partially successful. Muraviev and the Amur As time went on Russia felt more and more the disadvantage under which she laboured in not having a suitable outlet on the Pacific. Her occupation of the Amur was due almost entirely to the energy of Count Muraviev-Amurski, the third great name in the history of Siberia. In 1849 he sent Ncvel- ski, who has given an alternative name to the Gulf of Tartary, to explore the mouth of the river. He thus learnt that Sakhalin was an island and that the river-mouth was access ible to sea-going sMps. In 1850 Nevelski established a port at Nikolaevsk in defiance of all rights. Two years later de Castries Bay and Mariinsk were occupied, while posts were estabfished on Sakhalin. Buse and Korsakov, after whom settlements on the Amur have been named, also played an active part in these proceedings. But Russia owes her hold on the Amur to the Crimean War, in the course of wMch a strong force of French and British seamen was defeated by a handful of Cossacks in an attempt to take Petropavlovsk in Kamchatka. Not till 1854 did the Tsar consent to an expedition' down the Amur under Muraviev. In the following year a large flotilla was sent, bringing 362 HISTORICAL NOTES much-needed assistance to the Russian Pacific squadron. The settlement of peasants along the left bank was begun in 1856 with coloMes at the mouths of the Kumara, the Zeya and the Sungari and at the entrance to the Little KMngan gorge ; and the process was steadily continued. The Treaty oe Aigun China, wMch had never attempted to occupy the left bank of the Amur, accepted the inevitable, and by the Treaty of Aigun, in 1858, ceded to Russia aU territory on the left bank of the Amur from the Argun to the sea. The territory on the right bank of the Amur from the Argun to the Ussuri went to China. The territory between the Ussuri and the sea was to remain neutral ground between the two empires, pending a delimitation of the frontiers. The Amur, Sungari and Ussuri were to be open to the navigation of Russian and CMnese vessels, but closed to the vessels of other countries. The Peking Convention The Peking Convention of 1860 defined the boundary be tween Russia and Manchuria as following the Argun, Amur, and Ussuri, and Sungacha, to Lake Khanka. From the source of the Sungacha the boundary crosses Lake Khanka to the mouth of the Pai-ling and thence follows a fine des cribed in the Convention (Chinese text) as foUows : ' From the mouth of the Pai-ling River along a mountain range to the mouth of the Hu-pu-tu River, and from the mouth of the Hu ¦ pu-tu River down the Hunchun River and along the range of mountains between that river and the sea to the mouth of the Tumen River.' ' The frontier meets the Tumen River at about 20 li (6 miles) from its mouth.' (On all Russian maps the frontier follows the Hu-pu-tu River (Khubtu) throughout its course, and goes along the mountain range between the Hun-chun River and the sea until it meets the River Tumen.) Russian Ports on the Pacific Before the days of Muraviev Okhotsk had been the Russian military and naval port on the Pacific, but in 1850, deceived THE PEKING CONVENTION 363 by the beauties of Avacha Bay in Kamchatka in summer, the Governor General had made it the head-quarters of the Pacific squadron. Ten years later the squadron was trans ferred to Nikolaevsk. Russia was now in possession of Vladivostok, but she did not make it her naval base till 1872, since when its growth has been very rapid. The Fifty- Verst Zone The Convention of Peking stipulated that there should be free trade between the two empires along the new frontiers. An agreement extending over a period of 30 years, wMch was confirmed in Petrograd in 1881, established a 50-verst zone along the entire frontier within wMch no customs dues were to be collected. In practice tMs meant that CMnese goods were admitted duty-free into Siberia along the Amur, though' Russian merchants also did a considerable trade with CMna further west. Russia denounced the agreement on its expiration on January 1, 1912. •> Russia and Japan Manchuria and the Russo-Japanese War Russia began her Manchurian adventure with the agree ment between the CMnese Government and the Russo- CMnese Bank in 1896. This brought into being the CMnese Eastern RaUway Company, wMch was to link the Trans baikal RaUway with the Ussuri Railway at Vladivostok. Shares coMd oMy be held by Russians and CMnese. Russia thus defiMtely abandoned the longer and more difficult route along the Amur through her own territory in favour of the shorter route through Manchuria. The railway company had the right to a strip of territory on each side of the line witMn wMch it exercised absolute control, while KharbM in the Kirin Province was established as the head-quarters of the line. It has now become one of the most important Russian towns in the Far East. Two years later, in 1898, Russia obtained the lease of Port Arthur and Talienwan (Dairen or DaMy) on the Liao- 364 HISTORICAL NOTES tung Peninsula. After the Boxer rising in 1900, when the Chinese were driven into the Amur at Blagovyeshchensk and Aigun was destroyed, the Russians occupied large areas in. Manchuria wMch they declined to surrender. They rapidly extended their influence both in Manchuria and Korea. Then came the Russo-Japanese War, followed by the Treaty of Portsmouth of 1905. Russia recogMzed Japan's paramount influence in Korea, ceded to her all her rights in Port Arthur and Talienwan (Dairen) and the railway between Port Arthur and Changchun and handed over to her the occupied districts in Manchuria, wMch were restored to CMna. Japan was also entitled to fishing-rights in the Japan and Bering Seas and the Sea of Okhotsk. Japan had acquired the Kuril Islands in exchange for the southern portion of Sakhafin by a treaty with Russia in 1875. But the Treaty of Ports mouth again divided the island between the two powers at the line of 50° N. lat. Russia thus abandoned her attempts to become the dominant power in Manchuria, where her authority has rapidly declined, and the CMnese themselves are now steadily settling the province. The construction of the Amur Railway thus became a strategic necessity for Russia. The building of a line from Aigun southward to Tsitsihar, linking the Chinese Eastern and Amur Railways, could only be a question of time, and in 1916 an agreement was concluded between Russia and China by which Russia is to raise a 5 per cent, loan of £5,000,000 after the war for the bmlding of this line. It is to be controlled by Russians nominated by the Russo-Chinese Bank. Russo-Japanese Agreement of 1916 The growing cordiality of the relations between Russia and Japan, wMch resulted in the alliance of 1916, is further exemplified by Russia's agreement to sell Japan the southern half of the Kharbin-Changchun Railway, comprising a section of about 60 miles and including the line from Changchun to the left bank of the Sungari. Japan has never accepted Russia's claim to exclude all RUSSIA AND JAPAN 365 other foreigners from the navigation of the Sungari in accord ance with the Treaty of Aigun, and Russia now recogmzes the right of Japanese shipping to navigate the Sungari between Kirin and Petuna. Russian Advance in Mongolia The establishment of the 50-verst zone in 1881 gave a great stinmlus to Russian peaceful penetration into CMnese territory south of the YeMseisk Government. Several Russian towns, of wMch Turanski is the cMef , have sprung up over the border and Russian settlers are increasing. The natives prefer to resort to the Russian schools and courts, where they are better treated. Similarly the Russian merchants are said not to exploit them to nearly the same extent as the Chinese, who profit by their vices. But the success of the process depends on the tact of the officials. Since the war they are said to have become more autocratic. Hence the natives are growmg discontented and retiring further south. MeanwMle the CMnese are steadily _ colonizing Mongolia. TMs movement, like their immigration into Siberia, is pro bably economic in origin, whatever results it may ultimately bring about. It has, however, caused great dissatisfaction among the nomad Mongols who have also suffered from the CMnese methods of trading. On the overthrow of the Manchu dynasty in 1912 the Mongol chiefs claimed their independence, holding that they owed no allegiance to its successors. A Russo-Mongolian agreement was signed on Oct. 21, 1912, recognizing the autonomy of Mongolia, but it was challenged by CMna, who insisted on her sovereign rights over Mongolia. In 1913 Russia admitted China's claim to suzerainty in Mon golia on condition that Mongolian autonomy was recogMzed. By this agreement Russia secured for herself substantial privileges in that country. The agreement does not appear to have been received with much favour by the Mongols. APPENDIX Weights and Measures I Russian. 1 dolya 1 zolotmk (96 dol.) 1 lot (3 zol.) 1 funt (96 zol.) 1 pud (40 funts) Measures of weight English. 0-68 grains 0-15 oz. av. 0-45 oz. av. 0-902 lb. 0-32 cwt. (36-11 lb. av.) 1 berkovets (10 puds) 3-22 cwt. Metric. 4-44 centigrams 4-26 grams 12-79 grams 0-409 Mlograms 16-38 Mlograms 163-804 kUograms 1 dyuim lfut 1 vershok 1 arshm (16 v.) 1 sazhen (3 ar.) Measures of length lin. lfoot 1-75 in. 2 ft. 4 in. 7 ft. (in liqmd depth 1 fathom) 25-4 millimetres 304-8 miUimetres 4-44 centimetres 0-71 metres 2-13 metres 1 verst (500 sazh.) 3,500 ft., or 0-6628 mile 1-06 Mlometres 1 sq. arshm 1 sq. sazhen 1 desyatin (2,400 sq. sazhens) 1 sq. verst (250,000 sq. sazh.) Measures of area 5-44 sq. ft. 5-44 sq. yd. (49 sq. ft.) 2-7 acres 281-221 acres 4-54 sq. metres 1-09 hectares 113-80 hectares APPENDIX 367 Measures of volume 1 cubic vershok 5-35 c. in. 87-81 c.c. 1 cubic arshin 0-47 c. yd. 0-35 c. metre 1 cubic sazhen 12-70 c. yd. Liquid measures 9-71 c. metres 1 charka 0-21 pints 0-12 litres 1 bottle (5 ch.) 1-08 pints 0-61 litres 1 shtof (10 ch.) 1-08 quarts 1-22 litres 1 vedro (100 ch.) 2-706 gallons 12-29 litres 1 bochka (40 ved.) 108-27 gaUons Dry measures 4-91 hectolitres 1 garnets 2-88 gaUons 3-27 litres 1 chetverik (8 g.) 0-72 bush. 26-23 litres 1 chetvert (8 chk.) " 5-77 bush. II Measures of weight. 2-09 hectolitres English. Russian. 1 oz. 6-64 zolotMks lib. 1-107 funt 1 cwt. - 3-104 puds 1 ton 62-02 puds Measures of length lin. 0-57 vershok 1yd. 0-42 sazh. or 1-28 arsh. 1 mUe 1-508 versts or 754-28 sazh. Measures of area 1 sq. yd. 0-18 sq. sazh. 1 acre 888-97 sq. sazh. or ( 3-37 desyatin 1 sq. mile 2-27 sq. versts or 237-06 desyatins 1 cubic yd. Measures of volume 0-078 cubic sazh. 368 APPENDIX 1 pint I quart 1 gallon Liquid measures 4-61 charka 9-23 charka 0-36 vedro Dry measures 1 gallon 1 bushel 1 quarter 1 chaldron 0-34 garnets 1-38 chetverik 11-08 chetverik 6-23 chetvert It is reported that the Russian Government has decided to introduce the metric system in August 1921 and to proMbit the use of the old system of weights and measures from January 1, 1925. Money The legal unit is the sUver rouble of 100 kopeks. It is treated usually as the eqmvalent of 2s. Id. in our currency, but the exchange is very variable. In tMs book for aU large sums and round numbers 2s.' has been taken as the equivalent ; in official calculations 9-46 roubles are taken as equal to the pound sterling. Gold coins are the imperial and half imperial of 15 and 1\ roubles. New gold coMs are issued bearing the inscription of 10 roubles and 5 roubles. Besides the silver rouble, credit notes (500, 100, 50, 25, 10, 5, 3, and 1 rouble) are legal tender. Paper money of all denominations down to one kopek has been in use since the outbreak of the war. Time Local mean times are used throughout Siberia. Irkutsk time is 6 Ms. 57 min. 15 sec. fast, and Vladivostok time 8 Ms. 47 min. 34-5 sec. fast on Greenwich mean time. Russia in Europe uses Petrograd time, which is that of Pulkova Observatory, 2 Ms. 1 min. 18-7 sec. fast on Greenwich mean time. APPENDIX 369 Calendar The JMian calendar is still in use in Russian lands. It is 13 days beMnd the Gregorian calendar used in other countries, TMoughout this book, uMess old style (O.S.) has been stated, all dates are given in the Gregorian calendar. It was reported in 1918 that the Gregorian calendar was to be adopted throughout Russian lands. SIBERIA I GLOSSARY This glossary contains Russian and other words frequently used in the text, including words, with their usual abbrevia tions, which occur on Russian maps. In the case of adjectives the masculme termmation (-i) is given. The neuter termina tion is generally -oe, and the feminine -aya. Aba, tomb of local hero (KirgMz). Artel, group of workers ; trade union. Aul, encampment. Balagan, hut of wood and thatch. Balog, famUy sledge. Boloto, marsh. Bolshoi, Bob, great. Bor, hill, sometimes pine forest. Brat, brother. Brodyagi, escaped convicts. Byeli, white. Cherni, black. Chernozem, black earth. Chud, primitive inhabitants of Siberia. Chum, Samoyede or Ostyak tent. Dekabrists, those who took part M the plot of Dec. 14, 1825. Derevnya, village without church. Dobrovolni, voluntary followers of exiles. Doroga, road. Drozhki, cab. Dukhobors, sect, ' spiritual fighters.' Duma, council or council chamber. Dur, dying of the water on the Ob, &c, see Vol. II. Chap. V. Fabrika, factory. Forpost, F., military outpost. Gora, G., mountain. Gorbusha, kind of salmon. Gorod, town. Guba, bay. GLOSSARY 371 Gubermya, government. Ispravnik, official in charge of district ; police commissioner Izba, wMter hut. Kamen, rock ; stone, or cliff. Karaul, Kar., picket-station ; guard-house. Kayak, skm boat for one man. Kedr, white cedar or cembra pme. Kereoshka, boat-sledge drawn by reMdeer. Kerka, log-house of Zirians. Keta, kMd of salmon. Khodok, advance agent of emigrarits. Khrebet, mountain range. Kolodnik, convict. Kozha, leather ; a Lapp name for seals. Krasni, red. Kul, lake. Kumis, fermented mare's milk. Kurgan, tumulus ; burial mound. Kuropatka, willow-grouse. Kvas, Mtoxicant made from barley. Lyeto, summer. Mali, Mai., small. Maralnik, farm where maral deer are kept. Mir, village assembly. Mis, cape ; headland. Mogila, Mog., tomb. More, sea. Navaga, kMd of cod. Nizhni, lower. Nos, headland. Novi, new. Nyelma, kind of salmon. Oblast, territory. Ostrog, block-house ; stockade. Ostrova, island. Otrassl, Otr., mining settlement in Urals Ozero, lake. Aa2 372 GLOSSARY Pagost, Lapp settlement. Pereket, Per., sand-bank or bar. Pereval, Per., pass. Perevoz, ferry. Piket, Pik., P., picket station. Pless, straight reaches of a windMg river. Pochtovaya kontora, post-office. Poch. stanitsa, posting station. Pogost, church without village. Pogron, government tax. Polustantsia, intermediate station or stage. Porog, rapid on a river. Posad, Pos., suburb. Povarnya, Povami, post^station on lemote road. Poviet, storeshed. Prist an, Pr., lancfing-place. Proliv, strait. Raskolnik, dissenter. Rasputitsa, season impossible for travel. Razdvoenie, railway .junction or crossmg. Razyezdni puti, railway siding. Ryeka, river. Samovolni, voluntary emigrants. Sast, town dweller of Turkish origm. Selo, village with church. Shar, strait. Sklad, Ski., warehouse or depot. Skoptsi, eunuchs, a fanatical sect. 'Sori, shallow backwater. Sredni, middle. Stanitsa, Stan., station ; Cossack post. Stari, old. Starovyeri, old believers. Svyatoi, holy. Syeverni, north. Taiga, coniferous forest. Tarantass, four-wheeled carriage. GLOSSARY 373 Tarine, freezing to the bottom of certain rivers. Telega, cart. Tolsti, tMck. Trakt, great Siberian road. Treska, cod. Troika, team of horses. Tundra, swampy, treeless Arctic plains. Tupa, wMter dwellMg of Lapps. Uba, tomb of local hero (Kirghiz). Urman, swampy thickets. Urus, YukagMr tent. Uste, Ust-, river mouth. Uyezd, district. Verkhni, upper. Viezha, summer dwelfing of Lapps. Viski, channel between lakes. Volok, isthmus ; portage. Volost, canton or cantonal assembly. Vostok, east. Yamshchik, posting driver. Yar, cliff; bluff. Yarus, great lmes used in fishing. Yassak, tribute. Yug, south. Yurta, Yurt, tent. Zaimishche, Zaim., low ground between river and hills. Zaimka, Z., settlement of one or a few houses. Zaliv, strait. Zamor, the dymg of the waters, see dur. Zapad, west. Zavod, factory. Zemlya, land. Zemstvo, provMcial assembly. Zhelyeznaya doroga, ZheL, railway. Zhelyezoplavilni zavod, ZheL, iron foundry. Zherlo, mouth. Zimia, winter. Zimove, wmter dwellMg. INDEX Abakan R., 40, 272 Abakanskoe, 272 Achinsk, 331, 344, 350, 354 Achinsk district, 239, 251, 256, 311 Administration, 310- 313 Adun-Chelonsk Mt., 290 Agan R., 86 Agriculture, 33, 193- 196, 232-247, 306 Aigun, 354, 364 Aigun, Treaty of, 362 \Ainov I., 308 « Akhatolskaya mines, 288 Akmolinsk, 331, 352 Akmolinsk district, 301 Akmolinsk Province : administration, 309, 310, 312 agriculture, 234, 247, 263 manufactures, 312 population, 200, 201 stock-raising, 248, 252 Aksha district, 241, 312 Albazin, 89, 360 Aldan Mts., 19 Aldan R., 40, 76, 244, 283, 291 Alci R., 296 Aleks- : see also Alex- Aleksandrovskoe, 303 Aleksyeevsk, 235, 240, 348, 349, 355 Aleuts, 128 Alexandrovsk (Kola), 214, 330, 332 Alexandrovsk (Sakha lin): administration, 312 climate, 38 industry, 270 minerals, 292 population, 214 telegraphs, 330 Alexis Mikhailovich, Tsar, 188 Altai Mts. : agriculture, 234, 237 climate, 32 fauna, 52, 54, 56, 57 252 minerals, 275, 284, 285, 296 vegetation, 46, 49, 263 Altai Railway, 350, 352 Altaians, 156-159 Altaiskaya, 350 Amga R., 40, 288 Amgun R„ 54, 272, 275, 283 Amur Bay, 292 Amur Bridge, 348 Amur estuary, 81 Amur goldfields, 282, 283 Amur Govt., 312 Amur Province : administration, 309, 310 agriculture, 239- 242, 246, 247 colonization, 203 mdustry, 265, 270, 299 minerals, 282, 288, 291 stock-raising, 248, 251, 253, 255, 256 Amur Railway, - 335, 342, 347-349, 364 Amur region : climate, 32, 33, 37 fauna, 53, 55, 56, 57, 87, 91 history, 360-362 industries, 265, 266, 269 minerals, 272 vegetation, 47 Amur R., 24 colonization, 26, 208 communications, 330, 333 fisheries, 80-83 freezmg, 40, 41 Anabar R., 41 Anadir Bay, 78 Anadir district, 284, 312 Anadir R., 41 Anaul, 114 Angara district, 86, 286 Angara R., 41, 269, 272, 288 Angara R., Upper, 74, 75 Antimony, 288 Anyui fair, 89 Anzherski mine, 290 Apiculture, 256, 257 Ara Bay, 60 Aral Sea, 32 Arctic Railway, 353 Arctic Russia, 53, 61, 213-215,305-308,332 Argun R., 41, 274, 296 Arkhangel, 30, 35, 332, 353 Arkhangel Govt., 305, 307, 308 Arkhangel Railway, 352 Asbestos, 286 Askold I., 56/284 Atbasar, 207, 274, 331, 352 Atbasar dist., 232, 312 Atbasar R., 39 INDEX 375 Atmospheric pressure, 31 Australia : trade, 267, 268 Avacha Bay, 77 Avakum, 203 Ayaguz R., 39 Ayakhta R., 288 Ayamskoe L., 288 Ayan, 37 Baidaratskaya Gulf, 354 Baikal, 344, 345 Baikal L., 26, 269 climate, 31, 33 communications , 344 fauna, 59 fisheries, 74 minerals, 287, 291, 296 Baikal Mts., 296 Balagansk dist., 251, 311 Baleginsk, 272 Balei R., 41 Balkhash L., 30 Baraba steppe, 27 agriculture, 233 fauna, 54 minerals, 294, 295 vegetation, 49 Barabash, 244 Barents Sea, 354 Barguzin district, 54, 203, 275, 312 Barguzin goldfields, 282 Barguzin R., 41, 74 Barim, 346 Barnaul : administration, 311 agriculture, 235- 237 ' climate, 36 communications, 331, 350 industry, 257, 298, 300-302, 304 trade, 92, 260 Barnaul district, 236, 237, 311 Baron Korfa Gulf, 293 Baruntorei L., 294 Beketov, 360 Beltirs, 153 Berekul mine, 280 Berezov, 30, 330, 358 Berezov district : administration, 311 agriculture, 232 fauna, 86 fisheries, 71 minerals, 289 population, 207 Bering I., 333 Bezpopovists, 190, 204 Big R., 274 Biisk, 331 Biisk district : administration, 311 agriculture, 235, 236, 238 apiculture, 256 fauna, 61 industries, 298, 302 Biliktui R., 41 Birar, 180 Birds, 60-62 Biryusa R., 41 Biya R., 39 Blagodat, 284 Blagoslovennoe, 204 Blagovyeshchensk : administration, 312 agriculture, 240- 243 climate, 38 communications, 319 history, 360, 364 industry, 267, 269, 301 minerals, 276, 283 stock-raising, 251, 252 trade, 89 Bochkarevo, 240 Bodaibo, 276, 281, 282, 330, 351, 354 Bogom -Daro vanni mine, 281 Bogoras, Dr., 190 Bogoslovski, 36, 271, 274, 288 Bogoslovski Railway, 353 Bolshaya Volokovaya Bay, 214 Bolshoi-Patom, 282 Borzinsk L., 294 Borzya, 345 Boshagoch R., 288 Boundaries, 15, 309, 362 Bozhe L., 73 Bratski-Ostrog, 272 British interests in Si beria, 258, 273, 274, 277, 280, 290 Buddhists, 220 Building stone, 295 Bureya, 240 Bureya goldfields, 282, 283 Bureya valley, 267, 275, 291, 349 Burlinskoe L., 294 Burukanskaya, 89 Buryats, 169-172, 226, 317 Buryatskaya, 345 Buse, 359, 361 Byeguni, 219 Byela valley, 256 Byelaya R., 41, 296 Byelokurikha springs, 295 C Cables, 331, 332 Calendar, 369 Camels, 254 Cattle, 250-252 Caucasus Mts., 273, 284 Changchun, 342 Chani L., 67, 72 Chapogir, 178 Charish R., 39, 296 Chelyabinsk, 195, 199, 235, 329, 343 Chemashevskoe, 353 Cheremkhovskoc, 239, 290, 303 Chernozem, 49 Chikoi R., 41, 291 ChimaR., 41 376 INDEX China : trade, 268, 269, 304, 354 Chinese, 208-210, 245, 300, 360-365 Chinese Eastern Rail way, 328, 341, 342, 347, 354, 363 Chinese industries, 304 Chita, 52, 251, 267, 312, 330, 331 Chita district, 203, 295, 312 Chlya L., 275, 284 Chnuirrakh Point, 330 Chodinski, 282 Chuguchak, 331 Chukchee, 96-106, 224, 226 tJhukchee Peninsula, 255, 284 Chukotsk district, 312 Chulim, 343 Chulim R., 39, 71, 250, 291, 343 Chumish R., 286 Chuvanzi, 114 Circumbaikal Railway, 343, 344 Clergy, 217 Climate, 28-43 Climatic regions, 34-38 Coal, 288-293, 307 Coasts, 27 Commander Is., 59, 78, 80, 312, 333 Copper, 273, 274, 307 Cossacks, 187, 200-203, 205, 317, 357-361 Crimean War, 361 Currency, 368 D Dairen, 341, 363, 364 Dairy industry, 257-260 Daurians, 182 ' de Castries Bay, 330, 332, 355, 361 Dekabrists, 202 Denmark : trade, 359, 260, 268 Dep R., 291 Dczhnov, 359 Dezhneva Cape, 287, 333 Dickson I., 333 Diseases, 228-230 Dissenters, 219 Distilling and brewing, 300 Diya R., 348 Dogs, 328, 329 Dolgans, 163 Doroninsk L., 295 Doukhobors, 220 Dudinka, 290 Due, 273, 292, 330 Dvina R., Northern, 25, 66, 307 Dzhigit Bay, 274 Dzhila R., 288 Dzhugdzhur Mts., 49 Dzungarian trench, 20 E Early conquerors, 358 Edige'r Khan, 357 Ekibas-tuse mines, 289, 351 Eri, 59 Eskimo, 106 Exile system, 188, 197 F Factories, 299-304 Fauna, 51-92 Fedorova, 352 Ferries, 325, 326 Finns : in Arctic Russia, 213 in Siberia, 199 Finns, Volga, 137 Fisheries, 62-85 Flora : see Vegetation Fort St. Michael (Alas ka), 333 Fram, 29, 30, 35 Franz Josef Land, 35 Freezing of rivers, 38-43 Frolikha L., 74 Fur, 85-91, 307 (J Game, 91 Gavrilova Bay, 214 Gedik, 349 Germany : trade, 260, 273, 286 Gilui R., 283 Gilyaks, 84, 121-126 Gizhiga Bay, 78, 293 Gizhiga district, 312 Gizhiga R., 41 Glass and china, 302 Goats, 253 Gold, 275-284 Goldi, 184-186 Gondatti, 240 Gondatti, Gov. -Gen., 269 Graphite, 287 Great Britain : trade, 260, 264, 267, 268, 286 Great Khingan Range, 19, 20, 346, 348 Green Harbour (Spits bergen), 332 Grigorevski, 331 Grodekovo, 347 Gurevskoe, 272 Gusinoe L., 291 H Harbin : see Kharbin Hokushu, 332 Horses, 249, 250, 322 Hunghuses, 211 I Ildekanski, 288 Ilga R., 41 Him R., 41 Iman, 333 Iman district, 312 Imandra L., 66 Immigration, 191-196 Imperatorstaya Bay, 85, 268, 355 Indigirka R., 24, 41, 56, 91, 359 Industry, 256, 270, 297- 304, 314 . Ingo (Norway), 332 Ingoda R., 41, 42, 288, 291, 345, 347 Irbit, 87, 88, 253, 353 Irbit fair, 87-89 Irbit R., 39 INDEX 377 Iret R., 296 IrkutR.,42, 269 Irkutsk : administration, 311 agriculture, 239 climate, 36 communications, 330,344,345,354 industry, 269, 298- 304 trade, 89 Irkutsk Province : administration, 309, 311 agriculture, 246, 247 colonization, 201 fauna, 87 industry, 264 minerals, 281, 295, 296 stock-raising, 248, 251, 253-255 Iron, 271-273, 307 Irrigation, 234, 241 Irtish R., 20, 25 agriculture, 237 communications, 330, 331, 343, 351, 354 fisheries, 67, 69 freezing, 39 minerals, 293 vegetation, 46 Iset R., 40, 274 Ishim : administration, 311 climate, 36 communications, 354 industry, 98 trade, 87 Ishim R., 40, 343 Ishim steppe, 32, 49, 54, 233 Ivan the Terrible, 358 Ivory, fossil, 92 Iya R., 42 Japan : interests in Siberia, 79, 364, 365 trade, 78, 84, 268, 269, 304 Japanese, 211, 299 Jews, 220 K Kada L., 27 Kadainski silver-works, 285, 288 Kaibals, 154 Kainsk, 200, 257 Kainsk district, 234, 250, 311 Kalami R., 281 Kalmuks, 156 Kamassins, 154 Kamchadals, 117-121 Kamchatka : administration, 310," 312 climate, 32, 33, 37 colonization, 205 communications, 330, 333 fauna, 53, 54, 56, 255 fisheries, 76-80 history, 359 minerals, 273, 274, 283, 288, 293, 295 population, 208 vegetation, 48 volcanoes, 18 Kamchatka valley, 245, 265 Kamen, 235 Kamishta R., 286 Kampentszyaika R., 294 Kan R., 42, 287 Kandakova, 287 Kandalaksha, 64, 332, 351 Kanin Nos, 332 Kanin Peninsula, 33, 66 Kansk, 195, 311, 344 Kara Sea, 59, 65 Karabas L., 293 Karachi, 235 Karagan R., 286 Karagandinsk mine, 289 Karagassis, 154 Karelians, 131-133 Karimskaya, 344, 345 Karkaralinsk, 207, 272 Karkaralinsk district, 274, 313 Karmakul, 35 Kartisak R., 40 Katun R., 286 Kem, 35, 64, 66, 332, 351 Kerak, 348 Kerbinski, 333 Keret, 64, 305 Kerkidal spur, 344 Khabarov, 187, 360 Khabarovsk : administration, 312 climate, 38 communications, 330, 333, 348, 349 fisheries, 81-83 forestry, 312 history, 360 industry, 302, 303 trade, 252 Khaipudirskaya Bay, 354 Khaita, 302 Khamar-Dabansk Range, 344 Khanka L., 27, 205, 243, 349 Khara-TJlakh R., 42 Khara valley, 256 Kharbin, 240, 241, 329, 346, 355, 363 Kharbin-Changchun Railway, 364 Kharkov, 252 Khatanga R., 42 Khilok R., 42, 291, 345, 346 Khlusti, 220 Kholmogor, 306 Khor R., 42 Kile, 180 Kiparisov, 347 Kiransk L., 295 Kirenga R., 42, 272 Kirensk district, 87, 311 Kirghiz, 160-163 Kirghiz steppes, 27 agriculture, 233 fauna, 52, 57 378 INDEX fisheries, 67 industry, 86, 297 minerals, 272-274, 287-289,293,295, 296 vegetation, 50 Kishtim mines, 284, 288 Kiya R., 40, 343 Kizi L., 27 Klyuchevskaya Mt., 18 Knyaz Bay, 64 Kobdo, 331 Kochenevo, 235 Kokchetav, 207, 232, 312, 353 Kola, 35, 214 Kola Inlet, 214, 305 Kola Peninsula, 24 climate, 35 communications, 332, 351 fauna, 66 minerals, 307, 308 Kolchugino, 290, 350 Kolezhma, 65 Kolguev I., 66 Kolima R„ 24 agriculture, 245 fisheries, 75 freezing, 42 industry, 265 minerals, 274 Kolimsk Mts., 21 Kolivan, 304 Kondinskoe, 330 Kondom R., 71 Konstantinovskaya, 274 Kopal, 331 Korea, 268 Koreans, 204, 210, 212, 300 Korsakov, 361 Koryakov L., 293 Koryaks, 96, 106-113 Kosh-Agach, 331 Kostroma, 354 Kovda, 64 Kozachinskoe, 330 Krasnoufimsk, 354 Krasnovodsk, 331 Krasnoyarsk : administration, 311 climate, 36 communications, 330 industry, 299, 301, 302 minerals, 276, 287 trade, 74, 239 Kruglikov, 349 Kuan-cheng-tsu, 341, 342 Kuenga, 347 Kuenga R., 347 Kukhtui R., 42 Kulachinskoe, 235 Kulcha, 89 Kuldzha, 331 Kultuk, 331, 344 Kuhmdinsk steppes, 350 Kumarskaya, 361 Kunerma, 354 Kurgan": administration, 311 agriculture, 235, 237 climate, 36 industry, 257, 259, 298, 300, 301 Kuril Is., 364 Kustanai, 352 Kustarni industries, 297-299 , Kuta R., 42 Kuznetsk, 298, 350 Kuznetsk district : administration, 311 agriculture, 238 fisheries, 71 industry, 256 minerals, 290 timber, 263 Kyakhta : climate, 37 communications , 20, 354 trade, 89, 301, 314 Kyundyaya R., 294 L Lagar-Aul Mts., 348 ILakos, 26 Lamut, 178 Land tenure, 193-196, 214 Lapps, 128-131, 213 Lazarev Cape, 330, 331 Lead, 285 Lef u valley, 205 Lena R., 24, 25, 265 agriculture, 244 communications, 330, 354 fauna, 56, 58 fisheries, 75 freezing, 42 history, 359 minerals, 272, 274, 275, 290, 291, 295, 354 population, 207 vegetation, 47 Local Government, 314- 318 Lower Tunguska R. : see Angara R. Lozva R„ 286 Lyavozerski, 130 M Malaya-Bistraya valley, 295 Malinovka, 240 Malinovskaya Cape, 345 Mama R., 287 Mammals, 52-60 Manchu, 183, 204 Manchuria, 345-348, 364 Manegir, 179 Manganese, 288 Mangut, 331 Maniza : see Voguls Manses, 204, 209 Manzi : see Manses Manzurskaya, 330 Maps, 13-14 Maral deer, 255 Mare-Sale Cape, 332 Mariinsk, 344, 361 Mariinsk district : administration, 311 agriculture, 234, 238 fisheries, 81 minerals, 280, 286 vegetation, 263 Maritime Province : administration, 310, 312 INDEX 379 agriculture, 239, 240,241,243,246 colonization, 204 fauna, 87 industry, 256, 260, 270, 304 minerals, 273, 274, 283, 291, 292 stock-raising, 251, 255 vegetation, 265, 267, 269 Marka-Kul L., 67 Markovo, 78, 245, 333 Martuk Station, 352 Maya R., 42, 76 Mercury, 288 Mergen, 355 Mezen, Gulf of, 65 Mezen R„ 66, 307 Mica, 287 Minusinsk, 301, 304, 331, 350 Minusinsk district : administration, 311 agriculture, 239, 240 colonization, 201 minerals, 274, 288, 291, 295 stock-raising,- 251, 256 Mir, 315-317 MisbJrina, 235 Misovaya, 344, 354 Misovsk, 272 Miyas district, 280 Mohammedans, 220 Molchalyniki, 220 Molokani, 204, 220 Mongol-Dabanski mines, 286 Mongolia, 365 Mongolian frontier, 287 Mongugai coal-field, 292 Mordvinians, 137 Moscow : trade 82, 88, 250 Motors, 153 Mramorni Point, 273 Mukden, 329 i Muraviev-Amurski, Count, 340, 357, 361 Muravicvo - Amurskaya, 349 Murman coast, 62-64, 213, 307, 332 Murman Railway, 334, 351, 352, 353 Murmansk, 214, 332, 351 Myandukhe, 346 N Nadezhdinskaya, 347 Nadezhdinski works,353 Nagasaki, 331 Nai R., 282 Nakhodka Bay, 304 Narim, 36 , Narim district : colonization, 207 fauna, 61, 254 fisheries, 71 industry, 86 vegetation, 238 Nayakhanskoe, 333 Negda, 180 Neo-Siberians, 95, 222, 225 NerchaR.,42 Nerchinsk : climate, 38 fauna, 54 history, 360 minerals, 286 Nerchinsk district, 241, 272,275,282,285,312 Nerchinsk Range, 296 Nerchinsk, Treaty of, 361 . Nerchinski Zavod, 312 Nevelski, 361 Nevelski district, 310 New Siberia Is., 92 Nicaea, Council of, 218 Nikon, 190, 216 Nikolaevsk : - administration, 310 agriculture, 241 climate, 30, 38 communications, 330, 333, 355 fauna, 52 fisheries, 82, 83 history, 340, 361, ¦ 363 minerals, 276 trade, 89, 266 Nikolaevsk district, 80, 81, 265 Nikolsk-Ussuriski : agriculture, 243,244 communications, 347, 349, 350 industry, 256, 302 trade, 252 Niman R., 283 , Nizhne-Kolimsk, 207, 359 Nizhne-Novgorod, 88, 253 Nizhne-Sharonai, 287 Nizhne-Tagilski, 288 Nizhne-Tambovskoe, 333 Nizhne-Udinsk, 344 Nizhne-Udinsk district, 287, 288, 303, 311 Nome (Alaska), 333 Norwegians, 213 Novaya-Kuka, 291 Novaya Zemlya, 35 Novi-Selenginsk, 37, 294 Novo-Kievskoe, 331 Novo-Mariinsk, 333 Novo-Nikolaevsk : colonization, 207 communications, 331, 350 fauna, 61 industry, 235, 236, 269, 301, 303 trade, 251, 259 Nyandoma, 352 Nyetovsti, 220 Nyukhcha, 65 O Ob, 344 Ob basin, 46, 66-71 Ob R., 24-26 communications, 330, 343, 353 fisheries, 66-71 - freezing, 40 minerals, 289 vegetation, 46 380 IJNDJtCX Obdorsk, 35, 71, 86, 333, 353 Odzhal, L., 27 Oil, 303 : see also Petro leum Oka R., 42, 272 Okhotsk : administration, 312 climate, 30, 38 colomzation, 208 communications, 330, 333 fisheries, 76-80 history, 359, 362 Okhotsk, Sea of, 245, 284 Olcha, 181 Olekma R., 42, 54, 244 Olekminsk, 31, 37, 244, 312 Olekminsk goldfields, 275, 282 Olenek R., 42 Olennye, 178 Olgi Bay : climate, 38 colonization, 205 communications, 355 industry, 255, 304 minerals, 272, 273, 296 Olgi district, 312 Olovyannaya, 287 Om R., 40, 71 Omolon R., 24 Omsk : administration, 309, 312 communications, 319, 326, 330, 331, 344 industry, 237, 257, 269, 300-304 trade, 250, 259, 260 Omsk district, 237, 312 Onega, 66, 306, 307 Onon R., 42, 274, 296 Orenburg, 293, 331 Orenburg Govt., 309 Oroche, 183 Orochon, 178 Oroke, 181 Orsk, 283, 352 Osmiridium, 288 Ostyak-Samoyedes, 148 Ostyaks, Ugrian, 138- 146 Ostyaks of Yenisei, 126- 127 Oya R., 42 Pai-Khoi Range, 24 Palaeo-Siberians, 95, 222, 223, 225 Pavlodar, 72, 235, 350 Pavlodar district, 232, 313 Pechenga, 332 Pechenga Gulf, 214 Pechora R., 25 agriculture, 306 communications, 353, 354 fisheries, 66 industry, 305, 308 stock-raising, 307 Peking Convention, 362, 363 Pelim valley, 263 Penzhina Bay, 77, 78, 293 Penzhina R., 42 Pereemnaya, 291 Perm, 302 Perm Govt., 309 Permyaks, 137 Pervaya Ryeka, 337 Peter the Great, 217 Peter the Great Bay, 85 Peterhead (Scotland), 332 Petrograd : trade, 78, 250 Petroleum, 287 Petropavlovsk : administration, 312 agriculture, 245 climate, 30, 31, 38 communications, 330, 331, 333, 353 industry, 235, 301, 303 trade, 250, 251, 300, 314 Petropavlovsk district 232, 237, 245, 312 Petrozavodsk, 351 . Philippovsti, 219 Pigs, 253 Pilevo R., 293 Pinega, 306, 353 , , » Pishma R., 40 Pitski Mts., 286 Platinum, 286 Podorozhna, 321 Pogobi Cape, 330, 332 Pogranichnaya, 346 Poles, 199 Poletaevo, 352 Polovinnaya, 303, 344 Polui R., 40 Pomorski coast, 64 Ponoi, 59 Popovists, 190 Port Arthur, 341, 363, 364 Portsmouth, Treaty of, 341,347,364 Port Vladimir, 60 Posiet Bay, 268, 304 Posting system, 320- 323 Pottery, 303 Poyarkov, 360 Precipitation, 32, 35-38 Prehistoric Races, 356 Priamur, 240, 267, 269, 312 Pribilov Is., 59 Prikhankoisk basin, 349 Primorsk : administration, 312 agriculture, 239, 247 colonization, 204 fauna, 52, 56, 255 lishories, 84 mdustry, 299, 304 minerals, 283 stock-raising, 248, 254 vegetation, 265 Pronge, 81 Protestants, 220 Providence Bay, 333 Pyasina R., 42 Pyazina R., 40 INDEX 381 R Radium, 288 Railways, 334-340 : see also Siberian, Amur, &c. Rakhmanovski spring, 295 Reindeer, 103-106, 110, 254, 327, 328 Ribachi Peninsula, 332 Riderski mines, 285, 351 Rivers, 24-26, 32, 33, 38-43 Roads, 319-326 Robben I., 59 Roman Catholics, 220 Rovaniemi, 332 Russian Orthodox Churcl, 216 Russo-Japanese Agree ment (1916), 364 Russo-Japanese War, 364 Sable, 90 Sagastir, 29, 30, 35 St. Paul, 333 Saitkovo, 353 Sakhalin : administration,309, 310, 312 agriculture, 244, 247 climate, 32, 37 colonization, 189, 205 communications, 330, 332 fauna, 55-57 fisheries, 84 history, 361, 364 industry, 270 minerals, 284, 287, 291, 292 stock-raising, 248 trade, 304 vegetation, 48, 265 Salt, 293-295 Samara-Zlatoust Rail way, 340 Samoyedes, 146-153, 215 Sanagir, 181 Sanitation, 230, 231 Sawmills, 269 Sayansk Mts., 19, 49, 55-57, 246, 265 Seal fisheries, 58, 80 Selemdzha district, 310 Selenga plateau, 27 Selenga R., 20 colonization, 207 fauna, 59 fisheries, 74 freezing, 42, 43 Selenginsk district, 203, 241 Semeika, 69, 70, 312 Semipalatinsk : administration, 313 agriculture, 235 climate, 38 communications , 331, 350, 352 industry, 300, 301 Semipalatinsk district, 313 Semipalatinsk Territory : administration, 309, 310, 313 agriculture, 232, 247 minerals, 274, 280, 293, 295 population, 200, 201 stock-raising, 248, 249, 252 vegetation, 263 Sergiopol, 331 Shamanism, 220-227 Shamanski spur, 344. Shanogir : see Sanogir ,Sheep, 252, 253 Shenkursk district, 305, 306 Shilka R., 43, 291, 295, 330, 345, 347 Shilkinski, 286 Shizhnaya, 65 Shors, 160 Shuya, 65 Siberian Railway, 330, 334, 338-347 Sikhota Alin Range, 48, 330, 349 Siktyakh, 245 Silver, 284, 285 Sisertsk district, 274 Skoptsi, 191, 220, 244 Slavgorod, 350 Sledging, 326-329 Slyudyanka R., 295 Sofiisk, 38, 355 Solons, 183 Solovetski, 332 Soroka, 65, 351, 353 Sosnovets I., 332 Sosva R., 40, 286 South Manchurian Rail way, 342 South Muya Range, 19 South Siberian Railway, 352 South Ussuri district, 312 Soyots, 154 Spasskaya, 270 Sredne-Kolimsk, 260, 333 Sredne-Kolimsk dis trict, 312 Stanovoi Mts., 19, 20, 49 Steppe Govt., 38, 200, 309, 310, 312 Stock-breeding, 306, 307 Stranniki, 219 Stryetensk, 195, 330 Suchan mines, 292 Suchan valley, 205, 255 Sudzhenka, 290 Suifun R., 43, 205 Sukhona volok, 65 Sumski, 65 Sungacha valley, 205 Sungari R., 241, 365 Suputinka R., 43 Surazhevka, 349 Surgut district, 71, 86, 311 Sviyagino, 270 Svyatoi Nos, 332 Tagilski district, 274 Tahcheng : see Chugu chak ' Taiga, 45-48 382 INDEX Taimir R., 43 Talaya R., 295 Talienwan : see Dairen Tanneries, 300 Tara, 330, 354 Tara district, 238, 311 Tara R., 286 Tarbagatai : see Chugu chak Tartars, 155-160 Tartary, Straits of, 332 Tashkent, 331 Tatarskaya, 235, 350 Tavda R., 40, 263, 301 Tavgi, 147 Taz, Gulf of, 68 Taz R., 40, 357 Telbes R., 271 Telegraphs, 325, 329- 332 Teleuts, 159 Telposiz Mt., 23 Temperature, 29-31, 35- 38 Teriberskaya Bay, 214 Teriberski, 332 Ternei Bay, 268 Territories, 309 Teya R., 281 Tienshan Mts., 19, 32 Tigda, 240 Tigilski, 330, 333 Timan Range, 23 Timber, 261-270, 301, 305, 306 Time, 368 Timovsk district, 312 Tin, 287 Tobol R., 40, 343 Tobolsk : administration, 311 climate, 30, 36 communications, 330, 353 fisheries, 70 history, 358 industry, 269, 298, 301, 302 Tobolsk district, 238, 311 Tobolsk Govt. : administration, 309-311 agriculture, 232, 238, 247 colonization, 198, 199 fauna, 254 industry, 298 stock-raising, 248, 249 vegetation, 263 Todo Shima, 332 Tolbuzin, 361 Tolsti Nos., 35 Tom R., 40, 71, 343 Tomsk : administration, 311 agriculture, 237, 238 climate, 30, 36 communications, 354 industry, 269, 298, 300-304 stock-raising, 249, 258 Tomsk district : agriculture, 236,238 industry, 256 minerals, 280, 286 Tomsk Govt. . administration, 309-311 agriculture, 234. 236, 246 colonization, 199, 200 fauna, 55 industry, 303 minerals, 271, 293- 295 stock-raising, 248, 255 vegetation, 263 Towns, 313 Trade, 236, 314 Trakt, 319 Transbaikal Province : administration, 309, 310, 312 agriculture, 239- 241, 247 climate, 32 colonization, 202, 203, 210 fauna, 57 industry, 264, 299 minerals, 282, 288, 291, 294, 295 steppes, 50 stock-raising, 248- 251, 253-355 vegetation, 47 Transbaikal Railway, 342, 344-346 Troitsk, 352 Troitsko-Pechorskoc, 35, 353 Troitskosavsk, 331 Troitskosavsk district, 288, 294, 312 Tsagan-Da Range, 345 Tsagan-Khuntei Range. 272 Tsitsihar, 346,J354 Tuba R., 43 Tuloma R., 307 Tulun, 354 Tumen R., 362 Tundra, 44, 45 Tungus, 172-177 Tunguska R., Lower, 43, 207, 287, 291 Tunkinsk, 331 Tura, 52 Tura R., 40, 263 Turanski, 365 Turgai Province, 201 , 253, 309, 313 Turinsk, 298, 353 Turinsk district, 86, 238, 311 Turkic tribes, 155 Turukhan R., 43 Turukhansk, 33, 35. 330 Turukhansk district : administration, 311 industry, 86 population, 201 stock-raising, 251, 255 Tyukalinsk district, 01, '250, 311 Tyumen : agriculture, 237 colonization, 199 commu nications, 330, 354 history, 358 INDEX 383 industries, 257, 269, 298, 300-303 stock-raising, 249 Tyumen district, 311 Tyutikha Bay, 268, 285, 331 U Uchur R., 43 Uda R., 20, 43, 245, 291 Udsk district, 310, 312 Udski-Ostrog, 245 Ufalei, 354 Ugra, 357 Ugro-Samoyedes, 356, 357 Ui R., 40 Uigurs, 356 Ukhta, 353 Ukurei, 347 Ulan-Burgasi Range, 19 Unalaska, 333 Uni Bolski R., 286 United States : trade, 234, 269, 337 Upper Tunguska R. : see Angara R. Ural Mts., 23, 271, 273, 275, 280, 284, 286, 288, 289, 293, 353, 354 Ural Railway, 340 Ural R., 72 Uralsk, 201 Urga, 354 Uryankhai district, 33, 313 Uryum, 348 Usinsk district, 311 JjUssolye, 294, 301 f Ussuri Cossack district, 312 Ussuri Railway, 347, 349, 355 Ussuri R. : agriculture, 241, 243, 245 colonization, 205, 208 communications, 330, 349 fauna, 56 fisheries, 81 freezing, 43 history, 362 Ust-Kamenogorsk, 280, 303, 351 Ust-Kamenogorsk dis trict, 256, 313 Ust-Kiranskaya, 294 Ust-Kutskoe, 294, 354 Ust-Orlinskaya, 285 Ust-Zeya : see Blagov yeshchensk : history Utkinski oilfields, 307 Uvelka R., 40 Vaigach, 332 Vakh R., 86 Varsina R., 307 Varzuga R., 66 Vasuigan . swamps, 32. 46 Vegetation, 44-50 Vehicles, 323 Velsk district, 306 Verkhne-Iset mines, 284, 288 Verkhne -Kamchatsk, 359 Verkhhe-Neivinsk works, 288 Verkhne-Tagilski, 256 Verkhne-Udinsk : climate, 37 communications, 319, 331, 354 history, 360 minerals, 274 population, 203 Verkhne-Udinsk dis trict, 203, 312 Verkholensk district : administration, 311 fauna, 87 minerals, 295 stock-raising, 251 Verkhoture, 319 Verkhoyansk, 29, 37, 207, 260 Verkhoyansk district, 245, 255, 312 Verkhoyansk Mts.,22,49 Vilyui R., 43, 207, 275, 282, 294 Vilyuisk, 330 Vilyuisk district, 312 Virma, 65 Vitim goldfields, 275, 282, 286 Vitim plateau, 27 Vitim R„ 351 Vitimsk district, 54, 311 Vladimir, 216 Vladimir Bay, 273 Vladivostok, 27, 312 climate, 30, 32, 37, 38 communications, 319, 329-331, 333, 346, 347 history, 363 industry, 79, 83, 243, 270 minerals, 274, 291 trade, 82, 252, 268, 270 Voguls, 136, 137 Volcanoes, 18 Vologda, 352 Volosts, 316 Volshaya R., 284 Voriema R., 332 Voronov, 332 Votyaks, 137 Vyatka-Kotlas Rail way, 353 Vyerni, 331 W Weights and measures, 366-368 Whales, 60 White Sea, 35, 64, 305- 307, 332 Winds, 31 Wireless telegraphs, 332- 333 Y Yablonoi Mts., 19, 345 Yakuts, 115, 163-168, 225 Yakutsk : administration, 312 agriculture, 244 climate, 29, 37 communications, 330 384 INDEX history, 187, 359 industry, 299 minerals, 272 Yakutsk Province : administration, 312 agriculture, 244, 247 colonization, 202 industry, 87 minerals, 285 stock-raising, 248, 250, 255 Yalutorovsk district, 31 1 Yamsk, 333 Yana R., 24, 43, 265 Yaroslav, 354 Yaya R., 343 Yekaterinburg, 188, 280,286,319,329,353 Yekaterinoslavka, 240 Yenisei R., 24, 25, 26 agriculture, 239, 246 colonization, 207 communications, 325, 326, 330, 343 fauna, 54, 61 fisheries, 72-74 t freezing, 43 history, 356 industry, 240 minerals, 272, 281, 287, 290, 291, 296 vegetation, 46, 265 Yenisei-Samoyedes, 148 Yeniseisk : climate, 30, 31, 36 communications, 330, 354 history, 359 industry, 299 trade, 74, 89 Yeniseisk goldfields, 286 Yeniseisk Province : administration, 309-311 agriculture, 246, 247 colonization, 201 industry, 86, 260, 264 minerals, 281, 288 stock-raising, 248, 251, 253-255 Yermak, 187, 358, 359 Yevgenevka : see Spasskaya Yugan R., 86 Yugor Strait, 332 Yukaghir, 97, 113-117 Yuraks, 147 Vurga, 350 Z Zaisan, 301, 331 Zaisan district, 232, 313 Zaisan L., 27, 67, 71, 234, 280 Zalara R., 43 Zavitaya R., 43, 256 Zeya district, 310 Zeya R. : climate, 43 fauna, 54 freezing, 43 minerals, 275, 283 vegetation, 267 Zeya-Bureya plain, 241, j 242- Zeya-Pristan, 242, 267, I 276, 283 Zhalinda R., 283 Zhigalovskaya, 354 Zhigansk, 296 Zima, 344 Zinc, 285 Zirians, 133-136 Ziryanovskoe silver- mines, 285 Zmyeinogorsk, 257, 280, 285, 301 Zmyeinogorsk district, , 252, 256, 311 Zvanka, 351