YALE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY

FROM THE COLLECTION MADE BY
CHARLES SHELDON B.A. 1890
OF BOOKS ON NATURAL HISTORY
EXPLORATION ' HUNTING & FISHING
GIFT OF FRANCIS P. GARVAN
B.A. 1897

SARDINIA

AND

ITS RESOURCES

BV

K, O IB IE IE?, T TBN1TAITT

KOMA
LIBEERIA SPITHOVEK

LONDON
STANPOBD, CHAKING CBOSS

18«g

Rome 1885 — Typography A. Befani.

TABLE OP CORRECTIONS

page 14. line 20. after Emanuel insert and.
B 30. „ 18. substitute slight for sligh.
„ 36. , 8. — exhalations — for exhalation.
„ „ „ 22. — wonderfully — for wunderfully.
„ „ ,, 28. — tending — for ending.
„ 72. „ 15; strike out — per cent — twice.
9 80. „ 16., — autumn — for spring.
„ 101. „ 13, strike out — would is.
B 102. „ 19. strike out — was.
„ 103. „ 20. substitute of for ot.
„ „ * 27. — evading — for eveding.
„ 112. „ 1. — 500,000 — for 200,000.
B 121. „ 8. — exhausted — far exhansted.
„ „ „ 29. — half for all.

THIS VOLUME
UPON r-
SARDINIA AND ITS RESOURCES
IS
BY MOST GRACIOUS PERMISSION
RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED
TO ,
HIS MAJESTY THE KING OF ITALY
BY HIS MOST OBEDIENT AND HUMBLE SERVANT

ROBERT TENNANT
ROME

June 1885.

PREFACE

Some explanation for venturing to bring the follo
wing pages before the Public seems to be needed.
The Author was intrusted with a Commission in
connection with commercial enterprizes in Sardinia, which
necessitated a personal visit to the Island of some months
duration, and, in the discharge of that duty; he had to
penetrate all parts of the country, he was brought into
direct personal communication with the Provincial and
Communal Authorities and principal landowners and mer
chants, and in almost every district the Public records
and Official Statistics had to be consulted.
The best possible opportunities were thus afforded
for obtaining authentic information as to the various re
sources of the country, its agriculture, mines, forests,
fisheries., railways, manufactures and general commerce.
Whilst thus engaged no thoughts of " writing a book „
were present to the author's mind, and it was not till
his labours were nearly completed, that the suggestion
was made, that the materials were at hand for presenting
to' the Public some trustworthy descriptive particulars of
a Country wich was a terra incognita almost, though one
of the oldest and most interesting countries in the world.
The suggestion was a tempting one, but doubts
and difficulties arose, and it was not without much diffi-

— 2 —
dence and many misgivings that the task was undertaken.
It was felt that a mere resume of statistical information,
however carefully compiled and deftly put together, would
meet a very limited demand, and that someting more was
needed to render such a book attractive to the genera
lity of the reading Public ; and it occurred to the Author,
that, as he had made himself generally acquainted with
the institutions and antiquities of the Island, and as at
the various places he had visited, and when the guest of
friendly residents, he had taken part in their social games
and festivities, had attended their fetes and public cere
monials, and, being a keen sportsman, had always joined
their hunting excursions, (many a " Caccia grossa „ after
moufflon deer and wild-boar having been arranged for his
amusement) here were to be found the materials for the
" missing link' „ — and he has accordingly interwoven
such social and sporting descriptions prefaced with sketches
of the history, institutions, and antiquities of the Island,
as seemed to him best adapted for supplying what was
felt to be wanting.
The Author is very conscious of the many imperfec
tions of his work — arising from his own unskilfulness
in the task he has undertaken. He can only plead in de
fence, that this is his first essay, and that whatever the
demerits of the book may be, it will at all events have
the merit of giving a reliable description of the state
and condition of a country, of which very little is gene
rally known, and in which there is much that is specially
interesting.ROME —
March 1885.

ISLAND OF
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CHAPTER I.

Introduction — Situation — Resum6 of History — Aborigines —
Libyans — Iberians — Trojans — Canaanites — Phoenicians — Cartha
ginians — Romans — Vandals — Saracens — Pisans — Genoese —
Giudici — Spain — Austria — Savoy — and Italy.

Sardinia is almost a * Terra incognita „ and yet it is easily ac
cessible, within a few hours' sail of Italy and a few days' journey
of our own shores, and from its old historic associations, the gran
deur of its scenery, the primitive character of its people, the number
and variety of its antiquarian remains — dating back to remotest
ages — and the speciality of its sporting attractions, it is well
worthy the travellers' attention, and would amply repay a visit.
In order to give a general idea of the country, whose resources
and customs are to form the subject of this volume, an intro
ductory description of its situation, physical aspects, and climatic
conditions, prefaced by a brief sketch of its history and institutions,
has been thought' desirable.
Sardinia is situated between 38° 52' and 41° 17' north lati
tude and between 8° 10" and 9° 50" longitude east of Greenwich,
and is 160 miles long, with an average breadth of 70 miles. Its su
perficial area is estimated at 10,000 square miles. It lies* west oif
the mainland of Italy, at a distance of 100 miles, and, according to

_ 4 —
Herodotus, Polybius, Pausania3 and most ancient Historians, is the
largest Island in the Mediterranean, though Strabo, Diodorus Siculus
and others make it rather less than Sicily; but, as there is no of
ficial survey of either island, their relative sizes are conjectural
and approximate. Sardinia has had a checkered and troubled history extending
over many hundreds of centuries, and, though it has held no pro
minent position in the annals of the World, it has been the object
of perpetual intrigue and conquest, by many eastern and many
western nations, from the earliest ages until the date of its acqui
sition by the Royal House of Savoy in the beginning of the last
century. It is to be regretted that Sardinia has had no native historian;
there are several elaborate historical treatises and learned works in
Prench and Italian, from which, by the hand of a Macaulay a highly
interesting volume might be penned; this I have neither the preten
sions nor the time to attempt, but I have gleaned some particulars,
which will serve to give a general idea of its history and of the
various vicissitudes through which it has passed.
The original name of Sardinia was Ichnusa, from its fancied
resemblance to a " Footstep „ and hence some ancient authorities
have concluded that the first inhabitants were of Grecian extraction.
There is, however, no confirmatory proof of this, and Pausanias and
Diodorus Siculus (two of the most accurate of the old historians)
concur, that the Libyans, under the leadership of Sardus, the son of
Maceris — generally known as the " Theban Hercules „ first colo
nized the Island, and gave it the name of Sardinia; and that this
was the generally received opinion among the ancient Romans may
be inferred from the fact that the first coins, struck and circulated
during their occupation of the Island, had upon them the image
and superscription of " Sardus Pater „. No date can be assigned to
this Libyan immigration, but it must have occurred at least two
thousand years before the Christian era. Anterior however to this
period, the Island was undoubtedly inhabited by an aboriginal popula-

— 5 —
tion, as evidenced by the many ancient monuments and other ar
chaeological remains existing at the present day, which are peculiar
to Sardinia, and are not found in any of the countries from which any
of the earliest or subsequent colonists are supposed to have come,
or to which others of their nation migrated.
The next arrivals in the Island according to some authors were
a colony from Ceos, led by Aristenus their King, and accompanied
by Daedalus, who joined them as they passed Sicily. They esta
blished themselves at Karalis (now called Cagliari, and the present
capital of the island) but according to Pausanias, the first seat of
Government was " Nora „ (not now existing) built by the Iberians,
who succeeded the Libyans, while other ancient writers give pre
cedence to the town of Olbia, (now in ruins, but formerly the re
sidence of Cicero's brother, when he was Consul in Sardinia) which
they record was built by the colony of Iolaus, the nephew of Her
cules. According to the same writers, after these Libyans and Ibe
rians (whatever their order of precedence), came a colony of Trojans,
who formed part of the convoy of iEneas, but, having separated
from the rest of the fleet, landed in the island and settled there.
It is narrated too that, about this period, the Libyans again invaded
the Island " furiously „, and devastated the country; and this is the
first mention of the hard fighting and fearful struggles, which, soon
after these times, began to form an almost uninterrupted record
in Sardinian history.
The Island may however be said to be first historically known
when colonized by the Phoenicians about 3500 years ago, though
before that period there is strong ground for belief that some of the
Canaanitish race, when expelled by the Israelites from " beyond Jor
dan „ migrated to this Country ; for many of the " Sarde Idols „ that
have been found in considerable numbers, are objects of Canaanitish
worship, such as images of Moloch, Baal, and Astaroth, so frequently
and emphatically denounced in the Old Testament.
The Phoenicians also left many unquestionable vestiges of their
occupation behind them, in the shape of ruined Temples, urns, vases,

coins and images, which, from their variety and number, and from
the fact of their being found in several districts of the island, would
seem to demonstrate a somewhat lengthened possession ; but there
is no authentic record as to this, and indeed, at this period, a long
interregnum, with no. dates and no facts, occurs, and the next mention
of the island is an attack upon it by the Carthaginians in the year
B. C. 528. The Corsicans (of whom we then hear for the first time)
came to the aid of the Sardes, and the Carthaginians were repulsed.
Some years afterwards, in the days of Darius, King of Persia, another
invasion was made under the command of Hasdrubal. It also was
repulsed and the commander seriously wounded ; but, not daunted
by these reverses, the Carthaginians, B. C. 512, made another
invasion, and taking the people by surprise, obtained possession of
the island after great slaughter. The Corsicans retired to their
homes, and the Iolese to the mountains, and from the latter, it is
asserted, sprung the race of brigands which have infested the
Island ever since until very recent times.
The Carthaginians in their treatment of the Sardinians exercised
great cruelties, devastated their cornfields, destroyed their vineyards,
and persecuted the infortunate people so grievously, during the whole
period of the two centuries and a half of their occupation, that,
when the Romans invaded the Island, they were welcomed as friends
and liberators. The first Roman expedition was in B. C. 259; it was led by
Cornelius Scipio, who gained a signal victory over the Carthaginians,
and in the year following another expedition, led by Sulpicius Pa
ter cuius, was again victorious.
The Romans at this time do not appear to have had any intention
of permanently acquiring Sardinia; their object was, to vanquish
the Carthaginians, in which they signally succeeded; but after the
1* Punic War, when the mercenary soldiers of the Carthaginians re
volted, and came over to the Roman standard, the idea of annexing
the Island first presented itself. The Sardes however, after the terrible
experience they had had of the Carthaginians, were not willing to

place themselves under another yoke : and determined to fight for
their independence. An expedition under Titus Manlius Torquatus
was despatched from Rome and gained a great victory, but the Sardes
would not yield; two other expeditions followed, both of which were
successful, and a temporary submission was the result.
In B. C. 227 a Roman Praetor (Marcus Valerius) was for the
first time sent to Sardinia, but the Sardes soon broke out into revolt,
and the Carthaginians sent a large army under Hasdrubal to assist
them. The combined forces were, however, ignominiously routed by
the Romans, and twelve thousand of the Sardes (including their
chief Hiostus) were killed, and Hasdrubal, with 3200 other prisoners,
was carried to Rome, and paraded in triumph. Prom this time
there was a short interval of rest under the Roman rule, but in the
next century the Sardes were once more in rebellion, and, assisted
by the Baleares and by the Iolese, who came down from the
mountains, they fought a great battle with the Romans, and were
again defeated. Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, who was in command,
exacted a double tribute and took away above two hundred of the
upper classes as hostages for future obedience.
During fifty years there was again comparative peace in the
island, but in B. C. 114 it was broken by another revolt, which was
quelled by Caecilius Metellus.
Caesar, on his return from his African conquests, B. C. 56, visited
Sardinia, landing at the old town of Sulcis on the west Coast; and,
having heard there that the inhabitants had harboured the fleet of
Nasidius, (Pompey's admiral) he confiscated one half of the goods of
the people, and exacted a penalty of 100,000 sesterces, and raised
the annual tribute from one tenth to one eighth of the produce.
Tribute was at this time paid in kind, Sicily and Sardinia paying
it in corn, and Corsica in wax.
Shortly after this period, when Tiberius was Emperor, Corsica
was separated from Sardinia and made into a distinct Province with
its own Praetor; at this period too, Sardinia was first used as a place
of exile; Tiberius, A. D. 19, having banished four thousand Jews there;

whose descendants remained in the Island for nearly 15 centuries until
they were expelled by the Spaniards in A. D. 1492. From the time
of Tiberius, for the unusually long period of nearly three hundred
years there was again an interval of peace, and during this epoch
the Island is said to have attained a height of civilization and pro
sperity that it has never since reached.
On the decline of the Roman Empire, Sardinia once more became
the subject of periodical conflicts. In A. D. 318 it was, with Sicily
and Corsica, taken by Constantine and annexed to Africa; and in the
next century we find it under the dominion of Genseric, King of
the Vandals ; it is then over-run by the Goths and the Saracens,
who pillaged the Churches, tombs, towns and monuments, destroyed
the Aqueducts, roads and public works, and committed every other
variety of wanton atrocity and destruction. This miserable condition
of affairs was protracted till A. D. 774 when the victorious Charle
magne took Sardinia, and placed it under the nominal sovereignty
of the Pope. This gift was confirmed by his successor Louis le
Debonnaire, and had a most important influence over the future
destinies of the country.
The people, however, continued to be subjected to perpetual
invasions from the Moors, and the Pope (John XVIII) pitying their
wretched state, and seeing his own inability to relieve them, preached
a crusade against the Infidels, and promised possession of the Island
to whomsoever should expel them.
The Pisans, who had at that time become a powerful Republic
on the mainland, accepted the challenge, and were subsequently
joined by the Genoese; and, in A. D. 1002, after many sieges and
battles and great loss of life, the Moors were expelled and the
victors entered into possession. They were not however allowed to
remain long in quiet enjoyment, for though they increased the defences,
and divided the Kingdom into four Governments, each presided over
by a chief of their own nomination, yet, after a lapse of less than
fifty years, the Island was again attacked by the Saracens who

— 9 —
defeated the combined armies of Pisans and Sardes, and in A. D. 1050
established themselves at Cagliari, under Musset their King.
The Pisans, though defeated, were not disheartened, and the
next year another fleet and army were raised; Cagliari was retaken,
the Moors were expelled and Musset taken prisoner. The quadruple
Government was at once reestablished, the four Provinces being
named Cagliari, Luoguodoro, Gallura and Arborea, and their Governors
(called Giudici) to whom were entrusted supreme powers in their own
provinces, were greatly strengthened in their position and influence
by marriages with several titled heads on the Continent; the daughter
of one of the Giudi.ci being married to the natural son of the
Emperor Ferdinand.
This comparatively settled state of things continued for over
two hundred years, during the whole of which period the Saracens
were periodically harassing the Island by hostile incursions, and the
Pisans and Genoese intriguing to expel each other. Towards the
close of the 13th century the Papal See having quarrelled with the
Pisans, transfered the sovereignty of Sardinia (for the Pope still
retained the right conferred by Charlemagne to dispose of the Island
as he thought fit) to the Crown of Arragon, and in A.D. 1324 the
Arragonese under Alphonso IVth landed at the Gulf of Palmas with
a large force, took the town of Iglesias, and marched to Cagliari. Many
'of the nobles, including the Malespinas, the Dorias, and others, joined
the invading army, and, after a hard battle with the Pisans, Cagliari
was taken. The nobles however soon became dissatisfied with the
new Government and, headed by the Dorias, they joined the Pisans
and the Giudici, and obtained dominion over the island. The successor
to Alfonso was not content to let the kingdom thus slip from him,
and in A. D. 1366 he landed with a large army, gained a complete
victory over the Pisans, dethroned the Giudici, and resumed sovereign
possession of the Country.
The nobles in their turn once more became restless and dis
contented, and, headed by the Dorias, they united with the Giudici,

— 10 —
surprised the Arragonese, drove them out of the Island, and re-esta
blished the former regime.
About this time (A. D. 1376) the plague visited tbe island,
and carried off, it is said, more than one half of the whole population.
Among the victims was Marian, the Giudice of Arborea (by far the most
powerful of the four Governments), a man thoroughly detested by the
people, and whose son, equally detested, was killed by his own soldiers.
Marian was succeeded by his sister Eleonora, a most enlightened and
brave Princess, to whom the Sardinians are indebted for some of
the best of their existing laws and institutions, and who, leading
her armies in person, gained many glorious victories, and reigned,
universally beloved, for over a quarter of a Century, until she too
fell a victim to the plague, when it revisited the Island A. D. 1403.
This Princess was married to one of the Dorias, and their son
succeeded ; but her husband (who for plotting against the Government
had been put into prison and escaped) joined the Arragonese, and
they in A. D. 1416 again attacked, and reconquered the island,
which with Sicily was then annexed to Arragon and upon Ferdinand's
marriage with Isabella came under the dominion of Spain.
Upon Ferdinand's death, Sardinia became part of the possessions
of Charles V.th of Austria, and this illustrious Monarch, in the
midst of all the other numerous avocation that occupied his time
and attention, did not altogether neglect Sardinia. In A. D. 1535
he made a personal visit to the Island, when on his way to Africa,
and stayed for several days at Alghero, where his house now stands
almost in the same state as when he resided there nearly four cen
turies ago. On the abdication of Charles (A. D. 1553) Sardinia
reverted to Spain, and it was during this period of Spanish dominion
under Philip II, that many of the defences and most of the fortified
castles were built. These however did not prove a successful
barrier against hostile invasions, for when the war of succession broke
out, and Sardinia was besieged by the Archduke Charles, Cagliari
in the South and Porto-Torres in the North were taken; and while
thus contending with a foreign power, the unhappy Sardes were

— 11 —
engaged in a civil war amongst themselves and with their rulers,
and the most fearful atrocities were being committed on both sides.
This troubled state of internal and external affairs fortunately
lasted only for a few years, and was put an end to by the Treaty
of Utrecht A. D. 1714, when Sardinia was, by the unanimous assent
of all the powers, declared part of the dominions of Austria. It might
not now have been unreasonably concluded, that this distracted Island
would at last have enjoyed some repose, but three years had scarcely
elapsed when Spain, in flagrant and direct violation of the Treaty and
to the indignation of Europe, recommenced hostilities and Sardinia
was of course selected as the object of attack. This audacious act
however, was promptly resented ; an Austrian expedition, under the
Marquis de Leyden, was at once despatched, and without either losses
or difficulties, expelled the Spaniards and resumed possession.
In the following year, A. D. 1720, the treaty of London was
concluded, by which Sardinia was ceded to Victor Amadeus IV, who,
on the same day, transferred Sicily to Austria in exchange for it,
assumed the title of King of Sardinia, and from that time to the
present, the Island has continued in the uninterrupted possession
of the House of Savoy. Its troubles however were not yet ended.
The destinies of its new Rulers, in their various vicissitudes of fortune,
were shared by Sardinia, who stood loyal and faithful through them
all, and the Sardes may well look back with proud satisfaction upon
this last aera of their most eventful History.
During the Spanish and Austrian dominion in the Island very
little was done or attempted for the benefit of the people, or the
improvement of the Country, but Carlo Emanuele II on his accession
began at once to interest himself in its internal administration, and
general amelioration, and the Island again entered upon a period of
quietness and prosperity ; but it was not destined long so to continue,
for when the French Revolution broke out, A. D. 1790 an invasion
of Sardinia by the new Republic was threatened. The Court ot
Turin was at that time anxiously and fully occupied in the defence
of its continental possessions, and was unable to send any reinfor-

— 12 —
cements or render any assistance; and the Island had to be left to
its own resources. The Sardes however proved equal to the occasion,
and not only stood loyal to their King, but armed themselves for
defence at all points; and, when the French Admiral arrived with
a powerful fleet, though he effected a successful landing at San Pietro,
San Antioco and other places, yet he obtaind no permanent footing
in the Country ; and, finding that the feeling in the Island was
decidedly hostile, instead of favorable as he had been led to expect,-
he retired, but not without heavy losses both in men and boats.
After this most signal success, the Sardes were invited to
Turin to receive congratulations and favours ; all they asked was
the re-establishment of their old parliamentary istitutions, and this
was promised ; but unfortunately, owing to court intrigues and
quarrels, the promise was not fulfilled, and a revolt ensued. The
Viceroy and other officials were expelled from the Island, and when
another Viceroy was appointed, and, accompanied by the Marquis de
la Planargia, (who was one of the oldest Sarde nobles, and who had
just been appointed Commander-in-chief) arrived in the Island they
were sacrificed to the fury of the people.
This act of open rebellion could not of course pass unpunished,
and another period of war and disaster would no doubt have com
menced, had it not been for the direct intervention of the Pope, who, by
earnest mediation and entreaty, brought about peace betwen the King
and his subjects. From this time order and quiet again reigned in the
Island till A. D. 1796 when the Savoy dominions on the main land
were invaded by the French, and the King, (Carlo Emmanuele IV had
then succeeded to the throne) and Royal family were obliged to leave
Turin. By an almost providential coincidence, when they had reached
Leghorn, they were met by a deputation of Sardes, which had been
specially despatched by the Sardinian Parliament, to express their
practical sympathy and allegiance by offering to the Royal family
a home in Sardinia during their troubles, with all the assurances
of security and defence which the island and the loyalty of its
people could give. The offer was graciously and gratefully accepted,

— 13 —
and the King with the Royal household, accompanied by the
Deputies, and under the escort of a British frigate, at once set sail
for Sardinia, and on the 3rd of May 1799 landed at Cagliari amidst
" transports of affection and unequivocal joy „.
The King immediately began to interest himself in the affairs
of the Island, and appointed his two brothers, the Dukes of Aosta
and Monteferrato, chiefs of the Provinces of Cagliari and Sassari.
In a few months, however, the political position on the Continent had
so changed, that the King thonght it his duty to return there, and
it was arranged that the Duke of Aosta should preceede and the
Duke of Monteferrato should accompany his Majesty; and that his
two other Brothers, the Duke of Genoa and the Count de Maurienne
should take their places in the Island.
The jonrney commenced under bad auspices; the Duke de Mon
teferrato died before their departure, and soon afterwards, the King's
only son, and sole hope of direct succession, also died, and the King
being unable, by reason of a further change im the political position
to enter Turin, or resume his sovereignty, and having lost also his
wife, who had been his chief consolation, abdicated in favor of his
brother, the Duke of Aosta; himself retiring to Rome, where he spent
the rest of his life in acts piety and religion and died, quite blind,
in the Jesuit Convent there A. D. 1819.
The Duke of Aosta (who reigned under the name of Victor
Emanuel), the Freuch being then in possession of the Continental
States, returned to Sardinia and occupied himself in administering
the internal affairs of the Island; principally interesting himself
in the increase of the military marine, and the organization of a
national militia, for defence against the attacks of the Tunisian
corsairs, who were continually landing on unprotected parts of the
Coast, and committing horrible depredations. The memorable year 1814
however soon arrived, when united Europe met at Paris, and amongst
other restitutions, Victor Emanuel was restored to his throne and
entered Turin amidst the acclamations of his subjects. The Queen,
Maria Theresa, who had been left in Sardinia as Regent, soon afterwards

— 14 —
joined the King ; and the Duke of Genoa was then appointed Viceroy.
Meanwhile, however, Sardinia was passing through a most critical and
disastrous period. The Tunisian pirates had made another descent
on the Island, slaughtered many thousands of the inhabitants, and
carried away as many more into slavery; and this disaster was fol
lowed by a total failure of the harvest, causing a famine and epidemic,
which were more terrible and fatal than the slaughter and slavery
that had preceded.
During this trying period the Duke of Genoa, whose presence
was urgently needed at Turin, would not desert his post, and he
remained in the Island till the crisis had passed and the public mind
was reassured. When he left, he was replaced by a Lieutenant General,
but he retained the rank of Viceroy, until he succeeded to the throne
in 1821. Carlo Felice, (for such was his title on becoming King)
always retained the most grateful recollection of Sardinia, and, when
he revisited the island in 1829, he travelled through every district, and
made himself personally acquainted with the various needs and
resources of each. He died in 1831 and was succeeded by Charles
Albert, representing a collateral branch of the House of Savoy : he
abdicated in 1849 in favour of his son Victor Emanuel; upon his
death in 1878, was succeeded by his son Humbert, the present King.
The history of these last reigns is part of the history of our
own times, and the incidents, in so far as affecting Sardinia, are given
in detail, when describing the special subjects to which they bear
relation; it need only be mentioned here, that after the successive
absorptions of Lombardy Tuscany and the two Sicilies, and upon
the " general redistribution of continental seats „, Sardinia became
an integral part of United Italy, and the title of its King was merged
in the greater title of King of Italy.
Such shortly is the history of Sardinia, as handed down by tradi
tions and gathered from historical Books and Records ; but very little
has been said or heard of the Sardinians themselves. And yet, during
the whole of these troubled times, they had their own quarrels, family
feuds, aggressions and internal wars, full of interesting events and

— 15 —
thrilling narratives, which would alone fill a large volume; but to attempt
even a resume, however brief, would be of no greater value or utility,
than the history of the Saxon Heptarchy, which Milton contemplated
writing, but, according to Hume, gave up in despair, exclaiming " that
" the skirmishes of kites and crows as much merited a particular
" narrative as the transactions of these People. „

CHAPTER II.
Christianity — Introduction — First Bishops — Church-Esta
blishment — Priest-hood — Tithes — Education — Monasteries —
Convents — Jesuits — Inquisition — Celebrated Citizens — Tigellius
— Deacon Hilary — Bishop Lucifer — Popes Hilary, and St. Sym-
machus — La Frasso — Azuni — Mario — Historical Events —
Bonaparte — Lord Nelson — Garibaldi.

Intimately associated with the History of the Island itself is the
record of the eminent citizens, whom it has produced, and the
Historical Events connected with it.
There is no authentic record as to the exact time when Christianity
was first introduced into Sardinia. Some Sarde historians declare that
Boniface, a disciple of our Saviour, was the first who disseminated
the Gospel there, — • that St. Paul and St. James visited the island
in their journeyings, and that the Christian faith, soon after its
establishment was " sealed „ by the blood of several martyrs who
died for the faith.
The cathedral records of Cagliari shew that St. Clement —
another disciple of our Saviour — was the first Bishop in the Island;
but the first historical evidence of an ecclesiastical establishment is
the mention of a Bishop of Cagliari at the Council of Aries, A. D. 314;
and that A. D. 594, in the time of Pope Gregory, Hospiton chief

— 18 —
of the Barbagians, (the most warlike and powerful of the Tribes,) and
Zabard, the nominal Governor of the Island, were both converted to
Christianity, and that many of the People at the same time embraced
the faith which soon afterwards became general throughout the Island.
The Church gradually obtained a political, as well as a spiritual, power,
and during the regime of the " Giudici, „ under the Arragon dominion,
the " stamento ecclesiastico „ possessed equal powers with the other
" stamenti „ in the Sardinian parliament.
The Church establishment now consists of 3 Archbishoprics,
8 Bishoprics and 500 " Dignitaries „ of the Church. The second
order of the Clergy numbers about 1800; and the Vicars (equal in
office to our Curates) with the rest of the Priests number 700, —
giving a total of over 3000. There are 393 Parishes, but the number
of Churches is nowhere given; few villages, however, have less than
two or three, besides those belonging to the Communes, which are
generally situated in remote districts, where service is only performed
occasionally. The entire number of Churches has been calculated at 2000;
which, in a population of 650,000, would give a church to every 325
persons: and it may be incidentally mentioned here — as an interesting
comparison, — that the number of ecclesiastics in England and Wales
is not quite one in 770 of the population; in Russia it is about one
in 376, and in Germany (where the Roman Catholic, population has
been estimated at five millions) it is one in 566 persons.
The non-residence of the " Rectors „ , or second order of clergy,
is of far too frequent occurrence; they prefer living in the towns,
and their absence is not only disadvantageous generally to the people,
but entails many expenses on the Vicars, which, as they receive for
their stipend only one fourth of the value of the living, they are
ill able to defray, and are consequently obliged to have recourse
to other employments to eke out a livelihood, — the inevitable result
of which is the neglect of their clerical duties.
The priests are educated at the universities either of Cagliari
or Sassari; a slight acquaintance with Latin and Italian, the

— 19 —
reading of the Church services, and a knowledge of the canons of
the Church, and routine of Church ceremonials, comprise the " cur-
" riculum s of their education. All examinations as to the truth or
falsehood of their faith, and even the reading of many Roman Ca
tholic works, permissible in other Countries, are forbidden, and no
means are afforded for obtaining information on general subjects; so
that a priest, on assuming his position in a village, is but little
qualified to undertake the educational and other parochial duties
which properly devolve upon him ; and hence, no doubt, to a great
extent, arise the neglected state of the schools in most districts, and
the prevalence of superstitious practices, — both of which are much
to be regretted — These failings, however, must not be attributed
to the Priests, and they are almost, if not quite, counterbalanced by
their prominent virtues of kindness, charity and hospitality.
Very few members of the aristocracy adopt the clerical profession;
it is left to the sons and relatives of the inferior nobility, and middle
classes, as the one of few careers open to them without trouble and
humiliation. The priest-hood, as a body, is considered to be the wealthiest
class in the Island.
The tithes paid to the clergy were formerly collected in kind,
but are now converted into a money payment; and it is calculated
that instead of one tenth, nearly one fifth of the produce is absorbed
by the Church establishment. In the middle of the 17th century
it is on record that the revenue of the Church was £. 30,000. a
year, derivable from tithes, of which about 1/6th had to be paid to
the Imperial government towards repairing roads, bridges, ports, etc.;
but this arrangement was terminated when the tithes were abolished
and a fixed payment substituted. The nominal amount of revenue is now
estimated at £. 60,000 a year; but this is thought to be much below
the actual sum paid, which is stated to be not less than four times
that amount, exclusive of voluntary payments, such as offerings,
'alms, collections for festas, and other contributions leviable for devo
tional and religious purposes.

— 20 —
Monasteries were first established in Sardinia during the Pisan
dominion in the 11th century, but most of them were suppressed
under the Arragon dynasty, and the monks expelled from the Island,
taking with them all their wealth and records. They, however,
gradually reestablished themselves, and, in A. D. 1760, the monasteries
numbered 299, comprizing 26 different orders; they were again
reduced by Carlo Emanuele to 119, in which there were 2198 monks.
In 1840, they were still further reduced, — then numbering 91 mo
nasteries, having about 1100 regular monks, to whom might be
added 300 lay brethren. At this time there were 16 convents of 4
different orders, in which were 260 nuns. Some years later, both
monasteries and convents were disestablished and disendowed. A
small number of the establishments are however still maintained in the
island, but they are not recognised by the government as ecclesiastical
institutions, and are entirely supported by private contributions.
Compensatory payments are however made to' those nuns and monks
who, on entering the institutions, gave up their property, which
then became part of the corporate fund, and on the disendowment,
was confiscated with the other possessions.
The number and privileges of the priest-hood have been much
curtailed of late years, and their influence over the masses of the
people is said to be gradually weakening. Whether this change will
tend to their eventual well-being remains yet to be seen, and will,
to a great extent, depend on the spread of education.
Education has made great advance within the last twenty years.
Elementary schools are now established in every part of the island,
and are maintained entirely out of imperial funds. Education is
free, but compulsory, and every child is now instructed in all the first
rudiments of learning. Twenty years ago, not one person in thirty
could either read or write; and indeed most of the middle-aged
and nearly all the old inhabitants are at present in that deplorable
condition. The Jesuits were first introduced into the island by Spain,
A. D. 1650, and they soon became a powerful and influential body,

— 21 —
usurping all the highest and best appointments; but in A. D. 1775
they were suppressed by a papal bull of Clement XIV. The income
from their corporate property was then estimated at L. 10,000 a
year. They were re-instated in A. D. 1822 by Carlo Felice, and
further supported and encouraged by his successor Carlo Alberto
and were placed by him at the head of all the colleges and semi
naries, as well lay as ecclesiastical; but a few years afterwards
the order was totally and finally suppressed.
The inquisition was established in Sardinia towards the end of
the 15th century, during the Spanish dominion, but it never attained
the power or influence it had in Spain, and after a somewhat
protracted but languishing existence it gradually " died out „ in
the Island. Sardinia' cannot boast of having been the birth-place of any
great number of famous persons who ever attained a world-wide
reputation ; but it has produced hundreds of patriots, warriors, priests,
and lawyers, who were celebrated in the Island in their day and
generation, and whose memory is deservedly held in the highest
honour and esteem by their countrymen in the present day; their
records alone would fill many interesting volumes.
The earliest historical mention of any Sarde celebrity, whose re
putation extended beyond the island, is that of Tigellius Hermogenes
mentioned by Horace in disparaging terms, and designated as a " poet
" of little talent. , In spite, however, of the great satirists sarcasms,
Tigellius must have had considerable merit to have become, as he
undoubtedly did, the welcome associate of the Emperor Augustus,
and of his friend Maecenas. At all events, Tigellius was confessedly
a first-rate singer, for Horace describes him as " optimus cantator
" et modulator. „
In the time of Pope Liberius, whose pontificate lasted from •
A. D. 352 to A. D. 363, two natives of Sardinia, Hilary the Deacon
and Lucifer Bishop of Cagliari were deputed to plead the cause of
the orthodox faith before Constantius at the Council of Milan. Their
arguments in favour of the principles of Athanasius were so strong,

— 22 —
and so intemperately expressed, that the Arian emperor, by way of
refutation, ordered Hilary to be scourged and Lucifer to be imprisoned.
Both were subsequently banished. Hilary is said to have written
a « Commentary on St. Paul's Epistles, „ and another treatise entitled
" Old and New Testament Questions „ — the first of which has
frequently been published among the writings of St. Ambrose, and
the second among those of S. Augustin. Lucifer, after suffering
many hardships and cruelties in exile, retired, when the tyrant
Constantins was dead, to his native island, where he founded the
small sect of the Luciferiani.
Cagliari produced a still more famous ecclesiastic, Saint Hilary,
who was Pope from A. D. 461 to A. D. 468, and who, before his
elevation to the tiara, was Papal Legate at the Councils of Ephesus
and Chalcedon. He established two libraries in St. John Lateran,
and is said to have ordained at a single December ordination, as
many as twenty-two bishops, , besides twenty-five priests and six
deacons. St. Symmachus, who was Pope from A. D. 498 to 514, was also a
native of Sardinia; he was born at Simagis, in the district of Oristano.
He and the anti-pope Lorenzo were consecrated on the same day,
Nov. 22, A. D. 498 ; the one in St. John Lateran, the other in
St. Mary Major; but the anti-pope very soon was compelled to
resign his pretensions'. It was St. Symmachus who first ordered the
" Gloria in excelsis Deo „ to be sung in the mass every Sunday
and on every festival of a martyr, — a custom continued to the
present day. He also richly embellished the churches of Rome and
it was he who excommunicated the Emperor Anastasio I, at the same
time absolving his subjects from their oath of fidelity ; and when
Trasimond, king of the Vandals, exiled to Sardinia 225 of the ortho
dox bishops of Africa, Pope Symmachus supplied their, wants, sending
them yearly presents of clothes and money.
Early in the sixteenth century, Sardinia produced another bard,
La Frasse, the only Sarde Poet, if Tigellius be excepted, who ever
attained fame or eminence beyond his own country. For political

— 23 —
and private reasons, he left the island and retired to Spain, where
he published at Barcelona (A. D. 1753) the most celebrated of his
poems " dies libros della Fortune di Amor. „ It is referred to by
Cervantes in Don Quixote, in the colloquy between the Curate and
the barber, when overhauling the Knight's library; the former soli
loquises thus : " This book 8 (opening the book in question) " is
" composed by a Sarde poet ; and by the Holy order I once received,
" since Apollo was Apollo, and the Muses Muses, and Poets Poets,
" so facetious and remarkable a work as this was never composed,
" and in its peculiar line is the best and most unique of all this sort
" which has ever come to light in the world. He who has never
" read it has never read anything dainty, and I am more glad to
" have found it than if any one had given me a cassock of Florence
" cloth. „
In times nearer to our own, Sardinia produced Azuni, (who was
born, at Sassari in 1749, and died at Cagliari in 1827), the author
of a very learned work on Maritime Law, which has become a
universal textbook on that subject. A handsome marble statue is
erected to his memory in the piazza at Sassari, his native city.
Approaching still nearer to the-present time, last — but not least
in English estimation — Sardinia was the birthplace of Mario, who
for nearly half a century, was the idol of the British public.
Mario, whose real name was Giovanni Battista Matteo Mario,
" Chevalier, „ not " Marquis, „ of Candia, was born at Cagliari
in 1808, of a very distinguished family. His father was General
di Candia, Governor of Nice, and his mother was a Grixoni of
Ozieri. Mario had three brothers and two sisters. The eldest, Serafino,
died many years ago; and the second, Carlo, who was a General
in the Italian army, is also dead. The third brother, who was a
Jesuit, is still living, but resides in strict retirement. Of the two
sisters, one, who married the Chevalier Guirisi, is dead; and the
other, who married the Chevalier Roich, is now upwards of eighty-
two years of age, and is a charming old lady, in full possession
of„all her faculties; and delighted to converse with any one who

— 24 —
was acquainted with her favourite brother, Mario, of whom she is
never tired of talking. She resides at Cagliari, in the ancient family
palace of Di Candia.
Of the early days of Mario, little is known. Like many of his
class, he entered the army as a cadet when very young, and was
a handsome, dashing officer. He sang as an amateur, as so many
voice-gifted Italians do, because it " came natural „ to him and " he
could not help it. „
His sister narrates that, when his father was Governor of Nice,
and Mario was quite a boy, Lord Byron was a visitor at their house,
and frequently patted the future great tenor on the cheek, which
made a great impression on the youth ; not, as his sister says, because
Byron was a lord, but because he was the famous great English poet.
Mario, first sang in public at Paris and the real reason for his
leaving Italy, was disappointment in a love affair, and not pecuniary
difficulties, as was generally supposed. When it became known that
Mario was a professional singer, his noble relations ignored and dis
carded him completely, and it was not until many years had passed,
and Mario had become famous, that his family made overtures for
a reconciliation, wliich Mario, banishing from his mind the memory of
their former conduct, readily accepted, and, after an absence of thirty
years, re-visited his native island, where he was received by his
relations and fellow-citizens with every mark of rejoicing and admi
ration. During his stay at Cagliari on his first and every subsequent
visit, he never would sing either in private or in public; although
his mother, his family and friends did all in their power to induce
him to do so. He declared, however, that he would never sing in
his native country, and to this determination he strictly adhered.
On one occasion, his fellow -citizens tried to persuade him to
sing at the Cagliari theatre for the benefit of a charitable institution
which was in great need of pecuniary assistance. The committee
appointed to promote the performance, waited on Mario appealed
to his-" goodness of heart „; and begged him to sing " just this once. „
Mario, in reply, asked them what was the largest amount of

-- 25 —
money they expected to. receive at the doors if he were to sing; and,
when a good round sum was named, he produced his cheque-book,
and wrote a draft for double the amount, and handing it to the
committee, observed: " Here, gentlemen, is the sum wanted; please
" to accept it as my subscription, but never trouble me again about
" singing either in public or in private. „
Mario died at Rome in January, 1884, and his remains were
interred in the family vault at Cagliari on the 5th of March, amidst
general mourning.
In comparatively modern times Sardinia has been the scene of
two interesting historical events, the narration of which should not
be omitted ; the small island of " la Maddalena „ , lying north of the
mainland, and only separated from it by a narrow tortuous channel,
was the scene of both exploits. Here Lord Nelson made his head
quarters from 1803 to 1805, while watching the French fleet in the
harbour of Toulon; and it was here too, when attacking the same
island in 1795 that Napoleon Bonaparte, then a young artillery
officer, met with the first repulse in his long and successful career.
Lord Nelson, who had- tried every device to induce the French
admiral to leave Toulon, was at length rewarded, on the 17th Jan-
nuary 1805 for his patient watching and perseverance, by signals
from the frigate in the offing, that the French fleet had put to sea.
It was a dark squally winters night; preparations for dauces private
theatricals, and other amusements were being made on board the
different ships, when the stirring news was received and acknowledged,
but when the signal " weigh „ appeared, all was changed in a
momentfthe suddenness of the order being equalled only by the skill
and celerity with which it was executed.
The passage was so narrow that only one ship could pass through
at a time, and each was guided by the stern lights of the preceding
vessel. — Within two hours the whole fleet was clear of the passage,
and stood to the southward, in pursuit of the French fleet, which
a short time afterwards met with signal defeat at the battle of
Trafalgar. — The unflinching courage and determined spirit exhi-

— 26 —
bited by Nelson on this occasion was the subject of special eulogy
in the House of Lords, by His Mayesty King William IVth then Duke
of Clarence, and is always cited as one of the most daring and dash
ing of Nelson's many great exploits.
The renowned admiral had the very highest opinion of Sardinia
as a naval station, he writes " The world cannot produce a finer, it
" possesses harbours fit for arsenals, bays to ride our fleets in, and
" so watch both Italy and Toulon. From its position it is worth
" a hundred Maltas; B and, both in his official and private letters,
he strongly and repeatedly urges the acquisition of the Island by
the English. In one of his letters he mentions that the net income
of the Island did not then exceed £¦ 5000 per annum, and that it
could be purchased for half a million sterling. This was no
doubt a high price at the time, considered commercially and financially,
but viewed politically or strategically, it would have proved an excellent
bargain for England, had Lord Nelsons anticipations, been realised.
The name of Nelson is still remembered and revered in La
Maddalena, and previous to his departure, he presented to the Church
two massive silver candlesticks and a silver crucifix with the figure
of our Saviour in gold ; when publicly thanked for the gift, and
assured that prayers would be offered up for his victory over the
French, he replied " that if they would only pray to the Madonna
" that the fleet would come out of Toulon, and it was all he asked
" of them, he -would undertake to do the rest; and they should then
" have the value of a French frigate in silver to build a church
" with. „
Local scandal is as strong in this small island, as in the rest
of the world, and the rumour is still prevalent there, that the noble
commander was not insensible to the charms of a young and lovely
girl, Emily Isona — at that time the Belle of the Island, — and
that it was at her wish and instigation that these ornaments were
presented to the church, as offerings for their safety and happiness.
It was from Maddalena that Nelson wrote the characteristic
letter to his brother, when the French admiral (La Touche) boasted

— 27 —
that he had driven the whole English fleet before him when in fact,
it had simply paraded and then retired with the object of inducing
the French fleet to follow. " You will have seen (he writes) from
" La Touche's letter how he chased me, and how I ran. I keep it
" and if I take him, by God, he shall eat it. „
The second historical event is equally interesting. Napoleon,
when in garrison al Bonifacio in Corsica, was attached to an expe
dition which sailed thence to reduce La Maddalena ; he acted as
second in command, the whole force being under General Colonna
Cesarini. A body of troops having effected a landing by night
on the adjoining Island of San Stefano, and having erected a battery,
a heavy fire wras opened in the morning on the town and its defences.
They were opposed by a garrison of 500 men, and the fire was
returned with equal fury. The opposite shore on the mainland was
at the same time lined by mountaineers who, when the French frigate
had been dismasted, took to their boats, and attacked San Stefano.
The assault was so vigorous that Bonaparte was compelled to make a
precipitate retreat with a few of his followers, leaving 200 prisoners
with all the artillery and baggage. While Bonaparte was superin
tending the firing and watching its effects with his telescope, he observed
the people going to mass, and exclaimed " I should like to fire at the
" church, just to frighten the women. „ The shot was fired and the
shell entered the church window, and fell at the foot of the image
on the altar. It failed to burst, and this miraculous instance of
religious respect had its due effect upon the pious islanders, and for
a long time the shell was preserved among the sacred curiosities of
the town, until it was bought by a scotch gentleman for 150 francs
and sent to his native country. A natural cause was however soon
discovered for the harmlessness of the projectile, Napoleon continued
firing, but finding that the shells took no effect, though they fell
on the spot intended, he examined some of them and found they
w^ere filled with sand. " Friends, „ exclaimed he " here is treason „
and the troops who had been suffering severely from La Maddalena
concluded that the treason was on the part of the General, and

— 28 —
would have put him to death instally, had he not succeeded
in getting on board his frigate, and escaped. It is said that Pascal
Paoli, reluctantly obeying the French convention to undertake
this expedition against Sardinia, entrusted, the command to General
Cesari, his intimate friend, with instructions to secure its failure,
considering Sardinia as their natural ally. However this may be,
the affair ended by the retreat of the General with all his forces,
after having thrown from S. Stefano over 500 shells and 500 round
shot into La Maddalena without effect.
Adjoining la Maddalena is the Island of Caprera, formerly the
residence of the Italian patriot Garibaldi ; it is a mass of barren rock,
its central peak being about 800 f * above the sea, and has several well
sheltered Bays, from which the Neapolitan and other fishermen procure
¦ immense quantities of crayfish. The Island is said to have been the
Head-Quarters of the Saracens when they made their attacks on
the Italian coast during the 9a century.
It was from here that Garibaldi made his well-known expe
ditions on to the mainland, and it was here too where he always
returned when his mission was completed ; it was here also that
he died. Since Garibaldi death, the Island has -been purchased by
the nation, and a handsome monument the memory of the great patriot,
is about to be erected by public subscription.
Further south is another historically interesting Island, Tavo-
lara, about the same size as Caprera, and which with its lofty cliffs
shelters the Gulf of Aranci and forms a prominent feature in the
landscape. When King Charles Albert visited Tavolara he was so
struck by the singular freedom enjoyed by the handsome young
fisherman, who with his wife and family led a sort of Robinson
Crusoe life there, that he " dubbed , him « King of Tavolara „.
The fisherman has well maintained his right to the title ; he has
a flag of his own, which he hoists on special occasions, and a
small cannon from which he fires salutes and in other respects he
keeps up his kingly title and power, by ruling despotically over
the fine family which has grown up around him.

CHAPTER III.

Geological formation — Physical aspects — Mountains — Rivers-
Lakes — Stagni — Seasons — "Winds — Climate — Malaria — Salubrity.

The Geological formation of the Island is varied and interesting.
Its whole Eastern half, and also its extreme North Western and South
Western points, are essentially of primary formation, being a vast
granitic field which is replaced here and there by silurian or cry
stalline schists. The granite rises in lofty mountains in the North,
forming the Limbara range, and all the mountains North of it to
Capo Testa, and the Islands of Maddalena, Caprera, St0 Stefano and
others; going Southwards it forms the Monte Acuto range, the
mountains around Nuoro, those at the back of Tortoli, and finallv
the Sette Fratelli range ending at Capo Carbonara.
Capo Spartivento, the extreme South Western point of the
Island, and the Islands of Asinara in the extreme North West are
also granitic; whilst the great Gennargentu range which occupies
the East centre of the Island, consists of silurian and crystalline
schists which form also the mountains rising inland from Sparti
vento and the Marganai and Monte Mannu mountains in the South
West and Capo Argentiera in the North West.
At the extreme North East, and from the East centre down
to the coast, the granite is overlaid by Dolomite and cretaceous

- 30 -
limestone, forming the bold cliffs of Cape Figari (1200 ft) and the
majestic Island of Tavolara which rises almost vertically from the
sea to a height of 1760 feet; and again the lofty and picturesque
mountains of Oliena, the Monte Albo range running down to Sini-
scola, and the mountains of Dorgali reaching from Orosei nearly
to Tortoli. The limestone is also found overlying the schist to
the South of the Gennargentu where it forms the elevated pla
teaus of Sarcidano and Sadali (about 1800 feet); also in the extreme
South West namely on' both shores of the Gulf of Palmas, and
in the extreme North West where it forms the cliffs of Alghero
and Cape Caccia. On the other hand the North Western quarter
of the Island in essentially volcanic, being chiefly basalt and trachite,
excepting the environs of Sassari, Osilo, and Ossi, which are pliocenic
formations, and the extreme North West, which consists of primary
rock, overlaid in some places by limestone.
The South Western quarter of the Island consists of an immense
alluvial plain stretching from Oristano to Cagliari, flanked on the
North East by hills of pliocenic formation covered in places by sligh
basaltic and trachitic eruptions, and on the South West by the
mountains of granite and schist above referred to, and which also
are interrupted in places by trachitic eruptions. The Islands of
San Pietro and San Antioco in the South West are almost entirely
of trachite. The basaltic and trachitic eruptions in the North West are con
siderable in extent, and have produced many remarkable phenomena.
From the craters above Ploaghe, basalt and lava streams many miles
in length can be traced, and the basaltic plateau of Campeda which
is over 2300 feet above the level of the sea has an area of over 50
square miles.
Scattered over the Western side of the Island are several well
defined extinct craters upon some of which villages have been built,
the most remarkable being that above Keremule.
Within these various formations are found almosKevery known
mineral except gold ; and gold is said to have been extracted during

— 31 —
the Roman occupation, though no visible traces of its having been
worked are now existing.
Sardinia at first sight, vhen viewed from the sea, presents a
wild, rugged, barren appearance, but upon a nearer approach the
aspect changes, and, interspersed with bleak lofty mountains, will be
seen beautiful green valleys, rich alluvial plains, and magnificent
forests, which astonish and enrapture by their varied charms and
grandeur. The mountains themselves are grand and picturesque, with
fine bold outlines, sometimes culminating in fantastic peaks, and at
other times forming level plateaus of large extent. Some are clothed
with superb trees to their very summits, with intervening patches of
' rich pasture ; and others are bare and rugged, with no verdure save
the pale green lichens on the rocks, and a few hardy Alpine plants,
with juniper and arbutus trees scattered sparsely amongst them.
The mountains traverse the whole Island from North to South,
on both its Eastern and Western sides, in continuous ranges, except
when broken, by volcanic action, which has created isolated groups
of smaller mountains, and formed innumerable valleys, all of which
add to the beauty and variety of the scenery.
The most elevated mountains are the " Gennargentu, „ in the
Barbagia range, situated near the centre of the Island; the two highest
points of which are 6233 and 6118 feet above the level of the sea.
They are covered with snow from September to May, and on their
Northern slopes, the snow lies throughout the year. This central
group has also the next highest mountain, " Oliena, „ near Nuoro, (4390
feet). In the North, the " Limbara „ group, stands highest in ele
vation, 4287 feet, while in the South, near Capo Carbonara Monte
Genti has an elevation of 3442 feet.
'The Rivers of Sardinia are few in number, and small in size;
indeed there are only three or four streams, that are worthy to be
dignified with the name of River.
The " Tirso „ takes its rise in the central group of mountains,
and, is the largest; after receiving innumerable tributaries and being

— 32 —
joined by several smaller rivers, during its course of 100 kilometres it
falls into the sea on the Western Coast at Oristano. The " Coghinas „
rises among the northern mountains, and, after a course of about 80
kilometres, and being united with the " Perfugas B and receiving
many smaller tributaries, empties itself into the sea in the gulf of
Asinara, near castel Sardo in the north. The " Flumendosa, „ has
its source amongst the high mountains in the Gennargentu range.
It is rapid and impetuous in its course, and after being joined by
several mountain streams during its run of about 100 kilometres,
falls into the Mediterranean on the east coast near the town of
Muravera. The " Temo, B rises in the centre, near Monte Rasu and
after a course of about 70 kilometres empties itself into the sea
at Bosa. There are numerous other small streams, which however cannot
be called rivers, many of them are dry during the summer, and
others retain a small rivulet, barely sufficient to supply water for the
cattle which pasture on their banks.
In addition to these rivers and streams, there are, several large
sheets of water, called " Stagni, „ in various parts of the Island;
they are, in fact, small inland seas — the water having a brackish
taste, — and stand at an elevation very little above the level of the
sea and only a short distance from it. Indeed, the tide — such as
it is in the Mediterranean — flows in and out of many of them.
There are also several inland freshwater Lakes, much smaller in
size than the stagni, very shallow, and almost grown over with weeds.
The Seasons and their duration in Sardinia vary so greatly in
different years that it is difficult to define them. Taking however
an average of years, spring may be said to commence in March and
end in May, with a temperature of 60° Fahrenheit, The weather is
generally fine, with occasional showers and high winds.
Summer begins towards the end of May and lasts till the middle
of September with a temperature varying from 80° to 95° Fa
hrenheit. Rain seldom falls, except in an occasional thunderstorm,
and the hot winds which accompany the extreme . heat add to the

— 33 —
overpowering stagnation, . that seems to hang over everybody, and
everything, during the whole period.
Autumn, commencing in September, when the rains begin to
fall, prolongs itself into December, and the temperature varies
generally from 60° to 75° Fahrenheit. When the rains are over, (they
generally last about a month) the weather is fine and fresh.
Winter is, however, the most charming season of the year: it
commences in December and lasts till March. There is no snow,
except on the high mountains, and the temperature seldom falls
below 53° Fahrenheit.
The prevailing winds are the South-East and North-West. The
S. E. or " scirocco „ blows direct from the eastern coast of Africa,
leaving its withering effects along its whole course. It is this wind
which raises the temperature to a suffocating heat, and at the same
time carries with it a treacherous humidity, which it attracts in
traversing the long marshy plains, and which is even more dreaded
than its scorching aridity.
The " North-West, „ blowing from the coasts of Spain and
France, is. on the other hand, fresh and invigorating, and is as much
welcomed by the inhabitants as the South-East is detested.
The northern wind or Tramontana affects mainly the north of the
island. It is said by the very learned author of an elaborate treatise
on the climate of Sardinia — written early in this century — that the
high range of northern hills prevents this wind having free course into
the interior plains, stretching to the South, and to this he attributes
the stagnant malaria, so deleterious to animal and vegetable life;
but other writers do not concur in this view, nor can its discussion
answer any useful purpose, seeing that, if such be the actual cause,
it is not removable by any human agency.
There is another wind, or rather, breeze, which is peculiar
to Sardinia and requires special notice. It is called " s'imbattu, „
and blows invariably from the sea on to the mainland ; it spring
up about 10 a. m. and often lasts till 1 or 2 p. m. This breeze
extends for several miles into the interior, and is the sole relief in

— 34 —
summer to what would otherwise be utter prostration, during those
hours of the day, when, without it, the heat would be almost intolerable.
It is welcomed by the inhabitants as an old and dear friend, in whom
they feel they can place implicit confidence.
" The rainy season v in Sardinia is looked forward to with the
greatest interest, as it not only changes, — as it were by magic, —
the suffocating heat into delicious cooluess, clearing the atmosphere
from the oppressing influences of the preceding three months: but
it is the harbinger of the magnificent weather, which invariably
follows. It restores health and vigour to the dwellers in cities and
towns, as well as to the country people; it converts the brown, arid,
dried-up plains into green nutritions pastures, and re-fills the streams
and fountains with fresh supplies for another season. The rivers in
the mountain districts begin first to " fill „ early in September, and
during the remainder of that month, and in October, they are "in flood,
all over the Island. Sometimes it will rain for several days in
succession, in an uninterrupted down-pour; at other times it is in
termittent, and accompanied by thunder and lightning; raining for
a few hours and then ceasing. During this period, in the campagna,
where the parched lands, after being thoronghly saturated, give out
malarious exhalations, travelling is dangerous, and ought not to be
attempted except in cases of extreme necessity.
In the cities and towns, in the forests and on the mountains,
indeed anywhere in the island,- except in the campagna, it is as
safe and healthy to live during this period, as it is in winter or
spring; indeed the statistics of health, at Cagliari, and other places in
the island, where official retuns are kept, contrast favourably with
those countries, which are classed amongst the most healthy in
the world. The climate of Sardinia has however undoubtedly had an evil
reputation from early ages. It is the old adage over again " give a
" dog a bad name and hang him „ ; and the emphatic denunciations by
classic authors, more perhaps in sarcasm, than in seriousness, but not
the less effective and enduring on that account, have perpetuated it to

— 35 —
the present time. A few quotations out of many will suffice - Strabo
says " The excellence of the soil is counterbalanced by the misfortune
". that the Island is unhealthy in summer and especially in those parts
" where it is most fertile „ — Silius Italicus, while expatiating on
the merits of the country adds " but wretched in climate and polluted
" by its marshes „ — Martial in eulogizing the salubrious (?) Tiber uses
the word Sardinia as a " synonym for death , — Tacitus in speaking
of the expulsion of the Jews from Rome to the Island observes
" and if they should die of the unhealthiness of the climate it
" would only be " vile damnum „ — Cicero in speaking of, or rather
when lampooning Tigellius, the musical Buffoon so well described
by Horace, and a native of Sardinia, calls him " a man more pesti-
" lential than his country „ and again in writing to his Brother
Quintus, who was for some time Consul in Sardinia he says " take
" care my Brother of your health, although it is winter — recollect
" that it is Sardinia „ and Dante in his Inferno classes Sardinia
with Valdichiana and Maremma, the two most unhealthy places in
Italy. — On the other hand, modern writers speak much more favourably
and hopefully, and Lord Nelson, writing from a practical experience
extending over fifteen months, when stationed off the Island, refers
in several of his letters — official and private — to the general sa
lubrity of the climate, and specially mentions one occasion when
stationed off Pula (which is classed amongst the most unhealthy
districts in the South) that, out of four thousand Seamen who
were sent on Shore, not a single case of illness was reported, that all
were better for the change, at which he expresses much surprise from
its proverbially bad reputation. The latest work on this subject is by
Professor Sacchero, a medical man who practised for many years in
the Island, and the result of his investigations may be shortly stated,
as follows; that the malaria which produces intermittent and low
fevers in their varied and worst forms, is caused by the stagnant
waters, the great difference between nocturnal and diurnal tempe
rature, the heavy dews and fogs, and the rapid decomposition of
vegetable matter by the intense heat of the atmosphere; all of which,

— 36 —
he says, " arise from two great sources of evil; want " of cultivation
" and want of drainage. „
There can be no doubt that the remedies, suggested by the conclu
sions of the learned Professor, are essential towards removal of the
causes of this evil, but there are other remedies equally essential. The
rivers and streams, which in the autumn overflow their banks, flooding
the low-lying lands for miles around, and creating stagnant pools and
waters, which emit malarious exhalation, should be embanked, and
kept within their proper channels ; and, this being done, one great
source of the evil will have been stopped at its very outset, and
drainage, except for agricultural purposes, rendered unnecessary. This
drainage however is not unnecessary, as it is a preliminary to
extended cultivation, which is another essential ; as is also the plan
ting of eucalyptus, and other trees, which attract and absorb the
deleterious vapours, and give back in exchange salubrious exhalations
which can be perceptibly felt ; and this is no experimental or
theoretical statement, but absolute reality. Chilivani, a railway sta
tion in the North of the Island, was a few years ago a stagnant pool,
and the place so unhealthy, that the Railway servants could not reside
there, tho' it was an important Junction ; the pool was drained, the
eucalyptus was largely planted, and has wunderfully thriven, and now
there are large workshops and houses for the men, with productive
gardens, and it is considered one of the most healthy stations on
the line. In other parts of the Island similar operations of drai
ning and planting are being carried on, and it is gratifying to
feel assured that the evil, though admittedly great, is greatly exag
gerated, and that its gradual diminution, ending to its absolute
prevention is within the human grasp and steadily progressing.
Moreover, while, specially dilating on the insalubrity of the
Island, and on the one disease with which it is traditionally asso
ciated, it should not be forgotten that this malarious fever is not
peculiar to Sardinia. The Campagna surrounding Rome, the banks
of the Salubrious Tiber, some parts of Tuscany and Calabria, and of
Greece and the Balearic Isles, and almost all other low-byng countries

— 37 —
in the Mediterranean basin, which are partially cultivated and sparsely
inhabited, are subject to the same insalubrious influences. In the case
of Sardinia too, it should be borne in mind, that earthquakes and
volcanic eruptions are unkwown and that many diseases and affec
tions, common and fatal in other countries, either do not exist or
are very rare. Pulmonary and throat complaints very seldomoccur,
and cases of gout, epilepsy, apoplexy idiotcy or deformity, are most
exceptional and that hydrophobia and lock-jaw are absolutely unknown;
smallpox too has been entirely stamped out, through compulsory vac
cination, rigidly enforced ; and for 30 years there has been no case of
cholera or other epidemic in the Island. This immunity from so many
serious and dangerous affections, prevalent in other countries, shonld
be taken as some compensation for the one disease of " intemperie „;
and the more so, as by ordinary care and precautions, it can be
altogethere avoided, is seldom dangerous, and scarcely ever fatal.
" Intemperie „ (the name given by the Sardes to this malarious
fever) is an irregular combination of the varied forms of ague and
fever, and has no distinctive type, but sickness, sudden and alternate
heat and chill, with extreme prostration, physical and mental, are
amongst the most prominent symptoms. The Sardes however include
indigestion, dysentery, congestions, plethora, rheumatic affections, and
" the thousand other ills that flesh is heir to, „ in the comprehensive
term " intemperie, „ and it is not therefore to be wondered at, that
it is so much dreaded, and bears so bad a character. The situation
too is aggravated by the sensational narration of instances, where
the stranger has been struck with the fever, and has died in a few
hours, ignoring altogether the fact that there are as many hundreds
of instances, where Englishmen and other foreigners, who have re
sided in the Island from 15 to 20 years, have either never had the
fever at all, or had it so mildly, as to create only a slight temporary
inconvenience. The fever is a tedious, but not a painful illness, and though
after recovery, the patient cannot be said to have become " accli-

- 38 -
matised, „ or fever-proof, yet, if again attacked, it is in a milder
form, and is much more easily thrown off.
Quinine is the invariable specific, both on the first attack, and
in cases of relapse ; it is often taken also as a precautionary measure,
and is generally efficacions. It is however, never taken when the
fever is on the patient (excepting in very extreme cases), but when
the temperature of the blood is at the lowest between one attack
and another. On a resume, and in justice to Sardinia, it may be fairly said that
attacks of this fever are almost invariably the result of a total disre
gard of those ordinary precautions, which even the Sardinians
observe, and which are specially impressed upon every stranger
— viz: to avoid excesses of all sorts, to live well but moderately,
not to overfatigue oneself, nor travel before sunrise or after sunset,
always to wear flannel, and never to get wet through. Observing
these precautions, a residence in the low districts, even in the worst
months, may be continued with impunity.

Nurhags, and Perdas fittas.

|w^, ,

Perdas lungas and Sepulture dei Giganti.

CHAPTER IV.
Antiquarian Remains — Nuraghs — Sepolture dei Giganti —
Perdas fittas — Perdas lungas — Walls — Cells — Temples — Grottoes
— Idols — Tombs — Coins — Vases — Ornaments — Scarabees — Armour
— Ancient Cities — Roads — Milestones — Monuments — Inscriptions
Cathedrals — Churches.

Sardinia abounds in antiquarian remains-dating from the very
earliest ages-and they may be conveniently classed in two periods or
epochs ; the first, extending from the most remote times to the Roman
occupation, and the second, from that date to the middle ages.
Both periods contain many highly interesting relics — cities,
temples and other ancient buildings, tombs, monuments, idols, pottery,
medals, ornaments, coins, weapons etc.
Amongst the most important remains in the first period are the
" Nuraghs „ the aggregate number of which is stated to be over 3000;
they are to be found in all parts of the Island, but mostly in the
northern provinces. They are built either on the sides of mountains,
or in elevated places on the plains ; and their external appearance
is. that of a truncated cone, varying from 30 to 70 feet in height,
and from 100 to 200 feet in circumference, measured at the base.
— In nearly all cases the height is eqnal to the diameter of the base,
and the angle of inclination from the base to the apex varies with
the height, and it is always well proportioned.
The masonry is of the natural stone of the locality — granite,

— 40 —
limestone, lava, porphyry or basalt — well put together, of various
sizes and shapes, some of the stones weighing as much as 12 tons.
They are roughly hewn, and no lime or cement has been used. The
walls are of great thickness, and many of them are as firm and sound
as on the day they were first erected, which, according to the best
authorities, must have been over 3500 years ago.
The entrance to the Nurhags is at the base, through an aperture
about 5 feet high and 3 feet wide, having a massive lintel over it.
This door, which always faces south-east, opens into a passage, 6 feet
high and 3 feet wide, from which there is a spiral staircase, constructed
of rough stones, and forming part of the solid masonry of the building.
This staircase surrounds, and gives access to the interior chambers,
of which there are never less than two, nor more than four. The
chambers are in the shape of a dome, well proportioned, and dimin
ishing in size as they increase in height. A single massive stone
forms the ppex; this stone, however, is now found in very few
of the towers, and has no doubt been taken away and used for building
purposes. The chambers vary from 15 to 20 feet in diameter at
the base, and in height from 20 to 30 feet. On the ground-floor
are generally three or four cells or chambers, built in the solid
masonry, and measuring from four to five feet long and from two
to four feet wide.
These domes chambers and passages occupy about one third
of the whole structure, and the other two thirds are solid masonry.
There is a platform on the top of the building, to which the spiral
staircase leads, but there are no windows or other openings, except
the entrance at the base and the exit to the platform. The interior
is consequently in almost total darkness, and to explore and examine
¦the internal arrangements lamps or candles are essential.
The origin and purpose of these structures are involved in
unfathomable mystery, and have baffled the learning and ingenuity
of historians and antiquarians for hundreds of generations ; a short
review of some of the many authorities on the subject, will not
be uninteresting.

— 41 —
Aristotle in his work " de mirabilibus auscultationibus „ remarks,
that in Sardinia there exist great numbers of structures, built in^the
ancient Greek style, with cupolas (Oolcc) of admirable proportions,
and he adds that they were u erected by lolas, when he occupied
the Island, „ but he gives no explanation as to their use or purpose,
excepting that in one passage in his writings he refers to the " heroes
" who slumber within them, B from which it may be inferred that
in his opinion they were used as tombs.
Diodorus Siculus attributes their construction to the same founder,
and states that they were first called " Dedaleans „ from Daedalus, who
accompanied lolas, but he hazards no opinion as to their purpose
or object. Mons. Fara in his history " De rebus Sardis „ traces their origin
to Norax chief of the Iberians, who, according to Pausanias, came
over to Sardinia from Spain ; but in arriving at this opinion he
appears to rely mainly on the similarity of nomenclature between
" Norax „ and " Nurags „ the Sarde for " Nuraghs. „ He too, is
silent as to their probable uses.
Borelli, a learned captain of Marines, writing about the same
period as Fara — and whose works have unfortunately been lost, but
are referred to by subsequent writers — discussed the origin and
uses of these structures at great length; but he appears to have
arrived at no definite conclusion, and admits that he is at a loss to
conjecture for what purposes they were used.
Padre Stefanimini in a book, entitled " de veteribus Sardiniae
laudibus „ published in 1773, considers them to have been erected
as " trophies after victory „ and he adds, that they were used, 1st as
houses by the nomadic shepherds or land-owners of those days,
who, he thought, resided in those near the sea in winter and in those
' on the hills during summer; — 2 nd as towers of defence and refuge
against pirates ; — 3rd as tombs, and — 4th as temples.
The abbe Madau, writing in 1792, upon Sarde antiquities, after
entering into much detail, comes to the conclusion that they were
the work of anti-diluvian giants, and were used as the tombs

— 42 —
of very old and celebrated personages, and he narrates that, in two
of the Nurhags, which had been recently explored, human bones had
been discovered.
The Abbe Peyron, a member ot the Royal Academy of Turin,
ridicules the idea of their being used as either fortresses or residences,
and considers them to be the tombs of the nomadic Tribes who,
were the first inhabitants of the Island.
M. Mimand, a French Consul in Sardinia, in his book, entitled
" Sardaigne ancienne et moderne, r published in 1826, adopts the
views of Aristotle and Diodorus Siculus as to their origin, and con
siders that^they were used as tombs.
Baron Mannu, in his history of Sardinia, goes very fully into
the question both of origin and of use, and arrives at the conclusion
that they were the work of a primitive population of Eastern extrac
tion, and as to their uses, he adopts the views of the Abbe Peyron.
M. Petit Radel, a member of the French Institute, in his papers
on the Nurhags of Sardinia, published in 1826, combats the conclusion
that they were of Carthaginian construction, and assigns their origin
to the Tyrrhenians and Thespians who came to the Island with lolas;
and he considers them to have been designed and intended as funereal
monuments. M. Micali, on the other hand, in his history of ancient Italy,
published at Florence in 1832, gives what he considers conclusive
proofs that they were built by the Carthaginians and were used
as cemeteries or tombs.
As opposed to these two opinions, the Abbe Arri, in his address
to the Royal Academy of Turin, in 1834, considers them to have
been of Phoenician origin, and to have been used as Temples for
the worship of fire ; Nur being the Phoenician word for Fire ; and
Mons. Mutrin, in his work on Religious antiquities, attributes to
them the same origin and use, and for the same reason ;\ and Padre
Angius writing in 1839 takes nearly the same view as to their being
places of worship, and adds, that the sun and stars, in the form of
fire, as representing a supreme Being, were the objects of adoration.

- 43 —
Such shortly are the different views taken by the most eminent
of the various ancient authors who have written on the subject;
and the only point on which there seems to be any general concur
rence of opinion, is as to the great antiquity of their origin; they
do not agree either upon the exact period of their construction, or
the people by whom, or the purposes for which, they were erected.
General La Marmora in his elaborate work upon Sardinia com
ments upon the various views of these authors, and, as regards the
uses of the Nurhags, contends that as " trophies, „ their number is too
great, and that this hypothesis is inadmissible on that ground alone ;
that as " fortresses, B the situation of a very large number of them, as
well as their mode of construction, either for purposes of offence or
defence, are opposed ; and that the same objection applies with
equal force to their being intended or used as " watch-towers „ (indeed
their situation alone would condemn any such assumption); and alto
gether he appears rather to arrive at the conclusion — though
with many doubts and much hesitation — that they had the twofold
uses of tombs and places of worship, basing his views upon the
fact of the discovery of human bones, idols, and religious ornaments
found in several of those which had been explored. It should
be mentioned, that since 1840, when La Marmora wrote, further
discoveries of bones, idols and ornaments have been made, which
seem rather to favour the conclusions he had then arrived at.
Amidst such diversity of views among so many learned autho
rities, it seems presumptuous for an outsider, with no pretentions to
antiquarian knowledge or research, to hazard an opinion, but " fools
" rush in where angels fear to tread, „ and I would venture to
observe, as regards their origin, that in-as-much-as there are no
similar buildings in any of the countries from which the earliest
colonists (known or reputed) are supposed to have come, nor in any
of the countries to which other colonists from the same places
previously or subsequently migrated, and further, that, as no ar
chaeological remains of the same style or form — either Etruscan,
Pelasgic, Cyclopean, Phoenician or Egyptian — are known to exist in

— 44 —
any other part of the world, the most consistent and reasonable
conclusion to arrive at is, that these unique structures were the
work of the aboriginal inhabitants of the Island, and that to them,
and them alone, are due the merit and honour of their creation.
As regards the obiects or purposes for which they were designed
or used, there is ample scope for legitimate discord of opinion but the
most rational conclusion appears to be, that they were the habitations
of the chiefs of the various tribes that originally inhabited the Island,
and that, as such, they would serve also as watch-towers, or castles of
defence and protection in cases of hostile attack or invasion ; nor is
this conclusion inconsistent with the fact that human bones have been
discovered in the lowest chambers of several of these structures, and
that idols and ornaments have been found in some of the upper
chambers; indeed they may have answered to a certain extent the three
fold purpose of habitations, defence, and places of worship, and this
would accord to a great extent with the popular opinion, held by the
Sardinians themselves, founded upon traditions handed down from
time immemorial, but altogether ignored by the various learned
historians and archaeologist who have left us their views on the
subject. Further explorations would no doiibt throw some further
light upon the mystery, and there could not be a more interesting
subject for antiquarian research, or one more likely to repay by its
results the trouble and expenditure incurred, than the elucidation
of the doubts in which these most numerous relics of the earliest
ages are involved.
The nearest approach in resemblance to these structures in other
countries are the " Talyots „ in the Balearic Isles, but these are
essentially different in many important characteristics. It has been
said, too, that they bear some affinity to the " round towers , in Ireland
and the " cromlechs „ in Scotland, but the most learned antiquarians
declare there is nothing " cognate „ or in common between any of
these structures and the Nuraghs.
The ancient remains next in importance, and, like the Nuraghs,
peculiar to Sardinia, are the " Sepulture dei Giganti „, or the

— 45 —
" Tombs of the Giants n . These relics are not so frequently found
as the Nuraghs, but they exist in considerable numbers, and in most
parts of the island, but more generally in the northern province.
Their origin is involved in the same mystery as that of the Nuraghs,
but there can be little doubt as to their object or uses.
" The Sepolture , consist of a series of large stones arranged
alongside each other, and enclosing an excavated piece of ground,
varying from 15 to 30 feet in length, from 4 to 6 feet in width,
and about the same in depth; the opening being covered by large
flat stones resting on each side for the whole length.
The direction of the Tomb invariably points from S. E. to
N. W., and at the S. E. end is a large, upright headstone from 15
to 20 feet high, elliptical or conical in form, and having a large
hole or opening near the bottom, abont 20 inches square, the use
of which has also been the subject of much learned discussion, but
is still involved in doubt. On each side of this headstone, eastward
and westward, is another series of stones, undressed and unequal
in size, arranged in the shape of an arc, the chord of which would
measure about 20 feet. The whole figure resembles in form the
bow and chord of an ordinary English riding-spur.
The universal belief of the country, founded upon the same
traditions as the origin and uses of the Nuraghs, is that these
" sepolture „ are the actual tombs of veritable giants ; and the
foundation for this belief forms the subject of several most inte-
resting and learned dissertations.
When the Canaanites immigrated into Sardinia, they would, it
is supposed, naturally bring with them their idolatrous forms of
worship, amongst which the worship of giants was one of the most
common ; and it is not impossible that some of the tribes of the
" Anakims „, or other gigantic races, actually accompanied them in
their colonization.
Father Bresciani, a learned Jesuit, in his valuable work on
Sardinian antiquities, goes so far as to trace the route through
Egypt, and along the coast of Africa, by which this immigration

— 46 —
took place, and he disconnects it from the expulsion of the Canaanites
by the Israelites under Joshua, demonstrating it to have occurred
one or two centuries before that event, when the giant tribes
east of Jordan were subdued by the Moabites and Amorites. In
proof of this hypothesis he quotes Moses, who narrates that " the
" Enims dwelt therein (i. e. Moab) in times past ; a people great,
" and many, and tall, as the Anakims ; which also were accounted
" giants, as the Anakims; but the Moabites call them Enims „.
This immigration however rests upon very slender evidence ;
and it may be questioned whether these " sepolture „, as well as
Nuraghs, do not belong to an age anterior to the Phoenician or
Canaanitish colonists, and were the work of the aboriginal inhabitants
of the island. The point is raised by Mr Tyndale in his interesting
book upon Sardinia, who makes the very apposite remarks: " We
" may reduce the enquiry to the simple question: — were they
" built by the " auctocthones „ of the island, of whom we have no
" knowledge, or by the earliest colonists, of whom we have little
" information? „ Simple as the question appears, it is not very
easy to answer ; but on a review of the various arguments and
conjectures, the balance of assumption seems to be in favour of these
" sepolture „ being the work of an aboriginal population, and mainly
from the fact that like the Nuraghs, no such monuments exist either
in the country from which the earliest colonists came, or in any
other part of the known world.
From the fact that many of these sepolture are found near to
Nurhags, some writers have come to the conclusion that the two
structures had some sort of affinity with each other, and that the se
polture were the tombs of the residents of the adjoining Nurhags;
but against this theory it may be observed, that the far greater
number of the Nurhags have no such cemeteries attached to them,
and that the entrances to them are inconveniently small even for a
person of ordinary size, and that it would have been difficult, if not
impossible, for a giant of traditional or scriptural stature to have
" squeezed through. „ Goliath (David's dreaded antagonist) may be

— 47 —
taken as a fair specimen of the class, and he, we are told, measured
" six cubits and a span „ (about 9 feet, 9 inches) and as he would
no doubt be proportionately broad, no door-way of any Nurhag would
have admitted him, still less would it have admitted a Giant of the
size of Og, if we may judge from the dimensions of his bed ; or
a Giant large enough for the " sepolture „ which were on the ave
rage about 36 feet long and 6 feet broad.
It should be borne in mind however in arriving at any decision,
that the word " giant „ does not necessarily mean, as popularly sup
posed, a person of immense stature and enormous strength. " Giant „
is derived from two Greek words " yr, „ and " yzvc „ which signify
" earth-born B or indigenous; and the mythical account of the origin
of giants coincides whith this etymology. They are represented as
the sons of Coelus and Terra, Heaven and Earth ; and Josephus consi
ders them to be the offspring of the union, mysteriously described by
the sacred writers, of " the sons of God with the daughters of men. „
Moreover, Sardinia may have had a race of 1 giants B of its
own. The neighbouring island of Sicily had its Cyclopean race, and
the description, given by Homer and Virgil, of Polyphemus and his
fellow-shepherds, as first seen by Ulysses, conveys a vivid picture,
not only of their size and stature, but of the pastoral life led by
these men in those days. Robbers cut-throats and barbarians they no
doubt were, yet they were greatly in advance of that state of social
life, when men * roamed the woods, lived in rocks, and fed on acorns „
and such, we may not un-fairly assume, was the advanced condition
of Sardinia at this period, and that to a great extent would account
for their ability to construct such buildings as the Nuraghs, and
such monuments as the " sepolture. B
Still it may be objected, that the ancient legends relating to
giants are too fabulous for any sound theory to be grafted upon
them, but to reject the theory altogether, on the ground of general
disbelief in the existence of a race of persons of extraordinary strength
and stature, is to regard the sacred narratives of Scripture as equally
fabulous with the fictions of the poets ; and this very few amongst

— 48 —
us would be prepared to do. Whether, however, there were giants
in the island — indigenous or imported — there can be no doubt
that these monuments, by whomsoever they were built, were intended
as memorials of distinguished men to be handed down to posterity ;
and when we find the Sardes, tenacions of their traditions above all
other people, pointing to these structures as monuments of the
founders of their race, may we not accept their belief without any
great stretch of credulity?
There are two other mysterions monuments or relics of antiquity,
the origin and purpose of which are involved in obscurity, and which,
though not found in such numbers as either the Nuraghe or sepolture,
are yet worthy of mention; viz " Perdas fittas B and " Perdas lungas ,
The former consists of a row of six conical stones, standing in a
straight line a few paces apart from each other. They are about four
feet six inches high, and of two kinds ; and are supposed to be
typical or representative of the male and female form, from the
fact, that three of them have two globular projections from the surface,
resembling the breasts of a woman; on the other three, however, there
is nothing indicative of the male sex.
Speculations, as to what was their origin, or what they were
intended for, are most vague; but the generally received opinion,
amongst ancient and modern writers, appears to be, that they are of
Phoenician creation. Whether, however, they represent the tombs of
six illustrions men and women ; or whether they are idols represen
ting the personification of love — the generative and fecundative
principles — and as such the object of adoration, is a subject on
which learned authorities differ widely.
The " Perdas Longas „ consist of three monoliths, differing from
each other in size, but all having a conical form. One of the most
perfect in the Island is near Nuoro, the centre stone of which is 18
ft. 6 in high, 3 ft. 2 in. wide in the middle and 10 in. at the top;
the two outer stones are six feet apart from the centre one, and are
7 ft. 3. in. high, and 2 ft. 4 in. wide.
Monoliths in other parts of Europe are generally considered to

— 49 —
be Celtic remains, but these according to the best authorities, are
of Phoenician origin, and were objects of worship.
In several of the central and northern districts are found the
remains of ancient walls, built of large un-hewn stones — in the
shape of parallelograms — some laid horizontally, others placed
upright, but without lime or cement, and apparently of Cyclopean or
Asiatic construction. These walls are generally found, either sur
rounding mounds, natural or artificial, or enclosing a level space
within which are the ruins of old citadels or temples, most of
which bear evidence of having been only one storey in height.
On some of these mounds are the remains of Nurhags, which
would indicate, that the walls had been built either anterior to, or
contemporaneously with, those structures.
In other districts are to be found cells or grottoes, hewn out
of "the solid rocks, many of them having several chambers or com
partments, which vary in size ; some of them measuring 8 ft. long, 7 ft.
broad, and 5 ft. high, and comunicating with each other, and also
having direct openings to the outer world. These openings are
about 2 1j2 feet square, and are generally about 6 or 7 feet above
the surface of the adjoining land, so that to gain access some sort
of ladders or steps must have been necessary. Near Bitti, a town
in the East-central part of the Island, there may be seen one of these
cells which is hewn out of an isolated block of granite, about seven
feet cube. It is said that similar grottoes are to be found in the
valley of Ispacia in Sicily, and in several parts of Africa.
There are remains of other structural antiquities scattered through
out the Island, evidently of a very ancient date, but they are not
sufficiently distinguishable, to admit of any intelligible description, or
for hazarding any opinion about them; there can however be little
doubt, but that the exploration of some of them would disclose many
interesting relics, which would amply repay the antiquarian who
undertook the labour.
In addition to these monumental remains, there have been found
many other relics of these early ages, in the shape of idols, images,

— 50 —
medals, coins, vases, ornaments, arms, and articles of terra-cotta and
glass, the mention which should not be omitted.
The " Sarde Idols, „ as they are called, of which there are nearly
200 specimens in the museums, at Cagliari, Turin, Florence, Paris,
and Lyons, are small bronze figures varying from four to seventeen
inches in height, irregular and grotesque in form, and of rude
workmanship. These Idols are no doubt symbols of the religion of
the earliest inhabitants, and some are unquestionably derived from
the Canaanites and Phoenicians. Amongst them are found hideous
images, miniatures of the original statues of Moloch and Baal, .which
were the objects of " abomination „ of the Canaanites and Phoenicians
and the " horrors of the valleys of Hinnom and Tophet. „ Some of
them hold in the right hand a sword, and in the left a grid-iron,
and having ferocious eyes ; others with their arms down, as if in the
act of letting an infant drop into the fire ; others appear to be
carrying cakes in their hands, probably offerings to Astaroth, alluded
to by Jeremiah, " the children gather wood, the fathers kindle the
" fire, and the women knead dough, to make cakes to the Queen
" of Heaven, that they may provoke me to anger. B
The symbols and emblems of divinity comprise dogs, bats, apes,
birds, flying dragons, and other indescribable monsters, objects of
Phoenician and Egyptian worship ; amongst them too are figures of
warriors, with helmets having horns attached to them, which are suppo
sed to be the " Astaroth Carnon , of Genesis, for " Carnon „ means
horns. Some of them have dresses similar to those worn by the Sardes
in the present day, very short full trowsers reaching half way down
the thigh, the vest with rows of buttons, and the " mastrucca „
and phrygian caps also clearly designated ; others are images repre
senting serpents, human heads and stars, shewing that astrology and
divination formed part of their creed; and these in many respects
correspond with the images, household gods, and talismans, of ancient
eastern nations, denominated in the scriptures under the name of
" Teraphin. „ Some of these idols have the face, figure, and other
characteristics, of the female sex, but have also either beards, helmets,

Sarde Idols.

— 51 —
or dresses, denoting the male sex ; and others have the forked caudal
appendage of a serpent or a fish, which would seem rather to favour
the actual reality of the Darwinian theory ; in the right hand is a
forked stick, supported on the shoulders, and in the left, is an article
spherical in form, with certain letters or words engraved on it, which
are either in an unknown tongue, or impossible to decipher ; and on
the shoulders and knees are circular pads or bands of mythical
and mysterious meaning.
Sarcophagi have also been found in some districts, principally
in the Nurhags, and they are generally of marble. One of them,
found near San Gavino, has representations of the Muses sculptured on
one side, with figures of Apollo and Minerva on the other.
In the Cagliari museum are several medallions and mosaics,
that were found in the subterranean chambers of Nurhags, and are
evidently prior to the Roman period, and on one of these is en
graved the figure of Orpheus playing on his Lyre.
In the first period too, must be classed some of the Ancient
cities and towns, anterior in date to the Roman conquest, through they
were also flourishing towns during the time of the Roman occupation.
The two most ancient, of which there is any historical record,
are Sulcis and Tharros.
The former was situate in the small Isle of Sant' Antioco, facing
the gulf of Palmas, and is supposed, from the monuments, ruins of
temples, inscriptions, and other relics, to have been of Phoenician origin.
The city appears to have been circular in form, and surrounded by
a wall, about six kilometres in circumference, of which many disjointed
portions still exist. It is said to have been a flourishing town in
the time of the Carthaginians, as also during the Roman period ; but,
after the latter epoch, it was repeatedly attacked by Vandals and
Saracens, and was eventually reduced to ruins in the middle of the
11th Century.
The present town of San Antioco, near the site of the ancient
city, was built from the debris of the ruins.
Tharros was situate on the Isthums, north of Oristano, and

— 52 -
from its antiquarian remains, it has evidently been of Phoenician
origin and was successively inhabited by Egyptians and Romans ; it
was, like Sulcis, subjected to continuous attacks from Vandals and
Saracens, and so much was the city harassed, owing to its exposed
situation, that it was deserted A. D. 1050, and was moved bodily
to Oristano. Many explorations of the ruins of both these cities have been
made, and in the temples, tombs, and houses, have been found a con
siderable number of vases, coins, lamps, urns, scarabees, bracelets,
rings, and other articles of jewelry in bronze and silver, vases and
cooking utensils, most of which are of silver, and anterior in date
to the Roman conquest.
The antiquities of the second period, commencing with the
Roman occupation, comprise cities, castles, temples, amphitheatres,
baths, roads, monuments, sepulchres, inscriptions, coins, medals, medal
lions, mosaics, vases, statues, articles of pottery and glass, figures and
ornaments in gold, silver, and bronze, pieces of armour, cooking uten
sils, plates and various other relics.
Cagliari the capital of the Island, though dating back in its
origin to the early ages, yet possesses few antiquarian remains (except
the necropoles at the South East and North West of the City which
are said to be Phoenician) anterior to the Roman occupation, but it
is rich in relics of that, and the subsequent, period.
During the Roman occupation, Cagliari was the principal port
in the island, and the vivid picture of it, given by the Poet Claudian,
is as applicable to day as it was nearly 2000 years ago.
Tenditur in longum Carali tenuemque per undas
Obvia dimittit fracturum flamina collem.
Efficitur Portus medium mare, tutaque ventis.
Omnibus ingenti mansueseunt stagna recessu.
Cagliari, in the Pisan period, was almost entirely rebuilt, and
its Cathedral, castello, Archbishop's and viceroy's palaces, and most of
the churches and public edifices, were erected during that period.

Vases Coins Inscriptions and ancient Relics.

— 53 —
There were then six gates or entrances to the City from the land
side, and one of them was flanked by an enormous square citadel,
called the * Elephant Tower, „ which is of most solid construction,
and is now standing in perfect preservation.
Of ancient Roman buildings one of the most interesting is the
" Grotta della Vipera „ ; it has four columns in front, supporting
an architrave, on which are two serpents, placed between four altars,
and from these the Grotto takes its name. In the vestibule, under
the portico, are numerous Latin and Greek inscriptions.
The history of the sepulchre is buried in doubt, but it is gene
rally supposed to be the tomb of the wife of one of the Roman
Praetors of Sardinia, who had previously been Prefect in Syria, and
had there been initiated into the mysteries of Isis, and hence the
serpents on the portico.
There are many other ancient sepulchres, excavated in the slope
of the same hill, where the grotto is situate; some of which are
now used as habitations by the poorer people, but none of them merit
special mention.
In the ravine below the Castello, are the remains of an Amphi-
theatre, which has been almost entirely formed out of the natural
Rock, and it is calculated to have had sufficient seats to hold 20,000
spectators. In it are subterranean aqueducts, and chambers no doubt
once used as dens for wild beasts ; and there are several passages,
and corridors, and other arrangements, very similar to those in the
amphitheatres at Rome, and other Italian cities.
In several places in the Island are to be found the remains of
temples, which, from the fragments of columns, cornices, and capitals,
were evidently of Roman architecture ; some of them too are paved
with rough mosaics, and one has, over its altar, pieces of disjointed
cornices, with an inscription by Marcus Aurelius, but it is impossible
to decipher it. Near Porto Torres are the relics of a temple, nearly
all buried but, from the scattered pieces, and fragments of inscri
ptions, they are supposed to be the ruins of a Temple of Fortune.
The Public roads in the Island, made by the Romans, must have

— 54 —
been extensive, they are broad and seem to have been paved ; Baron
Manno in his History estimates their aggregate length at 255 miles.
Opinions differ as to the exact routes traversed by these various
roads; for many of the ancient routes, referred to in the Itineraries
of Ptolemy and Antonine, not only do not now exist, but very in
distinct traces of them only remain and their direction is unknown.
There are however distinct and positive remains of a main road,
leading from Cagliari in the South to Porto Torres in the North, and
on this road are two milestones, one on each side of the entrance to
the town of Macomer, which, from the inscriptions, had evidently been
originally erected in the times of Vespasian and Severus: They
denote the respective distances from both towns, and it is worthy
of mention, that these figures vary less than a kilometre in dif
ference between the relative distances by the old Roman road, and
the present road now connecting the two towns. A third milestone
was found in the same neighbourhood some years ago, but there is
no engraving on it to shew its date, as however it denotes one mile
further from Porto Torres than the other, it must have been originally
placed at that distance South of Macomer.
Two other of these interesting relics (which are blocks of granite
about two feet high, and one foot broad, firmly fixed in the ground)
were discovered, when making the new roads in the Island, about 50
years ago; one bears the date of Nero's reign, and denotes a dis
tance of 16 miles from Porto Torres, and the other bears the Inscri
ption " via qua? ducit a Tharros. „
Numerous sarcophagi, tombs, and coffins, have been found in
many other parts of the Island. These monuments are generally
of marble ; one discovered near Porto Torres has the carved repre
sentation of the muses, and other classical figures easily distinguishable
by their special attributes, and very similar to, though later in date
than, that found at S. Gavino.
In these ancient monuments, as also in the Nurhags, Sepol
ture, and other structural remains, there have been discovered
from time to time many medallions, and coins in bronze and copper,

Sarde Churches in Pisan the Middle Ages.

— 55 -
issued by successive Roman Emperors, the most interesting of
which is a coin with the image and superscription of " Sardus „
from whom the island derives its name, and others have on them
the figures of Gods and Goddesses ; the ornaments in gold and silver
comprise necklaces, rings, amulets, and bracelets, urns for ashes, scara-
bees set in gold and silver, lamps in bronze, vases of terra cotta, articles
of glass, earthenware and pottery; and fragments of columns, pieces of
armour, and models of chariots (one of which is decorated with the '
figures of cupid and some other winged genii) have also been found in
great variety and profusion.
Many monuments of stone, most of them erected by the Emperors
Aurelius, Vespasian, and Severus, with Inscriptions to the memory of
Sardinians who had distinguished themselves in the Senate, or in arms,
have been found in varions parts of the Island, and are now in the
museum at Cagliari.
The Cathedrals, and most of the Churches in the Island, were
built betwens the IIth and 14"1 Centuries, and with the exception
of the two Cathedrals of Cagliari and Sassari, (which are specially
referred to afterwards in the descriptions of these cities) all the
other Ecclesiastical Buildings, whether in the large towns or small
villages, are devoid of all architectural pretensions, though internally
some attempts have been made at decorations ; excepting, however,
the altar, which is nearly always of white marble, and often massive
and handsome, the general effect is more tawdry than imposing. The
paintings in general are mere daubs, and some of the Images are
more suggestive of figures at a wax-work show, than the Represen
tations of Saints and Martyrs.
Nora, in the south of the Island was, according to Pausanias,
the most ancient city in Sardinia, but it is now entirely in ruins.
It has been very imperfectly explored, and the only vestiges of an
tiquity made visible are of the Roman period. There are traces of
an ancient port, with quays on each side of the Isthmus, and the
remains of an aqueduct, a theatre, and other evidences of Roman
civilization.

— 56 —
At Bosa, originally called ' Castra „, on the West coast, are
several Roman remains ; and at Fordonangianus (situate almost in the
centre of the Island, and anciently called Forum Trajani) are found
the remains of an aqueduct, and a portion of one of the old Roman
roads, with the ruins of a fine bridge over the Tirso.
Near San Giacomo, and at other mineral springs, are the remains
of Baths, evidently of Roman construction, but so ruinous and disjointed
as to be almost undistinguishable, and altogether indescribable.
The Island abounds in old Castles, most of which have traditional
histories attached, many of them of thrilling and dramatic interest.
All are in ruins but several of them have distinguishing characteristics,
which can be more or less distinctly traced.
One of the most ancient of these castles is at Laconi, near the
centre of the Island. It was built in the 8th or 9th century, and
was formerly one of the seats of the Giudici of Arborea ; it afterwards
came into the possession of Arragon, and was given by Ferdinand
to his uncle, who sold it to the " Signores , of Castelvi, from whom
it passed by heritage to Count Santerre, and, through his descendants,
by various successions, it came to the present proprietor, the Marquis
of Laconi. This Castle is in a perfect state of ruinous preservation.
The court-yard, banqueting-hall, and several bed-rooms with the
staircase being clearly distinguishable. The kitchen too, is well
defined, as is also the dungeon, without which no ancient or me-
dioeval castle can be considered " correct. B Surrounding the old castle,
are extensive plantations, pleasure grounds, and gardens, within which
stands the handsome, but comparatively modern mansion, where the
present noble proprietor, with his numerous family, resides during the
greater part of every year, fully occupied in looking after his farm,
forests, and estates, (which are the largest in the island) and in
hunting, and shooting — sports to which he is passionately attached,
but not indulged in to the negleet of his magisterial, municipal, and
other public, functions, — indeed, he may be said to be " the model „
of a Sardinian nobleman.
Running through the grounds, and passing near the mansion, is

— 57 —
a stream of delicious coolness, which has the property (where it
forms a waterfall) of petrifying the leaves, sticks, and other sub
stances, which fall into it; and yet, at a short distance lower down,
it flows into some large stone basins, which are used, as public wash-
houses, by the populous town of Laconi, and the water is not con
sidered too hard, or unsuitable for that purpose.
The Castello del Goceano was built in the 12th Century, and it
was here that the unfortunate Giudicessa Adasia was imprisoned by
her husband, and on the abolition of the " Giudici „ it fell into the
hands of the Arragonese. It was often besieged by the Pisans, but
was never taken, though much injured. It was restored in the 14 th
Century and is now the property of the crown ; Count of Goceano
is one of the ancient titles of the Kings of Sardinia.
Castel Doria, near Tempio, must have been once one of the most
impregnable strongholds in the Island. The date of the foundation
of the Castle is unknown, but A. D. 1354, Pedro of Arragon gave
orders for it to be repaired, as a counter-irritant against the at
tacks of the Genoese, who at that time held Castel Sardo. Matteo
Doria was then in possession of it, and on his death, it was con
ferred on Brandelasse Doria, by whose successors it was held till
the 15th Century, when it was taken and retaken by various factions,
and eventually fell into ruins, while in the hands of the kings of
Spain. The outer walls of this venerable and romantic ruin were the
natural rock. The interior was divided into several stories, and the
lowest, which still stands, is 95 feet high, and is a fine specimen of the
grand masonry of that period. The dungeon beneath is almost per
fect, and there is a large subteranean reservoir, supplied with water
by pipes, or, as they would be more correctly described, by cemented
passages. The view from the Battlements over the adjoining coun
try" is magnificent, and when its possessors were also owners of
all the villages and lands within sight, it must have been a splendid
possession, even for such a proud and powerful family as the Dorias
then were.

- 58 -
Castel Sardo is one of the most ancient Citadels in the
Island, and has a most chequered history. It was built by the Doria
family A. D. 1100. It was then called Castel Genovese, but in the
14th century, family dissensions arose, and it became the scene of
hostile attacks, in which the Malespina family also joined, and after
undergoing a long and severe siege, the castle was taken by Alfonso
the Xth, who changed its name into castle Arragonese. During the
next Century it was unsuccessfully attacked by the Frenc, and from
that period it has shared the general fortunes of the rest of the Island.
At Iglesias are the ruins of an old Castle, which played a not
unimportant part in the political history of the Island. It was built
by the Pisans* about A. D. 1322, and in the year following it was
besieged by the Infante Don Alfonso, the son of Diego II, King of
Arragon, who arrived at Porto Scuso with five hundred vessels, and
a large military force. The town and castle were garrisoned by two
hundred Cavalry and one thousand Infantry, and held out for six months
against the greatly superior Arragon forces, and it was not till the
castle had to surrender by reason of actual starvation, that they
succeeded in capturing the town. It is said that twelve hundred
Arragonese died during the siege, from sickness or other contin
gencies of war.
Near the village of Cuglieri is the old castle of Serramala, si
tuated on the summit of the hill, which commands a grand view ot
the surrounding country, and of the Mediterranean. It has still two
towers standing, with a double outer wall, but the interior is in a
state of utter neglect and desolation. After passing through all the
vicissitudes of the Genoese possession, and of various transfers in
the times of the Giudici of Arborea, and the Arragon Kings, it was
annexed in 1585 by Philip II of Spain, from which period it has
remained a royal appanage.
Macomer, the " Macopsia , of Ptolemy, must have been a town
of some importance in the Roman period, though, with the exception
of its milestones, very few antiquarian relics now remain; but it is on
record that several important battles were fought in the neighbourhood,

— 59 —
and it was in ancient times the residence of the Marquis of Oristano,
(who held a prominent place in Sarde History) and of the Spanish
viceroys. •Within the radius of a few miles of Macomer are to be found
the greatest number of Nurhags that exist in any part of the Island,
and some of them are almost perfect ; there are also several sepol
ture di Giganti in the neighbourhood.
There are many other interesting old Towns and Castles, on the
coast, and inland which existed in the times of the Romans, and
subsequently either fell into decay or were destroyed by the Goths
and Vandals ; some of them were reinstated during the Pisan period,
and then again became almost ruins, and most of them still remain
in that state; all have histories attached to them, but to describe
them in detail, or even to refer to them shortly in categorical fashion,
would occupy too much space ; many however are well worthy of
inspection, and a highly interesting volume might be written about
them ; indeed they would afford an inexhaustible supply of materials
for the historical and sensational novelist.

CHAPTER V.
Population — Language — Classes — Nobles — Ecclesiastics —
Lawyers — Doctors — National, Provincial, and Communal Represen
tation — Laws and their Administration — Feudalism — Land transfer
— Taxation — Imports and Exports.

The population of the Island has fluctuated greatly; previous
to the Roman occupation it is stated to have exceeded two mil
lions; but in A. D. 1775, which is the earliest official return,
the population was assessed at 436,374; and in A.D. 1815, it had
further decreased to 352,867 ; 25 years afterwards however this de
crease had been more than made up, the numbers being then 524,000,
and on the Census, 14 years ago, the increase had been at a still
greater ratio, and the population then numbered 636,660.
The great decrease from the early period to A. D. 1775, and
again to A. D. 1815, is no doubt attributable to the periodical sieges,
and conflicts with foreign foes, and the almost continuous internecine
conflicts amongst the inhabitants themselves, as well as to the fearful
visitations of plague, which at various times have decimated the
popnlation. It is on record, that after one battle, as many as 15,000
prisoners were taken, and sold as slaves ; indeed the frequency of
these sales at Rome gave rise to the expression " Sardi venales B
(Sardes for sale, or cheap as Sardes;) and the plague of 1398 alone,
it is said, carried off nearly one half of the entire population; the

— 62 —
comparatively slow rate of increase in later years, when there have
been neither internal struggles nor foreign conflicts, is due to the loss of
life during the famine of 1815, and through vendetta, and brigandage,
which, until recent times, were rife in the Island. These causes have
however, now ceased to exist, and the ratio of increase will, it is stated,
be found to be much larger, when the next census is taken; indeed
it is confidently asserted that the population at the present time
exceeds 700,000.
The proportion of acreage to population, as compared with the
remainder of Italy, and with France, Belgium, and England, is in
teresting: Sardinia gives about ten acres to each inhabitant; this is
four times as much as the rest of Italy — which is about the same
as France — six times more than in England, and eight times as
many acres per head as in Belgium.
Much has been said, and more written, about the prevalence
of crime and the insecurity to life and property in Sardinia; but an
examination of the criminal statistics shews that in both respects it
is superior to many Continental States.
In Sardinia, the convictions are 1 in every 282 of the popula
tion ; in the rest of Italy the proportion is 1 in 264 ; and in France
it is 1 in 218.
The Sarde language is a curions compound of Latin, Spanish,
and Italian, with a slight mixture of Phoenician, and other ancient
words and phrases. Indeed it may be said to partake, to some extent,
of the peculiarities of the languages of all the various colonists and
conquerors who have successively occupied the Island ; it assimilates,
however, more to antient Latin, than to any other language, or to
any of the dialects of modern Italy.
It is not very difficult to understand, excepting as spoken at
Sassari, where the guttural pronunciation renders it almost unintel
ligible, even to those who have acquired some proficiency- in the
language in the other districts of Sardinia.
In one of the northern villages, where I was staying for a
few days, the language spoken was almost pure Latin; but, as the

— 63 —
pronunciation was totally different from what I had been taught in
early youth, it was not easy to comprehend until reduced to writing,
and then the old familiar school-day characters stood out, as in days
long gone-by; and though I had seen but little of them of late, I was
able to carry on a conversation in writing with comparative facility.
This however, was not unaccompanied with some difficulty, as the only
persons in the village, who could read or write, were the mayor arid my
self, and my communications therefore were necessarily somewhat re
stricted, and limited to cases of extreme need, and when the processes
of shouting and gesticulation — usually resorted to by Englishemen
to convey their meaning to foreigners — failed to have its effect.
At Alghero, on the West coast, pure Catalan is spoken, and
the Genoese dialect prevails at Carloforte. Slight differences of pro
nunciation, or of accent, or even of words, render it easy for the
practised ear to distinguish by the language, as readily as by the
costume, what part of the Island a Sarde comes from.
The Italian language however will no donbt very soon take
the place of all other languages in Sardinia. It is taught in
all Schools, and is universally spoken and written by the higher
classes, and in the large towns; and all official papers are now issued in
that language. Moreover, as the young recruits from Sardinia are
invariably sent to the mainland for at least a year, and reading and
writing form an essential part of their training, this alone will go
far towards generalising the Italian language in the Island.
There exists a very good grammar of the Sarde language,
written by the late Canonico Spano, who has also compiled a Sarde
and Italian Dictionary, in which, he gives the real Sarde equivalent
of each Italian word, as also its modifications (if any) "most gene
rally in use in the northern and southern districts.
The rendering of the Lord's prayer in Sarde or Logudoro
language, (so called to distinguish the Sarde proper from its northern
and southern dialects) will give the best idea of the composite cha
racter of the language, and to those at all familiar with the old

— 64 —
and modern languages to which it assimilates, it will convey a more
accurate appreciation of its composition than any description.
" Babbu nostra qui stas in sos chelos, sanctificadu siat su no-
" men tou. Benzat a nois su regnu tou. Facta siat sa voluntade tua
" comente in su chelu, asi in sa terra. Su pane nostra de ogni die do-
" nanoslu hoe, et perdonanos sos peccados nostros comente nos ateros
" perdbnamus sos inimigos nostros. Et ne nos lasses ruere in sa
« tentatione; sino liberanos de male. Amen „.
As a further illustratian of the Sarde language, the subjoined
fragment of a Sarde song, followed by a literal translation, may
prove interesting. Cando a sos pes de una roca umbrosa
M'incontresi unu die appoggiadu,
Tand'io una Ae chi lesta e festosa
Su olu in una valle hat ispiccadu.
Si parat poi in sa silva orrorosa
Ue su tilibricu est preparadu,
Ispectende s'allegra congiuntura
Pro fagher d'issa una grata pastura.
TRANSLATION.
" Seated one day at the foot of a gloomy rock. I saw a light
„ and brilliant bird fly downward into the valley. Soon after it
„ flew to the horrid forest where the hawk was lying in wait for
„ a favourable opp ortuuity of seizing it for its savoury prey. „
The titles of the Nobility of Sardinia are Dukes, Marquises, and
Counts, but they are generally designated as Barons from the name
of their possessions. Some few are absentees, residing in Rome and
Turin, and visiting their Sardinian properties in the spring, but most
of them live the greater part of the year in the Island, upon their
estates, and employ their time in managing their farms and forests,
and in hunting, shooting, and other rural pursuits.
The Cavalieri, an inferior class of nobility, have the title of
" Don „ and are very numerous. The army is the profession open

— 65 —
to the higher, and the law and church, to the lower ranks of no
bility ; all of them enjoy many privileges, but none of them are of
any great value or importance.
Barristers (Avvocati), of whom there are about 400 at Cagliari
and 100 at Sassari, rank next after the nobility in the grade of
Society ; their fee is not an " honorarium „ as at the English Bar,
but is matter of arrangement with the clients, and, if not paid, can
be recovered at law. The standard of payment is not however
high ; for an ordinary trial from 100 to 200 francs, and for a very
" heavy „ case, a fee of 1000 francs (L. 40) is sometimes, but ra
rely, paid. Attorneys (procuratori) occupy a lower position in so
ciety, and their name is " legion „ ; not only do they congregate in
large numbers in Cagliari and Sassari, and in all the large towns,
but there is not a village with a population of over 500 that
has not an attorney, though there may not be a doctor or mid
wife withim 20 miles. A licence or diploma to practice is neces
sary, and must be preceded by an university examination. The fees
are paid upon a " tariff ,, regulated according to the value of the
property, and nature of the business in litigation. The charges in
non-litigant cases are however very moderate, and much under the
English scale, and yet " the law „ is considered the next most lucrative
profession after the Priesthood. Litigation is however very expensive
in Sardinia, for it is often protracted to inordinate lengths, and rendered
needlessly complicated, by the multiplicity of pleadings', as was the
case in England not many years ago,
The profession of medicine comes next in order. Here too a
University education and Degree are essential preliminaries, and a
diploma to practise is necessary. The fees are most moderate, a few
francs per visit being the usual charge.
The Island, for administrative purposes is divided into two
Provinces, South and North, each of which has its own goverment,
and distinctive characteristics.
The southern Province, of which the capital is Cagliari, is the
largest in extent, and the richest in productions, and has nearly

— 66 —
double the population of the northern Province, of which the Ca
pital is Sassari. Each Province is governed by a Prefect, appointed
by the King, and holding office during his pleasure. The Prefects
are the heads of the administrative and executive departments, and
reside at the Capitals of their respective Provinces. The Commander-
in-Chief, and the Heads of the military departments, are stationed
at Cagliari, and here also are the Courts of Supreme Jurisdiction
for the Island. Every Government Department has representatives
in the Island, Viz — Finance -— War — Marine — Public Works —
Forests — Agriculture — Commerce — and the Internal Administration
which includes Police — Education — Public Health — and Preser
vation of Archives and Monuments. Each Department has offices
— with a staff of officials and Clerks • — at both Cagliari and Sassari.
Every Kingdom and Republic in the Old and New World, with
very few exceptions, is represented by either Consuls or vice Con
suls, not only at Cagliari and Sassari, but at most of the seaport
towns. It is however somewhat singular, that none of the British
Consuls or Vice Consuls are Englishmen; they are either Italians
or Swiss. During the Spanish possession, Sardinia had a Parliament of
its own, elected by all citizens paying taxes, and comprising the
three estates of " Nobles, Clergy and Commoners. „ It was esta
blished A. D. 1445 and continued, with some periods of interruption,
during successive regimes until recent times. Its functions were to
administer the internal affairs of the Island, and to levy taxes.
Sardinia now sends twelve representatives to the National Parliament
at Rome ; they are elected by the communities of Cagliari, Iglesias,
Isili, Lanusei, Macomer, Muravera, Oristano, Sassari, Alghero, Nuoro,
Ozieri, and Tempio. It also sends to the Upper House three Senators
who are nominated by the King, and hold appointment for life. In
the National Parliament, there are 500 Deputies and Senators for
the whole Kingdom of Italy, which has a population of about thirty
millions, so that Sardinia may be said to have its full share of
representation in both Houses.

— 67 —
The qualification of an Elector is the annual payment of ten
lire (about eight shillings) of direct taxation ; he must also be twenty
five years of age, and in theory able to read and write, but this
latter qualification is generally and easily evaded. A list or regis
ter of voters is made out every year by the communal officials,
aud no person, who is not on the register, is entitled to vote. Each
elector has a voting paper sent to him at the time of the election,
upon which he signifies in writing the candidate for whom he wishes
to vote, and this is deposited by him in a box ; the election ge
nerally is conducted something after the manner of the Ballot in
our own country. The number of Electors on the Register is
about 30,000 — and of these not quite one half record their votes.
There is seldom any excitement at the time of an election, and
very little display of public eloquence. Placards, anouncing the po
litical and local views of the candidates, are posted up at the various
communal offices, and this comprizes all the canvassing that is usu
ally resorted to.
In addition to this national representation, there are two provin
cial Parliaments called " Consiglio Provinciale „ , one for each province;
they hold their sittings at Cagliari and Sassari, and are composed
of forty members. The electors are citizens of twenty five years of
age, paying communal taxes to the amount of five lire (four shil
lings) per annum. The principal business of the Councils is to look
after the repairs of Roads, Bridges, Barracks, Prisons, and other public
Buildings, with power to levy rates for those purposes.
The national as also the provincial Parliaments are elected for
a period of five years.
Every town and village, with a population of five hundred, has
a municipal corporation, the members of which are .elected by the
inhabitants; they have power to levy taxes for communal purposes,
and their duties are to look after the estates, roads, and public
buildings belonging to the Commune. The choice of the mayor is very
restricted, but generally, and indeed it may be said always, the per
son of most importance in the village is selected.

— 68 —
The Roman law appears to have been in force in the Island
till the llht Century, and it formed the basis, on which the Papal
See, the Pisans, and Genoese, grafted their particular enactments ac
cording to the times and circumstances of their rule.
The earliest national code written in the Sarde language, catl-
led " Carte di Logu „, was in the time of the Giudici of Arborea,
and was promulgated by the Giudicessa Eleanora A. D. 1393.
Don Alphonso V of Aragon, twenty six years afterwards, on
instituting " The Corte Generale „ at Cagliari, introduced some of
the laws then used by the Corte of Catalonia, and this Corte, thus
added to and re-constructed, became the general law of the whole
Island, under the name of " Capitoli di Corte „. After the lapse of
over 200 years, Philip IVth of Spain promulgated (A. D. 1653.) a
new code, but based on the old laws, and in accordance with the
demands of the Sardes 'at the time; and such was its liberal basis
that it was classed among the prohibited books in the Papal states.
Towards the close of the 17th Century, when Spain had become
so involved in war and diplomacy that Sardinia was neglected, the
Viceroys, being virtually under no superior control, became arbitrary
and oppressive ; and disunion, recklessness, and corruption prevailed
in all departments. The results soon shewed themselves in the
changed moral condition of the people, who took the law into their
own hands, and self-will and vendetta were substituted for order
and justice; and when the Island came under the Savoy dynasty,
its deplorable condition may be easily imagined. Steps however
were at once taken to eradicate these evils, and all the laws were
collected into one Code, by order of Victor Amedeus III and were
published at Cagliari A. D. 1775.
New laws, and alterations of old enactments, were however from
time to time rendered necessary, and these became so numerous,
that in 1827 it was again found essential to codify and unite them
in one collection. All these changes were brought about withaut
any disturbance, or even adverse comments, and the new code, embra
cing all the alterations, came into force in 1840. This radical

— 69 —
change in the laws and Institutions, and the mode in which it was
effected and received by the country, form a wonderful contrast to
the course that had to be pursued in Hungary, Sweden, Russia, and
Poland, under somewhat similar circumstances, and it demonstrates, in
the most marked manner, the different temperaments of the people
of these countries, as well as their relations with their Rulers.
The administration of the law is pure, and appears to give very
general satisfaction ; it may almost literally be said that in Sardinia
Justice is brought home to the door of every inhabitant.
The Court of first Instance sits in every town and large village,
and is presided over by the Pretore of the district. It has civil
jurisdiction up to 500 lire, and in criminal cases its power extends
to three months imprisonment. Both advocates and attorneys practise
in these Courts, but there is no Jury. An appeal goes to the next
highest Court, which is called the " Correctional , and is presided
over by four officials, namely a president, two ordinary Judges and
a public minister called Procuratore del Re. Their jurisdiction in
civil cases is unlimited, and in criminal cases extends to five years
imprisonment. The next highest court in the Island is the Court
of " Assise „ which has cognisance of criminal cases only. It is
presided over by two supreme Judges, and their jurisdiction extends
to all crimes, even where the punishment is death. This extreme
penalty is however no longer carried out in Sardinia, indeed capital
punishment even for murder may be said now to be practically
abolished in the whole of Italy.
The Highest Court of Appeal both in Civil and Criminal cases
is to the " High Court of Cassation „ in Rome. It is presided over
by six judges, and there is no jury. In all jury cases the majo
rity of Jurors decides.
The salaries of the Judges would, measured by our English
standard, be considered exceedingly and disproportionately small;
they vary from L. 120 a year in the lower Courts to L. 800, which
is" the highest salary received by any of the Judges.
In addition to' these Courts of law there are also tribunals of

— 70 —
Commerce, which are usually resorted to in cases of Commercial
dispute or social quarrels. The proceedings are simple and inexpen
sive, and the decisions prompt; hut this tribunal being composed,
(with the exception of the president) of commercial men, its decisions
are frequently appealed against.
The process of transfer of land is very simple, and, excepting
the government stamp, inexpensive, yet, simple as it is, many trans
fers are made by " delivery of actual possession „ without any writing
between the parties. The usual and only safe mode of transfer is
however by writing, which is recorded in the public Registry office,
and then the title is indisputable. The Government duty is an
" ad valorem , stamp, of 5 per cent upon the Purchase money, and
the lawyers and other charges come to about half as much more.
In the selection of lands, the purchaser should direct his atten
tion quite as much to the water supply, as to the quality of the
soil, and, if there be no " living „ stream running through the pro
perty, he should make himself assured, that there are springs in
sufficient supply for all agricultural purposes ; and this is equally
essential when the lands are in Forest, and whether the trees have
been felled or not ; for the land must either be pastured or ploughed,
and in either case water is a first requisite. Investments in landed
property may, by careful inquiry and prudent selection, be made so
as to yield a return of from 10 to 15 per cent, if farmed by the
purchaser himself, and from 7 to 10 per cent, if let to others ; and
it is a curious anomaly, that House property, either in towns or
large villages, cannot be purchased to yield more than half that
rate of interest. This is the very reverse from what is the universal
rule in most other settled countries.
It must also be borne in mind by an intending purchaser, that
in Sardinia, as also in the rest of Italy, the Imperial land tax, as
also the Provincial and Communal taxses, are all payable by the
Proprietors ; and that this taxation is very heavy, in some cases
amounting in the aggregate to 50 per cent upon the rental, as fixed
in the Cadastro of 1851. The Cadastro is a * cross . between our

— 71 —
Doomsday Book and " County Valuation Roll „ and the rents there
scheduled are fortunately much below the present letting value of the
lands; for if assessed on the actual rental value, the taxation would
be almost intolerable.
The remedy for non-payment of taxes is very summary, and
after a few formal notices, extending over two or three months, the
lands are put up for sale by auction. These sales are continually
taking place, and if the lands are not sold, (as is generally the case),
the former proprietors are re-instated in possession as care-takers,
and much of the hardship of their position is thus mitigated.
Feudalism was introduced into .Sardinia in the middle of the
11th Century, and was, in all its arbitrary oppression, continued
till A. D. 1636, when Philip the IVth defined by a legal Code the
relative powers and duties of Baron and Vassal. The Savoy Dynasty
initiated further reforms of several abuses, which had again crept
in, but so great was the hatred of the system that there arose a gene
ral insurrection. Sassari, where most of the nobles resided, was be
sieged by ten thousand men, and the nobles fled, leaving their houses
to be pillaged. A protocol was then signed, depriving the Barons of
the power, amongst other things, of administering justice or appointing
officers for that purpose, which was the great grievance, and though
these provisions did not give entire satisfaction to the vassals, yet they
had the effect of checking the Barons, and the sore was temporarily
healed. , A radical cure, however, was not effected till the Year 1856,
when feudalism in every form was absolutely and entirely abolished.
The military force in the Island, besides the Commander in Chief
and staff, consists of two Regiments of infantry, a detachment of
"Bersaglieri, (Rifle-men) and "Genio Militare,, (Royal Engineers),
and two batteries of reserve Artillery, numbering altogether between
two and three thousand men. The head-quarters are at Cagliari
and Sassari, but small detachments are stationed in several of the
large towns.
In addition to the military forces there are, for the mainte-
-nance of public security, the "Carabinieri,,, a kind of military police,

— 72 -
and the " guardie di pubblica sicurezza ,, who are the police proper;
and in the towns there are also the " Guardie Civiche „ , paid by,
and under the control of, the Municipalities.
It is difficult to ascertain with any exactitude the Revenue from
iudirect taxation, but it is not far from accurate to take the im-
-port and the export duties, and the monopolies of Salt and Tabacco,
rents and royalties from forests, lands, mines, fisheries, and other
sources, at about L. 150,000 a year. The proceeds of taxation are
applied to the repairs of the national Roads, Bridges, and the Postal
service, but no details of either receipts or expenditure are officially
published. The direct taxation is very heavy, and presses hardly
on the lauded interest, and especially upon the smaller proprietors;
moreover in Sardinia, owing to the thinness of the population,
the land-tax is more onerous than in the rest of Italy. In Tuscany,
the average land tax per head of Population is stated to be 3. 40
per cent a year, in Sicilly 3. 61 per cent, in the Neapolitan pro-
-vinces it is 4. 72, and the general average of the whole of the
Italian kindom is 4. 70 ; but in Sardinia the landtax, actually levied,
amounts to close upon 4 million lire per annum, and this, divided
by the total population, shews a tax of nearly 7 lire per head, being
40 per cent higher than the average taxation of the whole King-
-dom; and as the total extent of land under cultivation is under one
million acres, this would give a land tax of over 4 lire per acre,
which is very nearly equal to 50 per cent upon the letting value
of the lands, or of the net profit upon the produce, after payment of
seed, labour, and other expences. This of course is exclusive of
Provincial and Communal taxation, and it is exclusive also of the
income tax, which is levied upon all business profits, and amounts on
an average to 13 per cent.
The Ports, as a rale, are the natural bays or gulfs of the sea, and
except at Cagliari, Carlo Forte, Alghero. Porto Torres, and Terranova-,
very little has been done in the past in the way of works, or protec
tion ; now however new and extensive harbour works are in course

— 73 —
of construction at Cagliari^ Bosa, Portotorres, Golfo Aranci, Terra-
nova, and Tortoli.
The principal articles of export are salt, minerals, charcoal,
cattle, wool, wines, oils, and skins ; and of import, drapery, woollen
and cotton goods, Groceries, leather etc. The tonnage of exports is
nearly ten times as great as that of imports, and are rather more in
value than the former.
According to the last official returns, the number of vessels,
(sailing and steam) engaged in the trade of Sardinia or touching at
Sardinian ports, was over 10,000, including international, as well as
coasting vessels, with an aggregate measurement of about 1 1ji
million tons.
The countries, having the greatest interchange of trade with
Sardinia, are Africa, France, Spain, and Denmark, and at a long
distance behind (excepting, for minerals) come England, Belgium,
and Sweden. About one half of the foreign trade, and nearly the
whole of the coasting trade, is carried on by vessels under the Ita-
-lian flag. In addition to the freight-transport vessels, are several
lines of Steamers, carrying passengers, mails, and light goods, plying
between the various ports of the Island and the mainland. The
ports of Cagliari, Carloforte, Oristano, Bosa, Alghero, Portotor-
-res, Santa Teresa, Maddalena, Golfo Aranci, Terranova, Siniscola,
Orosei, Tortoli, and Muravera are in direct communication with
each other, and with Genoa, Leghorn, Civitavecchia, Naples, Palermo,
and Tunis. All these lines are subsidized by the Italian Govern-
-ment, who pays annually many millions of lire to the Navigation
Company, who in return carry the mails.
From Portotorres there are French steamers, plying regularly
to Ajaccio in Corsica, and to Nice, and Marseilles.
It is, however, most strange that the Sardinians themselves,
considering the geographical position of their country, should show
so little taste for maritime pursuits. The total number engaged on
the sea does not exceed 4000, of whom nearly two thirds are from
the small Islands of Maddalena and San Pietro alone, and this is

— 74 —
not one tenth the proportion Sicily provides, and the tonnage of her
merchandise is not quite double that of Sardinia.
Many reasons have been assigned as the causes of this extraor-
-dinary phoenomenon, for it can be described by no other name;
and the generally received opinion appears to be, that the life of
continuous troubles and conflicts on land, in which the Sardes have
been involved from time immemorial, is almost sufficient in itself
to account for it, especially with a people, so wedded to old tra
ditions and habits, and so little given to change, as the Sardes are.

CHAPTER VI.
Land — Extent — Proprietorship — Tenure — Division — Transfer
and mode of Letting — System of cultivation — Ploughing — Sowing
— Harrowing — Harvesting — Thrashing — Wheat — Barley — Oats
— Beans and Peas — Cattle — Cows — Sheep — Goats — Pigs —
Mules and Asses — Horses — Government Stud — Vines — Olives
— Oranges and Lemons — Fruits — Flowers — Vegetables — Tobacco.

The Island comprises, as we have seen, an area of rather over
10,000 square miles, equal to about 6,500,000 English acres, which
may be approximatively subdivided as follows; viz, one third arable,
i. e. suitable for the growing of cereal crops; one third pasture
and mountain land; one fifth forest; and the remainder (about 800,000
acres) orange groves, vineyards, olive orchards, and gardens.
The proprietorship of the land is vested in the Government,
the Communes, and private individuals. Goverment and the Com-
-munes own about two fifths of the whole, divided between them in
equal proportions, and the other three fifths are the property of
private persons.
The Government lands, (a great portion of which are in Forest),
.are let on lease, or from year to year, at reasonable, and indeed
low, rates; but with power to resume possession at any time without
compensation, in the event of a sale. The terms of sale and the

— 76 —
price are by agreement, and are favorable to intending purchasers;
a payment of 10 per cent only is required on the signing of the
contract, and the remainder of the purchase money may be paid by
equal instalments during 30 years, with 6 per cent interest in the
interval;*if however, the land be in forest, no trees can be felled
until the whole, or a proportionate part of the purchase money, has
been paid.
The Communal lands are also let, either on lease, or from year
to year, but in a very few years the Communes will possess no
corporate property ; a law having been recently passed, compelling
the division and apportionment of their lands, rateably amongst the
landed proprietors within the Commune.
The sums to be paid for these apportioned lands are fixed by
the surveyors of the Commune, assisted by 3 experts, and are con
siderably below the maket value. The proprietors draw lots for
their portions, and a period of several years is allowed for payment
of the purchase money, with a moderate rate of interest' in the
meantime; if any proprietor declines his lot, it is sold by auction.
The proceeds of sales are applied, either in extinction of Com-
-munal debts, (and most of the Communes have borrowed money
for the making of roads and supplying their towns with water), or
in the construction of municipal buildings, or in other useful or
productive works for the public good.
Lands owned by private possessors are, generally speaking, held
in small lots, and are farmed by the owners, but there are several
large properties, varying in extent from 10,000 to 30,000 acres,
belonging to the Sarde Nobility and Gentry, and which have con-
-tinued in the same families for centuries, and handed down in direct
line for generations ; these proprietors, as a rule, reside in the cities,
or chief towns of the Island, nearest to their Estates, of which they
farm a part, and let the rest.
The smaller properties, however, frequently change ownership^
either by sale and transfer, or under a judicial order for nonpayment
of taxes.

Sarde Agricultural Implements.

— 77 —
The letting of land generally throughout the Island is either
on lease, or from year to- year. If the land be arable, the rent is
usually paid in kind, and is based upon a fixed proportion of the
gross produce. That proportion, if the proprietor provides seed
and pays half the cost of harvesting, is one half ; but it is
reduced to one fourth, if the tenant finds these, as well as labour.
There is a common thrashing ground in every Commune, to which
all the produce is carted, and there thrashed, and the apportionment
is made before removal.
If the land be in grass, the letting is either for a fixed sum
per year, or, what is more usual, the right of grazing only is let,
and the rent is graduated according to the number and sorts of
animals pastured, very much on the same principle as " agistment „ in
many parts of England. The sums paid vary according to locality,
and quality, of the pastures, but in most cases 25 shillings is the
price for the pasture of a horse for the season, 15 shillings for a
cow, 5 shillings for a pig, and from half-a-crown to 3 shillings per
head for sheep or goats.
The cultivation of the land is the staple industry of the Island,
giving employment, directly and indirectly, to at least four-fifths of
the working population, and it is surprising how few improvements
have been made in the mode and system of cultivation, indeed, if
ancient histories are to be believed, the Island is far less productive
now, than it was 2000 years ago.
The same plough and mode of ploughing the land, the same
system of sowing the seed, the same harrowing, and the same
reaping and harvesting, the same mode of thrashing, and the same
carts and mode of yoking the oxen, indeed all the ancient agri-
-cultural implements, and all the old customs of 2000 years ago,
are . perpetuated in the present, and it would seem to be almost
impossible to induce any change or improvement.
Improved ploughs and other implements have been introduced
and their superiority demonstrated, bnt except on a few farms, h\
the Campidano, the old articles are preferred and adopted.

— 78 —
As a rule, the cultivator of the land is the owner, and as he has
no rent and no wages to pay, his only outlay is the payment of taxes,
and for seed, and as the latter is generally saved from the preceding
year's crops, and the return on an average is about twelve-fold, the
surplus, beyond what is needed for home consumption, is sold ; a con
siderable portion of it is sent to market, and when to this are added
the sales of the produce of the sheep, cows, horses, pigs, and goats (for
every farmer keeps more or less live stock of some sort or other
on his land) the aggregate receipts amply suffice for all his require-
-ments. Many rural households too card and spin their own wool, and
weave it into cloth, for the use of the family. The spinning wheel
and loom are of the most antiquated description, but they answer
their purposes, and the farmers are content. The skins of sheep,
with the wool on, provide the coat and waistcoat of ordinary use,
and even the village tailor is seldom called into requisition.
The agricultural products comprise wheat, (of which there are
two sorts, the bearded and smooth), barley, beans, indian-corn and
Spanish peas. Green crops, such as turnips, mangold wurzel, vetch
or seeds, are absolutely unknown to the general Sarde farmer, but
on the few farms cultivated by Englishmen, these crops are being
introduced with most beneficial results.
There cannot properly be said to be any system of cultivation
or rotation of cropping, but the most usual " course „ is after barley to
grow two crops of wheat in succession, and then to let the land rest,
or rather to sow itself down to grass, and in that state it remains
for 4 or 5 years, during which period it is pastured ; and then a
fresh start is made with a crop of barley, in some cases, preceded
by a crop of Peas of Beans.
The mode of raising the various crops, is as follows.
Wheat. The land is ploughed in the Autumn, as soon as the
rains have sufficiently moistened the surface to enable the wooden
plough to enter the ground. Each plough is worked by two oxen,
yoked by the head, and driven by one man. The breadth of the

— 79 —
furrow is about 10 inches, and the depth of soil turned over is not
more than 4 inches. An average day's work, for a yoke of oxen,
is 1/8th of an Hectare, which is equal to about one third of an acre.
The ground is ploughed twice, the'second time in December ; it
is then sown, the quantity of seed being 100 litres to the hectare,
a few weeks afterwards it is harrowed, and nothing further is done
to the land, or to the growing crop, till the corn is ready to reap.
In June reaping begins, and as rain is unprecedented at this season,
harvesting is a shorter and more simple operation, than either
ploughing, sowing, or harrowing.
In reaping, the ears of the corn, with about one third of the
Stalk, are cut off, and the remainder of the straw is left standing ;
it is afterwards set fire to, and the ashes thus made form the only
" dressing , or manure that the land ever receives.
Thrashing is done either by oxen or horses (generally the for-
-mer) treading out the corn from the ears, by traversing round and
round a circle about 20 yeards in diameter, the ears having been
spread evenly over the whole surface ; a large flat stone, weighing
about a hundred weight, is dragged behind the beasts, and acts the
part of the flail, that was in general use in England not many years
ago. A fair average crop of wheat is about 12 times the quantity
sown. Barley. Ploughing for this crop is done in February and March,
and the seed, (about 150 litres per hectare) is sown immediately
after ploughing. Barley is reaped before the wheat, and as the
straw of both is good food for oxen, and much liked by them, after
the thrashing it is collected, and preserved in stacks, for winter
consumption. An average crop of Barley is about 15 times the
quantity sown, although it has been known to yield as much as 30
or 40-fold. Oats are very rare crop in Sardinia. The ploughing sowing
and harrowing are the same as for wheat; the seed sown is about the
same quantity per acre as barley, and the return is about 12-fold.
Beans and Peas not so generally grown as wheat or barley.

— 80 —
The land is ploughed in October and November, and harrowed at
the same time; both peas and beans (about 25 litres to the hectare)
are dribbled in by boys, and the produce is about 15-fold. They
are cut in early summer, at the end of May oy early in June,
and are the first crop reaped. The harvesting of them is the same
as for cereals, and the straw is cut " long » and preserved as food
for asses, by whom it is much liked.
Flax and Hemp are cultivated in some districts, but in small
quantities. The quality is good, and the soil and climate suitable for
their growth, but the scarcity of water, and the danger of fouling
what little there is in the processes of retting and steeping, is a vir
tual prohibition against extended cultivation.
Cutting grass for hay is very rarely resorted to; the grass,
during winter and spring, being in fact better pasturage than du
ring spring and summer, and the climate is such, that the cattle
can " pasture out B all the year round.
Wheat barley, beans and peas are the only corn .crops sold.
The price of the former varies from 12 to 24 lire per hecto-litre,
barley from 6 to 10 lire, and beans and peas from 12 to 17 lire;
but even at prices below the lowest of these^ either crop will amply
repay the cost of production, and it is deeply to be regretted that no
means or inducement can be found to promote increased cultivation.
Second only in importance to agriculture, indeed it may be said
to form an integral part of it, are the breeding and feeding of
live stock. The vast tracts of mountain and forest, the greater portion of
which are covered with excellent herbage and afford good pasture,
as well as the grazing of the agricultural lowlands after the crops
are reaped, or when they are resting in fallow, provide almost un-
-limited pasturage for the herds of cattle, horses, pigs sheep, and
goats, that are scattered over the Island, and which may also be
said to be almost unlimited at the present time. According to
the latest returns, the numbers of cattle, sheep, horses, pigs, goats,
asses and mules in the Island are as follows-viz.

— 81 -
1st Cattle, the total number of all and ages sexes are 172,561,
of which about 70,000 are draught oxen, and the rest breeding cows.
2rd Sheep, number altogether, 794,000, of which -524,690 are ewes.
3rd Pigs are returned at 51,384, rather over one half of them being
sows. 4th Goats number 221,317 in the aggregate, but are not
classified. 5th Horses shew a total of about 47,000, of which more
than two thirds are mares. 6th Asses and Mules, the former numbe
ring 27,695, and the latter 385.
These figures, though given officially, are however generally
believed to be much under the real numbers; indeed it is currently
reported in the Island, that some of the returns do not represent
one tenth of the actual stock kept; one farmer, who had upwards
of 1000 Pigs pasturing in his forest, returned the number at 100,
in order to avoid, or rather reduce, his taxation. This no doubt
was an exceptional case, but iu nearly all cases,- not only of pigs,
but of other kinds of stock, the numbers are greatly under-stated,
nor is it much to be wondered at, seeing how heavily taxation
presses. The official statisties shew the number of farmers of all sorts
to be about 40,000, and this may figure be taken as very nearly
accurate. The original breed of, Sarde cattle is small and ragged, not
much larger than the smallest of our West Highland breed, but short
and thick, with long horns, and either red or dun in colour, and
seldom weighing more than 400 lbs. There have however been so
many crosses,, first with " Sicilian s to give more size, then with
" Swiss ,, to give more milk, and latterly with Tuscan, and English
Shorthorns, to give earlier maturity, that the original breeds are gra
dually becoming extinct; but the cattle are much improved both
in appearance and in. bulk, and a fair average cross-bred beast will
weigh between 1000 and 1200 lbs.
Heifers have their first calf at two years old, and breed till nine,
and, when barren, they are sold, direct from the grass to the butcher,
at prices varying from 200 to 350. lire.

— 82 —
An average cow will give 6 litres of milk per day, besides
keeping her calf. In one dairy of 80 cows, which I visited, all
the milk was made into cheese and butter, and the quantity of cheese
produced per day was 30 lbs * superior „ worth 10 pence, per lb.
and 60 lbs of " common „ worth 3 pence per lb ; besides 8 lbs of
butter, which sells for one shilling per lb.
Bullocks begin to work at 3 years old; they are first yoked
with old steady animals, for a few weeks in the autunm, then left
till spring, when they are again yoked, first for light ploughing
and harrowing, and then for heavy cart-work. When at hard work,
a feed of straw and beans is given in the middle of the day, but,
with this exception, they live out of doors on the pasturage they
can pick up, as do also the cows, both summer and winter. A good
yoke of young oxen will sell for 700 or 800 lire; and a good
fat beast, ready for the butcher, will sell for 500 lire. The flesh
of the working oxen is scarcely distinguishable from that of cows or
heifers. The Sarde sheep is not unlike our Welsh breed in size and
appearance, but about one half of the flock have black wool, and
the other half, white; the old original breed is, however, like the Sarde
cattle, very nearly extinct, except in remote mountain districts. The
sheep have been largely crosssed, first with the " Merinos ,, to irn-
-prove the quality of the wool, and second with the " Downshires „
to increase the size, and a wonderful change for the better has
been effected.
A Sarde ewe can be purchased for 5 shillings, and a Sarde
Tup for 12 shillings, and young lambs sell for about 2 shillings each.
The wool (a sheep will clip ou an average about 3 lbs) fetches 4 a
per lb. black, 5d white. The " wethers „ are sold at two years
old, and average about 12 shillings each ; the old ewes of 7 years
old, when they have ceased breeding, realise about 5 shillings, each.
The improved breeds fetch more than double these prices, and
the wool is at least twice as valuable.
The ewes , drop , their lambs in December and January, and

— 83 —
rarely exceed one lamb; one shepherd, with his dog, can look after
400 sheep, and his wages are one shilling and six-pence a day.
Cheese is made largely from the milk of ewes. The produce
from every 50 sheep per month will average 400 lbs of cheese,
and this, at 3d 1ji per lb (the average price), forms no inconsiderable
part of the profits of Sardinian sheep-farming.
Goats which were formerly kept in enormons quantities, are
gradually diminishing in number, as they are not so profitable as
sheep, and require as much food and attention. The main profit,
except the small sum derived from the sale of the milk, is from
the sale of the kids, which sell at from 3 to 5 shillings each ;
their chief value is derived from their skins, though the flesh of
the kid is not to be despised. In a few years there will be no goats
on the Island, except in those wild rugged rocky districts, where
sheep will not thrive. Goats, like sheep, seldom produce more than
one young, and they generally breed in December or January.
Pigs are kept in large numbers, and yield most profitable re-
-turns. The original sarde breed is an ugly brute, of " medium ,
size, and tawny colour, with long strong bristles and " Snout „, but
the crosses with the Neapolitan, and latterly with our Yorkshire
breed, have greatly improved them both in appearance and weight.
They live principally in the Forests, and keep themselves, feeding
on grass, roots, acorns, chestnuts, and wild olives, which give the
flesh a most delicate flavour. They breed twice a year, and have
from 6 to 9 young at each litter, but not more there 3 or 4 are
.usually reared. " Porkers B are worth from 15 to 18 shillings a
piece, at 6 months old, and weigh from 30 to 35 lbs. A good 2
year-old home-reared pig will weigh 400 lbs, and is worth L. 6.
The breeding of horses is becoming a great industry in the
island, and, with continued care and attention, may be turned to
most profitable account ; and it is capable of almost unlimited
extension. There are three different sorts of horses, so different as to amount
• almost to distinct breeds. The large breed of horse is a strong

— 84 —
compact animal, measuring nearly 15 hands in height ; the Sarde
" cavallo, ,, measuring 13 hands, is a lighter animal, shews more
" breed, „ and has good paces, and is used generally either as a
hack, or for light work; and the small breed, wihch is a pony and
not more than 11 hands high, is a hardy, useful animal, sure-footed
and very safe, and can carry a good-sized man with ease and
safety over bad roads for long distances.
The farmers are the chief breeders of horses, though there are
some special breeding establishments in the Island, which deserve
special attention. Every farmer, however small the extent of his
land, keeps a horse, which is always a mare, and during the
summer, whatever the journey or the work (even when taking
part at a Caccia Grossa or leading stones), the mare is invariably
accompanied by her foal, who takes every opportunity of stealing a
meal from its mother, whenever the opportunity presents itself. The
larger farmers keep a proportionately greater number of horses, but
nearly all over 2 years of age are mares. It is estimated that there
are not less than 30,000 farmers who breed horses.
Colts are sold generally at 2 years old, as soon as they have
been handled and partly broken, and a ready purchaser is found in
the Government, who have purchasing agents always travelling for
the purpose in every district. The price for a good sound colt will
vary from £. 16 to £ 24, according to size and quality.
The stud horses are either of Arab, Syrian, or English, blood
and are provided by Government, which has an establishment in the
island for the purpose; they are sent round to the various villages and
farms, and, where a large number of mares is kept (and there are
farms where there are over one hundred mares), special horses are
selected from the stud, which remain at the farm for the season
i. e. from March till July. In both cases the charges are most
moderate, the object being to encourage and improve the breed of
horses for military purposes.
A fairly good sound mare is worth £. 20, at 3 years old, at
which age they generally have their first foal.

— 85 —
Much encouragment and attention have been given to the breed-
-ing of horses from very early times. During the Roman dominion,
Valentinus had a breeding stud and establishment in the Island,
and in the 14th Century, the feudal Barons were bound by law to
keep a certain number of horses, and of a certain breed ; and during
the reings of Philip the II and III, stringent regulations were enforced
for the maintenance and improvement of the breed. The present Go-
-vernment is most wisely following in the same course.
It may be said of the Sarde horses generally, that, though small,
they are very enduring, and can carry heavy weights, have many good
points, and are very docile. The pace at which they generally move
is about six miles an hour, betwen an amble and a trot, called " por-
tante „ and the motion is easy and agreable. The " Portante „ is
taught by tying together with ropes the two hind legs and two fore
legs of the horse, with a connecting rope so as to keep the other ropes
from the ground, and then by pulling the right and left side of the bit
alternately, with corresponding leg pressure, the animal is forced to
use his two near and two off legs together, and this gives the easy
action which is desirable.
There is another useful animal, which, though insignificant and
despised, must not be overlooked, as it forms a most important part of
every farm, and indeed of every household ; and that is our patient
and long suffering friend-the ass. Every villager, who cannot afford
a horse, keeps an ass, who lives in the house as one of the family.
He grinds the corn into flour, he carries the fire-wood, aud per
forms every other menial office that is required of him, and last
though not least of his useful attributes, he feeds himself. In each
village of the Campidano is some old man who has charge of all
the asses of the place, which sometimes number 300 or 400 ; his
duty is to look after them, when wandering and feeding, and for
this he receives for each ass tenpence a year in cash, and a loaf
of bread, payable at Christmas.
A good ass is worth from 30 s. to 35 s. and a foal sells for 5
shillings. They are exported to Naples in large numbers.

There are very few mules in the Island and they are small in
size, and poor in quality. Poultry of all descriptions — hens, ducks,
geese, and turkeys — are kept in great quantities, and yield a profi-
-table return.
The wages of a farm labourer vary from one to two shillings
per day, according to the man and the work; women and children
receive from 6 d. to one shilling per day.
The farm-houses and farm-buildings in Sardinia are not situa-
-ted, as in England, and in other agricultural countries, upon or
near the lands which constitute the farms ; they are aggregated to-
-gether in villages or towns, which are invariably built on the slopes
of the nearest mountains, and the houses are so closely packed toge-
-ther, that they have the appearance, at a short distance, of having
one continuous roof, from the lowest to the highest on the mountain
side. These buildings impart the general impression of resemblance to
a flock of frightened sheep, huddled together for safety and protection,
and no doubt the situation and composition of the villages owe their
origin to the same causes, viz protection and defence against danger, to
which however should be added the fear and prevention of malaria.
In connection with agriculture, the cultivation of fruits and ve
getables, and of tobacco, for which the climate and soil of the Island
are peculiarly adapted, may be conveniently classified.
Among the most important of these industries is the culture of
the vine. The wines of Sardinia are excellent in quality and might
be cultivated to an almost unlimited extent. Until late years very
little attention has been paid, either to the species of vine planted,
or to the extension of its cultivation ; now however great activity is
being displayed in this branch of agriculture, and each year is ad-
-ding largely to the acreage of ground under vine cultivation, and
great care is taken in the selection of the kind and qualities of the
plants. It is said that there are in the Island between twenty and thirty
different species of grapes, the most prized among which are, the

— 87 —
Malaga (or Malvasia), very similar in taste to a strong white Her-
-mitage ; the Moscato or muscat, also a white wine of delicate and
perfumed flavour ; the Torbato, similar to the Mangarilla of Spain ;
and the Giro, like the Tinto of Alicante.
The ordinary wines are good and sound, and, from their great
strength and body, are exported to Genoa and Bordeaux, to mix with
the weaker wines of those countries.
The consumption of wine in the Island itself is very large, but,
there being no duty upon it, no official or authentic record of the
quantity is obtainable. As however it .is drunk freely by all classes
at all meals, and as well by labourers in town, as in the country, the
quantity must he enormous. The price varies from one shilling a
gallon for the best, to 6d per gallon for the ordinary red wine,
equal to about one penny per bottle. The quantity exported forty
years ago was not quite 3500 pipes; it now exceeds ten times that
quantity, and is each year increasing.
The Phyloxera, which has created such grievous devastation in
the Burgundy and Bordeaux districts in recent times, made its
appearance two years ago in the northern districts of Sardinia in
a mysterious and unaccountable manner ; it has fortunately not
spread into the south, where the most extensive vineyards are ; and
as the affected regions are separated from the rest of the Island
by sandy plains and barren rocky tracts, it is hoped and believed
that it will not extend further.
Many suggested remedies have been tried for the cure or
prevention of this terrible pest, the most simple however appears
so far to have been the most effective, viz, the keeping of large
numbers of hens in the vineyards, where small wooden houses
are specially erected for their accomodation, and these useful animals
busy themselves incessantly all day long, in picking the insects from
the vine stalks, and so keen are they in their search, that scarcely
a single insect is left undiscovered or uneaten.
In summer, fresh grapes, both red and white, are a favorite
article of food amongst certain classes, and, with bread and cheese

or ham, constitute the Sarde dinner and break-fast, and, though a
curious compound, form no contemptible meal.
In Winter, the staple articles of food for the lower classes are
beans, potatoes, tomatoes (which have been cut and dried in the, sun),
Chesnuts, (also dried and peeled) and acorns, made into pulp and
baked, in which state it will remain sweet for many months.
Dry raisins and figs are not made in any great quantities, and
yet both might be made to almost any extent, and both are excellent.
The best raisinis are made in the neighbourhood of Alghero, from
a peculiar species of grape called Galoppo, which is looked upon
as the choicest fruit, and is specially reserved for raisins; not however
for sale, but as presents to friends and customers. The process
of preserving them is rather elaborate. Before the grapes are fully
ripe, the leaves are cut off, so as to produce rapid maturity; they
are then exposed in the sun, for several days, in baskets of * fennel ,
which impart a peculiar flavour; they are then dipped in a myste
rious liquor, the secret of the composition of which is known only
to a priviledged class of peasants, who regard it as a sort of hereditary
property. It is however a well-known secret,. that ashes, laurel leaves,
and aromatic plants from part of the mixture, which, when boiled, is of
a dark red colour. The grapes are dipped in this liquor, when boiling
hot, for a few seconds, and great care is taken that they do not
touch the ashes, which are at the bottom of the cauldron ; afterwards,
they are replaced in the fennel baskets, and dried in the sun for
abont ten days.
Many thonsands of these baskets are thus prepared every season ;
they weigh from 20 to 25 lbs each, but none are to be purchased ;
the whole being disposed of as presents, for which however, equally
if" not more, valuable presents in kind are expected, and received in
exchange. The olive groves stand next in importance ; olives are not only
largely cultivated, but grow wild in nearly every forest. The olive,
like the cork, must be cultivated, to obtain its full product and value.
This is done by lopping off all the shoots and small branches, and

— 89 —
grafting the cultivated olive on the " stumps „; and in 3 or 4 years
the wild tree will yield the cultivated fruit. The annual average net
produce, of an olive tree in the forest is estimated from 1 ]/2 to 2 lire,
and the cost of grafting can be contracted for at 1 lire per tree.
The yield, of a cultivated olive tree in well kept groves is,
however, more than double, in quantity and value, of those in the
forests. The olive tree attains to no great height or size, but lives
to a great age; the wood is valueless except for burning. The
making of oil from olives is specially referred to afterwards, amongst
the trades and manufactures of the Island.
Next in extent and importance are the groves of oranges and
lemons, and of these by far the most valuable and interesting are
those of Milis, which are not only the best in the Island but are
considered to be as fine as any in the World.
They extend in length about three miles, and are one mile
in breadth ; the number of full-grown bearing trees is upwards
of 300,000, beside the younger trees and plants, which it would be
impossible to count. Many of the old trees produce from 400 to 500
oranges each, but -taking all the bearing trees, old and young, a low
average would be 200 each, and this would give an annual produce,
from these groves alone, of over 10,000,000 separate fruit. This
estimate is, however, according to local authorities, much helow the
actual number. The " Boles „ of several of these trees are six
feet in circumference, and they stand about twenty feet high.
It is asserted, (but there does not seem to be any sort of re-
-cord about it) that these plants were introduced into the Island in
the 11th Century; but, whether this date be correct or not, there
can be no doubt that many of the Milis trees are several centu
ries old. The various species of oranges grown here, and in other parts of
the Island, are those known as the " bitter B orange (Citrus Brigar-
dia);,the Chinese (Chinotta); the bloodred (Sanguigua); the Norgon-
-gola ot the Italians, and the " Arrangi de crosa suttile „ closely
resembling the " Saint Michaels , ; amongst the Lemons are the

— 90 —
" Limoni naturali „ or the common lemon. " Limoni dulci „ or sweet
lemon, and " citrus medica ,, or citron.
The first season oranges come from the Ogliastra district, but
in other respects the " Milese „ and Domus Novas fruit are superior,
and this is owing, not to any particular system of cultivation, but to
the nature of the soil, and its thorough irrigation by the small river
that runs through the groves. The trees, when in full flower, per-
-fume the whole neighborhood, with an odour almost too powerful
to be agreable; and, so dense is the foliage, that the sun's rays
never reach the decaying blossoms, which have fallen from the trees.
The first appearance (says Mr Tyndale) of these groves " excites
neither astonishment nor admiration. It needs a walk under" the
canopy of their boughs, and hours of contemplatioon, before the beanty
and novelty of the scene can be realised and appreciated. On the
same trees may he seen the pale blossom, the green fruit, and the
ripe orange, and if, in like manner, the innocency of infancy, the
freshness of youth, and perfection of manhood, could be combined,
what a happy phase of existence would be created. Could we not
take a lesson from these silent teachers? B
Many other fruits including Figs, Pomgranates, Peaches, Apri-
-cots, Plums, Apples, Pears, Cherries, Strawberries, and a variety of
others, grow in great profusion, and might be cultivated to almost any
extent. No attempts, however, either at exportation or preservation
— both of which would be feasible at little cost or trouble —
have ever been made, and these industries might and ought to be
carried on with great profit.
There are no gooseberries, currants, or raspberries grown in
the Island, but blackberries are abundant.
Vegetables of all sorts thrive naturally, and no manure is ever
applied. Potatoes, tomatoes, asparagus, peas, beans, cauliflowers,
greens, spinach, lettuce, cabbage of several kinds, turinps and carrots
are plentiful, fine, and cheap. Many of them can be produced at all
seasons of the year.
Flowers grow wild in such numbers and variety that there is

- 91 —
no need to cultivate them. Almost every flower seen in our English
gardens may be found in Sardinia, and in addition many that will
not thrive in our climate, such as cactus, aloes, date, palms etc., all
which grow most luxuriantly.
Wild flowers grow in the forests, on the mountains, and in the
plains, in infinite profusion, and are surprising in their colouring and
richness. They comprise several hundred different sorts, many of
them rare and remarkable, but unfortunately I am not sufficient of a
botanist to attempt any description ; some estimate, however, of their
numbers may be formed, from the fact that their names alone occupy
several pages of a Latin Poem of hexametres and pentametres, which,
through neither poetical nor classical, is descriptive and ingenious.
Tobacco was first introduced into the Island during the Austrian
occupation A.D. 1710, and its manufacture was constituted into a Royal
Monopoly six years afterwards ; this was so unpopular at the time,
that it led to an insurrection, which, however, was soon quelled,
and the tax permanently established.
In the Sassari district, w:here the best tobacco is grown, the
quantity produced in 1881 (which is the last return obtainable) was
164 tous, in 1871 the quantity was about 100 tons. The extent of
land under this crop is about 500 acres, and each year it is being
extended. The growers of tobacco sell their produce raw to Go
vernment at a price, either agreed upon, or fixed by arbitratration ;
but the cultivators are obliged to sell, and the Goverment is under
an equal obligation, to purchase, the whole produce. The value
of a ton ot raw or un-manufactured tobacco varies with the season
and the quality, but about 1000 lire (L. 40) may be taken as the
average price.
Mushrooms abound, and are to he found in almost every part
of the Island, and attain to a large size ; but their flavour is not
equal to our English mushroom.
There is however a bulb called " Tavura de arena , something
between a potato, a mushroom and a truffle. It has a dark skin, a
soft interior, and a pleasant taste, more resembling that of the truffle

— 92 —
than the mushroom ; it is found in greatest perfection in the months
of March and April ; there are special " Tavura Hunters, „ who pierce
the ground, where the bulb grows, with a sharp pointed stick, and,
when the bulb is touched, a sound is produced, as if the air were
escaping, which is the certain test of its presence. They are dressed
as truffles, and are much esteemed in the Island as a great delicacy,
as indeed they would be in any country.
From the preceding remarks upon the agricultural pastoral and
horticultural condition of the Island, it will have been observed, that
the two latter have made rapid strides in advance ; that animals of
every breed have been greatly improved, and that the state of im-
-provement is progressive ; and that much attention is being paid
to the cultivation of vines and other fruits, and their cultivation is
being largely extended. It is, however, far otherwise as regards
agriculture , for which the soil and climate of the Island are admirably
and specially adapted ; and here very little has been done or is doing,
and indeed it may be said to be retrograding, rather than advancing.
According to the old historian Diodorus Siculus, the Carthagi
nians coveted the island for " its richness and fertility „ and fought
many battles to gain it, and though, when they got possession
of it, they at first restricted agriculture, yet they afterwards did all
in their power to encourage it; and, when the Romans dispossessed
them, it was, according to Polybius, another faithful historian, " most
" fruitful and productive. „ Horace speaks of " opimas Sardiniae segetes
feraces ; B Cicero calls it " A granary of the state ; B Pliny mentions
" supplies for the Roman army and navy being obtained from it; „ and
in the last year of the 2rd Punic War, it is on record, that large
" granaries „ were built in Rome to receive « Sardinian corn. , Plu-
-tarch too, speaks of Pompey's visit to the island, for the express
purpose of purchasing grain; and Pausanias refers to Sardinia as
" most fertile and prosperous. „ Prudentius and Claudian also speak
of it as supplying the Roman granaries, and Salvian in the 5tt Cen
tury, when lamenting the losses of the Roman Empire speaks of
the invasion of Sardinia as the " cutting off its vital veins. ,

— 93 —
This concurrent testimony can leave no doubt but that during
the 700 years of the Roman occupation, the Island was most produc
tive, and it is authoritatively stated, that, during this same period, the
population amounted to two millions; agriculture must therefore at
that time have been in a much more advanced state, and a much greater
extent of land must have been under cultivation, than at the present.
The population now is not one third in number of what it is said
to have been then, and the home consumption must of course have
been proportionately larger, and yet the present exports of grain are
insignificant, compared with what they must have been, if we are to
believe contemporary historians, in ancient times. It is however esti-
-mated that at the present time, three fourths of the arable lands are
uncultivated, and that, if the whole were under proper cultivation,
five times the quantity of corn now grown could be produced.
This subject, so vitally affecting the salubrity and material pro
sperity of the Island, deserves and is receiving the utmost atten
tion and consideration on the part of the Goverment, and it will
be specially and more fully referred to in the concluding Chapter of
this volume, when discussing the various projects for the future ame-
-lioration of the conntry.

CHAPTER VII.
Forests — Extent — History — Oak — Ilex — Cork — Poplar
— Birch — Ash — Walnut — Chestnut — Maple — Bark — Charcoal —
Cork — Ashes — Guardie Forestali — Government Supervision —
Forest-laws — Rain-fall — Suggestions.

" The Forests in Sardinia, once the pride and glory of the
" Island, are fast disappearing, „ — so writes the " Historian „ in
Murray's Continental Guide, — and, as the information in that useful
book is, on most points and in the main, wonderfully accurate, and
de-servedly relied upon, it becomes the more necessary to direct atten-
-tion, when a wrong impression is created, and the more so, when that
impression has become generally prevalent. It will doubtless be
gratifying to the author to know, that his information as to the
past is unfounded, and that his prophetic lamentations as to the
future are not likely to be realised.
There can however be no doubt, that, in ancient times, the Sarde
forests were far more extensive, than they are in the present day; but
so also were the forests of Great Britain, and of every other known
country, where a considerable portion of the surface was originally
covered with trees.
Where now are the grand old forests of Sherwood and Charnwood,
and the * chases „ of Cannock and Cranbourne, and many others of classic

— 96 —
or historic fame, of which scarcely the slightest vestiges exist at the
present time? and have we not had to pass the most stringent laws,
for the preservation of the few remaining mutilated strips of woodland,
that are still left to us? ,
In America, are they not already complaining of the rapid de
struction of their forests, and expressing the gravest apprehensions,
that in a few years there will be a scarcity of wood, even for their
own purposes, and have they not recently passed laws to encourage
the re-planting of trees in several of the western of states now
entirely disafforested? and are not Canada and Norway, whence we
get the main supplies of timber, for our collieries and other works,
each year finding it more and more difficult to keep up the supply?
No doubt the forests of Sardinia have been hardly and ronghly
used; large tracts have been wantonly fired by the shepherds for
pasturage, and fine trees, especially cork, ruthlessly destroyed for the
sake of their bark and ashes, when, by judicions cultivation, they
might have produced periodical supplies for centuries to come, and yet
have been barbarously sacrificed for the sake of the one crop imme
diately obtainable. Still the forests of Sardinia contain many millions
of magnificent and valuable trees; and, considering the comparative
size and population of the island, it would be no exaggeration to say,
that Sardinia now can boast of possessing a greater area of forest,
covered with more available timber, than any other civilized country
in the world.
In the south of the Island the woods are isolated, but some
of them are of large extent, and in the west, there are also several
extensive tracts of land still in forest; but what may now be called
" par excellence „ the " forests, „ i. e. continuons tracts of woodland,
stretching far beyond where the eye can reach, and covering hun-
-dreds of square miles, are situate in the centre and northern parts
of the Island, in remote districts, and at a distance from either sea
or railway. The Genargentu has one of the most extensite conti-
-nuons tract of forest, and is the centre of the highest range of nioun-
-tains, and there trees grow and thrive at an elevation of over 4000

— 97 —
feet above the sea; and, though not so large in bulk or height, as
those at a lower elevation, are yet vigorous and healthy, and do not
appear to suffer from either climate or exposure.
It is calculated, from official sources, that in the northern district,
there are not less than 12 million forest and timber trees i. e.
trees of full size, fit for the axe ; and in the centre district 32 millions
of such trees; and that in the west and south there are 21 millions
making a total of over 65,000,000 trees. This number is independent
of fruit-trees, cultivated and wild, the numbers of which are stated
to exceed another 50 millions.
The principal, and most common, of the forest trees are the oak,
ilex, cork, and wild olive.
There are several varieties of oak, but the " quercia bianca „ or
" Rovere „ as it is called in Sardinia, is the most common, and ivas the
most valuable. It attains to a great size, trees containing 300 cubic
feet of timber being not unusual, and " logs „ of great length depth
and width are easily obtainable. The bark is not however in demand
for tanning, and its bole and branches are not convertible into ashes
Or charcoal of marketable quality ; unless therefore the trees are
in easily accessible places, and within reasonable distance of either
rail or sea, (and few forests are so situated) they will not return a
remunerative price, and are therefore not worth felling. It is a sad
reflection that this " King of trees „ instead of standing, as it has
from time immemorial, at the head of the most honoured denizens
of the forest, is now fallen almost to the lowest order in point of
value and importance, and has to yield to the ilex, the cork, and other
trees of lees grandeur and pretensions, but of more practical utility.
The fact of its not " paying „ to fell an oak is however its best safe
guard and protection, and, except in some few favoured places, and for
local consumption, as railway sleepers or for building purposes, it is
allowed to grow neglected, and abandoned as a worthless object; a
marked but melancholy instance in nature of the mutability of
worldly affairs.
The decline in the value of oak timber is mainly owing to the

— 98 —
discontinuance of its use for shipbuilding purposes, which, from its
closeness of grain, resistance to cleavage, and comparative lightness,
it was admirably adapted ; steel and iron have however now, from
their superiority in both these qualities, and their comparative cheap-
-ness, entirely supplanted wood.
The felling of oaks and other trees is generally done by Tuscan
or Genoese woodmen, called in the Island " continentals „ ; they come
over in winter, and leave in June. The work is done by contract.
and the average price is 1 5 lire per cubic metre, and a cubic metre
is about 36 cubic feet. Freight, portage duty, and landing charges
will amount to at least 20 lire on the ton, and, when the carriage
from the forest to the rail or sea exceeds 25 lire per ton, which
in most of the remaining oak forests is now the case, there is an
aggregate cost of over 60 lire per ton, and this, at present price of
oak timber, would leave no appreciable profit, after commission freight
and other charges have been deducted.
The " Ilex, „ or ever-green oak, is the most common of all
forest trees; the numbers are officially given at over 30 millions.
It grows to a great size, both in height and bulk, and from not
shedding its leaves in winter, presents a gay and striking appear-
-ance, while its colleagues in the forests look sad and gloomy.
The wood of the Ilex is very brittle, and, when cut into
planks, warps so freely, as to be almost valueless for building
purposes. It has however many valuable properties ; its wood makes
charcoal of first-rate quality, fetching a high price in the market,
(about 60 lire per ton) and the bark, which stands next best to
cork for " tanning, „ purposes, is worth on an average from 120
to 140 lire per ton; the wood is convertible into either charcoal or
potash, and, in either of these shapes, it is light and easy of trans-
-port; points of the highest importance, where carriage is difficult
and costly. The wood of the ilex is converted into charcoal, by being cut
into lengths, 2 feet long by 6 inches broad, and then piled into
heaps, about 16 feet high and 20 feet long, and covered with earth

— 99 —
so as to exclude the air ; an opening being left at one end, at
which the light is applied, and the pile is then allowed to smoulder
till it dies ont. It takes two and a half cubic metres of wood (which
is rather more than two tons English) to make a ton of charcoal.
The ilex is stripped of its bark after it is felled; the process
of peeling the tree, when standing and growing, which is generally
done in England in the early spring, when the sap first begins to
run, is not practised on the oak or ilex, although it is on the
cork; the cost of felling and peeling is about 40 lire per tou, and
to this most be added the cost of carriage from the forest to the
sea-port, which, of course, depends entirely on the situation and
distance, and varies from 5 to 30 lire per ton; at the last named
sum however there would remain a substantial, though moderate,
margin of profit.
A good-sized ilex will yield about a ton of bark and 2 tons
of charcoal. In many forests, growing and inter-mixed with the ilex and
other trees, is a large shrub, called " Filledea „; it has often five
or six distinct shoots, all growing from the same root, but never at-
-taining any great height or thickness. They grow so close together,
that they form an almost impenetrable forest, impossible to pass
through, except where paths have been made. Their wood makes
the very best charcoal, and commands the highest price in the
market, and the cost of conversion is rather less than that of the
ilex. It is a very fast growing tree, and, after being cut, is ready
again for the axe in about 10 years.
The ilex in this respect has the same property, and, after being
felled, it will in the same period present a similar appearance and
growth as the Filledea, and have several shoots from the same root
or stem. During the first three years of growth it is necessary to
keep cattle sheep and goats from grazing in those parts of the forest,
where the felling has taken place ; but this is seldom or never
effectually done.
It is estimated that there are over 1 million full-grown serviceable

- 100 -
trees of the " Sughero „ or cork tree, nearly the whole of which
are in the northern forests, and, though it never attains any great
height or size, it is the most valuable commercially of all trees in
the island, and requires, as it deserves, the utmost protection and
attention. Unlike other trees, when stripped of its bark, instead of
languishing and dying, a process of recuperation at once sets in,
»nd in few years it is ready again to yield its full produce ; and this
process can be repeated for an indefinite leugth of time. It is one
of the most slow-growing, but longest-lived of trees ; it yields" its
first crop, when from 30 to 40 years old, but it is not considered
to have arrived at full maturity until it has reached the respectable
age of one hundred years.
The cork-tree has two distinct kinds of bark. The onter cuticle,
when the tree is in its virgin state, is valueless for manufactu
ring into corks, by reason of its roughness, owing to long exposure
to atmospheric influences; and yet it is light and buoyant, and is
used by fishermen for floating their nets, and is also used for the roof-
-ing of shepherds houses, and is made into pails, stools, and other
domestic utensils. For any of these purposes however it fetches but
a very poor price.
The system of preparing, or, as it is termed, " cultivating „ the
cork crop is very simple. The outer bark, which, if the tree be
very old, (as they always are in virgin forests) is about 6 inches
thick, is first stripped from the tree with a large kuife, and in doing
this, great care must be taken not to cause injury to the inner bark.
After this stripping, the inner bark then becomes the outer bark,
and another inner bark begins at once to be formed, which in 5
or 6 years will have grown to sufficient thickness and maturity to
keep the tree in full vitality ; the outer bark, which by that time
has attained a thickness of from one and a half to two inches, may
then be taken from the tree without danger to its future growth and
vigour; and the inner bark, which during this time has attained a
thickness of one quarter of an inch, thereupon becomes the outer
bark, and the process of recuperation again sets in, and in another

— 101 —
five years the tree is ready again stripping, and this may be repeated
for generations. The branches as well as the trunk are peeled,
but this is not done till two years after the ,bole has been barked
in order to keep the vitality of the tree unimpaired. The cost of
stripping off the bark (the tree of course standing, and growing
during the operation) is very nearly the same as for the ilex.
In former times, when forests were let on lease to speculators,
and up to a recent period, a very different system of dealing with
cork trees was resorted to, and it is adopted now, where the lease
of a forest is unexpired, or where the owner is a needy man, or in
want of immediate cash.
The tree was first felled and stripped of its outer bark, which
was sold for what it vould is would- fetch which was very little.
The inner cuticle was then taken off, and, though not valuable as
cork, it was most valuable as bark for tauning purposes, and fetched
from 175 to 250 lire per ton; the wood of the tree was then converted
into ashes, by boring a bole near the bottom, and setting fire to it, and
allowing it to burn till the whole tree became a heap of ashes, which
as potash commanded a high price in the market. An average tree
would produce from all these sources about 40 lire nett ; — but, when
this was done, there was nothing left ; " the goose that lay the golden
egg „ was killed.
It is calculated that each cultivated cork tree will yield on an
average, every 5 or 6 years, about 70 lb, of cork, and a ton of cork
will produce from 45,000 to 50,000 corks of the usual wine-bottle
size; in the rongh it is worth about £. 30, per ton, and there is there-
-fore a very a large margin of profit to the manufacturer; but this,
like many other profits, is lost to the Sardes, though they might,
with little trouble and cost, carry on the manufacture themselves.
The cork tree, it is said, will flourish for hundreds of centuries.
The other ordinary forest trees are almost valueless commer-
-cially, neither bark, charcoal, nor ashes, being producible from
them; and for the wood there is only a small local demand, which
is easily supplied. The poplar, and beech are used for making

— 102 —
carts, planks, wheels, and plonghs; ash is the best wood for shafts ;
while the walnut, maple, and chesnut are bought by the joiners
and cabinet makers ; but the aggregate demand is very limited.
The surface of the ground beneath the trees is in most forests ge
nerally covered with scrub and underwood, consisting principally of
arbutus, cistus, erica etc., some of wliich attain a height of 20 feet
with a diameter of 12 inches; but they have no market value, and
when they can be safely set fire to, without damage to the trees,
they are burnt for the sake of improving the pasturage.
It is however an undoubted fact that, even in comparatively
recent years, much injury to the forests has taken place, which
is irreparable, and deeply to be regretted. This has arisen, partly
from the apathy of the Government and the Communes, to whom
the greater portion of the forests jointly belonged, and , the loose,
and indeed almost reckless mode, in which the rights of felling
timber were leased to dealers — who of course only looked to the
main chance, viz, making the most they could in the present, regard-
-less of the future — and partly also, from the fact that under joint
ownership, involving divided responsibility, the supervision was of the
forests was imperfect, and the administration of the law ineffective.
Now however all this is changed, the joint ownership has been
severed, Government and the Communes have each their own separate
allotted portions and individual responsibility.
Those belonging to the Communes must, within a short period,
be divided and apportioned, and each proprietor have 'his own separate
property; the Government portions are already under direct Government
supervision, and special "Guardie Forestall, have been appointed.
Stringent laws too against trespass and burning have been passed,
and the Government forest guards, as also the Carabinieri quartered
in each district, have strict orders to see the laws carried out.
Powers also have been given to private forest-owners to ap-
-point " guardie forestall „ who wear a special uniform very similar
to that of the government guards, and carry, when on duty the same
arms, viz. sword, pistol and carbine, and they are clothed too with an

— 103 —
authority, equal to that of the carabinieri, to enforce the laws; these
powers, as also their duties, are large and varied.
Their duties are to see that no .illicit burning or wilful trespass
of men or cattle takes place, and they can not only arrest any person
transgressing any of the forest laws, or who is found in the forest
and cannot give a satisfactory account of hinself, but they can take
forcible possession of any gun, knife, or other weapon, he may
have upon him ; in the event of arrest, the offender is taken before
the " Pretore „ of the district, who adjudicates on the case at once
and inflicts fine or imprisonment, according to the gravity of the
offence. They have also power to impound any strange cattle, that
may be found in the forest, for the release of which a heavy fine
is leviable before the owner can recover them, and, if not redeemed
within a few days, they can be sold by auction for payment of the
fines and to defray the expenses of impounding and selling.
In case of apprehended disturbances, or if in pursuit of crimi-
-nals who are at large, the carabineers and guards are bound to
assist each other, and this they do most zealously, acting in concert
together. As a class, the guards are a fine and intelligent body ot men,
well-disciplined, well-armed, well-mounted, and fearless in the dis
charge of their duties, which are both arduons and dangerous. They
have to be out at all hours and seasons, often all night in the
snow, fog, wind, and rain, with nothing but their military cloaks
for protection against the weather, on the look-ont for depredations
which they suspect are about to be committed, or to capture some
old offender, who is eveding the executive. There are several of
these offenders still at large in some of the more extensive forests;
they live a miserable hunted life, screened by the shepherds, and
deriving a scanty and precarious subsistence from their friends in
the adjoining villages, whom they visit in secret during the night.
They however never attack travellers, nor even intrude themselves
as importunate beggars, whose demands it would not be prudent

— 104 —
to refuse or ignore; indeed their object is to keep ont sight as much
as possible. An additional protection too is afforded by the fact, that as
the forests become divided and sold, (a process going on very ra-
-pidly), they are inclosed with stone walls and subdivided, and these
operations further prevent trespass, as well as arrest the progress of
fire, whether arising by accident or design. Indeed, every precau
tion is now being taken, to stop further waste and destruction, and
to bring the forests under systematic control and regular management.
In the future, however, more even than in the past, much will
depend upon the private owner, but, as his interest will be all in
favour of protecting the forests, and making the most of them perma-
-nently, there ought not be a doubt as to their being dealt witth
generally — if not universally — in a very different manner than
they have been. Private owners, moreover, are not left altogether
to their own arbitrary will, for by the laws recently .passed, unlimited
felling of trees in any forest is prohibited under heavy penalties,
and the preservation of " clumps , or " belts „ of defined extent,
and at specified elevations, for the sake of shelter from the winds,
as well as for attraction of rain, is made penally obligatory, and this
latter object is of infinitely more importance than might at first appear.
The intimate relationship between trees and rainfall is almost
incredible to those who have not studied the subject, and when it
is considered how all-essential is rain to the health and prosperity
of Sardinia, the preservation of the remaining forests is not only
a point of the first importance, but the re-planting of portions of
some of the denuded forests, is almost equally imperative.
The Government fully realises this by the protective and restrictive
laws they have passed, and by distributing gratuitously young trees
for planting, and offering other inducements as encouragement.
The destruction of the forests, and the indiscriminate felling of
trees has had two -fold bad results.
The growing trees, though their leaves and branches, attract the
passing clonds by drawing to them the watery vapours they contain;

— 105 —
the rain descends , and having penetrated the soil under the
shade, and into the roots , of the trees , evaporation and ab
sorption take place more slowly, and the moisture is retained
in the ground much longer, and is given off more gradually, than
from from a bare surface of land, exposed to the heat of the sun
and other atmospheric influences; moreover, as the forests grow prin
cipally on sloping ground, and on the sides of precipitous moun-
-tains, when the trees are felled, the soil is gradually washed down
into the valleys and low grounds, and the bare rocks which form the
substratum are thus exposed, and being unable to retain the moisture,
the waters pour down into the valley in streams as they fall; and
these again add to the injury by increasing the volume of the rivers
beyond their natural flow, and consequently flooding the adjoining
low-lands. This strong affinity betwen trees and rain is no theoretical
dogma, but an admitted fact and has had practical confirmation in
many places of late years; a few illustrations will suffice.
When the Suez Canal was made, its banks were planted with
pine trees; and, as these increased in size, the rainfall in the district
also increased, and what was fomerly a dry arid plain is now a
comparatively fertile district. In the Island of Java, on the other
hand, not many years ago the plantations were all felled to extend
the cultivation of tobacco; the opposite effect however was the result,
and owing to the decline in the rainfall it was almost impossible to
raise the plants. Replanting was at once resorted to, and is already
having a sensible effect on the growth.
Still more pointed illustrations are , however afforded by the
two islands of Malta and S* Helena. On the former, which was
formerly well-wooded, all the trees were cut down, and the rainfall
in the Island so decreased that it was almost impossible to raise
crops, where formerly they grew and flourished. S* Helena, in the
time of Napoleon's residence, had no trees and no rainfall, and
was completely barren ; about 40 years ago it was planted with
pines and other trees, and now the rain descends in sufficient quan-

— 106 —
-tities to insure excellent crops and grain of fruit, and the character
of the latter island is as much changed in fertility for the better,
as Malta has been for the worse.
Such generally is the present position of the forests of Sardinia,
and the uses to which they are put, and the treatment to which
they are subjected; and it will be observed, that though much has
been done to stop the reckless and wanton destruction that had been
going on for generations, yet that nothing, or very little, is being
done towards the improvement of existing forests, and the restoration
of those that have been destroyed. Steps in both directions are
essential if the forests are to be preserved, and the rainfall, so vital
to the health and fertility of the island, is to be, regained.
As regards existing, forests, where the woodman's axe has never
been heard, as also in those, where a partial felling has taken place,
a great proportion of the oaks are either dead or dying. Often
have I stopped, when riding through almost interminable glades of
woodland, with trees of the finest timber on all sides of me, far as
the eye could reach, to admire the .magnificent panorama of continuons
forests apparently in full life and vigour, but alas a nearer inspection
and practical experience disclosed the sad conviction that disease had
abready begun. The bare brown topmost shoots and branches prp-
-claimed the unmistakeable sign of incipient decay, and told the
melancholy tale, that in a few short years, most of them would be
stretched alongside their dead brethren, who had abready succumbed
to the same fate, and were lying stark and blanched at their feet.
It was a solemn sight, producing serious reflections, but, fortunately,
not without a remedy, which, thongh severe, is the only alternative,
and that is, putting a merciful end to a miserable existence already
dying by inches from a disease, for which there is no cure viz,
old age. This would be a practical application of the old Sarde cu
stom of " accabatura „ to the worn-ont inhabitants of the forest.
The felling of these diseased trees, which are deteriorating every
year in value, would, no doubt, create great gaps in the forests ; but
these gaps would soon be filled by young oaks springing up

— 107 —
spontaneously from the acorns of their ancestors; and companions
might be given to them, wherever there were space and suitable
soil, by planting, near and around them, pines and larches, which,
being of quicker growth and earlier maturity, would not only shelter
and protect the young oaks during their infancy, but, when no longer
needed, could be felled and sold at remunerative prices.
As regards the lands totally denuded of trees, the greater part
of which is totally unfit for cultivation, and affords but indifferent
pasturage, owing to the thinness and poverty of the soil, a similar prin-
-ciple should be applied, viz, the planting of acorns, pines, and larches,
which would grow up together, the latter acting as nurses for the
oaks, which would become the permanent crop.
With regard to the cork trees ; those that are so ancient, as to
be no longer productive (of which however there are very few), should
at once be felled, and young trees planted in their places; the old trees
being turned to profit by conversion into bark and potash. The ilex
and filledea will reproduce themselves, if protected from cattle during
the earlier years of their growth ; and for this purpose, as well as for
better utilisation generally, the forests should be subdivided by walls,
so as to admit of the younger trees being protected, while other
divisions of the forest are pastured.
It is matter of extreme regret that these measures towards
preservation and recuperation, simple and inexpensive as they are,
and seeing their vast importance upon the general welfare of the island,
have not received earlier attention from the Government, and that
private owners have not, in their own interests adopted either these or
some other remedial steps. The Goverment seems however now to be
thoroughly impressed with the importaace of the subject, and a sense
of its duties and responsibilities, and it is to be hoped that private
owners will take the same view, and follow in the same course. So
far very few proprietors have done anything in this direction ; the
only exception almost to this sweeping charge, is an English pro-
-prietor, who has purchased large tracts of lands and forest in the
island, and who, in the management of his property, has set a whole-

— 108 —
some example, by shewing what can and ought to be accomplished.
It is to this gentleman too that the Sardes are mainly, if not al-
-togther, indebted for their railways, and it is gratifying to be able
to place on record some meed of praise in his honour, and to wish
him every success in the enterprises he is undertaking. Like all
pioneers and benefactors in every age and country, much that he
has done and is doing is looked upon with jealousy and mistrust ;
these feelings are however gradually disappearing, and when it is
" brought home „ to the Sarde mind, that the changes effected are
not only in themselves improvements, but are yielding a handsome
return on the capital invested, the example will doubtless be followed
by the more enlightened proprietors who can afford it, and his merits
will then be duly appreciated. This gentleman does not reside in
the island, but, with his family, visits it periodically; in his absence
he is ably represented by his resident agents, who enter heartily into
all his schemes for improvement, and carry them out " con amore. „
They are always willing, and indeed pleased, to shew and explain what
has been done to all visitors whether strangers or natives. It should
also be mentioned that there are attached to his estates at Macomer,
and to his forests ot Bolotona and Laconi, extensive nurseries for young
trees, for the filling up the vacant spaces in the forest, and for the
planting of new forests, where the ground is suitable. Every variety of
tree that it is thought might grow in the Sardinian climate, is being
cultivated on a large scale, but some years must necessarily elapse
before the results can be practically demonstrated. Up to the present
time, the young trees, that are thriving best in the nurseries, are the
pinus maritima and the larch, and if they continue to flourish as they
have done, they will form a most valuable addition to the foresti-
-culture of the Island; and, as they are fast growing trees, the wood
will soon be available for housebuilding, scaffolding, telegraph poles,
and railway sleepers, for which it is specially suited.

CHAPTER VIII.
Mines — Mining Laws — System of working — Lead and Silver
— Manganese-Zinc — Copper — Iron — Coal and Lignite — Nickel
— Marble — Granite — Clay — Porphyry — Agates — Sardonyx —
Cornelian — Amethyst — Roman workings — Present condition —
Future prospects.

Sardinia, from the earliest period of its history, has been noted
for the richness, extent, and variety of its minerals, and though there
is no detailed, or positive account in ancient records of their working,
there is sufficient evidence to shew that they were well known,
and had been worked during the period of the Phoenician colonization,
nearly 3000 years ago. The silver and copper coins of Phoenician
make attest conclusively to this ; and the lamps and vases found in
some of the old mines are stroug proof of their having been worked
by the Carthaginians. The Latin names of several of the mining
towns such as Feraria, Plantea and Argentaria afford presumptive
evidence of their having been in existence during the Roman possession,
and there is additional proof of the fact, not only from the ruins of
old smelting works, evidently of Roman construction, but from the
writings of several historians, who mention the payment of tribute
" in silver „ by the Sardes, and one Roman writer — Solinus Poli-
-phestus .— specially speaks of " argentiferons ore „.
From the Roman times, and during successive Governments of
the island till the 13*11 Century, no specific mention is made of mi-

— 110 —
-ning, but when the Pisans and Genoese were in possession, frequent
historical allusions are made to " payments of silver „, and it is
historically recorded, that the Genoese ou one occasion (A. D. 1283)
captured from the Pisans an " enormous quantity of silver „ with
which it, is said, that they "built their dockyards, and at another
period in A. D. 1303 the Pisan army is reported as " returning to
" their country loaded with silver „.
In A. D. 1865 there was found at Iglesias, the Capital of the.
mining district, a valuable work containing the Sarde mining Code
that had been in force during the time of the Pisans, and which
had been approved of by Alfonso of Arragon A.D. 1337.
The terms of this code are most liberal, and it may be interes-
-ting to mention some of the main provisions. It enacts that any
person, who thought he had found minerals any where, might explore,
and if a trace was discovered, the spot was to be marked with a
cross, which was not to be nearer to any other similar cross, than 25
paces, and the contemplated works were not to penetrate into adjoin-
-ing works ; if the works were abandoned for a fixed time, any
other person might become the proprietor, bnt for three months,
this was not to deprive either the first explorer, or the proprietor
of the soil, of his rights.
This code too greatly advanced the miner's social status, by
declaring that, after he had worked 5 years at the mines, he had
the right to be made a magistrate, whose functions were amougst
other duties to see to the safety and proper working of mines.
The royalty payable to Government was fixed by the same
code at 1/12Ul of the gross produce of the mines ; but the crown
gradually acquired an exclusive right to all mines ; and it is on re-
-cord that, in A.D. 1472, nearly the whole of the mines in the Iglesias
district had been granted to a Company who also had the privi-
-ledge of smelting and refining all the minerals of the Island.
During the Spanish regime, mining was neglected, but the
Crown claimed the ownership of the mines, and in A.D. 1557
leased them all in bulk to a Florentine speculator ; but he made

— Ill —
nothing ont of them. It appears that the kings of Spain during
their dominion, granted altogether 40 concessions, most of which
included all the mines in the Island. Considering however that the
Spaniards had the mineral riches of the " new World , in their pos
session, their indifference to Sardinian mining is not perhaps much
to be wondered at.
When Sardinia came under the Savoy dynasty, mining attracted
more attention, and in 1741 the whole of the mines were let to a rich
Company for the term of 30 years. Quartz veins were then for the
first time worked, and powder was first used for blasting ; it was
during this period that the large rich vein known as " Monte vec-
-chio„ was first discovered, and it is reported, that this vein alone
repaid all the exdenditure, that had been incurred by the Company.
The mine is still in active operation, and is at the present time
the richest in the island.
In spite, however, of this fortunate discovery, mining generally
continued in a languishing state for nearly a hundred years during
the European troubles, and towards the end of the 18th century it alto-
-gether collapsed; and it was not till the year 1832 that any attempt
at revival was made. A new code of mining laws was then pub-
-lished, with the view of encou raging the industry; it was published
at Cagliari in 1834, and amongst its 31 articles (all more or less
restrictive) there were clauses rendering it compulsory to carry on
the working under the direction of a government engineer, whose
approval was also necessary to all plans for erecting smelting works,
or other buildings ; the produce of the mines could not be sold without
the permission of the Intendant General; a daily journal of the working
of the mines had to be kept, and exhibited once a month at the In-
tendants office ; and a series of other vexations and arbitrary provi
sions was imposed, under which few persons were found willing to
embark their capital, or risk their labours. Perhaps the best practical
proof of the restrictive effect of this Code was afforded by the fact,
that the total value of " exports „ of metals from the Island at
that period (as shewn by official returns) was only £. 5878 per

— 112 —
year while at the present time they reach nearly £. 200,000. This
very unsatisfactory state of affairs, it was evident, could not endure
long, and indeed a more enlightened policy was# very soon adopted.
In 1840 the Code of 1834, with all its obnoxious regulations,
was repealed, and the mining laws in force on the Continent were
substituted in their place. These laws were framed with the view
of encouraging mining, and all their provisions have that tendency;
fresh laws were passed in 1859 after the annexation of Lombardy
to Piedmont, but they simply confirmed the laws of 1840, which
are now practically in force, and all mining operations at the pre
sent time are regulated by them. These laws for the first time
made distinctions between the different sorts of minerals, declaring
that mines of stone, marble, marl, clay, and others ubstances, which
may be considered as superficial, were the property of the owner
of the soil, but that all metalliferons substances, wherever found,
were the property of the State, and could not be worked even by
the owners of the soil, withont government permission.
This permission was however made obtainable by any person
who applied for it, on his declaring that there were indications of
metalliferous deposits ; and the Prefect, upon the refusal of the
owner of the soil to allow the exploration, had power to grant the
permission upon payment of land-surface damages to the owner. The
license had force for a year, and if, during that time, the expected
minerals were found — and the government engineer so reported —
the explorer had to define the exact limits, and extent of his pro
posed operations, (which were not to exceed an area of 400 hectares)
and then after certain publications, and, if there were no opposition,
the required concession was granted to the explorer by the Council
of mines and the State. The concession is a perpetual grant, but
liable to forfeiture, if the mines remain un- worked for two years in
succession. The royalty payable to government was as first only
3 per cent upon the value of the produce, but the law of 1859
increased the royalty to 5 per cent, and imposed in addition an
annual payment of 50 centimes, by way of rent, for every hectare

— 113 —
of superficial area included in the grant. This law also gave
certain powers of inspection, and of insuring the safe working of the
mines, and the health of the miners, but it in no other way af-
-fected the law of 1840, and altogether it was as liberal in its pro-
-visions, and as little restrictive in any of its conditions, as the
most enterprizing or captious miner could desire. There are 500 of
these permissions now running, but they are mostly of a specula
tive character ; very few will ever arrive at the age of concession,
and still fewer reach the more advanced stage, of developemenfc,
or actual working.
The concessions now existing do not exceed one hundred in
number, and of these a very small proportion are worked to the
extent they ought to be, and a still smaller number are worked to
a profit, or indeed without actual loss.
In speaking of the geological formation of the Country, it was
mentioned that the mineral veins were generally found at the junction
between the schist and calcareous formations. These veins or seams
are of two kinds, the continuous or " true fissure „ vein, which runs
with the stratification, and the isolated mineral ores found in
" pockets „, and filling all the holes and crevices which have been
left by the various upheavings and movements of the earth's body.
The former are the most to be depended upon as a permanent
source of supply, but the latter, though more uncertain and specu
lative, are often the richest and most productive.
Very little English capital is embarked in mining enterprises
in Sardinia. At the present time there are only three such com-
-panies, and. their united capital is not very large. One of them
(the most important) is also possessed of extensive forests, and pays
5 per cent to its shareholders ; of the other two no reliable infor-
-mation was obtainable.
The total number of persons employed on all the mines, in the
underground workings and on the surface, exceeds 20,000, of which
rather over half are " miners „ i. e. underground workers, and earn
on an average from 3 to 6 lire per day ; and the " surface B men earn

- 114 -
about half as much The former class, until a few years ago, were
mostly " continentals „ from the mining districts of Italy, but now
by far the greater proportion are Sardes, and each year this pro-
-portion is increasing.
At most mines work is carried on during the whole year. For-
-merly working was discontinued during the summer months, owing,
it was said, to the fear of malaria, but really owing to the " con
tinentals „ making it an excuse for returning to their homes for
three or four months, to enable them to reap their own harvest,'
and rejoin their families. Now, however, that the Sardes are gra
dually filling their places, this condition of things is being altered,
and work at the principal mines is continued uninterruptedly through-
-out the whole year.
The Sardinian mines may be divided into 8 groups or classes viz.
Silver-lead, Iron, Copper, Manganese, Zinc, Coal or Lignite, Antimony,
and Nickel. Lead and silver (the two ores are always found together, and are
called argentiferons lead,) are the most valuable mines, and the most
extensive ; the greater number are near Iglesias, but they are found
also in other parts of the island. Of these mines the richest and
most important are those of Monte Vecchio and Monteponi ; and both
are in the Iglesias district.
Monte Vecchio is situate, about 20 kilometres West of S. Gavino
a station on the main line of railway, and has a private branch
line to the mines about 9 miles in length, worked by locomotives, and
carrying passengers and goods, as well as minerals.
The superficial area of this mine embraces 3 concessions of 400
hectares each, equal to about 3000 acres. There are several workable
veins or seams running through the area lengthways, and varying
from a few inches to 12 feet in thickness, and in richnes of lead ave
raging from 80 to 85 per cent of lead, and from 70 to 140 grammes
of silver per torn.
These mines were first worked early in the 17th Century, and
have passed through many vicissitudes of good and bad times in the

— 115 —
interval, but since 1865 they have had an almost uninterrupted period
of prosperity,, and are now being worked with the greatest activity.
The operations are on a grand scale ; there are several pits or shafts,
with powerful steam engines for drawing up the ore, pumping ont
the water, and ventilating the workings. The galleries of exploration
and working extend to an aggregate length of over 10 kilometres;
all well-laid with iron or steel rails, on which the ore wagons are
propelled, either by ponies or small locomotives, for transporting the
mineral to the " Cribbles „ These machines, which are really large
riddles, are worked by steam, and by the continuous injection of
streams of water, the ore is kept in motion, and the metal is thus
separated from the earthy substances mixed with it ; the ore is then
washed, and after being picked over by hand and piled into heaps,
is in saleable condition.
The annual " output , varies between 4000 and 5000 tons, and,
the ore (silver and lead together) sells at present prices for about
£. 12 per ton. There are about 2000 work-people, above and below,
regularly employed, and of these fully five-sixths are men, and the
rest women and children. They are well cared for, having confortable
houses at moderate rents, medical attendance and hospital, and a
sick club, to which both masters and men contribute ; and, the
mines being situate at an elevation of nearly 1000 feet above the
campagna, the climate is healthy, and the mines are worked conti
nuously throughout the year.
Monte Poni is the next most ancient mine, and the next also
in importance. It is situate about 2 miles from the town of Iglesias,
and though the ores are not so rich in silver and lead as Monte Vec-
-chio, yet the mines themselves are more extensive, and have the
advantage of producing calamiue of zinc, as well as argentiferous lead.
This mine was in the hands Government, and worked by State
officials until 1875, when it was sold to a Genoese Company for one and
or half million lire, and since then it has been largely developed.
Its superficial area is very large, larger that Monte Vecchio, and
when it was sold to the Company it had nearly 60 kilometres in

— 116 —
length of under-ground roads (of which 15 were laid with rails and
sleepers) and a large number of shafts, most of them worked by power-
-ful engines. Some of the shafts were over 1000 feet deep, and so
great was the volume of water at this depth, that it was found im-
-possible to keep the mines dry by pumping, and in 1882 a tuhdel,
about 6 kilometres in length, was commenced so as to take the
water from the lowest levels by gravitation; this tunnel will, it is
expected, be completed in another twelve months. The total cost
of the work is estimated at 3 million lire, but it will render workable t
or " un-water „ nearly 100,000 tons of ore, which, at a moderate
computation, will be worth over 20 million lire, and this will not only
amply repay the ontlay, but the saving in the cost of pumping will be
enormous, and the profits on the general working of the mines will
be proportionately increased.
The argentiferons ore varies greatly in quality, and. is separated
into three classes, containing respectively 80, 60, and 20, per cent,
of lead; the proportion of silver in each quality is small, not ex-
-ceeding 25 grammes.
The treatment of the ore is by mechanical riddles, and it is
sold in its raw state, as at Monte Vecchio. The output last year
was rather over 14,000 tons. '
The vein or seam of calamine " crops ont , about 450 feet
from the top of the mountain, which is here about 1500 feet above
the sea; in some places the width of the seam is over 100 feet, and
the ore, when calcined, contains about 50 per cent of metallic zinc;
the out-put last year was close upon 10,000 tons.
The cost of getting and preparing for market a ton of lead ore
is about 10 lire, and of calamine (including calcining) about 45 lire;
to these must be added the cost of carriage to the seaport in the
Gulf of Palmas, to which the Company has a private railway, about
21 kilometres in length. At present prices the argentiferous ore
leaves no appreciable profit, but the calamine of zinc is fairly re-
numerative. The number of persons employed in and about these mines is

— 117 —
over 3000, and the monthly wages and expenses average L. 5000
sterling. There are houses for the men, hospitals, medical attendance,
sick clubs, and other advantages, as at Monte Vecchio, and the
management generally is economical and efficient.
There are about 30 other mines of lead, silver, and zinc, in the
Island, but none of them so extensive or important as Monte Vec
chio or Monte Poni; all are similar in character, but the greater
number of them produce only a few hundred tons of ore during the
year, and it would occupy too much space, and answer no useful pnr-
-pose to describe them in detail There is, however, one mine, situate
at Masua about 20 kilometres from Iglesias, which has a smelting
furnace, a shipping port, and some other specialities which are in-
-teresting. This mine is most picturesquely situate on the side of high pre-
-cipitous mountains, overlooking the Port of Masua, on the Western
coast of the Island, from which it is distant abont l1^ miles.
The ores comprise lead silver and calamine, found in the same
or contiguous seams, and worked together ; the relative thickness of
each varies greatly ; as a rule, the more the zinc, the less the lead
and silver, and vice versa, but the average may be taken at about
33 per cent of lead, 47 grammes of silver, and 45 per cent of zinc,
per ton, All the ores are passed through " Cribbles,, and any lead ore,
which does not average more than 30 per cent of lead, is smelted in
the furnaces at the mines (it would not pay the cost of transport and
would otherwise be valueless) ; the higher qualities of ore are sold
direct from the heaps, after passing through the cribbles.
The calamine is calcined before it is sold, and averages from
45 to 50 per cent of metallic zinc.
Iron. — A few years ago there were 6 mines opened, and at
work, but none of them of any great extent or importance, except
the mine at San Leone, which ceased working nearly 2 years ago.
San Leone is situate about 10 kilometres to the north of the
Gulf of Cagliari, and has a private railway from the mines to the

— 118 —
Port; the superficial area of the concession is about 1000 acres.
The ore was quarried from the surface, the veins being of great
thickness, and of an average quality of 54 per cent of metallic iron.
All the arrangements were on the most approved modern plans for
extensive working, and with inclined planes to bring the ore to the
railway wagons, and capable of transporting 150,000 tons a year;
the average ontput, however, during the 5 years of its working, was
only 14,000 tons, and never exceded 20,000 tons in any one year.
Copper — There is not now, and has not been since 1872, any
copper mine in operation; and the product of the largest mines of those
formerly in operation did not exceed 100 tons a year. There have
been several attempts since made to open other mines; but, though
samples of rich ore were often found, yet the veins were so uncer-
-tain and unreliable, that no actual working of any of them has ever
been carried on.
Manganese. — This mineral has not hitherto been extensively
worked in the island, and the only mine, of which there is any
official return at present, is " Capo Reggo , which is situate on the
coast, about 9 miles from the Port of Carloforte. The ores are of
fair average quality, and are used either in the making of steel, or
for chemical purposes, according to their quality. They are shipped
to Marseilles; the price is about 25 lire per ton, and the yearly
out-put is about 8000 tons.
There are several other mines of manganese, now in course
of being opened out, and favourable reports are given of many of
them ; they are, however, not yet sufficiently developed to form any
definite opinion upon them, and there are no official reports of their
working or output.
Nickel. — Only one mine called " Perdo de Fagas , has been
worked, though many have been discovered, and permission to work
granted. This mine is in the Iglesias district, and the ore was very '
rich, containing 25 per cent of nickel. During the 4 years it was
worked, about 90 tons were got, which realised, it is said, £. 70
per ton. The mine was, however, abandoned several years ago, for

— 119 —
reasons not made public, but most probably because it was either
exhausted, or could not be worked to a profit.
Antimony. — There were two mines of this mineral at work,
but only that of " La Sangins ,, in the Lanusei district, now survives ;
its last official production is put down at 180 tons, and valued at £. 10
per ton ; and the ore contained 55 per cent of antimony.
Coal. — or rather Lignite — is found in several parts of the
island, but the largest area in extent, and the best in quality, is sit-
-uate near Gonessa in the Iglesias district, where there is one " basin „
which is estimated to comprize 30 square miles. The thickness of
the seam, which lies almost horizontal, varies from 6 to 8 feet, and
is worked by means of shafts and galleries, on the old " pillar and
stall , system, as formerly practised almost universally in England.
The first mine of which there is any official record, " Terra
di Colla „, was opened in 1854, but, after a languishing existence
of 20 years, it expired in 1875, having produced altogether about
400 tons. Another mine called " Fontenasso „ was opened in 1860
and its produce last year was about 1000 tons. A third mine
called " Bagu abbis „ in the same district, was opened in 1862, and
is now in moderately active operation ; the last official retnrn shews
an output of over 11,000 tons, with an average selling price at the
pit of about 10 lire per ton; but at this price it will scarcely repay
the cost of production. The price of South Wales or Durham coal
is nearly treble this sum at the Ports of Cagliari, and Carlo Forte,
but, notwithstanding this great difference, it is preferred as the more
economical fuel at the mines where both are used.
It is said that in the north of the island, near " Seni , coal
of an anthracite character has been found, from 6 to 8 feet in
thickness, of good quality, and with only a few traces of sulphur.
Some experiments have been made with this coal, with the result,
that every unit of carbon vaporised 4. 5 units of water, but that,
to get complete combustion, it was necessary to have a strong
draught, and a large superficies of furnace grating. In the interest
of Sardinia it is most desirable that these experiments should be

— 120 -
continued on a larger scale, as they no doubt will be; but before
the coal could be utilized to any great extent, it would be essential
to place the coal-fields in direct communication with the railways,
and this would necessitate the making of new lines of considerable
length for the special purpose.
Marble and Granite of good quality and of various colours,
white, red, gray and variegated, are found in many parts of the
Island, and might be most extensively quarried and profitably worked,
but to accomplish this, and especially for quarrying in large blocks (in
which form it is the most valuable) good roads, communicating di-
-rectly with the railways, are essential; this will be to a great extent
effected when the proposed new lines are constructed, and a great
export trade might then be established. Meanwhile the consump
tion is limited to the local demand for ornamental building purposes,
which is inconsiderable.
Alabaster of fine quality has also been found in several districts,
near Cagliari, Lanusei and Laconi, and in some of the " grottoes, ,
but it has not been developed as an article of commerce; and
whether it would " pay , to work has yet to be seen ; while however
there are so many other minerals and industries undeveloped, offering
more certain profits, it is not likely to receive much attention.
Porphyries of different sorts have been discovered, and are held
in high- estimation.
Among the primary Calcareous formations are also some sacca-
roidal marbles of beautiful grain, and marble of green and black
colour ; and in the secondary limestone formation black marble has
been occasionally met with.
Jasper abounds in the Trachyte and Dolomite, and amongst the
Calchedones are to be found Agates and Cornelian, Sardonyx and
Amethyst, also the Hydrophane called "La Pietra trasmezzano , from
its peculiar property of becoming transparent, when immersed in
water. Turquoise and Garnets are found, but not frequently, as also
alabaster and gypsum.
Of clays there is a great variety, used for glazing as well as

— 121 —
in the manufacture of common pottery, which is carried on in
many parts of the Island.
At Domus Novas, and several other places in the Island, a large
and profitable trade was for many years carried on by smelting the
scoria or refuse workings of mines and furnaces, that had been
worked in former times. The total quantity so worked is said to
have exceeded 120,000, tons and to have yielded 18,000 tons of lead,
besides silver. This scoria is now exhausted, and the trade is of
course at an end, but it was very profitable while it lasted, and
affords additional evidence as to the extent to which in ancient times
mining operations were carried on in the Island, as also of the im-
-perfect manner in which the ore was treated, and the metal extracted.
It is historically recorded that, during the later period of the
Roman occupation of the Island, the Emperors, Valentinian, Valens,
and Gratianus, issued stringent edicts prohibiting mining experts
visiting Sardinia, " lest, , so ran the exact wording of the decrees,
" they should become too affluent, or lest the superiority of the
, mines should cause the mines in other Roman provinces to be
„ neglected. „
Such a prohibition seems in the abstract strange at any period, and
in these times sounds peculiarly absurd and sarcastic, to those interested
in Sardinian mining at the present day; seeing how few mines there
are which can be worked to yield any profit at all, and how
very many there are, which are being carried on at an absolute
loss, and, one after the other, are being abandoned.
The languishing condition of this second most important industry
of the Island, (agriculture must come first), forming, as it does, the
most expansive item of export, and bringing more money into the
country, . than all the other items of export put together, deserves
the most serions consideration; and the causes that have led to its
depression, or are preventing its extension, require the fullest
examination. The great fall in the price of metals, and especially of lead
(which is the most extensively worked mineral) is, no doubt, one

— 122 —
of the main causes of the present stagnation. The decline in value
has been very nearly 50 °/0, and when it is remembered, that out
of the remaining 50 °/0 all wages, and working and administrative
expenses, have to be paid, it will be seen, that, even if the profit
formerly had been 100 °/0 there would be no margin left now; but,
as the profits from the best mines, in the best times, never exceeded
50 °/0 a reduction in cost of production, in order to make "both
ends meet, , becomes an absolute essential to " carrying on , in the
future. It is however only in the large mines, that there is scope
for the exercise of substantial economy ; and it necessitates the stop
page of all " dead , or " unprofitable , work, and of all " explora
tions , (the continuance of which operations is essential to the proper
working of all mines), and can only be resorted to as a temporary
expedient, which will have to be " overtaken, , and form the first
expenditure, on the arrival of better times, and before any division
of future profits can properly be made.
It is well known, amongst the mining circles in Sardinia, that
the mines, which are at present making any profit at all, could be
counted on the fingers, and though many others continue to struggle
on, yet it is at a loss to the mine-owners, and in the hope of better
times. Much, indeed everything, will depend on the turn of the
metal market; if the value of lead, owing to the large and increased
supplies from America, Spain and other countries, were to remain
permanently at its present low price, with no increased consumption
or demand, the prospects of lead-mining in Sardinia would be
gloomy indeed; but a more hopeful view is taken by those best
qualified to form an opinion; and in a short time, the resumption
of active operations in the mines still working, and the re-opening
of many others that are now closed, are looked forward to with con-
-fidence at no distant date.
Lead, however, is not the only metal that has declined in price,
though it has had the most serious fall. Iron, copper, manganese,
zinc, and almost all other metallic substances, have, more or less,
fallen in value. Calamine has experienced the least depression, and

— 123 —
some of the best mines, those producing calamine as well as argen-
-tiferons lead, have been enabled to " carry on, , and owe their
salvation, to this mineral.
There are, however, many other causes of depression, besides
decline in prices, some in themselves slight, but making up a serious
aggregate, and sufficient to turn the scale, when it is nearly on the
balance; and it is the " last straw that breaks the camel's back. „
Of these causes the greatest is many, in indeed most instances
insufficiency of capital for developing the mines properly, and working
them economically; the consequence of which is, that in some mines
the workings never reach the depth or direction where the " vein »
in its fullness and richness is, according to scientific knowledge, most
likely to be found; and in other mines, where they have reached the
vein, the " eye , or " plum , is alone extracted, for the sake of imme-
-diate gain, irrespective and regardless of the irreparable damage
which is being done to the future and permanent working of the mine.
Another, and equally serious, drawback is the great distance at
which many mines are situate from the Railway or Sea-board, and
in some cases even from Provincial or Communal roads. Several of
the richest known mines may be said to be almost inaccessible,
the cost of transport by horses or in bullock-wagons, first to the
public road road, then to the railway, and then to the Port, with the
expense of loading and unloading, aud shipping and export dues,
swallow up the greater part of the value of the ore, leaving insuffi-
-cient even for wages and other expenses.
This evil will, to a great extent, be remedied, when the railway
extensions, now in contemplation, are completed, for they will penetrate
into many distrcts, where these mines are situate; and, when the line
of railway is within " measurable distance, „ either tramways, direct
from the mines to the railway, or wagon roads, communicating with
existing roads, will be constructed, and this alone will, in a great
number of cases, decide the opening and working of many rich
mines, that are now closed, unopened, or unexplored.
Another serious drawback is the want of smelting furnaces; there

— 124 —
are at present in the whole island only three mines where lead ore
is smelted and made into " pig „, and these furnaces are compara-
-tively small, not capable of smelting one half the production of the
mines to which they are attached; and there are no furnaces for the
smelting of iron or other minerals. The ores therefore have to be sold
and shipped in their raw or crude state, and the purchasers, who are
either smelters or commission agents, in arriving at the price (which is
founded on the market price of metal for the day) take good care
to be on safe side in their deductions for the cost of conversion, so as
to leave a " fair „ margin of profit for themselves under any cir
cumstances. Taking argentiferous lead ore, the mineral most com-
-monly sold in the Island as a'n example, the following deductions
are made, and generally allowed.
1st 9 °/0 as the loss on fusion of the lead, the actual loss being
on an average not more than 5 °/0.
2ad 4 °/0 as the loss on silver, upon which there is really no
loss at all.
3rd 60 lire as the cost of fusion or smelting, the actual cost
being not more than 40 or at the most 45 lire per ton.
4" The freight by sea from the port, where the ores are put
on board, to the site of the smelting works on the Continent, with
insurance and other expenses are together generally aggregated at
about 4 lire per ton over the actual cost.
These deductions and payments added together constitute a for
midable total, and make all the difference between a " living , profit
and a substantial loss; and all of these, as well as the saving in
freight by shipping the metal direct to the consumer, instead of the
ore to the smelter, might be secured to the mine-owners by smel-
-ting their own minerals, either at their own mines where prac
ticable, or where that is not within their individual reach or power,
by combining together and erecting works for common use at
Cagliari or some other convenient port of shipment, where fuel and
labour are easily and cheaply obtainable.

CHAPTER IX.
Trades — Industries — and Manufactures — Salt — Wine — Oil —
Flour — Cheese — Butter — Honey — Soap — Potash — Alkali — Soda-
¦Pottery — Tanning — Lime-burning — Brick making — Gunpowder —
Lucifer matches — Beer and Aerated waters — Handicraft-trades —
Labour.

The trades, manufactures, and other industries, if we except those
specially connected with agriculture forests and mining, which have
been referred to already, are few and insignificant, and limited almost
exclusively to the domestic requirements of the Island. Those most
important in extent, and which give employment to the greatest
number of operatives, and form the main articles of export are (ex
cepting minerals charcoal and bark) the manufactures of salt, wine
and oil. The manufacture of salt is not strictly a Government monopoly,
but Government owns the works and reservoirs at Cagliari and Carlo-
Forte, where alone it is manufactured and which are the only
establishments of the kind in the Island. The process is very simple
and inexpensive viz evaporation by the atmosphere of sea- water ;
at Cagliari it is pumped into reservoirs, which are very extensive,
and cover a superficial area of over five hundred acres ; they are
situated at a slight elevation above the level of the sea, with
which they are connected hy a canal. The salt water is pumped

— 126 —
into the reservoirs by steam-power, and let* out at pleasure through
a canal, by means of which also the salt is transported by boats,
direct from the reservoirs, to the sides of the export vessels.
The establishment at Cagliari, from its position, and the warmth
and dryness of the climate, is admirably adapted for the production
of salt by this process. The best season for evaporation is from
June to October, and during this period about one thousand workmen
are constantly employed ; but during the rest of the year a regular
staff of forty men is sufficient.
The workmen are convicts from the Prison of San Bartolomeo,
which is situated close to the works, and they are distinguished by
a costume, consisting of a white cloth coat and trousers, with a red
cap. The average yeraly manufacture is about 150,000 tons, the
whole of which, except the comparatively small quantity consumed
in the Island, is exported; about two thirds being taken to the Ita-
-lian mainland, and the remaining third sold, and exported direct,
to the north of Europe, Africa, and the East. The cost of produ
cing .a ton of salt does not exceed one shilling and three pence,
and the waste in the process of making and storage is about twenty
per cent ; the selling price at ihe ivorks, for Sardinian consumption,
is three shillings; the export price is much higher — more than
double. —
The works at Carloforte are carried on in the sane manner as
at Cagliari, but the annual production does not exceed 10,000 tons.
It is interesting to note that malarious fevers are unknown
amongst the work-people employed at the salt works, and it is sup-
-posed that the salt acts in some way as an antidote.
The conversion of wood into charcoal has been described, when
speaking of the forests, and it needs only to be added, that it forms
one of the most important manufactures in the Island, and is not
only largely need for home consumption, but is exported in enor-
-mous quantities.
The cultivation of the vine is rapidly extending, especially in
the south of the Island, and is fully described in the chapter on

— 127 —
the agriculture; it remains only to be mentioned that the wines are
exported wholesale " in the rough, „ to Marseilles, Cettes, and Bor-
-deaux where they are mixed and manufactured for market — a
most profitable industry, now altogether lost to the Island, but which
might and ought to be prosecuted with great success.
Oil. The culture of the olive is next in importance to the
vine, and is being extended with equal rapidity.
The olive tree grows wild in the forests, and is also largely
cultivated in gardens and orchards, the latter of course yielding the'
greater average produce. The fruit is plucked in the winter, and
is then crushed or squeezed by hydraulic or other pressure, and
the liquid, after it has settled, is drawn off into barrels, and
shipped either to Genoa or Marseilles, where it is purified and
prepared for the English and other foreign markets. The Sardes
use the oil for eating and culinary purposes in its raw state, and
declare it is infinitely superior to refined oil, as well as more pure
than after it has been purified; and it certainly does in its crude
state taste more of oil, if that be a test of superiority; crude oil sells
from thirty to thirty five shillings per barrel of 7 1/2 gallons, which
leaves a fair margin to the producer, but the great profit is made
in the refining, and this with little cost or trouble might be reaped
by the Sardes. The refuse from the crushing is called " Sanso ,
which, after being chemically treated with bi-sulphide of carbon,
makes a second class oil, and is used for illuminating and lubricating
purposes. The export of oil within the last fifteen years has increased more
than tenfold in quantity and value, and is each year rapidly ex-
-panding. Cheese — has also been referred in the remarks on agricul
ture. Its manufacture is now exclusively confined to the farms
where the milk is produced, there being no general cheese manu-
-factury in the Island. It is however a very large industry, and is
increasing, the present exportations being largely in excess of
preceding years.

— 128 —
Flour — is made in the Island and the whole production is
consumed there, none being exported ; and wheat, though it might
and ought to figure largely in the returns, is insignificant in amount.
Six years ago every household had its own mill for grinding
its own corn; now every town has a steam-grinding mill, which
supplies the surrounding district with flour, and very soon the house
hold grindstone and its ass will be things, of the past.
There are bakers not only in every town, but in every large and
Ismail village, and they supply also the isolated farms and houses ;
the loaves being either forwarded by the postman, or sent for by
the consumer. The bread is of two sorts, white and brown; both are
well-made, good, and cheap ; the 2 lbs loaf selling for two pence.
Muffins and tea-cakes are unknown, but dinner-buns, and a curious
variety of fancy pastry designed no doubt primarily to meet the ju
venile taste, are made and exposed for sale by the bakers; but, as I
never dared to venture upon a nearer acquaintance, I am not able to
express any opinion on their merits.
Tanneries are few in number, and this is the more singular as
they evidently " carry on , a good business, and are prosperous con-
-cerns ; nor is this latter fact to be wondered at, seeing that all the
main ingredients, used in the manufacture of leather, are produced in
the Island; ilex and cork trees providing bark of the best quality, and
the skins of cows, sheep, and kids, being purchaseable direct from the
producer at wholesale prices. Indeed every thing would seem to com-
-bine to render this particular trade especially suitable and lucrative;
and yet skins and bark to the value of many millions of lire are
annually exported; and leather to the amount of more than half that
value is brought back into the Island every year. It is almost in
credible that so large a profit should be allowed each year to be
lost, and that wages to so great an amount, as would be expended
in this manufacture, should not be put into the pockets of the Sardes,
rather than of foreigners.
Soap is rather extensively manufactured, though the importa
tions are considerable, and there are no exports. It is made with

— 129 --
carbonate of soda, and the process is the same as in other
countries. Gunpowder is also made, but on a very limited scale ; indeed
there is only one small manufactory, worked by water power, and
situate in the mining district of Iglesias, where most of the gun-
-powder is used. This industry might with advantage be profitably
extended, as charcoal and salpetre are native productions, and sul-
-phur is easily and cheaply obtainable from the neighbouring Island
of Sicily. The manufacture of tobacco was carried on in the Island till a
few years ago ¦ — first at Cagliari and afterwards at Sassari also — but
the raw produce is now taken to the mainland, and manufactured at
- the Royal works there; it is then brought back, generally mixed
with other " growths , to the Island in a manufactured state. Every
precaution is taken against native or illicit manufacture, but it
is nevertheless carried on to a large extent; probably not less than
one third of the whole consumption in the Island is so made. A
licence for the sale of tobacco is necessary ; it is generally granted to
some retired soldier or civil official; the price is fixed by Government,
and the seller receives 10 per cent as his profit. Ordinary cigars
can be purchased at two shillings and twopence per 100, and the best
tobacco at three shillings and sipence per lb ; the ordinary common
tobacco, smoked by the Sardes, is sold at about one shilling and
twopence per lb.
A singular and very exceptional trade is carried on at Aritzo,
at the foot of the Geunargentu range of mountains, where the snow
lies all the year round on the northern slopes of the range.
The snow is carried on poneys from the mountains, and from
those places where the horse cannot " get a footing, , it is brought
down on the backs of men to where the poneys are; the labour
fatigue and difficulty are very great, and there is of course a " Festa,
held in honor of the Patron Saint of the trade, called " Madonna
delle Nevi ,, which is held in high estimation.
This industry, like tobacco and salt, is a royal monopoly and

— 130 —
is leased every six years. This snow, for certain purposes, is better
than ice, which is imported from Norway and which can be bought
at the reasonable price of 10° per kilo, equal to 1j2d per lb. I was
unable to ascertain the rent now paid for the priviledge of this
trade, but amongst the Cagliari archives are some old leases, one from
Philip IV in 1633, in which the rent is stated at a sum equal to
£. 100 sterling — a large sum in those days — but it is said to be much
higher now. The snow is transported from the foot of the moun-
-tain on the backs of horses to the neighbouring towns, and that,
destined for Cagliari, Sassari, and other distant places, is carried
to the nearest railway station, about forty miles off, and is thence
transmitted in railway wagons to its destination.
Lime-burning and,, brick and tile making are carried on in va
rious parts of the Island, but not in sufficient quantities to supply
the various local demands. Bricks are generally dried by the sun,
but some are burnt in kilns, when charcoal or fascines are used as
fuel. Coal is used in the burning of lime and tiles.
There are no carriage builders in Sardinia, but in all towns
there are wheel-wrights shops, where carriages can be repaired,
and where carts, strong and rough but suitable to the country, are
constructed. There are also in several of the large towns foundries
for making small castings ; and workshops, where oil-presses and
pumps are made and repaired, but no steam engine has ever yet
been constructed in the Island.
The making of pottery ware — rough crude articles, but of clas
sic shape — is carried on at Nuradda, Oristano, Decimo, Assenini, and
some other places where suitable clays are found. The manufacture
however is on a very limited scale, and not sufficient to meet the
requirements of the Island; and not only pottery ware, but bricks
and tiles for building, are imported in great quantities from Naples
Genoa and Marseilles.
The cultivation of " Honey , might be carried on to an almost
unlimited extent, and be made a profitable industry. The local

— 131 —
consumption in the Island itself is very large, and it should form
an important item of export.
At present, in many districts, much of the honey consumed is
" wild „ i. e. obtained from natural hives, which are generally found
in the trunks of trees ; in other districts it is cultivated artificially.
The artificial hives are cylindrical in shape, about ten inches in dia-
-meter, and twenty inches in height, and are made of rough cork, which
is the best preventive against the attacks of the moth, centipede,
and other injurious insects. Rough cork may be obtained at very
small cost, and making the hives involves very little trouble ; but,
through ignorance or apathy, there is no substantial increase in the
number, though wild thyme, heath, cistus, apiastrina, and wild parsley
are abundant in nearly all the rural districts, and honey might be
produced at no appreciable cost. The honey iu Sardinia is of two
kinds, the sweet and the bitter, the former has a delicious flavour,
and is said to be equal to the Hybla and Hymettus of classic fame.
It requires rather an acquired taste to appreciate the bitter quality,
and the cause of the bitterness has never been clearly accounted
for, but, as it is produced in the autumn, it is supposed to be derived
from some flowers or plants that do not bloom till late.
Virgil alludes to the berries of the yew as being injurious to
bees, and, in Xenophon's Anabasis, a story is told of the Greeks eating
honey from " bees fed on the yew , and being " very ill „ afterwards,
as if " made drunk. , Horace too, in his " Ars Poetica , condemns
in strong terms a dish made of " Sarde bitter honey , mixed with
" roasted white poppy seed, „ but as the latter ingredient was the
much more likely of the two to create nausea, perhaps the poetic
satirist might have expressed a different opinion, had be tasted only
the honey. At all events, it is highly appreciated by Epicures
of the present generation, the bitterness being somewhat similar to
that of the scotch marmalade, and giving the requisite counteracting
flavour to the luscions sweetness of the honey. This honey finds a
ready sale in Rome, Leghorn, and Naples.
It is calculated that each hive will produce on an average 3 lbs

— 132 —
of honey, and 1 1j2 lbs of wax; upon a very low calculation these
together would sell for two shillings and sixpence, and as it is
stated that, in the Gallura district alone, there are now upwards
of 150,000 hives, the present annual produce must be worth nearly
£. 20,000 sterling in value. The possession of 200 hives — and
this is about the number that one person can look after — would
bring in £. 25 a year, which in itself would form an income in Sar
dinia, much larger than is enjoyed by many labourers and small
farmers. Moreover this industry might be carried on in conjunction
with other occupations.
The Bee-eater (Merotis) abounds in Sardinia, and the mode
of catching them is very ingenions, thongh somewhat tinged with
cruelty. Bees, having their bodies pierced with small pins at-
-tached to skeins of silk, are let loose, and during their flight they
are pounced upon and swallowed by the Meropes ; and, when the silk
becomes entangled in the shrubs and boughs of trees, the bird, being
unable either to disgorge his prey or fly away, is easily canght. These
Meropes again in their turn, from their dainty feeding, are excellent
eating, and, when served vith vine leaves and toast for the " trail ,
are esteemed a great delicacy.
The Meropes generally build their nests in the banks of rivulets,
and though rather smaller than, they are not unlike, the kingfisher
both in plumage and flight.
The cultivation of silk is carried on in a few houses in some
of the larger villages, but to a very limited extent. The mulberry
tree grows lnxuriantly in a wild state, and this industry might be
largely and profitably extended. Silk forms an insignificant item
in Sardinian exports, but in the Italian customs it stands almost
highest in the list.
There are of course all the usual handicraft trades, makers of hats
and caps, boots and shoes, and clothes and hosiery of all kinds,
joiners, carpenters and cabinet-makers, black-smiths and tin-smiths,
plumbers, glaziers, and others which are generally to be met with in
all cities and towns; and tailors and shoe-makers are to be found

— 133 —
in every village, large or small. All carry on their trades in an
antiquated quiet fashion, (the only labour-saving machines in the
Island are some sewing machines, and these were not in use but
in the shops for sale), but the work is good, and the charges mode-
-rate, and the people are satisfied.
In some of the villages, particularly in the north of the Island
the manufacture of coarse woollen goods, comprising coverlets, carpet
ing, towels, saddle-bags, sacks and a variety of other rough useful
articles, is carried on by hand-looms in the houses of the peasantry,
and the surplus produce, beyond what the villagers themselves require,
is taken by " Viadanti , or commercial travellers to adjoining towns
and villages, and there sold at very moderate prices. The goods though
coarse, are very serviceable, and wear well. They must however be
very different articles from those manufactured in the Roman times,
when Varro, according to Marcellus, amongst other luxuries of the
period " was accustomed every day to repose on Sardinian carpets „;
Varro would have had a " rough „ time of it, sleeping on the hard
knotty carpets of the present day. No attempt has ever been made to
spin or weave by machinery, and yet wool is largely exported, and
woollen goods almost as largely imported. The establishment of
small-sized mills, in some of the large towns, could not fail to
yield a handsome return, as well as afford employment to hundreds of
women and children, who now have few industrial occupations suit-
-able to their sex or age.
The making of ropes is carried on in some districts from a
broad grass which grows wild, and baskets are made from the same
material as well as from willows.
Beer soda-water and lemonade are also manufactured in the
Island in a primitive fashion ; the latter are extensively made, the
consumption being large; for making the former there are two small
places at Cagliari and Sassari, which are scarcely worthy of the
name of breweries. The beer has a bard rough bitter taste, and is
dark in colour; and as a bottle of good sound wine can be purchased

— 131 —
at half the price of a glass of beer its consumption is limited, and
not likely to increase.
The making of lucifer matches is carried on at Sassari, and
sufficient are manufactured for home consumption. The card-board
for the boxes, with Sarde costumes delineated on both sides in the
gaudiest colours, are and made in Turin, and imported.
At Cagliari is a manufactory worked by steam power for knit-
-ting the Sarde cap (Beretta), and the fez, which is exported in large
quantities to Tunis.
Alkali is also made in the Island, from a grass, which grows
on the sea shore, and which, after being cut and dried, is burnt
in heaps ; the ashes are then dissolved in water and recrystallized,
and constitute alkali.
Sulphate of zinc is also manufactured ; it is made from calamine
which, after calcination, is treated with sulphuric acid.
The Coral fishery is a large and profitable industry, but is
principally carried on by Neapolitans and Genoese. The number of
vessels engaged in it, in the middle of the last Century, numbered
between four and five hundred, but there are at present only two
hundred and seventy vessels in the trade, and they pay a duty
to the Government for license to fish. The fishermen arrive about
the middle of March, and leave in October, so as to reach home in
time, for a special Saints Day in November, which they regard with
peculiar devotion. Each vessel has a complement of from eight to
twelve men; the chief fisherman is called " Popiere , and his pay is
from £. 30 to £. 40, for the seven months of the season ; the other
men receive about £. 4 each in addition to their food — which
however is not costly — . consisting of bread, olives, and water, with
occasional wine. They work for ten days at a time, till a fresh
supply of provisions is needed, — or until a Saints day calls them
ashore. The " Popiere , has to keep strict watch over the men;
they will smuggle a piece of coral, whenever they possibly can,
concealing it about their person, and even taking it away in their
mouths.

— 135 —
The price of coral depends on the quality. The first size or
quality has been sold for as much as £.20 for 2 lbs, but the
average price is about two shillings and four pence per oz. It
is on record that 794 tons were once " got „ in a single season,
about eighty years ago, but the average money value of the
aggreats fisheries is now estimated at about £. 60,000 a year.
The Sardinian coral is superior to that found on the Sicilian
coast, and the Neapolitan fishermen come in consequence to the
Sarde shores. The usual fishing ground is from ten to twenty miles
off the shore, where the average depth of the sea is about three
hundred feet.
Amongst the marine productions of the Island is the " flat-
-tatura , a crustaceous fish, very like a large mussel, measuring
from two to three feet in length. It is torn off the rock with iron
hooks, and is then broken in order to extract a bunch of silk which
it contains, and which is called " lanestrino. , This silk, when
cleansed of all impurities, is dried in the sun, the roots are cut off,
and it is straightened with combs and carded, by which processes the
quantity from each shell is reduced to about three ounces of fine
thread. It is knit into stockings, gloves, caps, etc. and is of a bea-
-utiful yellow brown color, resembling burnished gold. It readily
sells for about eight shillings per lb; and four ounces will make a
pair of gloves, which are sold at three shillings per pair.
Sea fishing is not prosecuted to any great extent ; the Sardes do
not, as a rule, care to trust themselves in the open sea ; they prefer
limiting their fishing operations to the stagni or lagunes, or within
a short distance of the shore. At Cagliari, Boso, Oristano, and
other seaport towns, there are a few small fishing smacks, but they
never venture out far from the coast, and their principal takes are
lobsters and crabs, (which are caught in basket traps, not unlike those
in use on the British coasts) and cockles and mussels ; some of the
latter measuring two feet aad a half long, and six inches broad.
The consumption of sea fish is very large in Sardinia, as in all other
Roman Catholic countries, and the markets are mainly supplied from

— 136 -
the stagni or salt water lakes. There are several of them on each
coast, the two principal stagni in size and production being at
Cagliari and Oristano. The former called Caligiantano is about
six miles long and four broad, and is the property of the Crown.
The latter, called " Cabras,, forms a chain of lakes, and in 1652 was
sold by the Spanish Crown to the Duke of Pasqua for 600,000 lire ;
it was then let for 60,000 lire a year.
The fish are admitted into the stagni at each tide through
canals opening into the sea, and, when the gates are closed, a large
net is drawn along the lagune, which varies from three to five feet
in depth, and men, mostly naked, with a small net round their
waists, and a short bludgeon in their hands, first despatch all the
fish which rise to the surface, and then " duck , down for those that
remain at the bottom. It is said that altogether 400 men are
employed at the Cagliari fishing, and that the annual produce is
about 600 tons of fish. At Oristano, the number of men employed
is less, but the produce is said to be greater. The several varie-
-ties of fish are almost incredible, between forty and fifty different
sorts, the names of which, being in the Sarde language, it is im-
-possible either to understand, or to transcribe. Most of them are
coarse, both in appareance and taste, but some few are delicate and
well flavored. The best, however, are the well-known grey and red
mullet and eels, all of which are caught in great abundance.
The Sardine and Anchovy fisheries — the best of which are
on the west coast bentwen Alghero and the Island of Saint Antioco,
— have greatly deteriorated during late years, but this is not owing
to any decrease in the number of fish frequenting the coast, but to
the waut of energy in prosecuting the trade. The " takes , are
enormous, and it will scarcely be credited that there is not in any
part of Sardinia any " curing , shed, or any establishment for the
preparation for market of these favorite and most highly' prized fish.
The fish as soon as caught are forwarded to Leghorn Genoa Marseilles
and other Italiau and French towns, where they are manipulated for
the foreign market. The manufacturers must realize large profits, as

— 137 —
the well-known Sardine box, which sells for a shilling retail, cannot
have cost a penny. There is nothing magical or difficult in the
preparation of these delicions articles of food, and this industry
affords one of the most glaring instances of neglect on the
part of the Sardes to secure a most lucrative trade; for every-
-thing, excepting tin for making boxes, is more easily and cheaply
obtainable in the Island then on the mainland, and very little of
either skill or capital is needed. Moreover sardines, prepared in
the Island where they are caught, would, we may fairly conclude,
command a readier sale in the market as the " genuine , article —
" Sardines from Sardinia , — than those manufactured at places
which have to import their productions, and may not after all be
the " real thing. ,
The " Tunny, fishery (Tonnare) forms an exception to the general
rule, and is extensively carried on ; it is one of the most valuable and
important industries in the Island, though the Sardes derive scarcely
any benefit whatever from it.
The date of its first institution is uncertain, but in the 16th
Century it was recognized by the Arragon Government, and special
advantages were offered to those who embarked in it. At the close
of the 18th Century, there were eighteen of these fisheries in opera-
-tion; now they are reduced to three in number.
The fish enter the Mediterranean from the West about the end
of April, following the line of Coast into the Black sea, and then,
returning the same way back to the Atlantic, disappear until the
following April, when the same migration begins again. According
to Aristotle, Pliny, and other writers, they proceed to the Black
sea for the purpose of spawning, but this is not strictly correct
as their eggs are also found in the Mediterranean. Many other
causes for this tour are conjectured, but no satisfactory reason can
be assigned, except the natural instinct of the animals themselves.
The " tunny , was a favorite fish at the feasts of the Car
thaginians and Greeks, and, on account of its fecundity, it was sac-

— 138 —
-rificed to Neptune, to whom prayers were offered against mishaps
in their capture.
The ancient mode of catching them, was, as described by Cetti,
nearly the same as that adopted at the present day. The net (Ma-
-draga) is an immense mass of cordage, weighing about 40 tons, and
( osting about £ 2000 ; it is made from the sparte plant, a species
of rush, growing on the coast of Valencia, the cords being s/4 of
an inch thick, and the mesh about six inches square. It is pre-
-pared in March, and laid down in April, and everything is ready
for use by the 3rd of May, on which day a great festival is held.
The priest confers his blessing with great pomp and ceremony, ac-
-companied by the prayers of the fishermen. The net, which has
seven chambers, is of great length, and in the shape of a T; it is at-
-tached to the shore by another net, extending several thousand feet
into the open sea till it joins the net with the chambers ; the object
being to drive or coax the fish into the last chamber, which has a net
at the bottom of it which can be drawn up at pleasure. The whole
apparatus is kept in position by anchors'npwards of one hundred in
number, and is kept afloat by huge pieces of the outer bark of the
cork tree. The depth of water in the chambers is about one hundred
and twenty feet, but the nets are one third deeper, so as to admit
of their " play and sway „ according to wind and current.
The whole arrangements are under the order of the " Rais, , or
commander, on whose skill and experience the success of the operation
mainly depends. He has unlimited authority and exacts the most im-
-plicit obedience, and has ten or twelve barges, manned by about 150
men, in readiness to assist at the capture, and take the fish, when
caught, to land. To induce or drive the tunny into the last cham-
-ber several devices are resorted to ; a white sail is lowered and
when the fish are hovering in the chambers, doubtful whether
to proceed or return, an expert diver, dressed in white, swims
through the passage, and the " tunny „ follow, thinking the object
to be one of themselves. Sometimes a large net is lowered, and
a few handfuls of sand are thrown down, at wliich the fish are

— 139 —
greatly alarmed, " as if , (says an ancient writer on the subject) " the
heavens were falling on their backs and crushing them. „ When
the fish have passed through several chambers into the last, which
is called " Camera della morte, , it is closed, and the process of
hanling up the bottom of it commences, and gradually the whole
of the contents of the last chamber (which is surrounded by the
barges) is drawn up near the surface ; and, as the fish begin to feel
their circumscribed position getting more and more contracted every
minute, they become panic stricken, and then a scene of slaughter
ensues, which baffles description, and would be no more pleasing
to read than to witness. It was butchery which reminded me more
of the Chicago cattle yards, than any other sight I ever saw. Suf-
-fice it to say, that within an hour every fish was killed and
placed on the barges, and carried to land, the sea becoming red
with blood for some distance round. Ashore another and different
scene was being enacted. At the most critical period of the affair,
a special religions ceremony was performed, viz, the invocation of the
Saints in a sort of Litany, in which all engaged took part; a series
of saints was called upon whose names I had never before either
heard or read of, but no doubt they were once influential personages
in the fishing would ; while this was going on, the men began chang-
-ing their clothes for the slaughter, and the litany was changed at
the same time to invoke a different series of saints, and it might have
been imagined from the association that these latter saints presided
over the old clothes, as the first series supervised the fishing. All this
time the " Rais „ was on the watch, and when he gave the sign for
action, the chaunting ceased, and the men were all at work in their se-
-veral departments. The fish were cut open on the shore with hatchets,
and cleaned and washed; a hook and cord were then attached, and the
fish hauled up on the dry land, where the head and fins were cut off,
and gangs of men then carried them into a large open shed. Here the
fish were suspended for about two hours, till all the blood drained out,
and they were then cut into pieces of from one to one and a half pounds,
each having its peculiar value. The flesh is afterwards either salted or

— 140 —
boiled, and, when quite cool, is packed into barrels about the size
of a firkin, and in a few hours is under sail for Genoa and other
ports of the mainland, where it is boiled again in salt water, and
then packed in tin cases with oil ready for the market.
The three tunny fisheries now in operations are. 1** Porto Scuso
the property of the heirs of the Duke of Pasqua, who was for
merly owner of the Cabras fishery; 2rd Isola Piana, a small island
lying North of San Pietro and belonging to the Marquis of Villa-
Marina; and 3rd Porto-torres, which is the property of private
owners. Isola Piana is the most productive, the yearly take being
12,000 fish, weighing over 1000 tons; and each ton is worth about
£ 40. The rent paid for this fishery is said to be £ 11,700 a
year, and the rent for Porto Scuso is £ 3700 a year but the pro-
-duce is proportionately less. The proprietors of the Porto-torres
fishery " work , it themselves, and a large establishment for
tinning the tunny has been recently opened there in connection
with it. It is worked by the Genoese, who come over every year
during the fishing season, bringing about two hundred workmen, and
all the provisions necessary during their stay. No Sardes are en-
-gaged in the trade, and thus another and most profitable industry
is entirely lost to the Island.
The markets in Sardinia are held generally in the open streets,
the goods being displayed upon stalls, as at our country fairs. The
principal article of commerce is grain, and this is brought into the
towns either by rail, in carts, or on horses, according to the locality
from which it comes. Wheat was sold this year at twenty two
shillings per quarter, and barley for about eightem shillings per
quarter. Meat is proportionately cheap ; good beef, mutton, and pork
sells from 3d to 4d 1j2 per lb., and fowls and ducks at 8d each ;
cheese from 3rd to 4d per lb. eggs 3d a dozen, but butter (which, is
not much eaten in Sardinia) is dear, varying from 10d to lld per lb.
Fruit and vegetables, of which there is generally a most tempting
and profuse display, are also ridicously cheap according to our ideas ;
there seems, however, to be no fixed rule as to price; the purchaser

— 141 —
selects the sort and quantity he wishes to have, and then a " lump ,
sum, seldom exceeding half a lire, is asked for the whole. Po-
-tatoes fetch about half the price they are sold at in England.
Sea fish of many varieties, (none of them known in our waters,
excepting eels and mullet) is equally cheap, varying from ld to
3d per lb. and trout in the season is equally cheap.
The shops in Cagliari Sassari and other towns, as also in some
of the larger villages, are good, and the articles are sold at reaso
nable prices. A suit of common clothes may be purchased for 25
shillings ; a good strong pair of shoes for 5 shillings ; a pair
boots for 7 shillings ; and other things in the same proportion.
The jeweller's shops make a great display, and some of the trin-
-kets are quaint and fantastic. The price of course depends on
the weight of gold and silver in the articles, and the amount of
workmanship, but they are not dear. The Sardes are fond of or-
-naments, and it is almost the only luxury they indulge in.
Such are the various trades manufactures and industries now
carried on in Sardinia, and a very poor and meagre list it must be
admitted to be, considering the many natural and valuable produc-
-tions that the Island possesses, and which might be turned to such
profitable accouut. There are, as we have seen, no mills or
mauufactories of any size or importance, and they would not
— if the convict labour at the salt works, and those engaged in
mines forests and agriculture be excepted — give occupation in
the aggregate to more than three or four hundred persons ; the
various handicraft trades, and fisheries in which Sardes are engaged,
altogether probably absorb about as many thousands ; and it is
estimated that the men employed at the various docks wharves
and railways, including carters, would number about 3000. When
however all these are added together, and the total deducted from
the aggregate town population, there is a large " residuum „ left,
which 'no doubt to a great extent will account for the idlers in the
streets, squares, and market-places, who are always to be seen in

— 142 -
large numbers, and whose means of subsistence are an unsolved
mystery. A Sarde, it is true, can live on very little; bread, maccaroni,
and rice-which are cheap and satisfying-being the staple articles
of his food ; so that, though the wages of a labourer are low, varying
between ten pence and one shilling and eight pence per day, an
occasional day's work will provide food for a week, and with this,
the ordinary Sarde workman, who is of an easy-going disposition,
is quite contented.
Labourers, though engaged by the week or month, are paid by
the number of days actually worked, and as there are about eighty
whole holidays and twenty half holidays, besides Sundays and oc-
-casional special Feste, the number of actual working days in a
year is reduced within narrow limits. It is true that work is done
on Sunday as on ordinary days, but this practice is gradually falling
into disuse, and Sunday is now generally kept in Sardinia, as a day
of rest, and with almost as much observance, as in most of our
large cities and towns.
The banking accomodation in the Island cannot be denomina-
-ted as excessive; it is however equal to the present requirements
of commerce, and sufficient for private needs. The National bank
of Italy (whose head office is in Rome) has branches at the two
capitals, and there are several other banks, which are local to the
Island. The most important of these are the " Credito Agricolo
Industriale Sardo, , which has its head office at Cagliari, and the
" Banca Agricola Sarda, „ which has its head office at Sassari.
Each bank has branches at most of the large towns ; the former
carrying on its operations mainly in the southern, and the latter in
the northern parts of the Island.
In addition to these are some smaller banks, and several pri-
-vate discount houses, but their aggregate operations are very limi-
-ted, and, with one exception, they scarcely deserve the name of banks;
indeed neither externally nor internally do they present any mone-
-tary indications. Still lower down in the financial scale are the pawn

- 143 —
shops ; these, unlike those on the Italian mainland, (which are Govern
ment institutions and admirably managed) are private undertakings,
without any official supervision or control, and the poor people grie
vously suffer from the usurious terms generally exacted.
There are several " trades unions , amongst the operatives of
the various industries, such as masons, smiths, bakers, tanners, wine-
sellers, commercial travellers etc; all of them are constituted on the
basis, as their name " Societa di Mutuo Soccorso , implies, of pro
viding support in cases of sickness or accident, and payment in
case of death; the subscription is on an average about one shilling per
month, and the payments in return are proportionately small. None
of these societies have any political signification, nor do they give
support in cases of strike or lock-out ; indeed the latter are unpre
cedented, and the only political demagogue, who has figured in
the Island within human memory, made few converts during his
campaign, and it was cut prematurely short by his sudden and
mysterious disappearance, which however created no surprize or sen
sation at the time, and has never been inquired into >Since. As
regards these societies it is somewhat curious that they find much
more favour, and are much more numerous, in the north, than in the
south, of the Island, but no explanation of the anomaly can be given.
There are both at Cagliari and Sassari " Camere di Commercio
ed Arti, „ which, in constitution and working, as well as in name,
are very like our " Chambers of Commerce ,. The principal men
of business in each province are elected on the Council, which
meets once a month, and issues a yearly report. It is an interesting
document, in which not only the state of trade for the past year, but
various commercial, financial, political, social, and other grievances
are fully set forth. It is addressed to His Excellency " II Relatore „
and upon him devolves the duty of reporting the contents to the
Minister of Public Works. The complaints and suggestions, however,
as a rule, meet with much about the same respect and attention,
as the resolutions of our English Chambers, which are seldom or
never attended to, unless backed up by influential deputations to

— 144 —
the Minister, who has cognisance of the subject, or, what is still
more efficacious, by independent action in the House of Commons.
From the last report it would appear that Sardinia is at present
labouring under exceptional depression in its agicultural and mi
neral industries, which are its two great sources of supply. This state
of depression, however, seems to be common to the whole world,
and though the Sardinian farmers and mine-owners have not been
getting the same prices for their produce as formerly, yet on the
other hand they have been paying much less for everything they have
had to purchase, and, notwithstanding the depression, the value of
the exports for the past year exceeded that of the imports by nearly
10 million lire, which is no inconsiderable balance in favour of the
Island, and is a much better comparative return than most other
countries can show for the same period.
Moreover the Sardes should not forget, that it is owing to
themselves and their own apathy that the balance is not more largely
in their favour. They have it in their own power to redress their
grievanceaQto a very great extent by the further developement of
their resources.

CHAPTER X.

Railways — Origin — Cavour and Depretis — Concession —
Formation of Company — Its history — Contractors — Completion of
main lines — Future extensions — Difference of gauge — Administra
tion — Permanent way — Traffic — Locomotives — Working expenses
— Goverment arrangement — General remarks.

The history of the Sardinian Railways is, like the history of
Sardinia itself, a chequered and troubled one ; and, although not
extending over as many years, as the other does over centuries, and
not involved in any mystery or uncertainty to shed a halo of romance
around it, yet it is somewhat sensational, and is neither un-inte-
-resting nor un-instructive.
In the grand scheme for the regeneration of Italy, as planned
by the master mind of Cavour, under the auspices and by command
of Italy's great King Victor Emmanuel, Sardinia formed no un-ini-
-portant part of the general programme.
Cavour foresaw that Sardinia, rightly directed and encouraged,
had a great future before it, and could regain in the modern world
the position which she had occupied in the ancient; when she had
more than quadruple her present population, and yet, out of the
10

— 146 —
wealth of her soil, was able to send forth such an overflow of pro-
-duce as gained her the title of " the " granary of. Rome ; „ and
out of her mines were forged the spears which made Rome the
mistress of the world.
The first portion of the Sardinian programme was improved
communication by a system of Railways — an essential preliminary to
its future prosperity — but unfortunately Cavour died before he was
able to carry this out, and it was destined, like the great scheme for
the political and economical regeneration of the whole Kingdom, to
receive its finishing touches from the hand of Depretis. In many
respects, and particularly with regard to Sardinia and its railways,
Depretis was to Cavour, as Elisha to Elijah ; the mantle of the great
prophet descended upon him.
It was not however until 1862, when Depretis became minister
of public works, that the Sardinian railway scheme was matured,
and the first concession signed. It was granted to influential and
patriotic Italians, with a small admixture of Englishmen and they
undertook to form a Company for making and working a system
of Railways, which were to connect the principal towns in the Island.
The main-line was to pass from Cagliari by way of Oristano Ozieri
and Sassari to Portotorres in the North; a branch from Decimo-
mannu, near Cagliari, to Iglesias, the centre of the mining district
of the South ; a third was to be a fork from near Ozieri to Ter-
-ranova or the Gulf of Aranci, which was to be the common port
for continental Italy. The Gulf of Aranci is a splendid natural
harbour directly lacing Rome: thus demonstrating that the " pro-
-phetic soul „ of Depretis was intent upon what happened eight years
later, when the Italian troops entered Rome by the breach at Porta
Pia on the 20th September 1870, and the " eternal city „ became
the Capital of Italy.
In return for the obligations undertaken by the Concessionaires,
the Government engaged to give them the freehold of 500,000 acres
of lands and forests, and to guarantee a net annual revenue of 9,000
lire per kilometre of railway.

— 147 —
The Concessionaires, however, were met with difficulties at the
threshold of their enterprise. The surveys that were produced in-
-volved, amongst other costly works, about 20 kilometres of tunnels
and upon these plans it was impossible to form a Company or raise
the Capital ; as financial ruin must have followed any association
that had been rash enough to undertake it. New surveys were there-
-fore essential, and the concessionaires invited M.r Piercy, an English
Engineer, «who had large experience in similar undertakings, to visit
the Island and make amended surveys.
M.r Piercy consented, and, proceeding to the Island with a large
staff of Engineers, thoroughly explored it, and succeeded in discovering
routes, which would carry out the programme of the concession, with
an aggregate of only 3 kilometres of tunnels, and with lighter works
generally. The difficulties, however, of the Concessionaires still continued,
notwithstanding the discovery of easier lines and reduced estimates.
Capitalists knew little or nothing of Sardinia, and hesitated to embark
in what was to them a " terra incognita, and , it was only by an appeal
to the political sentiments of Capitalists in London, who had strong
sympathies with Italy in her struggles for freedom and unity, that it
became possible to kindle a glimmer of interest in otherwise apa-
-thetic circles. The Concessionaires appear to have proceeded with
great tact and energy ; they succeeded in surrounding themselves
with the most noted of English lovers of Italy, and wealthy Italian
merchants in London, amongst whom were the well known names of
the Marquis Cavour, Count La Marmora, Semenza, Fabricotti, Lefaux,
Masini, Comber John Pender M. P., James White M. P., Tho. Bar-
-nes M. P., Benjamin Piercy, H. R. Grenfell M. P. (Governor of the
Bank of England), Baron Leonino, Marquis Boyl, Sir W. Drake
and others. A prospectus was issued, and a share capital of twenty millions
of lire was subscribed, by these gentlemen and their friends. The
programme of the Company was to raise the remaining capital by
the issue of Bonds on the security of the lands and forests,

— 148 —
which, as appears by the debates in the Italian Parliament at the
time, were estimated to be worth 35 millions of lire.
In 1864 the new plans were approved by the Government, and
preparations were made for the construction. The contract was let
to a Company of great promise, which, under the title of " Smith
Knight and Co, , had just been formed for carrying out public
works in every part of the world.
With the characteristic energy of a new Company and in a
somewhat lavish style, Messers Smith Knight and Co commenced
operations, fowarding to Sardinia plant and materials of every des-
-cription, locomotives, machinery and tools of the most modern
construction, and every conceivable species of stores, both for the
works, and for the maintenance and confort of the large staff of
engineers and subordinates, who were to have the supervision and
direction. The ground was first broken at Cagliari, but the works were
rapidly spread all along the Cagliari-Oristano, Sassari-Portotorres, and
Decimo-Iglesias lines, forming together a length of 152 kilometres.
In Sardinia in those days, and until the railway company
subsequently broke down the custom, there was what was called the
" working season , which began in November and ended in June,
when all public works were suspended for the summer months. It
had been the intention of the Company to endeavour to complete
and open for public traffic the first 152 kilometres in the wor-
-king season of 1864-5, and the contractors performed prodigies with
that object ; and had the " workings eason „ lasted another six weeks
the railway would have been completed from Cagliari to Oristano,
a length of 94 kilometres. This, however, was not to be, and it
was one of those disappointments which so often change the whole
course of events.
When little remained to be done on the arrival of June, in
accordance with the prevailing custom, all the Italian workmen left
Sardinia for their homes on the Mainland.
While the contractors had been pushing on the works so spiri-

— 149 —
-tedly the Company had been striving by every means in their power
to get possession of the 500,000 acres of lands and forests, upon
which they were relying as the basis for issuing their Bonds for the
further capital required ; but in this also they were doomed to dis
appointment, and in the summer of 1865 it became manifest that
it would be impossible to secure possession of the lands within any
reasonable time, and the financial arrangements for the completion
of the railways consequently broke down.
The extensive properties (of which the 500,000 acres formed
part) had devolved to the State, upon the abolition of feudalism in
Sardinia, and formerly belonged to the barons, to whose rights the
State had succeeded. The rights, however, of the people to pas-
-turage and fire-wood over these lands had not been extinguished or
acquired, when the concession for the construction of the railways
was made to the Company, nor had the lands ever been surveyed
or their boundaries fixed; as a necessary consequence the Company
met with difficulties and opposition on all sides, in their endeavours
to get possession, and especially from the settlers who had usurped
some of the best portions of the lands; and forcible resistance was
even made in some cases. The result was that after long continued
exertions, the Company, owing to the delay in passing the promised
act of Parliament which was to solve the difficulty, only succeeded in
obtaining possession of a few insignificant tracts, which were'perfectly
useless as a security for the issue of Bonds.
In the mean time the share capital had been all expended in
caution money to the Goverment, preliminary expenses, in law suits
and struggles to get the lands, and on account of works executed, and
rolling stock supplied ; and the position of the Company was rendered
more difficult by the state of financial affairs in England. The panic in
the money market had set in, which culminated on what is familiarly
known as " black Friday, , when so many of the leading bankers and
merchants of London had to close their doors, destined never to be
reopened, and when so great a number of English contractors sank,
never to rise again. The contractors for the Sardinian railways,

— 150 —
who were also largely engaged in operations beyond the Atlantic,
were involved in the general crash, and their affairs placed in the
hands of liquidators ; this further complicated matters, and the
Sardinian railway company in self-defence had t© take possession
of the plant and stores, but were unable to move further. Under
these accumulated misfortunes, which in this case signally verified
the old proverb that they " never come singly ,, the Italian Go
vernment, though admitting its inability to carry out the agreement
with regard to the lands, were unable for a time to redress the wrong,
or remedy the mischief, owing to the distracting strain of the finan
cial and political crisis which Italy was then passing through. The
dark cloud, which was gathering over Europe, burst in 1866 in the
shape of the Austrian war against the Italo-Prussian alliance, and
happily ended in Venice being restored to Italy. The attention of
Italian statesmen was however so engrossed by these stirring events,
and the pressure of those remarkable times on all Government officials
was so great, in providing the sinews of war for the sublime national
effort of those days, that the troubles and sacrifices of the Sardinian
railway company sank into insignificance beside them.
Negociations, however, were carried on between the Government
and Company with occasional interruptions, and several new con
ventions were from time to time suggested, and partially entered
into, on the basis of the Government retaining the lands and forests,
and giving the Company equivalents in money, but nothing conclusive
was arrived at.
About this time too the direction of the Company's affairs in
London was almost suspended. It had been suggested to the Di-
-rectors that its business could be more successfully carried on by
a committee in Italy, and it was accordingly formed, but without any
beneficial result ; and it was not until March 1869, when Italy was
emerging from the darkest clouds which had overshadowed her strug
gles, and was entering upon an era of political tranquillity, that
a convention was signed, which passed into law in August 1870,
the month before the Italian troops entered Rome. This convention

— 151 —
was only a temporary expedient to enable the Company to com
plete the lines so nearly finished in 1865 viz, Cagliari to Oristano'
and Iglesias, and Sassari to Portotorres, with the addition of the
Sassari-Ozieri line ; all of them being the lines of the plains,
forming together 197 kilometres, and called in this new convention
the " lines of the 1st period; , leaving for eventual settlement
the question of the more difficult lines, over and along the moun-
-tain ranges from Oristano to Ozieri, and thence to Terranova,
together 194 chilometres, and called in the convention the " lines
of the 2nd period. „
Under this new convention the Government took back the lands,
and in exchange increased the annual guarantee from 9,000 to
12,000 lire per kilometre ; and the Company's obligation was limited
to the completion of the " lines of the first period , by the end of
December 1874 ; after which the Government was to call upon the
Company to decide, whether they would proceed with the construction
of the other and more difficult lines, or whether they would renounce
the concession altogether, and sell the lines then made to the Go
vernment. A provision was also inserted giving the Company a
preference for the construction of the other railways under any
circumstances. Thus the Company at last reached a position of some hope. It
had only to compass the completion of the " lines of the first period ,
partly constructed, and then would come the final "tug, of settlement.
The Directors lost no time in taking energetic action on this
convention, and Mr Semenza the chief of the original concessionaires
proposed to the directors to complete by contract the construction
of the 152 kilometres left in 1865 in an unfinished state; his offer
was accepted, and early in 1872 they were all opened for public
traffic. There then only remained the construction of the Sassari-
Ozieri line, about 45 kilometres, to fulfil the Company's obligations
under the convention of 1870.
Fresh troubles, however, were still in store for the Company.
As may be readily imagined, in the years that had intervened,

— 152 —
the unfinished works left by the first contractors, had been greatly
damaged by exposure and floods, the sleepers had been turned
into powder and all the valuable materials and stores had become
almost worthless ; Mr Semenza made a large claim against the Com-
-pany amounting to £. 100,000 sterling over and above the Contract
prices, and this, added to the still unsettled questions with the
Liquidators of the old Contractors with whose claims this unexpec
ted demand clashed, again threw the financial position of the Com-
-pany into disorder, hampered the action of the Directors, and
divided their policy. It is obvious that the Company ought them
selves to have completed the lines left unfinished without the
intervention of a Contractor, as the state of the works and materials
were in too complicated and uncertain a position for a Contract;
and the Directors, it is said, were warned against the course they
were taking *by their old Engineer, but entered into the Contract
under new advice, and did not realize the fatal consequences,
until they had come upon them. Fresh difficulties also arose with
the Government, when the completed lines came to be worked, upon
the interpretation of the working clauses of the convention, about
which there were grave misapprehensions, and both sides fell into
unaccountable mistakes.
The crowning stone in the arch of Italian unity and indepen
dence had however now been placed and had settled down into its
position. The impetus given in Cavonr's time had "moved, in its course,
and the goal had been reached. And as the Sardinian Railway
had been planted by Cavour simultaneously with the tree of Italian
unity and freedom, had been nursed by Depretis and nourished by
sympathising capitalists, and in a sense had become the foster-child
of regenerated Italy, sharing in all its youthful vicissitudes, and suffe-
-ring with it in all its troubles, the Directors had not unreasonably
indulged in the hope, that it would be allowed to participate also
in its prosperity, and receive its place in the general rehabilitation. In
these aspirations, however, sufficient allowance was not made for the
prostration that naturally followed the supreme efforts of the Italian

— 153 —
nation. The patient, whose constitution has just triumphed over
the " legions „ of fever or cholera, cannot always " take up his bed
and walk , but is for a time the prey to weakness, often to relapses.
It was so with Italy ; she had triumphed over the material ele-
-ments of the earth which had been arrayed against her, but had
still to contend against those impalpable mysterious and subtle
agencies, which were at work within the vital parts of her system.
The full meaning of the Divine saying " my Kingdom is not of
" this world „ had yet to be realized ; nor was it admitted at the
y ' Vatican, * that the sword and sceptre were the weapons of the
" civil Magistrate, and that the Cardinals Bishops and even the Pope
" himself must renounce either their state or salvation. „ The con
viction, however, that the freedom of tlie Church from temporal and
political cares will tend to the advancement of her spritual power,
is slowly but surely making its own way, and in due time will work
out its own destiny.
In 1872-3 Italian affairs were in a feverish state. Loans had
to be contracted to pay the war bills, new taxes had to be levied
to meet the swelling interest and general expenditure, and the down
ward tendency of the forced currency was for a time alarming.
Dnring this period nothing was done for Sardinia; the Island was
altogether ignored. , ,
It is a sound saying that " where there is a will there is a
way „, but the Ministers then in power apparently had not the will,
and did not see the way ; at all events they did not -take it, and the
Directors of the Sardinian Railways, grown weary of the adverse for-
-tune that had so persistently followed them for so long a period, re-
-tired altogether from the management early in 1873, and handed the
undertaking bodily over to the Italo-Germanic Bank, and an associa
tion of Italian Capitalists with Commendatore Servadio at their head.
And here came the verification of another old saying " Truth is stran-
-ger than fiction „ . The Sardinian Railway had scarcely crept under the
wing of the Italo-Germanic combination, and the new capital had only
been just issued for the Sassari-Ozieri line, and the works set in

— 154 —
motion when another crash came. The new combination fell heavily
— victims to over speculation — and Semenza and Servadio, like
transient meteors, disappeared from.the financial skies of Italy. The
Italo-Germanic financial alliance did not turn out a happy one,
and the Sardinian Railway was returned into Anglo-Italian hands
instead of the promised money, which was to have been given in
exchange for it.
The English Board could not however, be again re-organised, but
all English interests united in giving Mr Piercy, whose functions had
hitherto been limited to giving advice on engineering matters, ple
nary powers to represent them, and manage their affairs in Italy.
On the Italian side Commendatore Segre, a distiuguished Italian, was
clothed with similar authority, and thence-forward these two gen-
-tlemen cordially cooperated, at first concentrating their efforts in
saving the Company from bankruptcy and dissolution, to the brink
of which precipices it had been fast rolling.
The construction of the Sassari-Ozieri line was at once taken
in hand, and completed by the time fixed by law (end of Decem-
-ber 1874). Thus the Company's position was saved and all. its
obligations under the convention of 1870 were discharged, and all
its rights maintained intact and unprejudiced.
The time had now come for the Government, in fulfilment of
the last Convention, to purchase from the Company the " lines of the
first period, , unless, which was virtually the only other alternative,
a new arrangement with the Company for the construction of the
" lines of the second, period, and for working all the lines, could be
arrived at.
Sig. Minghetti was then prime minister and Sig. Spaventa mi-
-nister of public works. The latter apparently looked at Sardinian
progress and Sardinian Railways with an eye of indifference, his
policy was the " status quo ante , and a " masterly inactivity , ; the
result was war between the Government and the Company.
It was contended on the part of the Government that there
was no date fixed for the repurchase of the completed Railways

— 155 —
but the Company pointed to the words of the convention of 1870,
which were " The Government shall „ after the 31st December
1874 „ take the necessary steps. The Railways of the first period
were to be opened by that date ; this had been doSe, and the repur
chase was to be the consideration for it, and the word " after ,
had unquestionably the same meaning, as when payment in the or-
-dinary course is to be made " after „ the delivery of goods.
The Minghetti-Spaventa ministry, however, could not be moved,
and the prime minister in his reply to Sardinian deputies in the
chamber gave as the ostensible reason that " the repurchase of the
" lines would entail on the Government a charge of a million and a
" half or two millions a year more than is now marked in the budget
" for Railway guarantees ,.
This startling statement was tantamount to an admission that
the Company was receiving a less annual revenue than was its due
by precisely the same amount as stated by the Prime Minister, for
according to the law,- as it then stood, the annuity for the repurchase
was to be exactly equal to the net revenue tlie Company was pre
viously entitled to receive.
The Government referred the question to the Council of State,
and they decided against the contention ; yet no action was taken
upon the decision. The Company then consulted several of the leading
lawyers of Italy, who were unanimous in declaring the interpretation
of the Company to be correct. One of the points in dispute — the
definition of net revenue — was full of novel and rather curious
features. The law in force on public works says " under net revenue
" is understood that which remains of the gross revenue after deducting
" the expenses of , and then follow nine heads of expenditure. The
Sardinian convention says that in determining the guarantee payable
to the Company " maintenance and working shall be computed at 50
" per cent ,; these however are only two out of nine distinct classes of
expenditure as defined by Italian law, which include extraordinary re-
-pairs, renewals, royalties, taxes, Government inspection, and amor
tisation, all of which it was sought to throw upon the Company

— 156 -
notwithstanding the express terms of the convention, and the con
sensus of opinion against the Government.
The breach went on widening, and the claims of the Company,
as a matter of course, also became more and more enlarged. It was
pointed out, that their troubles originated, when it became clear that
the lands could not be given by the time contemplated, which lost
them the opportunity of issuing their Bonds, with all the disastrous
consequences that follwed. The stormy events, which led to the re-
-generation of Italy, and to the downfall of the Company, disturbed
for a time the national credit to such an extent, that Rentes fell from
nearly 80 to 39, and, in sympathy with them Sardinian Railway stock
fell proportionately. Its fate was further sealed by the guarantees
given to new Companies, which were more adapted to the altered
state of things, and compared with which the terms of the Sardinian
Railways were ruinously adverse. Moreover, when the original
convention was signed, all payments were to be in gold, and the
expenditure of the Company had been in gold; whereas the gua
ranteed revenue was being paid in paper, the loss upon which
in 1874 rose to 19 per cent ; and the Company's revenue was still
further reduced by an income tax of 13. 2 per cent, by taxes on re
ceipts of 10 per cent, and other general and local taxes-, as well as
Government charges; so that altogether upwards of 50 per cent of the
original guaranteed revenue melted away, and returned in one shape
or another into the coffers of the state, in addition to the extra
heads of expenses specially mentioned.
Large claims were formulated by the Company, goaded by
the treatment it was receiving, against the Government, amounting
to over 13,000,000 lire, chiefly for past arrears, the correctness of
which had been in anticipation remarkably confirmed by the Prime
Minister's speech before alluded to. In the mean time the Sardes,
beginning to despair of the completion of their Railways, commenced
an agitation in Sardinia, which soon assumed a more and more se-
-rious aspect. Great meetings were held in the Island, at which the
Sardes threatened to resist payment of taxes, and the tax-gatherers

— 157 —
threatened to resign; " home-rule , was mooted, and Signor Salaris and
other Sarde Deputies pressed the claims of their country upon the Go
vernment in the Chamber of Deputies, demanding the completion of
the Railways according to law; but no substantial result followed.
In the midst of this excitement the Minghetti-Spaventa Go
vernment fell, and Depretis — the never-failing friend of Sardinia —
came into power once more, to the great joy of all interested in
the Island. The Minister of Public Works of the new Government
was signor Zanardelli, and he immediately resumed negociations
with the Company on a friendly footing ; but at every change
of phase new and hostile features seemed to spring up. The
knowledge of the strength of the Company's position had spread
abroad, and intriguers and " camarillas , were tempted to endeavour to
step in between the Minister and the Company. They pressed into
the antechambers of the Minister of Public Works, and all the arts,
common to this class of individuals, were brought into play, but
happily, owing to the prudence and firmness of the Company's
negotiators, were exhausted without fatal results, though at one time
it seemed as if the intentions and efforts of the Public Works de-
-partment and the Company would be brought to nought by the
machinations of these mischief-mongers.
The Session of 1877 was, however, fast passing away, and the anx-
-iety of the Sardes to see arrangements made for the completion of
their Railways was becoming intense. At this critical time the Prime
Minister was unfortunately confined to his bed by illness ; but, with
the energy peculiar to him, he expressed a wish to see the Repre
sentatives of the Company in his bed-room. At that time there
happened to be at Rome several influential Italians and Englishmen
largely interested in the Sardinian Railways, and they accompanied the
Company's negotiators to of Sig.r Depretis house, and were imme
diately ushered into his bed-room where the scene, as narrated by
an eyewitness, was most interesting and impressive. In obedience
to a signal they surrounded the bed, where lay the Prime Mi-
-nister stricken down by over-work, but happily only for a short

— 158 —
time. His reception of his visitors was most cordial ; he expressed his
anxiety that all difficulties in the way of the progress of Sardinia
should be removed, and he admonished the representatives of the
Company to accept the terms that were offered; the condition of
the Budget would not, he added, admit of better, and they were to
look to the future; then, after a short pause, as if animated by sudden
inspiration, he continued " Whether as Depretis, Minister, or Deputy,
I will always be the friend of the Company ,.
These words acted magically on his visitors, and the advice was
at once accepted. The prime minister breathed on the accumulated
difficulties of 15 years, and they disappeared.
Depretis was too great a diplomatist to picture to the minds of
those interested in the Company the possible alternative of long and
endless litigation with a Government, that would test the vitality
of any litigious suitors but the consciousness of this was no doubt
realized all the more effectively in the minds of those present;
and the thought of deserving the friendship and good-will of the
" grand old man „ of Italy appears to have occupied the chief
place in the minds of all on that remarble occasion, when claims
amounting in the aggregate to over 13,000,000 lire — certified to
be correct by some of the first lawyers of the day, and which
it had taken months to prepare — were cast aside in an instant, and
an arrangement accepted which held out prospects only of interest
upon capital that had been expended over 15 years, and this too after a
few more years viz ; the completion of the " lines of the second period ,¦
Immediately afterwards a new convention, embodying these
terms, was signed and tlie paths of the Company have been from
that time comparatively peaceful.
Under this new convention the kilometrical guarantee on all the
lines, both old and new, was increased from 12,000 to 14,800 lire
per annum, and a fixed annual allowance of 7,000 lire per kilometre
was granted for working the lines; the difference between this latter fi
gure and the gross traffic receipts to be divided between the Company
and the Government.

— 159 —
The construction of these lines was entrusted to Mr Piercy,
whose indomitable energy and perseverance1 had contributed largely
to the new and improved position of affairs, and who had in
the meantime been preparing at his own expense the definitive
plans, and introducing some successful deviations, by which not only
were the lines improved, but the estimated cost was reduced to a
figure, which came within the amount of capital that could be
raised upon the fresh terms conceded by Government. Mr Piercy too
formally guaranteed that his estimates should not be exceeded.
In order, however, to obtain this result, the most careful at
tention to economy had to be given in every department in carrying
out the works. Between Oristano and Terranova, the extreme points
of the additional Railways, or, as they were called, the " lines of the
the 2nd period, , the formation commences at less than ten feet above
the mean level of the sea, and gradually ascends, in a length of
about 37 miles, to upwards of two thousand feet, with gradients up
to 1 in 40, and curves with a radius of 15 chains; there were also
four tunnels, of which two were over half a mile in length, several
viaducts, a bridge over the " Tirso , having three main spans of 100
feet each, and several other bridges, naving water-ways varying from
30 to 125 feet ; and the country being broken and hilly for about
four fifths of the total length of thes e lines, deep cuttings and high
embankments, with massive retaining walls, were rendered necessary.
Many of the cuttings and embankments were from 40 to 50 feet in
depth and height, and several of them of considerable, length,
The cuttings were mostly in hard rock (granite or basalt), the soil
being generally just deep enough for vegetation, but no more.
These works were carried on with unusual rapidity and eco-
-nomy owing to the system adopted of dispensing entirely with
contractors sub-contractors and middle-men, and a description of it
will not be uninteresting, as showing how efficiently and economically
public works may be carried out in Sardinia, and indeed in any
country, under such a system.
Where the work was of a nature that could not be mea-

— 160 —
sured with accuracy, gangs of workmen under able foremen were
employed by " the day „ at an .average wage of about three lire'
but wherever the work was capable of measurement (and this was
the case with almost the whole of it) it was let at a fixed price per
cubic metre direct to the men, who formed in gangs of from 10 to 50
and sometimes more in number for that purpose; all the members of
the gangs sharing alike in the labour and in the profits. Thus the men
had a stimulus to exert themselves to the utmost, and the expense of
detailed supervision was greatly diminished; the more work executed
during the day, the higher was the sum each man received. Strict
punctuality and impartiality in the payments, accuracy in the measure-
-ments, and attention to the health and comfort of the men (including
the providing fresh water and cheap food) attracted workmen in
crowds to the Island, and the competition for employment was great.
The Company in this manner shared with the individual workmen the
large profits which usually flow into the pockets of contractors and
subcontractors, who as a rule " grind , down the men and " scamp ,
the work, but who in their turn are preyed upon by the usurers
that advance the money required for their deposits, and for starting
the work and carrying it to completion ; and under such a state of
things, contractors sub-contractors workmen and bankers profit but
little, all living in a consuming circle ; the lawyers alone make
money, as the disputes and complications are endless.
The men were also saved to a great extent from the vampires,
who come from afar to keep stores or " tommy shops „ at the va
rious stations along the line of works, by the prompt construction
in these places of ovens where bread of excellent quality was baked,
and given to the men at cost price.
With the object of expediting and facilitating the execution of
the work, the men elected to live on the site of their labour, con
structing their own huts, which were of the simplest kind, built
partly with rubble stone plastered externally with mud, and partly
- with branches of trees and rough planks — one square metre of roofing
materials and one set of planking being allowed for each man of every

— 161 -
gang — and the first two or three days' work of the men after ar-
-rival was dedicated to the erection of these huts, for which certain
sites were allotted.
In the hilly and wooded portions of the line the works pre
sented the most striking picture, each cutting swarming like a bee
hive, with men of every province of Italy, and every sort of costume ,
flanked on each side with rows of huts of the oddest architecture,
the smoke of countless fires curling up through the overhanging
foliage, and the little donkeys, carrying barrels of fresh water
picking their careful way over the broken ground, added to the
scene. Steam cranes, and mechanical contrivances of all kinds were
in use at the deeper cuttings to hoist the blasted rock, and thus
the great rock excavations were attacked simultaneously along their
entire length, instead of by the usually slow process of " tipping „
only at the ends, and the greater part of the contents of the
cuttings was " sorted out „ according to quality into broken stone
for ballast, stone for dressed and ordinary masonry, retaining walls,
and dry fence walls which enclose the line on both sides, and the
necessity of quarrying stone along the lines specially for these pur-
-poses was thus avoided. Dealing with rock cuttings in this way
has also, of course, the advantage of ensuring all the savings that
a shortening of time can accomplish. As the price of labour fluc
tuated, according to the seasons and localities, the stone was broken
into ballast by hand, where the cost of this operation was slight,
and pounded by powerful stone-crushers driven by steam, where
hand-work was too costly. River shingle and gravel were used for
ballast, wherever they could be found withiii convenient hauling
distance, but this could only be done in a few favoured places, and
to no very great extent.
Some of the most important works, which " ruled , or measur
ed the time to completion, were carried on by night as well as
by day, the men working in relays by torch-light, in order to re-
-move a cutting that stopped the progress of the permanent way, so

— 162 —
that the locomotive might " pass , and thus facilitate and reduce the
cost of haulage of materials.
The system adopted of letting the work direct to the men, and
their liberal treatment, attracted large numbers of workmen over
from the Abruzzi, a novel feature in Sardinian undertakings, for up
to this time the continental " navvies, , employed on public works
in the Island, had come exclusively from the northern provinces
of Italy ; and the first Abruzzesi, who came over, sent back such
glowing accounts of their position, and of the labour, and railway
works generally, that within a few months no less than 6000 of
these blue-coated " navvies „ migrated, and found profitable employ-
-ment in Sardinia; the Piedmontese, Genoese, Lombards, Tuscans,
and Sardes, together numbering about 5000 more.
The Italian " navvy ,, properly and fairly treated, is a sober,
hard-working, respectful, and industrious man, and beyond question
one of the best types of his class.
In completing the description of these works it may be added
that extensive workshops were erected at the Chilivani junction, and
fitted with the most modern machinery, for repairing locomotives,
wagons, and for bridge-work, and they afterwards formed permanent
workshops for general work. Chilivani is already an important junction,
and will become still more important, when the " secondary lines „ are
completed, and Macomer will also become a junction of almost equal
importance; the advantage of draining the adjoining lands and planting
them with eucalyptus and other resinous trees, as elsewhere described,
in order to render them attractive and salubrious will then be realiz-
-ed, as at these places passengers will have to stop to change trains
and take refreshments.
By adopting the principles mentioned, the lines were construc-
-ted well, quickly, and cheaply — three essentials in the carrying out
of public works notoriously difficult to combine — indeed it may be
said to be a novel feature in the annals of railway construction, that,
whilst the lines were solidly and well constructed, the Engineer's
estimates were not exceeded, and the works were completed in

— 163 —
half the time originally contemplated, and prescribed by law ; namely
in about three years iustead of six.
The junction betwen the northern and southern lines was effected
in June 1880, and the whole of the lines were opened through to
Terranova in March 1881 ; and so satisfied were the Government
Inspectors with the solidity of the works, that, within a few months
after completion, the lines were formally accepted and approved.
This undertaking altogether stands out in most favorable contrast
with almost all other public works in the Island; most of which have
been a source of continual trouble to the Government Engineers,
and of dissatisfaction to the Sardes. No public road has ever been
made in the Island that has not taken at least double the prescribed
time, and the list of bridges swept away in consequence of bad
work, is endless. The bridges on the Cedrino, the Tirso, the Flu-
-mendosa, and the Padrongianus and Concarabella rivers, and many
of those along the road which goes south from Terranova, are at
the present time impassable, and most of them in ruins. The small
harbour of Bosa has been ten years in process of construction, and
is still unfinished; the port of Cagliari progresses very slowly, and
that of Portotorres was commenced two years ago, but no percepti-
-ble progress has yet been made; the harbour of Tortoli, also many
years in course of construction, is still unfinished ; the provincial roads
in the South are at a stand-still; the waterworks of Sassari have
cost nearly double the estiamted amount, and yield an insufficient
supply, far below the estimated quantity, and the retaining wall ot
the store reservoir is said to be so defective that it will probably have
to be re-built; indeed the catalogue of failures and delays might be
prolonged almost indefinitely.
It is believed, and with good reason, that this unsatisfactory
execution of most of the public works is due to the system of let-
-ting the contracts by auction to the lowest bidder, but this
method, happily for Sardinia, is now gradually becoming disused.
All the railways constructed in Italy under this system have cost
the Government vastly more than the estimated amounts, and have

— 164 —
given rise to numberless claims for extras, and law suits ; works being
frequently taken by people who rely on amended terms as the works
proceed, or upon being " bought out , to avoid a dead-lock.
The viciousness of this mode of letting has just been signally
illustrated in the neighbouring Island of Corsica where a line of
railway, from Ajaccio to Bastia, about 160 kilometres in length, is
being made by the French Government. The works were let in short
sections by auction, the lowest bidder for each gettting the contract ; '
and already the cost has considerably exceeded the estimated price,
and not a single yard of line is completed, and the eventual cost
will be at least double the amount originally contemplated. The
construction has been progressing for six years, and under the present
system is expected to last at least as long again. It is said, however,
that the Government intends handing over the whole of the Corsican
railway, including the main line now in construction as also the several
branch or supplementary lines which are to be added, to a public
Company under a similar arrangement to that of the Sardinian
railways ; but it will take some time before the present contractors
can be settled with and disposed of.
By the succesful construction of the " lines of the 2rd period ,
the Sardinian Company was enabled in 1881 to give interest on
the shares first issued at the rate of 2 per cent, and in 1882 a di
vidend of 5 per cent on all the shares was declared, and has been
paid yearly ever since ; and thus the original Share-holders, whose
capital had been unremunerative for 17 years, at last received some
return, and the Company was placed in a sound financial position;
the ordinary shares, which at one time had sunk so low, as to be
offered at 16 shillings each without finding buyers, rose to their
par value of L. 10 sterling, at which price they now stand-in the
market with an upward tendency.
In 1879, whilst the construction of the lines of the 2ud period
was progressing, the Italian Parliament voted the general law for the
completion of the whole railway system of Italy, and, on a motion
of the^ Sardinian Deputies, Depretis, who never forgets Sardinia,

— 165 —
inserted a special article (33) in the law, to provide that a
system of " secondary , Sardinian railways should be commenced
without delay; and the bill for their construction was to be presented
to Parliament within a year of the opening of the lines of the
2ud period. Depretis, in a very able speech, recommended the metre
gauge for these additional lines, which were to be local and
supplementary, and would act as feeders to the main lines, and he
gave a sketch of their approximate course, namely, one line was
to cross the Island from Bosa to Nuoro, passing through Macomer,
another from Cagliari up the centre of the Island to Sorgono
— the capital of the Sardinian high-lands at the foot of the
Gennargentu — and thence to Chilivani, with a branch to Lanusei and
Tortoli, and others from Tempio to Monti, and Sassari to Aighero;
and. great was the satisfaction given by this programme in Sardi
nia, but, as will be seen, its execution has been considerably delayed.
Meanwhile, however, Sig. Baccarini, who was Minister of Public
Works in 1880, visited Sardinia, to inaugurate the opening of the
through line from Cagliari to Sassari, and being struck by the beauty
and excellence of the " Golfo degli Aranci, „ as a natural harbour,
and by the inconvenience attending the landing of passengers mails
and goods at Terranova, suggested the extension of the railway from
Terranova to the Golfo degli Aranci ; and a special bill was at once
presented to Parliament for this extension, authorising its construction,
and working by the Company, upon the same terms, as the other
lines already completed. This bill was passed in 1882, and the
construction of the line, which was 22 kilometres in length, was
executed on the same principle, and with equal expedition, as the lines
of the 2rd period, and was opened to the public early in 1883. A
pier for landing passengers, mails and goods direct from the steamers,
without the intervention of small boats, is now being constructed
in the gulf at the extended terminus.
When Siff. Baccarini was in Sardinia he also instructed the
Company to proceed with making the necessary surveys, plans and
sections for the " secondary railways, , seeing that the lines -of the

- 166 -
2nd period were fast approaching completion, and the date for
presenting the special Bill for the Sardinian local lines was not far
distant. Thus the rapid construction of the lines of the second pe-
-riod, which led to their completion nearly three years before the
time fixed by law, hastened the advent of the secondary lines.
These surveys and plans were accordingly at once proceeded
with, and some of them were presented to Government in 1881,
and others in 1882, but the Government took no further steps
for some time. Meanwhile the Sardinians could not restrain their
impatience, and to an interpellation of deputy Giordano, made in
Parliament in March 1882, the Minister of Public Works replied
" that the Bill for these lines was almost ready for discussion;
" and, if reasonable terms could be arranged, it was intended to
" devise some means of entrusting their construction to the same
" Company that owned the main line, and it might therefore take a
" few weeks, he would not say months, but weeks, before he could
" present the project of law ,.
This Bill was presented to Parliament on the 27th June 1884,
and would have been discussed in that session, but the Deputy who
was the Relatore of the Parliamentary Committee, and had to report
upon the Bill, happened to-be an opposition member, and of obstruc-
-tionist tendencies ; and he, so it is currently reported and believed,
seized the favourable oppportunity that presented itself of putting
his wishes and tactics into practical effect, by suddenly leaving Rome
for Sardinia with the proof sheets of the report in his pocket ; having
however in his favour the plausible excuse afforded by the news of
the outbreak of cholera at Naples, which no doubt would, as it in
fact did, necessitate the establishment of a Quarantine for Sardinia.
His object however was effected, and the Bill could not be discussed
until Parliament re-assembled in the winter; it was however then
at once approved by the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate, and
became law on the 22nd of March 1885.
The construction therefore of these " secondary lines „ seems
now within " measurable distance , and if the work is distrusted

— 167 —
to the present Company, there would be confident grounds for
concluding, from the precedent afforded by the construction of the
" lines of the second period, , that these additional lines would be
completed, and opened to the public, long before the dates fixed by
the law. It will be observed that the branch line between Sorgono
and Nuoro has been struck out of the programme ; the Company did
all in its power to retain it, and lodged the plans, but it was not
favoured either by the minister, the commission, or the " relatore. ,
For the lines from Bosa to Macomer, Macomer to Nuoro, Cagliari to
Isili, and Monti to Tempio, four years are allowed by the law for con
struction, and four years more are allowed for the lines from Sassari
to Alghero, Ozieri to Chilivani, Isili to Sorgono, and Iglesias to
Monteponi; and a third period of four years is allowed for the lines
from Tortoli to a junction with the Cagliari-Sorgono line, and from
Ozieri to a junction with the Macomer-Nuoro line.
The width between the rails on the existing lines is 4ft 8 ins 1/3,
and the secondary lines are to be of the metre guage, i.e: 3ft 3 ins 1/2.
This difference of gauge will in some respects be beneficial, as, owing
to the mountainous nature of the country, very sharp curves will
be necessary, and if the line were laid to the ordinary gauge the
trains would have to run very slowly, or the danger would be great.
Moreover the break of gauge is no great inconvenience in the present
instance, because passengers would have to change trains at the junc-
-tions in any case, and with properly contrived appliances, goods can
be easily, safely, and cheaply, trans-shipped.
The actual cost of constructing the existing lines was about
200,000 lire per kilometer, equal to about £. 12,800 sterling per
mile. The secondary lines, though the country traversed is in many
places difficult — more difficult on the average than the old lines —
by the adoption of the narrower guage, will admit of sharper curves,
and lighter works generally ; and, as there will be no great terminal
station, and the rolling-stock will be less costly, the outlay per mile
will be of course proportionately diminished.
If however the Goverment should unfortunately be induced to

— 168 —
follow the old system of putting the works up to auction, and
letting them to the lowest bidder, in the event of the present Com-
-pauy not seeing its way to accept the terms stated in the law for
constructing these lines, there can be very little doubt, again taking
past experience as our guide to. a conclusion, that the usual con
sequences will most probably follow; and that the time fixed for
completion will be at least doubled, the work will be " scamped ,
and that an application will have to be made at no distant date
to Parliament for a further grant of funds to complete the lines.
The decision of the Goverment in this matter has a most im-
-portant bearing as affecting Sardinian interests, and apart from
the substantial advantage, which the Company possesses in being
able to offer ample security for the due performance of the contract,
it has all the necessary plans, as well as a practised staff of
engineers, and other officials, with extensive plant, workshops, and
materials, and last bilt not least, un-rivalled facilities for transport,
in its ownership of the existing Railways. On the other hand it
is of course the obvious duty of Goverment, in any arrangement
that may be made, to be satisfied that they will receive full value
in works, in return for the considerations they give in money; and
as they have had the detailed plans and sections before them for
some years, and have at their command a competent staff of practical
experts, there should be no difficulty in arriving at a conclusion,
and no doubt on the result of their investigation the ultimate de
cision will depend.
The management of the Railways and the working of the traffic
in the various departments next demand attention, and though there
is not much — either novel or practical — to be derived from the
knowledge, yet it will be seen, how these things are conducted in Sar
dinia, and to what extent the Country is able to supply its own
requirements. The " Permanent Way, , is kept in order by a large staff of
workmen, one to every kilometre; and, as the railways are single
lines, this is a liberal allowance. The workmen reside in houses

— 169 —
specially built for them on the sides of the line, and close to their
work ; their wages average about two shillings a day, and their wives
and children who attend to the gates at the level crossings receive
for these services an additional payment.
The first portion of the original line was laid with iron rails of
the "vignolle, or flanged pattern, (33- kilos to the metre, equal to 66 lbs
per yard); " chairs , are not used, and the rails are " fished , together
and " spiked „ to the " sleepers „. 'The last made portion of the
line was laid with steel rails, of the same weight and section as
the iron; neither steel nor iron rails have yet needed renewal.
The sleepers first used were either from the Baltic, or maritime
pine from the neighbouring island of Corsica, but they did not
" last ; „ and the average cost was about three shillings and sixpence
each; oak sleepers from the Sardinian forests are now invariably used,
and though the price exceeds that of the pine wood, yet they are
actually cheaper, as they will last twice as long ; and wherever the
line had been originally laid with pine sleepers the latter have been
all gradually replaced by oak.
Ballast of excellent quality is to be found on some parts of
the line, and the cost seldom exceeds two shillings per ton.
The fences along the line in the northern district are stone
walls, about four feet high, dry-built and without coping, the cost
on an average being about two shillings per " running „ metre.
In the southern district, the fences are of cactus or prickly pear;
both sorts of fence are effective to prevent trespass by cattle, and
neither requires much care or attention.
The width of ground between the fences on each side of the rail-
-way averages 65 feet, which would admit of doubling the line, when
it should be found necessary. The land on each side has to be kept
free of herbage, on account of the fires which in the dry summer
months would otherwise be constantly occurring.
There are extensive work-shops for the renewal and repairs of
locomotives, carriages, wagons, and permanent way ; the axles, tyres,
wheels, plates, tubes, and rails, being supplied from England, but all

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labour and " fitting, „ even to the making of " switches and cros-
-sings, , are done at the work-shops, each of which is under the
supervision of a chief engineer with two foremen.
When new locomotives or other rolling stock (except wagons,
which are constructed at the railway work-shops) are needed, they are
obtained by tender. Formerly they were supplied by English makers
exclusively, but the Italian firms at Turin, Milan, and Brescia are now
able successfully to compete, doing as good work, and at no greater cost.
The " traffic „ arrangements are under the supervision of a chief
of department, assisted by three inspectors, who are always on the line.
There are at present two trains a day each way, and the average
speed, throughout the 411 kilometres now working, is 30 kilometres
(about 18 1j2 miles) per hour, stoppages included. This, though
falling far short of the speed of express trains on our main lines, is
quite equal to the pace of many of the trains on the branch lines of
some of our best railways, especially those in the southern and agri-
-cultural districts. Moreover it is fully equal to the average speed on
the grand trunk railways in America and Canada, where the country
generally is " dead level , and the line perfectly straight, and where
the stations are nearly 20 miles apart from each other; and when
it is taken into account that the Sardinian railways, excepting from
Cagliari to Oristano, are mountain lines, with gradients up to 1
in 40, with curves some of which have a radius of 300 metres, the
travelling cannot be considered as slow. Indeed under all the cir
cumstances, the speed of the trains, and the accommodation gene-
-rally, are matters rather of surprise and praise, than subjects of
complaint or censure.
The maximum fares and rates as fixed by the Convention, are
not to exceed for passengers 10c per kilometre 1st class, 7° 2nd class
and 5° 3d class. The rates for goods vary according to quality; but
all goods of the same class are charged at the same uniform mileage
rate, varying from 7C to 16° per ton per kilometre according to the
class of goods carried. The Company however charges rather lower
than these limits for 3rd class passengers and for some goods.

— 171 —
To these fares and rates have to be added the Government duty
of 13 per cent on passenger and " fast „ goods traffic, 2 per cent on
* slow „ goods, and a stamp duty of 5C on every passenger ticket in
voice or way-bill.
The passenger traffic forms more than half of the total receipts ;
and of this the 3rd class contributes about nine-tenths.
The rolling stock is good and substantial, and fully equal to the
requirements of the traffic ; it comprizes in addition to locomotives,
carriages and goods, mineral, and ballast wagons ; also an ample
supply of special rolling stock, such as royal saloons, long wagons
for the transport of timber, girders, or other goods of unusual length,
fitted with Cleminsons flexible wheel-base, horse-boxes, travelling
cranes, and travelling water tanks ; the latter are fitted up with pow
erful force pumps, and are used for supplying water direct into
the cisterns at the stations, and the guard-houses along the line,
where there is no water from nearer sources.
The average daily " run , of a locomotive is about 70 kilo-
-metres, and the average consumption of coal is about 9 kilogrammes
per kilometer, equal to about 30 lbs. per mile ; in making comparisons,
it must be remembered, that, for one half the whole length of the
lines, the gradients vary from 1 in 40 to 1 in 55.
An ordinary train consists of a locomotive, three or four pas
senger carriages, and four or five goods waggons, with a van for the
mails, luggage and brake; and there are no separate goods trains
except on special occasions.
The annual comsumption of coal is about 10,000 tons. It is
" first-class Cardiff, and costs c. f. i. about 26 shillings per ton.
The auditing and accountant departments are not elaborate,
but no elaborate system of book-keeping is needed ;%the capital ac
count is practically closed, and none of those burning questions
as between capital and income, which agitate the minds of crotchety
shareholders, and weak-kneed directors, can ever arise.
The law business of the Company is transacted at a fixed
sum per year, as is now the case on most of our English railways.

— 172 —
The solicitor does not however give his exclusive time to the affairs
of the Company, but is allowed to take other business ; but on the
other hand his remuneration does not amount to as many hundreds as we
pay thousands. Land valuers and surveyors are paid for their servi
ces according to the time occupied, the average pay is about twelve
shillings per day. The railway doctors, of whom there are several
in the various districts, receive for their services, (which are not exclu
sive) a very small sum in cash, but they have a perpetual free-pass
over the line for themselves, and, on particular occasions, for their
wives and families.
It is the duty of the doctor to attend any workman on the
line when ill or injured, and medicines from the stores of the Com
pany are supplied gratis. There is a sick fund, to which every em-
-ploye has to contribute a sum equal to three per cent upon his
salary or wages. Every member is entitled to a weekly payment in
case of illness or accident ; and, in the event of death, his family is
compensated. The Company also contributes annually a liberal sum
towards the fund. The percentage of sick and dead, as appears by
the book of the fund, is less than the average on our English railways.
The Sarde law is the same as the English law with regard to' lia-
-bility for accidents ; but no case of either injury or death has yet
arisen since the opening of the lines.
There are no continuous or automatic brakes, block-signalling,
interlocking, or other new-fangled appliances, to perplex and bewilder.
signalmen guards and drivers ; the traffic is worked on the block
system by means of the telegraph from station to station, and trains
are started by the blast of a bugle as in the good old times of our
first railways.
Sardes are employed iu all departments excepting where special
railway experience is needed, and in such cases Italians from the
mainland are selected; the station-masters, clerks, engine-men,
guards, mechanics, and labourers, are all Sardes. As a class they
are a hard-working, and intelligent body of men, and fully equal
to the average on most railways. The hours of labour, considering

— 173 —
the country and climate, are long, ranging from 10 to 12 hours
per day, and commencing even in the offices at 7 a. m. The salaries
and wages cannot however be said to be proportionately excessive,
as with the exception of the general manager, no official receives
over £. 200 a year, and the wages of labourers vary from ls/6d to 2s/
a day, in both the northern and southern districts.
The scenery along the lines is in many places interesting and
picturesque — in some parts approaching to grandeur — and de
serves a passing comment. The olive groves near Sassari, and the
valley of Semestene in which the line rises from Bonorva up to the
basaltic plateau above Macomer, and the descent from the plateau of
Bauladu towards Oristano, unfold an enchanting panorama, presen
ting lovely scenes; on the right are the forest-clad mountains of
Santo Lussurgiu, on whose slopes stand the picturesque villages of
Bonarcado and Seneghe, and the far-famed orange groves of Milis,
and in the foreground are Tramatza, Solarussa Oristano, Cabras, and
many other villages dotting the plains, broken here and there by
stagni, and stretching away to the horizon, which is bounded by
the sea, in the far distance the " classic Tharros , is just discer-
-nible. Between the Oschiri station and the Golfo di Aranci the
scenery is also fine, but wild and rugged, and the Limbara range,
as seen from the line, looks grand and imposing ; the fantastic out
lines and peaks of the nearer granite mountains, with their peculiar
vegetation, and the clear waters of the streams, combined with the
total absence of cultivation, or of any sign of the presence of man,
form together a sombre but attractive landscape which, on nearing
Terranova and towards Marinella and Figari, is diversified and beau-
-tified by occasional sea-views, where the line touches the rocky surf-
bound coast. The finest scenery in the Island will, however, be opened
up by the new lines which traverse magnificent mountains and forests i
and " touch , quaint and picturesque villages, full of novelty and
interest. The history of the Sardinian railways in the past, and the present
position and management, and future prospects, have now been given,

— 174 -
and a few sentences upon the administration of the Company, and
the Government arrangement will conclude a chapter, which has
been protracted to a greater length, and entered into fuller details
than was at first intended. Railways, however, have such a vitally
important bearing upon the prosperity of a country and the habits
of its people, that it was felt desirable that the subject should be fully
gone into; it is hoped too that the description will not have been un
interesting, nor prove altogether un-instructive.
The administration of the Sardinian Railways is vested in a
board — consisting of six directors, of whom four are Italian and
two English — and the present board stands deservedly high in
public estimation. The Marquis of Villahermosa, a resident Sar
dinian nobleman, is the Chairman, and the " Direttore generale ,
is Commendatore Segre, who resides in Rome, and who has practi
cally the control of all the company's business, in the management
of which he has been deservedly successful.
The arrangement with the Government is the guarantee to the
Company of an annual net revenue of 14,800 lire per. kilometre as
consideration for constructing the lines, and a further guarantee of
gross revenue from traffic of 7000 lire per kilometre, to meet the
expenses of working the lines; with a proviso, that, if the gross
receipts do not in any year amount to that sum, half the difference
between the receipts and the guarentee is to be paid to the Company,
and if they exceed that amount, the excess is to be divided between
the Company and the Goverment, in the proportion of 54 to 46.
The guarantee of a fixed sum \towards the interest upon the
money required for original construction of the lines was, no doubt,
an essential preliminary to the raising of the necessary capital, and
the guarantee of a forth er sum, to meet the expenses of working
the traffic, was an equally essential provision and the logical sequence
of guaranteeing a net revenue.
The traffic being as yet in an undeveloped state pending (he
completion of the supplementary lines and the adoption of the other
measures which will be elsewhere referred to, tbe Government has

— 175 -
hitherto paid the whole amount of the guaranteed net revenue as
well as a small sum, variable according to the fluctuations of traffic,
under the guarantee of gross revenue.
This was an equitable arrangement and has succeeded in its main
object, viz : securing the Company against any loss on the working ;
and when and as the traffic increases, the Company will be able to
supplement the guaranteed net revenue by the surplus profit from
the working; and it seems right in principle, as the Company is thus
made directly interested in developing the traffic.
This principle of arrangement in respect of working expenses is
however unique in its way, and like all other novel principles is, no
doubt, capable of improvement in details, and the opportunity for
amendments, if any be desirable, will soon present itself.
The general scheme for the re-constitution and working of the
whole of the Italian railway system has recently been undergoing
searching Parliamentary investigation, and important modifications
and readjustments of fares and rates have been determined on ; Sar
dinia will of course accomodate herself to these changes, and will
participate in these advantages, and a revision of the arrangement
will then become necessary, and it will doubtless embrace existing
lines, as well as the authorized extensions.
The origin progress and various vicissitudes of the Sardinian
railway Company give rise to diverse reflections.
The seeds were those of the King, they were sown by Cavour
and nurtured by Depretis ; it is the only railway throughout the
whole of Italy, that stands on its original basis ; all the others
have passed into the hands of the State, and been leased to "working.
Companies. The Sardinian Railway, however, remains to this day
as it was originally planned ; and may ¦ not this be looked upon
as a happy omen of the greater permanency, that awaits the infi-
-nitely greater work in which the same hands were engaged, and
under any circumstances may it not be made the agency of re
storing Sardinia to its ancient prosperous condition. Should tbe
Government, disregarding the sentimental aspect, determine to acquire

— 176 -
these railways, as it has the other railways of Italy, it may, by
placing such light rates upon products, which form the elements of
successful industries, directly ensure the development of commerce,
which is the ground work of prosperity. On the other hand should
Government prefer to leave the Sardinian Railways as they are, the
same objiect may be attained by a new arrangement; the Govern-
-ment and Company making balancing concessions.
This matter, however, so vitally affecting the interests of Sar-
-dinia will be referred to at length in the concluding remarks at
the close of this volume, when discussing the general measures for
the amelioration of the Island, and need not, therefore, be dilated
upon further in a chapter, which has already been unduly extended.

CHAPTER XI.
Festivals — Origin — Religious services — Feasting — Reunions
— Easter Ceremonies — Santa Maria — Valverde — Sant'Efisio — La
Madonna del Mateno — Vergine dei sette dolori — San Priamo —
Maggio — Saint John — La Varda — Correiolei — Grammatigu — Com-
¦pare e Comare — Superstitions — Las Spungas — Accabatura — Ta
rantula — Sardonic Grin — Timoria — Relics — Heathen customs
and English Fairs.

The festivals (called " feste ,) in honour of Saints — local and
general — are between 80 and 100 in number. Some of the more
celebrated are observed universally throughout the Island, in the
cities and towns, as well as in the rural parishes ; while others are
held only in the particular districts with which the Saints had some
special connection. All of them combine feasting and amusements
with religious ceremonies.
Those in the Country districts are called " Novenas „ and last
for several days, though seldom extending to nine, as the name
would seem to imply. They are usually held in some secluded spot
in the forests, or in the plains, where the Church dedicated to the
special Saint is situated, and which is .used once only during the
year for this particular celebration.
These " Feste , were no doubt in their origin devised for de
votional purposes — the offerings of thanksgivings for the past and
prayers for the future ;. — but the religious element, though not al-
-together lost sight of, is to a large extent overshadowed by the

— 178 —
festivities which are mixed with, and form the greater and more
attractive part of the proceedings.
On each day of the Feste several services of the Church are
held, and mass is celebrated, but between the ceremonies and far
into the night, often until early dawn, feasting and dancing, and
every other sort of amusement, are freely indulged in. The fervid
out-pouring of thanks for the cure of a broken leg, or a broken
heart ; the passionate entreaties for the restitution or substitution of
a lost pig, a lover, or a husband; the despondent wailings of those
who have never known a mother's joys or a mother's sorrows, and
the humble supplications for relief during pregnancy, coupled with
solemn promises never to be in the same predicament again, are
indiscriminately mixed together, and, intermingled with the sounds
of revelry and feasting, form a weird and discordant contrast, which
jars upon the ears and senses, and is provocative of very different
feelings from those which are supposed to have brought the assembled
people together.
These " Novenas , therefore must not be looked upon in the
light of religious festivals, though the church services are numerously
attended and devoutly observed, but rather as reunions of relatives
and friends from neighbouring villages; as such, they are happy
meetings, and admirably adapted as excuses for Holidays of recreation
and amusement; and it is greatly to the credit of the Sardes that
these occasions never degenerate into licentiousness drunkenness on
immorality. A short description of. some of the most important " feste „ will
best illustrate their character, and will not be uninteresting.
The Easter ceremonies are the grandest and most important,
and are kept universally throughout the island, continuing for se
veral days in succession. In the procession, which is generally the
first part of the procedings in the cities and large towns, soldiers
, with arms reversed, and at slow march, form an advance guard ;
then follows a troop of ladies, dressed in deep mourning and with
black veils, each holding a large wax candle, which also serves as

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a walking-stick. The figure of the Virgin Mary, as large as life, on
a platform studded with lighted candles, is carried by another de-
-tachment of ladies similarly attired, but wearing white kid gloves
and fine worked cambric kerchiefs ; a company of soldiers comes
next, forming another " corps de garde , and playing the most lively
airs, in curious contrast with the religious silence of the rest of the
procession. Next follows a strong detachment of men, dressed in white
robes with white kerchiefs on their heads, and with white gloves on
their hands, so that it is difficult at first to distinguish which
sex they belong to, male or female. After these come several
lots of children, representing angels, decked with tinsel ornaments
and paste-board wings, and carrying in their hands dishes, filled
with thorns and nails and sponges, as emblems of the Crucifixion.
Immediately following are the images of Nicodemus and Joseph
of Arimathea, gorgeously dressed in Oriental style, and accompa-
-nied by two men in black masks, representing eunuch slaves.
Then comes a coffin, containing the figure of our Saviour after the
Crucifixion, with a shroud and the usual funereal appendages, — a
black pall and canopy — protected by a guard of soldiers and priests;
and another concourse of females, wearing white veils, closed the
procession. A large crowd followed; and they pass through all the
principal streets, and visit all the churches several times during the
day; and at night the same ceremony is repeated amidst a blaze
of lights, which renders the general effect impressive and imposing.
On the third day the Resurrection of our Saviour is celebra
ted by the ringing of all the bells in every church in the city,
the signal being the elevation of the host at high mass in the
Cathedral. This of course is in addition to the procession, which is
a standard performance in each days programme, and on the last
day a pontifical mass is celebrated by the Archbishop, which seems
to be highly appreciated.
Another important " festa , is that of " Santa Maria, „ which
continues for nine days. It is held each year in September, and is
celebrated in many parts of the Island. The scene of this relig-

— 180 —
-ious revelry at which I was present was an ancient Church or
Chapel, built in the 10th century, and situated in the centre of
a dense forest, with no village or house within many miles. The
site of the Church is on the southern slope of a gentle eminence,
where three valleys converge, each valley well-wooded and watered
by rapid rivulets, which at their confluence form a fine broad river.
Towards the west, far as the eye could reach, was a stretch of
continuous forest with the Mediterranean in the distance, and to-
-wards the east was a range of hills and mountains, towering one
above the other, and culminating in the snow-capped peaks of Gen-
-nargenta; the whole presenting a picture of great natural beauty
and grandeur which could scarcely be surpassed.
Surrounding the Chapel was a cluster of houses, built of stone,
but neither floored nor plastered, many of them being hewn out of
the solid rock, and of the very roughest and rudest construction;
here however several hundred persons, of both sexes and all ages,
congregate from the neighbouring villages, and remain during the
whole continuance of the Festa.
They bring with them such cooking utensils and articles of
furniture as they need, and supplies of meat and drink are forwar-
-ded to them each day. The cooking is done, and the meals are
taken, in the open air, but how so many persons could be squeezed
into so few houses for the night was a mystery which I endeavoured
to solve without success, and I came to the charitable conclusion
that it could only have been decently managed by a system of
" relays , a conclusion which the different habits of the devotees
seemed rather to favour.
The proceedings each day were almost identical. Religious
services and high mass from 8 to 10 in the morning, then " cola-
-zione , which lasted till noon, and after that dancing, which was
performed on a plot of level ground in front of the church, that
had evidently been prepared for the purpose. The " ballo tondo, ,
seemed to be the favourite dance, and was kept up till 5' o'clock, at
which hour there was another church service lasting till 7 P. M; and

- 181 -
at 8 o'clock eating and drinking were again resumed, and, with inter
vals of dancing, were carried on till midnight; some of the young
est and most enthusiastic prolonging the orgies till daylight, when
no doubt they took their turn in the beds which had been just
occupied by the more staid portion of the community, who had
retired to rest some hours before. There was no instrumental music;
the accompaniment to the dancing being a monotonous singing.
The entertainment was however occasionally varied by a song,
with a solo and chorus, not very pleasing to the ears of a stranger,
but evidently highly appreciated by the native audience.
Shooting with a ball at a mark, and firing blank cartridges
into the air with no apparent object, formed part of the festivities,
but there was no other game or amusement, except love-making ;
this however was carried on freely and openly and would, I was
told, in due course produce its fruit in the shape of formal enga
gements and marriages.
* A very similar pilgrimage takes place yearly at * Valverde „
a hamlet situated a few miles from Alghero, and here there is a
special romance attached to the ceremony. The story runs, that
in 6th- century a small stone image was found at Valverde which
proved to be a Madonna, and it was taken to the cathedral at Alghero;
but the image, not liking its new quarters, disappeared during the
night, and was found a few day afterwards, reposing in its old bed at
Valverde. A shrine was then, as a matter of course, built there for it,
and afterwards a church, and since then annually there has been a
pilgrimage to the place, not only of the Algherese, but of the people
from all the country round for 40 miles'. The festival, which com
bines religion and merry-making, is the same as the " novena , of
Santa Maria, but on a much larger scale, gathering, it is said daily
over 4000 persons, some of whom remain the whole four days during
which the festival lasts. The only religious additions to the services
and masses are the adoration and kissing of the Image.
St. Efisio is the chief saint in the Sardinian calendar; he was
an officer in the army of Diocletian, and for his conversion to Chris-

— 182 —
-tianity was beheaded at Nora, a small town about 20 miles distant
from Cagliari, and on the anniversary of his martyrdom, there is
a grand procession to the place of his decapitation.
The ceremony very much resembles those of other feste, ex
cepting that the journey to the place of assembly occupies two
days, and that the grandest carriage in Sardinia is kept for the
saint's exclusive use on this occasion. The carriage is something
like a small edition of our Lord Mayor's coach, and the Saint is
carried in it to Nora with as much pomp and display, as " his
Worship „ is conveyed in his state coach from the Mansion House to
Westminster. At Nora (where in some years upwards of 25,000
persons are assembled) the usual religious ceremonies take place,
followed each day by the usual festivities, and at the end of the
week, the saint is brought back to Cagliari in his own carriage and
with the same pomp and ceremony as before.
These honours have for upwards of 200 years been paid to
St. Efisio, by reason, it is stated, of his having removed the plague
from the city in the year 1656; and, when the French besieged the
city A. D. 1793, in answer to the prayers made to him during
the bombardment, he caused the defeat of Latonche Tourville, though
not before that impious admiral had battered the Saint's Cathedral
with shot and shell, some of which are incrusted in the walls, and
may be seen at the present day.
At Fonni, the festival of " La Madonna del Mateno „ is held
just before whitsnutide , and, as a fair and " festa , combined, it is one
of the most interesting in Sardinia. The Improvisatori (of whom
there is a considerable number in the Island) were here' in great
force, but singing and dancing occupied the people far more than
the lyrists. The devotees also mustered strong; they crawled on
their knees from the church door to the high altar, and there were
allowed to kiss an image of our Saviour, a small doll fantastically
dressed, reposing in the lap of another and larger doll, which repre
sented the Virgin. The infant Christ was kissed in a variety of
ways, from the salutation on the toe to a lengthened embrace and kiss

— 183 —
on the forehead, and, considering all this wear and tear during two
centuries and a half since its institution, it is astonishing that any
thing was left for this annual exhibition.
This ceremony was however only preliminary to a miraculous
and mysterious performance in a small chapel adjoining, to which
only a limited number were admitted at a time. The first appearance
on entering gave one the idea of a cabinet of curiosities, for there
were glass cases hung all round the walls filled with strange look-
-ing articles. A curtain hung down in front of a small altar, by
the side of which stood a Priest holding a dish in his hand, for the
lire and centesimi, which poured in plentifully on the occasion. Then,
at the tinkling of a bell, all dropped on their knees, and at the
same time the curtain rose, and a figure of the Madonna was seen
arrayed in gorgeous costume. The devout then began to cross
themselves furiously, as if they were doing it for a wager, next
arose a muttering and lisping of what were no doubt intended for
prayers, but which, being indistinctly heard, sounded much more like
the chirping of sparrows. Another' bell then rang, and the figure
(which was on a pivot) began to revolve ; the effect was electrical,
the men kissed the ground, touching it with their heads after the
mahometan fashion, and the women broke out into groaus and shrieks
and began striking their bosoms, and were gradually working them
selves into a state of hysteria, when fortunately the curtain drop-
-ped, and the image was closed from view.
Upon an examination of the cabinets afterwards, their contents
proved to be relics of Martyrs and Saints, valuable only from their
holy associations. One of the relics was a representation of the
flagellation of our Lord, and part of the column to which the figure
was attached, was, acccording to Fonni faith, a piece of the iden-
-tical column to which our Saviour was bound; if that be really the
case, it seems almost a pity that it should be kept in a small chapel
in the wildest part of Sardinia, instead of adorning one of the
cloisters of " Santa Maria Maggiore „ at Rome, where there is a
pendant relic to it, in size and interest, in a piece of the pillar

— 184 —
upon which the cock stood and crowed, when St. Peter denied His
Master. The fair was a lively and busy scene, made so principally by
the Genoese, who brought with them fine clothes cotton and linen.
The natives, who seemed comparatively indifferent whether they did
business or not, brought some goods from the neighbouring villages,
comprizing coarse woollen cloth, saddle-bags, carriage-wrappers, car-
-pets, towels, and coverlids, which they were willing either to exchange
or sell, as best suited their customers. It was amusing to observe
how the gentler sex induced their husbands and lovers to make
purchases, which they evidently desired to shirk; such arts and
victories are not however peculiar to Fonni or Sardinia; in our own
country we are equally happy in the possession of relatives equally
fair, whose all powerful influence with fathers brothers and husbands
it is often found impossible to resist.
The festa of "Vergine dei Sette Dolori „, which is held almost uni
versally throughout the Island, affords a grand opportunity for seeing
all the costumes of the country, for the peasants, wearing their gayest
garments, come to do penance before a figure of the Virgin during
the seven days of the feast. The dressing of the figure is entrusted
for the year to a certain number of ladies belonging to the aristoc-
-racy, and at the end of the year lots are drawn, and the names
of the noble ladies, who are to have the custody for the next year,
are read out from the high altar, with a benediction on those whose
charge has just terminated.
The feast of St. Priamo, held at Oliastro is another important
festival ; a wooden image of the Saint, is brought in a cart to a small
church, situated on the side of a steep granite mountain, and the
evening is then spent in amusements, which continue till sunrise,
when those who are not too tired proceed to matins in the church.
The mid-day mass however is the service most frequented, and a pro
cession is then formed; the effigy is carried by four priests round the
village, the sacred relics being secreted in the bosom of a chosen priest,
who is attended by several other ecclesiastics, as well as by a military

— 185 —
escort. The afternoon is spent in horse racing and other amusements,
one of which is the riding at and cutting through with a long knife
the neck of a fowl suspended by a string from the branch of a tree.
An interesting episode during one of these " feste , is nar
rated thus. " A party of six young females were induced by
" some banditti, who were present at the festa, to pay them a
" visit in the mountains. The evening was spent in feasting,
" singing, and dancing, and during the night the men kept watch
" with strict gallantry. The next day was passed in similar amuse-
" -ments, and the following morning they started for the Church
" to continue the celebration of the Novena. In the meantime
" their absence had been discovered, and the report was spread
" that they had been carried off by violence, and the enraged
8 relatives at once armed themselves for vengeance. By accident,
" they met on the road, and though each party had weapons ready
" for action, the presence of women prevented violence, and a truce
" was declared. Meanwhile a villager, who was the bride-groom
" of one of the females, held his gun pointed at one of the ban-
" ditti, who had been a great rival in his bride's affections, and who
" had fled to the hills after an unsuccessful attempt on the vil-
" -lager's life. The Bandit had his gun also in readiness, and a
" minute more would in all probability have ended one or both of
" their lives, had not the bride observed what was going on, and,
" rushing into her husbands arms, seized his gun and discharged
" the contents into -the air; then, placing herself in front of her
" husband, she led him up to the Bandit, and he, bewildered at
" her brave and noble conduct, gave up his gun to her, which
" she fired off and then restored to him. Mutual explanations
" followed, the whole affair was treated as a joke, and a merry
" feast, during which the cause of dispute was discussed and cleared
" up, terminated in mutual forgiveness ,.
Among the most interesting ceremonies is the " Maggio, „ in the
flower season, at the beginning of May. An oak branch is fastened
before the window of some favourite damsel, selected as the heroine

— 186 -
of the "festa,, and a flag, made of embroidered silk is suspended from
an ornamental pole from which small bells are lightly hung, so as
to be moved by any breeze, and the adjoining houses are adorned
with flowers and silks. The young men then form a procession,
and by songs and cheers invite the young girls to join the "Maggio„.
The lasses soon join, and they proceed to bind with silk ribands
all those whom they either meet in the streets or call upon, and
then playfully release them, when they have contributed something
towards the "festa,. The rest of the day is spent in feasting dancing
and other amusements, among which the singing of songs, in praise
of the village flora, forms an important part.
At the " festa , of S' John, in a small church near a small
stream flowing into the Tirso, all the maimed the halt and the blind
assemble together, and when the midnight bell tolls, they plunge
or are phfnged into the stream, which at that moment is supposed
to possess a miraculous healing power. Many cures are said to have
been effected, but whether this is brought about by the confident
assurance of being cured, or by fear of a cold bath — a process to
which the Sardes generally have a rooted objection — is uncertain.
It is not however a universal panacea, and to those who are
not cured by the cold water system, there is another remedy open,
viz, the stealing of apricots or other fruit at midnight without being
observed, for, if detected, the efficacy is rendered valueless.
In some of the northern villages during high mass, a cere-
-mony called " La Varda , is performed by men on horseback,
armed with guns, riding in procession to the church in single file,
and discharging their guns in honour of the tutelary Saints of the
village. They then proceed in double and afterwards in triple file,
repeating the " feu de joie , each time. All the villagers join in this,
and when " banditti malevolenti and fuorisciti , existed in the Island,
they very often took part in these rejoicings, and were allowed to
do so with impunity, there being a general truce or amnesty for
the occasion. Another custom or ceremony is the " Corriolei, „ or feast of the

— 187 —
" Hunches „ towards which the richer inhabitants of the village
contribute meal, wine, and bread; and these viands, which are first
taken to the church and there blessed, are then placed on a public
table in the square or market place, and are partaken of indiscrimi-
-nately by strangers and poor people.
There is a singular custom connected with wool plucking, and
called " Grammatigu, , which seems to be almost exclusively confined
to the Tempio district.
When the " Clip , is finished, the wool requires immediate
preparation for use, and, instead of each family preparing its own,
an entertaniment is arranged at every house in succession ; from
thirty to forty young girls usually attend, and they sit cross-legged on
the floor with a hank of wool assigned to each, and while at work
their lovers loll and idle by their sides, singing improvised love
songs, till the work is finished, when bonbons and cakes are pro-
-duced, and the " ballo tondo „ is resorted to for and kept up the
remainder of the evening.
Amongst the most interesting of the superstitious ceremonies is
that of " compare e comare, , or the annual nomination of godfa
ther and godmother of Saint John, whose festival is held in June.
In the month of May some seeds of corn and barley are sown in
small vases of cork, and kept in a dark warm place, so as to be
in full vegetation for the festival. On that day the young people of
the village assemble in procession on foot and on horseback, and
perambulate three times round the church; they then dash the vases on
the ground, after which there is the regular feasting usual on these
festive occasions, followed by dancing and other amusements.
In the evening, a large fire is lighted, and the selected godfather
and godmother stand on opposite sides of the fire, each holding in
the right hand the end of a long stick, which they move back
wards and forwards three times, stretching their right hands three
times across the fire, and the formal ceremony is then complete.
The children after this amuse themselves by jumping across the fire,
and with such rapidity and dexterity that neither themselves nor their

— 188 —
clothes are burnt or even singed. This performance is no doubt of
Egyptian or Phoenician origin, and is very similar to the rites ob
served in the worship of Adonis; the passage through the fire is
suggestive of one of the idolatrous customs of the Kings of Judah,
who made their children to " pass through the fire to Moloch. ,
Another superstition, or prevalent belief, in many parts of the
Island, is the miraculous power of certain bags or purses, called
" las spungas ,. They are said to contain the bones of Saints and
other holy relics, and any person who swears falsely, when touching
them, will meet with present as well as eternal punishment. It is
customary for those defrauded to challenge the suspected parties, and
compel them to swear on the " Spungas , ; if they do, and escape,
it is a proof of innocence ; if they refuse, it is evidence of guilt.
For the information of medical practitioners, it should be men-
-tioned that in cases of brain fever, a certain cure is to found in
the placing of a plucked live fowl on the head of the invalid, and
leaving it there till it decomposes.
Another superstitions belief or custom, principally confined to
the Barbagia district, is the " Timoria, , a violent panic or nervous
trembling, with utter prostration of strength and spirits, no doubt ari
sing from intemperie or malarious fever. It is not however attributed
to natural causes, but is considered a distinct malady produced by
some person or other, whom the patient points out, and this person
is waited upon by the friends of the patient, and a cup full of his
saliva is obtained, which is diluted with wine or broth, and the
patient partakes of this disgusting compound with the full conviction
of instant cure.
A similar superstition exists in Sicily, but there, instead of the
Sarde nostrum, certain herbs supposed to possess magic charms, or
broth made from a puppy dog boiled down, are given to the patient.
The efficacy of either of these doses must arise from the disgust
and nausea in taking them, or the imagination must be able to
produce a wonderful effect.
One of the most prized and highly venerated relics is at Al-

— 189 —
-ghero, and is a skull of one of the Innocents murdered by Herod.
A document giving its history is among the sacred archives of the
church, and every detail is elaborately given, nothing in fact is want-
-ing, except some sort of evidence proving its anthenticity. The
skull is undoubtedly that of a child, who had received a blow on
the head when very young, but the same indentation might without
difficulty be produced upon the head of any ordinary infant.
Several of the mineral springs in Sardinia are supposed to possess
extensive and miraculous virtues besides the curing of diseases, but
this credulity, though handed down by tradition from ancient times,
is gradually dying out. Solinus mentions two fountains which had
the property of discovering theft and perjury. If the accused were
guilty, on bathing his eyes with the water, he was struck with im
mediate blindness, — but if innocent, no bad result ensued.
Another singular but unpleasant custom is said to have once
existed in the Island, viz " accabatura, , a Sarde word signifying
" knocking on the head „ and it was practised in ancient times in
many parts of the Island, and consisted in parents being released
from their miseries, when they became very old ^,nd infirm, by the
simple process which the name of the custom denotes. The children
did not perform this terrible office themselves, but intrusted it to
a set of men called " Accabature , who were professionally employed
for the purpose. The Sardes of the present day doubt whether
the custom ever really existed, but it is mentioned by Zenodotus and
iEschylus and is said to have been practised at Bosa in the middle
of the last century. It is a custom which it need scarcely be said,
is not now practised; and it is certainly one of those customs that
may be said to be " more honoured in the breach than in the
observance. ,
The Tarantula, called in Sarde " arza , or " argia , is found
in the Island, and is of three sorts, distinguished as " the Maiden, ,
" the wife „ and " the widow „ no' mention is made of the " males ,
though doubtless they exist, but perhaps they dont bite, and are
not therefore held worthy of record. The first named female is

— 190 —
marked with small red spots, the second has spots of greyish colour,
and the third is entirely black. Their bite is said to be poisonous
the person bitten being seized with cold shivering and fainting fits,
and having a pulse varying in quickness according to the religious
fervour of the individual. The utmost care is taken to catch the insect,
as, according to whether it was maid wife or widow who inflicted
the bite, the patient is treated. A round dance is then formed,
during which the patient executes a continuous " pas seul „ and
this dose is ad'ministred three times a day till a cure is effected.
In other parts of the Island a very different and much less pleasant
remedy is resorted to. The patient is buried up to his neck in a
manure heap, and is kept there for several hours, while the fair sex
soothe him with dance and song, mingled with the clash and twang of
sheep bells. The virtue of both these remedies is doubtless the
extreme perspiration which is produced, and as the tarantula bites
only in the dog days, it would be difficult to invent stronger- su-
-porifics than violent dancing three times a day till one drops, or
being immured up to the neck in heated manure. Death is said
to have resulted from the bite in several instances, but there does
not appear to be any well authenticated case.
These dances gave origin to the " Tarantella , which however
is not danced in the Island, though not uncommon on the Italian
mainland. The proverbial and world-wide expression " Sardonic Grin „ is
of great antiquity, but it is not generally known, though from its
verbal similarity it might have suggested itself, that it had its origin
in Sardinia ; it is thus described by Pausanias, who says : " The
" island of Sardinia is free from all poisonous herbs excepting one,
" which resembles parsley, and which, they say, causes those who
" eat it to die laughing. , The phrase is first used by Homer, and
after him, Plato, Virgil, Cicero, and other ancient classical writers,
describe laughter, which conceals some noxious design, or mocking
sarcasm, a " Sardonic Grin „.
(Eschylus and some other ancient authors however attribute the

- 191 -
origin of the expression to the old Sardinian custom of " accabatura, „
as the old people, who were receiving their " coup de grace under
that practice, died with a smile and in apparent contentment, al-
-though in reality helpless, and suffering martyrdom.
Anores di Laguna in his commentary on the passage in which
Dioscorides enters fully into the remedies to be applied when this
poisonous plant has been eaten, says : " Drunkenness is an excel-
" -lent remedy, therefore it is necessary to give the patients a great
" quantity of wine, so that they may sleep for a long time ,.
This prescription has a wonderful similarity to the remedy
invariably resorted to by " Cowboys , on the cattle ranches in
the Western States of America, who, when bitten by a rattle
snake or tarantula (the one is quite as deadly as the other) ride
off, as fast as their mustangs can carry them, to the nearest " store ,
where whiskey or brandy can be had, and there drink the spirit
" raw and neat „ until they become completely intoxicated. Their
blood is thus (so it is stated and assumed) raised to such a heat
as to prevent coagulation, and the poison is thrown off before it
has entered into the system.
Whether the Alcohol has really this effect, and whether the pre
vention of coagulation would neutralize the fatal consequences of
the poison, I do not' profess to offer any opinion; but of the actual
fact, that many persons, after being bitten, and after having parta-
-ken freely of this remedy, have recovered, there is no doubt, and
abundant evidence of this could be given.
It has often suggested itself, whether the same remedy would
not be equally efficacious in the case of a bite from a mad dog ; and
as there is no known cure for hydrophobia, it is well worthy of
serious consideration by members of the medical profession, as to
whether it would not be desirable, in the interests of science and
humanity, to make the experiment ; seeing that no effect could possibly
result worse than the horrible and certain death, which now invariably
ends the victim's sufferings.
The catalogue of ceremonies customs and superstitions might be

— 192 —
almost indefinitely extended, but sufficient has been given to illustrate
their general character and tendency. Some of them no doubt have their
origin long before the Christian era, and were in honour of some hea-
-then idol, but the connection with idolatry is now entirely lost sight
of; others fless had their origin in the earliest times of Chris-
-tianity, when some of its rites were blended, as a matter of policy,
with festivities in accord with the national habits of the converts,
and sometimes with an alloy of pagan usages, as a concession to the
weakness of neophytes among semibarbarous peoples. Our own vil-
-lage wakes and fairs, with their flags and green bonghs, and cakes
and ale, originally held in the precincts of the church on the feast
day of the Patron Saint, partook of the same character as many of
these Sardinian festivals; bnt with us every trace of religious or
superstitious element has been long extinct ; they are simply gala-
days devoted to amusement and recreation, and as such are looked
forward to by young and old with that intense appreciation, which
those only, who have few pleasures to change the unbroken mono-
-tony of their daily labour, can realize, and are marked as epochs
in an otherwise most uneventful existence.

CHAPTER XII.
Sporting — Game — Moufflon — Red-Deer — Fallow Deer — ¦
Wild-Boar — ¦ Hares — Rabbits — Bustards — Partridges — Patro
Ruale — Woodcock — Quail — Snipe — Wildduck — Wild Geese —
Eagles — Hawks — Vultures — Flamingoes — Caccia grossa —
Campagna shooting and Coast shooting — Trout and River Fishing.

Game of many varieties of " fur and feather , is to be met with
in Sardinia, bnt neither kind can be said to be " abundant „ though so
described in Mediterranean Guide Books, and if any " sporting „
Englishman should be induced to pay the Island a visit with the sole
object of " slaughter , under the impression that he will find game
" abundant , or in such abundance as it is to be found in the
preserved grounds of his own country, he will be grievously disap
pointed. To the sportsman, however, who combines with the love
of sport the love nature, whose pleasure does not consist solely
in the variety of his bag and the extent of his slaughter, but who
delights in seeing his dogs work, and is not afraid to work himself,
and who can at the same time admire the varied beauties of na-
-ture, which the will find profusely scattered around him, there is
unlimited scope for ample enjoyment, but " chacun a son gout „ ,
and after being made acquainted with the actual resources of the
country as to the variety of game and amount of sport to be expected,
let each decide for hinself, and then he will not be disappointed.

— 194 —
Game in Sardinia may be divided into. 2 Classes.
1st What may be called " Big Game, , which .comprise the
moufflon, the red-deer, the fallow-deer, and the wild-boar.
2rd The smaller game consisting of hares, rabbits, partridges
and a bird called " Patro Ruale , (peculiar to the Island rema-
-ining there the whole year); and birds of passage, including wood
cock, quail, snipe, plover, bustard, wild geese, wild swans, and wild-
duck of almost every kind and variety.
I do not class in the category of game many animals, such as
foxes martens, weasels, flamingoes, vultures, eagles, and kawks, nor
pigeons, blackbirds, thrushes, starlings, larks, and many smaller birds,
which Italian and French sporting writers dignify with the name
of game, and consider legitimate objects of " sport „ . Our insular
opinions are different, and no English " sportsman , at all events
would ever come to Sardinia for the purpose of killing them.
The Moufflon (Caprovis musimon) has more the appearance of
a wild sheep, than of any other animal, though it possesses many
points of resemblance to the deer, and yet, in its anatomical forma-
-tion, it presents many points of difference from both. The head
horns and body are like those of the sheep, but the head is more
broad and square, the horns are thicker, rougher, larger, and more
voluted, and, though standing higher than the sheep, the body is
thinner and longer. Its cry too closely resembles the bleating of
a sheep. On the other hand, the texture of its coat, instead of
being woolly, is like that of the deer, the hair being short and
bristly, of a dully brown colour, and white towards the lower
parts of the body. The tail legs and hoof resemble those of the
deer, but it has not the same long black stripe down the back,
nor does it shed its horns in the spring like the deer tribe.
For its size, the Moufflon is the strongest and most active
of animals, but they seldom attack their human foes, except when
wounded ; they have however violent conflicts with one another,
and during the months of October and November, though not so

Moufflon.

— 195 —
fiercely pugnacious as stags at that season, yet to approach them
is not unaccompanied with danger.
The Moufflon produce their young (generally only one, though
there are occasionally two) in April and May; during the period of
gestation and while the young remain with their mother, the males
herd together in flocks of 8 or 10, and apart from the females,
but at no great distance from them, and always on the watch for
their protection.
The best months for " hunting „ the Moufflon are July, August,
September, and October, and though by law the close time extends
from November till June, the law has little force in the mountain
ranges which these animals inhabit, and they are shot indiscrimi-
-nately, and with impunity all the year round.
The usual mode of hunting the Moufflon is " driving , with
dogs and beaters, the same as for deer and wild-boar; the " hunters ,
being stationed at passes in the mountains, which the animals are
known, or are most likely, to take ; or if there be no such " posts „
then the side of the mountain is " lined „ with rifles, about 150 yards
apart. Though driving is the usual, and indeed it may almost be said
the only, mode of killing the Moufflon ever practised in Sardinia, yet
from the nature of the ground they frequent, they might and ought
to be " stalked „ after the manner of red deer in Scotland. The
opportunity of making the attempt unfortunately did not present
itself, but any Englishman coming out here for " sport , should
devote his attention to this, and not forget his telescope and compass,
for without these he will be " nowhere „. This mode of killing
your " quarry , would be far more satisfactory than driving, as suc
cess would depend on the exercise of your own skill knowledge
and endurance, and you can select your own victim — the patriarch
of the mountain — and you are free from that social pressure and
noisy hilarity of the " Caccia Grossa, which, as a novelty, is gra
tifying and interesting to the stranger, but which to the sportsman
would become intolerable as a permanent institution.

— 196 -
The " Gennargentu , range of mountains — the highest in the
Island, — is the most frequented by Moufflon, and there the best
sport is to be had ; but they are also met with in the. mountain
districts of the North and South West. In the Summer and early
Autumn they are to be fonnd amongst the rocks above the " For
-rest , line (i. e. about 4000ft above the sea level) but as the snow
falls, they descend to the lower ranges, for the sake of the shelter
which the forests afford.
They are gregarious, sometimes as many as 30 or 40 are seen
in one " flock „, and seldom fewer than 5 or 6. They are at all
times difficult to approach, not only from the steep rugged inac
cessible nature of the ground where they feed and rest, but from
the extreme vigilance which they incessantly display, one of their
number always acting as " sentry „. Their power of vision is
extraordinary, extending it is said so far as to be able to identify
clearly objects between two and three miles distant, but their senses
of smell and hearing are not so acute as those of the deer and wild
boar. There is a Sarde sporting proverb, in the form of a dialogue
between the stag, the moufflon, and the wild boar, which well illus-
-trates the keenness of the different senses the three animals possess,
and which I give in the original language, with a literal translation.
Cervo — Avete udito il rumore di un capello che e caduto a
un cacciatore? Moufflon — No, non l'ho udito, ho visto il capello mentre
cadeva. Cinghiale. — Non ho udito ne visto il capello, pero ho sentito
1' odore. The Stag. — Did you hear the noise of the hair which has
just fallen from the head of the hunter?
The Monflon. — No, I did not hear it, but I saw it when it
was falling.
The Wild Boar. — I neither heard nor saw it, but I smelt it
as it fell.
The flesh of the Moufflon is considered a great delicacy; its

— 197 —
taste is something between the mountain sheep, and the red deer
more " gamy , than the former, but not so decided as, and more
tender than the latter.
Cetti — the recognized authority an all Sarde matters of natural
history — in his book " I quadrupedi di Sardegna , enters into a long
dissertation about the moufflon, and his differences of opinion with
other writers, which it would not be interesting to discuss. There
can however be no doubt that the animal is indigenous to this Island
and to Corsica, and is not found in any other country.
Pliny mentions it as peculiar to Sardinia and considers it the
same animal as the " ophimon , or " musimon , of the ancients.
Red deer (cervus elaphus) are not very numerons in the Island,
and now are found only in the large and more secluded forests,
and, though they occasionally frequent the higher ranges, they are
seldom to be met with above an altitude of 3000 feet. The invariable
mode of shooting them is " driving, „ though there are some forests,
with wide open spaces without trees or with trees far apart, where
they might and ought to be " stalked , and yet, it is very strange
that I never, in my various non-hunting expeditions through forests,
ever saw a red deer, either feeding or lying down in the open, and
the fair inference is, that they spend their days in the thickets,
venturing out only during the night for pasture and water.
These deer are precisely the same in appearance as, but rather
less in size than, the Scotch Highland deer, though larger than, the
small beasts found in the Lewis, Harris, and the outer Hebrides
generally, The heaviest stag I saw killed in Sardinia was a little over
100 kilos, equal to abont 14st 9lb . This, however, was considered
to be an exceptionally fine animal ; the average weight would not
exceed 12 stone.
The horns too, are neither so long nor so thick, nor so rough,
nor is the" width of " beam , so extended, as on the Scotch " heads ,.
In the various collections of horns, (for the heads are not
stuffed, as is usually done in England, the horns and skulls only

— i§§ —
being preserved) in different parts of the Island, I never saw a per-'
-feet " Royal , though there were many with ten " points , and
with the " cup „ on each antler.
Hinds " drop , their calves at the end of March or early in
April, and towards the end of June the stags have shed their
velvet, and the horus are " clean , and hard.
Cetti estimates that 3000 red-deer are shot annually in the
Island, this, however, must be a mistake or an exaggeration; from
what I saw and heard, 300 would be much nearer the true
number. Some interesting " crosses , between moufflon and red-deer have
been made by M. Piercy on his estate at Macomer, where several
of each kind are kept in confinement.
The first cross was between the moufflon and a " hind, „ and
the produce in size, shape, colour, coat, and general appearance, is
more like the " sire „ than the " dam. , It has no black stripe
down the back, and has short pricked ears, and, though darker
generally than the deer, yet is white in colour under the body, on
the face and muzzle, and round the tail; it has also a dark stripe
down the fore-leg to the knee, and, what is most singular, on one
side of the head is a stump of a horn, resembling the horn of the
red-deer, and on the other side the horn is like that of the moufflon.
¦ Other crosses are being tried, and the results will be watched with
much interest.
On a small Island in the Gulph of Aranci, off Terra Nova,
sheep and moufflon are herded together, and it is said that they also
have " crossed, „ but I had no opportunity of inspecting them, nor
have they yet been sufficiently long on the Island to draw any
conclusion as to what the results will be. The experiment howeyer
cannot fail to be highly interesting.
The Capriolo or Daino (Daino vulgaris) is not the roebuck, as
generally supposed, but the common fallow deer, having- the same
shape and size, the same coloured and spotted skin, the same body
marks, and the same palmated horns.

— 199 —
• The lower ranges of forest are their* favourite haunts, though
they are sometimes found with the red deer; indeed both animals are
occasionally shot in the same " drive. ,
The average weight of the Daino is 60 kilos or rather over 8
stone, which is nearly double the weight of a roebuck, and fully
equal to our park fallow deer, though not of course equal in weight
to the " stall-fed , animals.
They shed their horns, and breed, the same as red-deer.
The flesh of the deer (both red and fallow) is much appre
ciated; it is finer and more tender than our deer, and the meat
of- either when cooked is undistinguishable one from the other.
The horns of the fallow deer are in some districts steeped in
hot water till soft, and then fashioned into soles for dancing pumps, so
that in their favourite dance (ballo tondo) they may make a clatter,
something like that made by the wooden clogs used in Lancashire
and Yorkshire, when a reel or a hornpipe is being danced.
Wild-boar or Cinghiale (Sus crofa) are by far the most nu-
-merous among " the Big Game, , of the Island, and are to be '
found in almost every district. They not only frequent the forests
and high mountains, but are also to be found on the lower grounds,
and in the campagna, wherever the " scrub , or bushes will give
them shelter. They breed 3 times in the year ; the " litters „ vary
from 4 to 7 in number.
The weight of a good sized full-grown cinghiale (maschio) is
about the same as a good sized stag, but they are much fatter, and,
during the acorn and chesunt season, the flesh has a delicate flavour
which is delicious. , In " driving , the male and female are shot
indiscriminately; but no sportsman ever shoots a hind or fallow doe.
As compared with wildboar, both fallow and red deer are compara-
-tively scarce in the Island.
The hare, (Lepre in Sarde language) is very similar to our
lowland hare, but rather darker in colour, and rather smaller in size,
weghing on an average about 5 lbs ; they breed several times a
year, and generally produce two leverets. They are found in the

— 200 —
enclosed lands, as well as in the forests and on the mountains, when
driving for big game, and they are also shot " over dogs „ in the open,
and on the campagna, when shooting quails and partridges; they
are too coursed by lurchers, and, where the ground is favourable for
riding, afford excellent sport. The " dogs , though rather like a rough
greyhound in appearance, are not true-bred, and when they lose
sight of the hare, they put their noses to the ground, and hunt by
scent. Rabbits are not very numerous on the Island; they are to be
found on the campagna, on the light sandy soils, and on the lower
hills, amongst the rocks. From the apparent suitability of soil and
climate, it would naturally be supposed that they would increase
rapidly, so as to become, as in many other countries., an agri
cultural nuisance, and be treated as vermin; but from some cause
or other, they do not multiply, and their scarcity is attributed to
foxes, which no doubt do exist in surprizing numbers, and rabbits
are their favorite food. They are shot in the open, and also ferreted
and netted. They breed several times in the year and have a nu-
-merous progeny on each occasion.
Partridges (caccatis rufa) abound in all the low-lying grounds,
and on the sides of the lower hills, and they are found occasionally
in the forests. It is the French or red-legged breed ; they " pair , in
April arid make their nests, (which contain from 8 to 12 eggs) in
the scrub or rough grass. They are " fit , to shoot in July, but the
close time does not end till August. When first " flushed, ', they so-
-metimes rise together, but often in twos and threes, and their flight
seldom extends beyond 150 yards ; later in the season however they
become a3 wild as they are in England. " Driving , partridges is
not known as a sport in Sardinia, they are shot " over „ pointers
or spaniels. The rock partridge ("Perdrix gambra,) is, according to Cetti and
La Marmora, to be found in some parts of the Island, but I never
saw, nor met with any sportsman who had ever seen, any of them,
and if they ever existed they must have become extint. According

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to the same authorities wild horses and wild goats are also to be
met with, and no doubt there are animals of both breeds wild
enough, but not " ferae naturae ,.
The " Patro Ruale , is a grand-looking game-bird about the size
of a pheasant and having the mixed plumage of the grey-hen and
the ptarmigan. They frequent the Campidano and the higher Cam-
-pagna plains and are generally seen in flocks of from 20 to 30;
very little appears to be known as to their habits. They breed
in early summer, having " paired , soon after Christmas, and there
are from 6 to 8 eggs in each nest. It is said that they are pe
culiar to Sardinia, but very little information was to be " gleaned ,
about them. La Marmora mentions a bird which he calls " la brilliante
" poule sultane (le Porphyrion des anciens) „ and adds " j'en ai chasse
" plusieurs et possede une en vie,, but he gives no description of the
bird, and whether it is the "patro ruale, or some other is left in doubt.
Woodcock (Colossan rusincola) arrive in November and stay in
the island till April. They frequent the scrub lands, and lower
forests, and are mostly to be found near springs and soft ground,
as in England. It is popularly supposed that they come from Holland
and the Low Countries, and proceed from Sardinia to Africa. A
good day's sport, with the aid of a couple of beaters and a spaniel
would be from 30 to 40 " cock. ,
Of snipe there are three sorts — the jack (gallinago gallinagu)
the full (gallinago medio) and the solitary (gallinago major) — none
of which (except the jack) breed in Island. They make their ap
pearance early in October, and stay till February, when they take
their departure northwards, having come, it is supposed, from the
south. They frequent the marshy plains, but are occasionally to
be found in the forests. The " Solitary „ are very rarely met with,
and the * Jack ,, are not numerous, but the " full , are found in
great numbers, as many as 10 or 12 being often on the wing at the
same time. A good shot on a favourable day may bag from 30
to 40 couple, of which probably there will be one " solitary , three
" Jack „, and the rest " full „.

- 202 -
Quails (quaglia) breed in the lower parts of the Island in the
months of May and June, and many of them migrate southwards in
the latter end of November or early in December, but some few
remain in the Island. They are found on the same ground as par
tridges and in " bevys , of from 8 to 14. About 30 Quails with
half as many partridges and a couble of hares, will be a fair day's
sport early in the season for one gun.
Wild duck are by far the most numerous of the birds of pas
sage, and afford the best sport. It is said that there are alto-
-gether 70 different varieties, and it is not at all unusual to find
8 or 10 different sorts in the game-bag at the close of an average
day's sport. Some few breed in the Island but the great flocks
come from the North, arriving in November and departing in
March. Their favourite places of resort are on the stagni or salt
water lakes, where they are to be seen in thousands, but they are
scattered all over the Island, wherever thore is a river or marsh
to be met with.
The most common are the mallard (anas boschos), the sheldrake,
the widgeon, the teal, the black and white duck, and the common
black duck, all of which give fair sport, and are good eating.
On the Stagni a punt is essential, unless yon are prepared to
wade in about four feet of water all day long, (which is not very
safe for Sardinia even in winter) and a retriever also is necessary; an
ordinary gun charged with N.° 2 shot is " sufficient , ; about 50 duck
of all sorts would be a fair day's sport.
Wild geese come in November and stay till March. They are
however not numerous and are difficult to find; wild swans are
still more rare.
A license to shoot from Government is necessary, and is grauted
to every one, on payment of ten shillings, and no other qualification
is required. If found carrying a gun without a license you are fined,
and liable to imprisonment. The Sardes, generally, are keen sports-
-men, and good shots ; very few licenses are granted to foreigners.
I could only hear of one Englishman, who had come to the Island

— 203 —
last year for sport; and he kept very quiet, apparently not liking
interference, or wishing for companionship.
There are however several " professionals , from the mainland,
who make a profitable business of shooting in most seasons, but the
quarantine stopped them last year. They sell their game each day,
whatever the bag consists of, and it is sent off in boxes to dealers
on the mainland ; the prices are reasonable, partridges 50°, wood
cock 60°, snipe 30c, hares 2 lire, and wildduck 60°.
The earnings of a " good , professional will average from 20
to 30 lire a day. They stay till April, when they migrate with the
birds of passage.
The gun generally used in the Island is N.° 15 central fire
double-barreled breach-loader of Italian manufacture ; those made
at Brescia being the most common. The price is most reasonable
from 50 to 120 lire according to weight and workmanship. It is
a handy serviceable weapon, and does the double duty of gun and
rifle ; ball or more generally " slugs , in one barrel, and shot in the
other. The usual " charge , is 2 '/a drachms of powder and 1 oz
of shot or slugs.
German powder is the cheapest and strongest, but it fouls the
gnn, and English powder, though rather dearer, is preferred.
No game-book, or written record of sport, such as is usually
kept in England, is, or ever was, so far as I could ascertain, kept
by any " cacciatore , in the Island, and wherever I stayed or sported,
I never omitted to inquire; it is therefore impossible to give any
exact statistics of the numbers and varieties of game annually
" slaughtered. , On several occasions, however I was able to obtain
from the Proprietors, or ' capo guardia forestale , (head game-keeper),
approximate particulars, and the results were surprising, being so
much less both in numbers and variety, than I should have suppo
sed. The most favourable returns on one of the best sporting
• • estates, situated in the centre of the island, where the land all around
for many miles is the exclusive property of the noble Marquis who
furnished the details, and who is himself the keenest of sportsmen

— 204 —
— out in the forests, on the mountains, or in the plains, almost
every day of his life, — and a ' strict " preserver , in so far as ha
ving a retinue of foresters and labourers, who appear to do nothing
else except look after the woods and game, and in a district too
where almost every inhabitant is either a tenant or in some way de-
-pendent on him — are as follows, taking an average of seasons, viz.
Moufflon 5, red deer 10, fallow deer 40, wild boar 85, partridges
500, hares 150, rabbits 300, woodcock 160, snipe 125, wild duck 100,
quail 50, plover 30, hustards 5 ; a total of 1560 head.
This cannot be said to be excessive sport — considering the
extent and variety of ground shot over and the large extablishment
kept up — and indeed when it is further known that the noble
proprietor has a succession of sporting guests always staying at the
castle, and is invariably accompanied on all " caccia grossas , by at least
half a dozen neighbouring proprietors, the ' record , must be looked
upon as somewhat meagre and disappointing. It will not equal in num
bers half a day's "sport , recorded in many an English game-book, and
in variety and weight it would not equal an average day of a seasons
sport in India as recorded in the game book of one of our "crack
shots , recently returned from that " Paradise of sport , and yet
I venture to think, that if this same sportsman — steeped though
he has been since his earliest days in the slaughter of wild animals
in wholesale fashion — would, from the novelty and change of scene
and sport, enjoy a short visit to Sardinia, aud bring back pleasing
recollections. The description of a day's shooting of the various sorts that
are to be had in Island will perhaps convey the best idea of the
actual sport that may be expected ; the first was a " drive „ in some
extensive forests near the centre of the Island ; the second was a
day in " the open „ on the Campidano, and the third was " general „
shooting among some islands on the Western Coast.
The " meet „ for the " caccia grossa , was at 5 a. m. in the .
castle yard; and before the appointed hour (the Sardes are early
risers) we found already assembled a motley group of horsemen,

— 205 —
all clothed in the roughest attire, and half-smothered on their horses
with their capotes wine-gourds and game-bags, and with their rifles
slung over their shoulders, and large knives in their girdles. Each
" cacciatore , was accompanied by an attendant, who was also on
horseback, and similarly attired and equipped, and altogether they
presented a strange and rather formidable looking army, and would
number (all told) between 30 and 40 horsemen.
The head Cacciatore, or chief huntsman for the day, was the
noble Marquis who owned the castle where we met, and whose fo-
-rests we were about to hunt, and a better " all round „ sportsman is
not to be found in any country.
Every Cacciatore was accompanied by one or more dogs, and
together they formed a strange pack, indeed every dog in the district,
from the large shaggy deer-hound to the toy-terrier, seemed to
have joined the congress. Each dog too, according to its owner's
version, had a wonderful history attached, and was the best dog
of its kind that was ever bred, but its special qualifications were
exactly the reverse from what would have expected from its breed
and appearance. Pointers were praised for running in on their
game ; setters for their fierceness in attack; the mastiff for his
patience and steadiness; the deer-hound for his " scent; , and the
tail-less mongrel for the union of every good quality possessed by
them all.
On the first start a sort of civil war commenced, and lasted,
more or less, during the ride to the forest which occupied about
two hours; and indeed it was not until game was on foot, and all
their energies were concentrated into a common cause, that a truce
for the day was established.
On arrival at the forest the chief huntsman, having placed the
cacclatori in positions commanding the various " runs , or " passes ,
of the wild-boar red-deer and capriole, silence and concealment
were rigidly impressed and enforced. The beaters, with all the
dogs, had meanwhile beeu sent a couple of miles up the valley,
and were then formed into line on the side of the mountain, and

— 206 -
in this form they struggled on through the scrub and tangle, shout
ing, and throwing stones, and encouraging the dogs, so as to
drive the game before them towards the passes. Several wild-boar
were soon " afoot „ and, before the beaters had " made good „ half
the length of the drive, a good-sized stag and some fallow-deer were
seen making their way towards the passes ; every hound was giv
ing tongue and following on their tracks, each independently with
his own note, and after his own fashion. The sport so continued
till midday, when a couple of hours were devoted to colazione,
and at that time the bag consisted of four wild-boar, a stag, and
two " capriole, „ besides several hares and some hawks.
A fire was soon kindled, and one of the boars was roasted,
which, with cold fowls and salad, bread . and cheese, and wine and
fruit, contributed by the various cacciatore, and produced from the
inexhaustible saddle bags, formed no contemptible repast, after eight
hours riding and shooting. In the afternoon at two o'clock " sport ,
was resumed, and was continued till dusk, by which time the bag
had been increased by two more wild-boars, another capriole, and
other . smaller game.
On halting, whether at mid-day or evening, the place selected
should always be near a stream or fountain ; the horses first receive
attention, and, after the saddles and baggage have been taken off,
they are turned loose for grazing — those not very docile and well
taught being tethered for safety with the ropes, which, with- many
straps, form part of the " tackling , of every sportsman. — Fire-wood,
(cistus arbutus myrtle and thyme are best, as they give a deli
cious flavour to the meat) are then cut and collected and set fire
to, and the live ashes are piled into a heap about eighteen inches
high and two feet square, with a stone at each corner to support
the horizontal poles on which the meat is spitted. In the meanwhile
others of the party prepare the wild-boar or other selected animal,
which, after being cut up and washed, is handed over to another
detachment told off for cooking, and is divided into pieces and skewered
on the horizontal poles, resting on the side stones of the fire, which are

— 207 —
periodically turned, the process being occasionally varied by chang
ing sides and position, so that every part may be well roasted.
The wine is cooled by placing the bottles and gourds in the
stream, and as each " cacciatore , contributes from his own store,
every variety of wirie grown in the district is represented, and pres
sed upon your acceptance; so that the meal is really a feast, and
the man who -would not be satisfied with such fare must be hard
to please, and should never venture into a Sardinian forest.
The Sardes are very expert in the use of the long large knife,
which they invariably carry about with them; it serves not only
as an axe for felling wood, but for cutting up the meat for roas
ting, and afterwards as a carving weapon, and eventually as an
eating knife.
On some occasions when the shooting party is large, the ani-
-mal, whether wild boar deer or capriole, is roasted whole, being
of course first " gralloched , and skinned. A large hole is made in
the ground, stakes are driven in to keep the sides up, and other
stakes laid at the bottom to keep the meat from contact with the
earth ; a trench is then dug round the hole, leaving an internal wall
of about 6 niches of soil. A bonfire of wood and shrubs is then
made, the live ashes are raked into the trench, and this process is
continuously repeated until the animal is baked.
Shooting in the open on the Campidano is a very different
affair. We started from the farm, where we were staying, at 6. A. M.
after a break fast of hot coffee with bread and butter and eggs;
we were accompanied by an old Sarde sportsman, who of course
had his gun with him, as well as a dog, the latter a small cross-
-bred brown English spaniel, with a history attached to it, that was
perfectly marvellous even in canine mythology, and with a stump of
a tail that never ceased wagging the whole day. We were followed
by another man with a pony, which was equipped with the irrepres
sible sack containing ammunition and luncheon, and a spare com
partment for the game that we were expected to account for.
On arriving at our ground an extensive scrubby plain on the

— 208 —
Campidano, we were fortunate in seeing a flock of " Patro Ruale „
feeding and strutting about, on some rough ground, and as we ap
proached near (keeping the dog back) they rose, with a curious
whistling noise, rather wild, but we managed to " bring down „
two of them. The rest took a long flight, but we "marked, them
amongst some rocks, and then commenced to " stalk , A circuit
of about half a mile, round some rising ground of .which we took
advantage, brought us close to the place where they had "lit , but,
on cautiously shewing ourselves, they got up nearly 300 yards off,.
having no doubt " run, , that distance after " lighting ,. Their
second flight was much longer than the first, and as they were on
a bare exposed plot of table land, and were evidently " scared, ,
and did not intend to let us approach again within shot, we turned
our attention to other game.
The indefatigable spaniel soon came a cross a covey of partridges
which he of course " flushed, „ but they " settled down , , after a short
flight, in some " Lentiscus , bushes, where they rose in ones, and
twos, and threes, and we succeeded in bagging five of the eleven
which composed the lot, as well as an old hare, who was stealing
gently away, when she heard the shooting. We then made for some
swampy ground, or the side of a small stream, an almost certain'
find — so the old man said — for duck and snipe, the former however
were " not at home, , but a " wisp , of " full , snipe, were soon
on the wing out of which we managed * bring down, , three ; one of
us having " cleverly , missed with his second barrel.
After this, we " ranged , for some time, seeing nothing and
no " indication „ of anything, but at last, when we were of course
unprepared, up sprang from some bare ground, almost at our feet'
a fine covey of birds, of which my companion bagged one. They
took a long flight, but we followed on their track, and very soon
came to where they had settled, having picked up a hare, a cock and
two rabbits on our way (the spaniel caught one); some very "pretty
" shooting, , then began, the birds rising singly, and out of a covey

— 209 —
of fourteen only three escaped. Here too we found a " bevy , of
quail, and succeeded in killing four.
It was now nearly mid-day and we were getting tired and
hungry and the pony with the sack being within hailing distance,
we determined to rest and eat, and were soon seated on the lee-side
of a stone wall, with a spring of fresh cold water close by.
Colazione is a serious affair in Sardinia — wherever it is taken — ¦
whether in castle or cottage or " al fresco. „ It is in fact the meal
of the day, and occupies, with interludes of smoking and slumbering
from two to three hours, and it was three o'clock before we re
commenced operations. The afternoon was to be devoted to wood
cock snipe and wild duck shooting, and our destination was a large
stagno or swamp, surrounded by scrub, and much frequented by duck
and snipe; and though rather early in the season yet we were not
disappointed, and an hour before sunset, when we started homewards
we had increased our bag by eleven duck six wood-cock and fifteen
snipe, making the total of our days sport two Patro ruale, seventeen
partridges, four quail, eleven ducks, seven wood-cock, eighteen snipe,
three hares, and two rabbits ; an aggregate far above the average
for Sardinia, and not to be despised in any country.
On .our walk from the stagni to the high road, the "little dog,
stood at some thick scrub, and we expected partridges, but as nothing
rose, our Sarde companion, who had more confidence in his dog
than in any human being, followed into the thicket, and there found
quite dead, and half-buried with earth, a hare, which he was con
vinced was an animal he had shot at in the morning, and which
the spaniel had followed, seeing it was hard hit, but, being unable
to " carry ,,had hid it in the bush, and marked the spot. If this
be so, it is one of the those extraordinary instances of sagacity in
a spaniel that are often heard of, but seldom witnessed; most
extraordinary stories were however narrated of that clog by his
fond master, which required great command of countenance not
to shew unbelief in, and would have required still greater credulity
to have believed; but the dog and his master were both good in

— 210 —
their ways, and I would gladly compromise never to be worse ac
companied on a sporting expedition, than by two such companions.
Another and very different day's sport, but quite as varied and
enjoyable, was that " after „ wild fowl in the south of the Island
on the west coast. I was accompanied by three Sardes and two
fishermen, or rather fisher-lads (for they were not above 14 years
of age), and our object was to shoot pigeons (" blue rocks,) which
frequent the caves and grottoes along the shore in great numbers,
and to visit an island famous for its wild fowl, and to have some
sea fishing " en route ,.
We left port towards evening in an English made boat, lent
to us by a friend, and sailed along tbe coast with an easy breeze
" dead aft, „ and at about 5 oclock in the morning we arrived at
the "colombaio,, which was a large cave or grotto in the cliffs where,
blue-rocks breed in thousands. The first operation was to stretch a
net across the entrance of the cave, then one of the Sardes let off his
gun, and out came the pigeons in crowds, 29 were caught entangled in
the net, and others flew out at a small opening not covered by the
net, and afforded some good shooting. One of the lads afterwards
crawled into the cave, and then the birds came out singly, flying
past like lightning, and very difficult to shoot, but altogether we
managed to bring down eighteen which, with the netted lot, made a
total of 47 — not a bad morning's start — After a plunge bath in
the sea, which was delightful and refreshing, in which my Sarde com
panions participated, but which the lads altogether shirked, an extem-
-porized breakfast, consisting of coffee and eggs, and bread and butter,
supplemented by roast pigeons and fried fish, was prepared and pro
ved a most excellent repast, which was duly appreciated.
Our next object was a small Island, about three miles to the
South, which wild fowl of infinite varieties were supposed to fre-
-quent, and which was seldom visited by man. It was said to be
inhabited entirely by wild fowl pigeons and rabbits, and we looked
forward to great " sport ,. On our arrival there, we were greeted
with such huge swarms of swifts and swallows, who shrieked and

— 211 —
whirled about in myriads, making us perfectly giddy and bewildered,
that we almost determined to beat an immediate retreat; we however
landed, but only succeeded in shooting a few ducks and some rabbits.
The lads caught eight young wild fowl of various sorts, but no
pigeons were visible, and we made only a short stay. We then
steered our course for a well knowen grotto, on the mainland, nearly
opposite the island. It is situate in a cleft between two precipitous
walls of rock, almost perpendicular to the sea, and in some places
the channel was very deep, and in others so shallow that we could
scarcely get our boat over.
The number of pigeons was enormous, and, as they flew straight
and quick down the ravine, they presented capital shots and be-
-tween thirty and forty were soon added to our store in the bottom
of the boat. We then ceased; indeed the report of the " shots ,
between the high narrow cliffs was so deafening, that we could not
have continued shooting, had we been so disposed ; moreover the
sun was fast disappearing, and when we reached land at night, it
was close upon 11 o'clock, which in Sardinia is considered, as indeed
it is, much too long after sunset to be " out „ with impunity ;
however, we were none of us any the worse for the trip, and were
well contented with our day's amusement.
When sailing to the island and back we tried, sea-fishing, with
mackerel lines, some baited with " spinners, , others with pieces of
coloured cloth; we were not very successful, but caught enongh "lupi,„
(a rather coarse fish, about the size of a mackerel, but not having
the same delicate flavour) for breakfast and dinner, and had we per
severed throughout the day we should no doubt have been more
successful, as fish evidently " abounded „ and were " taking „ freely.
It should not be omitted to mention that after every " Caccia
grossa , it is a universal custom in the Island to make a division
of the " spoils of the chase „ amongst those who have taken part
in it. The head and skin belong as a matter of right to the caccia
tore who " first strack „ the animal, and in case of doubt the chief
huntsman for the day decides this, as also any other question that

— 212 —
may arise. The best joints are then apportioned rateably, each sports-
-man receiving his share, irrespective of what had fallen to his
rifle, and the inferior portions are divided amongst the attendants
and beaters (battatores). Thus every person present has a direct
interest in the result of each day's sport.
During Easter in most parts of the Island, a special " caccia
grossa, takes place, at which sometimes as many as a hundred cac-
-ciatori attend, and the proceeds of the days sport are presented
to the Priest of the parish who distributes the gift amongst the
clergy and poor people as he thinks fit.
Ladies on horse-back frequently take part in these hunting
expeditions, and during the " drives , are stationed behind their
male relatives or friends at the various passes, and take a most lively
interest in the sport ; they manage their horses with great skill and
intrepidity surmounting obstacles and facing dangers which many
men in other countries would " funk. ,
Eagles Falcons and hawks are so numerons that the annual
loss sustained by their depreciations is considerable. Shepherds affirm
that they have seen eagles, not only carrying away kids lambs and
young pigs, but occasionally making united attacks on heifers and foals;
and that, after gorging themselves till they could scarcely fly, they
leave the remains for the dogs, which are generally waiting ^their
turn, and not daring to approach till the eagles have left.
The Eagles are of three kinds; the "Falco Imperialis,, which is
rare, but the Golden or Royal eagle is more common, and indeed,
when in the forest, several pairs may generally be seen at the
same time soaring and hunting together for prey. A small eagle
— not the " falco nevicus „ but a new species — which builds its nest
in and frequents the marshy plains, was first seen about 40 years
ago, it is now not uncommon, and the same bird has recently been
found in some parts of Africa.
The vultures frequenting Sardinia are also of three sorts "folvus,
"cinereus, and "barbatus, — but the little vulture "percenopterus,
so common in Egypt, is never seen in the Island.

— • 213 —
The falcons kites and hawks are of many kinds, and a new
variety, to which the name of "Eleonora, in honor of the celebrated
Guidessa of that name, has been given, has been recently discovered.
Pigeons abound, not only on the coast, on the rocks, and in
the grottoes, but also in the forests and on the campagna; the
most common are the " blue-rock , but the ringdove and wood-
pigeon are also to be met with.
Blackbirds and thrushes are caught in great numbers, in the
autumn and winter at morning and evening twilight , by nets
stretched across the gullies and vistas of the copses which the birds
frequent. The birds when killed are immediately plucked, and strung
together, and their necks and bodies rubbed with salt, after which
they are wrapped in myrtle leaves, so as not to touch each other,
and are then sent to market. Each net on an average will take
annually 3000 birds, which fetch about 3 lire per 100 in the market.
There are very few small birds such as sparrows linnets and
larks, so common in England, and their absence adds to the silence
and desolation which are the pervading characteristics of Sardinian
plains as well as forests.
Hedgehogs and squirrels are to be found in the Island — but
they are not frequent. Badgers and moles are however never seen,
indeed they appear to be unknown.
Herons do not breed in Sardinia, but are birds of passage, ar
riving in the Autumn and leaving in Spring ; they are of three
sorts — " the great , " the little , and the grey „ — Bitterns are occa
sionally met with, as also curlews, but they are not common.
The Flamingo, though not a " game bird, , deserves special men
tion ; rather larger than the heron, but similar in shape, the fla
mingo is of a beautiful light grey and bright crimson colour, and when
seen in large flocks, lighted by the sun's rays, they present the
appearance on the water of a fringe of crimson, and on the wing
of a cloud of moving fire.
Amongst the Egyptians they are still held sacred to Isis, and
by many ancient nations they were' much esteemed as a great delicacy.

— 214 —
They are referred to in glowing terms by several classic writers
Philostratus, Pliny, Svetonius, and Martial ; Juvenal however describes
it as one of the " foolish luxuries of the age , and the Sardes of the
present day seem rather to share in this opinion; for, though these
birds could be killed in large numbers, they are very seldom shot and
never eaten; and the only use that is made of them is for the
" pipes , of their Lanedda which are composed of the thigh bones.
They arrive in the Island about March and leave in Septem-
-ber, taking a southern flight; their destination is supposed to be
Africa, but it is not known. They congregate in flocks of from 200 to
1000, but it is said that as many as 200,000 have been seen on the
wing at the same time. Some few hundreds remain throughout the
year, and breed on the stagni and lagunes. The mode of building
their nests and protecting their eggs is peculiar; the nest is com
posed of reeds shells, and mud, and is of a conical shape, and built
in a position, where the water is about 2 1jz feet deep (the exact
length of the flamingo's legs) and they sit, or rather stand, astride
these nests with their feet at the bottom of the stagni, and in this
manner hatch their eggs and rear their young.
Their flight is in the shape of a wedge, like wild-geese, but
nearer the ground and not so rapid.
On the sea shore in many parts of the Island, are to be found
seals, which are of two kinds " monaco , and " vitutina „ ; and turt
les are also found off several of the smaller Islands. Tortoises and
land turtles are occasionally met with; and zoophytes in infinite
variety abound in most Sardinian waters.
Insects of all sorts are to be met with in the Island, but very
few are noxious ; they are mostly inoffensive, though some are incon
venient. Amongst the latter the mosquitos (Sanzarra) hold a conspi
cuous place. They, however, are much to be preferred to many
of the insect tribe, as their attacks are frank and open, and made
after fair warning ; the attacks of others, which might be named, are
insidious, and not even suspected till after the mischief is done.
Toads are not common, but frogs, especially the " green-tree „

— 215 —
frogs, are frequent in some parts, and "sing, their monotonous songs
all night. There are no " eatable , frogs in Sardinia, but, strange
to say, they abound in Corsica, but this is perhaps because that
Island belongs to the French, by whom they are most appreciated.
Fishing, in the sporting sense of the term, is practically unknown
in Sardinia, indeed I do not believe there is such a thing as a fly
or trolling rod to be had in the whole Island.
The only two freshwater fish that I have caught, or seen
caught, are trout and eels; but it is said that in the river Tirso
there is a fish called "Alose, „ a scale fish of delicate flavour, and,
from the description given of it, not unlike the shad in size and
taste. They are to be found as high up the river as Fordongianus
— about 25 miles from the sea — but they abound most in the
brackish water near the mouth. Trout are usually caught with
small shackle nets, or by poisoning the streams with the leaves of
a plant, which stupifies the fish and renders them an easy prey
and yet does not affect their flavour. In some districts a small
three-pronged spear is used by which the fish are struck either
when resting at the bottom of the stream or when attracted to
the surface by torch-light — a practice sometimes resorted to.
In several streams trout " run up , to 3 lbs in weight, and
I have myself caught them, with an impromptu rod and worm, in
some of the small mountain streams, weighing as much as 2 lbs.
There can be no doubt that with proper appliances, either with
artificial flies or small bait, very fair sport might be had. To the
sportsman a day's fishing is an agreeable change from the monotony
of shooting day after day, to say nothing of the change of diet
which would at the same time be afforded.
Eels are caught in the rivers as well as in the stagni, but the
former have the best flavour.
The Tunny Sardine and Anchovy fishing, and fishing for crabs
and lobsters, scarcely come under the head of " sporting , and they
are described amongst the trades and industries of the Island, to
which they more properly belong.

— 216 —
In concluding the description of the " sport , to be had in
Sardinia it should be mentioned that when our Channel Squadron
was cruising off the Island about two years ago. H. R. H. The
Duke of Edinburgh, the Vice Admiral in command, had a days
shooting in the stagni near Cagliari, which is thus summarized in
one of the sporting papers: " the party had fair sport, the bag
" consisting of about 80 birds, of which more than half were shot
" by his Royal highness who scored about 20 snipe, 10 coots and
" some ducks „
If this were really the " bag „ of the Royal party, it would
give but a faint and poor conception of what the Island can shew
in the way of sport, even in an ordinary way; and it is to regretted
that his Royal Highness, was recalled from Macomer by the ur
gency of professional engagements, as on the extensive and well
preserved forests of Mr Piercy in that neighbourhood, more varied
and characteristic sport would have been met with. It is to be hoped
however that another and more favorable opportunity may present
itself at no distant day, and that when our Fleet next visits Sar
dinia, the political prospect will have been cleared of the dark
clouds that now over-shadow the eastern, horizon.

CHAPTER XIII.
Sarde characteristics — Social, Mental, and Physical — Sardinian
ladies — Dress — Costumes — Manners and Customs — Theatres and
Clubs — Servants — Horses and carriages — Courtship — Marriage
— Child-birth — Funerals.

The Sardes in general may be described as honorable and in-
-telligent, generous and hospitable, and as having most of the
characteristics of a primitive and unsophisticated people. They are,
however, as strong in their hatred as in their affections, but the
members of the same family seldom quarrel amongst themselves ;
they concentrate all their feelings of animosity against those, who
have wronged any friend or connection, and warmly espouse his
cause, whether right or wrong, altogether irrespective of its merits.
They are passionately devoted to the chase, and the dance ; and
are not insensible to the pleasures of the table. Indeed the rules
of hospitality are sometimes stretched to an extreme, and it is dif-
-ficult to resist without offending; yet a refusal amounts almost to
a breach of the rules of hospitality, which are held in the highest
regard. In their religion, or rather in their observance of religious
ceremonies, they are somewhat demonstrative and theatrical, but their
earnestness may not on that account be the less real and sincere.
In temperament they are sensitive and naturally jealous, though
they have less substantial cause for this latter feeling than exists in

— 218 —
many other countries. They attach themselves fondly to all domestic
animals and especially to their horses, with whom- they live on terms
of close intimacy, often occupying adjoining apartments under the
same roof; every villager keeps a horse or rather it " keeps itself, ,
— for it is rarely fed and lives on what it can find in the nearest
pasture ; — yet the Sarde is devotedly attached to his horse, and to
disparage it to his face is almost as dangerous as to praise his wife.
Politeness is one of the Sarde characteristics and is carried
almost to an extreme. In the rural districts every one you meet,
farmer or labourer, takes off this hat and wishes you " bona dies ,
and in the towns there is equal civility from those with whom
there is even the slightest acquaintance, and sometimes even when
you are a perfect stranger.
Cicero, in one of his orations, describes the Sardes as " pessi-
-mse levissimse et vanissimae, , (the worst the lightest and the vai-
-nest) and in another as " mastruccati latrunculi , (sheep-skin wearing
thieves), and in the triunphal processions at Rome there was usually
a representation of an old man on a white horse in a Sarde dress
preceded by a herald, proclaiming " Sardi Venales ,.
No doubt, from their dogged demeanour and indomitable spi-
-rit, the Sardes did not make good slaves, and as such were held
" cheap , in the market, and were almost unsaleable ; but in esti-
-mating the weight to be attached to Cicero's " dicta,, it must be
borne in mind, that these strong adjectives were not intended to be
taken literally as descriptive of the Sarde character, but were applied
by way of simile to persons against whom the orator wished to
excite the adverse feelings and prejudices of his audience. He was
declaiming as an advocate, not writing as an historian.
The Sardes, though they may be said to be proud and some
what obstinate, yet are not sullen; and this is characteristically
evidenced in ancient times by their refusal under threats and heavy
penalties to furnish to a Roman Consul certain supplies that were
urgently needed, but which soon afterwards they offered spon
taneously, and did in fact give, to Caius Gracchus hinseff.

— 219 —
They have great activity of mind as well as body, and are apt
scholars in learning languages, and they can hold their own well
in advocacy and argument; they are, too,, poetically inclined, and
though there are no great poets amongst them in the present day,
yet there are many who write poetry fairly well, and some of them
are wonderful improvisatori ; they are not, however, good at ab
struse sciences nor at any mental work, where close attention and
application are necessary.
In naming hospitality as one of the most prominent traits in
the Sarde character, it may be well to refer to an incident mentioned
in one of Lord Nelson's letters, in order to correct a misapprehension
that might otherwise remain. When stationed with his fleet off
the Island of San Antioco in 1798, he writes, " It has pleased
Almighty God to bring us to a safe Port, where, although we were
refused the rights of humanity, yet the " Vauguard , will in two
days be again ready for sea ,. This inhospitable reception was
owing entirely to a misconception, which was afterwards fully ex-
-plained to Lord Nelson's entire satisfaction, as mentioned in a subse-
-quent letter, and it is only just to the Sardes that this should be
made known, as it affects them in one of the characteristics on
which they are most sensitive, and most pride themselves.
La Marmora in his last volumes on Sardinia, in describing some
of the Sarde characteristics, mentions that the Sardes are given to
" ruses, „ which expression he palliates by the equivocal compli-
-ment that it is "a failing common to those countries where the
" people are poor and of primitive habits ; , he might however have
added " and to most other countries where the people are rich, and
" the habits are anything but primitive , . In justice to the Sardes I
feel bound to say that though there are, as there are among all
nationalities, many who are " given to ruses , and do not at all times
adhere strictly to the truth, yet that generally they are as open and
fair in their dealings, and give as little latitude to their imaginative
faculties, as the people of most other countries, and, when they do
overstep the limits of strict facts, it is usually done for the mere

— 220 —
love of the thing, as in Ireland, and with no sinister intentions
though sometimes, as also in Ireland, there is an object to be gained
by it. This alledged failing is, howewer, mere childs-play in Sardinia,
as compared with its practice in many other civilized countries,
and it seems to culminate in the Western states of America, and
there, it is seldom resorted to, except to use their own phrase,
out of " pure cussedness, , or where some special object is to be
attained. I shall not soon forget when some years ago, whilst
smarting a victim under a deliberate well-planned scheme of this
sort, I ventured to comment on it in very plain language in the
presence of the Bishop of the diocese, where the incident occur-
-red. He listened patiently to all I had to say and, though strongly
objecting to the sweeping designation " of liars , yet he eventually
admitted, to use his own words, that " many of his flock did hold
the truth too sacred to be told „.
Physically the Sardes are a fine race; and though rather un-
-der than over the middle height, they are remarkable for their
beauty of form, well proportioned shape, and straight limbs, com-
-bined with great strength and activity. They have brouzed com-
-plexions, black eyes, and black hair ; a " blond „ — either man
or woman — is seldom seen in the Island, and a fat or corpulent
person of either sex is almost as great a rarity. The women are
also rather under the middle height, but of elegant figure, graceful
carriage, large black eyes, dark hair, and brunette complexions, and,
though they attain to maturity at the age of 14, yet they preserve
their figure and freshness to a "green old age,. It is not at all un
common to see old persons of .both sexes, who have passed their
80th year, walking briskly along without stick or any other assistance.
In the north of the Island the men in general are much taller
than in the south, and in some districts they average nearly 6 feet
in height, and are fine dark handsome-looking fellows. In these
districts too, the women are much taller than they are in the south,
and do not attain maturity till 15 or 16 years of age. They are

— 221 —
good-looking and well-made, but have not that voluptuous fullness
of developement, which distinguishes the women of the south.
The Sardinian ladies dress in very much the same style as ladies
in other parts of civilized Europe, except that there is not that
extreme haste to adopt the latest fashion, and there is an absence
of those modern excrescences and other adventitious " improvers, ,
which, by their preposterous proportions, have gone far to deprive
the Hottentot Beauties of their distinguishing characteristic.
The wives and daughters of the farmers and tradesmen, by the
gorgeousness of their costume, amply compensate for the simpli
city of dress amongst the upper classes, and, at their religious fetes
and other festivals, when they appear in " gala , or " full dress ,
they present a wonderful spectacle.
I was informed, when standing lost in admiration at one of these
feste, that some of the dresses with their ornaments had not cost less
than 2000 lire : and though this is not a large sum when compared
with the unconscionable prices charged by fashionable milliners in
London or Paris to " ladies in society , yet it did seen dispropor
tionately high for the wife of a small farmer in a Sardinian village.
The surprise, however, at this apparent extravagance was
greatly lessened, on its being explained, that these costumes are a
sort of family heir-loom, handed down from mother to daughter, and
treasured as highly as our hereditary jewels or ancestral portraits.
The fashion too never changes, and, instead of feeling ashamed of
being seen in the same dress at tivo different entertainments, they
glory in its antiquity, and in the number of occasions on which it
has been worn.
To the inquiring mind, however, an interesting problem pre
sents itself, as to how many alterations some of the more antique
of these dresses must, in the natural course of events, have nnder-
-gone. There would not only be the gradual relaxation, rendered
necessary, as the blushing bride blooms into the mature matron;
but there will be those alternate enlargements and diminutions,
which certain domestic events, that periodically occur in married

— 222 —
life, will necessarily entail ; — and when these continual " lettings out ,
and " takings in „ are perpetuated from generation to generation, it
becomes a complicated calculation, as well as matter of grave aston-
-ishment, as to how changes an ordinary dress passes through, and
for how long a period it can stand a " wear and tear , of this sort.
On my applying to a friendly Sarde for a solution, he at once in-
-troduced me to his wife, who, with charming " naivete „, and per
fect frankness, initiated me into the mystery, from which it would
appear that there is a flexibility and durability about those portions
of the toilette that require alteration, which is not observable super-
-ficially, but susceptible of easy explanation ; the problem was satis-
-factorily solved.
The costumes of the women, both in their every-day dresses, and
on " feste , vary greatly both in colours and arrangement in differ
ent parts of the Island. In some districts a small black velvet,
jacket, open in front, is worn over a very short bodice of bright
coloured silk and brocade, which is loosely laced before, and
cut rather low; there are apparently no stays, and the garment
next underneath seems to be of small service for either clothing
or concealment. The bust too is exposed, but not to the same ex
tent as occasionally displayed by some of the " professional beauties ,
in our own country. The petticoat is of light brown cloth, very full,
and between it and the bodice is a sort of neutral ground of pro-
-truding garment, which by no means adds to the general beauty
of the toilette. La Marmora describes this characteristic, as " assez
indecente „ and Dante alludes to it in terms, which shew that it was less
decent in his day than it was when La Marmora wrote, or than it
is now ; but then neither of these " authorities „ had ever seen our
society celebrities of the present day.
Another costume, more common in the northern than in the
southern district, is a scarlet blue and green jacket fitting tightly to
the figure, with edges of different colors and richly brocaded sleeves,
worn open down to the front seam, with silver or gold buttons to
close them when required. The petticoat is of dark cloth with bright

Sarde Costumes.

— 223 —
edged borders, ten or twelve inches deep, called " la succarina, „ when
made of cloth, but, when of fine silk (as is often the case) it is
called " la valdetta ,. The under petticoat is also of cloth, but of
a different colour and quality, and both are made " full „ with
countless plaitings at the waist, and being worn outside the jacket,
fall on the hips with much elegance. The women, when walking
and in church raise the " succarina , and bring it over their head
with a peculiar arrangement which gives it the form of a knitted
hood. The bright border of the inner petticoat relieves the sober tint
of the cloth, and the gay velvet jacket peeps out with effective bril
liancy ; and no one seeing the " succarina „ worn as a petticoat would
imagine it could be so easily and elegantly metamorphosed into a
head-dress. Sometimes the bodice is without sleeves, slashed and plaited
and drawn tight in the lower part, and with a girdle of gold lace
fastened in front will- a gold or silver buckle, so as, according to
La Marmora, " pour rendre la bailie la plus fine possible ,.
In some of the north eastern districts the skirts of the dress
are drawn so tight;, and it fits so closely to the figure, as almost to
impede the movements; the thickness of the material however takes
away much of the " suggestiveness, , and makes it less objectionable
than garments in this style, recently the fashion in our own country
but now happily replaced by skirts of moderate pretensions.
The head-dress, called " Sucencia , consists of a gay-colored
silk kerchief, tied into three knots triangularly, one of these fitting to
the nape of the neck, and the other two joined together deftly
somehow, and looking like a rosette, but so arranged as to shew the
border fringe with most studied negligence ; when in mourning, white,
in place of coloured, fillets are worn, but similar in other respects.
The head-dress of the women in some districts is a colored broad
riband, about 7 feet long and 6 inches wide, twisted over the head
and under the chin, and then fastened on the side of the head with a
bow, so that the ends, which are embroidered, hang down gracefully*

— 224 -
The male dress consists of the " veste , a double-braided dark
cloth waistcoat, buttoned up to the neck, and generally embroidered
with some bright colours; the " calzoni „ or pair of very full dark
cloth trowsers or " Knicker-bockers , extending nearly to the knees,
and edged with velvet ; the " mutande , or white cotton drawers
very full, and terminating inside the gaiters, which are also of dark
cloth; a " gabbena „ with a hood resembling the " capoti „ worn by
the Moors, of varying materials but generally also of black cloth ;
a poke cap of the Phrygian order, but with the poke or bag much
longer, and hanging down indiscriminately either in the front at
the back, or over the right or left ear, according to the taste of
the wearer or the direction of the wind.
The shepherd's dress consists of a waist-coat made of sheep or
goat skin, called "colletta,; and is a kind of jerkin or doublet, reaching
to the knee; and a short pelisse made of a sheep-skin with the
wool on, and worn over the colletta, with the wool inside during
summer, and outside during winter. The edges are worked in gay
coloured worsted and there are no sleeves.
In some districts both in the mountains and in the campagna,
a cloak — very like a short Inverness cape and called " Sacca de
Coperti , — is worn ; it is made of coarse black woollen cloth, and
is used as additional protection in rainy and cold weather, and for
lying down in either during day or night. It resembles the cloak
said to be worn by the Roman soldiers in the days of the Empire.
This garment, as well as the Colletta and Pelisse, have formed subjects
of several elaborate dissertations from Cetti Gamelli Madao and
other learned Authors, more remarkable for their angry aud violent,
disputations, than for any light they throw on the subject. There
can however be not much doubt but that they were designed as
they are used and admirably adapted, for protection against heat
cold damp and other atmospheric alternations and to preserve as
nearly as possible an even temperature of the body in all weathers.
They afford too the best possible protection against the thorns and
'briars and prickly pears which have to be * faced , on many occasion

Sarde Costumes.

— 225 —
and they adapt themselves readily to every movement, indeed they
have no drawback except a want of beauty, and of this, according to
La Marmora, they are " totalement deprouvees ,.
A Bonnet called " beretta „ is worn in some districts, it is either
of red or black cloth, the former colour distinguishing the women,
and the latter the men; the men in the same districts also occa-
sionaly wear kerchiefs tied over their heads like the women.
The male sex too in some of the mountainous parts wear their
hair long, and confined by a band or within a net, much after the
fashion of the gentler sex. They never wear cravats or neck ties,
and their linen, which is generally fine and often embroidered, is
fastened at the collar and wrists with handsome broaches and buttons,
and clasps of either gold or silver.
Of the Sardinian ladies it is impossible to speak in terms of
too high praise; their unaffected simplicity, their continual desire
to please, and their genial liveliness and. cheerfulness, combined
with a most contented domesticity, and above all, their extreme
kindness and attention on all occasions — and especially in times of
sorrow and sickness — endear them by ties far more affectionate and
enduring, than those of mere beauty or accomplishments; though these
latter attributes are seldom wanting. Their elegant form and gra
ceful carriage, with dark brown complexions, glossy raven hair,
and deep sparkling black eyes, glancing from behind coquettish fans,
combine to render them irresistibly charming.
This art of using the fan seems to be intuitive with the Sar-
-dinian ladies, and must have been inherited from their Spanish
ancestors, and the art in its descent has in no way deteriorated; nor
are the other proverbial characteristics of their sex wanting. There
is a Sarde proverb which says. " They forget yesterday, think little
, of to day, and nothing of to-morrow ,; and in further proof of
this sentiment is instanced the fact that in the Sarde language there
is no future tense. Whatever may be the exact meaning of this epi
gram in its entirety, or what is the inference to be drawn from
this peculiarity in the conjugation of Sardinian verbs, I am not able

— 226 —
to say, but of this I am well assured, that the ladies of Sardinia
are not more " oblivious , than ladies of the same position in the
general world, and that they are as well able to maintain their
own self-respect and dignity, as they are to captivate and retain
the loyalty and affection of those whom they desire to charm, or
care to please.
The accounts of the morality of the women in the lower classes
are conflicting, but there is little doubt that many live in a state
of concubinage till they can afford to marry, and no notice is taken
of this condition, unless the woman is deserted by her lover, when
the relations not only wreak their vengeance on him, but she is
herself looked upon as a degraded person. In all cases, the men
are extremely jealous, but very unnecessarily so, for, whether mistresses
or wives, the women are seldom faithless.
A modern Sarde author in descanting upon the morals and
customs of his countrywomen in one of the northern districts says.
„ When they come to the altar to receive the nuptial benediction,
, they are often accompanied by 3 or 4 of their children, and this
, in the very locality where a few years ago a deadly feud —
, which devastated a whole village — was caused by. a young man
, kissing a girl in the public street „. This is rather suggestive
of the puritanical observance of the Lord's Day in some parts of
Scotland, where any extent of dissipation is allowed in the way of
private feasting and drinking, but to attend any public entertain
ment, or even play a tune of sacred music, is accounted amongst
the deadly sins; " you munna whastle on the Sabbath „.
The private life and pursuits of the Sardinians of the upper
classes in the large towns are as much Spanish as Italian. They
rise early, not later than six in summer, and, after taking a cup
of coffee or chocolate, if residing on the sea coast, during the hot
months they bathe, which occupies about a couple of hours. They
then return home to colazione, which is the meal of the day, con
sisting of hors d' ceuvres in the shape of sardines, anchovies, the
roe of the tunny fish (infinitely superior to Russian caviare), and

— 227 —
thin slices* of raw dried smoked ham, which is eaten with ripe figs
or melons; a mixture which requires an acquired taste to make
pleasant or appetizing, but is then highly appreciated.
This preliminary is followed by soup and entrees of different
sorts, comprising omelettes and other made dishes. Then come fowls,
beef, veal, or other substantial viands, usually followed by wild boar
or other game in season, and closing with sweets, cheese, and fruit,
all of which are taken together. The dishes are sometimes placed
on the table, and sometimes handed round, and the same knife and
fork do duty for several courses ; salt and pepper in a small cruet are
set opposite every guest, as well as a bottle of wine, either red or
white. Coffee is served before the sweets are removed, and smoking,
in which the ladies sometimes join, then commences. Gentlemen
leave the dining room with the ladies.
At all meals maccaroni holds a prominent place, and is never
omitted. It is generally introduced early in the feast, but there
does not seem to be any general rule as to this, and it makes its
appearance at all times, in all shapes, and on all occasions. Amongst
the lower classes it often constitutes the whole meal, and the quantity
then consumed is astounding, not less than would fill an ordinary
good-sized milking-pail.
After colazione follows the siesta, which lasts till four and
sometimes till five o'clock, and is almost universally adopted; the
higher classes closing their rooms, and the lower shutting up their
shops, and ceasing work. In the summer months, scarcely a single
person is to be seen in the streets between noon and five o'clock;
from the latter hour, when the over-powering heat of the day is
past, till dusk, there is a general promenade, and thronging of peo->
pie in the piazzas, where the military bands play every afternoon.
The majority of the " fashionables „ then return home for the " pranzo „
a repetition of the " colazione , but on a milder scale, and at
10 P. M., after more coffee and smoking, they retire for the night.
Dinner parties are almost unknown, but there are receptions
and evening parties, resembling our " conversazione, , though not

— 228 —
quite so formal or monotonous, for that would scarcely be possible.
Nothing, however, can exceed the general kindness and attention
shewn to strangers, and the most agreeable recollections of these
entertainments are invariably retained!
Balls are rare festivities, the Prefect and other high officials
give one occasionally, at which all the fashion and beanty of the
Island are present. The Clubs, both at Cagliari and Sassarh; formerly
gave one, sometimes two, balls in the season, but they have been
discontinued of late years, for reasons not stated. These clubs,
of which there are two in the island, one in each capital, are
very different institutions from ours. No meals are served there,
and nothing is to be had in the way " drink , stronger than light
wines and soda water. A few Italian newspapers are taken, but
there are no books. Card-playing is the chief amusement, " tre
sette ,„ which admits of any number of players from two to five,
each having ten cards, is the favourite game, but "whist, is occasion-
-ally played ; and at whist, the player on your left cuts the cards,
and you deal to the right; in other respects, it is played as in
England, excepting that the rubber counts four points instead of
two. The stakes are small, and there is no betting or gambling.
Members are elected by the Committee, who manage the Club.
The entrance fee is 100 lire, and the yearly subscription is half
that amount. The Committee are most courteous and considerate
in making strangers honorary members of the Club during their
residence in the Island.
The theatres and operas are open only during the winter months,
and are most favourite places of evening amusement. The actors
and singers are far above the average in merit, and the ballet is
really good. None of the performers however are Sardes, and the
entire company comes over "in a body, from the Italian Continent,
and is composed principally of Italians, though there are some French
and English artistes amongst them.
The "Premiere danseuse, in the ballet at one of the theatres I visi-
-ted was said to be a native of Yorkshire, but on reference to the pro-

— 229 —
-gramme, there was no Yorkshire or any other English name on
it ; after inquiry however and a subsequent personal interwiew with
the members of the " corps, , it was explaned that the lady, who
appeared in the play-bill under the Italianized title of "Signorina Sofia
" Coppini, , was known in her native town as " Sophy Coffin. ,
A private box for the season, to hold 6 persons comfortably, can
be had for 200 lire (£. 8) ; stalls are from 1 to 1 '/3 lire for the eve
ning; and the gallery tickts are half a lire. The salaries of the
actors are however proportionately low, the highest not exceeding 75
lire, and the ordinary members not more than 12 lire, per week,
wliich is less than the nominal " pay , of our notoriously underpaid
"corps de ballet,, and less than it is possible to live on even in Sardinia.
There are cafes connected with and attached to the theatres,
which afford a general lounge for the upper and middle classes ; and
here coffee and punch may be had at reasonable prices. There are
however no casinos, singing or dancing saloons, or other public
places of amusement, either for the working classes or for the " rising
" generation „ ; old men and young periodically assemble in small
groups at the various small wine-shops, and drink and smoke, and
sing and play cards, in a grave solemn fashion. •
The Sardes have many peculiar habits and customs, some of
which are less pleasant than singular. They are inveterate smokers,
and in this respect they could take away the palm heretofore accredited
to Americans. A Sarde is seldom seen without a cigar in his mouth,
and the " weed , is anything but fragrant ; it _is made from Italian
grown tobacco — dark strong and bitter — and as five cigars can
be purchased for a penny, it is a luxury that can be indulged in
without any large expenditure. As an almost necessary sequence
to this custom of smoking is the unpleasant habit of expectoration,
which is practised to an extent which again throws America com-
-pletely into the shade ; and as the Sardes have not attained that
dexterity and accuracy of aim, and calculation of distance, which
distinguish our trans-atlantic brethren, the only redeeming cha-
-racteristic in the practice is wanting. On all occasions and under

— 230 —
all circumstances, at meals, in sitting rooms and bedrooms, at church
or in their offices, in railway carriages and at the caffes, the .custom
is freely and indiscrimately indulged in. The fact that the rooms
of the houses are tiled and without carpets renders the practice
some-what less objectionable and injurious than it would otherwise
be, but to the stranger, unaccustomed to such exhibitions, it produces
a " sort of feeling , which it takes some time to tolerate, and would
take still longer to appreciate.
The domestic servants in Sardinia are a very heterogeneous
class, both males and females. - They are independent in their
actions and familiar in their manners, and not over-zealous in the dis
charge of their duties, though generally intelligent and desirous
of pleasing. They are hired by the month, but for misconduct
can be dismissed without notice ; their wages, however, must be paid
up to the day of dismissal, and are not forfeited as they are in
England. The wages of the women are about 15 lire per month,
rather over £ 7 a year, and the men, who live in the house,
receive about double that sum ; the cook however is an exception ;
a really good man cook (of whom there are very few in the
Island) receives as mnch as £ 50 a year. The men-servants as
a rale live in their own houses, and their wages then average
about 2 lire a day. The grooms act also as coachmen, and both
they and the gardeners help to wait at table, and do any other
work in the house they may be called upon to perform. A suit
of livery is a very rare sight, the coachman comes direct from the
stable and mounts his box, in the same attire as he groomed his
horses in, and with his head adorned either by a " wide-awake ,
or a battered old " top-hat, „ and without gloves. They wait at
table in the same costume, as do also the gardeners, when they are
called into requisition for this household duty.
The coach-house harness-room and stables form one contin-
-uous shed; the carriages and harness occupying one end, and the
horses another. The horses in the towns are fed on straw hay and

— 231 —
beans; oats appear to he unknown as an article of horse-food in
any pajt of the island.
The harness in ordinary use is either of brown or black leather,
with silver or brass mountings, and very similar, both in appearance
and appliances, to our English make, except that collars are never
used, the broad strap across the chest being universal, and the
reins — whether for one or two horses — are double ; one set
is fastened to the nose-band, and driving is generally done from
this set , and the bit is seldom used, except in cases of fractious-
ness or accident. If extra horses be needed, either for cart or
carriage, they are yoked alongside and not in front, and are at
tached to the vehicle, by means of " swingle-trees , and ropes, in
a most primitive but effective manner.
In riding, the bridle — if there be one — is single bitted and
single reined, and generally a curb ; but in the country a halter
is invariably used, and to this a long rope is attached for tethering
the horse, while he provides and eats his own meal.
In the starting and stopping of horses, the exact reverse sounds
to those adopted in England are in use. The sharp shrill subdued
"hiss, means " stop , and the broad elongated "wo-oah" signifies
" go on „. In the reverse fashion too " the meeting and passing „
are on the left and right sides, instead of the right and left ; but
this is not the case in Rome nor the rest of Italy, though it is the
rule in Paris and many other continental cities.
The Sarde saddle is large heavy and cumbrous, and not unlike
the Mexican. It is generally covered with a sheep or deer skin
thrown across the seat ; and, hanging down on each side, is a large
bag, or rather sack (often highly ornamented), divided in the middle,
and having two separate pockets, each of which is generally filled
either with clothes or provisions, and about evenly balanced.
Forty years ago the aggregate number of carriages in the
Island might have been summed up as follows; two small omnibuses
running between Cagliari and Sassari twice a week, with a daily
service between Sassari and Porto-Torres ; three vehicles plying for

— 232 -
hire at Porto-Torres, seven at Sassari, and eleven at Cagliari; and these
with the addition of ten private carriages made up the sum total.
The numbers have however been greatly increased of late years,
and particularly since the opening of the railways ; omnibuses now
run daily to and from every town and large village to the nearest
station ; but carriages for hire, except in the cities and large towns,
are still few in number; the charges are most moderate.
The rural Sardes are not fond of travelling, and when they
do travel, the almost universal mode of locomotion is on horseback.
If the wife accompanies her husband, she rides on a pillion behind
him ; the pillion itself being often of elaborate construction, and
lined with velvet and highly ornamented. When two of the gen-
-tler sex travel together, they proceed in the same fashion, the - one
who sits first riding astride like a man, and her companion sitting
sideways on the pillion behind ; sometimes a strong-minded female,
when travelling alone, will ride after the manner of men. Oxen were
formerly often used as " hacks „ by both men and women, but the
custom has now almost entirely gone out of fashion.
The process of " Courtship , ia Sardinia was until a few years
ago carried on in an exceptionally singular manner. The lovers
were not permitted to meet either privately or in society, and if a
meeting should accidentally occur, they recognised each other as
distant acquaintances, neither shaking hands, nor holding converse
together. The only communication between them was conducted
through the medium of the " deaf and dumb „ alphabet, the lady
performer hanging over the balcony, or half hidden by the curtains
of her room, and the gentleman standing below; this " process , was
continued very often for several hours, the rapidity and dexterity,
as also the patience and perseverance, exhibited on these occasions
being truly marvellous.
Courtship after this fashion has been known to be protracted
for years, until one or the other was wearied out, or until the gen-
-tleman was financially in a position to make a formal offer for the
object of his affections. This mute and distant interchange of lov-

— 233 —
-ing words was no doubt a very safe and a highly proper mode
of proceeding, but I venture to think it would not have found
favour amongst the youth of either sex in our own country, and
indeed in Sardinia it is, like many other " good old „ customs,
gradually dying out. It was however an essential preliminary
in former times, and having been satisfactorily gone through,
the lover, accompanied by his father or an intimate friend, pro
ceeded to the house of his lady-love and there entered into for-
-mal conversation with her parents, sometimes carried on in meta-
-phorical language, as : That he wished to have one of their sheep
" to be the pride and glory of his flock ; , or " That he had lost
" a sheep which, he felt sure, was concealed in their house. , If
the parents were agreeable, the lost sheep was eventually produced,
though not until all the other daughters — if there were more than
one — had been first trotted out, so as to keep up the fanciful
amusement. The parties then proceeded to the more unsentimental
part of the arrangement, the L. S. D. of the affair; and this being
adjusted, a day was fixed for the exchange of vows, and they sepa-
-rated. This first ceremony is called the "Ora del Buono,, and the
kiss, which is then for the first time given to the " sposa „, is a
solemn pledge not to be departed from, without serious consequences
to the man, and dishonour to the lady.
The day for signing the marriage contract was next named. The
friends of the bridegroom march in procession, carrying the articles
composing his store to the house of the bride's father ; and the in
mates, keeping up the joke, enquire " who and what they are who
thus intrude ,. To which they reply: " Honour and virtue. , They
are then admitted, and presented to the assembled family and friends,
who are all are attired in the gayest costumes for their reception.
The goods are next examined, the reciprocal dowry is inspected,
and a feast follows. The day of the marriage is then fixed, and is
publicly announced in the village church on three consecutive Sun-
- -days, eight days before the wedding takes place. A civil ceremony
before the mayor is also essential to the validity of the marriage,

— 234 —
and is generally performed on the same day, and the written consent
of the father, or other guardian, of both the bride and bridegroom,
— if under 25 years of age — must have been previously deposited
at the municipal offices.
In former times there was another intermediate ceremony to be
gone through before the marriage. The bridegroom, accompanied by
his friends in procession, proceeded to the house of the bride, with
his goods packed in carts, which after being again examined are
taken to his house. The bride had next her part to perform, and a
few days afterwards, the goods which she contributed, were taken in
carts in a like procession, and deposited in the new home; the smaller
and more brittle articles, such as looking glasses and crockery, being
carried by her friends. The furniture and other things were then
all unpacked and arranged, and the house was decorated with flowers,
which it would have been impious to remove, and they remain
untouched for months, till quite withered. The procession then moved
to the church, where the nuptial ceremony was performed, after which
they returned to the father's house to luncheon, and the happy couple
drink soup out of the same plate with the same spoon, the first
proof of their indivisibility and mutual support.
When the feast was over, the bride, seated on a horse gaily
caparisoned with ribbons and ornaments, was escorted home by a
cavalcade, preceded by the musical " Laneddas , playing a nuptial
song, in which the whole party joined.
On their arrival at the house, the mother or nearest rela-
-tion received the bride, and sprinkled on her some grain and salt.
She alighted from her horse upon a small table covered with embroi
dery, and by a step from it passed into the house, without touching the
pavement. She was then escorted to the bridal chamber, the nearest
relatives sprinkling bonbons over her, and a glass of water was emptied
at her feet, the moment she entered the room; a dance with its
usual accompaniments completed the festivities for the day.
It is the custom in many parts of the island for married peo-'
-pie to be buried in their wedding clothes, which are never worn

— 235 —
except on those two occasions, and the friends, while undressing
the bride, allude to this. She appeals to them, expressing her hope
that their friendship will last till death and that they may be the
persons to re-clothe her at her burial in her marriage garments,
to which they of course reply: " May you live a thousand years! „
and other like compliments. The bride receives none of her re
lations or other friends during the first three days after marriage,
but she has a young maiden companion staying with her.
Childbirth in Sardinia is not a very serious affair. The con-
-tinual exercise and employment in domestic affairs during the
period of pregnancy, added to the warmth of the climale, greatly fa
cilitate and alleviate the pangs of parturition ; and, instead of straw
being laid down to deaden the sound of carriages, and knockers tied
up with white gloves, bedrooms darkened, and strict injunctions given
as to silence and quiet, the friends and relations assemble in an
adjoining room, and dance and sing, continuing their orgies till the
child is born, when it is washed with wine, and rubbed gently with
salt, before it is "swaddled,. The washing with wine is a custom men
tioned by Plutarch in his life of Lycurgus, and the rubbing with salt
is of still more ancient origin, and may be traced to the Jews.
Exekiel alludes to it in the passage. " Thou wast not salted at
all, nor swaddled at all. „
A custom relating to childbirth is said to have existed in some
districts, and, though well authenticated, is scarcely credible, and is no
less ludicrous. While the wife was undergoing the pangs of partu-
-rition, the husband was put to bed, and received the same care and
nutritive support which she was having, precisely as if he himself
were being delivered of the offspring. It is almost too absurd to
credit, and yet Diodorus Siculus, an accurate historian, when speaking
of Corsica, says : " A most paradoxical system exists relating to the
" birth of children; for when the woman is in labour, no care is
" taken of her, but her husband goes to bed as if he were ill, and
' " there remains as if he himself were suffering the pains. ,
Girls arrive at the honours of maternity at a very early age

— 236 —
in Sardinia, and marriage at the age of thirteen is by no means unu
sual and there is, it is said, a well authenticated instance of a young
girl at Pula — a small town not far from Cagliari on the western
side of the gulf — having arrived at womanhood at the age of seven
years, and there are several other instances of early maternity in girls
between ten and eleven, but these, of course, are exceptional phe-
-nomena. Funeral rites are still celebrated in many districts with much
pomp and ceremony, in the belief that it is pleasing to the dead.
The body is placed in the middle of the room in the coffin with
the lid open, having the face turned towards the door. The freinds
and relations assemble with a batch of women, who, either for pay
or voluntarily, mourn and sing praises. They are dressed in black
stuff gowns and assume an ignorance of there having been any death,
until suddenly perceiving the dead body, they begin weeping and
wailing, gnashing their teeth, tearing their hair, throwing them
selves on the floor, and raising their clenched fists to heaven. When
this frenzy is over, they sing praises eulogising the deceased, and,
if he has been killed in vendetta, they call loudly for vengeance.
The men do not shave for a year offer the loss of their wives,
. and the women for the same period seldom leave their houses.
They wear a dark brown cloth cape, one end of which covers all
the face, except the eyes, reminding one of the ordinary dress of
Mahometan women. On tbe anniversary of death or wedding-day,
the survivor visits the tomb, has a mass said, and in the evening
there is a funeral feast in remembrance of the deceased.
A widower or widow, marrying again, is generally surrounded
immediately after the ceremony by the boys of the village, who
beat and clang together old pots and pans, adding other discordant
sounds, including the blowing of rams' horns ; this is sometimes
intended as a reproach and sometimes as a compliment. The same
custom prevails in several of our English villages, but with us there
can be no mistake as to its being done in disapproval and derision ;
there is nothing at all complimentary in any way connected with it.

Cagliari, City and Port.

CHAPTER XIV.
Cagliari — Sassari — Iglesias — Tempio — Alghero — Bosa —
Oristano — Nuoro — Macomer — Porto-Torres — Terra-Nova —
Senorbi — Islands — Universities — Schools — Museums — Hospitals
— Markets — Asylums — Public Buildings — Charitable Institutions
— Work-houses — Water-works — Houses, Streets, and Drainage.

Cagliari, the capital of Sardinia, with a population of over 40,000
inhabitants, has a most picturesque and imposing appearance. It
is situate on the east side of a magnificent gulf, or arm of the
sea, about 12 miles long and 6 miles broad; and there is a good-
-sized port close to the city, with safe anchorage and excellent shelter
in the bay beyond.
The town is built at the foot and on the sides of overhanging
hills, which add to the picturesqueness of the outline. The upper
part of the town, called the " Castello, , is surrounded by walls
and fortifications, and is the aristocratic quarter. Here are the re
sidences of the Prefect, the General of the forces, and the Civil
functionaries, with their offices and departments, and the barracks
and principal public buildings. Here too also are the mansions of
the various noblemen and other large landed proprietors of the
southern province of the Island.
The castle was built A. D. 1217 by the Pisans, but has been
since that date repaired and enlarged several times during the Ar-
-ragon and Savoy dynasties.

— 238 —
The lower part of the town is sub-divided into three quarters.
The " Marina, , extending from the castle to the shore, where are
the principal shops and places of business. The " Stampace „ situate
to the west of the Castello, having also shops, but towards the suburbs
inhabited by the poorer classes; and the " Villa Nuova „ quarter,
lying to the east, has several mansions newly built and with large
gardens, the residences of merchants, but the greater portion of
this quarter also is occupied by the cottages of workmen and the
shops of small tradesmen.
There are public gardens and promenades, tastefully laid out
with flower beds and shrubs, and having terraces, along the sides
of the over-hanging hill, sheltered but commanding extensive and
magnificent views. The distant ranges of the Serpedde mountains
are seen on the north, with the picturesque villages of Pauli, Selangins,
and Quarto in the fore-ground ; while to the east and south are long
indented lines of coast washed on both sides by the sea, w-ith the
" Capo di S. Elia „ at the entrance of the Gulf on the south, where
the eye meets the broad expanse of Mediterranean, extending without
a break to Sicily. On the west, lying at your feet are the port
and bay, the port filled with shipping, and the bay studded with
steamers and other large craft, and the busy town is in front; the
broad lake of " Stagna di mare , lies to the north, and in the far
distance across the bay are the villages of Orri and Pula, backed
by the forests and mountains of Entre Nedda and Saalo.
Amongst the remarkable public buildings is the cathedral,
commenced by the Pisans in A. D. 1312, and finished by the Aragons
in A. D. 1331, and aftwards rebuilt by the Spaniards in A. D. 1669.
The cathedral chapter consists of an archbishop, a dean, thirty canous
and fifty-five priests. The ordinary revenue of the see varies, it is
said, from £. 15,000 to £. 20,000 per annum, besides the extraor
dinary funds arising from fines, lapses, vacant livings, gifts, extra
masses, and voluntary offerings generally; and these together would
probably amount to nearly half as much more, but as to this
nothing certain is known.

— 239 —
The high altar is of solid silver ; and there are several excel-
-lent paintings (most of them copies of the old masters), many mag-
-nificent monuments, and much valuable plate ; amongst the plate
is a silver salver with a representation of one of the fables of Nep
tune engraved on it, and another representing Bachante; two instances
of pagan allegories supporting Christian rites.
There are 52 churches in Cagliari, the two most interesting
being San Lucifero and Sant' Agostino ; but there is nothing very
special or very beautiful connected with any of them.
The municipal Palace is a small poor building; and what was
the Viceregal palace (now the residence of the Prefect) is very little
better, having neither external nor internal elegance to recommend it.
The Barracks, which are comparatively new, have no architectural
pretensions, but are well situated and commodious.
The Law Courts are miserable buildings — dark uncomfortable
and dirty; — and the proceedings are conducted in a half-sleepy sort
of manner; no interest being apparently taken by the public in
what is going on, unless there be a trial for murder, or some other
sensational case. Capital punishment is practically abolished in the
island; the last execution took place fifteen years ago.
There are several hospitals and asylums at Cagliari, as well as
at Sassari and in some of the other large towns, partly endowed, and
partly kept up by voluntary subscriptions; the management in for-
-mer years was much to be deprecated, but is now much improved.
A most gratifying exception from its first institution was the military
hospital, where exist good order, cleanliness, confort, and contentment
— essentials which were at one time altogether unknown in the
other hospitals.
There are also asylums for foundlings, but as the depositor
only pays 2 lire (one shilling and eight pence) per month, and the
other funds are very small, its state of neglect and discomfort is
easily accounted for. During one decade of its record, out of 810 chil-
-dren received it is stated that 473 died. The number admitted
bears however a small proportion to the real number of illegitimate

— 240 —
children ; their mothers — whatever their immorality — have far
too tender a regard for their offspring to consign then to the " tender
care , of these institutions.
The number of indigent poor persons receiving parochial relief
in Sardinia is comparatively very small ; in the rural districts,
when old or incapable of work, they are universally supported by
relatives friends or neighbours. At the two capitals and in some
of the large towns are public institutions, somewhat resembling
our Workhouses, but the aggregate number of their occupants from
the whole Island does not exceed 200. The food and accomodation
are quite equal to the average in England, and, as with us, the
sexes are. kept apart. Out-door relief is never given except vo-
-luntarily. There are no lunatic Asylums, indeed there are very few lu-
-natics in the whole Island, and those, which are not taken charge
of by their relatives, are taken to the workhouses, where they are
well cared for and attended to.
There are several charitable institutions for the relief of the
poor, but their system of management, it is said, greatly detracts
from their efficiencj7.
A large covered market at Cagliari is now in course of erec-
-tion, and when completed, will afford accommodation for the sale
of all sorts of "produce, and will be a great boon during the rainy
season, though at other times both vendors and purchasers prefer the
open air for their business operations.
The Theatre is a plain building, but handsomely decorated in-
-ternally ; and the performances, sometimes dramatic and at other
times operatic, are well attended.
The University is a large plain edifice rebuilt A. D. 1764.
It is presided over and managed by a Council composed of the
principal civil and ecclesiastical authorities. There are 5 faculties
or classes, viz philosophy, theology, law, medicine and anatomy, each
faculty having a certain number of members, including professors
and doctors. Examinations (four private and two public) have to be

— 241 —
passed by the students before they can obtain a degree, and the
whole " curriculum „ occupies from three to four years. The election
of professors is also by examination, but favour, it is said, has
much to do with the appointments. The subjects for examina-
-tion for the general students comprized, in comparatively recent
times, little more than the ordinary rudiments of education, formerly
given to the English youth at most of our public schools; but now
they include as many subjects, and take as wide and learned a scope,
as are given to students at our universities.
Education for the priesthood has already been referred to, and
in law, the knowledge of the national code, based upon, and com-
-posed of the ancient laws, altered and revised from to time, was all
that was needed. The study of the principles and doctrines of ju
risprudence, though not altogether ignored, existed more in theory
tliE,n practice ; and the same remarks would apply with equal force
to the study of medicine, which was a few years ago far in arrear
of other civilized countries, and Galen was as much worshipped and
believed in the medical, as Justinian in the legal, branch of science.
The state of things is however now much improved, and there are
many clever lawyers, and medical practitioners in the Island, who
have received their education at the Sarde Universities.
The average number of students in all classes is about 600, and
besides these, there are about 100, called " majoli , a class of stu
dents, who are sons of poor parents, and who, while attending the
University lectures, are in service as domestics; and from this class
many priests and lawyers have risen to the highest eminence.
The University at Sassari is a very similar building, to, but
rather smaller in size than, the one at Cagliari; it is constituted
on the same basis, embracing the same range of subjects, and requi
ring the same . examinations, and its diplomas and degrees confer
equal privileges.
The public Library at Cagliari is connected with the University
there, and contains about 30,000 volumes, principally ecclesiastical

16

— 242 —
and historical; there are also several manuscript works, mostly frag
mentary, and in the Sarde language.
In addition to the Universities, and public schools of elemen-
-tary education, there are schools of technical art, and also private
seminaries for both boys and girls, where moderately good instruc-
-tion is imparted. The number of these schools in the whole Island,
is 64, and the total number of scholars is about 650. The public
schools number about 900, and the scholars rather exceed 39,000, of
whom nearly three fifths are males. This gives an average allowance
of 44 scholars for each school, and 1 in 18 of the population, which
is very nearly the same as the rest of Italy, and is almost identical
too as regards the number of schools per head of population; the
proportion being 1 school to every 700 inhabitants. There are in
addition 220 sunday and evening schools, with an average total at-
-tendance of 5,400 scholars. In Italy, unlike Sardinia, the numbers
of male and female scholars is nearly equal.
The Museum, which forms part of the University, and occupies
several large rooms, was founded in 1806 and is under the charge
of a curator and a small staff of subordinates. The collection
comprizes coins, medals, sarcophagi, statuary, specimens in natural
history, and other relics and curiosities. Coins are divided into 4
classes, consisting of 100 specimens of Carthaginian, 200 of early
Roman, 2400 of the time of the consuls, and over 4000 of the imperial
period; all of which have been found in the Island.
The terra-cotta and glass relics comprise 2000 specimens; of
which 1000 are Phoenician, Carthaginian, and Roman.
The statuary and sculpture present a poor exhibition, There
is no perfect figure of anything, and the isolated disjointed fragments
have a most melancholy and mutilated appearance.
In the department of natural history the mammalia form a
very small collection; but there are upwards of 1000 ornithological
specimens, all of which are Sardinian ; the entomological specimens
are also numerous and interesting.
" Ichthyology, presents 400 "dried, specimens, and 200 in spirits

— 243 —
of wine — most of them Sardinian — and in the Conchology de
partment there are 1100 native, and 600 foreign, shells.
The mineralogical cases contain over 3000 specimens, comprising
every variety of mineral, and in every shape and form, that has ever
been found in the Island, and are valuable and instructive.
Besides these specimens, arranged in their several departments,
there are sepulchral stones, coffins, inscriptions, models of nuraghs and
other ancient structures, and a variety of miscellaneous relics and
curiosities. Interesting as the museum is, it might, and no doubt will, be
rendered much more so ; considerable attention appears to have
been given of late years to the collection of all the most valuable
treasures of ancient art, as and when they are found, and no relics
can now be taken from the Island without special permission.
Sassari, the Capital of the northern province, and having a po
pulation of 38,000, is in many respects very like Cagliari. It has a
castle, municipal and provincial palaces, barracks, university, law
courts, hospitals, asylums, 17 churches and a cathedral. The latter
was built in the 15th century, but has nothing peculiar or remark
able^ about it, except that the high altar is composed of a variety of
jaspers, instead of being of solid silver as at Cagliari.
The Northern Capital has however several distinctive charac-
-teristics. It is situate in tbe midst of orange groves and olive
orchards, at an elevation of 650 feet above( the sea, and was, until
recently, surrounded by a high wall, built in A. D. 1362, with large
square towers from 60 to 80 feet high. In former times too it had
a separate government and jurisdiction apart from Cagliari, and
it has been the scene of many sieges and contests with Genoese, Pi-
-saus, Arragonese, Spaniards and French, as well as with its own go
vernment and nobles; but in the 16th Century it became identified
with the rest of the Island, and since then has shared the same
vicissitudes. The " Sassarese , are not considered pure Sardes, there being a
large mixture of Spaniards and Genoese, which gives them a com-

— 244 —
posite character ; but the nobles, who reside in the city, and of whom
there are several, are nearly all of old Sardinian descent.
One of the most distinguishing features of the city is the fountain
of Rosello, which is of grand proportions. At the four corners are
large figures representing the four seasons, and at the feet of each
figure copious sprays of water issue, as also from the mouths
of eight lions, two on each of the sides of the fountain ; the whole
is of pure white marble and well sculptured, and few cities can boast
of a handsomer ornament.
Though the town is. now fairly well supplied with water, from
the waterworks recently constructed by the Corporation, a consider-
-able trade is still carried on by the old water-carriers, by means of
barrels carried on donkeys, and it is almost " even betting , that
on calling at a house you* are confronted by a man, a beast, and a
barrel, in the passage as you enter.
Sassari has the reputation of being a healthy place, and yet,
when the cholera raged in the Island A. D. 1855, upwards of 8,000
ont of 22,000 inhabitants (over one third of the total population)
were swept away ; and it is recorded that in the year of the great
plague A. D. 1525, upwards of 15,000 people were carried off by it.
On both occasions Cagliari and the rest of the Island suffered com-
-paratively slightly.
At Sassari in 1829 was born the double infant " Ritta Christina ,
whose exhibition excited much curiosity in the medical and ana-
-tomical world. This " lusus naturae „ was double only as far as the
waist, and single below, so that one pair of legs had to support
two heads, four arms, and two bodies. Pain and pleasure were
equally participated by the two ; and one of the hearts was placed on
the right, and one of the livers on the left, side. Action was inde
pendent of the double will of the brain, and sleep was simultaneous.
The two children however formed a strong contrast. Christina on
the right had more appetite, and a lively and animated disposition ;
while Ritta was melancholy with a countenance of a blueish tinge.

-^ 245 —
Christina lived for a short time after the death of her sister, but
died before attaining the 9th month of her existence.
As a rale there is no pretension to architectural design or deco
ration either in the Capitals or large towns. Some of the ancient
buildings — noblemen's houses and public offices — are however,
exceptions, having handsome facades, with much florid carving over
the doors and windows; but internally everything, excepting the
staircase which is almost always of beautiful white marble, is of
the very plainest. The furniture, as a rule, is poor and antiquated
in the extreme, and there are no statues, paintings, or ornaments
worthy of the name, and no library of books, nor any of those
knick-knacks or bric-a-brac, which give such an air of comfort and
refinement so observable in our English homes.
A fire place is a very exceptional luxury, and there are no
chimneys to the houses, which gives them a singular appearance in
the eyes of a stranger; fires however are never needed, except for
cooking, and that is generally done in an open hearth in the mid
dle of the kitchen. The fuel used is either wood or charcoal; and
how the cook can contrive to send to table several hot dishes every
day with such appliances has often surprised nie. In some of the
larger and more modern houses there are stoves and ovens, but
they are very rare.
The system of drainage in both cities and towns is very im
perfect; it has however been much improved of late years, but even
now several of the dwellings of the poorer classes in Cagliari and
Sassari are below the level of the streets, and are imperfectly
drained, close, damp, and unhealthy; moreover most of the streets
are generally decorated with innumerable articles of clothing in
the last stage of washing — a process which, judging from the
frequency of display, would seem to be going on every day — sus
pended across the streets from the balconies on each side at short
intervals and hung so low as to impede the currents of air and
scarcely give head-room for pedestrians; and travellers on horseback,
or in carriages, have to resort to a continuous system of " ducking

- 246 -
down , in order to avoid unpleasant contact with the moist and im-
-perfectly washed articles dangling about on every side.
The streets with few exceptious, are narrow tortuous ways, paved
with stones, which have the appearance of petrified, or rather vitrified,
kidney potatoes, for they are as slippery as glass. Indeed so narrow
are some of the streets, that there is not room for vehicles to pass
each other; and, as most of them are are long and steep, constant
disputes arise, which often end in a fight. It is dangerous too for
pedestrians, for there is no foot-path, and as most the vehicles are
drawn by oxen, with wide spreading horns, there is not much spare
room to squeeze past; some of the oxen too have " wisps , of hay
or straw on their horns, denoting that they are vicious, and not to
be trusted, which docs not make the passage more safe or agreeable.
This custom of " decorating , the horns' may be traced back to the
ancient Romans; Plutarch narrates that Lucinius, when asked why
he did not attack Crassus, answered : " He wears hay upon his
horns „.
There are, however, some handsome wide streets and piazzas in
both the Capitals and in some of the large towns, which are used
as promenades for the towns-people, who parade themselves every
evening in summer from 7 to 10, and in winter from 4 to 6 o'clock.
In most of the towns, and many of the large villages are works
for the supply of water. In general these works have been con
structed at the expense of the communes, with money borrowed on
the corporate property or on security of the rates. No charge is
made for the water, where it is supplied at the fountains or in the
open spaces and squares, but where pipes are carried into the houses
a small uniform specific charge is made.
At Sassari the corporation have recently constructed water-works
at a cost of over a million and a half of lire, bringing the water
from a distance of 10 miles; but at Cagliari, a Joint-Stock com-
-pany supplies the city with water, and also with gas. The gas
works at Sassari are also the property of a public company. Both
companies pay a good dividend on the capital invested.

— 247 —
Houses and other buildings in Sardinia' are constructed of stone,
where quarries are convenient, but, where stone is not readily obtain-
-able, they are constructed of bricks, which are either sun-dried or
burnt in kilns, both of which sorts are made in the island. The
kiln-made are the best and most durable, but in the villages the
sun-dried are generally used as they are cheaper, and, when covered
with plaster, will last for centuries. The outside walls are either
painted, or coloured with lime-wash ; the internal walls are of plaster,
and are painted not papered, with borders of gaudy colours in fan-
-tastic patterns, the ceilings also are painted ; the centre and corners
being filled in with pictures of mythical animals in tints of startling
contrast, and having no resemblance to any object in creation.
Iglesias, situate in the south-west of the Island, and connected
with the main line of railway by a branch about 15 miles in length,
is the " capital of the mining district „ and is one of the busiest and
most flourishing towns in Sardinia. A college for the special education
of mining Engineers, and an extensive museum of mineral produc-
etions, are amongst its ' most interesting features. Iglesias is said
to have derived its name from the number of churches it contained
in former times, but very few of them new remain ; it is however
still a bishop's see, and the Cathedral, built in A. D. 1215, though
of Pisan architecture shews few traces of the style of that period.
There is a picturesque old castle overlooking the town ; its date is
unknown, but it bears an incription as to its reparation in A. D. 1325
by the Arragonese Kings, who then governed the Island.
-The Iglesians call their city the " Flori de mundo, , which,
though rather a self-glorifying sort of designation, is yet to some
extent justified, by the beauty and richness of the gardens that
surround it an all sides.
Tempio, one of the most interesting towns in the Island, and in
the extreme northern district, is a grand old place, and deserves
notice. The streets are wider than in most Sardinian towns and
the houses are built of a dark grey granite. The Cathedral is of
a mixed style of architect .ire, evidently built at different dates ;

— 248 —
it is large and lofty, 'and the general effect is fine; the high
altar is of coloured marble, and the choir is ornamented by hand
somely carved old oak. The pictures and decorations are how
ever poor.
' In addition to the Cathedral there are 13 Churches in the town,
and 12 in the suburbs, and, as the total population is under 10,000,
this gives a church to every 400 people, besides a Cathedral — a
very liberal allowance; and yet the Tempiese are not more moral
than the inhabitants of other towns, if we may draw any conclusion
from the criminal statistics, and the records at the hospital for
" enfants trouves „ .
Tempio is now under the Government of the Prefecture of the
northern district; but 40 years ago it had a Governor of its own,
" whose palace , (quoting the words of Mr Tyndale from his book,
written at the time), " retinue and establishment consist of 3 rooms
on a second floor, a female servant and a sentinel ,. In other
respects too at that period the appointment does not appear to
have been a very enviable one, for the predecessor of the then
Governor had been barbarously shot, and the present Goveruor had
already received two " warnings , given in the usual fashion, by
throwing a rifle bullet through the bed-room window. The well-
known saying of the private soldier in England that: " he Lad
leased his life for 21 years to be shot at for a shilling a day, „
might with greater appropriateness have been uttered by the Temaio
Governor of that date, for his pay was almost as small, and the
dangers to which he was exposed, from disappointed suitors vendetta
fever and other casualties, far exceeded those incurred by the Bri-
-tish soldier in any phase of his existence.
Tempio is now the centre of two most important industries,
cork and wine; upwards of 1200 tons of the former are produced
annually, worth on an average nearly £. 30 per ton; and over 10,000
hectolitres of wine are exported, (and there is also a large lo:al
consumption) which sells wholesale at at an average price of 25 lire

— 249 —
per hectolitre. In Tempio itself, and in the neigbouring villages,
the retail price is 10» per litre, not quite ld per bottle.
Barley, too, is grown largely in this district, and is the best
in the Island; fetching the highest price, about 10 lire per hectoitre,
equal to about 24 shillii.gs per quarter.
The archives of the town, which are voluminous, relate almost
exclusively to Papal ordinances, and Church matters, and are of no
general interest.
The country around abounds with streams and fountains, which
give a freshness and verdure to vegetation, the more conspicuous by
contrast with the cold grey granite which is the geological formation.
There is distant a few miles west from the . town a small water-
-fall, about £0 feet high, called " II Pignarone, „ which on a still fine
day can be heard at Tempio, and, when it " sounds loud ,, is the
harbinger of bad weather. There is too, not far off, a fountain,
called " Fangio. , so cold that at certain seasons it breaks the glass
into which it is poured ; and wine in bottles, when immersed in it,
loses its colour in a few hours.
Tempio has been the scene of many bloody conflicts amongst
themselves the nobles and lower classes, and with the Pisans, Ge
noese, and Spaniards.
Alghero was formerly a town, of great importance, and the visit of
Charles the Fifth to this city A. D. 1541, on his second expedition to
Algeria — though Robertson in his History does not allude to it • — is
an event of no small importance in the historic annals of the Island.
The house in which he resided is still known by his name, and
remains as it was during the royal visit. Som-3 columns formerly
stood in front of the door, to which a chain was attached, and it
afforded to criminals a refuge of equal efficacy with the altars of
churches, and was considered inviolable. It may be mentioned here
that the right of sanctuary still exists in the Island, though now
rarely resorted to, as it confers upon civilians but a short respite
from justice, and deserters from the army can now be dragged at
once and by force from the very steps of the altar.

— 250 -
Bosa is the chief sea-port town on the west coast. It was
founded in the 12tM century, by the Malaspinas family, and is pictures-
-quely situate in the valley of the Temo, having the grand old ruins
of the castle of Serravalle overlooking it. The ancient city of the
Roman period was situate two miles further inland, on the left bank
of the river, which is* navigable from this point to the sea; many
vestiges of the old town still remain, and Roman coins and inscrip-
-tions are often found. A church, ibuilt in the 11* century, dedicated
to St. Peter, still exists in a good state of preservation, and here
services are performed on special occasions. Bosa is the seat of one
of the episcopal sees, and the present bishop (Monsignor Cano) is
one of the most popular men in the Island. His walks through the
city are like triumphal processions, the men taking off their hats
and bending their heads, the women curtseying, and the children
kissing his hands rings and vestments, and asking a blessing. He
is too a most polished and learned gentleman, and speaks many
languages ; and I am indebted to him for much valuable and inte-
-resting information about the Island, as well as for many pleasant
days of social intercourse. His hospitality and courtesy are proverbial,
even in this Island of politeness and hospitality.
The neighbourhond of Bosa is fertile and productive in wine and
oil. The Malmsey (Malvasia di Bosa) being one of the most celebra
ted and highest priced wines in the Island, and when the branch
Railway, connecting Bosa with the main line at Macomer, is comple-
-ted (and it is to be one of the first " lines of the secondary period ,)
the commerce of the town and district cannot fail to be largely '
increased. Nuoro is situate almost in the centre of the Island, and may
be said to be the capital of the " Highlands „ of Sardinia, It stands
upon a granite formation, at an elevation of 2000 feet above tho sea,
and here the Tirso, the largest river in the island, takes its rise.
The town is irregularly built, and has a rather sombre aspect,
from the fact that the houses are constructed of granite, and ce-
-mented with lime of dark colour. It is the seat of one of the

— 251 —
episc6pal sees of the island, but neither the cathedral nor any of
the churches have anything beautiful or remarkable, either external
or internal, to attract attention ; the only building of any importance
or pretension is the prison, which is of modern date, large and im-
-posing, probably from the fact that Nuoro is, or rather was, the
centre of the most lawless district in Sardinia, and here too are
held the " Assizes „ for a large and populous circuit.
Vines and . olives are cultivated to great perfection, amongst
which are the "Oliena, and other noted vintages. Here too, from the
luxuriant abundance of the mulberry trees, silk worms are kept in
greater quantities than in any other part of the Island, and the silk
is spun into fillets and bands for the hair: bees also are largely
" cultivated , and honey and wax form important items of export
production. In the vicinity of the town are several " nurhags , and " sepulture
di giganti „ and one of the most perfect natural series of basaltic co
lumns. The celebrated " rocking stone, , and a fine natural grotto,
almost equal to the far-famed grotto of Neptune, are also near
Nuoro. Altogether it is a most interesting town to visit, and, when
the Railway extensions are completed, it will be brought within a
couple of hours of the main line. At present, though the roads are
good, it takes a long day to travel there from Macomer, the nearest
railvay station.
Whilst at Nuoro, I had the opportunity of being present at a
trial for murder of a higly sensational and dramatic character, for-
which five prisoners stood arraigned, an old man, two middle aged
men, and two boys; the victim was a poor hard-working fellow
employed in repairing the provincial roads, and he had been mur-
-dered for the sake of the small savings he was known to have
accumulated, and to always carry about with him. From the evidence
there could be no doubt that all the prisoners were present when
the murder was perpetrated, bnt the two middle aged men alone
Were found guilty, and the old man and the boys were for some reason
or other, acquitted.

— 252 —
The proceedings in court were conducted most decorously, the
three Judges, with the Procuratore del Re, occupying an elevated
platform, seated on chairs and dressed in imposing robes. The ad
vocates for .ihe prosecution and defence (for all the prisoners were
represented by counsel) were seated at a table below the jndges ; and
the jury (twelve in number) were on the right of the court, and
the prisoners were opposite them on the left; the latter were inchised
within an iron grating — not unlike the wild-beast cages at our me-
-nageries, — and were guarded by two carabineri, of whom there
were several others stationed at the entrance to the court, and in
various other parts of the building.
The trial was most interesting and impressive throughout,
the advocates on each side making telling speeches and the Judges
listening patiently, and summing up learnedly exhaustively and im-
-partially. After the verdict, which was unanimous, (though in
Sardinia a majority carries the verdict) there was no demonstration.
The old man and the boys, who had been acquitted, were set quietly
at liberty, and the two condemned men were taken away by the ca-
-rabineri to their prison, shewing not much outward feeling at either
their crime or their doom ; knowing of course, as they did, that
the verdict of death, which had been pronounceed upon, them would
not be carried ont, and apparently not realizing the horrors of im-
-prisonment for life, to which sentence it would he commuted.
Terra Nova was, until a few years ago, the northern termi-
-nus of the Sardinian railways, and was considered one of the
chief sea- orts in che north. The harbour, however, was found to
he so inconvenient, ard so liable to be choked up by sand-banks,
that the railway was carried forward, 20 miles further north, to
Gulf Aranci, where there is an excellent well-protected deep-water
harbour, with good anchorage; a large hotel and several houses have
already been built there, and it will no doubt in time become an im-
-portant town. The houses of Terranova are almost entirely of
granite; the parish church is a handsome edifice, and the pulpit
is a wonderful piece of wood carving. Outside the town are the

Village of the Pisan period.

— 253 —
ruins of an old Cathedral, said to have been built in the 9th cen-
-tury, bnt few traces of it remain.
Senorbi is one of the principal villages in the southern interior
of the Island, and situated in the centre of the richest agricultural
district. It overlooks the fertile plain of the Trecento, reputed to
grow the finest wheat and other grain crops in Sardinia. Many in
teresting relics of the Roman period, chiefly pottery and coins, have
been dug up in the neighbourhood, and an archaeologist or tourist
could not choose a better place at which to establish his head-
-quarters, as it forms the junction of the main roads from Ca
gliari, San Pantaleo, Guasila, Mandas, Laconi, and Lanusei ; here
also converge the various tracks from the mining district of
San Basilio and the Trecento plain. It is therefore a busy cen-
-tre of trade, and will form one of the most important stations
on the new railway lines. Its church is of Pisan architecture and
resembles most of the other village churches of the same period;
it stands back from the Cagliari road, from which it is approached
through an old Spanish porch of interesting and artistic design.
Last though not least of the recommendations of Senorbi is the
picturesqueness of the surrounding country which offers many pleas-
-ant excursions; and the excellence of its wine, and the jovial and
ungrudging hospitality of its inhabitants, add to its attractiveness.
Oristano, which was built A. D. 1050 from the ruins of ancient
Tharros, was formerly the " seat „ of the " giudice of arborea , and
is now a flourishig port and town.
The cathedral and archbishop's palace, erected A. D. 1228, are
handsome and well constructed. It is recorded that in A. D. 1291
the Christians from Tyre, when their city had been devastated by
the musulmans from Egypt, settled here; and the union of the
church of Tyre with that of Oristano was effected a few years
afterwards by Boniface VIII. In the cathedral are some good
pictures by a modern Sardinian artist Marghinotti. The prison, in
the " torre de mare, „ if it be a specimen of what the Sardinian

— 254 —
lock-ups " in the 18th , century were, is a terrible witness of the.
barbarous treatment of prisoners under the worst possible system.
Oristano was the favourite residence of the celebrated Eleonora,
Guidessa of Arborea, and it was from here that she promulgated
the famous code of laws, which were in force for several cen-
-turies, and are now tbe groundwork of the general laws of the
Island. These laws are wonderful for their liberal and enlightened
character in those days of darkness and oppression; they are embodied
in 148 chapters, and a copy is to be seen in the public library at
Cagliari, and will well repay perusal. Amougst other wise provisions,
the penalty of death, which before had been the punishment for
most crimes, was limited to cases of high treason, murder, high-way
robbery with arms and force, and the burning of inhabited houses ;
and yet this Princeess, with all her high qualities of manly valour
and surpassing wisdom, was a true woman at heart, and a staunch
defender of the honour and interests of her sex. In the code re-
-garding libel it was enacted, that if any one slandered a lady, by
throwing doubts on her faithfulness to her marriage vow, he was,
if the libel were proved to be false, subjected to a fine of £ 5, but
if the libel were proved to be true, the penalty was increased to
£. 25, as the damage done was so much the greater. According to
Mons. Valery, writing in 1837, " le mensonge, devient plus innocent
que la verite,; no doubt, but the end justified the means.
The history of this remarkable Princess would fill a highly in-
-teresting and most sensational and romantic volume, and there are
ample materials extant. It is narrated of her, as another instance
of womanly feeling, that, on the night previous to one of her greatest
and most decisive victories over the Aragonese, she rode on horse
back to Oristano and back (upwards of 80 miles) to see her son
Marian, who was lying dangeronsly ill. This Prince succeeded his
mother on the throne, but reigned only for a short period, and on
his death, his father (the intruiging and faithless Doria), there being
no direct descendant, hoped and expected to succeed ; but the Sar-
-des would not have him, and sent for the son of Eleanora's sister

— 255 —
Beatrice, William viscount Narbonne, who accepted the kingdom; but,
on arriving at the Island with a small force, he was defeated at the
battle of Santiano, and returned to France. A few years afterwards,
in A. D. 1411 be returned with a larger army, took Sassari, and
soon acquired sovereignty over the whole kingdom, and for nearly
20 years reigned in the Island ; during this pertod, he instituted
many salutary reforms, including the issue of a metallic currency; and
coins with his name on one side and the badge of Arborea (a wide-
spreading tree) on the other, are still extant. Soon after his death, which
happened in A. D. 1332, the reigns of the legitimate " Giudice of
Arborea, , ended, and the " leadership , of the province wa? granted
by the king to his viceroy, to whom was given the title of Marquis
of Oristano; on his death his nephew succeeded, but without any
warrant of the king, and in A. D. 1470, soon after gaining a great
victory over the viceroy's forces at Uras, he suffered a disastrous
defeat at the battle of Macomer.
The French beseiged Oristano in the 15th century and took tem-
-porary possession, but were repulsed, or rather they retreated,
through a singular stratagem which deserves mention. ¦ The forces
which the Sardes were able to bring against the enemy were very
small, but they mustered every available man, numbering altogether
between 300 and 400. They assembled on the hill over-looking the
town, near where the church of S. Giusta now stands, and marched
continuously round the hill, and in and ont of the Church. The French,
watching these mancevres, and not suspecting the stratagem, supposed
the Sardes to have an enormous army, and beat a precipitate retreat ;
they took to their ships, during the night, and in the morning the
Sardes quietly re-entered into peaceable possession of their town.
This stratagem, though seldom resorted to in actual warfare, is
often practised in theatrical performances, where countless warriors
have to be represented by an inadequate supply of " supers, „; on
these occasions the wondering spectators are under the same delusion
as the credulous French at Oristano.
In A. D. 1647 Oristano was visited by clouds of locusts, unpre-

— 256 —
-cedented in size and numbers; they eat up all the ears of corn, and
stripped all the olive trees, and committed such wholesale devas
tation as to cause complete dearth and desolation over the whole
district. The calamity not only caused a famine, but was followed by
the plague, which carried off nearly half the inabitants of the town,
and amongst the victims was the illustrious Eleonora.
Macomer has been previously referred to in connection with
the many interesting Roman relics found there, but it deserves a
further notice from its historical associatious with times both before
and after the Roman occupation, and from its being destined in
the not distant future, to play a very different, but equally con
spicuous, part in Sardinian history.
In its immediate neighbourhood are " nurhags, , in greater num-
-bers and in a better state of preservation, than in any other district ;
that of St. Barbara, situate abont a mile South of the town is perhaps
the best and most perfect in the Island. It is built of basaltie lava
upon a trachyte foundation, and near it are several " sepulture di Gi-
-ganti ,, and one of the most perfect specimens of the "perdas fittas ,,
in the shape of six conical stones about four feet and a half high,
and with the female breast clearly sculptured upon three of them.
Near to Macomer too is a natural phenomenon consisting of
a large mass of basaltic rock, called " Monte Murale , from its close
resemblance to a huge stone wall, and in the centre o:? the town are
the ruins of an old castle whose date and history are unknown, but
which now serves as the district prison.
Macomer was one of the seats of the " Giudice of Arborea ,,
and also the scene of two highly dramatic incidents both of his-
-toric interest, the memory of which, will not soon be forgotten by
the Sardes. In A. D. 1347 the chivalrous Gerard de Cervellon
stayed here, ou his march to Cagliari with reinforcunents for his fa-
-ther, who was then viceroy of the Island, and was attacked by the
Sardes, headed by the intriguing Doria, and a bloody conflict ensued,
in which the gallant Gerard, with all the flower of the Aragon and
Catalan nobility, were slaughtered. It was at this town also that in

— 257 -
A. D. 1478 the Marquis of Oristano was quartered, with his army of
3000 men, on the eve of the disastrous defeat, which consigned that
ill-fated nobleman, with his sons and brothers, to a life long impris-
-onment in Spain, and ended the " Oristano regime „ in the Island.
It is said that at this battle guns and canons were for the first time
used in Sardinia.
Historically famous as Macomer has been in the past, it is
destined to hold a more prominent position in the future. It will be
the junction with the trunk line of all the various branches from
the east and west coasts, all of which will converge and centre at
this place, and in the future instead of being the site of royal seats
and the scene of great battles, Macomer will be the central depot
of a large commercial and industrial community, and one of the
busiest towns in the Island.
Porto-Torres is the principal sea-port in the north, and is
distant about 13 miles from Sassari, with which it is connected by
railway, and here steamers for the Italian Mainland and Corsica
arrive and depart. The harbour, though small, is convenient and
well-protected, and a considerable export trade in charcoal, oil, wine,
and cork is carried on there. The town is built on the ancient
site of the Roman " Turris „ and was once the seat of an archbishop.
The small river that empties itself into the bay west of the harbour
is spanned by a fine Roman bridge of seven arches, and between
it and the port are the ruins of a temple and basilica, on which is
an inscription giving an account of its restoration in A. D. 1247. An
aqueduct of Roman construction still supplies the town with water.
The church of S. Gavino (which is situate abont half a mile
from the port) was built from the debris of the Roman edifices in
the 11th century. There are several sepulchral urns and sarcophagi
in the crypt, which is surrounded by statues of the saints of that
period, but none are of much merit as works of art. The church
has two " apses, , one at the east and the other at the west end,
and the crypt underneath forms another church, where religious ser
vices are occasionally conducted.

— 258 —
Portotorres was almost destroyed by the Pisans from jealousy
of the Genoese, and the. inhabitants then retired to Sassari, and
founded a new town there, which became a sort of republic under
the protection of the Genoese, with the motto — characteristic of the
proud and indomitable temperament of the Sardes — " mater et ma-
" -gistra, sed non domina. ,
The Islands off Sardinia, are principally on the west and north
coasts, and, great and small, are almost innumerable; some are of
considerable importance.
Maddalena Caprera and Tavolara have been already referred to,
and of the other islands the most noted are S. Antioco and S. Pietro.
S. Antioco is the largest, and is connected with the mainland
by an old Roman bridge or causeway ; most of the houses are
built from the debris of the ancient city of Sulcis, on the site of
which S. Antioco stands, but many of the inhabitants still live in
grottoes on the side of the hill beneath which the town stands, and
which were probably once sepulchral caverns.
S. Pietro almost adjoins S. Antioco on the north, and is sepa-
-rated from the mainland by a gulf about five miles wide. It was
the " Accipitrum insula , of the ancients, but became entirely de-
-populated in the middle ages. Its present inhabitants are the
descendants of a Genoese colony, who, in A. D. 1757, settled here
when they had been ransomed from African slavery by Charles
Emanuel III, who gave them the Island for their future home.
In this Island there is a species of palm, which grows in great
abundance, and which is used by the Sardes for threefold purposes.
Its leaves are manufactured into brushes, its heart or core is eaten
and tastes not unlike an artichoke, and its fibre is spun into ropes
for the nets in the tunny fishing, the most important of which is
carried on in the neighbouring gulf.

CHAPTER XV.
Miscellaneous — Mineral Springs — Natural Grottoes — Rocking
Stones — Roads — Hotels — National Games — Horse Racing — Tirai
de Pei — Sheperds Hut — Ballo Tondo — Music -— Postal and Tele-
-graph Service — Vendetta and Reconciliation — Similarity of Words
— Guide-Books — Correction of errors.

Sardinia, though not bountifully supplied with water, is yet
prolific in hot and cold mineral springs, which have valuable chem-
-ical and medicinal properties. In any other civilised country
they would be highly prized, and turned to profitable advantage,
not only commercially, but for the good of the community in the
general alleviation of sickness and infirmity.
The characteristic apathy of the people displays itself in this
as in other things, and the consequence is, that the benefits, which
might be extended to thousands of suffering human beings, are
limited to the very few, who have streugth and energy to brave
the dangers and discomforts attendant on a pilgrimage to the springs,
in the confident assurance of the benefits to be derived.
Apathy in this case is the more to be deprecated, as well as
wondered at, when it is known that these springs, from their chem-
-ical composition, are peculiarly benificial in the cure of those
very ailments to which Sardinia is specially subject, viz; ague, fever,
liver complaints, and rheumatism. It would almost seem as if they

— 260 —
had been created by a special interposition of Providence for that
very purpose, and yet they are cast aside and neglected, as if no
such boon were within reach.
These springs are to be found in almost every district in the
Island, but principally in the north; a detailed list, with their
various properties fully set forth, would be out of place, but a
general description of a few of the best-known may be useful and
interesting. At Fordiangius, a village situate in the middle of the Island,
are several hot water springs, varying from 98° to 155° (fahrenheit),
the chemical compounds being sulphate of lime magnesia and soda,
and hydrochlorate of lime and magnesia. In the north of the
Island at San Martino, in the Ploaghe district, is a spring very similar
in its composition, but not having quite so high a temperature.
Both springs have the reputation of being most beneficial in cases
of irritation of the mucous membrane and in the curing of tumours.
In the same district at a place called " San Arbiddu „ is a similar
spring, but impregnated with oxide of iron ; and at Benetutti, in the
central district, is a well known spring, having a temperature of from
75° to 115° (fahrenheit), containing carbonie acid gas (atmospheric
air) carbonate of lime, and sulphate of soda.
Near Tempio in the north of the Island are the mineral springs
of Cochinas, which contain sulphate of lime and magnesia, and rnu-
-riate of lime soda and silex.
In the southern district are the well-known springs near Sardara,
containing carbonic acid gas, sulphuret of hydrogen and soda, car
bonate of soda, and sulphate of magnesia, and having a temperature
of 140° (Fahrenheit). These springs are perhaps the best known in
the( Island at the present time, not so much on account of their
specially curative properties, as from the fact that some comfort
and accomodation — poor and meagre as it is — can be given to the
invalids frequenting them. There is a building, partly roofed over,
in which are several baths, looking like hollow graves, and having
rough masonry at the bottom and sides, and so constructed that

- 261 -
the hot water from the springs can flow in and out uninterruptedly,
and an equable regular temperature of fresh water is thus maintained ;
adjoining this bath house — which is evidently a Roman remain — are
four small cottages where the patients, who can afford it, board and
lodge. f« Everything is of the roughest and rudest, but at the
same time scrupulonsly neat and clean ; and every attention is
paid to the visitors that the two very old people in charge have it
in their power to give. Close to the cottages is a small Roman
Catholic chapel where service is performed every alternate Sunday,
and along the sides of the sacred edifice, on pegs driven into the
walls, are suspended the crutches sticks and other appliances used
by the crippled patients, who have from time to time dragged them
selves to the place, and which, being no longer needed, they had
left as trophies of the victories obtained over pain and suffering,
and thank-offerings tor the blessed cures that had been effected.
There are many other springs and streams having equally cu-
-rative properties, but not one of them has even the pretence of
accomodation of any kind , and the visitor from a distance must go
there, prepared to erect his own hut, make his own bath, and take
his furniture and provisions with him.
When this state of things is compared with the magnificent
hotels, baths, ball-rooms, concert saloons, public gardens, casinos and
theatres, which rise up, as if by magic, at every place in Europe,
where waters, having any pretensions to the efficacy or variety of
th'ese springs, are discovered, it seems almost incredible that Sardinia
should have done absolutely nothing. Truly the Sarde proverb, " God
has done much for Sardinia, but man nothing, , is especially ex
emplified, when at such small cost, and such little trouble, so much
and such great good, might be attained.
There are many remarkable grottoes in the Island, one of
which, the Grotto of Neptune, is said to be the finest in the world.
It is situate 12 miles from Alghero on the Western coast, and the
Algherese assert that on 300 out of the 365 days of the year it is
impossible to visit it, and I happened to be in the neighbourhood

— 262 —
in the non-visiting period ; but a very vivid description of it is given
by Mr Tyndall, who had the opportunity of seeing it under exception-
-ally favourable circumstances, when it was visited by the King of
Sardinia about 40 years ago, and I extract the following passages,
which cannot fail to be interesting. '"-
" The first vaulted cavern, forming an antechamber 30 feet high,
has no peculiar beauty and here we embarked in a small flat-bot-
-tomed boat and crossed into a second cavern, in which there was
20 feet of beautifully clear water ; we then reached another cavern,
with a natural column in the centre, the shaft and capitol of
which, supporting the immense beautifully fretted roof, reminded
me of the chapter house at Wells, and the choir of Christchurch
Oxford. It stands, the growing monument of centuries, in all its
massive and elegant simplicity, with few other stalactites to destroy
its noble solitude. ,
" The vista of caverns through which we had passed, and the
feeble struggle of the few rays of day light contending witn the
victorious blaze of 3000 candles placed in all parts of the gigantic
abyss where we stood, were reflected on the unruffled lake at our
feet, while the roseate tint of the carbonate of lime gave a warmth
to the whole scene. ,
" Opposite to us was a diminutive mountain, on the summit of
which, a row of lights, arranged expressly to illumine the overhang
ing roof, gave to the small stalactites in the distance the appearance
of icicles of a frozen fountain ; and to our right hand were columns
of enormous and bizzarre construction, from 50 to 60 feet high,
with recesses and projections of every variety. „
" In parts of the grotto were galleries and corridors, 300 and 400
feet long, reminding me, if such comparisous be allowable, cf the
Moorish architecture of the Alhambra. „
" Opening from one of these is a small chamber, the ceiling
of which is entirely eovered with delicate stalactites, and the sides
with fretted open work, so fantastical that one might almost ima-

— 263 —
-gine that it was a boudoir of the oceanides when they amused
themselves with making merry. ,
" Some of the columns in different parts of the grotto, are from
70 to 80 feet in circumference, and the masses of drapery, drooping
in exquisite elegance, are of equally grand proportions. ,
Mr. Tyndall adds; " on returning home, I endeavoured to make
a comparison with the grottoes of Adelsberg, Paros, Antiparos,
Cerigo, Ithaca and others which I had previously seen. ,
" At Adelsberg, the chambers are in spme parts loftier, and the
existence of the Proteus Anguinos, the extraordinary link betveen
the fish and serpent is a point of peculiar interest, but with these
exceptions, the balance of beauty is decidedly In favour of the Sar
dinian grotto. Those of Paros and Antiparos are neither so exten
sive, nor equal in elegance and rarity, and none in other countries
admit of any comparison. ,
" A night on Vesuvius, during one of its greatest eruptions, has
always been impressed on my memory as the finest spectacle I ever
witnessed, but the grotto of Neptune is equally magnificent. The
former is one of nature's children raging in violence and fury, the
latter is one sleeping in silence and tranquillity. ,
Another remarkable grotto is the grotto of San Giovanni near
Iglesias. It is a natural tunnel, running under the mountain of
San Giovanni, and is nearly 1 1\2 miles in length, varying in width
from 50 to 150 feet, and in height about the same. A stream of
water runs through it, which appears and disappears at intervals.
An excellent carriage road has recently been constructed through
the tunnel, which is a great convenience, and obviates the necessity
of going over the top of the mountain, where the old road formerly
went. It is necessary to have torches in passing through it, as, after
the first 100 yards at each end, the tunnel takes a turn, and beyond
these points it is quite dark. It so happened on the day I was there,
that several carriages and carts were passing through, as also a small
detachment of carabinieri, who were accompanying the cashier of the
S. Giovanni mines, in charge of the month's " pay, , (which amounted

— 264 —
to a considerable sum) and as all had torches, the stalactites and crys-
-tallyzations were seen to great advantage. On the right and left
are several side galleries, and a fine grey marble in many places
forms part of the natural wall.
A barbarous murder was committed in this tunnel about two
years ago, and the body, which had been thrown into one of the
galleries, was not discovered till several months afterwards, and the
murderer is still unknown and at large.
It was curions to observe that the swallows, which frequented
this grotto in great numbers, never flew beyond the curves where
the day-light extended, and their nests were all built in the space
between the entrances and the curves.
There are many other natural grottoes in the Island, but none
of equal size or importance with those of Neptune and S. Giovanni,
except one recently discovered near Nuoro, which however I was
not able to visit, nor could I obtain any reliable description of it.
Amongst the natural curiosities of the Island must be mentioned
the " rocking stones ,, of which there are several; the largest
and most perfect is situated about a quarter of a mile from Nuoro
and known in the country as the " pietra ballarina „ and called by
La Marmora, " la pierre dansante. „ It is a polyhedron varying
in the length of its sides from 3 to 16 feet, from 5 to 14 feet in
width, and in height it is 12 feet. Its circumference is about 45 feet
and, notwithstanding its great weight, it is easily moved with one
hand, and, when on the balance, it sometimes " hangs „, for a con
siderable time before returning to its equilibrium, and might with
the greatest ease be altogether upset. The rocking stone itself,
as also the stone on which it rests, are of granite, and appear to
have decomposed on each side at the foot equally, and thus a
perfect equilibrium has been obtained. The largest rocking stone
in Cornwall is, I believe, rather less in size that this at Nuoro,
being 17 feet in length and 32 feet in circumference.
Drummond in speaking of these rocking stones, says. " Some
" of them still exist in Britain, and the Britons were probably taught

— 265 —
" how to raise and place them by the Phoenicians „; and, if these
stones are really works of art, and not produced by natural causes
— as to which I offer no opinion — no doubt the knowledge of ma-
-king them was obtained by the Sardinians from Phoenician sources.
Sardinia, since the Roman occupation and until forty years ago,
had only one main road upon which a carriage or even a cart could
travel; viz, the national road which traversed the whole Island from
south to north, uniting the two capitals and passing through Oris-
-tano and Sassari to Portotorres, a total distance of about 250
miles ; but now every town is in direct communication by good roads
with the two capitals, as well as with each other, and the aggre
gate length of all these roads is over 1500 kilometres.
Besides the national roads there are provincial and communal
roads, connecting every large and small village with the national
system, and in addition there are the old horse tracks making
" short cuts , through forests and over mountains, where a road
either for carriage or cart is impracticable.
The " national , roads were made and are repaired out of
the imperial purse; and the total cost of construction is said to
have exceeded 15 million lire (£. 600,000 sterling) ; they are 36
feet wide, and generally have a grass margin on each side, about 12
feet in width. .The gradients very seldom exceed 1 in 10, which,
considering the rough mountainous character of the country, is very
good engineering, and much superior in that respect to many of
the best roads in our own cuntry. They are well macadamized,
sloping from the " crown „ or middle, and with wide ditches on each
side, and they are kept in very fair order.
The reparation of the roads is let every 3 years by contract, and
the average letting price is about 200 lire per kilometer per year.
This contract price will doubtless sound very small in English ears ;
but it must be borne in mind, that " road material , in Sardinia
is not only good and lasting, but very cheap, being easily got, and
within a short " lead, , and further, that the traffic, and conse-
-quently the " wear and tear , are very slight.

— 266 -
The provincial roads, which have an aggregate length of about
1000 kilometres, were made, and are kept in repair, out of provin
cial taxation ; they are narrower, by one third in width, than the
national roads, but in other respects are equally good, and the an-
-nual cost of reparation per kilometre is about the same.
The communal roads stand in a rather different category, both
as to original construction and repairs ; but generally they may be
said to have been well engineered, and to be kept in fair order. The
cost of construction and repairs is paid by the Communes through
which they pass, and out of local taxation.
Along the national and provincial roads, at intervals of about
6 kilometres, are houses called " Cantiniere „ where the men, em-
-ployed in the repair of the roads, are lodged. They are also used
as places of rest by travellers, for whose accomodation there is a
large room specially set apart, having benches and tables where they
can take their meals and rest, and, in case of emergency they can
remain for the night.
There is a good supply of pure water at each house, not only
for the immates but for travelling horses, and for the latter there is
also capital stabling ; these are no small advantages, where inns are
few and indifferent, and water is scarce.
To the poor these houses are an invaluable boon, as no charge
is made for the accomodation, and the alternative would often
otherwise be resting and sleeping and taking tlieir meals " al fresco ,,
in all weathers and at all hours.
The persons in charge of the cantiniere are allowed to sell bread
and other necessaries, and the prices are most reasonable, but no
spirits or wines are permitted to be sold ; travellers, however, can
bring with them such eatables and drinkables as they desire.
There are no turnpikes, and consequently no levying of tolls,
in any part of the Island.
The hotels in the cities and towns, and in the country districts,
have been much improved of late ; fifty years ago hotels were
" few and far between , and scarcely worthy of the name. They were

— 267 —
only three in number; the hotel at Cagliari was a " locanda „ on
the 3rd floor of a small house in a narrow street, and at Sassari there
was a small boarding house with a table d'hote, and the third was
at Alghero on the 2a floor of a wretched dirty hovel.
In most of the towns and large villages there was, however, an
"Osteria, — half house, half stable, — frequented by the " viandanti ,
who are the commercial travellers of the Island. The accomodation
was of the poorest and roughest sort, but the charges were proportio-
-nately low. This absence of public accomodation necessarily led to
private hospitality being extended to all travellers above the rank of
" viandanti „ and a stranger without even an introduction would in
the present day be a welcome guest at the house of the priest or
syndic at any village, where there was no hotel accomodation ; now,
however, not only in the cities, but in all the principal villages, con-
-fortable quarters at moderate charges may be had. A licence is
necessary for the sale of wine and liquors as in England, the granting
of which is with the syndic, in whose power it solely rests, and he is
restricted in his discretion only by the number of the population,
the proportion must not be larger than one public house to every
300 inhabitants. A small charge is made for the licence, but no annu-
-al payment is exacted, nor are the houses subjected to any police, or
other exceptional, supervision. There are no distinctive signs or names
to the inns such as we have, but in towns the national flag, and in the
country the branch of a tree (generally a willow wand), are suspend
ed over or at the side of the door. Though, however, there is no
outside designation, there is often a very significant one inside; and
at a small iiTat Quarto, which I visited, there was a gorgeous cock
painted on the wall of the public room, with the following words,
in equally gaudy colours, written beneath :
Quando questo gallo cantera allora oredenza si fara.
(When this cook crows then credit will be given).
The charges are most reasonable ; indeed compared with our
English hotel charges they are absurdly low. At one of the best

— 268 —
hotels in Cagliari, a good bed-room, with tea or coffee in the morning,
" colazione „ consisting of fish entrees roast and other hot dishes,
and " pranzo , in the evening comprising similar viands and cheese
wine and dessert " ad libitum , with attendance included, can be had
for 100 lire a month, which is equal to about three shillings a day.
For a shorter period, or for a single meal, the charge is equally
reasonable, 2 lire being tbe price for a colazione or pranzo, 3d for
a bottle of wine, and 4d only for a " brandy and soda „ . The charges
too are uniform, not regulated by the quantity consumed, nor by the
appetite of the customer, as in some of the new cities in the western
states of America, where I have seen painted on a conspicuous sign-
-board outside the hostelry, the following announcement:
A square meal  50 cents.
A good square meal  75 cents.
A mortal gorge  1 dollar.
The postal and telegraph services in the Island are Government
monopolies; both are efficiently conducted and the rates, except for
letters within the Island, are reasonable.
There is a daily postal service from and to the Continent, and
in the cities there are several local daily deliveries- The stamp for
a foreign letter, not exceeding in weight 15 grammes is 2d 1/g,
and for letters in the same town the charge is 5c, but for other
Italian letters, whether for Sardinia or the mainland, the charge
is 2d, which seems disproportionately high compared with foreign
postages. The Parcel post is in force and is much used, the charges
being most moderate ; for Italy the charge is 5 centimes for every
2 oz up to a weight of 7 lbs., for which 50c is charged. Postal cards
are much used — the charges being 10c for both Italian and foreign
cards. In case stamps are not previously fixed, double charges are
made. Letters and parcels can be registered at a uniform charge of
50°, whether for the same or other Italian towns or abroad.
Letters are carried by railway or public conveyance to and
from those towns, which have either of those means of communication.
To other towns and places, the postmar_ either rides on horseback

— 269 —
or walks; every house, wherever situate, has a right of delivery of
letters and parcels free of extra charge.
Telegraphic messages are carefully and expeditiously forwarded ;
the business is not large and one wire is sufficient. This wire is
stretched along poles about 100 yards apart, and is carried either
along the lines of railway, public roads, or " across country, „ accor
ding as the route or direction is nearest or least expensive.
The charge for an Italian message not exceeding fifteen words is
ten-pence; for foreign messages the prices of course vary conside
rably; to England it is 4d per word.
In case of miscarriage of letters or telegrams there is, as in
England and most other countries, practically no redress.
It is stated that the revenue from the Post and Telegraph
services yields a handsome surplus, but the particulars are not pub
lished or known.
The " Ballo tondo „ is the " national dance , of the Island and
admits of any number of participants and is not unlike the dances
described by Homer, and practised in some parts of Greece at the
present day. It commences by joining hands and forming a circle
and " winding , to the left, with a step rather difficult to describe,
and equally difficult for a novice to perform.
First there is a steady side-slide of the left foot, and a sudden
jerking or drawing up of the right after it, the right foot passing
over the left, with occasional stamps on the ground. It reminds one
rather of the polka step, but with many variatious. When the circle
is in full swing and number, the dancers advance and recede with
" leaps and bounds , towards the centre, where the musicians standi
and occasionally break out into wild shouts and gesticulations, to which
the screeching and jumping of the Highlander in a Scotch reel are
child's-play, and then they gently subside again into the regular circle,
with the polka-step as before. Perfect silence, however, generally
prevails, and dancing is continued with a formality and seriousness
more befitting a funeral than a festival, until some dancer, diverging
into a strange Wild step, performs a solo, the circle meanwhile con-

— 270 —
-tinuing its dance. This goes on for hours, tbe circle perpetually
changing, fresh dancers joining and old ones retiring.
A knowledge and practice of Sardinian etiquette are necessary
when engaging in this national pastime ; for, though no formal intro-
-duction to your partner is necessary and you take your choice, yet
unless dancing with your fiancee or a married woman, yon never join
hands, and woe to the man who takes the hand of any female, who
is engaged to another, or to whom he does not intend or is not pre
pared to take as his " partner for life ,.
In music, vocal or instrumental, the Sardes cannot be said to
excel; the national instrument " lanedda „ is supposed to be the
same instrument as the flute of mythical and classic fame used by
" Pan „ but, if so, this high musical genius must have had a better
knowledge of the instrument, or been more expert in its use, than
the Sardes of the present day, or he never could have acheived the
miraculons results that are ascribed to his performances. The only
miracle in connection with the instrument in the present day is the
extraordinary power possessed by some of the players, who have
been known to " blow „ for several hours without ever taking the
pipes out of their mouth, or rather their mouth from the pipes, and
where all the breath comes from is a puzzle, which has never been
solved. Perhaps, however, the monotony of the music, varied though
it is by solos and choruses, given by voices generally inarticulate,
and coming, as it were, from the stomach, and further 'varied by the
hand being placed wholly or partially over the mouth with a sudden
blow and jerk, may have made the time of blowing seem longer
than it really was, and I am bound to say that the performer
shewed no apparent symptoms of collapse.
Perhaps too my ignorance of the science of music, and my non-
-appreciation of it in its highest and classical features, may have
contributed to the conclusions I arrived at, and the Sarde music may
be scientifically amongst the finest in the world. Indeed I am, as
regards music, in the same position as a well-known English ladyi

— 271 —
who neither knew nor cared for music, and who was married to an
equally well-known Scotch " laird, , — but he was deeply versed in
the science and his well-taught ear could detect the slightest depar
ture from exact rules : — and, when observing the excruciating torments
depicted on her husband's countenance at some false note which jarred
on his sensitive perceptions, " thanked God she had no ear for music ,.
Neither the lady nor myself were however in quite so deplorable
"a, condition, as the " barbarian , who knew only two tunes " one of
which was the old 100th and the other was'nt ,.
The vendetta — which from time immemorial has been indigenous
in the Island — has now most fortunately almost entirely died out,
and is seldom resorted to. It was the result of a feeling that justice
could not otherwise be obtained, and there can be but little doubt,
from the records of corruption of the judges, and the mal-admini-
-stration of the law, in times past, that there was only too much
truth in this conclusion.
Forty years ago there was scarcely a commune where several of
its inhabitants had not been driven to the mountains and forests and
lived there a life of plunder and robbery, not daring to return to their
homes for fear of being caught and imprisoned; indeed there are
instances on record where whole villages have fallen victims to this
merciless method of obtaining justice or seeking revenge. It is
narrated that in the Ogliasfro district, an entire village was depopu
lated in a most tragic manner. A very beautiful girl, called Elena,
had many lovers, but could not make up her mind whom she would
select; one of the lovers determined to be the favoured swain, or to
cause a general " Vendetta , and accordingly one day, when she was
going to church with her friends, he roughly kissed her in public.
This outrage was, as a matter of course, in the usual way resented,
and could only be atoned for by immediate vengeance; arms were
at once resorted to, and at the first onset upwards of twenty per
sons were killed and many more wounded; the whole village then
took up the quarrel and the result was that the fair Elena died in
the arms of her mother, when she heard that her father brothers

— 272 —
and all her male relatives had been killed. The deadly contest was
carried on till the few survivors left the village to escape the misery
of isolation, and the village itself was deserted and destroyed.
The "banditti and fuorisciti , were driven originally to the moun-
-tains, by being accused with the commission of some crime, of
which they were innocent, but, whether guilty or innocent, they
seldom committed violence on strangers, and took only what they
needed for their immediate necessities. Their families and relatives.
with whom they kept up constant communication, supplying them
while absent, with all they required ; they lead a wretched existence
concealed in the forest and mountains during the day, and issuing
only at night, for though not actively hunted down by the cara-
-biniere, and guards of the forests, yet, if seen, they would be
arrested and brought to justice. The total number of these out
casts from society does not exceed a score at the present time, and
most of them are advanced in years and might safely, and as a matter
of policy he allowed to return to their houses and families.
In former times — when vendetta was in full force — occasion-
-nally but very rarely the fend was amicably settled, and a most for-
-mal and elaborate ceremony was then enacted. A Sarde author has
given a full description, which is interesting in itself, as well as cha
racteristic of the Sarde temperament and disposition; it is as follows.
" After sundry negotiations, either of reliable and disinterested
" persons or of some respectable ecclesiastic, the difference is com-
" -posed ; the respective interests are provided for, and then the place
" of reconciliation is named. This solemnity usually takes place in
" the open country near some Chapel lest some of the parties should
" be guilty of foul play. On the appointed day the two factions with
" their friends and kindred meet, all are under arms, as if for warfare,
"and all at a certain distance from each other and observing many
" precautions indicative of distrust, and silent and gloomy, as if averse
" to any thoghts of peace., The arbiters and "pourparlers, are placed
in the centre, passing between the parties to ascertain if anything
new has occurred, and that there is no retracting of previons deli-

— 273 —
-berations, — and in case any difficulty may have arisen, they
studionsly labour to remove it " so that both parties may be prepared
for the fraternal embrace. The priest then appears. At the sight
of the crucifix in his hands, their arms are lowered and laid down,
their heads unbonneted, and the offended party on the right, and of-
-fenders on the left, advance towards each otljer. The holy man
mounts upon a stone, and, descanting upon brotherly love and the
duty of forgiveness, holds up the example of Christ, who prayed for
his murderers, shews the necessity of reparation for wrong, and after
refering to other appropriate matters, terminates an affecting exhor
tation for them to disarm and embrace each other,.
" Great is the display of passion when the factions from both
sides approach the priest. Their eyes flash, countenances turn pale,
groans of fury and rage are heard from men women and children,
who see before them the murderers of sons fathers and husbands; but
the Gospel words invoke better sentiments in their hearts, and a
struggle of divers emotions ensues; soon the sullen brows are cleared
up, the menacing eyes lowered, looks cast down, sighs and sobs
break out, and the sounds of ferocity and horror change to those
of peace and tenderness. The agitation is at its crisis when the
offenders, after embracing the crucifix, turn to present themselves for
pardon. They, who at first stood regarding their enemies with per
verse pride, now turn pale, and, with slow and trembling steps,
advance to the offended parties. Roused to the height of passion by
the approach of one stained with the blood of some beloved friend,
he almost hesitates to receive him, but a deep groan is heard, and
he opens his arms for embracing his enemy with the words " Dio
" el perdonas ,, and gives the kiss of peace. Those of his faction
do the same in succession, whilst others with tender words accept
their friendship, and the women, who till now have been trembling
for their loved ones, shed tears of joy, and give thanks to God, but
those whose hearts have been too deeply wounded, though they abstain
from their accustomed imprecations, howl inconsolably and mourn
their beloved and lost relations. The general joy fails to illumine

18

- 274 —
their brows, immersed in the darkness of tender sorrows, they continue
to pour forth their lamentations. These duties performed, they all
assemble at a joyous feast, as though the memory of the past was
entirely obliterated, they behave toward each other with the regard
and cordiality of a family united in the most sacred love, old affections
— quenched by the intermediate enmity — are renewed, the young
people meet again with delight the once dearly-loved objects, words
of love are renewed, promises redeemed, and vows repeated „.
" To establish the peace more firmly the chiefs on both sides
propose marriages, maidens receive the faith of those who now first
begin to love, or give their hands to former lovers. Parents pledge
themselves for their little ones, and promises of sponsorship are
given and renewed. In the meautime guns and pistols are discharging
their harmless balls into the air, and dancing and singing and every
kind of rejoicing becomes general, except where amongst the shadows
of the trees, a few inconsolable women are weeping in solitude.
The scene closes by an exchange of gifts and separating with every
demonstration of friendship, they retire to their respective villages,.
The peace thus established is generally perpetual, and the condi-
-tions are strictly observed, and, in addition to the foregoing celebra-
-tion, there is another and equally imposing ceremony enacted, by
which the most influential and important member of the offending
faction binds himself by an oath to prevent in private any injury
that may be attempted by any of the party, and, if he fails to do
so, the injured individual may revenge himself on him.
As a rule however, the Sardes are little diposed to trust to either
clerical or legal interference in their disputes, they prefer private
arbitration " by their peers „ which is, by all accounts, a most sa
tisfactory and impartial tribunal; when a quarrel occurs, the most
respected elders are called in to arbitrate, and the respective parties
being assembled with their witnesses, and having tendered their
evidence and made their statements, the discussion is closed by a
clear and immediate judgement. An appeal lies from them to a
similarly constituted court of inquiry, but having a greater num-

-- 275 —
-ber of " good men and true , and their decree is final. The good
they effect in preventing quarrels and lawsuits is illimitable, and all the
reward they get is the general esteem in which they are held.
This tribunal is in principle the same as private arbitrations in
England, but with this essential difference, that the former is simple
and inexpensive, and the decision is prompt ; whereas in England
the proceedings are costly and protracted indeed in nine cases out of
ten a lawsuit, with a trial in open court, is generally less expensive
and more satisfactory.
One of the Sarde " "national games , is a species of wrestling,
and is called "Tirai de pei, but it is a very different "pastime,, and
conducted upon rules very different frpm those in force in Cum-
-berland Lancashire or Westmoreland; indeed it would be more
correctly termed " kicking , than " wrestling. „ The two competitors
approach each other, each having two friends — their seconds — on
whose shoulders they rest their arms, so as to preserve their equi
librium, while they try, by kicking, to knock each other off their
legs, which are protected by thick leather leggings; the injuries and
bruises are sometimes very severe, and this " game „ goes on indef-
-initely, till one or both are wearied out, when the amusement
ends; but no one seems to know which has been the victor.
Football is played in a sort of fashion in the Island, but in
a very mild way, and hands are used instead of feet; " marbles „
too are played, — both " ring , and " hole „ — and not unlike the
game of our boy-hood; but cricket and tennis are unknown.
Mr Tyndall says " The Sardes almost always sleep naked, mar-
" -ried or single, and no matter, how many may be in a bed, father
" mother and children, all are in a state of complete nudity, a prac-
? -tice I had several opportunities of witnessing,. This, however, is
a custom, which I never saw or heard of, and, like many other Sarde
practices, it must have fallen into desuetude. My experience as an
eye witness may not of course have been so extensive as M.r Tyndall's,
yet I have on several occasions had to intrude into the family bed
chamber, and instead of the state of nature in which, according to

— 276 —
this author, their slumbers were enjoyed, I found the condition of
things exactly the reverse, every member of the family having on
the whole of their clothes, the male sex being adorned even with the
boots and shoes they had worn during the day. Indeed it is ge
nerally supposed that, as a rule among the lower classes in Sardinia^
articles of clothing are never taken off or changed, so long as they
will hang together.
On one of our shooting excursions — which occupied a couple of
days — the shepherds hut, where we stayed for the night, may be taken
as a fair specimen of a forest habitation. It was constructed of dried
turf and straw, having a covering of brush-wood and cork as a roof,
and some heavy stones at the top to prevent its being blown away. It
was about twenty feet square and twelve feet high, and had a very
low door in the middle of the south side. There were no windows
except a small aperture without glass or wood.
The natural soil formed the floor, and in one corner lay a rude
mattrass, stuffed with heather and leaves, which was appropriated
as a bed for the parents of the family, and in another corner were
bundles of reed-mats sheepskins and deer-skins, which at night were
drawn in a circle round the fire, and formed sleeping accomodation
for the rest of the family, and for strangers — who on this occasion
numbered fifteen and were supplemented by as many dogs — ; the fire
was in the centre of the room on the floor in a hole, a few inches
deep, and about three feet in diameter. Chimney there was none,
and the smoke, after blackening the rafters and walls, escaped either
through the small aperture which formed the apology for a window,
or through the numerous holes in the roof and around the door;
Across the rafters were arranged transverse shelves of wood and
reed lattice work, on which cheeses, made from the milk of sheep,
were placed to dry and at the same time to acquire a smoky flavour
that is highly esteemed.
Along the walls, and on the floor, were hollowed trunks, or ra
ther shells, of trees (principally cork), abont two feeet high and one
and a half feet in diameter, filled with corn and other family stores ;

— 277 —
and cheeses of various sizes and shapes, and in different stages of
manufacture, were also scattered about the dwelling.
The household and cooking utensils — home-made and of the
roughest description — were all formed out of cork bark and split
reeds, excepting the instrument used for roasting the meat, and this was
a long iron rod, on which pieces of flesh (each about a pound weight)
were spitted, and the rod was held over the fire and turned with
the hand. There was no table or cup board, and two or three stools,
made of sawn logs, served not for seats, but as stands for milk-
pails. The custom of sitting on the ground is universal and indeed
is almost a necessity, as they thus, to some extent, escape the dense
smoky atmosphere thst fills the upper portion of the room.
The dress of the women of the family — the mother and two
daughters — consisted of a light green cloth bodice, fitting closely to
the figure, with a narrow red edging, and the petticoat, of coarse dark
purple cloth, had a broad red border of the same material. Shoes,
stockings, under petticoats, and other customary articles of female
attire, were things either unknown or deemed superfluous, but their
absence shewed to greater advantage the natural grace and elegance
of the shapely figures.
The use of the fists, or the " noble art of self-defence , is not
resorted to in settling disputes in Sardinia; knives and guns heing sub
stituted for natural weapons, but they are now seldom used, indeed
quarelling in Sardinia seldom gets beyond the stage of an inter
change of angry words and violent gesticulation. Drukenness, the
cause of nine-tenths of our " street rows , is the rarest possible spe
ctacle, but this again may arise, not only from the natural sobriety
of the people, but from the fact that it is difficult to produce
that condition from the liquors of the country, however freely in-
-duls-ed in. I was however once witness of a hand-to-hand encounter
at Cagliari between two cart drivers, and the open palm was, after
the fashion of women in a certain class of society, then used, but
it was soon supplemented by vigorous kicking, and immediately
followed by the combatants closing in, and falling down upon each

— 278 —
other, and rolling on the ground; then teeth came into play, and
the fight eventually concluded in their separation by the carabineers.
It was then found, that one of the warriors had an ear and the
end of a finger completely bitten off, and that the other had re
ceived frightful gashes from bites on the arm and shoulder, which in
some places were laid bare to the bone ; and both were covered with
blood and mud, and utterly prostrate and exhausted. They were
carried to the hospital and it was said that it would be several weeks
before either victim could be discharged.
Horse-racing in Sardinia may be classed as one of the two
great national sports (the " caccia, , or chase being the other) ; and
it is carried on both in town and country. In town the narrowest
and most slippery streets are selected for the course; and in the
country the steepest stoniest and worst road is generally the chosen
ground. Formerly, and withim the last thirty years, from four to six
riders on as many horses used to start together, with their arms
interlocked, so that quadrupeds and bipeds formed one body; and
thus linked together, they galloped over the streets and lanes at a
terrific pace, and the merit in the race consisted in all arriving
together at the goal as they had started; but so dangerous had
the sport become, when carried on in this fashion, that it was put
a stop to by Government, and now each horse has its own rider,
and they ride the race separately and independently of each other,
This however is scarcely less dangerons, as they gallop at the same
reckless speed down the slippery streets and rocky roads, with no
saddles, and very often without bridles or stirrups, and using both
whip and spur freely. It is a hazardous amusement; hardly less
so to the spectators, who line the streets, than to the jockeys, who
are lads between twelve and fifteen years of age. The races are
run in " heats „ or courses, and the horse that first passes the post,
in the greatest number of courses, and ivhether with or without
a rider, wins the prize. In some districts the riders carry guns
under their arms, with the muzzle pointed towards the ground; and

— 279 —
the " racing sportsman , who along the rocky roads keeps his gun best
in position, and so arrives at the post, though he may not be "first
in ,, is declared the winner. It requires great art and practice to
ride over these courses in this position, but the Sardes are almost
as expert and daring on horseback as the Arabs. In some of the
religious processions, the horseman nearest the " sacred image „ rides',
facing the saint, " and reining back „ his horse, with wonderful skill,
and horse and man parade through the town in this manner, with more
grace and ease than many a practised court-official can retire back
ward from the presence of Royalty.
These races take place frequently and periodically, and are
always looked forward to with great interest by all classes. The
balconies of the windows in all tbe town houses are filled with
ladies dressed in their gayest costumes ; and the men throng the
streets, all cheering shouting and gesticulating in the highest state
of excitement. These " sports „, as racing in our own country, are
supposed to have been instituted for encouraging the breed of stout
and fleet horses; and no doubt they have that tendency; but the
previous training is not very severe, nor do the winning horses
appear to derive any great special commercial value from the
superiority shewn by their victories. Mares are not allowed to
compete in any race ; it is forbidden by express law.
The qualities required for a jockey are pluck and dexterity;
and some of our crack riders would be " as much nowhere , in
Sardinia, as a Sarde rider at Newmarket. The so-called risks
and dangers to which our jockeys are " exposed , from the " ugly
rush ,, at Tattenham corner in a crowded Derby, or in the Chester
cup when they start " five deep , are childsplay compared with
the continuous break-neck headlong helter-skelter reckless fashion
in which Sarde races are run.
It may be mentioned here, that in " mounting ,, whether in
racing or ordinary riding, the rider, — there being generally no stir-
_rupS — selects some rising ground, or other point of advantage that
may be near at hand; if there be no such position he " scrambles

— 280 —
" up any how „, and never vaults on to his horse, as might easily
be done, seeing the animal very seldom exceeds 14 1j2 hands in
height. This mode of "mounting, seems to have been an ancient
custom in Italy, as all along the Appian Way, and other old
Roman roads, are " stones , at certain intervals, that have evidently
been erected and used for this purpose. In Sardinia too, as in other
parts of Italy, where, as occasionally happens, saddles are orna-
-mented with stirrups, the rider mounts on the right or " off „
side, , using the right foot; and not on the " near , side, and with
the left foot in the stirrnp, as is the practice in England.
There are seven Newspapers now published in the Island, two
of which are "dailies,, one at Cagliari and the other at Sassari, and
five are weeklies, published at the Capitals, and in the towns of
Tempio and Lanusei.
These papers are as a rule cleverly and soberly written, and well-
informed, and all shades of politics are represented. Some are what
we should call " liberal conservative , in tendency, and give their full
support to the present Government, and others represent the discon-
-tented element, though their exact political colour it would be dif
ficult to define. There are at present no illustrated or comic pa
vers in the Island, though the last humoristic paper (which died
about 10 years ago), the " Buonumore,, was clever and amusing.
There are several printers both at Cagliari and Sassari who
also publish, and the history of Sassari in two large volumes, re
cently published at Sassari, and written by Sig. Enrico Costa, a
clever poet and successful novelist, is an elaborate and careful work,
handsomely got up, and worthy, of our best publishers.
The similarity, or rather identity, of some of the Sarde words
with words in the Greek and Latin languages is most remarkable.
A shell is " conca „ in Sarde, and * y-"yy,cg „ in Greek ; a boundary,
is " oru , and opoc, ; image is " icona , and w/mv ; limit " is orizo „
and opiyji'j to see is " ido , and e«Jw; the breast is " titha „ and
ziOrr, and it is somewhat curious that the first and last of these
words have been anglicized, and retain the same signification; the

— 281 —
one, " conca „ or " conk , being used in " prize-fighting , parlance
as denoting the head or shell ; and the latter, amongst the lower
orders in the northern districts, signifies in common language
those portions of the maternal frame, which supply children with
their natural food in early infancy. Latin in some parts of Sar-
-dinia is, as we have seen, the common language ; and among every
class in the island " bona dies „ (good day) is an ordinary salutation,
and " via „ (a way) is the signal for a sporting dog to " be off ,
the latter may be said to be literally and figuratively dog-latin,
in every sense of the word. .Several Carthaginian and even German
and Russian words are also used ; though how the two latter came
to be adopted is a puzzle, as, in all its various vicissitudes, Sardinia
was never mixed up either historically, politically, commercially,
or socially, with either of those countries.
Some of the Sardes, especially amongst the upper classes, rather
pride themselves on their acquaintanc with foreign languages. A few
specimens in English, which came under my own observation, will
best illustrate the extent of this knowledge, and the incidents are
in themselves amusing.
When starting on a " caccia grossa „, the brother of my host,
who had married an English-speaking lady, from whom he thought
he had acquired a perfect knowledge of the language, gave me as
a parting salutation : " I wish you dead to-day , . This did not sound
very pleasant or congratulatory, and I pondered long over the mean
ing, but I was not able to fathom its depths, until it had been
explained that he intended no evil, and was merely expressing the
hope and desire, that I should be the person to kill the first wild-
boar during the day's sport.
On another occasion at a consultation of mining engineers, when
the desirability of an important operation was being discussed,
on appealing to one of them for his opinion, I receved an answer in
these words. " I think, as usual, of myself. , Now, as he was one
of the most modest and retiring, and the least egotistical " profes
sional whom I ever met, I thought the answer strange ; but

— 282 —
I afterwards ascertained that all he meant to express was : " that he
had his own opinion on the subject,, which he would communicate
after he had matured it in his own mind. On another occasion, while
conversing at a dinner party on general subiects, an observation was
made by one of the guests that " some fall down ,, which appeared
to be " a propos „ of nothing, so far as could be seen , but it
turned out that some one of the party had brushed apiece of bread
with his elbow from the table to the floor, and he intended simply
to call attention to the fact. Perhaps, however, the climax of all
occurred during a discussion on the art eollection at one of the mu
seums, when several " learned professors, were present, and the statue
of the Graces was mentioned, and in order to make it quite clear
to the English perception what particular statue was being referred
to, he graphicaly described it " as what you call in England the
three thanks. ,
These mistakes, however, are not limited to conversational re-
-marks, but are occasionally "committed to writing,, as a note which
I once received, couched in the following terms, will well illustrate,
" willu com end dain wig uz en esta sonde o mende , to which
an answer was requested by the bearer. These characters in their
mysterions aspect were at first quite unintelligible, but the meaning
was soon apparent; it was simply an invitation to dinner " will you
" come and dine with us on Easter Sunday or Monday ,.
Instances of such mistakes, written and verbal, might be mul
tiplied indefinitely ; but numerous and amusing as they were, I doubt
whether they equalled, either in number or absurdity, the mistakes
I myself made in the efforts, to. express my meaning in Latin, Sarde,
and Italian, which I was compelled to make in many places and on
many occasions, in order to render myself intelligible ; but the
Sardes were too courteous to take notice of my imperfections in this
respect; a politeness which it may be thought I am ill requiting, but
I mean no offence, and none i am sure will be taken.
There are very few recent " works „ upon Sardinia and they
are mostly written upon special subjects, principally archeological

— 283 —
and historical, and not of much interest to the general public.
There are, however, several " guide-books „ and " hand-books, „
in which Sardinia is referred to, and in these sometimes a few pages
are grudgingly given to its history and description, but more often
it is dismissed in a few sentences and even in a few lines, as if it
were scarcely worthy of mention; and yet in the same book whole
pages are devoted to places of infinitely less interest and importance,
but more in the beaten track of the " conventional tourist , , and better
known in the " fashionable world ,.
Very little general information, however, is to be gleaned from
any of them, and often the little that is given is imperfectly
expressed, and calculated to impart erroneous impressions, sometimes
conveyed in such deterrent terms as almost to prevent a visit to the
island, and at others, raising expectations which would assuredly be
disappointed ; and either of these results, in the interest of the
island itself, as well as of those who may contemplate a visit, it
is obvionsly desirable to avoid. Some of the most mis-leading of
these passages will be shortly referred to, but the books themselves
will not be mentioned ; the object being not to criticise the works or
their authors, but to correct mis- conceptions and mis-apprehensions.
As regards salubrity or rather insalubrity of climate. It is
denounced by some as the " most deadly in the world „ and as if
a residence in, or even a visit to, the island were the inevitable prelude
to certain death, and by others, not quite such alarmists, it is stated,
that April May and June are the only months when it is possible
to travel with comfort or safety. „ Another author, though giving
the Island a " bad name „ generally, " yet adds , for the remainder
" of the year i. e. from November to June (which is the proper
" time for strangers) the climate is healthy and delightful , and the
old Sarde proverb "Chi va ad Oristano ad Oristano resta , is quoted as
triumphal proof of insalubrity; but this, like many other Sarde proverbs
is signally falsified by facts ; the healthy appearance of the inhabitants
and the statistics of the place alike demonstrate to the contrary, and,
during the construction of the railway, it is well-known that not one of

— 284 —
the staff of engineers and overlookers, who resided in Oristano for
several years, was ever attacked by fever or intemperie. There can
be no doubt that Sardinia " enjoys „ a bad reputation as regards
climate, but this, as we have seen, is not only greatly exagge
rated, but that, with a moderate exercise of care and prudence, the ill
effects may be avoided ; besides it is not more unhealthy than many
other countries, which tourists visit with impunity, and on which no
such deterrent comments are made. Indeed Sardinia, for some reason
or other, seems almost always to be placed at a disadvantage as
compared with other countries ; even Corsica, which is in nearly every
aspect unquestionably inferior, is held up as infinitely more attractive
in all respects; one author, in his enthusiastic comparison, transgresses
all bounds, even with reluctance making the admission that Corsica
is rather smaller than Sardinia, it being in fact not one half as
large, either in extent or population.
As regards the forests, the statements are equally contradictory
and misleading ; one quotation has been before referred to, and we
have seen how baseless is the foundation on which it rests, and an-
-other makes the sweeping assertion that " most of the forests
are cut down for charcoal , ; and as the ilex is the only " forest
" tree , that is converted into charcoal, it is not only manifestly in
correct as regards " the forests „ generally, but it is greatly exagge
rated as regards the ilex, for there are now upwards of thirty millions
of these trees flourishing in the Island. The cork-tree is said by
another authority to yield 30 lbs of bark on the average. The
meaning of this is not quite clear, indeed it might be said to be de
cidedly obscure; if bark be meant, its value, at the highest computa-
-tion, would not be 3 shillings, and at this price would not pay for
felling and carting, but the average quantity of bark per tree is far
nearer 300 lbs than 30. If on the other hand, as is most probable,
" cork , and not " bark , be meant, the average yield is stated at as
much over the mark, as the " bark , is under; so that altogether
no information of much value can be gathered from the statement.
Another author observes that " the mountains are covered from the

— 285 -
„ base to the summit with chestnut, oak, beech and larches , and
no mention is made of cork, ilex, walnut, olives, and many others,
which constitute the staple production of the forests, and as a
matter of fact, there is not a larch in the whole island, except some
" seedlings „ recently introduced, and now growing in the nurseries
at Laconi and Macomer. The most extraordinary statement is how
ever contained in a most popular and much-read book, which records
the astounding fact " that Sardinia has, owing to the total destruction
" of its forests , to buy its navy timber from the French. , This is
almost ludicrous in its absurdity, for lstly, Sardinia has no navy
and does not therefore require any navy timber; and 2ndly, France
imports oak largely from Sardinia, and is one of her best customers
for timber. In regard to minerals the accounts are almost as erroneous and
contradictory. In one publication it is stated that * the mines were
" worked by the Romans, but are now exhausted,; and in another,
that they are " intact and undeveloped „ ; and in a third, that " mines
" of silver, zinc, lead, antimony and salt are still being worked, but
".are nearly exhausted ,. It has been previously mentioned in
detail what mines were worked in former tines, and what are now
in operation, and from this may be judged, how imperfect a con
ception these references give of the mineral wealth and resources of
the Island ; and as to salt, though produced largely by evaporation
from sea- water, no salt-mines have ever yet been worked or disco
vered in Sardinia.
One author mentions the fact that " 400 mines were worked in
the Roman times ,, and further that the population " at that period
exceeded 5 millions ,, but no authority is given for these statements;
and the latter is at complete variance with all ancient writings on the
subject, none of which place the number of inhabitants at more than
2 millions, and the former is inconsistent with the historical fact, that
the Romans, except for their own special requirements (which were
limited), prohibited mining under heavy penalties ; and further, there
are no evidences in the island of any mining operations at all

— 286 —
approaching in number and magnitude the operations thus indicated.
Another modern writer observes. " It ivas rich in metals, such as
" lead, copper and iron, — the latter has been found at Monte
" Ferro and is still to be found in considerable abundance in certain
• districts ,. No doubt iron is still to be found not only at Monte
Ferro but in many other places — but the Island is also still rich in
lead and in silver manganese and zinc — but it was never rich in
copper. It would however be almost impossible to convey in such few
words a worse description, or give a more inadequate conception, of
the mineral wealth of Sardinia, than is expressed in this quotation.
Another well-known and highly appreciated guide-book dis-
-misses the resources of Sardinia in these words. " Its mineral
0 resources, known to the Romans, who used it as a place of exile,
" are at present untouched. Splendid forests and abundant fisheries , .
The " abandon , of this summary is charming in its " ex cathedra ,
style of arbitrary simplicity. Sardinia might have, been a sort of
" Botany Bay , to judge from the first part of the paragraph, and
a virgin country, as regards its forests and fisheries, judging from the
latter, and the one is about as near actual facts as the other. Taking
it as a whole, however, it is much nearer the truth than the des
cription in another, but less known, work, which tells us that
" its forests are destroyed, its minerals worked out, and its fisheries
exhausted. , These various conflicting accounts may however be
safely left to neutralise each other.
The comments on the temperament and habits of the people
are equally erroneous and disparaging ; they are described " as dirty,
half savage „ and " somewhat treacherous , and in another passage
they are called , semi-barbarous ,.
These epithets might perhaps once have been with some appro
priateness applied, but nothing can be more nnfair to the Sardes
of the present day than to be thus stigmatized. Moreover, in the
* dark and middle ages „ the Sardinians were far more civilized than the
inhabitants of the country, which these same authors claim with pride
as their birth-place and home. It is not necessary to refute these

— 287 —
charges in detail, as the various Sarde habits and characteristics
have been already referred to, and it will have been seen with how
little justice these strictures apply ; and what renders these descrip
tions peculiarly unfair is that there is generally no mention of those
characteristics of hospitality and geniality, sobriety and courtesy, for
which the Sardes are proverbially distinguished.
The accounts of the " sport „ that the Island offers, and of the
game that is to be found there, are more amusing from the igno
rance they display, than from the mistatements they contain; but they
are equally calculated to mislead. Evidently few of the authors are
sportsmen, — the phraseology alone betrays that fact — and allowances
must therefore be made. One enthusiastic writer declares that "game
is abundant in every part of the island , another observes that
" strangers coming to the island for sport will certainly not be disap
pointed , while a third limits the " abundance , so far as regards
snipe and wild fowl, to "Ozieri and Cagliari,, and wild-boar and deer
to " Ala on the Hill; , and a fourth by way of casual parenthesis,
adds that "while making excursions through the forests it is not un-
" -usual to fall in with herds of deer and moufflon , . Now, as a mat-
-ter of fact game is not " abundant , though " ample for sport ,
nor do wild-boar and deer " abound , at " Ala on the Hill, „ wherever
that may be, (for I never heard of the place, nor is it marked on any
map of the island), nor on any other hill or in any forest in
the country. I have certainly no wish to disparage either Ozieri or
Cagliari, as the haunts of snipe and wild fowl, but there are dozens of
places in the island, where equally good sport of this sort is to be
had, and it should not therefore by implication even be limited to
these two places ; and as regards the " falling in „ with herds of deer
and monfflon, I have traversed most of the Sardinian forests, and
can positively affirm that, except when hunting and accompanied by
an army of dogs and beaters, I have never seen either a deer or mouf-
-flon. The latter, indeed, never frequent the forests except during
the hard period of a severe winter, and few people make " excursions,
in Sardinian forests at that inclement season.

— 288 —
A correspondentof a widely-circulated English sporting paper
writes thus. " Sardinia still contains some big game, such as deer,
" roebucks, wild boars, wild goats, and the celebrated moufflon ; and
" all but the latter are to be found in the mountainous parts of the
" island. „ This is singularly inaccurate, for it so happens that there
is not a roebuck or wild goat in the island, and the moufflon is the
only one of the other animals named that does frequent the mountains.
We are further informed by the same authority that the wild
goat is distinguished " by having its horns like the antelope, and
" its teeth and jaws of a dull gold colour, and lives only in the Island
" of Tavolara on the N. W. coast. , Irrespective of the fact that
no such animal exists on the Island of Tavolara, or elsewhere in Sar
dinian, the terrific aspect so vividly delineated is not imparted by
an antelope's horns, and the " dull gold colour of teeth and jaws „
is a distinguishing characteristic of most animals, human as well as
brute, when they have arrived at a certain age.
The mode of hunting these animals is, according to the same
scribe, equally interesting and peculiar. The sportsman is " accom-
" -panied by a well-trained dog, with a small bell attached to its
" collar. "The dog goes ahead in the woods and thickets,. (I am
using the very words) " and when he finds his game points, as
" other dogs do, at hares and small game. The huntsman then ap-
" proaches, and calls to the dog to start the animal, and fires from
" the saddle, following the animal, should the first shot not prove
" effectual „. This tissue of absurdities requires correction in every
part; as to bells, sporting dogs are never decorated with such ap-
-pliances in Sardinia and to see a dog pointing in woods and thickets,
and " calling to him when pointing to start the animal , would, be
absolutely impossible, unless gifted — as Sam Weller regretted he
was not — with unlimited vision equal to " a pair of patent double
" million magnifying gas microscopes of hextra power; , and to
follow the animal on horseback would puzzle even a Sardinian
hunter, and would certainly have brought our own correspondent
to " grief , though he treats it so lightly, and seems to think there

— 289 —
is nothing unusual in it. The whole description is, however, a bur
lesque on sport, reminding one of the letter written by M.r Sponge
— so admirably pourtrayed by the late M.r Surtees — which, after
its supervision by the lady editor of the newspaper to which it
was addressed, so thoroughly disgusted his " popular host , that the
writer, it will be remembered, had to expedite his departure from
his hitherto hospitable quarters.
The accounts are equally conflicting and misleading as regards
" travelling „ in the Island, Iu some of these books the roads are
described as " few and bad , ; in others, as " good and branching in
all directions „. The hotels are sometimes said to be " good and
" confortable, not only in the cities and towns, but, in most of the
" larger villages, there are inns, where you are sure of obtaining a clean
" bed and toleraby good eating „; while another author broadly asserts,
that, except in the two capitals there are no hotels or inns what
ever, and that " the traveller is entirely dependent on the hospitality
" of the natives. „ The true state of things is about mid-way between
these statements ; the hotel accommodation cannot be said generally
to be either abundant or first-rate, but it exists, and is to be found
in many other places besides the two capitals, and is certainly not
so defective as some of the quotations would imply.
Another writer while referring to the present state of things in
the island, observes, as a proof of its great improvement, that " the
" roads are now safe, except about Nuoro, where the bandits use re-
* volvers. , It is almost impossible to have squeezed more errors
into so few words ; for there are no bandits either at Nuoro, or
any where else in the island, and, when these " gentlemen of the
road „ existed, they never used revolvers ; the weapons resorted to
were long-barrelled guns and knives. Not a single specimen, how
ever, of the real bandit is now left in the country; the nearest
approach to one, that I ever met with, was an inoffensive old man,
said to have been formerly addicted to a roving life, but who now
herds a few goats on the mountains. I found him seated quietly
on a rock, smoking a black pipe, with a long single-barrelled richly

— 290 -
silver-chased gun at his side, and after a friendly conversation,
carried on principally by signs and in dog-latin, and supplying him
with tobacco and ammunition, of which he had a poor stock, we
parted peacefully. On offering him some " wads, , taken from my
cartridges, he stated, that he never used any " wadding „ except the
dry lichen which hangs from the forest trees in great abundance,
and which, be said, never smouldered after a discharge: and that,
as he had once set a forest on fire, by the use of paper between
powder, and bullet, he had never used it since, and would never
use it again; a very wise resolution — and evincing far more care
and forethought, than is generally shewn by these nomadic shep-
-herds — and which, if universally practised, would have saved many
a Sardinian forest from total destruction.
The concluding paragraph in one of these books forms an
anti-climax of the whole. The writer, while expatiating on the
pleasures and advantages of travelling generally, but not forget-
-ting to specially denounce Sardinia, observes, that " excepting
" the beauty and magnificence of the scenery , its various antiquities
" and numerous remains, the interesting manners and customs of
" the people, and excellent shooting and fishing, there is nothing to
" attract the general tourist. „ This may be said almost to answer
itself, and forcibly calls to mind the indignant reply of the lady,
who, when brought before one of our police courts, iu answer to
some reflections on her moral character, retorted, that " barring she
ivas a liar and a thief, no one could say that black was her name. „
In fairness, however, to the editors of the various books from
which these selected passages have been taken, and as some counter
balance to the errors that have been pointed ont, it is gratifying to
be able to state, that, when speaking of other countries, and when
speaking of Sardinia, except on the points referred to, the infor
mation given is wonderfully accurate, and the descriptions vivid
and interesting ; and no doubt in the next editions of the works
these mistakes will not be perpetuated.
Having discharged this duty, it now devolves to discharge an-

— 291 —
-other and far more agreeable one, and that is, to acknowledge
the many and great obligations I owe to the authors of the various
" works , upon Sardinia, that I have had the opportunity of reading.
They are not many in number', but they have afforded much pleasure
in the perusal, and imparted much useful information as to the past
of the island, in its historical archeological and mineralogical aspects,
and as to many manners and customs, which formerly prevailed, but
have now fallen into desuetude, and live only in the records of these
authors, and in the traditions of the people. To General La Mar
mora, Mr Tyndall, and M. M. Cetti, Gemelli, Manno, Spano, Moris,
and Bresciani (not one of whom, I regret to say, is now alive), I
feel specially indebted ; I have on several occasions adopted their ac
counts, — sometimes almost their very words — in descriptions not
otherwise obtainable, and which no words of mine could so well, or
so adequately, have expressed. I not only feel it a pleasing duty to
make this acknowledgement, bnt, should any future writer upon Sar
dinia consider that any quotations from this volume are worthy of
a place in his book, I should regard the selection, not as an artifice
for acquiring posthumons fame, but as a tribute of the estimation
in which he held the volume and its author.
A last, and still more agreable, duty has yet to be dischar
ged ; an expression of heartfelt thanks for the unbounded kindness
courtesy and hospitality which were unversally extended to me during
my stay in Sardinia. To enumerate the many friends, to whom I am
thus indebted, would be almost to name in detail the various
Syndics and other public functionaries, and ecclesiastical dignitaries,
as well as the principal landed proprietors, agriculturists, mine-
owners, manufacturers, and sportsmen in the Island, but I should
be wanting in the ordinary feelings of common gratitude if I
did not specially thank Signor Calvi — to whom I am peculiarly
indebted for much most valuable information respecting mining and
other industries, as well as for the unpararelled kindness and attention,
bestowed by. himself and his charming and accomplished bride,
on one who was a perfect stranger, during a protracted and tedious

— 292 —
illness, when kindness and attention are most needed and most ap
preciated ; Commandatore Piercy for his generous hospitality at
Macomer Bolotona and Laconi, and for much most useful infor-
-mation on agriculture and forestry imparted by himself and his
agents (Mess." Sanna) ; the Marchesi of Laconi, Villahermosa, and
Sedilo, for many pleasant days of sport and social intercourse ;
Monsignore Canno, for his antiquarian and traditional communica-
-tions and hospitable reception under the episcopal roof at Bosa ;
and the various railway officials, amongst whom I must not forget
specially to name, Signori di Tivoli and Guarducci D.r Addis and
Mess.rs Bertlin and Cole. The list indeed, might be almost indefinitely
extended, but, I must content myself with saying that from the Island
and its people I have brought back, and shall ever retain, the most
gratifying reminiscences and pleasing associations, and that to one
and all, collectively and individually, I tender my best and warmest
thanks.

CHAPTER XVI.
Recapitulation — Historical — Agricultural — Forestal — Mine
ral — Industrial and Commercial — Education — Colonization —
Taxation — Rates and freights — Suggestions — Conclusion.

The promised undertaking has now been fulfilled, and it remains
only to append a short recapitulation, with some comments in the
present condition of the Country, and some suggestions as to its
future developement.
An historical resume of the Island, from the dark and mythical
ages to its annexation with the Roman Empire in the zenith of
its power, has been given; and it has been seen, how, on the decline
of that Empire, it became a prey to the barbaric hordes, who overran
the civilized world, and how it afterwards became the general battle-
-field of eastern Europe, and was conquered and retaken, and lost and
re-conquered, successively by Pisans and Genoese, Giudici and Nobles,
French and Arragonese, Spaniards and Austrians, and how at last
it came by treaty to the Royal House of Savoy, and eventually
became part of the United Kingdom of Italy.
The pre-historic and classic remains have been lightly touched
upon, in the unlearned language of one who has no pretentions to
antiquarian knowledge, but in no scoffiing or unbelieving terms.
Agriculture, forests, mines, railways, and the various industries which
formed the special subjects of the author's mission to the Island,
have been detailed, more fully perhaps — for familiar ground was

- 294 —
being trod — than may have been pleasing to the general reader,
for it is not easy to make such subjects amusing or even interesting.
The various characteristics, manners, and customs of the people, with
their ceremonials and superstitions, have been pourtrayed in the colours
in which they impressed a stranger, who, though he may have painted
them in a somewhat light and . airy style, yet has done so in no spirit
of cynicism or irreverence ; while the " caccia grossa , and other na
tional sports have been described " con amore „ and here again the
author can plead neither ignorance, nor other excuse ; for sport in
every phase, from his earliest youth, has been a passion, and during
a period of "eight lustrums, he has never omitted any opportunity of
taking part in all the sports of every country that he has ever visited.
It will have been observed that under none of the various
dynasties, who successively ruled the Island, if we except a portion
of the regime of the Giudici, under the gifted Giudicessa Eleonora,
were any measures adopted for the improvement of the Island,
or the amelioration of its people ; and that, from the period of the
Roman occupation, Sardinia, instead of progressing, has, during
a succession of centuries, been gradually but surely retrograding,
in the march of civilization; and that it was not until the Savoy
dominion that any improvements were introduced.
Under that Power, however, a wise and liberal policy has been
pursued. Measures for the security of life and property have been
passed and enforced; the administration of the law has been rendered
pure and effective; municipal institutions have been founded ; univer
sities have been established, professorships endowed, and arts and
sciences encouraged; a new monetary system and a uniform official
language have been introduced ; national roads and bridges, ports
and harbours, have been constructed; forests have been protected,
brigandage suppressed and feudalism abolished; museums of anti-
-quities and natural history, and a complete system of universal
education, have been established; an effective militia and police
force have been organized ; chambers of commerce, agriculture,
mining, and forestry, have been inaugurated ; provincial councils,

— 295 —
with proportionate representation in the Imperial Parliament, have
been instituted; and lastly, the means of inter-communication be-
-tween the mainland, and the chief centres of population and industry
in the Island, have been opened by a system of railways recently
completed, and now about to be largely extended, and supplemented
by a fleet of steamers, liberally subsidized.
These are no small advantages to have been conferred by any
Government within the limited period of a few generations, but many
of these measures have not yet borne fruit, and many more require
to be introduced and adopted, if Sardinia is to regain her ancient
position, and perfect her developement in the future.
To whatever height water has once attained it can always , be
made to reach again, and so it is with the natural resources of a
Country, when they have been allowed to " lie fallow , and such is
practically the present condition of Sardinia after centuries of neglect
and spoliation. Many and various remedial measures have been suggested, and
suggest themselves — almost as numerous and varied as the contri-
-buting causes ; — and there can be no doubt that no one particular
remedy — however drastic or comprehensive — can effect a cure; the
evil is too deep-rooted, and of too long standing, to be eradicated
by the magical effect of any " nostrum , or " specific, , known to
political or economic science. The evils are many and various, and
so must be the remedies.
Agriculture is the " staple trade „ and " main-stay , of the
Island, and its extension and improvement are the first and most
important objects to be attained. The draining of inland marshes
and plains, the embanking of rivers, the planting of trees for the
restoration of the rainfall and absorption of malarious exhalations,
the construction of reservoirs for the purposes of irrigation, and the
extension of roads and railways, ports and harbours, are the chief
measures ; but, in addition to these physical improvements, there must
be a better system of cultivation and harvesting, a concentration
of farms , and a more varied culture, accompanied by colonization

— 296 —
on a comprehensive scale, a reduction of fares and freights both by
sea and land, and last, but not least in the estimation of the Sardes,
a modification and re-adjustment of taxation.
It is not necessary to describe in detail the various physical
improvements, as they speak for themselves, and are already receiving
attention in Government and official circles, but it may be inciden-
-tally mentioned, that the surplus convict labour in the Island — now
unused and unproductive — might be utilized for these objects ; the
other suggestions however require special mention.
A radical change in the mode of cultivation is a first essen-
-tial ; the antiquated implements now used must be changed for more
modern appliances ; the land must be ploughed not the surface only
scratched; it should also be " cleaned „ and " manured, „ not left
- dirty , and neglected ; the seed should be sown and harrowed, not
scattered hap-hazard, and the top soil lightly touched with an old
wooden harrow ; the sickle of 2000 years ago must be discarded,
and the corn reaped with the stalk, and the straw utilized for food
and manure, not, as now, the ears only stripped off, and the straw
burnt and destroyed; and, for the ancient wasteful and costly custom
of - treading out „ the corn, must be substituted economic threshing-
machines of modern construction.
At present there cannot be said to be any " system of culti-
" -vation „ or " rotation of cropping , unless an occasional " bare
" fallow, , — a custom long ago exploded, excepting amongst the most
old-fashioned of farmers on stiff clay soils, which have no existence in
Sardinia, — can be called a " system , or " rotation „. Manure, either
natural or artificial, is seldom applied, either on a green fallow or
after successive cereal crops, and it is not to be wondered at, there-
-fore, that, with t>iese accumulated short-comings, the produce per
acre should be less than the average of Italy, and much below the
average of other agricultural countries, Indeed the wonder is, that
the soil and produce, treated as they are, return so kind a response
to the rude calls that are made upon them.
Moreover, other crops, besides cereals beans and peas, should

— 297 —
be grown. Sardinia possesses a climate and a soil where fruits of
all sorts, and in infinite luxuriance and abundance, might be culti
vated to an indefinite extent- Not only vines, figs, almonds, olives,
oranges, and lemons, but vegetables and garden produce of every
kind and variety might be grown in early spring and late autumn, and
either exported " fresh; , or in a " dried „ or " preserved „ state.
Another and serious draw-back to proper cultivation is the
division of farms into a great uumber of small detached pieces, that
in the aggregate constitute the holding. In many cases, a farm
of from 15 to 20 hectares (from 35 to 50 acres) comprises between
200 and 300 different pieces or strips of land, scattered over all
parts of the commune, some not more than a few yards wide, and
100 yards long, mostly detached, and some of them several miles
distant from the rest. ( Cultivation, under such circumstances, is neces
sarily carried on under great, and almost insuperable, disadvantages,
for not only is the cost of ploughing, sowing, harrowing, reaping,
and leading, greatly enhanced, but it is physically impossible to fence
in the lands, so as to prevent trespass and damage, or to exercise
any proper supervision. The evil too is increasing in extent and
magnitude, for, on every death of a proprietor, another subdivision
takes place amoug the heirs, each of whom has a right to a share
in each strip, and unless they can agree among themselves — which
they seldom or never can or do, — the loss and inconvenience are
always on the increase.
The remedy is not easy of solution, but the evil is great, and
the remedy should be found and applied. Whether it would be
necessary or politic to resort to extreme measures, and make the pe
riodical concentration of detached lands compulsory, through the
instrumentality of some local and independent authority; or whether
power should be given to adjoining proprietors to insist on a
concentration, where a crotchety or ill-conditioned neighbour acts
the part of the " dog in then manger ,; or whether it should be
made discretionary and permissive, by some simple and inexpensive
process, I cannot presume to express any definite opinion; probably

— 298 —
the milder and less arbitrary course would be effectual, and at all
events it might be tried first; but that the evil should, by some
means or other, he eradicated admits of no doubt or question. Its
existence is one of the greatest obstacles to cultivation, and its
bad effects are being felt every day, and it should be one of the first
evils to be eliminated. In Sardinia too, as in all other agricultural
countries, the actual cultivators of the soil and their families should
reside on or near their farms, and abandon the old system of living
in towns and villages, sometimes many hours journey distant from
their lands. The draw-backs of the present system would be ab
surdly ludicrous, if they were not so ruinously serious ; a short
description of an average day's "work , will be the best illustration.
The farmer or labourer — they are generally identical — leaves
home at about six o'clock in the morning, and proceeds at a slow
walk, either on foot or on horseback, to the site of his day's
" work, , the speed never exceeding the safe pace of from 2 '/2
to 3 miles per hour ; so that if the lands are six miles distant
(which is about an average) from town or village, he does not reach
his destination till about 8 o'clock. The first operation is then
to tie up his horse, if the man has ridden, and this takes some time,
as a spot must be selected, where the pasturage within reach of the
tethered beast is sufficient for the days feeding. If the man has walked,
a discretionary rest on his own account is necessary, and either oc
cupation absorbs about the same length of time ; then he lights a
fire — summer and winter — ¦ eats his breakfast, and afterwards smokes
a pipe, the duration of the last operation depending upon his conscience
and his " love of the weed , ; at last he commences work, leaving off
at midday which he knows with wonderful accuracy by the sun.
Then comes the dinner, then another pipe, then a siesta, also of
varying duration, according to the conscience and habits of the man;
and about this period the horse is taken to drink, and then tethered
up again; if water is distant — as is frequently the case — this
operation occupies considerable time, and, when it is over, work is
again resumed, and continued till such an hour, as will leave time

- 299 -
to accomplish the homeward journey with the necessary ease and
confort, and to arrive back at his own house by about six o'clock ; so
that, what with the journey there and back, the time taken up in look
ing after the animal, if he has ridden, or if he has gone on foot, the
more time that is devoted to pipes and siestas, to recover from fati-
-gue, and to prepare for the journey home, the consequence is, in
either case, that not more than three or four hours of " bona fide ,
work is actually done to the land itself during the whole day. On
the other hand, if the farmers, with their families and labourers,
resided on the land, the time and energy consumed on the journeys
and accompayining occupations, could be bestowed on "work ,, and
one man could do the labour of two or even three persons ; besides
having the advantage of the women and children to assist in light
work, attending to the cattle and poultry, and acting as safeguards
against theft of fruit or produce; the men, too, being always on
the spot, could devote their spare time to the improvement of
tbe property, and time is always found for propping or grafting
a fruit tree, opening a ditch, repairing a hedge, or a hundred other
such operations which, though trifling in themselves, would in the
course of the year amount to a considerable aggregate, — expecially if
a " special journey , had to be undertaken for their performance —
and which if left undone, are a source of loss and gradual deterioration
of the property. This present system, no doubt, accounts to a great
extent for the ragged and neglected appearance of almost all the lands
in Sardinia, whether cultivated by the proprietors, or let to others.
There was some reason for this general desertion of the country
and concentration in the villages (which are in some parts of the
Island several hours journey apart) in the want of public security,
which until late years prevailed in the Island, but this cause is
entirely removed, and life ' and property is now as safe in Sardinia,
as it is in the envirosn of Rome Paris or London. The fear of malaria
may too perhaps in some cases still act as a deterrent, but in those
districts, the residence on the lands might be deferred, till they were
drained and brought under cultivation. Agriculturists, as a class, are

— 300 —
naturally " conservative , and it would take many years before the pre
sent cultivators could be induced to abandon their old customs, and
live on their farms, unless the palpable advantages of it were put
before their eyes. This could be best effected by the examples that
would be afforded by " settlers „ from continental Italy, where
agriculture is in a more advanced state, and better understood, and
this leads to the consideration of the general question of colonization
— on which, however, there is great diversity of opinion — as one
of the remedies " prescribed , for the " recovery , of Sardinia.
The scarcity of population in the Island is an evil which is gra
dually diminishing, but it is the one great evil, which, at the very
outset, most retards Sardinian progress. In warm climates, where the
population is sparse, malaria is rampant, and the land is necessarily
neglected, and where malaria predominates, the increase of popula
tion is slow ; thus a vicious circle establishes itself, which must be
broken by extraneous means ; hence the suggestion of the remedy
of colonization, to ensure success of which, however, it is admitted
that Government aid is necessary and must be given.
The policy adopted in Canada,and which has proved so eminently
successful there, and is the best known way of colonising efficiently
and rapidly, with a mininum of expenditure to the State, might be
applied to Sardinia with every prospect of success.
The Government owns vast tracts of land in Sardinia, which
cost the State more for administration, than they yield in their
present condition ; these lands might be granted in small lots to in-
-tending " settlers „ on condition that they resided on them, and
brought certain areas under cultivation within specified periods, the
State preserving " a lien „ upon the lands until the duties undertaken
have been fulfilled ; and in exceptional cases, as in Canada, the means
for building draining and other operations might be supplied un-
-der proper safeguards. Under some such arrangement, it cannot be
doubted that great numbers of agriculturists would migrate to the
Island, from the over-populated districts of northern and central Italy,
in preference to facing the risks and dangers to which they are

— 301 —
exposed by settlement in distant lands and under strange skies;
they would thus too retain the old associations with their native
country intact and unsevered, and this alone with many would be no
theoretical consideration ; it would decide their destination.
Much good might also be effected by creating a Government
fund, from which Sardinian agriculturists, as well those already settled,
as intending settlers, could borrow, at a moderate rate of interest,
and with a gradual amortisation of the capital, the sums neces
sary for erecting farm buildings, and draining and improving the
lauds and the stocking and cultivation of the farms. Such loans
could be made on the security of the lands and stock, and might be
advanced in instalments by degrees as the works proceeded, and the
money was expended, and out of the same fund might also be
granted loans under exceptional circumstances on standing crops and
produce generally. Some such provision, either directly through Go-
vernement, or by means of financial corporations, is almost an absolute
necessity, as the want of capital amongst Sardinian agriculturists
is very general, and without it any substantial immediate improve-
-ment is impossible.
Simultaneusly with the measures for colonising the Island, and
providing indispensable capital, steps ought to be taken to arrest
the deterioration in the meteorological condition of the Island, which
has already set in through the cutting down of the forests in cer-
-tain districts without replanting. Large areas have been completely
denuded of vegetation, and consequently the meteoric waters run off
the lands more rapidly than before ; the rivers become more swollen
in the rainy season, and are dry at an earlier period in summer,
and the slopes of the hills are more easily denuded of soil ; whilst
at the same time the earthy matter, brought down by the streams
when in flood, gradually raises the beds of the rivers, and obstructs
their channels, occasioning more frequent over-flows ; and the water
lies for a longer time on the low-lands, creating new swamps, and
increasing the malaria on the arrival of hot weather ; moreover the
absence of vegetation to attract and retain rain causes longer pe-

— 302 -
riods of drought in the summer, and the earth, becoming parched
and heated, causes stronger currents in the atmosphere, which become
all the more violent from the absence of trees to temper and retard
their motion.
The Government has now in contemplation measures for regula
ting tbe course of some of the principal streams, embanking them,
and raising weirs to prevent their exhaustion in summer, and provide
the means of irrigation, and they have also under consideration the
drainage of some of the largest inland lakes; and these measures cannot
fail to be of the highest utility in the general regeneration of the
Island. The measures of amelioration, however should not stop at agri
culture, all-important as that industry is to the advancement and
prosperity of the Island. Industries and manufactures, now languish
ing and almost " gasping for existence, , should be encouraged,
protected, and extended. Mining operations should be conducted upon
a better system, and with increased capital; the forests, still stan-
-ding, should be further protected, and a systematic mode of treatment
enforced, and, the making of new plantations should be rendered
compulsory where existing forests are cut down. Fisheries should be
further developed, and varions industries connected with them should
be introduced and extended, and other trades and manufactures should
be established, so as at all events to meet the requirements of the
Island, without importations from other countries of articles that
could be produced as well, and at less cost, on the spot, where the
raw material is to be found in infinite variety and abundance.
The Sardes themselves scarcely realize the full extent to which
many trades, the profits of which might be easily reaped by them
selves, are now monopolized by foreigners.
The exports for the year 1880, the latest year of which there
are any accurate returns for the whole Island, are of the total
aggregate value of nearly 39 million lire, as against imports to
the value of 34 millions ; shewing an excess of 5 million lire, which
is in itself a most satisfactory feature ; on an examination however

— 303 —
of the varions items it wil be seen how many articles of import
might be greatly reduced, or altogether expunged from the list,
and how largely some of the items of export might be increased.
Wool, to the value of about 1 1/2 milion lire is yearly sent out
of the Island, and woollen goods to the value of nearly two millions
are brought back, and, what is more extraordinary, silk goods to
nearly the same value are imported, while the quantity of raw silk
exported is estimated at only one tenth of that amount;
Leather, tanned and dressed, is bought from foreigners every
year to the value of two million lire, while skins, from which the
leather is made, and tanning materials, are sold and exported to the
extent of three million lire, which would represent more than double
that value in a manufactured state.
Fish, fruit, and vegetables, are too insignificant in amount to be
represented as separate items of export, and their aggregate value
is included in the miscellaneous exports, the whole of which they
ought to exceed by many millions of lire.
In other respects however these returns are satisfactory and
encouraging/ Minerals, which fifty years ago appeared in the list
of exports amongst the smallest figures, and twenty years ago did not
reach one million of lire, now exceed the large total of 12 million
lire, nearly one-third of the aggregate exports of the Island. The
trade in horses sheep and cattle stands next in value and impor-
-tance; it now reaches nearly nine million lire, which is ten times
as high as it was in 1836, and three times as high as it was twenty
years later.
Wheat exhibits but a small increase, and it ought to stand at
the head of the list of exports : the increase, however, in fifty years
is only half a million lire, on a total of four millions, while during the
same period, the import of breadstuffs has increased from a mere
trifle to nearly two million and a half lire.
Taking, however, the exports and imports in the aggregate, both
have shewn a steady and progressive increase, and the increase of each
has been nearly in the same proportion. Fifty years ago the exports

— 304 —
and imports were nearly equal, each being valued at about seven
millions, the imports rather exceeding the exports; twenty five years
later, the figures had nearly doubled, but the proportions had changed,
the exports then rather exceeding the imports ; and in the last twenty
five years the increase has been more than four-fold, the relative
figures being 34 millions as against 39 millions, shewing an excess of
exports to the value of five millions ; a result not only satisfactory
in itself, under all the circumstances, but clearly demonstrating what
might and could and ought to be done in the future.
The various trades and industries thus indicated, would in the
aggregate afford profitable employment to many thousands of people,
including large numbers of women and children, who are now living
in enforced idleness for lack of any suitable occupation; and com
paratively little capital would be needed ; and it should be borne
in mind that capital, though proverbially " sensitive, „ is alwasy
to be found, when a safe and profitable return may be reasonably
relied on.
The heavy cost of transport has until recent times been one
of the greatest drawbacks to the advancement of Sardinia, and to
some extent it yet exists, but it is capable of easy removal.
All authorities, from Bacon to the political economists of the
present day, concur, that cheap and ready means of transport is one of
the first essentials to the prosperity of a country, and in Sardinia the
making of roads, railways and harbours, and the subsidizing of
steamers to unite it to the main-land, and thus effect a continuous
chain of direct communication between producer and consumer, are
especially essential; and the money thus expended, while directly con-
-ducing to the developement of Sardinia, will flow back many-fold into
the coffers of the State. Great care and consideration are no doubt
necessary in the application of the expenditure, but, so long as Italy
has such men at the head of affairs as she now has, no fears in this
respect need be entertained, and there can be little doubt that they
will not let slip the golden opportunity, now that hundreds of kilo-
-metres of new railways are to be made, of so co-ordinating the

— 305 -
whole of this expenditure in such a manner as will be most con-
-ducive to the public good. Much has been, and is being, done,
in Sardinia in this direction ; a good and efficient network of public
roads, having an aggregate length of several thousand kilometres, is
gradually being completed; several hundred kilometres of railway are
already opened to the public, and as many more are to be made in
the immediate future ; large and commodious harbours are in course
of construction at the various ports of the Island ; and there now re-
-mains only to settle the question of the tariffs, which however is of
vital importance, but of easy adjustment. It is useless to make railways
and harbours and subsidize steamers, and the vast sums already ex-
-pended will have been virtually wasted, unless proper measures are
taken to ensure, that the rates charged are such as to encourage
traffic, and, moreover, low rates on the new and branch lines will be
useless, if high rates prevail on the main lines, or for harbour dues
or sea-carriage. Where commerce is in a nascent state, as in Sar
dinia and in most parts of Italy, it is essentially necessary to have
low rates of transport, and Government should not only stipulate
for low tariffs on the new lines, but should compel the railway
Companies to introduce the reformed tariffs on existing lines; and
if there be not the power under their present arrangements, or under
the general law to enforce this, the requisite powers should be obtai-
-ned ; and a similar reduction, with similar powers, should be applied
to sea-freights and harbour dues.
The rates prevailing in Sardinia, though not in themselves high,
are yet high relatively, and, where the surplus of profit is infini-
-tesimally small, as in the case of mineral produce at present prices,
a reduction of rates and freights will practically determine the opening
or closing of a large majority of mines; as well as the establishment
of new industries, especially those connected with the smelting of iron
ores, and the manufacture of steel and iron, where the cost of transport
of the " raw material , forms an important element in the aggre-
-gate cost of production. With reduced tariffs, and regular and
cheap sea-service, the produce of Sardinian lands and gardens would

— 306 —
be able to compete, in the markets of the great centres of con
sumption, with the products of northern and southern Italy and of
Sicily, and the fruits and vegetables of Bosa and Oristano would vie
on Roman tables with those of Naples and Palermo. At present the
freights are such as practically to deter commerce ; the charges from
Sardinia to the main land being higher than the ordinary freights for
crossing the Atlantic. The last tariff, recently published and con-
-taining the through rates, shows the freights charged on ordinary
general goods from Civitavecchia to Golfo Aranci or vice versa, (a
distance of 110 miles) varying from 35 to 42 lire, and for a few
favoured articles 24 lire per ton, which are virtually prohibitive.
The importance of the tariff question has already been acknow
ledged in dealing with the railways of continental Italy and Sicily,
and there has been recent legislation in this direction. Sardinia
requires and demands similar treatment; without it she can never
regain her lost position or even compete in commercial markets with
the other Provinces of Italy. If from all other parts of the Kingdom
the natural products of the districts can reach the markets and centres
of comsumption, cheaper than from Sardinia, it is obvious that not
only will no fresh capital be attracted into the Island, but the coni-
-mercial enterprize, now straggling there, will gradually retreat, and
seek more favoured localities, where cheaper transports open a wider
field, and admit of a greater margin of profits.
According to another learned authority one great drawback to
the advancement of Sardinia is the defective state of education in the
island, but this, if it ever were an actual drawback, has to a great
extent been already remedied by a universal and compulsory system,
which has now been in force for several years ; it is, however, more
than questionable, whether extended education will bring about ma-
-terial prosperity in Sardinia, or whether hitherto it has been an
obstacle. Moreover this same authority answers himself, for, in ma-
-king comparisons with Sicily, which is lauded to the skies to the
detriment of Sardinia, he gives the educational statistics of the fa
voured Island ; from which it appears, that at the time he was writing,

— 307 —
out of every 10,000 inhabitatants in Sicily, 8578 could neither read
nor write; and at the same date in Sardinia the proportion was 8756,
being only 178 in 10,000 worse than in Sicily; no great foundation
for such a super-structure. The statistics of both are, however, nris-
-erable disclosures, but, if the figures are of any value at all, they
demonstrate that the material prosperity of a country, as exemplified
in the case of Sicily, is not dependent on the educational advance-
-ment of its people.
The apathetic temperament of the Sardes has been assigned by
others as the reason for the back-ward condition of the country, and
this no doubt has to some extent been an obstacle, but this cannot
be the true, nor even the main, cause, nor is it quite just to the
people. It must he admitted that the Sardes are not as a race
either laborious or energetie, and the fatal Sarde saying " what God
has given that we will take , is far too often exemplified, but they
are not more listless and apathetic than the Sicilians and southern
Italians generally, and as, the same causes produce the same effects, the
reason is not altogether sound. Besides, it may be truly said, that the
Sardes, making clue allowance for the climate and other surrounding
circumstances, work as hard and continuously, and " throw as much
labour into their work , as could be reasonably expected; and, it
is not venturing too far to say, that their average work will equal
that of our average agricultural labourer, and further, that, if some of
the best and hardest working of our labouring men were transplanted
into Sardinia, their energies would gradually subside from their
North-Western temperature, and would assimilate themselves in a
short time to the Sarde standard. It is only from actual experience
that it can be realized, how debilitating is the effect of the enervating
climate, the food, and mode of living, on the most robust and ener-
-getic constitutions.
The Sardes themselves however assign as the main, indeed as
almost the sole, obstacle to their non-advancement, the heavy taxa
tion to which the island is subjected, and no doubt, on agriculture

— 308 —
and the landed interest, this burden does press with hard and undue
severity. Direct taxation amounts altogether to about 7 l\2 million lire
per annum; of this more than one half (nearly 4 million lire) is
derived from the land tax; — another 1 million is from the house
tax, and about the same amount from the income tax. In addition
to these, are the inland customs, or octroi duties, leviable in the
cities and towns on consumable produce, which amount to about
another million lire, and also the provincial and communal taxes,
the amount of which varies greatly, and cannot be stated with any
accuracy. These various taxes, with export and import duties, are consi
dered by the Sardes as grievously heavy and excessive ; but they do
not altogether amount to more than 12 million lire per annum, and
this is not quite fourteen shillings per head of population, and is
less than the rest of Italy, and not one fifth the amount, which,
directly and indirectly, the average Englishman has to pay in his
own country. It may be said that England, with her vast wealth
and enormous commerce, is no fair comparison, and in one sense she
is not ; but on the other hand Sardinia, compared either as to extent or
population, is in her natural resources, far richer than England, while
her exports largely exceed her imports, which is exactly the reverse
as regards England. It is not however really so much the aggre-
-gate fiscal burdens that the Sardes suffer from, or rather complain
of, as that taxation presses unduly on the agrarian interest, — an
interest wliich 3eems at the present time to be equally affected and
suffering in most other Countries. It is urged, as an exceptional
grievance in Sardinia, that the land tax alone amounts to very nearly
one half the " letting value , of the land, which it is estimated is
equal to one quarter of the net profit derived from agricultural ope-
-rations ; and this, no doubt, is excessive, and requires re-adjustment
and modification. The " agrarian „ question, however, affects not only
Sardinia, but the whole of Italy, and is now engaging Parliamentary
attention. The Sardinians must not expect exceptional legislation,

— 309 —
nor does it seem to be at all probable, in view of the existing
state of Italian finance, and the political position of affairs generally,
that there can be any general reduction of taxation in the present,
or for some years to come. In the meantime relief must be songht
in some other direction. A comparatively small increase in agricul
tural produce alone would snffice for payment of this land-tax many
times over, and would at the same time enrich the Island itself, as
well as contribute to the general wealth and prosperity of the kingdom;
and the Sardes should bear in mind, that, if this tax were reduced or
abolished, the deficiency, thus created, would have to be made up,
and fresh obligations imposed, in some shape or other, and Sardinia
might perhaps find herself in a worse position than she is now, and
had therefore " better bear the evils that she has, than fly to others
" that she knows not of „; let her attention be directed to increased
productiveness, and reduced freights and her energies concentrated
on the means for accomplishing these objects, rather than in efforts
to escape an obligation, which would be inappreciable in its present
shape under an improved position, and might be re-imposed in a
form far more onerous and objectionable.
The efficacy of almost all these measures is. it will be seen,
to a great extent dependent on cm increased population, and this is
in fact the ground-work upon which the whole superstructure must
stand. No doubt in course of time this result would come naturally,
for the tide of population in Sardinia, which had been on the
" ebb , for so many centuries, is now on the " flow ,. The popu
lation, which in 1815 did not exceed 350,000, — scarcely one sixth
of what it is said to have been during the Roman occupation, —
had in 1840 increased to 524,000, and in 1871 had further in
creased to 636,600, — equal to an aggregate increase of 85 per cent.
In the last decade the increase has been still greater the total
number being 680,450, showing au increase of 8 per cent in the
ten years and the ratio during the last three years has been still
Greater; for though there has been no actual census taken since 1881,
yet from official information, derived from careful estimates, pub-

— 310 -
-blished since the first part of this book was written, the popula
tion is now stated at 706-194 — being an increase of over 4 per cent
in the last three years.
The " tide , in the Mediterranean generally is, however, very
slight, and in Sardinia it is almost imperceptible; and extra force is
required to procure any appreciable results. Sardinia must be coloni-
-zed ; and when her alluvial plains have boen converted into smiling
cornfields, and her rich valleys are made the abodes of busy agri
culturists, and humanity has re-established itself as in the olden
times, then will poverty and malaria transport themselves to more
congenial homes, and health and contentment take their places in
Sardinia. This is no fancy picture, it is taken from real life in
the Kingdom of which Sardinia forms a part ; in many districts of
continental Italy, in the plains and valleys around Pisa and Leghorn,
which at one time were as unproductive and pestilential as the worst
swamps of Sardinia, are now amongst the healthiest and most pros-
-perous regions of the Kingdom ; and Pisa, in their centre, has be
come noted as " a sanatorium ,. Sardinia may be made to present
the same picture.
In radical circles in Italy there is much patriotic talk about
" Italia irredenta ,. If the attention of these political aspirants
were turned to the vast tracts of uncultivated and un-inhabited
lands and undeveloped minerals to be found in many parts of Sar-
-dinia, from which untold wealth could be produced by private
enterprise, aided by proper support and legislation, not only would
they secure an ample return for the large sacrifices already made, but
they would have effected a forward step towards the material ad
vancement or " redemption , of their Country, which would be of far
more practical value, than all the grandiloquent declamations of all
the various political parties combined.
Many of these improvements, however, and the fortunes of the
Island generally, must to a great extent depend on the Sardes them
selves. Government may, and no doubt will, perform its part in
the future, as it has done in the past, and foreign capital will be

— 311 —
forthcoming in due course, but the Sardinians must do their part ;
they must discard their old motto of pious resignation, and substitute
in its place the words of the Roman poet who 2000 years ago in
turn satirized and eulogized their Island, remembering that
Paulum sepultse distat inertite celata virtus.
and they must bear in mind that " God helps those that help themselves,
and that the " ten talents „ entrusted to them must be employed, not
hidden; and lastly when it is considered, what great natural advantages
the Sardinians possess, in an unrivalled climate, a fertile soil, extensive
forests, rich minerals, and prolific fisheries, it would be almost heretical
not to believe, that a country, so bountifully endowed with every gift
of nature, and associated in its past history witli the greatest and
most civilized of nations, and now forming part of a united king-
-dom which has an an equally high destiny before it, will never
rest satisfied until she has vindicated her lost opportunities, aban
doned her traditional apathy, and regained her former position,
by acquiring her full share of what the world, as now constituted,
most highly prizes, and which is the acknowledged standard of all
worth viz: Wealth; without which no nation or individual ever achieved
power or greatness, and with which there is no height of ambition
that may not be reached.

FINIS

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication and Preface  Page 1 to 3
CHAPTER I.
Introductory - Situation - Resume of History - Abo
rigines - Libyans - Iberians - Trojans - Canaanites Phoe-
-nicians - Carthaginians Romans - Vandals - Saracens -
Pisans Genoese - Giudici - Spain - Austria - Savoy - and
Italy  Page 3 to 16
CHAPTER II.
Christianity - Introduction - First Bishops - Church-
Establishment - Priest-hood - Tithes - Education - Mona-
-steries - Convents - Jesuits - Inquisition - Celebrated Citi-
-zens - Tigellius - Deacon Hillary - Bishop Lucifer - Popes
Hilary and St. Symmachus - La Frasso - Azuni - Mario. -
Historical Events - Bonaparte - Lord Nelson - Garibaldi.
Page 17 to 28
CHAPTER III.
Geological formation - Physical aspects - Mountains -
Rivers-Lakes - Stagni - Seasons Winds - Climate - Malaria -
Salubrity  Page 29 to 3S

— 314

CHAPTER IV.

Antiquarian Remains - Division - Nurhags - Sepolture
dei Giganti Perdas fittas - Perdas lungas - Walls - Cells -
Temples Grottoes Idols Tombs Coins - Vases - Scara-
-bees - Ornaments - Armour - Ancient Cities - Roads - Mile-
-stones Monuments - Inscriptions - Cathedrals Churches.
Page 39 to 59.
CHAPTER V.
Population Language - Classes - Nobles - Ecclesiastics
- Lawyers - Doctors National, Provincial, and Communal
Representation - Laws and their Administration - Feuda-
-lism - Land transfer - Taxation - Import and Exports.
Page 61 to 74

"iD*-

CHAPTER VI.
Land - Extent - Proprietorship - Tenure - Division -
Mode of Letting - System of cultivation - Ploughing -
Sowing Harrowing - Harvesting - Thrashing - Wheat -
Barley - Oats - Beans Peas - Cattle - Sheep - Goats - Pigs -
Mules and Asses - Horses Government Stud - Vines -
Olives Oranges and Lemons - Fruits Flowers - Vegeta
bles - Tobacco  Page 75 to 93
CHAPTER VII.
Forests - Extent - History Oak - Ilex - Cork - Poplar -
Birch Ash Walnut - Chestnut - Maple - Bark - Charcoal -

— 315 —
Cork - Ashes - Guardie Forestall - Government Supervision -
Forest-laws Rain-fall - Suggestions .• Page 95 to 108
CHAPTER VIII.
Mines - Mining Laws - System of working - Lead and
Silver - Manganese - Zinc - Copper - Iron - Coal and Lignite -
Nickel Marble - Granite - Clay Porphyry - Agates - Sar
donyx Cornelian - Amethyst Roman workings - Present
condition - Future prospects. . . . Page 109 to 124
CHAPTER IX.
Trades industries and Manufactures Salt Wine - Oil
- Flour Cheese Butter - Honey - Soap - Potash Alkali -
Soda - Pottery - Tanning - Lime-burning - Brick making
Gunpowder Lucifer matches - Beer and Aerated waters -
Handicraft-trades Labour .... Page 125 to 144
CHAPTER X.
Railways - Origin Cavour and Depretis - Con
cession - Formation of Company Its history - English
Contractors - Fresh Convention - Completion of main lines -
Future extensions Administration Permanent Way -
Traffic - Locomotive - Working expenses - Government ar
rangement-General remarks . . . Page 145 to 176
CHAPTER XI.
Festivals - Origin - Religious services - Feasting -
Reunions - Easter Ceremonies - Santa Maria Valverde -

— 316 —
Sant' Efisio - La Madonna del Mateno - Vergine dei sette
dolori - San Priamo - Maggio - Saint John - La Varda -
Correiolei - Grammatigu - Compare e Comare - Supersti
tions - Las Spungas - Accabatura - Tarantula - Sardonic
Grin - Timoria - Relics - Heathen customs and English
Fairs  Page 177 to 192

CHAPTER XII.
Sporting - Game Moufflon - Red Deer - Fallow Deer -
Wild-Boar - Hares - Rabbits - Bustards - Partridges - Patro
Ruale - Woodcock - Quail Snipe - Wildduck - Wild Geese -
Eagles - Hawks Vultures - Flamingoes - Caccia grossa -
Campagna and Coast shooting Trout and River fishing
Page 193 to 216
CHAPTER XIII.
Characteristics Men - Women - Dress - Costumes -
Manners and Customs - Theatres and Clubs Servants -
Horses and Carriages Courtship - Marriage Child-birth -
Funerals  Page 217 to 236

CHAPTER XIV.
Cagliari - Sassari - Iglesias - Tempio - Alghero - Bosa -
Oristano - Nuoro - Macomer - Porto-Torres - Terra-Nova -
Islands - Universities - Schools - Museums - Hospitals -
Asylums - Public Buildings - Charitable Institutions - Work
houses - Water - Works - Houses - Streets and Drainage -
Markets  Pag 237 to 258

317

CHAPTER XV.

Miscellaneous - Mineral Springs Natural Grottoes
Rocking Stones Roads - Hotels - National Games - Horse
Racing - Tirai de Pei - Shepherd's Hut Ballo Tondo -
Music - Postal and Telegraph Service - Vendetta and Re
conciliation - Similarity of Words - Guide Books- Correction
of errors - Thanks  Page 259 to 292
CHAPTER XVI.
Recapitulation - Historical - Agricultural - Forestal -
Mineral Industrial and Commercial - Education Coloni
zation - Taxation - Rates and freights - Suggestions - Con
clusion  Page 293 to 311

3. Map of Sardinia.
39. Nurhags Perdas fittas — Perdas lungas and Sepolture
dei Giganti.
51. Sarde Idols.
53. Vases Coins Inscriptions and ancient Relics.
55. Sarde Churches in the Middle Ages.
77. Sarde Agricultural Implements.
117. Masua and the Mediterranean.
195. Moufflon.
223. Sarde Costumes.
225. Sarde Costumes.
237. Cagliari (City and Port).
253. Village of the Pisan period.
312. Heraldic arms of Sardinia.

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