QJvtyn/vcA/lous: ©>Vv . 1.(3 A TREATISE O N GEOGRAPHY; THE USE of the GLOBES, AND ASTRONOMY; IN THE ORDER WHICH THE MUTUAt CONNECTIOK AND DEPENDENCE OF THE SEVERAL PARTS REQUIRE, TOWARDS A PERFECT UNDER STANDING OF THE WHOLE. By WILLIAM FAIRMAN, TEACHER. OF MATHEMATICS. The Earth is meafured by means of the Heavens, the Heavens by means of the Earth ; and by -the celeftial and terreftrial Globes certain Phaehomena and Affections, appertaining to both the . Heavens and Earth, are demonftrated. , LONDON; PRINTED FOR. J. JOHNSON, NP 71, ST. PAUL'S CHURCH-YARD. MDCCLXXXVUI. C iii ) R E F A C E, A PROGRESSIVE order from firft prin ciples is the only method whereby arty fcience can find an eafy entrance into the unin formed mind, or afford its pupil a juft and ready way to proficiency.- The fuccefs I have experienced in the grada-^ tion and illuftration which I have adopted in the following treatife, originally fuggefted the idea of making it public. Much care has been taken to fender the full fenfe of definitions, the moft interefting parti culars in defcriptions, and the beft illuftrations, in a comprehenfible and concife manner. J trufted not to my p\vn knowledge Where there feemed a pofllbility of error, and fpared no la bour in feekirig for, and examining the beft au thorities. The order is fuch as may make the whole Well underftood with the leaft difficulty. Where I have adopted any author's mode or words, it has been becaufe I could not have A offered ( iv ) offered what , was fuperior or {q good of mj own., Some few imperfeftions of ftyle, and devia tions from uniformity, efcaped my notice till i was too late to make an alteration : for thef errors, and thofe mentioned in the errata, thi indulgent reader will make favourable allow ances. On the fubject. of Geography, it is to be re marked, that the greateft part of the earth's fur face is totally unknown, a great part imperfect! known, and only a fmall part well known Wars alfo, and treaties, make innovations ii the fubdivifions of territories ; and fome place of ancient fame' lofe their renown, while others formerly unknown, command attention fron their increafing confequence. A particular geographical defcription even o a fingle province might well engrofs a largi volume ; a fmall book, therefore, cannot com prize a very circumftantial account of man] kingdoms and ftates. Even the beft fmall maps which reprefent ai extenfive country, muft unavoidably be imper feci : maps, therefore, of this defcription whicl ( v ) which are injudicioufly executed, may tend to give very falfe ideas of the fituation and extent of places. Books and maps of general Geography, ex tending to particular defcriptions, are extremely voluminous and expenfive, and, after all, unin- terefting to moft readers in the greateft part of their contents. The geographical part of the following trea tife is calculated to convey a general knowledge of Geography, and fuch particular informations as are likely to prove the moft ufeful and inter efting, which are fucfi likewife as it becomes every one to be acquainted with. The Continents, with their grand divifions, &c. are laid down in tables, after the manner of Templeman, Guthrie, and others. The length and breadth of each kingdom, &c. in- ferted in them, may ferve to give an idea of their feveral dimenfions, though neither the direction in which their lengths and breadths are taken, nor the figures which their respective boundaries determine them to have, are mentioned. The ( vi ) The Oceans, the Seas, Lakes, Bays, &c. A particular defcription of feveral principal iflands; a particular defcription of the chief cities in the European kingdoms and ftates ; new difcovered iflands i the principal mountains, ifthmufes and rivers; the fituations of principal towns, capes, &c. with their latitudes and longitudes, are fe- " verally treated of under their refpective heads :, therefore, in treating of the grand divifions of the continents, little more is mentioned than the boundaries, the principal fubdivifions, the an cient names, and a few interefting particulars. England, Scotland, and Ireland, however, are more particularly defcribed, and their rivers, &c. are inferted in their reipe&ive chapters. As moft geographical ftudents provide them-« felves with fome particular maps on a large fcale; and as thofe who ufe globes have a map of the world on the. only true principle, which alfo is commonly much larger than could be conve niently folded up in an octavo volume, I have rather chofen to give this treatife a chance of being brought into ufe from an eafy purchafe, than to add a number of maps which would have made it expenfiye, wjthout exhibiting much more information than may be gained from a good fized terreftrial globe. When ( vii ) When a perfon has obtained a general know ledge of Geography, and wifhes for more parti cular information, I would advife him to pro cure the beft particular defcriptions, and the beft maps on a large fcale, of thofe countries of which he defires to have a perfect knowledge. In the part of the following work, which treats on the Ufe of the Globes, I have endea voured to render every ufeful fpecies of informa tion attainable, from either common or particu- N lar cbnftructed globes. And, In the part which treats on Aftronomy, I have diligently digefted fuch interefting particu lars, from the firft authorities, and .my own expe rience, as may deferve attention from every one who afpires to a knowledge of this fublime fcience, and who wifhes for fuch information, as candidates for fcientific knowledge are thought ignorant without. Of the many plates, which are frequently in- ferted in books of Aftronomy, I have thought proper to omit fome, becaufe the ideas which would have been derived from them can be as eafily and more juftly obtained by good defini tions, and a confideration of nature itfelf. ERRATA. Page 52, line 13, for 56', read 56'. ¦ . ¦ 53, laft line but two, for ocean, read oceans. • 66, line 3, for fouth read north. —— 67, line 3, for 500 6', read 6° 5' of weft longitude. 1 90, line 9, after Dee and Don, read, tuhich fall into the fea at Aberdeen. In paragraph 1 90, for Sygisiet, read Sizigiet. THE JL££V£*6€/ _£ tt-WG S ty ¦* tr' ' y Geoorophical TE"RMS e^laincl at one TTETW X T H E ! Kl T R O D U C T TO N. S E C T. L i "D |J JjEFOR.tL objervation a.nct experience had confirmed men in.aknowledgp.of 'the true figure of the earth, if was generally- thought j:q be an extended plain, bounded by the firmament, in which theL fun, moon, ;and, liars were fuppofed -to move, daily from eaft to weft. ., .,T_2T;Many other. opinipns have been entertained of the figure of the earth, -,.all o§} which have proved equally unaccountable and improbable j experience fia? atlgngth, Ihown it to-be globular. It is 'evident that it can be of no other, form $ for.; in every placie.wherej; fhips. are obferved to leaye the J^nd^ thgy djfappear gradually and uni- x I , p,t. B formly 2 INTRODUCTION. formly, from their lower parts upward, till they entirely vanifh, the laft. vifible parts being their upper fails. Two fhips at fea, at the greateft vifible dif tance from each other, fhew only their upper fails ; and, if the diftance is decreafing, they appear to each other to be gradually emerging from the water, till they become, in full view. If there were no interception to a fhip'a fleering the, fame courfe, it would, by continu ing to fail on the fame point, arrive at the place it failed frbfB j ' in the fame Wanner as an infect, by' crfeepirig' dii*ect'ly forward' on a Balk, would arrive at the fame point- it went from; The- g-IbbukV figure of the earth is- further confirmed by eclipfes bf Jtne MoOn!,1' for- the- darkened part, or fhadow, is always bounded by a" circular ctSrve,- though c&ufed hy eMerfent fi'tiiatidhsr of tfe earth; ' '^The d^rth/ however, &;ribt a direct fphere; but oblate, that is, flattened in two oppofite parti, 'calfed poles';' rSrr Iliad 'NeWton demon- fixated this'tb he tfie'c^fe, rrW mechanical prii*~ ciples j and it was WfTerWiarcfe proved- to &k/HM§yi & aftual INTRODUCTION, 3 actual menfiiration in the year 1736*: but the figure of the 'earth differs fo' little from a direct fphere, that i,t may be rej refqnted by the largeft artificial globe without any fenfible error. 4. A globe which has the feveral patts of land and water reprefented on its furface, in fuch re spective proportions, and pofitions, as obferya- tion.and admeafurement have difcovered them to have On the eftrch itfelf, is called a T'ef'refirial Globe -, and is a miniature repreferitation of the known furface of the earth. SECT. II. As the united knowledge and experience of men have been combined in defcribing the fitua tion of different parts of the earth, and the face of- the heavensj,. and as- filch knowledge has been committed to maps, charts, plates, and globes, it will be well to transfer the delinea tions of fcience to- the eonfideration of nature itfelf,' atfd: vi'cfeverfa ; (as' may beft-fuit the pur pofe' intended -,) arid fo to reafon between thefh, as at once, to make the ftudy ufeful, entertaining, and- eafy. . .. , ,v .-; i: * By a company of aftronomers, employed by the French king to th^kfa'te a! degree ofthe meridun rmar the equator, and a degree of the meridian near the polar circlesi" ¦¦. 1. B 2 The INTRODUCTION. The principal parts into which the whole globe of the earth is divided are eight, four be longing to land and four to water, which bear the fimUarity-to each other, that appears in the following defcription. LAND. WATER. 1 . A Continent is a' large r . An Ocean is a large ex- extent of land, without any . tent of Water, without any entire feparation of its parts entire feparation of its parts by water, as America, Eu- by land, as the Pacific rope, &c. Ocean, the Atlantic, &c. 2. An Ifland is a trad of 2. A Lake * is a traft of land entirely furrounded by water furrounded by land, ¦water, as Great Britain, as the Lakes of Canad,a, the Ireland, &c. Lake of Geneva, &c. 3. A Peninfula is a por tion of land encompaffed all but in one part by water, as South America, the Morea, In Greece, &c. ; when the 3. A Gulph/ ofinland fea, i (fo called0, if very large,) is a portion of water encompaffed, all but in one part, by land, as the Medi- part, where it begins to pro- ' terranean Sea, the Gtolph of jeft' from ''the land, is very Venice, &c. ; when-the part wide, lies high," and» does Js very wide where, it begins not extend to any great dif- , to projed, into the land, and tance, it is called a Pro montory ; the points' of a Peninfula and Promontory are called Capes. does not extend to any great diftance, it is called a Bayi and, if very fmall, a Creek, or haven for mips. * Lakes fometimes communicate with each other, and with other waters. .. . -~ INTRODUCTION, 5 LAND. WATER. 4. An Ifthmus is a nar- - 4. A Strait, or Chan« row paffage of land, which nel, fometimes . called a unites a Peninfula to a Con- Sound, is a narrow paffage tinent, or joins one Conti- of water which joins a fea to nentto another, as the Ifth- the ocean, or one ocean to mus of Suez, which joins another, as the Britifh Chan- Afia to Africa ; the Ifthmus nel, which joins the Britifh of Corinth which unites the Ocean to the Atlantick, the Morea to Greece, or to the Straits of Gibraltar, which Continent of Europe. join the Mediterranean Sea, to the Atlantick Ocean. 5. On the terreftrial globe the continents are generally divided from each other by a kind of chain line j empires, kingdoms, and provinces are feparated from each other by dotted lines j rivers are denoted by black lines, and are wider at the mouth than towards the fpring or head ; mountains are fketched as in a picture -t woods are denoted by a kind of fhrub ; defarts, plains, and valleys can only be diftinguifhed by name ; hogs and moraffes are fhaded j coafts and fhores are fhaded towards the land ¦, and fands and fhallows are fhown by fmall dots. 6. The fame diftinctions are commonly obferv ed in maps, and when only fmall parts of a con tinent are reprefented, double lines are often put to denote roads. B 3 In 6 I N*T ROtJUCTION. 7. In fea charts the depth of water near har bours, fands, and fhallbws, is exprefied by figures fignifying fathoms ; and lines are drawn from feveral parts, to fhew the point pf the compafs which other places bear on with refpect to the parts from Which the lines are drawn. 8. Arrows are .fometimes placed in maps and charts, to fhew the direction of winds and cur rents. q. The top bf a map or chart, or where the fleur-de-lis points, is the north; the bottom, or oppofite to the north, is the fouth ; the right fide, with refpect to the top, is eaft, and the left weft ; thefe four are called the cardinal points of the compafs ; half "way between the north and the eaft is calied north-eaft ; half way between fouth and the weft, fouth-weft, &c. Mariners divide the compafs into thirty-two points, and thefe points again into halves and quarters. Certain circular lines are defcribed on the fur face of a terreftrial globe, and on maps, as ftandards whereby to determine the diftances and fituations of places, which lines may be con ceived to be likewife drawn on the earth itfelf; and if they be fuppofed to be generated from 1 the INTRODUCTION. 9 die earth's center, and continued in the fame di rection to the heavens, they will there fhew the eorrefponding celeftial circles, SECT. IIL , A terreftrial globe is furthermore meant to re- prefent the earth, by being moveable on ifs axis. io. The Atsis of a globe or fphere, is that line in which motion centers, an>d from which motion is generated j it paffes -through the centre of the revolving body, and terminates in two points on the furface, diametrically oppofite. 1 1 . Any two points on the furface of a globe or fphere, which -are diametrically oppofite, are called the Poles of that circle, which is, or may be conceived to be in every part, at an equal diftance between them. 12. The extremities ofthe earth's axis are called the North and South Poles, and the heavens over thefe extremities appear to be motionlefs, while -all other parts feem in a continual ftate of revo lution ; the circle pf motion, appears to increafe with the diftance from the apparently motionlefs points, to that circle in the heavens, which is at an equal diftance between them3 and of which B 4 *hey 8 INTRODUCTION. they are.the poles, and is called the EquinoEiial, from the nights being equal in length to the days when the fun .appears therein. From the apparent motion of the heavens, juft mentioned, it is evident that either the fixed ftars, together with the fun and planets * really do move round the earth, or that fuch appear ances are occafioned by a rotation of the earth on its axis, which would likewife caufe the dif ferent celeftial bodies to rife, culminate, and fet, and thereby produce the viciffitudes of day and night. The fun is proved by aftronomers to be more than a million times larger, than the earth, and at its mean diftance to be more than 95 millions of miles from it. . Some of the planets are likewife known to be much larger than the earth, and more diftant than the fun j and the neareft fixed ftars are conjectured, from obferva- * The planets are conftantly changing their fituations with refpeft to the fixed ftars and each other, and are known to revolve about the fun in certain periods of time. They do not appear to twinkle as the fixed ftars do; and, when viewed through a telefcope, they are magnified ac cording to the power of the inftr-ument : whereas the fixed ftars always appear as dimenfionlefs points, and have been generally obferved to keep the fame diftance w jth regard to each other, tiorj I-N T R O D U C T I O N. |J tion and calculation, to be four hundred thou fand times further from the earth than the fun is. Is it then more reafonable to fuppofe the earth to have motion, or to fupport the inconceivable velocity of fuch diftant bodies, paying their de voirs with their bulky forms to our compara tively dimenfionlefs point the earth ? Nature is always grand in her defigns, but never does that in a complicated and laborious manner, which admits of a more fimple and eafy one. Harmony is found to prevail in every part of the creation ; and the utmoft fkill and con trivance manifefts itfelf with the moft aftonifhing effects from only a few fimple principles. 13. The fun moreover, and thofe planets on which there are vifible fpots, turn round on their axes, for the fpots move regularly over their dilks, or faces, in equal fpaces of time ; whence we may reafonably conclude, that the pther planets on which we fee no fpots, and the earth, which is likewife a planet, have fuch rotations. 14. The oblate figure of the earth demonftrates its diurnal motion ; for, if it were at reft, the waters, to preferve their level, would leave the equatorial regions, and overflow the polar ones ; but {© INTRODUCTION, but all material forms which, revolve on an axis have a tendency or greater power to protuberate, or fly off, in proportion as the parts are more dif tant from the axis: from this property of me chanics, and from a belief ofthe earth's diurnal motion, Sir Ifaac Newton dempnftrated it to be oblate, 15. That the earth is a planet, and revolves abouf the fun in the fpace of ayear, is inferred from different and corroborating phenomena in the apparent celeftial motions, and from the known laws of .gravity, in which there can be no fuch thing as a heavy* body moving round a light. one, as its centre of motion, SECT. IV, 16. |t is known by experience, that materia}. objects attract each other in proportion to the quantity of matter they contain, compounded with their diftances ; for gravity is found to decreafe as the fquare of the diftance increafes; that is, a body at twice any firft given diftance, attracts with only a fourth part of the force it * The quantity of matter in the fun? from the laws of gravity, is proved to be much greater than what is con tained ia all the planets together. would, JNTRODUCTI ON. | 1 $vould attract with at the given firft diftance j pnd at three times the diftance with only a ninth part pf the force, &c. %j. A double yelpGity'will balance a quadruple power of gravity or attraction, fo that if the velocity of any planet were twice as great as it is, it would require the fun's attraction to be four times, greater than it is to retain ip in its orbit. i,8. We cannpt, from any other caufes than thofe of attraction and gravity, account for the planets being retained in their orbits or paths, which they purfue in going round the fun, nor for many other phenomena which conftantly pccur. '19. Matter of itfelf is inactive, therefore, when ¦we fee a body in motion, we conclude that fome power gave it that motion, and that its motion will continue till the power is overcome by the refiftance of fome other fu'oftance : thus, a ball fhot from the mouth of a cannon, is fo refilled by the air and the attraction of the earth, that its velocity conftantly decreafes, and it is more and more drawn out of a ftraight line into a curve, till its power is entirely overcome. All 12 INTRODUCTION. ao. All fimple motion is naturally rectilineal, and therefore it is fuppofed, that ail the planets had a force impreffed on them originally by their Creator, which, together with the attraction of the fun, placed nearly in the common center of the orbits of the planets, make them obey that wife and beneficent order they were intended to fulfil. 21. It is from the power of attraction that the inhabitants of the earth on every part regard to wards the earth as downward, and from it as upward, and that every fubflance, in propor tion to the quantity of matter it contains, has its weight or tendency towards the earth. SECT. V. 22. With refpect to the diurnal or annual mo tion ofthe earth, it is impoffible that we can feel either, fince we cannot feel the motion of a fhip on fmooth water; and the earth meets with no fuch grofs refiftance as water, and its motion is incomparably more uniform than any machine made and moved by human art. 23. It is well known that fixed objects appear to change their place to an obferver in mo tion, while the moving body feems to be at reft 3 INTRODUCTION. ij reft; for to fpectators in a fhip, failing by objedts on land, or fhips at reft, the bodies at reft have to appearance the fame degree of motion which the fhip really has, only they ieem to move' the contrary way. 24. It is confirmed by obfervation and experi ment, that a body projected from another bo dy in motion, will partake of the motion of the moving body. A ftone dropped from the top-maft of a fhip under fail, will fall on the fame point it would have fallen on had the fhip remained motionlefs ; and flies can as eafily dance among one another in a moving cabin as in the room of a houfe. 25. The air which encompaffes the earth is a part of itfelf, and all bodies which move in it, either by mechanical or animal force, muft conftantly, from attraction, and the v refift* ance of the air, be governed by the earth's motion. S E CT, vr; 26. The circle of the earth which is under the Equinoctial, is called the Equator, and is re- prefented on a terreftriah globe by a circle equi- diftant in all its parts from its two poles ; j it divides the furface of the globe in two equal 4 parts, i-4 INTRODUCTION. parts, called the northern and fouthern hemi- fpheres, each having its refpective pole. ; cii. ay. The equator, and all other circles, which divide a globe in, two- equal parts,- are called Great Circles ; and thofe which divide a globe in two unequal parts- are called Small Circles; and all Circles, .< whether ' great- or fmall, ate fuppofed to contain 360 equal parts, called degrees, each degree 60 equal parts, called minutes, and each minute 60 equal parts, called feconds. A de gree on the earth itfelf is equal to 60 geogra phical milesi or 6y\ Englifh meafure. 28. The equator, on a terreftrial globe- is croff ed at right angles, (one line or circle is faid to be at right angles, or upright With refpect- to another when* it does not incline on either fidej by cir-* ctilar lines drawn from pole to pole, that is, di rectly north and fouth, called Meridians, from its being mid-day, or noon, wherr the fun is di rectly over any part of fuch fuppofed line on the earth. Thefe lines,, if continued round the globe, divide its furface in two equal parts, which are the eaftern and weftern toewiiFphcres, with refpect to any meridian^ and its oppofite, which caufes fuch divifion. The equator on Englifh globes is generally numbered eaft arid weft to 180 degrees from that meridian which paffes INT RO D U C T I O N. , ij pafles through London, which is the oppofite meridian, and where the eaft and weft unite with refpect to London: it is likewife numbered quite rburid to-j6oQ, beginning and ending where an ihterfeetion is made by a greatr circle which crofles the equator in two oppofite points, called Arfes and Libra, reckoned- from that called Aries, for the porpofe of finding the right af cenfion, &c. (hereafter defined) of celeftial objects on the globe. \ 29. When the diftance of any place is known from the equator,' and likewife from any me ridian fixed on, its exact jituation rrjay be found. The diftance of a place,- north or fquth from the equatpB, Js-, called b&titude, and is faid to- be north; or fouth, according to the hemifphere it is in, )' And the diftance of a place from any meridian fixed on, is palled the Longitude from fuch meridian, and is faid to be eaft, if on the 'right fide bf the; meridian,, reckoning the nor-«h to, be the top,, and weft,, if an the left. T nj 1( t 36. The brafs- hpsjp, on which the globehangs, and. within whieh/'itv turns, commonly called tjhe Brafs Meridian, reprefents the msridian of *nyy- place which may be brought to it;- and k likewife rrfheWf the latitude of places- whkfy i. . may IO 1 N T:R O DV CT I 0 ft, may be brought to it 5 for that purpofe it .is graduated on the: half which fhould be upper- moft, into degrees, beginning with o over the equate*, on which places have no latitude, and is numbered from the equator on both fides, to each pole,; or 90 degrees, which is the greateft latitude or diftance -from the- equator. The other half of the brafs hoop, which is ah oppo^ fite meridian, or 1800 diftant, is numbered from each pole, beginning with o'.artd ending- at 50 degrees in the equator, for the purpofe of working certain. problems. 31. The fmall circles on the globe, which are parallel to the equator, are called Parallels bf Latitude -, they may be conceived to pafsr through every or any point- of the earth's -Of x globe's * furface, as the meridians may likewife be fuppofed to do y therefore both the parallels and meridians may be drawn on the terreftrial globe, : or Ori maps, Which ; reprefent it whollyr or in party at any convenient diftance afunder,- 32. The latitude of places On maps is found on. the upright lines, broutermdft meridians, which are •^numbered in degrees, &c. in the feveral points' of them, according to their different diftances from the-equator.- The parallel. cir- 'T' fcles INTRODUCTION. 17 cles will fhew in what direction from the given place the required latitude is to be fought : if the place be between two parallels, the lati tude will be found at the fame proportional dift ance between them as the place itfelf. 23^ The longitude of places in maps is found on the lowermoft or uppennoft parallels, (the uppermoft are on a fmaller fcale than the low ermoft) which are graduated into degrees, &c. of longitude : the meridians fhew in what di rection from the given place the required longi tude is to be fought : if the place be between two meridians, the longitude will be found at the fame proportional diftance between them as the place itfelf. From the inclination of the meridians, as they increafe in diftance from the equator, it evi dently appears, that the degrees on the paral lels of latitude muft conftantly decreafe from the equator to the poles, where the meridians all meet in a point ; and hence it is, that a degree. of lpngitude is no where the fame but upon the fame parallel ; and that upon the equator only, a degree of longitude is equal to a degree of latitude. C By 1 8 INTRODUCTION. 34. By taking the diftance between any two meridians on the fame parallel, and applying fuch diftance on the equator, the proportion between a degree of longitude on the equator and on the parallel may be feen, and confequently how many miles make a degree of longitude in the parallel meafured may be eafily known. By this rule it will be found, that the proportion between a degree of longitude in latitude 60, and on the equator, is as two to one ; therefore a degree of longitude in latitude 60, is only 30 miles, or half what it is on the equator. A TABLE, A ABLE, SHEWING The Number of Miles contained in a Degree of Longi tude, in each Parallel of Latitude from the Equator, • <-. \J> '-*- s. - ,U, ' (/) o . IU ZJ1 0 . 0 ¦ EJi £§ 4J 3 03 11^ 1 en "O r3 I"! OJ 4-1 i/j -a 0 *-* _c i-. • — . ir> -d £°'^ Cj 0 s°'« QJ 0 fi (U TO QJ 0 rt i i 59 0 1*. M O 99 31 51 0 <*. -1 c 43 QJ O <4^ - O 61 29 04 2 59 97 32 50 88 62 28 17 3 59 92 33 50 32 63 27 ^24 4 59 86 34 49 74 f4 26 3° 5 59 77 35 49 J5 65 25 3& 6 59 67 30 48 54 6b 24 41 7 ' 59 56 37 47 92 67 23 45 8 59 46 38 47 28 68 22 48 9 59 20 39 46 62 69 21 51 10 59 08 40 45 95 70 20 52 ii 5« 89 41 45 28 71 J9 54 12 58 68 42 44 95 72 18 55 *3 5« 46 43 43 88 73 '7 54 H 5« 22 44 43 16 74 16 53 15 57 95 45 42 43 75 15 52 16 57 67 46 4- 68 76 H 51 x7 57 37 47 40 92 77 13 5°- 18 57 06 48 40 15 78 12 48 !9 56 73 49 39 39 79 11 45 20 56 38 50 38 57 80 10 42 21 56 00 5r 37 76 81 09 38 22 '55 63 52 36 94 82 08 35 23 55 23 53 3& 11 8,3 07 32 24 54 81 54 35 26 84 06 28 25 54 38 55 34 4i 85 G5 23 2b 53 93 56 33, 55 86 04 18 27 ¦ 53 46 57 32 67 87 °3 H 28 ' 52 97 58 31 79 88 02 09 2*q : 52 ^.8 59 30 90 89 01 05 .10 51 96 60 30 00 | qo 00 CO U 2 20 INTRODUCTION. 35, In fome maps t'ie longitude is given in time, by hours and minutes. The proportion between hours and degrees, minutes or miles of longi tude, and minutes of time, &c. is as fifteen to one, that is, fifteen degrees of longitude are equal to one hour of time, and fifteen miles of lon gitude, to one minute in time, &c. which pro portion is evideat : fos as the earth revolves once in 24 hours 360 degrees, the content of all cir cles on its furface revolve with it in that time ; and, as the motion, is uniform, the 24th part of 360 degrees, which is 15^ muft revolve in one hour ; fo that longitude may be brought into time by dividing by 15, and time into longitude by multiplying by 15. The hours, &c. art' faid to be eaft or weft of the meridian reckoned from, the fame as the longitude in degrees, &c. 36. The diftance of placeson maps may be found fey extending the legs of a pair of compaffes from one place to the other, or by taking the diftance with a piece of thread, and applying- it to the fcale, which is generally placed in fome confpicuous part : if there be no particu lar fcale to the map, the outer meridians will anfwer the purpofe. Maps which give the exact latitudes and longitudes of places, from being delineated INTRODUCTION. 21 delineated on a plane furface, cannot give the exact diftance of places ; yet they anfwer tole rably exact in moderate diftances. 37. The terreftrial globe, as has before been obferved, is a miniature reprefentation of the known furface of the earth ; therefore, the la titudes and longitudes of places on it may, with their juft proportions, be truly represented, as likewife the bearings and diftances of places, together with their proportional magnitudes; but in maps there muft always be a facrifice of at leaft one of thefe properties of the globe to the plane furface of the map. When the map is a perfpective reprefentation (of the globe, or a part thereof, the proportional magnitudes of places cannot be truly fhown; but yet the true latitudes and longitudes of places may be pre ferved, by a contraction or expanfion of the degrees, fo as to favour the. reprefentation. In a perfpective reprefentation of maps, where the eye is fuppofed to be near the projection, and directed towards the center, tlie projection is called Stereograghic ; and when the eye is fup pofed to be-at an^infinite diftance, the projection is called Orthographic, In the Stereographic projection, the extremities of the hemifphere C 3 ate 22 INTRODUCTION. are more expanded, as the diftance is greater from the eye. In the orthographic projection, the extremities of the map are more contracted as the diftance is greater from the eye. A re prefentation of an hemifphere-of the globe, as if cut from the poles, through oppofite meri dians, is faid to be on the Plane of the Meri~ dian-, if as cut through the equator, where the north or fouth pole is the center, the pro jection is faid to be on the Plane of the Equator $ and if the globes be fuppofed to be divide dinto two equal parts from the center, fo as to leave any place in the center of the projection, or at an equal diftance from the extremities of the fection, the projection is then faid to be on the Plane of the Horizon of that place. Thefe dif ferent projections are ufed, as they prove favour able to the reprefentation of certain parts moft neceffary to be fhown, SECT. VII. 38, The path which the earth purfuesin its or bit, or annual courfe round the fun, is called the Ecliptic ; and if that fpace which lies evenly and directly from the fun's center to the circumfe rence dercribed, were infinitely extended in the fame plane, it would be called the Plane of the Earth's INTRODUCTION. 2J Earth's Orbit. The latitude of celeftial objects is "their diftance from this plane; and the incli nation of the orbits of all the planets, and of their axes, are reckoned as they refpect this plane. 39. The conftant revolution of the earth caufes the fun apparently to revolve in the fame plane ; and our, fight transfers it to that part of the heavens which is ^directly oppofite to the earth's fituation. In moving "round any object, or -when any object is moved round us, in a line with the eye, we transfer it to the furtheft : vi fible and oppofite diftance j : and it appears to coincide with, or eelipfe all the objects which are in the fame'ftraight - line with it. So, from the earth's motion, the fun appears, in the fpace of a year, to have made one complete courfe round the heavens ; and from this appearance the ecliptic is called Via -Solis, or the Sun's > Path j for it is cuftomary to fpeak of apparent motions as real, when the conclufion is not affected by it. 40. The ecliptic on globes is feprefented by that great circle which croffes the equator in two -oppofite points, called Aries and Libra; it is divided in twelve equal parts, called figns ; and C 4 each 24 INTRODUCTION. eacfi fign into thirty equal parts, called degrees, making in all 360 (the content of a circle), which nearly anfwer to the days in a year. 41. The ancients, in reducing aftronomy to a fcience, combined the fixed ftars into conftel lations, to which they gave names, with re- fpective figures, drawn in a certain manner and magnitude, over the ftars combined for that purpofe ; this enabled them to fignify to others any particular ftar they meant to notice, by fay ing in what part of the figure of the conftella- tion it was contained. The conftellations, or figns, which the fun apparently paffes over in a year, and which are noted by certain charac ters, are, Aries, the Ram^ Taurus, the Bull, Gemini, the Twins, Cancer, the Crab, Leo, the Lion, and Virgo, the Virgin j thefe fix are called our fummer figns, and are fituated en the north fide of the equinoctial ; the other fix, called our winter figns, are on the fouth fide of the equinoctial, and are called, Libra, the Ba lance, Scorpio, the Scorpion, Sagittarius \ the Archer, Capricorn.us, the Goat, Aquarius, the Waterman, and Pifces, the Fifties ; they are marked in the order juft given, thus, 5 1 . Parallels of Altitude, called alfo Almacan- ters, are circles parallel to the rational horizon of any particular zenith. 52. The Azimuths and Altitudes,, or heights of objects above the horizon, are fhown by a thin flexible flip of brafs, accommodated to the fize of the globe, called a Quadrant of Altitude ; one of its edges is graduated into 90 degrees, reckoned towards a nut and fctew, which it has to fix it on the brafs meridian "to the zenith of any horizon : if numbers he continued down ward, beneath the quadrant, they ferve to fheNv the depreffion of the fun, &fe. when beneath the INTRODUCTION. jr the horizon.- The quadrant of altitude, by its morion from the zenith round the body of the globe, will, by its divifions, fhew the feveral fmall circles, called, Almacanters, or Paral lels of Altitude. 53. The fun caufes twilight when lefs than 1 8 degrees below the horizon : the time of its continuance, as well as the fun's, &c. appear ance above the horizon to the inhabitants be tween the equator and polar circles, is fhown by an hour circle, which is commonly a circle of brafs, graduated into twice 12 hours, agree able to the time which the earth takes to re volve*; the upper 12, or that toward tlie north, denotes noon, and the lower 12 midnight. A circle below the horizon, at the diftance of 1 8 degrees, is called the Crepufculum Circle. The index to the hour circle is moved by the globe, and confequently muft poirjt out time proportioned to the earth's motion, or of the con tinuance of celeftial objects above the horizon, which, from its motion, appear to rife, culmi nate, and fet. On fome modern globes the equator is made the hour circle, from affording the largeft fcale ; indexes are then placed on a wire over the equator. Da SECT. 36 INTRODUCTIONS >J SECT. X. 54. To all places between the polar circles and the poles, the fun rifes and fets in the fpace of 24 hours, when the part of the arch of declination which the fun is on at midnight, is at a greater diftance than 90 degrees, but while lefs, the fun muft continue above the horizon ; and when it is at a greater diftance than 900 at noon, it caswot rife at all to them. A rational fpe- culation of different fituations ofthe globe, with refpect to the horizon, will further illuftrate this matter. Suppofe then either of the poles to incline towards the horizon, it is evident that all, or fome of the parallels to the equator between the tropics, muft either be above the horizon, below it, or cut by it in unequal feg- ments, according as it is more or lefs inclined j therefore the fun, which appears to defcribe, nearly, parallels to the equator every day, muft at certain places and times, appear more than 24 hours above the horizon ; at certain places and times lefs ; and at certain places and times, it muft difappear longer than 24 hours beneath the horizon. The globe in the pofition juft de fcribed, is called an Oblique Sphere, becaufe the INTRODUCTION. 37 the parallels bear obliquely to the horizon : and as each place is the zenith to its peculiar ho rizon, the neareft pole muft be between the zenith and horizon to all places, but thofe upon the equator and the pole itfelf. 55. At the equator, the poles, from being 90? diftant, muft be in the horizon : all the pa rallels to the equator will be divided in two equal parts, and will be at right angles to the horizon, from which, this pofition is called a Right Sphere: and as all the diurnal and noctur nal arches are equal, the days and nights at the equator muft be always equal. 56. At each pole, the equinoctial, from being 900 diftant, muft be in the horizon, and confe- quently all parallels to the equator muft like- wife be parallel to the horizon, from which this pofition is called a Parallel Sphere; and as to this pofition, half the ecliptic is continually above and half below the horizon, there can be but one day and night throughout the year to the inhabitants (if any) of the poies ; the fun when in the equinoctial muft move round their horizon, and when nearer their zenith, its alti tude muft be equal to its declination. D 3 SECT, 38 INTRODUCTION. SECT. XI. 57. It has been before obferved, that the equator is numbered into 360 degrees, beginning from, and ending in Aries ; that when the fun is in the equinoctial, it caufes equal days and nights, i. e. it rifes at fix o'clock in the morning, and fets at fix o'clock in the evening, and that in all lati tudes when the fun has declination, it rifes and fets before or after fuch time. Now, this difference of time in the rifing and fetting ofthe fun, &c. confidered either as time or degrees, is called the Afcenfional Difference, as being the difference between the right and oblique afcenfion. 58. By the Right Afcenfion ofthe fun, &c. is meant that degree of the equinoctial, reckoned from Aries, which comes to the meridian with the fun's, &c. center, and is the fame which afcends above the horizon with it, or any other celeftial body reflectively, in a right fphere. $9. By the Oblique Afcenfion is meant that de gree of the equinoctial, which is cut by the ho rizon at the fame time that the fun's centre, &c. is on it, at. rifing, in all latitudes when the fun, &c. has INTRODUCTION. 39 has declination. The Oblique Defcenfion of any celeftial object means the degree of the equi noctial which is cut when it fets, under the fame circumftances. SECT. XII. As the fun caufes the fhadows of all bodies oppofed to its light to fall in oppofite directions to its rays, the inhabitants of the earth in par ticular places will have their noon fhadOws pro jected differently : when the fun is vertical to any inhabitants between the rropicks, they have no fhadow, and' are called Afcii ; but when the fun's declination is not tlie fame as tKeir lati tude, their fhadbws will be projected north when the fun is fouth of them at noon, and fouth when the fun is nOrth of them at noon ; they are then called Amphifcii. Between the tropicks and polar circles, fha dows at noon will be projected only one way; in north latitude northward, and in fouth latitude fouthward ; the inhabitants, therefore, of the tem perate zones are called Heterofcii : the fame will hold good for the inhabitants of the polar cir cles at noon, when the fun rifes and fets in the fpace of 24 hours ; but as at certain times D 4 the 4Q INTRODUCTION. tfie fun remains above their horizon longer than 3 natural day, it muft appear to move round them, which muft neceffarily caufe their fha- dows likewife to move round them j they are (therefore called Perifcii. SECT. XIII. 60. The inhabitants of different hemifphere^ who have equal latitude, and are on the fame me ridian, confidered with refpect to fituation only, are called Antaci ; they have oppofite feafons of the year, but precifely the fame hours of the day. Places on the fame parallel of latitude, but on oppofite meridians, are called Periled $ they have the fame feafons of the year, but op pofite hours. Two places diametrically oppo fite, i. e. in different hemifpheres of equal la titudes, but on oppofite meridians, are callec] Antipodes ; they have oppofite feafons, and op., ppfite hours. SECT. XIV. Of the Atmofphere, 6 1 , The air with which the earth is furrounded, ;ind which }s a part of itfelf, is called the At* 4, mofphere ¥° INTRODUCTION. 4t mofphere : it gravitates towards the earth, and is moft denfe near its furface; at greater heights it gradually becomes more rare. It is a thin fluid, capable of being expanded by heat, and condenfed by cold, it may alfo be compreffed by force. At the height of two miles it is feldom denfe enough to reflect light. With refpect to weight, the proportion that any fpace of air near the earth's furface, bears to a like foace filled with water., is about as i to 1 200. Air ha$ the property of water, in preffing equally up, down, and on all fides ; in fupporting par ticles of matter lighter than itfelf, and likewife jn making bodies feen through it appear larger and higher than they really ar,e. This property of the. Atmofphere is called RefratJion, and ends in the zenith ; near the horizon its power is greater]:, from our viewing objects in that fitua tion through the greateft medium of it, The Atmofphere, by reflecting the folar rays, makes the whole heavens appear luminous before the fun rifes, and after it fets, fo that the light and darknefs do not come on fuddenly, but by degrees ; this illumination of the Atmofphere is what we call Twilight ; we have the benefit of it while the fun is within 18 degrees of the horizon $ and hence it is, that during that part of 42 INTRODUCTION. ofthe year, in which the fun does not defcend 1 8 degrees below the horizon in the latitude of London, there is a continual twilight from fun- fetting to fun-rifing, which is from about the time in which the fun appears in the 5th degree of Gemini, till he appears in 'the 12th degree of Cancer; that is, from the 26th of" May to the 1 8th of July. ' Some of the ancient philofophers confidered air as the firft principle of all things, from its vivifying qualities, its being the vehicle of light and found, fuffering vapours more fubtile than itfelf to arife and form clouds; and from its' fufceptibility of condenfation and rarefaction, by which the particles of different qualities which have arifen from fubftances, are put in conftant motion, caufing thereby wind, rain, fnow, haih; thunder, and lightning. SECT. XV. Of the Sky. 62. The azure colour of the fky , Sir I. Newton attributed to vapours- beginning to condenfe, and INTRODUCTION. a>> and which have acquired confiftence enough to reflect the moft reflexible rays. Monfieur de la Hire attributed it to our viewing the dark fpace beyond the regions of the atmof phere, through a white or lucid one, viz. the air illumined by the fun. / SECT. XVI. Of the Courfe s of Winds. 63. The general Courfe of Wind is occafioned by the action of the fun on the atmofphere. Within and near the tropicks, winds are more certain than elfewhere, from being more ftrongly and regularly influenced by the fun's rays. Within particular limits of the ocean, their courfes are known to a certainty. On and near land, the nature of foils, from which vapours arife, the pofition of high moun tains, and the bending of fhores, caufe the courfe of wind to be variable and uncertain. By the earth's diurnal motion, the parts of the atmofphere which fucceffively receive the moft 44 INTRODUCTION. moft direct rays of the fun, become fo expanded, as to caufe the air to the eaftward to be con ftantly rufhing towards the weft ; and from its tendency to reftore an equilibrium it occafions a conftant eaft wind. This wjnd is called the General Trade Wind-, it blows in th? Atlan tick, the Pacifick, and Southern Oceans, be tween the latitudes of about 30 degrees north and fouth. Thefe winds have trifling changes, according as the fun has north or fouth declina tion, fo that on the north fide of the equator, they for the moft part blow from the north-eaft j and on the fouth fide of the equator, from the fouth-eaft ; about the equator, for the moft part, they blow due eaft. In the Indian ocean, there are periodical winds, called Monfoons : they blow fix months in one direction, and the other fix months in the oppofite direction : the change of their direction, which is' near the Vernal and Autumnal Equi noxes, (i. e. when the fon is in Aries and Libra), is accompanied with violent ftorms of wind, thunder, and lightning. The Monfoons are de noted on the terreftrial globe by twelve arrows, with the months in which they have each pecu liar direction. Voyagers to India are obliged to time their voyages fo as to benefit hy thefe winds i INTRODUCTION. 4C Winds ; for if they lofe the advantage, they are obliged to wait for the returning Morifoon. On and near the coaft of Guinea, in Africa, the winds blow almoft always from the weft and fouth-weft points. Between the longitude of Cape Verd, and the eafternmoft. of the Cape Verd iflands, there is a tract of fea .in which there is a perpetual calm with refpect to wind ; but the thunder and lightning there is terrible, and it has acquired the name of the Rains, from the great fall of water. In Great Britain, and many other^ places, the -wind blows oftener from the weft than any other point. Ships in their paffage from England1 to Ame rica, and the Weft Indies, generally endeavour to obtain about an equal latitude with the place they are bound to, and then fail directly Weft. When bound for New York, they generally fail by the Azores, or Weftern Iflands, and when to Virginia or Carolina, by the Madeiras. Our Weft India traders call this the Upper Courfe ; and when they intend to gain the advantage of the trade wind, they fail to the fouthward as far as latitude 23 or 16 degrees, and frequently touch at An tigua, when bound for Jamaica. The 46 INTRODUCTION. The Spanifh Galeons and the Elota from Spain keep between latitudes 1 5 and 1 8 degrees, and in their return to Spain in about 37 de grees. The velocity of wind is various from one to 50 or 60 miles an hour ; a common brifk gale is about 1 5 miles an hour. SECT. XVII. Of the Celeftial Globe. 64. The Celeftial Globe has the feveral con ftellations delineated on its furface. It revolves on an axis, as the Terreftrial Globe does ; the points of which, at the furface of the globe, are the poles of the equinoctial. The Equinoctial divides the Celeftial Globe into two equal parts, northern and fouthern, with refpect to the declination of celeftial ob jects. 65. The declination of celeftial objeBs means their diftance from the equinoctial. The I rN t R° D U C T I o w. 47 : The -Ecliptic divides the Celeftial Globe into two equal, parts, northern and fouthern, with refpect to the latitude of celeftial objects. : ';rra r :,. _¦.:. - ir [ ¦ ¦ 66. The latitude and longitude of celeftial objects bear the fame relation to the ecliptic ; and a circular line, which paffes from the poles of the ecliptic through the firft point of Aries* as places on the terreftial globe do to the equa tor and the meridian, from which longitude is reckoned ; fo that the latitude of a celeftial objeil means its, diftance from the ecliptic to wards the poles of the ecliptic, and the longi tude of a celeftial objeil means its diftance, in de grees, &c. upon the ecliptic, from the firft point of Aries. There are commonly circular lines drawn" from, the poles of the ecliptic, through the firft degree of each ofthe twelve figns. - t'-; The fun has no latitude, being always in the ecliptic,; nor do, we ufually fpeak of its longi tude, but rather of his place in the ecliptic. 67. The Ecliptic, on the Celeftial Globe, is encompa'ffed, to the extent of eight degrees on each fide, with circles, commonly drawn a degree apart: within this breadth of fixteen degrees, which is called the Zodiac, the planets con- n ftantly 48 I N T R O D U C T IO Nj ftantly revolve, and the twelve conftellations belonging to the ecliptic are contained. 68. To have a juft reprefentation from the Celeftial Globe of the face of the heavens, with refpect to the fixed ftars, the eye may be fup pofed to be placed in the center, and from thence to obfervte the ftar in a concave he mifphere, at the furface, as if the globe were tranfparent. When the globe is placed in 3 proper pofition for reprefenting all the vifible fixed ftars above the horizon, to any place at a particular time, a ftar in the heavens, at fuch time, lies nearly in a direct line -from- the cen ter of the globe, through the ftar on its furface* The Celeftial Globe turns within a brafs meridian, as the Terreftrial Globe does : it has likewife an hour circle, and is encompaffad in the fame manner with a like frame, to repre- fent the horizon ; and it has a quadrant of al titude belonging to. it, for the purpofe of meafuring the heights of objects above the ho rizon, or their azimuths; at any time. The terms amplitude, azimuth, zenith, nadir, right afcenfion, &c. . &c. have been already defined in treating of the Terreftrial Globe. A ftar INTRODUCTION. 49 69. A ftar is faid to rife or fet cofmically when it rifes with the fun, or fets when the fun rifes. . V'.TV:. 70. A ftar is faid to rife or fet achronically, when it rifes or fets at the fame time that the fun fets. . . ¦ j 'jr. . , 7 1 . A ftar is faid to rife or fet h'eliacally, accord ' ing as its appearance demerging from the fun's beams, is feen at the rifing or fetting of the fun. 72. The Fixed Stars, On account of their appa rent various magnitudes, have been diftributed into different claffes,' the firft clafs being thofe which appear largeft; thefe, however, appear al moft all different in luftre aiid fize, as do like- wife thofe of the other Claffes. Some ftars, from being in an intermediate" 'ftate between two claffes, are affigned' to neither, but are reck oned to be between the two. Stars of the fixth ¦ magnitude can barely be feen by the naked eye. Thofe which cannot be difcerned but by the help of glaffes, are called Telef- copic Stars. Each clafs of ftars contains a greater number than that next higher which precedes it. The difference in the apparent magnitudes of the fixed ftars may probably arife, not only from a- diverfity in their real magnitudes, but E prin- 5© INTRODUCTION. principally from their different diftances. Thofe ftars not reduced into conftellations, are called Informes, or Unformed Stars. 73. The Galaxy, Via LatJea, ot Milky-way, in the heavens, is a tract of a whitifh colour, and confiderable breadth, which runs through a great fpace in the heavens. Cafini, a French aftro- nomer, cotemporary with Newton, thought it to be compofed of numbers of ftars too minute to be fingly feen, but fo clofely difpofed as to give a luminous appearance to the Via Lactea ; but as the beft glaffes do not fhew any ftars within this tract, Cafini's opinion is moftly re jected, and it is more probably imagined, that the Via Lactea is compofed of large fpaces in the iether, through which a lucid medium is dif- fufed. Although moft of thefe fpaces are but a few minutes of a degree in breadth, yet fince they are among the fixed ftars they are proba bly fpaces not lefs than our whole folar fyftem j in them there feems, to be a perpetual, uninter rupted day. GEOGRA- C 5* ) GEOGRAPHY, raaSBB CHAP. I. The extreme Limits of the Continents of Europe, Afia, Africa, and America, with refpeft tQ Latitude and Longitude. lLUROPE is fituated between 37 ° 55' and 7 1° 10'* of north latitude, and between io° of weft, and 6o° of eaft longitude (from the me ridian of London) : it is in its greateft extent * Greenland, as being very imperfe&ly known, is not included within the above extent. Eaft Greenland, palled alfo New Greenland, and Spitfbergen, is fuppofed (o be united in its northern parts to Weft Greenland. Eaft Greenland, according to Guthrie, lies between j6 and 80 degrees of north latitude, and between 10 and n of eaft; longitude ; and Weft Greenland between 60 and 70 de grees of north latitude, and between the meridians of London, and 50 degrees of weU longitude. E 2 from £2 GEOGRAPHY. from fouth to north about 2300 miles, and from weft to eaft about 2000. Afia is fituated between the Equator and 7 6° of north latitude, and between 250 and 1790 45' of eaft longitude : it is in its greateft ex tent from fouth to north about 5200 miles, and from weft to eaft about 4380. Africa is fituated between 340 29' of fouth, and 37° 5' of north latitude, and between 17° 27 weft, and 52° 17' of eaft longitude: it is in its greateft extent from fouth to north about 4900 miles, and from weft to eaft about 4000. America is fituated between $6' of fouth, and 77? 30' of north latitude, and betWeeri~35° 10', and 136 degrees of weft longitude : it is "in its greateft extent from fouth to north about 9200 miles, and from eaft to weft about 3400. CHAP. GEOGRAPHY. 53 CHAP. II. 1 Oceans. The Northern Ocean extends from the north ern fhores of Europe, Afia, and America, towards the North Pole. The Southern Ocean extends from the fouth ern fhores of Africa and fouth America, towards the South Pole. The Pacific, or Eaftern Ocean, flows be tween the eaftern fhores of Afia and the weftern fhores of North America ; its greateft width is about io,coo miles. The Atlantic, or Weftern Ocean, flows be tween Europe, the northern fhores of Africa, and North America ; its greateft width is about .4500 miles. The Indian Ocean lies between the eaftern fhores of Africa and the Eaft Indies, (which lie fouth of the continent of Afia) ; its greate width is about 4000 miles. Many ofthe branches ofthe abovementioned ocean, have names given to them from the fhores on which they flow, as the Britifh Ocean, the Ethiopic Ocean, &c. E 3 CHAP. £4 GEOCRAPHY. CHAP. III. The Boundaries and Grand Divifions of Europe. Europe is bounded on the North, by the North ern Ocean; on the South, by the Mediterranean Sea, which divides it from Africa; on the Eaft*j by Afia; and on the Weft, by the Atlantic Ocean. It is principally divided into the following Em pires, Kingdoms, States, &c. .y Kingdoms, &c. &. Length. Breadth. Chief Cities Dift.&Bear- ing from London. Religion £ JEng. & Wales , 2 Scotland ° I. of Ireland u 360300 285 300 150 160 180' 300 LondonEdinburgh Dublin CopenhagenBergen * * 1 Proteftants. 400 N. JDitto. 270 N. W. Prot. & Pap. 3 Denmark Norway 240 1600 ~! 800* 500 N. E. Proteftants. 540 N. Ditto Sweden 500 1 1 CO 680 " Stockholm 750 N.E. Ditto. Ruffia 1500 700 Peterlburgh 1 140 N. E. Greek. Ch. Poland K7~of Pru"tV7 fia'sDom. C Warfaw 760 E. Pap. & Prot. Uncerta Conq in from 7 uefts. 5 Berlin 540 E. Proteftants. Germany 600 500 Vienna 600 E. Pap. & Prot. -S Bohemia 300 250 Prague 600 E. Papifts. — (J United Provin. 150 IOO Amfterdam 180 E. Proteftants. •5 L Flanders 200 200 Bruffeis 180 S.E. Papifts. 2 France 600 500 Paris 2QO S.E. Papifls. Spain Portugal 700 500 Madrid Soq S. Papifts. 300 IOO Lifbon 850 s. W. 420 S. E. Papifts. Switzerland 260 too Bern Prot. &PapJ » From the fouth to the north it is divided from Afia by the Levant Sea, the Archipelago, the Hellefpont, the Sea of Marmora, the Bofphorus, apart uf the Black Sea, and the Sea ot Afoph, the River Don, and a line drawn from it to the River Tobol, and from thence to the River Oby, which falls into the Northern Ocean. Italy. GEOGRAPHY. 55 Kingdoms, &c. Length. Breadth. ChiefCities. Dift. and Bear ing from Lon don. Religions. f Popedom 240 120 Rome 820 S.E, Papifts . j Sever, prin- 7 •Jy cipal States. J Savoy, Piedmont, Venice, Genoa, Tufcany, &c. Chamberry, Turin, Venice, Genoa,1 Florence. '"' 1 Naples 280 120 Naples | ^-870 S.E. Papilts {J. of Sardinia '35 57 Cagliari I 830 S. E. Papifts Hungary | 300 1 200 IBuda .1 7S0 S. E. IPapilts .3 ^ C Danubian 7 £¦ §• J Provinces 5 ¦u 5 1 Lit. Tartary ^l Greece 600380 400 420 240 240 Conftanti- 7 nople J Caffa Athens 1320 S. E. 1500 E. 1360 S.E. Exclufive of Great Britain, Ireland, and Sardinia, Europe con tains the following principal Iflands. Situation. In the Northern Ocean South of Iceland North of Scotland} N.E. ofthe Orcades Weft of Scotland S In the Irifli Sea S. of the Ifle of Man Englifh Channel long. 1 20' Engliln Chan, near the French coaft In the Baltic Sea < Iflands. 1 Chief Towns. Subject to. Iceland Faro Iflands Orcades or Orkney Iflands Shetland Iflands Hebrides, or Weftern Iflands Ifle of Man Ifle of Anglefea Ifle of Wight Jerfey, Guernfey, Al- derney, and Sark Zealand, Funen, "1 Alfen, Falfter, | Langland, La- \ land, Femeren, .' Mona, and Born- I holm J Gothland, Oeland, Aland, Rugen Ofel Dagho, Ufedorri and Wollin Skalholt Denmark Ditto Great Britain Denmark ¦ Sweden Ruffia Pruffia The Scilly Iflands are a clufter of dangerous rocks, lying about thirty miles weft of the moft foutherly part of England, i, e. off the Land's End, in Corn wall. £4 Situation, 5ngth. Breadth, Ch. Towns. S b3 Belongs to Quebec 8oo 200 Quebec Gr. Britain New Scotland 35° 250 Halifax -*>ITQ Ditto New England 55° 200 Bofton 3.Sj, 3 OnitedStates New York 300 15° Nfew York )itto New Jerfey 160 60 3erth Amboy cr " 3 r 3itto Penfylvania 300 240 Philadelphia 3 5 Ditto Maryland 140 135 Annapolis 5 ° Ditto Virginia ¦ 750 240 Williamfburgh ° z, Jitto North Carolina 7 Wilmington ScT 3itto \ South Carolina £ 700 380 Charles Town •iB Ditto Georgia S Savannah if Ditto £atl Florida I St. Auguftine li Spain Weft Florida 500 44.0 Penfacola Ditto Louiliana Undetei mined New Orleans Ln O Ditto New Mexico and I St. Fee 8 v Ditto California 2000 ' 1600 St. Juan 3 r5 to f Ditto Mexico, or New Spain \ 2000 600 Mexico Ditto Rhode Ifland.a id Long Ifland belonging to the United States. s outh America. 1 Nations. Length . Breadth Ch. Towns. ¦ n rt w O »2 Belongs to Terra Firma 1400 700 Panama Spain Peru 1800 500 Lima rt ™ S Ditto Amazonia 1200 960 Para »"*' - Ditto ¦Guiana 7S0 480 Surinam and Cayenne S\ -t ° »3 3 p 1-s r DutchFrench- Brazil 2500 700 St. Sebaftian Portugal Paraguay, or La Plati 1500 1000 Buenos Ayres ¦D n ° Spain Chili 1200 500 St. Jago O Dilto Terra Magellanica, 7 1 or Patagonia \ 700 300 No Towns 1/ Ditto j The 62 "GEOGRAPHY. The Principal Iflands of North America and the Weft Indies, .a B* Iflands. Length Breadth j TownS. Belongs to 3 S O 3 ["Newfoundland 35° 200 Placentia Great Britain ' --» j ¦< Cape Britain no go Louilbourg Ditto ¦5 ~- /.St. John"s o 6o 30 Charlotte Town Pitto ¦ „ A •&•« 5 The Bermuda ifles c S 2 Bahama ifles - 20,00< 5 acres St. George Ditto very n umerous Naffau Ditto (-Jamaica 140 60 Kingfton Ditto VI Barbadoes 21 14 Bridge Town Ditto t* St. Chriftopher's 20 7 Bafie Terre Ditto q Antigua 20 20 St. John's Ditto , Nevis and 7 Montferat J each about 18 in Charles Town Ditto & circumference Plymouth Ditto G Barbuda 20 12 Ditto it Anguilla 3° 10 ' Ditto pominica 2» 13 Ditto J3 St. Vincent 24 18 Kingfton Pitto -* Granada • 3° IS St. George's Ditto u .Tobago 3* 9 France Cuba 700 70 Havannah Spain Hifpaniola 450 150 St. Domingo v Spain and f France -c E 0 Porto Rico IOO 49 Porto Rico Spain Trinidad 90 60 Ditto '" 'Margarita 40 24 , Ditto c Mart'inico 60 3° St. Peter's Prance >> Guadaloape 45 38 Bafle Terre iitto " St. Lucia 23 12 Ditto c St. Bartholomew, ") 1 <5 i Defeada, and > very fmall Ditto n Marigalante J -5 c St. Euflatia circum. 29 The Bay Dutch M CurafTou . 30 10 3itto St. Thomas circum. 15 Denmark ^ l_St. Croix 30 10 Bafle End I Ditto Jamaica, the! moft diftant of thefe Iflands, except the wefterh part of Cuba, is about 4700 Miles from London; the others, at a Medium, about 40do Miles diftance. CHAP, GEOGRAPHY. $J CHAP. VII. Seas, Lakes, Bays, &c. Seas, &c. ~* Situation. » • -a o TJETWEEN Great Britain, Den. Britifi bea. £> markj and the Netherlands. Englijh Channel. Between England and France. Straits of Do'ver. Entrance from the Britifh Sea into the Channel. Irijh Sea, or St. 7 Between Ireland, England, and Wales, George s Channel, j Briftol Channel. South of Wales. eattegate, or Seag- 1 Between Sweden and Denmark, gerac oea. J The Sound. Entrance into the Baltic from the Catte- gate. The Baltic Sea. Between Sweden, Germany, and Pruffia. Gulf of Finland. From the B altic between Sweden and Ruffia, Gulf of Bothnia. From the Baltic on the coaft of Sweden. Zuyder Sea, Flows to the middle of the United Pro vinces from thfr north ; it has the iflands Texel, Flie, Schelling, &c. at the en trance. Bay ofBifcay, Flows on the north coaft of Spain, and the weft coaft of France. Straits of Gib- Entrance into the Mediterranean Sea from raltar. the Atlantic Ocean. Mediterranean Sea. Between Europe and Africa. The Straits cf Flow between the iflands of Coriica and- Bonifacio, Sardinia. Straits of Mefjina. Between Italy- and the Ifland. of Sicily. ci2;sf£..or}Betweeni^»dTBri^- Ionian Sea. Flows on the weftern coafts of Greece. 3 Hellefpent, 64 G E OG R A F M V. Seas, &c. Situation. Hellefpont, Joins the Archipelagd, cr Egean Sea, to the Sea of Marmora ; at the entrance of the Hellefpont are two caftles, called the Dardanelles. Sea of Marmora, 7 ^^ the entrance int0 the Black Sea. or the Fropontis. j Bofphorus of ~\ Thrace, or Straits V- Entrance into the Black Sea. of Conjlantinople. J Black, or Euxine 7 Flows on the fhores of Turkey in Eu- Sea, 5 rope, and Afia. Straits of Kaffa. Entrance into the Sea of Afoph, from the Black Sea. SeaofAfoph, or 7 Flows on the fhores of Little- Tartary, and Palus Meotis, J extends to the river Don. Levant Sea. Eaftern part of the Mediterranean ; it flows on the coafts of Egypt and Syria. Cafpian Lake, Flows on the coafts of Weftern Tartary and Perlia. Ethiopian Sea. Coaft of Guinea, Africa. Red. Sea, Flows between the coafts of Africa and Arabia. Straits of Bahel- 7 Entrance into the Red Sea from the In- mandel. y dian Ocean. Arabian Sea. On the eaftern coafts of Arabia. Perf an Gulf. Between Perfia and Arabia. Gulf of Ormus. Towards the entrance into the Perfian gulf. Gulf of Scindi. Eaft ofthe gulf of Ormus. Gulf of Cambaya. South of the gulf of Scindi. Bay of Bengal, Flows on the coafts of India. Straits of Ma- 7 Between Malacca and the ifland of Su- lacca. J matra. Straits of Sunda. Between the iflands of Sumatra and Java. Gulf of Siam, Flows on the coaft of Siam, in India. Gulf of Toaquin. S. of China about lat. 20 N. long. 107 E. Yellow bea. Eaft of Pekin, in China. GEOGRAPHY. 65 Seas, Sec. Sea of Korea. Sea of Kamfcbatka. Waigat's Straits. White Sea, Lake of Onega. Lake of Ladoga. Situation. Eaft of the Yellow Sea. Coaft of Kamfchatka, Siberia, moft eaft ern part ofthe Ruffian Empire. Between Nova Zembla and Ruffia, N. E. of the White Sea. Flows from the Northern Ocean on the northern provinces of Ruffia in Europe. South of the White Sea. Between the gulf of Finland and the Lake of Onega. S.W- part of Sweden, By the fouth-wefterly part of Switzerland. South of Swabia in Germany. Lake of Wenter. Lake of Geneva. Lake of Conftance Li!Lfs!Ltnd } Are numer°us> but not veir iafse Lakes of England; Baffin's Bay, Hudfon's Bay, James's Bay, Hudfon's Straits, Are but few, and thofe but fmall, the chief are, Soham-mere, Wittlefea- mere, aftd Ramfey-mere, in the ifle of Ely, in Cambridgefhire. From the northern parts of America into the Continent. } Gulf of St. rence. Law .Bay ofFundy. Lakes of Canada. Straits of Baha- j ma. \ Gulf of Mexico. Apalaches Bay. Bay ofCampeachy, Lead into Hudfon's Bay. Between the continent of North Ame rica, and the iflands of Newfoundland and St. John. Between New Scotland and New England. Weft of New England and New York. Between Eaft Florida and the Bahama Iflands. South part of North America, from the coaft of Mexico to the cape of Eaft Flo rida, extending from thence fouthward as far as the weft of Cuba. Lat. 29 N. long. 85 W. South of the gulf of Mexico, about lat. 22 N. F Seas. 66 GEOGRAPHY. Seas, &c. Situation. Bay of Honduras. North coaft of Honduras, North America in about lat. 16. Spanijh Main. South of the Ifthmus of Panama. Caribbean Sea, Flows from the moft weftern iflands in the Weft Indies, to the north part of South America. Gulf of Darien. Between lat. 7 and 9 N. and long. 76 and 77 W. Gulf of Maracaylo. Lat. 10 N. long. 70 W. Straits of Magellan. Between Patagonia and the ifland of Terra del Fuego. Straits of La ? Between Terra del Fuego and Staten Maire. J or States Ifland. Gulf of California. South-weft part of North America, "be tween lat. 24 and 32. Bay of Panama. South of the Ifthmus of Panama, lat. 9 N. long. 80 W. The fmaller bays, ftraits, &c. are innumerable. CHAP. GEOGRAPHY. 67 Subdivifions of the Continent of Europe. CHAP. VII. ENGLAND and WALES. E N GLAND is fituated between 490 57' and 550 47' of north latitude, and between i° 52' of eaft, and 500 6' of weft longitude (a). England, anciently called Anglia, or Al bion, is bounded on the north by that part of Great Britain, called Scotland, from which it is feparated by the River Tweed, the Cheviot or Teviot Hills, and the River Eflcj on the fouth, by the Englifh Channel, which parts it from France; on the eaft, by the Bri tifh Ocean, which divides it from Denmark and the Netherlands; and on the weft, Eng land, together with Wales, is bounded by the Irifh Sea, which feparates them from Ireland.' The Counties of England and Wales, with the Dimenfions and Subdivifions of each, alfo the Number of Mem bers each fends to Parliament. Counties. Length Breadth Market Towns Parilhes N°.ofMem-bers fent to Parliament. NorthumberlandCumberland Durham Weftmoreland 5° 45 23 30 40 3° 2324 5. 12 6 8 40 58 118 26 s6 44 (a) Wales is within thefe limits. F 2 Counties. 68 GEOGRAPHY. Counties. 1 Length Breadth Market Towns 23 Parifhes N° of Mem- iers fent to Parliament. * Lancafter 55 31 66 «4 York \ 80 80 58 563 3° Chefter 45 25 11 86 4 Derby 38 28 9 106 4 Nottingham 3» 20 8 168 8 Lincoln 55 35 24 630 12 Salop 34 25 13 170 12 Stafford 40 26 16 130 10 Leiceffer 33 . .z* ; 12 'i93 4 Rutland 40 -ir circum- 2 48 2 Norfolk ' 3° 3«> 27 660 12 Worcefter 3° 22 11 63 9 Warwick 33 25 9 iS8 6 Northampton 40 20 11 326 9 Bedford 24 «3 10 116 4 Huntingdon 20 16 6 79 4 Cambridge 35 20 9 183 5 Suffolk 45 20 25 n\ 16 Hereford 3° 20 8 176 8 Mon'moBith 24 18 7 127 3 Gloucefter 4« 38 20 280 8 Oxford > 40 26V 12 280 9 Bucks 40 18 '5 185 *'4 Hertford 40 18 16 120 6 Effex 40 35 22 415 8 !3omerfet 55 42 35 385 18 Wilts 39 29 20 3°4 34 Berks 40 24 12 1 4O 9 Surry 34 21 7 I50 '4 . ¦Middlefey 19 16 7 - 74 8 Cornwall 60 40 ia 161 44 Devon 5° 5° 20 394 26 Dorfet 45 25 l5 248 20 Hants f 5° 30 12 53 26 Suflex 65 29 J3 3'2 20 Kent t 64 40 * 27 408 10 * The Ifle of Man, which lies weft t>f the counties of Weftmoreland and Lancafter, is about 30 miles long, and nine broad; it contains four market towns and feventeen. parifhes. f The Ifle of Wight ii included. X The Ifles of Shepey andThanet are included. WALES, GEOGRAPHY. 69 WALES, (the ancient Cimbria.) Counties. Length Breadth Market A OWHS Parifhes N° or'Mem be. ¦ fent to aniament. 3 Pembroke 26 20 8 '45 Carmarthen 35 3° 8 87 2 Glamorgan 20 4 11 18 2 Brecon 30 28 4 61 2 Radnor 9c ii l circum. 4 52 2 Cardigan 32 15 4 64 2 Montgomery 3° 22 6 47 2 Merioneth 36 28 3 37 1 Caernarvon 40 20 5 68 2 Denbigh 3° 18 4 57 2 Klint 24 H 2 21 2 IfleofAnglefea 20 16 2 74 2 Sinee the Norman conqueft .England has been divided into fix circuits, each containing a certain number of counties ; two judges are appointed for each circuit, which they vifit in the fpring and autumn (a), for the adminiftra tion of juftice. (a) In the affizes held in Spring, the Northern Circuit extends only tp York and Lancafter ; the affizes at Dur ham, Newcaftle, Carlifle, and Appleby, being held only in the Autumn, are diftinguifhed by the appellation of fhe Long Circuit. F3 The 7° GE O G R A T H Y. The Circuits, with their refpe&ive Counties, and Chief Towns, are as follow. Circuits. Counties. Chief Towns. rEffex — ~\ fChelmsford, Colchefter, Harwich, | Maiden, Saffron-Walden, Bock- I ing, Braintree, and Stratford. Hertford, (or Hertford, St. Albans, Ware, Hit- Hertford (hire) chin, Baldock, Bifhops-Stortfort, Berkhamfted, Hemfted, &Barnet, Kent — Maid&one, Canterbury, (abp.) Chat { ham, Rochejier, G reenwich, Wool j wich, Dover, Deal, Deptford i Feverfham, Dartford, Romney, [j Sandwich, Sheernefs, Tunbridge t . Home f \ Margate, Gravefend, and Milton Circuit Surry — j Southwark, Kingfton, Gundford Croydon, Eplom, Richmond Wandfworth, Batterfea, Putney, Farnham, Godalmin, Bagfhot, Egham, and Darking. Suflex — Chichefter, Lewes, Rye, Eafl>Grin- ftead, Haftings, Horfham, Mid- hurft, Shoreham, Arundel, Win- chelfea, Battel, Brighthelmftone, andPetworth. Aylefbury, Buckingham, High- Wickham,Great-Marlow, Stony- Stratford, and Newport-Pagnel. Bedford, Ampthill, Wooburn, D un liable, Luton, and Bigglefwade. Huntingdon, St. Ives, Kimbolton, Godmanchefter, St. Neot's, Ram- fey, and Yaxley. Cambridge, Ely, Newmarket, Roy- fton, and Wifbich. 'Bucks, (or Bucking ham (hire) Bedford, (or Bedfordshire)Huntingdon, (or Hunting donshire) Cambridge, or v. Norfolk <°'Ca°.- s W Circuit. < „ bridgefhire) ' Suffolk ¦ — Norfolk — Bury, Ipfwich, Sudbury, Leoftoff, part of Newmarket, Aldborough, Bungay, Southwold, Brandon, Halefworfh, Mildenhall, Beckles, Franglin'gham, Stow-market, Woodbridge, Lavenham, Hadley j Long-Melford, Stratford, and Eafterbergholt. Norwich, Thetford, Lynn, and Yarmouth. The Cities are put in Italicks. 3. Oxford GEOGRAPHY. Circuits. 3 . Oxford Circuit. 4. Midland Circuit. Counties. "Oxon, (or Ox fordshire) Berks, (or Berkihire) Gloucefter, (or Gloucefter-fhire) Worcefter, or «{ Worcefterfti.) Monmouth, (or Mon- mouthfliire) Hereford, (or Herefordfli.) Salop, (or Shropfhire) Stafford, (or Staffordshire) "Warwick, (or War- wickihire) Leicefter, (or Leicefterfhire) Derby, (or Derbyfhire) Nottingham, (orNotting-hamfliire) 7' Chief Towns. "* Oxford, Banbury, Chippingnorton, Henley, Burford, Whitney, Dor- chefter, Wood'ftock, and Tame. Abingdon, Windfor, Reading, Wal- lingford, Newbury, Hungerford, Maidenhead, Farrington, Wan tage, and Oakingham. Gloucefter, Tewkfbury, Cirencefter, part of Briftol, Campden, Stow, Berkley, Durfley, Leechdale, Tetbury, Sudbury, Wotton, and j Marfhfield. j Worcefter, Evefliam, Droitwich, >¦{ Bewdley, Stourbridge, Kidder- j minder, and Perlhore. Monmouth, Chepitow, Abergaven ny, Caerleon, and Newport. Hereford, Lemfter, Weobley, Led bury, Kyneton, and Rofs. Shrewfbury, Ludlow, Bridgnorth, Wenlock, Bifliop's-caftle, Wit- church, Ofweftry, Wem, and Newport. Stafford, Lichfield, Newcaftle under Line, Woolverhampton, Rugely, Burton, Utoxeter, and Stone. Warwick, Coventry, Birmingham, Stratford upon Avon, Tamworth, Aulcefter, Nuneaton, & Atherton. Leicefter, Melton-Mowbray, Afhby de la Zouch, Bofworth, and Har- borough. Derby, Chefteriield, Wirkfworth, Aflibourne, Bakewell, Balfover, and Buxton. Nottingham, Southwell, Newark, Eaft and Weft Redford, Manf- field, Tuxford, Workfop, and Blithe. >< * The City of Oxford and Town of Cambridge are the Englifh Unirerfitie!, each of them contain a certain number of Colleges and Halls. F 4 4, Midland 72 GEOGRAPHY. Circuits. Counties. Lincoln, (or Lincolnfhire) 4. Midland Circuit continued. 5. Weftern Circuit. Rutland, (or Rutlandlji.) >< Northampton, (or North- amptonlh.) Hants, (or Hampfhire) Wilts, (or Wiltfhire) Dorfet, (or Dorfetfhire) j Somerfet, (or J Sornerfetihire) X Devon, (or Devonfliire) Cornwall, J I Chief Towns. Lincoln, Stamford, Bofton, Gran tham, Croyland, Spalding, New Sleaford, Great Grimfby, Gainf, borough, Louth, and Horncaftle. Oakham and Uppingham. Northampton, Peterborough, Da ventry, Higham-Ferrers, Bracks ley, Oundle, Wellingborough, Thorpfton, Towcefter, Rocking-. ham, Kettering, and Rothwell. 'Winchefer, Southampton: Ports mouth; Andover, Bafingftoke, Chriftchurch,Petersfield,Lyming- ton, Ringwood, Rumfey, Aries- ford ; and Newport, Yarmouth, and Cowes, in the Ifle of Wight. Salifbury, Devizes, Marlborough, Malmfbury, Wilton, Chippenham, Caine, Cricklade, Trowbridge, Bradford, and Warminfter. Dorchefter, Lyme, Sherborn, ShaftfT bury, Pool, Blandford, Bridport, Weymouth, Melcombe, Ware- ham, and Winburn. Bath, Wells, Briftol in part, Taun7 ton, BHdgwater, Ilchefter, Mine- head, Milbourn-Port, Glaftenr bury, Willington, Dulverton, Dunfter, Watchet, Yeovil, So- merton, Axbridge, Chard, BruT ton, Shepton-Mallet, Crofcomb, and Fro< 1:1?. Exeter, Plymouth, Barnftaple, Bid- deford, Tiverton, Dartmouth, Taviftock, Topfham, Okehamp- ton Afhburto'n, Credeton, Moul- ton, Torrington, Totnefs, Ax- ininfter, Plympton, Honiton, and Ilfracomb. Launcefton, Falmouth, Truro, Salt- afh, Bodmyn, St. Ives, Padftow, Tregony, Fo'Wey, Penryn, Cal- lington, Leikeard, Leftwithiel, Hclfton, Penzance, and Redruth. Circuits. G E-O G R A P H Y. 73 6, Northern , Circuit, > Durham Northumb. Lancafter, (or Lancafhire) Weftmoreland Cumberland Circuits. Counties. Chief Towns. fYork, (or ~) (Tori, (abp.) Leeds, Wakefield, Yorkfhire) Halifax, _ Rippon, Pontefraft, Hull, Richmond, Scarborough' Boroughbridge, Mai ton, Shef field, Doncafter, Whitby, Be verly, Northallerton, Burlington, Knarefborough, Barnefley, Sher- born, Bradford, Tadcafter, Skip- ton, Wetherby, Ripley, Heydon, Howden, Th'irfke, Gifborough,' Pickering, and Yarum. Durham, Stockton, Sunderland, Stanhope, Barnard- Caftle, Dar lington, Hartlepool, and Auk- \{ land. Newcaftle,Tinmouth,NorthShields, Morpeth, Alnwick, and Hexham. Lancafter, Manchefter, Prefton, Li verpool, Wiggan, Warrington, Rochdale, Bury, Ormfcirk, Hawklhead, and Newton. Appleby, Kendal, Longfdale, Kirk- . by-Stephen, Orton, Amblefide, Burton, and Milthorpe. Carlifle, Penrith, Cockermouth, Whitehaven, Ravenglafs, Egre- mont, Kefwick, Workington, and J I Jerby. Middjefex and Chefhire are not comprehended in the above circuits • the former being the feat of the fupremecouris of juftice, and the latter a county palatine. Befides the county palatirie of Chefter, there are two others, Lancafter and Durham; but tne two latter are now in cluded in the circuits. There is ftill a court of Chancery in Lancafter and Durham, with a chancellor; and there is a court of exchequer at Chefter, of a mixed kind, both for law and equity, of which the chamberlain of Chefter is judge : there are alfo other juftices in the counties palatine to determine civil aftions and pleas ofthe crown. Middlefex ~) [London, firft meridian, N. Lat. 51 32. Wellminfter, Uxbridge, Brentford, Chelfea, Highgate, Hampftead, Kenfington, Hack s' ney, and Hampton- Court. ) ! Qbefler, Nantwicb, Macclesfield, j I Malpas, Northwich, Middlewich, | 1 Sanbach, Congleton, Knotsford, J L Frodifham, and Hauiton. ClRtUITS Counties exclufive of^ the Circuits | Chefhir? — 74 GEOGRAPHY. North- Eaft Circuit. North -Weft Circuit. South-Eaft Circuit. South-Weft Circuit. Circuits of WALES (a). Flintfhire* "J r Flint, St. 4faph, and Ho lywell. Denbighshire I J Denbigh, Wrexham, and | Ruthen. Montgomery- I j Montgomery, Llanvylin, (hire J (_ ¦ and Welchpool. Anglefea, Ifle -\ r Beaumaris, Holyhead, and I I Newburgh. Caernarvon- I \ Bangor, Conway, Caernar- fhire f \ von, and Pullilly. Merioneth- I I Dolgelly, Bala, and Har- fhire J (_ legh. Radnorfhire 1 r Radnor, Preftean, and I Knighton. Brecon f I J Brecknock, Built, and n Hay Glamorgan- I I Llandaff, Cardiff, Cow- fliire' J L bridge, Neath, & Swanfey. "Pembrokefhire") f St. David's, Haverfordweft, | Pembroke, Tenby, Fif- ' | card, and Milford-haven. Cardigan, Aberiftwith, and Cardiganshire Caermarthen- fhire )¦¦{ Llanbadarn-vawr. L Caermartherj, Kidwelly, Lanimdovery, Llandilo- vawr, Langharn, Lanel- fhyl In ENGLAND. 80 knights. 40 Counties, which fend up to parlia ment 21; Cities (Ely none, London four) 50 citizens. 167 Boroughs, two each — 334. burgeffes. 5 Boroughs, (Abingdon, Banbury, ~i Bewdley, Highham-perrars, C 5 burgeffes; and Monmouth) one each J 2 Univerfities — 4. representatives (a) Wales lies between about 51 and 54 degrees of north latitude, and be tween zT- and 5 degrees «f weft longitude, * If fpoken of as Counties, the termination fliire muft be left out. •f Called Brecknocklnire. The fix firlt mentioned Counties of Wales, are termed North Wales, and the ether fix South Wales. 8. Cinque GIOGRAPHY. 75 8 Cinque ports, (Haftings, Dover, J Sandwich, Romney, Hvtne' / and their three dependents, > 16 barons. Rye, Winchelfea, and Sea- \ ford) two each — J WALES, j 2 Counties — — — 12 knights. j 2 Boroughs (Pernbroke two, Merioneth J , ~ none) one each J SCOTLAND. 33 Shires 30 knights. 67 Cities and Boroughs — 15 burgeffes. Total 558 * Befides the 52 counties into which England and Wales are divided, there are counties cor porate, confifting of certain diftricts, to which the liberties and jurifdiclions peculiar to a county have been granted by royal charter. Thus the city of London is a county diftincr. from Middlefex ; the cities of York, Chefter, Briftol, Exeter, Norwich, Worcefter, and the towns of Kingfton upon Hull, and Newcaftle upon Tyne, are counties of themfelves, diftincr. from thofe in which they lie. The fame may be faid of Berwick upon Tweed, which lies- in Scotland, and has within its juridiction a fmall territory of two miles on the north fide of the river. Under "j6 GEOGRAPHY. Under the name of a town, boroughs and cities are contained : for every borough or city is a town, though every town is not a borough or city. A borough is fo called, becaufe it fendeth up burgeffes to parliament j and this maketh the difference between a village or town, and a borough. Some boroughs are corporate, and fome not corporate ; and though decayed, as Old Sarum, they ftill fend bur geffes to Parliament. A city is a corporate borough, that hath had, or at prefent hath, a bifhop ; for if the bifhopric is diffolved, yet the city remaineth. To have fuburbs proveth it to be a city. Some cities are alfo counties, as before mentioned, Mountains. The moft noted mountains of England and Wales are the Peak in Derbylhire, the Endle in Lancafhire, the Woldes in York fhire, the Cheviot hills on the borders of Scot land, the Chiltern in Buckinghamfhire, the Mal vern in Worcefterfhire, Cotfwoldin Glou.cefter- fhire, the Wrekin in Shropftiire, and thofe of Plinlimmon and Snowdon in Wales. Forefts. The principal Englifh forefts arc Windfor Foreft, New Foreft, Foreft of Deana Sherwood Foreft, and Epping Foreft. The GEOGRAPHY. *jj Rivers. The principal river of England is thd Thames, which rifes on the confines of Glou- cefterfhire *, whence it flows on to Oxford, re ceiving many rivulets in its paffage ; from Ox ford it proceeds towards Abingdon, Wal- lingford, Reading, Marlow, and Windfor; thence through Kingfton to Richmond, where it meets the tide j whence it flows to Lon don, and after dividing the counties of Kent and Effex, it widens in its progrefs, till it falls into the fea at the Nore. The other principal rivers of England, are, the Medway, which rifes near Tunbridge, aiid falls into tlie mouth of the Thames, at Sheernefs, whence it is navigable to -the largeft fhips as far as Chatham. The Severn, reckoned the fecond river for importance in England, and the firft for rapidity, rifes at Plinlimmon-hill, in North Wales ; it becomes navigable at Welchpool, runs eaft to Shrewfbury, then turning fouth, vifits Bridgnorth, Worcefter, and Tewkfbury, where it receive* the upper Avon. After having paffed Gloucefter, it takes a fouth-weft di rection ; near its mouth it is increafed by the Wye and Ufke, and difcharges itfelf into the Briftol Channel, near Ringwood, where the * It is called the Ifis before it is joined by the Thame alsove Oxford ; hence the Latin name Tamifs. i great 7& G E O G R A P H-Yf great fhips which cannot get up to Briftol lie* The Trent rifes in the Moorlands of Stafforcf- fhirej and running fouth-eaft by Newcaftle- under-Line, divides that county into two parts- ; then turning north-eaft on the confines of Der- byfhire, vifits Nottingham, running the whole length of that county to Lincolnfhire, and being joined toward the mouth by the Oufe, and feve ral other rivers, it obtains the name ofthe Hum- ber, and falls into the fea fouth-eaft of Hull. Another Oufe rifes in Buckinghamfhire, and falls into the fea near Lynn, in Norfolk. The Tine runs from weft to eaft through Northumberland, and falls into the fea at Tinmouth, below Newcaftle. The Tees runs from weft to eaft, it divides Durham from Yorkfhire, and falls into the fea below Stock ton. The Tweed runs from weft to eaft on the borders of Scotland, and falls into the fea at Berwick. The Eden runs from fouth to north through Weftmoreland and Cumber land, and falls into Solway Firth, below Car lifle. The lower Avon runs weft through Wiltfhire to Bath, and then dividing Somer- fetfhire from Gloucefterfhire, it runs to Briftol, and falls into the mouth of the Severn below that city. The Derwent runs from eaft to weft GEOGRAPHY. 79 weft thtough Cumberland, and falls into the Irifh Sea a little below Cockermouth. The Ribble runs from eaft to weft through Lanca fhire, it paffes by Prefton, and difcharges itfelf into the Irifh Sea. The Merfey runs from fouth-eaft to north-weft through Che fhire ; it divides Chefhire from Lancafhire, and falls into the Irifh Sea a little below Liver pool. The Dee rifes in Wales, and divides Flintfhire from Chefhire, and falls into the Irifh Channel below Chefter. Commerce. England has woollen manu factures for one principal part of its foun dation. In England, it is fuppofed, on an ave rage, there are twelve millions of fleeces fhorn annually, which are worth nearly one million pounds fterling. Tin and lead is another great ar ticle of commerce ; the mines in Cornwall are fuppofed to employ 100,000 men. An ore, called mundic, is found in the beds of tin, which furnifhes copper equal in goodnefs to the beft from Spain : this is fuppofed to bring in an nually one hundred and fifty thoufand pounds. This ore yields a great quantity of lapis ca- laminaris, which, mixed with copper, makes brafs. Coals, another article of commerce abound in many counties in England, efpecially in Nortbum- So d e q © R a p h Y. Northumberland and Durham. Many Valu able productions, though inferior to the before- mentioned articles, are natives of England, fuch as corn *, faffron, allum, &c. &c. The quality of the Englifh manufactures, as well upon home produce as foreign, is fo excellent, that they are univerfally fought after, England exports to the Weft Indies, Ofha- burghs, (a coarfe land of linen with which the Weft Indians clothe their flaves). Linen of* all forts, broad cloths, kerfeys, filks, ftufts, ftockings, fhoes, hats, millinery-ware, beer, candles, cheefe, butter ; manufactured iron and . fteel, copper, brafs, lead, coals, &c. And in return England- imports from the Weft Indie?, fugar, rum, cotton, logwood, cocoa, coffee, pimento, ginger, indigo, mahogany, manchi- neel planks, drugs, and preferves. England exports to the Eaft Indies all kinds of woollen manufactures, and all forts of hard-, ware, lead, and quickfilver j and imports gold, diamonds, raw filk, drugs, tea, pepper, arrack, china-ware, and faltpetre ; England likewife imports from thence, for the purpofe of feqdino- * Corn and cattle are confiderable articles of exportatiqn. out \ GEOGRAPHY* 8l out again to foreign countries certain woven manufactures of India1, fuch as wrought filks, muffins, callicoes, and cottons, the ufes of which are prohibited in England, that our own manu facture on the like raw materials may not be difcouraged. England exports to Turkey woollen cloths, tin, lead, iron, hardware, clocks, watches, verdigris, cochineal, &c. and imports thence raw filks, carpets, fkins, cotton, coffee, dying drugs, &c. England exports to Italy woollen goods of various kinds, peltry, leather, lead, tin, fifh, and Eaft India goods, and imports thence raw and thrown filk, velvets, wines, oil, foap, olives, oranges, lemons, dried fruits, ancho vies, &c. England exports to Spain and Portugal all kinds of v/oollen goods, linen, leather, tin, lead, fifh, ;corn, iron and brafs manufactures, haberdafhery wares, &c. and imports thence wines, oil, dried fruits, . oranges, lemons, olives, wool, indigo, cochineal and other dying drugs, colours, and gold and filver coin. G England 82 GEOGRAPHY. England exports to France tobacco, lead, tin, flannels, horns, cattle, corn, hardware, broad cloths, boots, fhoes, butter, coals, &c. and imports thence brandies, wines, cambricks> kce, velvets, &c. England exports to Flanders ferges, flannels,, tia, lead, fugars, and- eobaccOi and imports thence laces, linen, cambricks, &c. England exports to Germany cloths, fluffs, tin, pewter, fugars, tobacco, and Eaft India merchandize,, and imports thence linen, thread, goats fkins, tinned plates,, timber, &c, England exports to Poland and Lithuania^ fey way of Dantzic, refined fugars, tobacco, woollen goods, hardware,, malt, liquors, rice,, coffee,, leather, lead, tin, fait, fea< coal, pep per, &c. ;. our imports thence are but few in comparifon to the exports y they are for the moft part peltry. England exports to Holland woollen goods, hides, corn,, coals,. Eaft India,, and Turkey merchandize,, tobacco, tar, fugar, &c. and imports thence fine linen, lace, cambricks, thread, tapes, incle, madder,, boards, drugs, whalebone,, train-oil,. &c. England GEOGRAPHY. $3 England exports to Arabia, Perfia, China, and other parts of Afia, bullion, foreign filver coin, woollen manufactures, lead, iron, and brafs,. and imports thence muffins, cottons, callicoes, raw filks, teas, porcelain, gold duft, coffee, faltpetre, &c. England exports to North America' -vM kinds of Englifh manufactures, and imports thence tobacco, tar, pitch, &c. England exports to the northern parts of Europe and America woollen manufactures, hard ware, &c. &c. and imports thence peltry, timber, &c. — From Ruffia England receives a great quantity of coarfe linen. Woollen manufactures are common to many towns of England, efpecially to Norwich, Ex eter, and Colchefter. In Dorfetfhire cordage is manufactured for the navy. Briftol is fa mous for many manufactures, and particu larly glafs and brafs wire 3 Birmingham for hard ware manufactures, fnuff and tobacco-boxes, buttons, fhoe-buckles, &c. Sheffield is like- wife famous for hardware of all forts. Wor cefter and Staffordfhire are famous for earthen ware ; Nottingham, Derbyfhire, Leicefter, Co- G 2 ventry, ?4 GEOGRAPHY. ventry, &c. are each noted for fome particular commodity j Manchefter is noted for its beau tiful cottons, dimities, tickens, checks, and velvets, as are likewife different towns in York fhire. The Englifh carpets, particularly thofe of Wilton and Kidderminfter, exceed thofe of Turkey in beauty. CHAP. C E OC'R A P-H Y. 85., CHAP. VIII. Of Scotland, (the ancient Caledonia.) A HAT, part of Great Britain called Scot land, is bounded on the fouth .by England and the Irifh Sea, on every other extremity it is bounded by the -Ocean. Scotland is feparated from England by a line from Solway Firth, paffing eaftward along the Cheviot Hills, and thence a very little to the northward of the River Tweed *. It is fituated between 54 and and 590 of north latitude, and between 1 and 6° of weft longitude. Scotland has been diftinguifhed by fome au thors into Highlands and Lowlands ; the thir teen moft northerly counties were deemed the Highlands, and all the reft Lowlands. It is now moftly confidered as being divided into * The Town of Berwick on the north fide of the Tweed, commonly called Berwick' upon Tweed, is formed into a town and county of itfelf, having particu lar privileges of its own, which diftinguifhes it in a po litical fenfe from England and Scotland.. G 3 now 86 GEOGRAPHY. north and fouth from the Frith of Forth to wards the weft, having fifteen counties north, and eighteen fouth : it is fubdivided into fhe- rjffdoms, ftewarties, and bailiwicks, according to the aneient tenures and privileges of the landholders. The fhires, &x. are as follow : , Shires, WigtownKirkcudbright Dumfries Roxborough Air Lanerk PeeblesSelkirk Bute * Renfrew Linlithgow Edinburgh ' Sheriffdoms & other '.:, ¦ fubdivifions. J Galloway, Weft 7 j I. Part - H Galloway, EaftPart f Nithfdale, Annan- 7 j I dale — I I t Tiviotdale, Lidf- j i < dale, Efkdale and > < I Eufdale — St { Kyle, Carrick, and Cunningham Clydefdale Tweedale -^- Ettrick Eoreft Bute, Ar-ran, Renfrew — Weft-Lothian "li \ Mid- Lothian Chief Towns", Wigtown, Stanraer, and Whitehorn. Kirkcudbright. Dumfries, Annand. Jedburgh,.. Kelfo, and Melrofs. Air, Kilmarnock, Jrwin, Maybole, Stewarton, and Saltcots.- Glafgow," Harnil- ton, Lanerk, and Rutherglen. Peebles. Selkirk.Rothfay. Renfrew, Paifley, Greenock, and _ Port-Glafgow. Linlithgow, Bur- roughftonnefs, & Queensferry. Edinburgh, M uffel- burgh,Leith,and Dalkeith. * Butefhire contains the Iflands of Bute and Arran, both in the Frith of Clyde. Bute is.abpuc ten miles long, and three or four broad ; in it is the Caftle and Royal Burgh of Rotbfay, which gave the title of Duke to the e|deft fons of the Kings of Scotland, as it now does to the Prince of Wales, Shires. GEOGRAPHY. 87 Shires. Merfe,antient- ly Berwick Sheriffdoms & other fubdivifions. Chief Towns. Haddington < Eaft-Lothian DumbartonStirlingKinrofs and Clacmanatti C The Merches, and ) [„ , r , | Lauderdale ^ | Duns, and Lauder { Lenox Stirling Fife Part — Fife — ^ Fife L J "Argyle, Cowal, Knapdale, Can- tyre, and Lorn, with part of the Argyle — - -{ Weftern Ifles, )¦¦< particularly Ifla, | Jura, Mull, Wift, Terif, Col, and I Lifmore — J ("Perth, Athol, Gow-"| 1 ry, Broadalbin, | j Monteith, Stra- { j thern, Glen- ( | fhield and Ray- } Dunbar, Hadding ton, and North- Berwick Dumbarton. Stirling & Falkirk. HAlloway, Kinrofs, Culros,andClac- manan. fSt. Andrew's, Cow- I per, Falkland, Kirkaldy, Innar- kythen, Ely, )-< Burnt Ifland, Dumfermlin, Dyfart, Anftru- ther, and Aber- dour. Inverary, DunftafF- nage, Killon- mer, and Camp beltown. Perth — L nork — Forfar — -» Forfar, Angt Kincardin -5 Merns G4 j Perth, Scone, Dum- J Wane, Blair, and j Dunkeld. Montrofe, For far, Dundee, Abroath, and Brechin. 1 t Bervie, Stonhive, j I and Kinkardin. Invernefs H' £g GEOGRAPHY. Shires. Jnyernefs Nairne &Cro martie JJamff — Aberdeen Rofs — Sutherland CathnefsPrknay — Chief Towns. 5Invernefs, Inver- lochy, Fort Au- guftus, Beaulieu. Sheriffdoms & other fubdivL'ions. f Aird, Sjrathglafs, \ Sky, Harris, < Badenoch, Loch- I aber, and Qletir I morifon - f Weftern part '< Murray and Cro f_ martie. j Murray anAStrathr 1 S Elgitv and For?ps f BamfF, Strathdo- ¦m Nairne, Cromartie. i vern,?oyne,Eu- zy, Balveny, Strathawin, and part of Buchan > < BamfFand Cullen. X fOLi Aberdeen, | New Aberdeen, Fraferfburgh,PeTterhead,Kintore, Inverarie, Strath- bogje, and Old Meldrum. ¦< | Taine, Dingwall, Fortrofe, Rofe- Mar, Buchan, Ga- ^ rioch, and Strath- [ "* " . pEafter and Wefter"' I Rofs, Ifle of 1 Lewis, Loch- I broom, Lochcar- -( ran, Ardmea- nach, Redcaftle, Ferrintofh, Strathpeffer, and Ferrindonald C Strathnaver and \ Sutherland Cathnefs — Wick and Thurfo. J Ifles of Orkney and 1 { Kirkwall and Skal- / Shetland -r ] ( I Keffo. 'J I > i Strathy& Dornoch. loway. In all thirty-three fhires, which chufe thirty reprefenta- tives to fit in the parliament of Great Britain, Bute and Cathnefs chufmg alternately, as do Nairne and Cromartie, and Clacmanan and Kinrofs. The GEOGRAPHY. H The Royal Burghs which chufe Reprefentatives are, Edinburgh — Kirkwall, Wick, Dor- -i noch, Dingwall, and > Tayr.e — J Fortrofe, Tnvernefs, 7 Nairne, and Forres i Elgin, Cullen, BamfF, 7 Inverury, and Kin tore S Aberdeen, Bervie, t Montrofe, Aberbro- J- the, and Brechin J Forfar, Perth, D undee, t Cowper, and St. ?¦ Andrews -a- J Crail, Kilrenny, An- -1 ftruther Eaft & Weft, [• and Pittenweem J Innerkythen, Dum- fermline, Queens- ferry, Culrofs, and Stirling — } Dyfcr, Kirkaldy, King- horn, &Burnt Ifland Glafgow, Renfrew Rutherglen, an Dumbarton Haddington, Dunbar, North Berwick, Lau; J. der, and Jedburgh 3 Selkirk, Peebles, Lin- 7 lithgow, and Lanerk i Dumfries, Sanquehar, Annan, Lochrhaberi, and Kircudbright Wigtown, New Gallo way? Stranrawer', and Whitehorn — Air, Irwin, Roth'fay,T ' Campbelton, and In- S- verary , J Frew, T and (. >] There are four Univerftties in Scotland, viz. St. An drews, Glafgow, Aberdeen, and Edinburgh. Rivers of Scotland. The Forth is the largeft river in Scotland j it rifes near Monteith, paffes by Stirling, and difcharges itfelf into the Britifh Ocean near Edinburgh ; its mouth is known by the name of the Firth of Forth. The next principal river in Scotland is the Tay, which iffues from Loch Tay, paffes the town of Perth, and falls into the fea at Dundee : this 9® GEOGRAPHY. this river is the feparation between the High lands and Lowlands. The Spey is the moft rapid river in Scotland, it rifes in Bandenoch, and falls into the fea near Elgin, as do likewife the rivers Dee and Don. The Tweed rifes on the borders of Lanerkfhire, and difcharges itfelf into the fea at Berwick. The Clyde rifes in Annandale, paffes by Lanerk, Hamilton, Glafgow, Renfrew, Dumbarton, and Gree nock, and falls into the Firth of Clyde, op pofite to the Ifle of Bute. A communication has been made between the rivers Forth and Clyde by means of a canal, but towards the Clyde it is not fufficiently deepened to admit fhips of even fmall burthen : by a collateral cut made navigable to veffels of fmall burthen from the canal to Glafgow, the merchants there are much benefited. Another cut of about a mile has been made from Loch Fyn *, through the Ifthmus of Cantire, in Argylefhire. The coafts of Scotland are in many parts indented, with navigable bays, called Firths or Lochs. The Lakes are likewife called * Loch Fyn is remarkable for its fine herrings. Lochs, GEOGRAPHY. q^ Lochs, as Loch Lomond, in Dumbartonfhire } Loch Tay, in Perthfhire, Loch Nefs, in In- vernefsfhire, &e. At Campbletown^ in Argylefhire, there is fometimes an affemblage of two or three hundred fifhing veffels, called Buffes. The Scotch alfb engage in the Whale fifheries. They have fe- feral wooilen manufactories. Scotland produces great quantities of irons which is worked in its own founderies. CHAP; 9* GEOGRAPHY. CHAP. IX. Of I r e l a n q, (the ancient Britannia Parva, called alfo Hibernia.) I RE LAND is fituated weft of Great Bri tain, between 510 and 55 ° 20' of north la titude, and between 6° and io° 35' of weft longitude j it is encompaffed by; the Irifh Sea and the Atlantick. Ireland is generally con- fidered as being divided into four provinces, each of which contains a certain number of counties ; they are as follow : Ulfter, mine Counties. Provinces. Counties. Down, — Armagh, — Monaghan, — Cavan, — ¦{ Antrim, — Londonderry, Tyrone, — Fermanagh, .Donegall, — r Lei trim, — r. ,. . \ Rofcommon, Connaught, 5JM _ J Shgo, — l.Galway, — Counties. Chief Towns. Down Patrick. Armagh. Monaghan. Cavan.Carrickfergus. Derry. Omagh. Ennifkillen. Lifford. Carrick on Shannon. Rofcommon. Ballinrobe & Caftlebar. Sligo. Galway. Leinfter, GEOGRAPHY. 93 Provinces. Leinfter, 12 Counties. Munfter, fix Counties. Counties. Dublin, — Louth, — Wicklow,. — Wexford, — — Longford, — j Eaft Meath, — ^ Weft Meath, — King's County, Queen's County, Kilkenny, — Kildare, — LCarlow, — Clare, — Cork, — Kerry, — Limerick, — Tipperary, — Waterford, — Chief Towns. Dub/in.Drogheda. Wicklow. Wexford.Longford. Trim. Mullingar.Philipftown.Maryborough. Kilkenny. Naas and Athy. Carlow. Enhis. Cork. Tralee.Limerick. Clonmell, Waterford. Rivers. The Shannon iffues from Lough Allen, in the county of Leitrim ; it divides Connaught from the other three provinces, and falls into the Atlantick about long, io9 weft, between Loop Head and Kerry-point. The Boyne falls into St. George's Channel at Drogheda. The Liffey runs through the city of Dublin, and falls into the Bay. The Bar row, Nore, and Suir unite their ftreams, and fall into Waterford Haven. The coafts of Ireland are indented with many fine bays, havens, harbours, and creeks. Se veral 94 GEOGRA'PHY. veral canals have been cut in different parts of the kingdom ; that between the Liffey at Dub lin and the Shannon, is about 60 miles in extent, and opens a communication between St. George's Channel and the Atlantick. "Ireland has four Archbifhopricks, viz. Ar magh, Dublin, Cafhel, and Tuam. The Bi- fhopricks are eighteen in number, viz. Clogher, Clonfert, Cloyne, Cork, Derry, Down, Dro- more, Elphin, Kildare, Killalqe, Leighlin, Limerick, Killala, Meath, Oflbry, Raphoe, Kilmore, and Waterford. Ireland has one Univerfity, called Trinity College, which is in Dublin. The number of ftudents belonging to it are about 400. It has the power of conferring the degrees of Bachelor, Mafter, and Doctor in all the arts and fa culties. The chief commercial commodities of Ire land are, linen, fluffs, beef, pork, hides, tal low, butter, cheefe, honey, wax, fait, hemp, pipe-ftaves, Sec, CHAP. GEOGRAPHY, $£ CHAP. X. Of Denmark and Norway. Denmark and Norway are parts of the ancient Scandinavia. DENMARK, on the Continent, (an ciently called Cimbrica Cherfonefus), contains North Jutland and South Jutland, or die Duchy of Slefwick. Jutland was formerly called Cim- bria ; it lies between 54 and 58 degrees of north latitude, and between 8 and 1 1 degrees of eaft longitude. It is bounded on the north by that part of the Britifh Ocean which leads towards the Cattegate j on the fouth by Ger many ; on the eaft by the Cattegate and the Sound, which feparates it from Sweden j and on the weft by the Britifh Ocean. The feve ral iflands at the entrance of the Baltic, men tioned with the principal European iflands, likewife Iceland, in the Northern Ocean, and the Faro Iflands, all belong to Denmark. The two principal iflands at the entrance of the Bal- a tic, §6 geography. tic, are Zealand and Funen. Copenhagen, the capital of Denmark, is in the ifland of Zealand. Funen is weft of Zealand •, the paffage between them is called the Great Belt. The Little Belt is between Funen and Jutland. Oldenburgh and Delmenhorft, in Weftphalia, one of the grand divifions of Germany, and Stromar, in Lower Saxony, another grand divifion, are both fub- jeft to Denmark, as is likewife the northern part of Holftein, in the fame divifion. Norway, (anciently Norwegia), which is alfb fubjecr. to Denmark, lies between 58 and 72 degrees of north latitude, and between about 4° and 30° of eaft longitude: it is bounded on the north and the weft by the Northern Ocean; on the fouth, by the part of the Britifh Ocean which leads to the Cattegate; and on the eaft, by a ridge of mountains, ex tending from the moft northern to the moft fouthern parts, dividing it from Sweden. It is principally divided into the governments of Bergen, Aggerhuys, Drontheim, and Wardhuys, which contains Norwegian or Danifh Lap land. CHAP. geography, 97 CHAP. XI. Of SWEDEN *, (a part ofthe ancient Scan dinavia, called Suecia.) OWEDEN lies between 56 and 69 degrees of north latitude, and between 10 and 31 de grees of eaft longitude. It is bounded on the north by Norwegian or Danifh Lapland ; on the fouth, by the Cattegate Sea, the Baltic Sea„ and'the Gulf of Finland; on the eaft, by Ruffia and the Baltic, and1 on the weft, by the Norwe gian mountains and the Cattegate. Sweden is principally divided into Sweden pro per, (which contains Stockholm), Gothland, Scho- nen, Swedifh Lapland, and Weft Bothnia ; Swe- difh Finland and Eaft Bothnia, and the- iflands of Gothland, 0 eland-, and- Rugen, mentioned with the .principal European iflands. The Principality of Pomerania, in Upper Saxony, (one ofthe grand divifions of Germany), likewife belongs to Sweden. * Norway, Denmark, and Sweden made, the whale o.f die ancient Scandinavia. H CHAP, J& G EO G R A P H.Y., CHAP. XII. Of Russia (anciently Mufcovia, containing a great part of ancient Sarmatia Europea and Sarmatia Afiatica). IVUSSIA, in Europe and Afia, lies between 47 and 7 2 degrees of north latitude, and between 13 and 180 degrees of eaft longitude. It is bounded on the north by the Northern Ocean ; oa the fouth, by Poland, Little Tartary, part of the Turkifh dominions, and Independent Mogulean and Chinefe Tartary; on the eaft by the northern part of the Pacific Ocean; and on the weft by the White Sea, Sweden, the Baltic Sea, Pruffia, and Poland. Ruffia is divided into 31 governments, among which are, Ruffian Finland, Ruffian Lapland, Kexholm, Ingria, (which contains Peterflurgh), Livonia, Dwina,. Great Novdgorod, Little Novo- gorod, Mufcow, Belgorod, Don Coffacks, Ukraine, &c. &c. alfo the Dutchy of Courland in Poland, Crim Tartary in Turkey, Siberia, which extends to the Pacific Ocean, and many Tartarian na tions. C H A *>'. geography. 90 CHAP. XIH, Of POLAND (apart of ancient Sarmatia Europea.) JL OLAND, excluding Courland, and inclu ding Lithuania, lies between 47" 30, and 5 6° 30' of north latitude, and between 16 and 32 de grees of eaft longitude. It is bounded on the north and on the eaft by Ruffia ; on the fouth by Hungary and Turkey in Europe ; and on the weft by Germany. Poland is principally divided into Lithuania, Podolia, Volhinia, Red Ruffia, Great Poland, Little Poland, Polefia, Mafovia, in which is the capital, Warfaw, Samogitia, Pruffia Royal; and Polachia. CHAP. XIV- Ot P R U S STA, (formerly a province of Po land, divided into Regal and Ducal Pruffia.) Pt RUSSIA is bounded on the north by part of Samogitia, on the fouth by part of Poland 1-1 2 Proper, ICC GEOGRAPHY. Proper, and Mafovia, on the eaft by part of Lithuania, and on the weft by Polifti Pruffia and the Baldc. The Pruffian dominions are fcattered in diffe rent parts of Germany,, in Poland, on the fhores of the Baltic, and in Switzerland. They are as fallow : Ducal Pruffia, Brandenb-urgh in Upper Saxo ny,, one of the grand divifions of Germany, (in * which is Berlin, the royal refidence) ; Pruffian and Swedifh Pomerania, both likewife in Upper Saxony; Magdeburg and Halberftadt, both in Lower Saxony, another grand divifion of Ger many; Glatz in Bohemia, and Minden, Raven- fburg, Cleves, Mark, and Embden, all in Weft- phalia, another grand divifion of Germany j Meurs in the Lower Rhine, another grand divi fion of Germany -x Gelder in the Netherlands, Neufchatel in Switzerland, great part of Silefia,. (which is fouth-eaft of Brandenburg), the cities ©f Dantzic and Thorn, and the adjacent coun try near the rivers Viftula and Neifter. CHAR «EOGRAFHY. iol C HA P. XV. Of GERMANY, (a part of ancient Ger many, Gaul, and Ulyricum). G 'ERMANY lies between 45 and 55 de grees of north latitude, and between 5 and 19 degrees of eaft longitude. It is bounded on the north by the Britifh Ocean, Denmark, and the Baltick ; on the fouth, by Switzerland and the Alps, which divide it from Italy ; on the eaft, by Poland and Hungary, including Bohemia ; and on the weft, by the Netherlands and France, from which it is feparated by the rivers Maes, Mofelle, and Rhine. Germany is principally divided into nine circles, three north, three middle, and thr.ee fouth, they are as follow ; ! Upper Saxony, Lower Saxony, Weftphalia. {Upper Rhine, Lower Rhine, Franconia. H 3 The i©2 GEOGRAPHY. i Auftria *, TJavaria, Swabia. Thefe Circles are each divided into many parts, under the names of Principalities, Duchies, Landgravates, Marquifates, Counties, Arch- bifhopricks, Bifhopricks, &c. j-, making in all about 300 diyifions. In almoft all of thefe divifions, the perfon at the head of each is an arbitrary prince or governor within his own territories, but with refpecf. to the con.cerns of the empire at large, they all, together with the imperial towns, and the Emperor as head of the- whole, form one collective political bo dy, called the Diet, the determinations of which are binding to every divifion. The Empire, though elective, has, through policy, been yelled ajmoft uninterruptedly in the Houfe of Auftria for feveral centuries, the Electors of the Empire are nine, as follow : The Archbifhop of Mentz, The Archbifhop of Treyes, * The circle of Auftria contains Vienna. f Several Abbots and AbbefTes. chofen by their re- jfpeftive Chapters, have abfolute jurifdiction withjn certain djftrias. The GEOGRAPHY. tOj The Archbifhop of Cologne, The Elector of Saxony, The Elector of Brandenburgh, The Elector of Hanover, The Elector Palatine, • - The Elector of Bavaria, The Elector of Bohemia. The chief of the ecclefiaftical and fecular princes of the empire, befides the Electors are, the Archbifhop of Saltzburg, the Bifhops of Liege, Munfter, Spire, Worms, Wirtfburgh, Strafburgh, Ofnaburgh, Bam burgh; the Land grave of Heffe ; the Dukes of Brunfwick, Wolfenbuttel, Wirternberg, Mecklenburgh, Saxe Gotha; the Marquiffes of Baden and Culmbach, and the Princes of Naffau, An-. halt, Furftenburgh, &c. The. imperial and free cities are likewife fovereign flates, and have peculiar privileges, among which the Hanfe * , Towns enjoy the greateft. Germany has 36 Univerfities, of which 17 are proteftant. . . * The Hanfe Towns were formerly in league together for the defence ofthe whole," and in lieu of their former cxinfequence, by the prefent fyftem of politics, they enjoy great privileges and immunities. ' H4 CHAP. 1 04 GEOGfLAfHY. CHAP. XVI, Of BOHEMIA, with Silefia and Moravia, JDOPIEMIA lies between 48 and 52 de grees of north latitude, and between 12 and 19 degrees of eaft longitude. It is bounded On the north by Upper Saxony ; on the fouth, by Bavaria and Auftria ; on the eaft, by Poland and Hungary ; and on the weft, by Franconia and JSavaria. Bohem'a Proper, which contains Prague, the 1 capital, is moftly fubjeft to the Houfe. of Aiir- ftria; Silefia is moftly fubject to the Kinp of Pruffia- and Moravia is entirely fubject to the Houfe of Auftria. The Empercr pf Germany is King of Bo hemia ¦ Bohemia, however, though an electo- 'rate of' Germany, is not a part of it, for it -is not fubject to its laws, neither does it eon- tribute towards its forces or revenues, for the forms ofthe old conftitution ftill flibfift, thouo-h fhe government under the Emperor is defpotic. CHAP. S E O G R A P H Y. 105 CHAP. XVII. Of HOLLAND, (the ancient Batavia, and part of ancient Belgium.) H OLLAND, commonly known by the name of the Seven United Provinces, lies be tween about 5 1 and 54 degrees of north latitude, and between 3 and 7 degrees of eaft longitude. It is bounded on the north and weft by the Bririfh. Ocean ; on the fouth, by Flandersj and on the eaft, by Weftphalia. The provinces of Holland are, Holland, in which is Amfterdam, the capital ; Overyffel, Zealand, Friefland, Utrecht, Groningen, Gel- derland and Zutphen; the two laft form but one fovereignty. The Delegates from thefe provinces meet at the Hague *, and form what is called the States General. The Texel, and feveral fmall iflands to the north, at the entrance into the Zuyder Sea, are fubject to the United Provinces. The Univerfities of Holland are, Leyden, Utrecht, Groningen, Harderwicke, and Fra- *eker. * The Hague, which contains the Stadthoufe, is only a village. Rotterdam is the next principal town to Am fterdam. CHAP. to6 GEOGRAPH Y»" CHAP. XVIII. Of FLANDERS, including the provinces of Brabant, Antwerp, Malines, Limburg, Luxemberg, Namur, Hainault, Cambrefis, and Artois. JL H E S E ten provinces, commonly fpoken of under the name of Flanders, lie between 49 and 52 degrees of north latitude, and between 2 and 7 degrees of eaft , longitude : they are bounded on the north by the Seven United Pro vinces ; on the fouth, by France ; on theteaft, by Germany; and on the weft, by the Britifh Sea and the north of France. The ten provinces, together with the Seven United ones, are called the Netherlands, from their fituation with refpect to Germany ; they were formerly a part of Gallia Belgica, and after wards of the circle of Belgium or Burgundy, in the German empire. The Province of Flanders Proper is divided, into Dutch Flanders, Auftrian Flanders, and French Flanders, from the different govern ments which they are fubject to. , Brabant GEOGRAPHY. IO7 Brabant is divided into Dutch and Auftrian Brabant. Antwerp and Malines are both fubject to the Houfe of Auftria. Limburgh is partly fubject to Auftria, and partly to the Dutch ; the Town of Limburgh belongs to Auftria, Luxemburgh is divided into Auftrian and French Luxemburgh; the town of Luxem burgh belongs to Auftria. Namur is fubject to Auftria. Hainault is divided into Auftrian and French Hainault. Cambrefis and Artois are both fubject to France. CHAP. I08 GEOGRAPHY. CHAP. XIX. Of F R A N C E, (anciently Gallia and Celtae.) Jr R A N C E lies between 42 and 5 1 de grees of north latitude, and between 5 degrees of weft, and 8 degrees of eaft longitude. It is bounded on the north by the Englifh Chan nel and the Netherlands ; on the fouth, by the Mediterranean Sea and by Spain, which it is divided from by the Pyrenean Mountains ; on the eaft, by Germany, Switzerland, and Italy ; and on the weft, by the Atlantick Ocean and the Bay of Bifcay. France is principally divided into the fol • lowing provinces, viz. Picardy, centaining the territory of Boulo- nois * ; Normandy ; Ifle of France, in which is the City of Paris ; Lorraine f ; Alface J ; * Artois, mentioned as one ofthe provinces of the Ne therlands, is now moftly confidered by the French as a part of Picardy. f Formerly a Dutchy belonging to the circle of the Upper Rhine. X Formerly a province belonging to Germany, ceded to France by the treaty of Munfter. Bretagne ; GEOGRAPHY. jqq Bretagne ; Orleanois, (by much the largeft pro vince in France,) containing the Dutchy of An- jou, and the territories of Poitou, Aunis, Maine, Perche, Touraine, Berry, and Nivernois ; the Dutchy of Burgundy or Bourgogne ; Franche Comte ; Lyonnois, containing the Dutchy of Bourbonnois, and the territories of La Marche, Auvergne, Forez, and Beaujolois ; Guienne, containing the territories of Angoumois, Sain- tonge, Perigord, Limoufin, Agenois, Quercy, Bazadois, and Rouergue; Gafcony, or Gaf- cogne, containing the territories of Condomois, Amanac, Eftarac, Bigorre, Cominga, and other fmall territories near the Pyrenees ; Languedoc, containing the territories of Gevaudan, Velay, Vivarez, and Foix ; Dauphine ; Provence ; Roufillon ; Beam, and part of Navarre. The dominions belonging to France in the Weft Indies, the Mediterranean, &c. have been already mentioned. The iflands near the French coaft, (befides Jerfey, &c. wliich belong to Great Britain,) are, Ufhant, or d'Oueffant, weft of Bretagne ; Bellifle, fouth of Bretagne; Ifle d'leu, weft of Poitou; iflands of Re and Oleron, weft of Aunis ; iflands of Levant and Port Cros, fouth of Provence. 2 CHAP. I'lO ' GEOGRAPHY. CHAP. XX. Of SPAIN, (the ancient Iberia or Hef- peria.) uPAIN lies between 36 and 44 degrees of north latitude, and between 10 degrees of weft, and 3 degrees of eaft longitude. It is bounded on the north by the Bay of Bifcay and by France, from which it is feparated by the Py- renean Mountains; on the fouth, by the At lantic Ocean, the Straits of Gibraltar, and the Mediterranean Sea ; on the eaft, by the Medi terranean ; and on the weft, by Portugal and the Atlantic Ocean. Spain is principally divided into the following provinces, viz. New Caftile, in which is the City of Madrid; Old Caftile, Eftremadura, Leon, Galicia, The Afturias, Bifcay, and Ipuf- coa, Upper Navarre, Arragon, Catalonia, Va lencia, Murcia, Grenada, and Andalufia. The dominions belonging to Spain, in Ame rica, the Weft Indies, and the Mediterranean, have been already mentioned. CHAP. GEOGRAPHY, ju CHAP. XXI. Of PORTUGAL, (a great part of an cient Lufitania, Gallicia, and Bcetica.) IORTUGAL lies between 37 and 42 degrees of north latitude, and between 7 and 10 degrees of weft longitude. It is bounded on the north and eaft by Spain, and on the fouth and weft by the Atlantick Ocean. Portugal is principally divided as follows, viz. Eftremadura, in which is the City of Lifbon; Beira, Entre Minho, Entre Douro, Tralas Montes, Entre Alentejo, Entre Gua- diana, Entre Tago, and Algarva. The dominions belonging to the Portuguefe in South America, &c. have been already mentioned. CHAP. 112 GEOGRAPHY. CHAP. XXII. Of SWITZERLAND, (the ancient Hel vetia.) SWITZERLAND lies between 45 and 48 degrees of north latitude, and between 6 and ii degrees .of eaft longitude. It is bounded on the north by Alface and by the circle of Swabia ; on the fouth, by Italy ; on the eaft, by the Lake of Conftance, and the fouth-eaft part of the circle of Auftria ; and on the weft, by France. Switzerland is principally divided into 13 parts, called Cantons, viz. Berne, in which is the City of Berne; Zurick, Lucerne, Uri, Suiffe, Underwalden, Zug, Glaris, Bafil, Fri- bourg, Soleure, Schaffhaufen, and Appenzel. The Country ofthe Grifons, which is S. E. of the Cantons, is in alliance with Switzerland, as is likewife Valais, which lies between the head of the River Rhone and the Lake of Ge neva, the Town or Republic of Geneva, St. Gall, Neufchatel, Tockenburg, Bafil, and Mul- haufen, in Alface. CHAP, GEOGRAPHY. £lt CHAP. XXIII. Of ITALY, (anciently known by the names ofHefperia, Saturnia, Latium, &c.) ITALY lies between 38 and, 47 degrees of north latitude, and between 7 and 1 9 degrees of eaft longitude. It is bounded on the north by Switzerland and Germany, from which it is divided by the mountains, called the Alps ; on the fouth, by the Mediterranean Sea ; on the eaft, by the Gulf of Venice ; and on rhe weft, by the Mediterranean Sea and by France, from which it is feparated by the Alps. Italy is principally divided as follows, viz, into Piedmont, the Dutchy of Savoy, Most- ferrat, Aleffandrine, Oneglia, and the Ifland of Sardinia, all which belong to his Sardinian Majefty (who refides at Turin) ; the Dutchy of Milan, Mantua, and Mirandola, all which belong to the Emperor of Germany ; Venice* Iftria, Dalmatia, and its iflands, all which be long to the Republic of Venice ; the Dutchy ot Tufcany, Mafia, Parma, Modena, Piombino, and Monaco, all which belong to their refpe&ive I Princes, j II4/ GEOGRAPHY. Princes; the Republics of Lucca, St. Marino, and Genoa ; the Ifland of Corfica, which be longs to France ; the Pope's dominions, which extend from the" S. E. part of Mantua to tlie N. W. part of Naples, and contain the City of Rome ;. Naples, and the Ifland of Sicily, which belong to the King of Naples, or of the Si cilies. ^ .: J j J* :¦ . i . .. VVJid I CHAP. XXIV. • ¦ ^. i.;n . Of H U N-G A R Y, (a part of ancient Pan- > - monia, Germany, "and Dacia.) H UNGARY lies between 45 and 49 degrees of north latitude, and between 17 and 23 degrees of eaft longitude. It is bounded on the north by Poland, from which it is fe parated by th£ Carpathian mountains ; on the fouth, by Sclavonia*; on the eaft, by the prin cipality of Tranfylvania f,- and by Walachia, a province of Turkey ; and on the weft, by Au ftria, and "by Moravia, a province of Bohemia. ".Sir.'- ' *,A province fubject to the Houfe of Auftria; it is bounded on the N. E. by the rivers Drave and Danube, and ii about zoo miles long, and 60 broad. ' f Likewife fubject to Auftria. Hungary C'EGGRAPH -Y.- Ij£ Hungary is divided into Upper Hungary, which is north- of the river Danube,, and Lower Hungary, which is fouth of the fame. The towns of Prefburgh, Newhaufel, Tokay, Great Warradin, Lsopolftadt, Agria, Efperies, Chrem- nits, Shemnits, Peft, and others, are in Upper Hungary ; Buda, Komera, Gran, Raab, Weif- fenberg, Altenburg, Kanifba, and others, are in Lower Hungary. The Bannat of Temefwaer belongs to Hun gary ; it is divided into four parts, one of which contains the town of Temefwaer, latitude 45 ° 50' north, longitude 22° eaft. . C H A P. XXV. Of >T URKEY in Europe, (a). J.URKEY in Europe, lies between 36 and 49 degrees of north latitude, and between 17 and 40 degrees of eaft longitude. It is bounded on the north by Germany, Hungary, Poland, and Ruffia ; on the fouth, by the Me diterranean and Black Sea; on the eaft, by Circaffia *, die eaftern parts of the Black Sea? (a] Belonging to the Grand Seignior, who hzi domi nions likewife in Afia and Africa. * Eaft of Crim Tartary. I 2 '<•:* irf5 B t O G R A P 8 r- Sea of Marmora, and the Archipelago j and on the weft, by the Gulf of Venice and the Ionian Sea. Turkey in Europe is principally divided into the following provinces, viz. Romania, (the ancient Thrace) which con tains Cohftahtinople, fometimes called the Porte, anciently called Byzantium ; Bofnia, (part of ancient Illyrioim ; Dalmatia * ; Servia, (weft part of ancient Myfia;) Bulgaria, (the eaft part of ancient Myfia;) Albanea; Macedonia; Ja nua, (anciently Theffaly ;) Epirus ; Livadia, (anciently Bceotia and Achaia), which contain Athens and Thebes, now called Stives; Co- rinthia ; Olympia f ; Argos ; Sparta, (con taining Mifitra, (the ancient Lacedasmon) ; Arcadia ; Elis ; the fix laft mentioned are in the Morea, the ancient Peloponnefus. Wala- chia, (a part of ancient Dacia) ; Moldavia (in the ancient Dacia) ; Beffarabia ; Budziac Tartary, and Crim £ and Little Tartary, (the ancient Taurica Cheribnefus.) * South of Dalmatia, is Ragufa, a Republic moflly under the protection of the Grand Seignior. Five fmall iflands belong to the Ragufan, the principal of which is Melida. f Where the Olympic games were held. t Crim Tartary is now ceded to the Ruffians. 3 CHAP. GEOGRAPHY. 117 CHAP. XXVI. Of TURKEY in ASIA. ifURKEY in Afia lies between 28 and 45 degrees of north latitude, and between 27 and 46 degrees of eaft longitude. It is bounded on the north by the Black Sea, the Sea of Afoph, Circaflian Tartary *, and AftTacan f ; on the fouth by the Levant Sea, and by Arabia ; on the eaft by the Cafpian Lake, and by Perfia ; and on the weft by the Archipelago, the Hel lefpont, and Propontis, the eaftern parts of which feparate it from Europe. Turkey in Afia is principally divided into Natolia, (anciently Afia Minor) which contains the provinces of Amafia, Aladuli, and Ca-^ ramania. * The Circaflian Tartars form a kind of republic, but at different times have put themfelves under the protedlion. of the Turks, the Perfians, and the Ruffians. f A part of the Ruffian dominions in Afia. I 3 Georgia, IlS GEOGRAPHY. Georgia *, (the ancient Iberia) including Mengrefia, Imaretta, and part of Circaffia. Turcomania, the ancient Armenia Major f. Diarbec, (the ancient Mefopotamia, men tioned in ;£ Scripture as Padanaran) part of ancient Affyria. Curdiftan (another partof the ancient Affyria). Eyrac Arabic ]| (the ancient Chaldea, or Babylonia, another part of the ancient Affyria). Syria modern comprehends the ancient Syria, Phenicia, and Paleftine, or Judea, called alfo Canaan. Arabia §, which is divided into Arabia De- * The Georgians put themfelves under the protection of Turkey in 1780. f The ancient Armenia Minor is a part of Perfia. J The ancient Affyrian empire contained the modern provinces of Eyrac Arabic, Diarbec, and Curdiftan. || Situated on the river Euphrates. § The northern Arabs are in fubje&ion to the Turks ; Other parts are governed by different Arabian princes, and fome parts are under no particular government. fertib GEOGRAPHY, I in ferta, Arabia Petrcea, and Arabia Felix, belongs in part to the Turks. Within the before-mentioned provinces the rivers Euphrates, Jordan *, Tigris, and Orontes, are contained ; likewife the mountains Sinai, Horeb, Lebanon, Olympus, Hermon, Dag- hiftan, Caucafus, Ararat, and Antitaurus ; and the cities of Jerufalem, Damafcus f, Samaria, Sure and Sayd (the ancient Tyre and Sidon), Antioch, Ephefus, Nineveh, Aleppo, Heliopo lis, or Balbec, Tripoli, Scandaroon, or Alexan- dretta, Bagdat, Balfora, &c. and the once fa mous Palmyra, or Tadmor, now in ruins. * This river, after being increafed by the lake of Ge- nefareth, or Tiberius, (which is twelve miles long and eight broad) falls into the Dead Sea, or rather lake, which is a little fouth of Jerufalem. This lake is fuppofed to occupy the place of Sodom and Gomorrah. No fifh can live in it, on account of its noifome fmell and bitter tafte. f The Turks have given different names to moft of thefe places — Damafcus they call Scham. I 4 CHAP. 12« CEOCRAPH Y. CHAP. XXVII. Of PERSIA. AERSIA lies between 25 and 44 degrees of north latitude, and between 44 and 70 degrees of eaft longitude. It is bounded on the north by Circaflian Tartary, the Cafpian Lake, and the river Oxus ; on the fouth by the Gulfs of Perfia and Ormus, and by the Indian Ocean ; on die eaft by India ; and on the weft by the empire of Turkey. Perfia is principally divided into the follow ing provinces : Aderbeitzen (the ancient Media) ; Gangea and Daghiftan (part of the ancient Iberia and Colchis) ; Ghiian, (part of the ancient Hyr- cania) ; Shirvan ; Mazanderan ; Chufiftan, (the ancient Sufiana) ; Irac Agem, (the ancient Parthia) ; Chorafah, including Herat and Efterabad (part of the ancient Hyrcania) ; Sableuftan (which includes the ancient Bac- triana and Canhador) ; Sigiftan (the ancieac Drangiana; vMackeran; Kerman (the ancient Gadraffia); andFarfiftan (the ancient Perfis). CHAP. GEOGRAPHY. 12% CHAP. XXVIII. Of I N D I A in general. INDIA lies between i and 40 degrees of north latitude, and between 66 and 109 de grees of eaft longitude. It is bounded on the north by Ufbec Tartary and Thibet ; on the fouth by the Indian Ocean; on the eaft by China and the Pacific Ocean ; and on the weft by Perfia and the Indian Ocean. India, which confifts of many kingdoms and nations, and territories belonging to different European powers, is generally confidered as being divided into three parts ; the Mogul Em pire ; Indoftan, or the peninfula of India within the Ganges ; and the further peninfula, or India beyond the Ganges. The Great Mogul's Empire, confidered fe parately from the peninfulas, is divided from the hither peninfula by the provinces of Gu- zarat, Decan, Golconda, and part of Orixa, which lie in a circular direction fouthward from fhe Gulf of Scindi to the fouth part of the pro vince Ifi2 GEOGRAPHY. vince of Bengal ; and from the further penin fula by the provinces of Azem and Araca. The Mogul Empire* is principally divided into Soret, Jeffelmere Tata, or Scinda, Bucknor, Multan, Haican, Cabul, Caffimere j-, Lahor J, or Pencah, Hendowns, Jengapour, Afmer, or Bando, Delhi §, Agra ||, Gualeor, Navar, Ra- tipor, Chitor, Rotas, Gore, Necbal, Patna, Je- fuat, Naugracut, Candifh, which includes Berar, and part of Orixa, the country of the Ma- rattas, and Bengal, which extends from the mouths of the river Ganges towards the head, more than 200 leagues. Bengal abounds with towns and villages on each fide of the river, which derive great commercial advantages from navigable cuts. It is efteemed the ftorehoufe of India, and is of itfelf ex- * The imperial dignity of the empire is at prefent veiled in Shah Zadah. •f Caffimere has by fome been called the Paradife of the Indies; it is furrounded with high mountains ; the town of Caffimere ftands near a large lake. J Lahor produces fome of the beft fugars in India. § Delhi contains the capital Delhi. || Agra is one of the largeft provinces in India : it con tains 4.0 large towns, and 34.0 villages. Agra is the greateft city, and its caftle' is the largeft fortification in India. The Dutch have a factory in Agra. 2 tremely GEOGRAPHY. j^ tremely fertile, producing corn, rice, fugar- canes, falt-petre, and opium, in great abun dance ; it is likewife famous for its excellent civet. The Britifh nation now poffeffes, in full fovereignty, the whole Soubahfhip * of Bengal, and the greateft part of Bahar; and in Orixa the diftrict of Midnapour : jn many other parts of the Eaft-Indies they have likewife pofleffions and factories. The whole territorial acquifitions of the Englifh in India exceeds 280,000 fquare miles. The principal Englifh factory in Bengal is at Calcutta, and is called Fort William, which is fituated on the river Hugley, the moft weftern branch of the Ganges. Dacca is one of the largeft towns of Bengal ; Chednagore, formerly taken from the French, Caffumbazar, Chincura, Barnagua, Maldo, and others, are likewife places of great trade. The nabob keeps his court at Patna, the capital of Bengal. Benares, the Gentoo f univerfity, is in the fame province. * Soubahfhips are divided into nabobfhips ; the nabob is accountable to his foubah, and the foubah pays a certain tribute to the Great Mogul. •f- The Gentoos, or Hindoos, are divided into four tribes, viz. the Bramins, or Priefts ; the Sitri, or military tribe, who frequently, however, follow other profeffions ; the Berife, who are merchants, brokers, and fhopkeepers ; and 124 GEOGRAPHY. province. The fpace between Bengal and China, with other diftricts fubject to the king of Ava, or Burmah,. is now called the province of Mecklus. Of INDOSTAN. I N D O S T A N, or the hither penin fula, is principally divided into Cambaya, or Guzurat, which contains Amedabad and Surat, Decan, or Vifapour V and Kanora j Golconda ; and the Sudder tribe, who are menial fervants. If any one is excommunicated from his tribe, he and his pofterity are for ever fhut out from the fociety of every other body irt the nation, except the Hari eaft, who are held in utter deteflation, and are only employed in the vileft and meanefr, offices. The four mentioned claffes are each divided into different claffes, called Calls, the order of pre-eminence in which is generally indifputably decided in every parti cular city. The Gentoos moftly feed upon rice. They are a harmlefs people, much bigoted to their religion. The Mahrattas are" a warlike people, originally defcended from the Gentoos. The Rohillas are another people of confequence in India. * Decan, or Vifapour, (confidered as one) contains many kingdoms and provinces, among which are Baglana, Balagate, and Telenga. The weftern part of Vifapour contains Konkan, in which the Portuguefe have fettle- ments. An ifland, of about 27 miles in circumference, called Goa, having a town of the fame name, and the rich province GEOGRAPHY. X2C Golconda * ; part of Orixa ; Bifnagar, or the Carnatic -j- ; Meffaur J ; Tanjour §, and Ma dura || . The eaft coaft of the peninfula is called the Coromandel ** Coaft, and the weft coaft the Malabar Coaft ff. province of Salzette, as its dependant, contain the principal ofthe Portuguefe fettlements in the Eaft Indies : Goa lies off the fouth coaft of Vifapour. The Englifh ifland of Bom bay, which is about 20 miles in circumference, containing a town of the fame name, and a large harbour, lies off the north coaft of Vifapour. The Englifh factory of Corwar is oh this coaft, and Rajahpore, which belongs to the French. * Rich in diamond mines. f The late famous Hyder Ally and the Nabob of Arcot fhared the greateft part of the Carnatic between them. \ The country of the late Hyder Ally. § On the Malabar coaft, towards Cape Comorin, (the moft fouthern part of the peninfula) it is famous for its pearl fifhery. || Tanjour lies eaft of Madura. The foil is fertile, and its prince is rich. Within it lies the fort of Negapatnam, and the Danifh fettlement of Tranquebar. The capital is Tanjour. ** On this coaft is Fort St. George, or Madras, Fort St. David, &c. belonging to the Englifh ; and Pondi- cherry, &c. belonging to the French. The town of Trin- comale, an objecl: of contention in the late war, is on the eaftern fhore of the ifland of Ceylon, towards the northern part. ff On this coaft the Englifh have Callicut, Tellicherry, Of 126 GEOGRAPHY^ Of the Further Peninsula. IHE further peninfula, or India beyond the Ganges, is principally divided into Acham, Ava, Aracan, Tonquin *, Laos, Pegu, Mar- taban, Siam, Cochin China f, Cambodia, Chiampa, and Malacca J. * The Tonquinefe are faid to be revolters from. the Chinefe. The capital of Tonquin is Cachao, in the north fide of which the Englifh have a flourifhing houfe of trade. f Laos, Cambodia, Chiampa, and other kingdbms and provinces, are fubjeft to Cochin China. I The Dutch 'are in poffeffion of the town of Malacca, and of a great part of the peninfula of Malacca, which contains many provinces. The whole of India abounds with high mountains. Thofe of Balagate, running from north to fouth almoft the ivhole length of India, are fo high that they are faid to caufe the rains to begin later on the Coromandel Coaft, than on that of the Malabar, by flopping the weftern monfoon. 0 HAP. GEOGRAPHY. f H Y.. j^jtf mouth of Hudfon's river, is the town of New York, which, together with its harbour, is de fended by a fort and battery. The State like- wife contains Long Ifland and Staten Ifland, and is divided into ten counties, The Mo hawk River in New York has a large cataract } the cape, called Sandy Hook, is at the entrance, of Rariton River. Of NEW-JERSEY. EW Jerfey lies between -39 and 43 de grees of north latitude, and between 74 and J&- degrees of weft longitude.- It- is bounded, on the north by Hudfon's River, and by the Sound,-: which ; feparates Staten . Ifland from the Conti-. nent'; " On- the eaft and -fouth-eaft, bj the. At lantick Ocean ; and on the weft and fouth-weft . by Delaware River and Bay. . New Jerfey is divided into 13 counties;- among the chief towns are, Burlington, Perth" Amboy, -New Brunftvkk, and Princetown, in,. which there is a college.,1 - - Of I-^b GEOGRAPHY. Of .PENNSYLVANIA. Pennsylvania lies between 39 and 44 degrees of north latitude, and between 74 and $1 degrees ef weft- longitude. It is bounded on the north by the country of the Iroquois or Five nations ; on the fouth and weft, by Ma ryland ; and on the eaft, by the Delaware River, which divides it from the Jerfeys. Pennfyl- vania k principally divided into 12 counties, three of which, now called the Delaware State., form adiftinct government : they are fituated weft ward of the mountains on the banks of the river Ohio, on the fouth-eaft and eaft part of Lake Erie; they were purchafed by Mr. Penn in 1768, and eUablifhed in the year 177 1. The city. of Philadelphia, the moft beautiful of any in America, (faid to be unequalled by any in Eu rope for regularity), is in the county of Phila delphia. Its fituation is 100 miles from the fea,. between two navigable rivers, Delaware and Schuylkill; the ftreams of which are about two- miles/apart; the Delaware is here about a mile. in breadth. Canals, which unite with both. rivers, run through the principal ftreets of the city. The other principal towns of Phila delphia are, German Town* Oxford, Radnor,, Chefter, 2c c. 2 Of GEOGRAPHY. +47 Of MARYLAND. IVI ARYLAND is fituated between 37 and 40 degrees of north latitude, and between 7^ and 86 degrees of weft longitude. It is bounded on the north by Pennfylvania; on the fouth by Virginia ; on the eaft by Pennfylvania and the Atlantic Ocean ; and on the weft by the Apala* chian mountains^ Maryland is divided into two parts, eaft and weft, by the bay of Chefapeak *. Thefe two divifions contain 14 countiesi Mary land contains many navigable creeks and rivers : among the rivers are the Patowmac, Severn, and Saffafras. The chief town is Annapolis. Of V I R G I N I A. VIRGINIA lies between 36 and 40 de grees of north latitude, and between 75 and 90 degrees of weft longitude, It is bounded on the north by feveral Indian nations, and by Maryland, from which it is feparated on the north-eaft by the river Patowmac ; on the fouth * The river Chefapeak ruris about- 300 miles tip the country : for a confiderable way its gteateft breadth i* about eighteen miles, arid its narroweft about feven. La by I48 GEOGRAPHY? V by North Carolina; on the eaft by the Atlantk Ocean ; and on the weft by the great river Miffiffippi f. Virginia is principally divided into 24 counties. Among the principal towns areWilliamfburg, James Town, and York Town. Ships in failing either to Virginia or Maryland pafs two points of land, called the Capes of Vir ginia, between which is the paffage ^into the bay of Chefapeak. James river, York river, the Potawmac, &c. empty themfelves into the bay. Virginia, from its many navigable rivers, has the greateft commercial advantages. Formerly a.U moft the whole northern coaft of America took the name of Virginia. Of NORTH and SOUTH CAROLINA, . with GEORGIA. jSJoRTH and South Carolina, with Georgia, lie between 30 and 37 degrees of north latitude,. and between 76 and 91 degrees of weft longi tude. They are bounded on the north by Vir-> ginia ; on the fouth by the river St. John, which f The Miffiffippi, with its windings, is fuppofed to run a courfe of 4,500 miles. It is navigable for fmall craft al moft; toits. fource ; its mouth, however, is fo choaked with fatid^ and fhoals as not to admit of veffels of large burden. feparates G £ 0 C R A P H Y. T49 Separates Georgia from Florida ; on the eaft by the Atlantick Ocean ; and on the weft by the river Miffiffippi. North Carolina is principally divided -into two parts, one of which contains the.town of Wilmington. -Soiith Carolina, whieh contains Charles-Town and Port-Royal, is prin- .cipally divided into five parts. - Georgia is not principally fubdivided : it contains the town of Savannah. Among the principal rivers in thefe States are Clarendon River, Albemarle River, Sa vannah or George River, and St. Mary's/which di vides Georgia from Florida. The weftern parts are watered" by the" Cherokees, Mobile, PearLRiver, and 'many others, which (in a little more- than 3-5 v degrees of latitude) fall into the Miffiffippi.- Hatteras is a noted cape; as is HkewifeCapeFear,; and Cape Carteret, which hath lie fouth .©fit;-.: IC'H A P. XXXVI. Spanjsh Dominions in N o r t h America. . Of; EAST and. WEST F LOR I DA, JlLaST and Weft Florida .lie between .25 and 32 degrees' of -north -latitude, and: between. 80 and 91 degrees of weft longitude. ' They are L 3 bounded I5O G E 0 G* A J>H Y. bounded on the north by Georgia ; on the fouth by the Gulf of Mexico; on the eaft by the Straits of Bahama ; and on the weft by the river Miffiffippi. The capital of Eaft Florida is St. Auguftine. It is defended by a caftle Called Fort St. John, and enclofed by a ditch fortified with baftions. The capital of Weft Florida is Penfacola, which is .fituated within a bay of the fame name. Of LOUISIANA. J-^O-UISIANA is an immenfe couatry, £xv tending from die banks of the Miffiffippi .wefb. ward. Its limits are .undetermined. The fowl* of the. greateft note is New Orleans, .which lies near the mouth of the Miffiffippi. ; Of NEW MEXICO and CALIFORNIA. Ti HEY he between 23 and 43 degrees of north latitude, and between 94 and 126 degrees of weft longitude. They are bounded on the north by unknown lands; on the 'fouth by Old Mexico and the Pacific Ocean ; on the eaft by Louifiana ; -and on the >i weft by the Pacific Ocean. /jThje capital of New Mexico is Santa Fe, and of Cf alifornia St.. Juan. Of GEOGRAPHY*. JC I Of OLD MEXICO, or NEW SPAIN. v/LD Mexico, or New Spain, lies between 8 and 30 degrees of north latitude, and between 83 and no degrees of weft longitude. It is bounded on the north by New Mexico,, or Granada ; on the north-eaft by the Gulf of Mexico ; and on the fouth-eaft and fouth-weft by Terra Firma and the Pacific Ocean. Old Mexico is principally divided into three parts, called Audiences. One of them, called Mexico^ Proper, contains the town of Mexico, and the port towns of Acapulco and Vera Cruz. The Other audiences are Galicia, or Guadalajarra, and Guatimala *, each having a town of its own name..,. The capital, Mexico, which is fixuate^l in the center of a lake, carries on a trade wh"!} Europe and the Weft Indies by Vera Cruz, and with the Eaft Indies by Acapulco. . * Guatimala was fwallowed by an earthquake in the year 1773 : it is fuppofed that 8qoo families perifhed with it. New Guatimala is built at fome diftance from the place of the old town. L 4 C H A J». 152 G E 0 G R A P H Y. CHAP. XXXVII. Spanish and other Dominions in South America. Of TERRA FIRMA, or CASTILE DEL ORO. TERRA Firma lies between the Equator and i i degrees of north latitude, and between 60 and 82 degrees of weft longitude. It is bounded On the north by the Carribbean Sea ; on the fouth by the country of the Amazons, and by Peru ; on the eaft by the Atlantic Ocean, and by' Guiana ; and on the weft by Old Mexico, and by the Pacific Ocean. The chief towns of Terra" Firma are Porto Bello and Carthagena on the northern coaft, and Panama on the fouthern* coaft. Thefe towns have annual fairs for American, Indian, and European com, modities. Of P E R U. X ERU lies between the Equator and 25 degrees of fouth latitude, and between 60 and 81 degrees of weft longitude. It is bounded on the north by Terra Firma ; on the fouth by -*••¦ Chili} GEOGRAPHY. 153 Chili; on the eaft by the Cordelera mountains'; and on the weft by the Pacific Ocean. The chief towns are Lima, Callao, Quito, Cufco, and Potofi, which contains a very rich filver mine. Moft of the gold mines are in the north part of Peru; the filver mines are in the fouth. A fifth part of the produce of the mines belongs to the King of Spain. Of CHILI. i^iHILI lies between 25 and 45 degrees of fouth latitude, and between 65 and 85 degrees of weft longitude. It is bounded on {he north by Peru ; on the fouth by Patagonia ; on the eaft by La Plata ; and on the weft by the South ern Ocean, Chili is divided into two parts by the Andes mountains. The eaft fide is called Cuajo, or Cutio ; and the weft fide Chili Pro per, which contains the town of St. Jago. Of PARAGUAY, or LA PLATA. X ARAGUAY lies between 12 and 37 de grees of fouth latitude, and between 50 and 75 degrees of weft -longitude. It is bounded on the north by Amazonia ; on the fouth by Pata gonia; 154 GEOGRAPHY. gonia ; on the eaft by Brazil ; and on the weft by Peru and Chili. The chief town is Rio de La Plata. The great river La Plata is in this province; the width of it at the entrance is about 150 miles. Cape Antonio is at the north entrance, and Cape St. Mary at the fouth entrance. The four laft mentioned provinces belong to Spain. Of B R A Z I L. xjRAZIL lies between the Equator and 35 degrees of fouth latitude, and between 35 and 60 degrees of weft longitude. It is bounded on the north by the mouth of the great river Ama zon and the Atlantic Ocean ; on the fouth by the river La Plata ; on the eaft by the Atlantic Ocean ; and on the weft by a chain of moun tains, which divide it from Paraguay and the country of the Amazons. On the coaft there are three fmall iflands, where fhips touch for provifions in their voyage to the South Seas, yiz. Fernando, St. Barbara, and St. Catharine's. The chief towns of Brazil are St. Sebaftian, Fernambuco, Rio Janeiro, and St. Salvador, or Bahia. The river Amazon near its mouth is- about G £ O G R A P H Y. 1 55 about 80 miles wide. The mouth of the river Para, which is eaft of the fame, is about 40 miles. Brazil belongs to Portugal. Unknown Parts of South America. JL H E country of Guiana, which extends from the equator to .the eighth. degree of north lati tude, bounded by the great river Oroonoko on the north, and Amazonia on the fouth, is un known, except along the coaft, where the French at Cayenne, and the Dutch at Surinam, - have made fome fettlements. Amazonia, which is fituated between Peru and Brazil, have never been thoroughly dif covered, Patagonia, at the fouthern extremity of America, fometimes defcribed as . a part of Chili, hath no fettlements, neither hath Terra del Fuego, the Falkland Iflands, nor other in ferior ones at the fouthern extremity. C H A P. ,156 Geography CHAP, XXXVIII, A particular Defcription of feveral principal Islands. .-. ••: ri.< .. . > v. >. ... v JE U R OPE A>N', I S L A N D V.""" r ¦2."; ... » \ .; 7 ICE/LAND is -about 400 miles long, and 180 broad. It contains a volcano,: called Mount, Hecla, which is conftantly throwing up flames and fulphur, and torrents, of boiling water : it is notwithftanding this almoft covered with fnow. This jfland is ftrppofpd r.o contain about 80,00a inhabitants, .] v> : v.: ;' ... ¦, .--. The Faro Iflands are- about 24 in number. They lie in a clufter, and. rake- their name from their inhabitants ferrying froirr one to another,. The number of people in thefe iflands are fup-« pofed. to be about 4000, :![ ? ;.. The Orkney Iflands are about 30 in number, They are feparated from Caithnefs by the Pent- land Firth, which is dangerous to mariners, from the rapidity of its tides. The largeft of thefo, ifland^ is Pomona, which is about 24 miles G E O.G R A-P.HY. >^, miles long, and nine broad. It contains Kirk wall and Stromnefs, and has the remains of a Druid, temple. r The Shetland Iflands are about 46 in number, the largeft of which is Mainland, which is about 60 miles long, and 20 broad. It contains Larwick and Skalloway. The Hebrides are very numerous, and fome of them very large. Many of them are diftinguifhed for tlieir remains of antiquity, particularly Iona, or Columb Kill, which was anciently the feat of weftern learning, and the burying-place of feveral kings of Scotland, Ireland, and Norway. This ifland, and another fmall one called Staffa, famous for its fubterraneous hall and ftupendous pillars, are both weft of the ifland of MulL Mull, Ifia, and Jura, are weft of Argylefhire. Bute and Arran, which form the fhire of Bute, are fouth of the fame. The other principal iflands are Sky, which is weft of Rofsfhire, and Le wis and Harris '*, North Uift and South Uift, ail which lie from north-weft to fouth-weft of Sky Ifland. The fmall ifland of Kilda, or Hert, is the moft wefterly of all the Hebrides, Levi- arid Harris form but one ifland. The i$$ G E 0 G" R A P H Y. The Ifle of Man (anciently a kingdom) con tains four port towns, Caftletown, Peele", Douglas, which has an excellent harbour, and Ramfey, which has a fpacious bay. Near the fouthern promontory of the Ifle of Man there is an ifland about three miles in circumference, called the Calf of Man. The Ifle of Anglefea was treated of with Wales. The Ifle of Wight is divided'into 30 parifhes, The towns were mentioned with thofe of Harrip- fhire, to whieh it belongs. Carifbrook Caftle is in this ifland. Charles I. was confined here, and after" his execution fome of his children. The number Of inhabitants in this ifland, accord ing to a late furvey, amounted to more than eighteen thoufand. Jerfey, anciently Caefarea, is famous for its honey, and for the manufacture of ftockings. It is about 12 miles in length. Its principal town is St. Heller, or Hilary. This ifland is allowed by charter to retain certain privileges, agreeable to the old Norman inftitution.- The north fide of the ifland is almoft inacceffible, by means of lofty GEOGRAPHY. J£p lofty cliffs. The fouth fide is almoft level with the water. Guernfey is about 1 3 miles from north-eaft to fouth-weft, and about 12 miles from eaft to weft where broadeft. The harbour of Guernfey is called St. Peter le Port: it is guarded by two forts. The fmall iflands of Alderney and Sark are dependants on Guernfey. Sardinia gives a royal title to the Duke of Savoy. Its capital, Cagliari, is an archbifhopric^ an univerfity, and the feat of the viceroy. His Sardinian Majefty's annual revenue from this ifland is not fuppofed to exceed 5000I, fterling. The iflands of Coriica, Majorca,. Minorca> and Ivica, as belonging to foreign powers, have' nothing fufficiently interefting to require a par ticular defcription. • 'Sicily was once the granary ©f Italy : ic now- continues to fupply Naples and other •parts with corn, but its cultivation is much neglected. The famous volcano, Mount Etna, which has f& often deftroyed whole towns and villages, IOO GEOGRAPHY. villages, is in this ifland. Its circumference is about 60 miles : its figure is circular, and tends towards a point; the height ofthe fummit is com puted to be 10,954 feet. The lower parts of it are very fruitful, the middle abounds with woods,! and the upper parts are covered with fnow. The.town of Meffina* gives name to the ftrait between Sicily and the Continent. Several fmall: iflands north of Sicily are volcanoes, among the principal of which is Strombolo. Capri, or Caprea, Ifchia, and other fmall iflands on the., coafts of Italy, have little elfe than ruins to ..diftinguifh them. -...Malta, "formerly called Melitayis in. about 35". 15' of north latitude,. and. 1.5? .of eaft longitude,. On this ifland the Apoftle St. Paul was fhip- wreckcd. ~ It.is. now famous' for being the refi dence of the Knights of St. John of Jerufalem^ called .the. Knights of Mal.ta. .- -. '..:..-.-..•, The iflands of Lufiana, Corfu, &c. belonging to the- Venetians.; have nothing fufficiently in terefting. to require a particular defcription. f''.'S?.-'l -MeiliV* i-3..*'16. rock Scy-lla and the whirlpool. .' ha: vb.lJ.s . ce!:brHtr.d by. fome of the poets. ... Zant, GEOGRAPHY. j(Jr Zant, however, is famous for the produce of currants and grapes, and Ithaca for being the ifland of Ulyffes. Negropont, the ancient Eubcea, is about 99 miles long, and 25 broad. Here the Turkifh galleys lie. Lenmos, or Stalimene, is about 25 miles long, and nearly of the fame breadth. It is a fertile ifland, and contains mineral earth, from which the Turks derive a confiderable revenue. Tenedos is only famous from its lying oppofite to where Old Troy ftood. Scyros' is remarkable for its remains of anti quity, and for being the place where Achilles was educated, and where Thefeus died in exile. Lefbos, or Mytelene, is famous for being the birth-place of many philofophers and poets. Scio, or Chios. This ifland is about ipo miles in circumference. It has in it a Turkifh garrifon. Sundry manufactures of filk, velvet, &c, are carried on in it^ and it is famous for its produce of maftick. M Samos t&2 GEOGRAPHY. Samos was the birth-place of Pythagoras : it. lies oppofite to Ephefus. Patmos, fouth of Samos, is a rocky ifland, about 20 miles in circumference. It is only famous as having been the refidence of St. John when he wrote the book of Revelations. The Cyclades Ifiarids lie in a circle round Delos, which is famed as having been the birth place of Apollo and Diana, the ruins of whofe- temples are ftill vifible, Paros is noted for the beauty and whitenefs of its marble, and for many remains of antiquity. Cerigo, or Cytherea, is fouth-eaft of the Mo rea. It is about 50 miles in circumference. It is only remarkable as being the favourite refi dence of Venus, Serntorw, anciently Galifta, Or Thera, is one of the moft foutherly iflands in the Archipelago. Near this ifland is another ef the fame name, "which arOfe out of the fea in -1707. Its pro duce was attended with an earthquake, thunder *and lightning, and a boiling of the fea for -fe veral days. When it firft ma^'e its "appearance • <¦¦'* it Geography. 163 it was a mere volcano. It is about five miles in circumference. Rhodes is famous for having contained the brafs Coloffus, one of the feven wonders of the world. It is about 60 miles long and 50 broad. The harbour, which was between the feet of the Co loffus, is now the principal arfenal for the fhip ping belonging to the Grand Seignior. Rhodes, its principal town, is about three miles in cir cumference. Candia, the ancient Crete, once famous for its hundred cities, and for being the birth-place of Jupiter. The famous mount Ida, which is a barren rock, ftands in the middle of the ifland* The river Lethe, famous, for the labyrinth built by Daedalus, is in this ifland. About the year 1669 the ifland was befieged by the Turks, who took it after having loft 200,000 men. Cyprus is about 150 miles long and 70 broad. During the time of the Crufades it was a flourifb* ing kingdom. Paphos, the ancient feat of plea? fure and corruption, . is one of the divifions of the ifland. Mount Olympus is alfo contained in it. *6"4 geography. The Japan Iflands form an empire. The Chinefe and Dutch are the only nations the na tives fuffer to trade with them, and thefe are under fevere reftrictions. The Japanefe are fa mous for lacquer wares. The Ladrone Iflands are about 1 2 in number. The chief are Guam and Tinian, on which Anfon landed. Formofa, eaft of China, and Anian, or Hainan, in the Gulf of Cochin China, both belong to the Chinefe. They contain no thing remarkable* The Philippine Iflands are about 1 200 in num ber. They were firft difcovered by Magellan* who was flain in a fkirmifh with the natives in 1 521. The chief of the iflands is Manilla, or Luconia. . Thefe iflands are extremely fruitful, and afford richtrade to the Acapulco fhips. In the mountains of fome of thefe iflands, where water is moft wanted, there are canes and trees which fupply it. The . Moluccas, or Clove Iflands, are five in number. . The Dutch have two forts in thefe iflands... .... "•'- .. :.. The. GEOGRAPHY. i$£ . The Banda, or Nutmeg Iflands, are five in number. Thefe are the only iflands where nut megs are known to grow. Amboyna, famous for the cruelties exercifSd by the Dutch upon the Englifh in the year 1622.' The Dutch have a garrifon and forts in this ifland to protect. their, clove plantations. Celebes, or Macaffar. The chief produce of this ifland is pepper and opium. The Dutch have a fortification on this ifland. The in ternal parts are governed by three kings, the chief of whom refides in the town of Macaffar. Gilolo and Ceram are fpice iflands, in which the Dutch have fortifications. The Sunda Island's. 1TI Borneo is 800 miles long and. 7 00 broad. The fea-coafts of this ifland are moftly governed by Mahometan princes. The inhabitants trade with all nations. Sumatra is 1.000 miles long, and 100 broad. It produces much gold. The Englifh Eaft-India Company have two fettlements here, Bencoolen and Fort Marlborough, .whence they bring their M 3 chief t66 G E 0 G R A P ft V. chief cargoes 6f pepper. The caffia tree grows, in a part of (his ifland. There is a mountain in the ifland called Ophir, faid to exceed the peak of TenerifFe in height by 577 feet. The King of Achen is the chief of the Mahometan princes who poffefs the fea coafts. Java, The Dutch have fettlements on this ifland: that at Batavia is the principal of all their pofll-ffions in the Eaft Indies. , Their go^ vernor here lives in the greateft fplendor and magnificence, The Andaman and Nicobar tflancis. Thefe are fmall, but very numerous : they furnifh fhips which touch a)t them with -tropical fruits. Ceylon is one of the, richeft and moft fertile iflapds in the world, It is about 250 miles long, and 20O broad. The ifland produces things common with other places in the El*ft> hut cin namon js one Of its chief productions. Candy, the capital, ftands on a mountain in die middle pf the ifland. Here the king of the ifland re fides ; but hi? power is faid to be very much circumfcribed by the Dutch, "who are in poffef fion of the greateft part of the ifland. The pucdh 'tyere invited by the' natives to- defend fhern ¦O E O" G- R A P H Y. 167 them againft the Portugueze, whom they ex pelled, and eftablifhed themfelves. Trincomale, the chief port on this ifland, was lately part ol" the'feat of war between the Dutch, Englifh, and French. It is now again, by treaty, in the pof feffion of the Dutch. Maldives and Lackdives are very numerous, but can be called litde elfe than rocks ; fome of them, however, are noted for fine cocoa trees. Bombay and Goa have been treated of in the defcription of the Eaft Indies. The Kiiriie Iflands axe more than twenty in number. They are in general mountainous, and many of them contain volcanoes and hot fprings. Madagafcar, the largeft ofthe African iflands, is above 900 miles in length, and upwards of 200 miles in- breadths European fhips, in their paffage to and from India, generally pafs be tween this ifland and the continent of Africa. Madagafcar is not fubjed. to any foreign power, but is governed by many different princes, chofen from among themfelves. This ifland is in ge neral fertile and pleafant, M 4 Zocctora Jo's" geography. Zocotora is about 80 miles long, and 54 broad. The inhabitants are of Arab extraction. They have two good harbours, where Britifh fhips have fometimes put in. The ifland produces fruits, aloes, frankincenfe, and gum. Babelmandel is not above five miles in cir cumference, and is only a barren, fandy fpot ,of earth. The ftrait to which this ifland giyes name was, before the difcovery of the Cape of Good Hope, the only paffage ..through,, which the commodities of India found their way to Europe, Compra Iflands. The principal of thefe iflands is 30 miles long, and. 15 broad. It affords plenty of provifions and fruits, and fhips bound to Bombay generally touch here for refrefhments. The inhabitants are an hofpitable negro people, of the Mahometan perfuafion, Mauritius is about 150 miles in circumference. It produces . many valuable commodities, and has a convenient and fafe harbour, This ifland is in general mountainous, and has many fine rivulets, Bourbon is about 90 miles rOund. Some of . t : its Geography. 169 its fhores are dangerous, from rocks juft beneath the furface of the water. On the fouthern ex tremity of the ifland there is a volcano which continually makes a roaring noife, and throws out flames. This ifland is in general fruitful, and is the place where the French Eaft-India fhips touch at to take in refrefhments. There are many inconfiderable iflands dif- perfed near the African iflands already defcribed/ St. Helena is about 21 miles in circumference. It is rocky, lies high, and is acceffible only at the landing-place, which is in a fmall valley on the eaft fide, defended by batteries of cannon, placed level with the water. There is no an chorage about the ifland but at a fituation called Chapel Valley Bay. If a fhip overfhoots this ifland in its paffage to Europe, it cannot re cover it again, on account of the ftrong. fouth- eaft wind which conftantly blows there. The ifland contains about 200 families, moftly de fcended from Englifh parents. The Englifh Eaft-India homeward bound fhips take in water and frefh provifions here. The Company's af fairs here are managed by a governor, deputy- governor, and ftofe-keeper, who have ftanding falaries, apd a public table, well furnifhed, to which 17& sf j o g & a r h y; which all commanders, mafters of fhips, and principal paffengers are welcome. Afcenfion is about twenty miles in eireumfer rence ; it is, in general, mountainous and barr .ren, and is not inhabited, but it has a fafe .and convenient harbour ; and the Eaft India fhips generally touch here to furnifh themfelves with -turtle, which they find in great plenty. St. Matthew, St. Thomas, Anaboa, Princes Ifland, and Fernandopo, have nothing that re quires a particular defcription, Cape Verd Iflands, are fo named from being oppofite to Cape Verd, on the African coaft ; ( they are about 20 in number, but fome of them are only barren and uninhabited rocks. St. Jago is die moft fertile of them, it is about 150 miles in circumference; madder grows here in great plenty among the cliffs ; outward- bound fhips often touch here for refrefhments. The Portuguefe have a Viceroy ftationed in this " ifland. The other Cape Verd Iflands of any note, are, Mayo, Fogo, (a volcano), and Goree, which belongs to the French. 'e>" Canaries, (anciently called the Fortunate Iflands), are feven innumber. The one called . 3 the C E O G R- A- P-H Y. 4JI the Grand, Canary, is about 150 miles in cir cumference, and is extremely fruitful. Teneriffe, (the, next ¦ largeft ifland, is about 120 miles in circumference, and is, in general, fertile ; it is very remarkable for its Peak, which, at .the bottom . is about j 5 miles in circumference ; it fifes gradually in the form of a fuga»- loaf; the perpendicular height of it is about three miles above die furface of the fea, from which it ferves as a fea mark. The Canaries are famous for die wine to which they give name. Madeiras are three in number, the largeft, call ed Madeira, is about 180 miles in circumference; it forms one continued hill from eaft to weft, the declivity,.. of which on the fouth fide is cul tivated and interfperfed with vineyards. In the midft of the flope the 'merchants have fixed their refidence. Funchal, which is the only town in die ifland, is on the fouth fide, at the bottom of a large bay ; towards the fea it is defended by a high wall, with a battery of cannon. Porto Santo, another of the iflands, is about eight miles in circumference, and is extremely, fertile; the other ifland is only a fmall, barren, rock. The Madeiras are famous for tfie wine to which they give name. Azores, 172 GEOGRAPHY. Azores, are1 nine in number, named Santa Maria/ St. Michael, Tercera, St. George, Graciofa, Fayal, Pico, Flores, and Corvo. Thefe iflands are fer tile, but often fuffer from earthquakes and in undations. St. Michael, the largeft, is about loo miles in circumference, and contains abOut 50,000 inhabitant's. Tercera has a good har bour, and contains the town of Angra, in which is' a cathedral and five other churches. The' Governor of the iflands refides here, as does likewife the Bifhop. Newfoundland is moftly valuable for the cod fifhery carried on upon the fhoals or fand banks^ which lie eaft and fouth-eaft of the ifland. By the laft treaty of peace, the French are- allowed to enjoy the fifheries on the north and weft coafts ofthe ifland. The chief towns in New foundland are, Placentia, Bonavifta, and St. John ; but not more than 1000 families remain here in the winter, from the extreme cold and foggy air. 'Cape Breton is, in general, very barren. The harbour of Louifbourg, the chief town, is above ten miles in circumference. St. GEOGRAPHY. 173 St. John is about 60 miles in length, and 30 or 40 in breadth j it is much more fertile than the two laft mentioned, for it furnifhes a great quantity of corn, and many cattle are bred in it. Bermudas, or Summer ^Iflands, are furround ed with rocks, which make them difficult of accefs. The number of inhabitants there are about 10,0005 they moftly employ them felves in building and navigating light floops and brigantines between North America and the Weft Indies. The town of St. George is at the bottom of a haven, defended by feveral forts, and a great quantity of cannon. f Lucay's, or Bahama Iflands, are about 500 in number, but fome of them are mere rocks ; only twelve of them are of note, from either fize or fertility. Providence is the principal of the iflands. In the time of war much gain is made here by condemned prizes, and at all times by wrecks, which are frequent, from the many rocks and fhelves. The Spanifh galeons, in their paffage to Europe, fail between thefe iflands and the coaft of Florida. Jamaica l7'4" GEOGRAPHY. Jamaica* is fuppofed to contain upwards of too,ooo inhabitants, of which more than four* fifths are fiaves. The ifland, in general, is very fertile; but fugar, rum, and molaffes are the moft valuable articles of the Jamaica trade. Kingfton, the capital, is in the fouth part of the ifland. At a little diftance from Kingfton, is Spanifh Town, or St. Jago de la Vega, where the courts of juftice are held. Jamaica has been in poffeffion of the Englifh from the year 1656, at which time it was taken from the Spaniards ; St. Jago was then the capital ; after this, Port Royal, which was deftroyed by an earthquake in 1692, w7as the capital. Port- Royal was built upon a barren, fandy foil, but it formed the border of a fine deep harbour, iapable of containing a thoufand fail of large fiiips. It was rebuilt, and deftroyed by an hurricane in 1722. In 1780, the fea-port town of Savannah la Mer was almoft deftroyed by an hurricane. Jamaica is interfered with a ridge of rocks, which, however, are covered * Jamaica, Cuba, Hifpaniola, and Porto Rico, are railed the Great Antilles ; the Little Antilles are thofe iflands along tbe coaft of Terra Firma. Tlie weftefnmoft iirands, -called the Carribbean' Iflands, are divided into the Leeward Iflands and Wind ward Iflands.; Martinioo* inJ thofe fouth of it arc the Windwardlflands.. . j. '"¦¦¦ ¦ i. with O E O G RA P H-Yi iff with a great variety of beautiful trees ; a vaft number of rivulets of pure wholefome Watef iffue from the rocks, and fall in cataracts. Barbadoes contains nearly the fame number of inhabitants as Jamaica, widi a like propor tion, or rather greater of fiaves. The iflartd, in general, is fertile, and its productions much the fame with Jamaica, and moft of the other Weft India " iflands. Bridgetown, the capital, is the refidence of the Governor of the iflands Barbadoes is. the moft eafterly of all the Ca- ribbees, but has generally been as much annoyed by hurricanes as any of them ; it received great damage in 1780. St. Chrifiopher's, commonly called St. Kitt's, contains about 6000 whites, and 3600 fiaves. This ifland, for its fize, produces a great quan tity of fogar. Antigua contains about 7000 whites, and *and 30^30 fiaves; it has an excellent har bour, in which there is a dock-yard, and an eftablifhment for the Royal Navy. The ordi nary feat of the Governor of the Leeward iflands is at St. John, the port of the greateft trade. Nevis 176 GEOGRAPHY. Nevis and Montferrat contain each about 5000 whites, and 10,000 flaves. Barbuda contains about 1500 inhabitants; it belongs to the Codrington family. It has no direct, trade with England. The inhabitants are moftly employed in hufbandry, and raifing provifion for the neighbouring iflands. Anguilla contains but few inhabitants ; it is perfectly level, , and its inhabitants apply them felves much in hufbandry, and feeding cattle. Dominica, from its fituation with regard to Guadaloupe and Martinico, which it is between, and other political reafons, has been declared to be a free port, and has its own peculiar go vernment. St. Vincent is, in general, very fruitful. Many of the inhabitants are Carribeans. When it was ceded to the Englifh in 1763, many inhabi tants of the adjacent iflands came and fettled here. Granada and the Grenadines are fruitful ; fe veral bays (the principal of which is St. George's) and harbours, lay round Granada, and a lake on GEOGRAPHY. i^_ on the top of a hill, in the middle of the iflanj fupplies it plentifully with rivers. Thefe iflands have hitherto efcaped the ravages pf the hurri canes. Cuba, the largeft of the Weft India Iflands, is fertile, but not well cultivated. A chain- of hills runs through die middle of the ifland from eaft to weft, but the land near the fea is in- general level,, and in the rainy feafon a great" deal of it is flooded. • The principal towns in this ifland have good harbours, among which are St. Jago, facing Jamaica, which is ftrongly fitu ated and well fortified; the Havannah, (the capital pf the ifland), facing Florida, likewife a place of great ftrength and importance; and Santa Cruz, about 30 miles eaft of the Ha vannah. Hifpaniola, or St. Domingo, is extremely fer tile, efpecially the north-weft parts^ which be long to the French. The ifland is diverfified with hills, valleys, wopds, and rivers ; cattle of the European kind run wild in the woods, and are fo. plenty as to be hunted for their hides and tallow only. The moft ancient town built by the Europeans in the Weft Indies, is St. Do- N mingo, 178 G E O G X A P H Y. mingo, which is the capital of the part of the ifland which belongs to Spain ; it is fituated on a fpacious harbour, and is well built. The French towns are, Cape Francois, Leogane,' Petit Guaves, and Port Louis. .-.br..- Porto Rico is extremely fertile, and it is beautifully- diverfified with woods, plains; and rivers. The capital, Porto Rico, ftands in a little ifland, -on the north fide of the main ifland j it enclofes a capacious harbour, and is joined to the chief ifland by a caufeway, defended with forts and batteries. Virgin Iflands are very fmall ; they are fituated att the eaft end of Porto Rico. -ri Trinidad is fertile, but unhealthy. ^Mdrgarettd is fertile, and abounds in ver dant pafture. Martinico is very fertile, and is diverfified with hills and rivers; its bays and harbours are numerous, and ftrongly fortified. This ifland is the refidence - of the Governor of all the French Weft India iflands. * - Guadaloupe GEOGRAPHY. 179 Guadaloupe is very fertile, and is ftrongly fortified. It is divided in two parts by a narrow channel, navigable only to ferry boats. St. Lucia is very fertile in the valleys, and has fome convenient harbours. This ifland, under certain reftrictions, is declared by the French to be a free port. Tobago is very fertile, and has many conve nient bays and creeks ; it has hitherto ef caped the ravages of the hurricanes. St. Bartholemezv, Defeada, and Marigalante ; thefe iflands are of inconfiderable confequence, except in time of war, when they afford fhelter to the French privateers. St. - Euftatius is one continued mountain, almoft round, and rifing gradually in a pyra- midical form. It is in want of fprings and rivers ; but the Dutch have added to it all the poffible advantages of art. It is fuppofed to contain about 5000 whites, and 15,000 fiaves. Sugar and tobacco are the chief produce of the ifland. The inhabitants carry on a contra band trade with the Spanifh iflands, and in time of war have generally enriched themfelves by N 2 their ISO GEOGRAPHY. their profeffed neutrality. The fame may be faid of the , inhabitants of Curafou, which is a barren ifland, made, however, extremely valu able by Dutch management. It has a fine harbour, a neat built town, many handfome public buildings ; and numerous warehoufes, ftored with European and Afiatic commodities. The ifland is made to produce tobacco and fugar, and it has good fait works. St. Thomas and St. Croix, or Santa Cruz. Thefe two Danifh iflands have improved much fince the late King of Denmark bought up his Weft India Company's ftock, and laid the trade open. Several perfons from the Englifh iflands have fettled here. The iflands off the coaft of South America belonging to Spain, are the Gallipago Iflands, fituated on the weftern part of the continent, near and about the equator ; Chiloe, near the weftern coaft, between 41 and 43 degrees of iov.th latitude, (it has a governor, and fome well fortified harbours), and other very fmall iflands. Juan Fernandes is uninhabited, but it has :f:::C good harbours, and has been found con venient GEOGRAPHY. l8l venient to Englifh. cruizers, who have touched here to take in water. In this ifland Alexan der Selkirk, a Scotchman, was left by a fhip to which he belonged ; after a long and lonely refidence, a Capt. Rogers, who touched here, found him, and conveyed him home : h s journal of adventures in the ifland he en- trufted to one Defoe to get publifhed, but De foe defrauded him, by bringing out the adven tures, on his own account, under the title of Robinfon Crufoe. A particular Defcription of the chief Cities in the European Kingdoms and States. I . O ND O N is the center of commerce, and the heart of the Britifh nation ; it communi cates its treafures with the moft diftant parts of the world, and it is the feat of liberty and juftice, and the encourager of arts and fciences. Its public buildings and commercial conveniences taken in toto are unequalled, and its river furpaffes any other in the world, for the richnefs of its burthen : its banks likewife contain, befides the King's Dock-yards, for building men of war, three large wet docks, 32 dry docks, and 33 yards for building merchant fhips. The City N 3 of l82 GEOGRAPHY. of Weftminfter and Borough of Souths ark join their buildings with London. The whole con tain two noble C athedrals, 102 Parifh Churches, upwards of 180 other places devoted to religious worfhip, 100 alms-houfes, and 20 hofpitals. The number of inhabitants are fuppofed to be a million ; and taking in the extent of continued buildings, the circumference is more than 35 miles. Edinburgh is remarkable for the extreme lofti - nefs of its buildings, (which are all of ftone) ; for the fpacioufnefs of its High-flreet ; for its Caftle, which is the height of twenty flories, built upon a fteep and lofty rock, inacceffible, except where It joins the City ; Holyrood Houfe, which faces the Caftle, &c. &c. Parallel to the city on the north, a new town is building, the ftreets and fquares of which are laid out with the utmoft regularity, and the architecture does honour to the prefent age. Between the old and new town, lies a narrow vale ; over the eaftern part there is a bridge, the center arch of which is about 90 feet high ; this renders the commu nication between the old and new Town fhort and convenient. On the fouth fide of the vale, and on the weftern extremity, the Caftle ftands. What is fometimes called the harbour of Edin burgh is properly the harbour of Leith ; it is about GEOGRAPHY. 1.8 3 about two miles diftant from Edinburgh. The Supreme Courts of Juftice for North Britain are held at Edinburgh. Dublin ftands about feven miles from the lea, at the bottom of a large and fpacious bay, (to which it gives name) upon the river Liffey, which divides it into two parts. It is banked through the whole length of the city on both fides, form ing noble and fpacious quays. Below the firft bridge veffels load and unload before the mer chants warehoufes. There is a ftone wall built about three miles in length, about the breadth of a moderate ftreet, and fufficiently high, to confine the channel of the bay of Dublin, and to fhelter veffels in ftormy weather. The Par liament Houfe, the New Exchange, the .Bar racks, Trinity College, the Linen Hall, Sec. are well deferving notice. The city of Dublin is an archbifhopric. Bergen is a principal fea-port, and carries on a great fifhing trade : feveral thoufand barrels of the roes of large fifties, caught on the Norway coaft,. are yearly exported to the coaft of Britany, for the ufe of the pilchard fifheries *. * The roes are mixed with a fufficient quantity of fait water, to make a pafte to anoint the nefs' with ; the nets are th"en fpread loofely-on the furface of the water, and'in their defcent the pilchards are eager for the bait. N 4 Copenhagen 1 84 GEOGRAPHY. Copenhagen is remarkable for a fine harbour, formed by a large canal, which flows through the city : it can admit only one fhip at a time, but it is capable of containing 500. Se veral of the ftreets have canals and quays for fhips to lay clofe to the houfes. The Danes have a capital arfenal for the navy here. The road for the fhipping begins about two miles from the town, and is defended by 9 ; pieces of cannon. Copenhagen itfelf is defended by four royal caftles, or forts. The palace, which con tains many grand apartments, is moated round with a triple ditch ; but the fineft palace is at Frederickfburgh, about twenty miles from Copenhagen. Stockholm is a ftaple * town. It ftands upon fix contiguous iflands, in the Meller Lake, and is built upon piles. The town is furnifhed with all the exterior mark's of magnificence which are common to the greateft European cities, fuch as erections for manufactures and commerce : it has likewife a national bank, the capital of which is £.4.66,666 13s. 4d. fterling. The * Certain towns in Sweden, twenty-four in number, are called Staple Towns : in thefe towns the merchants are al lowed to import and export commodities in their own fhips. Thofe towns which have no foreign commerce are called Land Towns, even if they are near the fea. caftle GEOGRAPHY. 185 caftle accommodates the royal court, and the national courts and colleges. The harbour of of Stockholm is difficult of accefSj but -lt is convenient and fpacious. Through Stock holm England is in part fupplied with fhip anchors. Peterfburgh ftands at the bottom of the Gulf of Finland. The river Neva, which commu nicates with the lake of Ladoga, divides it into two parts : towards the fea it is defended by the fortrefs of Cronftadt. The city is about fix miles every way, and contains every ftruflure for national and public ufe, commerce, and mag nificence, that are to be found in the moft cele brated European cities *. Warfaw is almoft in the center of Poland, on the river Viftula. It is the royal refidence, and contains many magnificent palaces and other buildings. The city and its fuburbs exhibit a ftrong contraft of wealth and poverty, and have but little commerce. * In the year 1703, Peterfburgh confifted only of a few fmall fifhing huts; the ground was fo waterifh and fwampy, that it was formed into ning iflands. Berlin, S86 GEOGRAPHY. Berlin, the prefent royal refidence of* Pruffia, is fituated on the river Spree, in the marquifate of Brandenburgh. It contains a royal palace, and fome others 5 its ftreets and fquares are fpa cious and regular. 'Koningfberg, on the river Pregel, (which is navigable), is fometimes ac counted the capital of the kingdom. This city has palaces, a town-houfe, an exchange, a citadel, and a good harbour. There are feven bridges Over the Pregel. Vienna contains many palaces, among which are two imperial ones : it alfo contains an uni verfity, a bank, and a court of commerce. Its religious buildings, with the walks and gardens, occupy a fixth part of the town. Prague is a large, fine, and magnificent city, and is famous for its noble bridge. It contains 92 churches and chapels, and 40 cloifters. It is fituated on the river Mulda. Amfterdam, next to London, is the greateft commercial city in the world : it contains every convenience for commerce, and its public works are grand and fublime. The city ftands on the river Amftel, and an arm of the fea called Wye. It GEOGRAPHY. 187 It is in fize about half as big as London, and is] built on piles of wood. Brujfels, or Bruxelles, is the refidence of the viceroy of the Auflrian Netherlands. It is a ftrong fortified town, and agreeably fituated on the river Senne. Paris is divided into three parts, the City, the Univerfity, and what was formerly called the Town. The City, or Old Paris, confifts of three little iflands, in the middle of the river Seine*; the Town , (the largeft part), which is on the north fide of the river ; and the Univerfity, which is on the fouth fide. The palaces f are fhowy, and fome of its houfes and public build ings are fuperbly decorated with paintings and flatues. Among the public buildings the firft are the Louvre, the Thuilleries, the Palace of Orleans, called Luxemburgh, the Guildhall, the Academy, and the Hofpital for Invalids. The hotels of the French nobleffe, which are walled in, take up a great deal of room, with their court-yards and gardens. Paris is of a circular form, and is nearly as large as London. It is fuppofed to contain about 750,000 inhabitants. * The river Seine is not half fo broad as the Thames at London, neither is it navigable for fhipping. ¦j- The palace of Verfailles is about 12 miles from Paris. 2 Madrid l88 GEOGRAPHY. Madrid is about feven miles in circumference, fituated in the middle of a fandy plain, furround ed with high mountains. It contains three royal palaces *, very fpacious and magnificent. The principal one, called the Palace Royal, ftands on an eminence, on the weft fide of the city. Some of the ftreets of Madrid are fpacious and handfome. Gibraltar is fituated on a rock, in 36 ° 5, of north latitude, and in 50 17' of weft longitude, and is acceffible on the land only by a narrow paffage between the rock and the fea, walled and fortified both by nature and art. Aerofs this ifthmus the Spaniards have drawn a fortified line, to prevent the garrifon from being fupplied from Spain. The harbour of Gibraltar is formed by * The Efcurial, which is the pride of Spain, is about twenty-one miles north-weft of Madrid. Its buildings are in the form of a gridiron ; the King's apartment in it forms the handle. This palace has feveral thoufand doors and windows, and every convenience and ornament that can make it elegant and fuperb ; it has alfo an ex tenfive park, with groves, fountains, cafcades, grottos, &c. Philip II. erefted the building in commemoration of a viftory obtained by him over the French, at St. Quin- tin's, on St. Lawrence's day, 1557; accordingly, it was dedicated to St. Lawrence, who is faid to have fuffered martyrdom on a gridiron. a mole, GEOGRAPHY. 189 a mole, which is well fortified ; but the road is neither fafe againft an enemy nor ftorms. The bay is about twenty leagues in circumference. The Straits are about twenty-four miles long, and fifteen broad, and have conftantly a ftrong current fetting from the Atlantic Ocean. Lifbon is a great commercial city. It is fituated on the north bank of the Tagus, about ten miles from its mouth, and about eighty from the weft ern frontiers of Spain. The ftreets are fpacious, and the houfes are lofty and elegant. The whole town prefents itfelf agreeably upon the rifing banks of the river, in the form of a crefcent. The harbour of Lifbon is fpacious and fecure, and the city is guarded by forts from any fudden attack from the fea. Berne * is fituated on the river Aar. This city, and the canton to which it belongs, makes the moft confiderable diftrict of Switzerland. It is faid to be able to fit out 100,000 armed men. The city'is well provided with arfenals and public edifices. * Bafil is by fome reckoned the capital of Switzer land. Rome 150 GEOGRAPHY. Rome * is fituated upon the river Tiber f . Its ftreets are fpacious; and magnificently built. Its churches are very numerous, and fome of them in point of architecture, magnificence, and furniture, (efpecially St. Peter's) equal, if not' furpafs, any in the world. The caftle of St. Angelo is the chief fortrefs of Rome. As the prefent city ftands on the ruins of ancient Rome, the feven hills, on which it was originally built, cannot be well diftinguifhed. The city contains within its circuit many vineyards and gardens. Naples is fituated within about four miles of the famous volcano, called Mount Vefuvius J. It * Bologna is the next principal city to Rome in the Ecclefiaftical State. Its inhabitants are a commercial people. f The Tiber is much lefs confiderable than the Thames, and is navigable only to fmall craft. It has five bridges over it. X Vefuvius, at the bottom, and or*, the north and eaft declivity, is covered with vines and fruit trees ; the top and fouth and weft fides are covered" with cinders and ftones. The height of the fummit above the furface of the fea is about 3900 feet. Among the towns and cities which Vefuvius has deftroyed are Herculaneum and Pom- peia. The melted lava in its courfe filled up the ftreets above the houfe-tops to the height of many feet. In the year GEOGRAPHY. 19I It is fuperbly adorned with a profufion of art and riches. Its ftreet called Strada di Toledo, is faid to exceed any in Rome for beauty and ele gance. Florence is fituated on the river Arno, forty- five miles eaft of Leghorn. Next to Rome it is the moft rich and beautiful city in Italy. The Grand Duke's palaces are eminently fuperb. The city ftands between mountains, covered with vineyards and pleafant villas. Genoa is fituated on a rifing ftrand, near the fea. Its houfes are lofty and well built, and the principal ftreet from one end to the other re fembles a double row of palaces. The city is fortified with a double wall fix miles in cir cuit. The harbour of Genoa is large and deep. Venice is fituated on -a. number of fmall iflands, at about five miles from the continent. The year 1736 artificers, employed by the King of Naples, dug deep enough to difcover fome of the principal build ings of Herculaneum, and even the bed ofthe river which ran through it. Pompeia has likewife been cleared to the payement of the ftreets, and many fkeletons have been found in the houfes. avenues I9- GEOGRAPHY. avenues to it are fo difficult, that the Vene tians have not thought it neceffary to ericompafs it with a wall. By fea it is too fhallow for large fhips to come near it. The city contains many fine palaces and lofty towers *. Cagliari has been already mentioned with the Ifland of Sardinia. ' .'.a Buda is fituated on the fide of a hill on the fouth-weft fide of the river Danube; it. is de fended by a caftle, and ftrongly fortified ; Pref- burgh, reckoned by fome the capital of Hun gary, is a large fortified city. on the north fide of the Danube. Conftantinople \ is fituated on the weftern fhore ofthe Bofphorus; it is built in the form of a triangle. The city has nine gates, one of which is very magnificent; the Ottoman Palace oc cupies an amazing extent of ground; and * Many other principal towns of the ftates of Italy, be fides thofe already mentioned, are remarkable on particu lar accounts ; Mantua, for inftance, for being ftrongly fortified ; Milan, for its fine gothic, and rich cathe dral, &c. \ Adjoining to Conftantinople are- four towns, called Pera, Galata, Pacha, and Tophana. In Pera the foreign ambaffadors and all ftrangers refide. They are not per mitted to live in the city. is GEOGRAPHY* 193 is iflclofed with a wall 30 feet high, haying towers and* battlements ; it occupies that angle which "runs' out' between the Propontis, and the harbour, which is one of the beft in Europe. Conftantinople has many fine buildings, and is fuppofed to contain about 700,000 inhabi tants. Caffki the moft confiderable tqWn in thl Cri mea, is fituated on the fouth-eaft part of the" peninfula. •"' ¦¦ WCf. v.v. Athens is fituated V1 a HfSs P^a'n near the river Iliffus, in the province of Livacfia. It is about four miles in circumference. New Disgqvered-IslanOs. . If ' ' 1 -iV^g /T HOLLAND* lies between u and 38 degrees of fouth; latitude, and between 109 and 153 degrees of eaft longitude. Botany Bay is on the' fouth-eaft part ofthe ifland, in about lat. 35 degrees. * This country is much larger thati ally Other that does not bear the name of a continent. O New 1$4 GEOGRAPHY. jNew Guinea lies between i and 12 degrees of fouth latitude, and between 131 and 150 de grees of eaft longitude. • New Britain *, New Ireland, New Hanover, *o ¦¦. , v .. 1. '. -„ the Admiralty Iflands, and other fmaller'ones lie off the north-eaft part of New Guinea. .New Hebrides are'.Tituated between 140 29' and 10" 4' of fouth Tatitude," aiid Between' 669 41 and 171° 21 of eaft longitude. til J " V" . ' : i . '! j" ¦ ' "v . jVi?w Caledonia "f * is. fituated fouth-weft of Ihe New Hebrides pitTs about 250 miles in length, but its breadth feldom exceeds 36 miles." - jVi?«; Zealand confifts of two large iflands, divided by a ftrait of about four of five leagues broad ; they lie between 34 and 48 de- fgrees- of fouth latitude, and between 166 and *83r degrees of eaft. longitude. 1 ... *' Ncvv Britain and New Ireland are .of confiderable ex tent. + A few leagues diftant from New Caledonia, are two iflands, one called Botany Ifland, and the other, the iiland of Pines. New Caledonia and New Zealand are the two largeft iflands in this part ofthe fouthern' ocean. -r :-\ The GEOGRAPHY. IQ5 The Friendly Iflands ,are about twenty in num ber; they lie round lat. 21° fouth, and longi tude 175 weft ; thefe iflands are fertile and pleafant; the principal of them are, Annamooka, Tohgataboo, ,and Eooa, Amfterdam, Rotter dam, and Middleburg. . :• Oheteroa is fituated in lat. 220 27' fouthj and long. 1500 47 "weft; it is about 13 miles in circumference, j —-,-.. Otaheite, or Xing George's Ifland, is fituated between 170 28' and 17 ° 53' of fouth latitude, and between 149° n'..and ,I49Q 39' of weft longitude; it confifts of two peninfulas joined by an ifthmus, and ris. furrounded by a reef of coral _ rocks, which form feveral excellent bays and harbours. TheTand rifes, in ridges, forming mountains, which may be feen at the diftance .of more than, ioq miles. ..!"• Si- ;T . 'iv ii:-:\j ].., . ... ... .'IK The. Society Iflands. are fix in number-; , they lie about 100 miles north- weft of Otaheite". The Sandwich Iflands are twelve in number ; they are fituated in the Pacifick Ocean, between 1 8° 53' and 220 15' of north latitude, and 1 54° and 1600 of weft longitude. In the largeft of thefe iflands, named Owhyhee, the cele- O 2 bracci I96 GEOGRAPHY. brated navigator, Capt. Cook, was killed by the natives. Northern Archipelago eonfifts of feveral groupes of iflands, fituated between the eaftern coaft of Kamfchatka and the weftern coaft of North Ame rica. Befides the before mentioned iflands,- many others of lefs note have been difcovered in the Pacifick and Southern Oceans, among which are, Queen Charlotte's Ifland, Prince William Henry's, Ofnaburgh, Prince Edward's, Cum berland, Whitfun Ifland, &c. Moft ofthe iflands treated' of, efpecially New. Holland, New Guinea, and other large ones, are very thinly inhabited,- and, for want of culti- 'vation, have- nothing particular to reconrtrnend them. Their inhabitants are without learning or arts, and fome of them are cannibals. Their •complexion's border on a chocolate colour. CHAP, GEOGRAPHY. 197 C H A P. XXXIX. Principal Mountains, Ifthmufes, and Rivers. Mount ai ns. Jj-LPS, feparate Italy from France and Germany. Andes, or Cortklkras, extend from fouth to north through Chili. Apalachian Mountain*, weftward of the American States. Appeninet, extend from fouth to north" through Italy. Atlas*, extend from the north-weft part of Africa to Egypt. ^Athos, (Greece), in Macedonia; it extends to the Egeau Sea. Balagate, (in India) ; they extend from north to fouth. Carpathian, divide Hungary and Tranfylvania from Po land. Caucafus, between Tartary and the Mogul Empire. Ccvennes, (France), in the province of Languedoc. Daghijian, including Caucafus, Taurus, Ararat, &c. ex tend from the weft of Afia through Perfia to India. Dolfrine, Drorifield, Sec. between Norway and Sweden. Grampian Hills, (Scotland), extend from near Aberdeen to Cowal, in Argylefhire Jura, divides Franche Compte from Switzerland. Lybian, between Egypt and Lybia. Moon, (Mountains of), between Abyffinia and Monomo tapa. * The Mountains of Atlas are laid to have given name to the Atlantitk Ocean. O 3 Olympus I §8 GEOGRAPHY. Olympus attd Pindus, (Turkey in Europe), feparate Thei- faly from Epirus. Farnaffus, (Turkey, in Europe), in Lividia. Pentland Hills, (Scotland), extend through Lothian, and join thofe of Tweedale. Pyrenees, divide France from Spain. Vague, (France), divide Lorrain, from Burgundy and Alface. Zimnopoias, (called the Girdle of the Earth, thought to be the Montes Riphsei of the ancients), in the north ern part of Ruffia. Isthmuses. Corinth, joins the Morea tb Greece. Malacca, joins Malacca to the further India. Panama, joins North and South America. Suez, joins Africa to Afia. Rivers. Argun and Lena, flow between the Ruffian and Chinefe Empires. Bog. flows through the province of Podolia and Budziac Tartary, and falls into the Black Sea between Oczacow and the mouth of the Neiper. Danube, flows from the Black Foreft in Swabia through Bavaria, Auftria, Hungary, and Turkey in Europe, and falls by feveral ftreams into the Black Sea. Delaware, St. Lauirence, MiJJiJJippi, Sufquehana, Patcwmac, Orconoko, Amazon, La Plata, Sec. were treated of with America. Don, or Tanais, divides the fouth-eaft part of Ruffia in Europe from Afia. X)raie, flows from Saltzburgh in Germany, divides Hun gary from Sclavonia, and falls into the Danube. Tiuo Dwia's, one gives name to the province of Dwina, in Ruffia, and falls into the White Sea ; the other flows from J GEOGRAPHY. 1QO. from Lithuania, divides Livonia from Courland, and falls into the Baltic Sea near Riga. Ebro, (the ancient Iberus), flows from Old Caftile through Bifcay and Arragon ; thence through Catalonia into the Mediterranean Sea. Elbe *, flows from the confines of Siberia through Bohe mia, Saxony, and Brahdenburgh ; it divides the Dutchy of Lunenburgh from that of Mecklenburgh ; alfo the Dutchy of Bremen from Holftein. It falis into the Bri tifh Sea about feventy miles below Hamburgh. Euphrates, flows from two fources northward of the city of Erzerum through Armenia. It divides Syria from Di- arbeck, runs through Eyraca, unites with the Tigris, paffes by the city of Baffora, and falls into the Perfian Gulf. Ganges, flows from the mountains which divide India from Tartary ; it paffes through many provinces, receives many other rivers, and falls by various ftreams (the moft diftant of which are 200 miles apart) into the Bay of Bengal. Garonne f, flows from the Pyrenean Mountains by Thou- loufe ; it divides the provinces of Guienne and Gaf- cony, paffes thence near Bourdeaux, and falls into the Bay of Bifcay about 60 miles from Bourdeaux. Indus, flows from the mountains which divide India from Tartary ; it paffes through many provinces, and falls into the Gulf of Scindi below Tata. Kur, (anciently Cyrus), flows from the Mountains of Georgia into the Cafpian Sea.. Loire, flows from the Cevennes to the Bay of Bifcay. Maes, flows from Burgundy through Lorrain and Cham- paigne, and thence paffes through the Netherlands, and falls into the Britifh Sea a little below Briel {. * The Elbe Is navigable for great (hips further from its mouth than any other River in Europe. •f This river communicates with the Mediterranean, by means of a canal cut by Lewis the Fourteenth. The tide flows up tbe river to with in about twenty miles above Bourdeaux. X Briel^ or Brill, is about twelve miles fouth ofthe Hague, in a fmall ifland, named Voorn. O 4 Mofelu 20© GEOGRAPHY, Mofelle, flows from the Mountains of Vague in Lorrain, through the Dutchy and Electorate of Triers, jmd falls jnto the Rhine. JJeiper, or Boriftenes, flows from Ruffia, in Europe, through Poland into the Ruffian Ukraine; it feparates Little Tartary from Budzjac Tartary, and falls into the Black Sea near Oczakow. JJiefter, divides Podolia in Poland from Moldavia in Tur^ key, alfo Beffarabia from Budziac Tartary ; it falls into the Black Sea near Belgorod. Wger, flows from Negroland into the Atlantick Ocean by three branches, Rio Grande, Gambia, and Senegal. JJile, flows from Abyffinia through Egypt to the Levant Sea. Oby, flows from Kalmuck Tartary to the Northern Ocean, and ferve's as one of the boundaries of Europe. Oder, flows from the Carpathian Mountains through Sir lefia, (in which it gives name to a town) ; thence through Brandenburgh ; then it forms the divifion between eaftern and weftern Pomerania, divides into feveral channels, and falls into the Baltic Sea. Oxus, flows from the northern mountains of India; fepa, rates Ufbec Tartary from Perfia, and falls into the Cafpian Sea. Po, flows from the Alps through Piedmont tb the Gulf of Venice. Rhine, flows from Switzerland, forms the Lake of Cdn* fiance, whence it paffes to Bafil ; divides Swabia from Alface, tljence it runs through the Palatinate*, and gives name to two tf the circles of Germany, receives the Necker, Maine, and Mofelle, paffes by Mentz, &c. enters the Netherlands, divides into feveral chan-. nels, and falls into the Britifn S/a. Rhone, flows from the Alps through the Lake of Geneva, thence through the towns of Avignon and Aries, and falls into the Mediterranean Sea a little to the weftward of Marfeilles. * The Palatinate contains the territories of the Eleflor Palatine ; the above-mentioned is in the circles of the Lower Rhine ; it extends on pach fidp the river, and is about ioo miles long, and 70 broad j theother Valatinafe is ;r. tlie circle pf Bavaria. Satnbret C I 0 O R A P H Y. 201 Sambre, flows from the confines of Piccardy, and falls into the Maefe at Namur. Save, flows from Corinthia, a Dutchy of Auftria ; it di vides Sclavonia from Turkey, and falls into the Da nube at Belgrade, in the province of Servia. Beheld, flows from Picardy, runs north-eaft by Cambray, Valenciennes, Tourna^, &c. receives the river Lis at Ghent ; flows thence by Dendermond, then to Ant werp, below which it divides into two branches, one called the Weftern Scheld, which feparates Flanders from Zealand, and falls into the fea near Flufhing. The other branch, called the Ofter Scheld, runs by Bergen op Zoom, and thence between the iflands Be- veland and Schowen, and falls into the Britifh Sea. Tagus, flows from the confines of Arragon through New Caftile and Eftremadura, thence through Tortugal, and forms the harbour of Lifbon, at which city it is about three miles wide. Tiber, flows from Tufcany, and falls into the Mediter ranean Sea, about fifteen miles below Rome, which it paffes through. Tigris, flows from the mountains jn Armenia, divides Diarbec from Curdiftan, paffes Bagdat, and falls into the Euphrates, Vijlula, flows from the mountains fouth of Silefia ; it paffes- by Cracow and Warfaw, and falls into the Baltic Sea below Dantzic. Wefer, flows from the Landgravate of Heffe, thence be tween the circles of Weftphalia and Lower Saxony, and falls into the Britifh Ocean below Carlitat. Wolga, flows from the north part of Ruffia, through Perfia,- Georgia, and Tartary, and falls into the Cafpian Sea. The Rivers in Great Britain, Sec. and the Mountains in England and Wales, were mentioned in their rcfpe&ive Chapters.. A GEO. 202 GEOGRAPHY. GEOGRAPHICAL TABLE, Containing the Situations of PRINCIPAL CITIES, TOWNS, CAPES, &c. Names of Places, Provinces. Kingdoms, &c. Latitudes. A Bbeville Picardy France 50 7 N. f\_ Aberdeen Aberdeenihire Scotland 57 22 N. A ho Finland Sweden 60 27 N. Acapulco Mexico North America 17 jo N, Achem Sumatra Eaft India 5 22 N, Agincourt Artois Netherlands 50 35 N, Agra Agra Eaft India 26 43 N. Air Airihire Scotland 55 3° N' Aix Provenee France 43 3i N. Aix-IaChape!le Weftpharia Germany 50 45 N. Albany New York North America 42 48 N. Aleppo Syria Turkey in Afia 35 45 N- Alexandretta Syria Turkey in Alia 36 35 N. Alexandria Lower Egypt Africa 31 n N. Algiers Algiers Barbary 36 49 N. Almanza Murcia Spain 39 0 N. Amboyna I. Amboyna Eaft India 4 25 S. Amiens Ifle of France France 49 53 N- Amfterdam Holland Netherlands 52 22 N. Annapolis Maryland North America 39 25 N. Annapolis Nova Scotia North America 45 0 N, Antigua I. Antigua Carib. Sea 17 4 N. Antioch Syria Turkey in Afia 36 30 N. A ntwerp Brabant Netherlands 51 13 N. Archangel Dwina Ruflia 64 34 N. Altracan Aftracan Ruflia in Alia 38 5N. Athens Achaia Turkeyin Europe : *3 35 s- Auguftine St. Eaft Florida North America 29 45 N. Ava Ava Eaft India 20 20 N. Avignon Provence France 43 57 N. Bagdat Eyraca Turkey in Afia 33 20 N. Balafore Orixa Eaft India 21 20 N. Balbec Syria Turkey in Afia 33 30 N. Barcelona Catalonia Spain 41 26 N. Bafil Balil Switzerland 47 35 N, Baffora Eyraca Turkey in Afia 30 45 N. 42 20 N. Baftia I. Corfica Mediterranean Batwvia I. Java Eaft India 6.10 S. Bayeux Normandy France 49 16 N, Longitudes* 1 54 E. 1 40 W. 22 18 E. 101 20W. 95 29 E. 2 o E. 76 49 E. 4 35^. 5 3' E. 5 5° E. 73 30 W. 37 *5 E- 36 25 E. 30 21 E. 2 17 E. 1 15W. 127 25 E. 2 22 E. 4 49 E- 78 oW. 64 oW. 62 4W. 36 40 E. 4 27 E. 38 59 W. 23 57 E. 43 13 E. 81 12W. 95 3° E- 4 53 E. 43 51 E. 86 5 E. 37 ° E. 2 18 E. 7 34 E. 47 ° E. 9 40 E. 106 56 E. o 47 E. Bayonne GEOGRAPHY. 103 Vamet of Places. Provinces. Kingdoms, Sec. Latitudes. Longitudes. 0 ' Bayonne Gafcony France 43 3° N- 1 20 W. Belfaft Ulfter Ireland 54 30 N- 6 30W. Bender Bella rabia Turkey in Eu. 46 40 N. 29 0 E. Berlin Brandenburgh Germany 52 32 N. 13 31 E. Bergen Bergen Norway 60 0 N. 6 0 E. Bern Bern Switzerland 47 0 N. 7 20 E. Bermudas I. Bermuda Atlantic Ocean 32 25 N. 63 aj-Vv*. Belgrade Servia Turkey 45 0 N-. 21 20 E. Bencooleh I. Sumatra Eaft India 3 49 s- • 102 5 E. Bourdeaux Guienne France 43 29 N. 1 25 W. Bofton Maffachuff. Col . New England 42 25 N. 70 32 W. Bologne Picardy France 50 43 N. 1 3' E. Bologna Bolognefe Italy 44 29 N. 11 26 E. Bombay I. Bombay Eaft India 18 56 N. 72 43 E- Bilboa Bifcay Spain 43 26 N. 3 18 W. Bridgetown I. Barbadoes Atlantic Ocean 13 JN. 58 3 W. Breda Brabant Netherlands 51 40 N. 4 40 W. Breft Bretany France 48 22 N, 4 25W. Bremen Lower Saxony Germany 53 25 N- 8 20 E. Breflau Silefia Bohenpia 5i 3 N. 17 '3 E- Bruffels Brabant Netherlands 50 51 N. 4 26 E. Buenos Ayrei Paraguay South America 34 35 S. 58 26 W. Bruges Flanders Netherlands 51 16 N. 3 5 E. Brunfwick Lower Saxony Germany 52 30 N. 10 30 E. Buda Lower Hungarj ' Hungary 47 40 N. 19 20 E. Burlington Burlington New Jerfey 40 8 N. 75 oW. Bulac Lower Egypt Africa 30 0 N. 32 0 E. Cadiz Andalufia Spain 36 31 N. 6 6W. Caen Normandy France 49 11 N. 0 16 W. Cagliari 1. Sardinia Italy 39 »5 N- 9 3» E. Cachao Tonquin Eaft India 39 25 N. 105 0 E. Cairo Lower Egypt Africa 30 2 N. 31 23 E. Calais Picardy France 50 57 N. 1 55 E- Callao Peru South America 12 1 N„ 76 53 W. Calcutta Bengal Eaft India 22 34 N. 88 34 E. Calmar Smaland Sweden 56 40 N. 16 26 E. Cambray Cambrefis Netherlands 50 10 N. 3 18 E. Cambletown Argyleftiire Scotland 55 3° N- 5 40 W. Cambridge Maffachuff. Col. New England 42 25 N. 71 5W. Candia I. Candia Mediter. Sea 35 18 N. 25 23 E. Cambodia Cambodia Eaft India 13 30 N. 105 0 £. Canfo (Port) Nova Scotia North America » 45 20 N, 60 50 W. Canton Canton China 23 7 N. 113 7 E. Carlefcroon Schonen Sweden 56 20 N. 15 31 E. Carthage Ruins Tunis Barbary 36 30 N. 9 0 E. Carthagena Terra Firma South America 10 26 N. 75 21 W. Carthagena Murcia Spain 37 37 N- I 3W. Candy I. Ceylon Eaft India 7 54 N- 79 0 E. Caffel Upper Rhine Germany 51 20 N. 9 20 E. Cavan Ulfter Ireland 54 5' N, 7 18 W. Cayenne I. Cayenne South America 4 tfi N. . 52 10W. Challon Burgundy Franc* 46 46 N 4 5« E- Chandernagore 204 GEOGRAPHY. Names of Places. Provinces, Kingdoms, &c. Latitudes. Longitudes, S8 34 E. Chandernagore Chartres iCberbourgClermont ColmarCologne Cape Clear — — Comorin Finifterre — — St. Vincent Algarva — — of G. HopeCaffraria Bengal , Orleannois Normandy AuvergneAlfaceLower Rhine MunfterMaduraGalicia -Florida La Hogue Verd Ortegal ¦ Horn. Ceuta Charles Town CharleroyCopenhagenConftantinople Cork Conftance Co;inth CracowCuraffouCufcoDamafcus DantsicDamiettaDacca DelhiDelftDer bent DiaibeckDieppeDijonDerryDieu Dreiden DublinDomingo (St.) DownsDunkirkEdinburghEphefus Elbing EmbdenEr?erum Fez Eaft Florida Normandy Negrolarid Gallicia Eaft India France France FranceFrance Germany Ireland Eaft/ India Spain Portugal Africa North America FranceAfricaSpain 22 5: N. I. TerradelFuegoSouth America MoroccoNorth America Netherlands Denmark Turkey Ireland Germany Turkey Poland Weft Indies South America FezSouth Carolina Namur I. Zealand Romania Munfter SwabiaMoreaLittle Poland I. Curafibu Peru SyriaPolifti Pruffia Lower Egypt BengalMogul Empire Holland Daghiftan Diarbeck Normandy BurgundyUlfterGuzuratUpper Saxony LeinfterI. Hifpaniola BritifhFlanders TurkeyPoland Africa Eaft India Eaft India Netherlands Perli a Turkey in Afia France FranceIrelandEaft India Germany Ireland Welt Indies SeaNetherlands Edinburghihire Scotland Natolia Royal Pruffia Weftphalia TurcomaniaFez Turkey PruffiaGermany Turkey in Afia Morocco 48 26 N. 49 38 N. 45 46 N. 48 4 N. 51 18 N. 7 56 N. 42 51 N. 37 2 N. 34 29 s. 24 57 N. 49. 45 N- 14 45 N. 43 47 N. 55 5« S. 35 4N. 32 45 N. 50 30 N. 55 4° N- 41 1 N. 5i 53 N- 47 37 N- 37 30 N. 50 10 N. 11 56 N. 12 25 S. 33 IS N- 54 22 N. 31 o N. 23 30 N. 29 o N. 52 6 N. 41 41 N. 37 3° N> 49 55 N. 47 '9 N- 54 52 N- zi 37 N. 51 o N. 53 21 N. 18 20 N. ci 25 N. 51 2 N. 56 o N. 3» 1 N. 54 15 N. 53 *5 N- 39 56 N- 1 33 E. 1 33 W. 3 10 E. 7 27 E. 7 16 E. 11 10 W. 78 jo E, 912 W. 8 57 W. 18 28 E. 80 30 W. 1 S5W. 17 28 w. 7 34 W. 67 21 W. 6 36 W. 79 12W. 4 20 E. 12 40 E. 28 58 E. 8 23 W. 9 12 E. 73 o E. 19 55 E. 68 20 W. 70 oW, 37 20 E. 18 38 E. 32 o E. 89 20 E. 76 30 E. 4 5 E. 50 30 E. 42 o E. o 59 E. 4 57. E- 7 40 W. 69 30 E. 13 26 E. 6 1 W. 70 o W. 1 35 E. 2 i7 E. 3 oW. 27 30 W. 20 7 42 33 3° N. 6 E. 10 E. 5 E. oW. Fayal G E O G.R-A P H- 205 Names ofplacesi Provinces. Kingdoms, Sec. Latitudes. Longitudes. Eayal Town Azores Atlantic Ocean 38 32 N. 28 36 W. Ferrara Eerra'refe Italy 44 54 N. n 41 E. Florence Tufcany Italy 43 46 N. 11 7 E, Flulhing Zealand Holland 51 30 N. 3 25 E. Flores Azores Atlantic Ocean 39 34 N. 30 51 w. Francfort Upper Rhine Germany 50 4 N. 8 40 E. Francfort Upper Saxony Germany 52 22 N. 15 u E. Fonchal I. Madeira Atlantic Ocean 32 27 N. 17 1 w. Fort St. David CoromandeiCoaft Eaft India * 12 5 N. 80 55 E. Gallipoli Naples Italy 40 25 N. 19 0 E. Gap . Dau phi ne France 44 33 N- 6 9 E. Genes Savoy Italy , 44 25 N. 8 40 E. Geneva Geneva Switzerland 46 12 N. 6 5 E. .Genoa Genoa Italy 44 25 N' 8 30 E. Gibraltar Andalufia Spain - 36 5 N. 5 17 W. Geo. Town (St ,),Berrmidas Atlantic Ocean 32 45 N. 63 30 Wf Geo. Fort (St.) CorornandelCoaftEaft India 13 4 N. 80 33 E. Ghent Flanders Netherlands- SI 3 N. 3 48 E. Goa J. Goa Eaft India 15 31 N. 73 5° E Goree Negroiand Africa 14 40 N. 17 20 E. Gottenburg Gothland Sweden 57 42 N. 11 43 E. Gottengen Lower Saxony Germany 51 31 N. 9 58 £- Granville iJormandy France 48 50 N. 1 32 W. Gratiofa Azores Atlantic Ocean 39 2 N. 27 53 W. Grata Auftria Germany 4-7 4 N. i^ 20 E. Gravelineis French Flanders Netherlands 5° 59 N- * 13 E. Guam Ladrone Ifland. Eaft India 14 0 N. 140 30 E. Hague Holland Netherlands 52 4 N. 4 22 E- Hamburgh Holftein Germany 53 34 N- 9 55 E- HalUfcx Nova Scotia North America 44 40 N. 63 15 W. Hanover Low,er Saxony Germany 52 32 N. 9 35 E. Bavanaah 'lll-ind of Cuba Wift Indies 23 11 N. S2 11 W. O ip'E. Havre-de-grace Normandy France 49 25 N. Tames Town, Virgi nia North America 37 30 N. 76 oW. Janeiro Rio Brazil South Amerka 22 54 S. 423.SW. faM (St.) Chili . South America 34 ° S. 77 oW. Jago (St.) . IflflgdofCuba Weft Indies . 20 jo S. 76 30 w. Jago (St.) Cape Verd I. Atlantic Ocean 15 ,0 N. 34 0 w. 106 55 E. Java Head Ifland of Java Eaft India f> 49 s> Jeddo .JU and of Japan Pacific Ocean 36 20 N. 139 0 E. Jerufalem Sv?i? Turkey in -A.fia 3" S5 W« -35 25 E- Ifigolftat Bavaria Germany. 48 45 N. 11 30 E« John's (St.) Antigua Weft Indies 17 4 N. 62 4 E. .John's, (St.) ,. I. Newfoundland North) America 47.32 N. 52 2.1 W. .Jofeph's(St,j Mexico North America 23 3 N. 109 37W. Jfpahan .IracAgem Perfia 32 2-5 N. 52 52 E. Xinfale Munfter Ireland 51 32 N. % 20 W. Kingfton I. Jamaica Weft Indies 18 15 N. 76 38 w. Kiou .Ukraine Ruflia in Europe 50 jo N, 31 12 E. Koningfberg io6 GEOGRAPHY. Names of Places, Provinces, Kingdoms, &c. Latitudes, o ' Longitudes,. Koninglberg Ducal Pruffia Pruffia 54 33 N- 21 31 E. Lahor Lahor Eaft India 32 40 N. 75 3° E« Landau Alface France 49 11 N. 8 2 E. Landfcroon Schonen Sweden 55 5a N- 12 51 E. Laufanne Bern Switzerland 46 33 N. 6 31 E. Leghorn Tufcany Italy 43 3° N- 11 0 E. Leipfic Upper Saxony Germany 51 20 N.. 12 40 E. Leyden Holland Netherlands 52 10 N. 4 32 E. Lima Peru South America 12 1 S. 76 44 w. Liege Weftphalia Germany 5° 37 N. 5 40 E. Limoges Limoufin France 45 49 N. 1 20 E. Lintz Auftria . Germany 48 16 N. 13 57 E. Lille French Flanders Netherlands "'50 37 N. 3 9E. Lilbon Eftremadura Portugal 1 38 42 N. 9 4W. Louilbourg I. Cape Breton North America 45 53 N. 59 48 W. Loretto Ecclef. State Italy 43 '5N- 14 15 E. London Middlefex England 51 31 N. iftMerid. Leuvain Brabant Netherlands 50 53 N. 4 49 E. Lubec Holftein Germany 54 ON. II 40 E. Lunden Gothland Sweden '55'4'N, 13 26 E. 6 35 E- Luneville Lorrain France 48 35 N. Luxemberg • Luxemberg Netherlands 49 37 N. 6 16 E. Lyons Lyonois France 45 45 N. 4 54 E- Macao Canton China 22 12 N. 113 51 E- Macaffar I. Celebes Eaft India 5 9 s- 119 53 E. Madras CoromandeiCoaft Eaft India 13 4 N. 80-33 E. Madrid New Caftile Spain 40 25 N. 3 20 E. Mahbn'Port I. Minorca Mediter. Sea 39 50 N. 3 53 E- Majorca I. Majorca Mediter. Sea 39 35. N. 2 34 E. Malacca Malacca Eaft Ipdia 2 12 N. 102 10 E. "MalineS Brabant Netherlands Ji 1 N. 4 33 E. "St. Maloes Bretagne France 48 38 N. 1 56 W. 'Manilla I. L'uconia Pacifick Ocean 14 36 N- 120 58 E. Mantua Mantua Italy 45 20 N. 10 47 E. Marfeilles Provence- France 43 ''7 N.~ 5 27 E- Mecca Arabia Felix Arabia 21 45 N. - ¦' 41 0 E. Medina Arabia Felix Arabia 25 Jo N. 39 33 E. 'Mentz . LoWer Rhine Germany 50 0 N. 8 oE. ' Mequinez ' Meffina - ' Fez1 Barbary 344oN. ,•6. oW. "I. Sicily Mediter. Sea 38.30 N. 15 40 E. '.Mexico Mexico North, America rg 54 N. 100 0 W. •Milford Hav«n- "Pembrokefliire- Wales . S'f 45 N. 5 15 W. ' Milan ' .' Milan Italy 45 25 N. 9 30 E. 'Mocha' Arabia Felix Arabia 13 40 N. 43 50 E. Modena Modena Italy 44 34 N. •'-11-17 E- Montreal Canada North America 45 35 N.- -73!"'W. - Montpelier Languedoc France 43- 36 N. 3 37 E- Morocco Morocco ( Barbary 30_ 32 N. 6 11W. Mofcow Mofcow Ruflia in Europe 5545 N- 37-50E. Munich Bavaria Germany 48 9 N. 1135E. • Munfter Weftphalia Germany ¦5* 0 N, j 10E. Naiva GEOGRAPHY. 207 Names of Places, Provinces. Kingdoms, &e. Latitudes'. 0 '. Longitudes. 0 ' Narva , Livonia Ruflia 59 0 N. 27 35 E. Nanci Lorrain France 48 41 N. 6, 16 E. Nanking Kiangan China .32 0 N. 1 18"' 30 E. Namur Namu'r N etherlands so 2s:n. 4 49 E. Naples Naples Italy 40 5° N. 1418E. Nantz Bretagne France 47 13 N- 1. 28 W, Nice , -Piedmont Italy 43 41 N- 7. 22 E. Newport , Rhode'lflan.1 North America 41 35 N. 71 6 W. New-York , New York Nurth America 40 40 N. 7.4 0 W. NicholasSt. Mol c I. Hifpaniola Weft Indies 19 49 N. 73 24 W. North Cape Wardnus Lapland 71 10 N. 26 2 E. Nuremberg Franconia Germany 49 27 N. 11 12 E. Olmutz Moravia Bohemia 49 30 N. 16 45 E. Olympia . Greece Turkey in Eur. 37 3°N- 22 0 E. Oporto Duero Portugal 41 IO N. 8 22 W. Orleans . Orleannois f France 47 54 N. 1 59 E. Orleans, New Louifiana North America 29 57 N, 89 53 W. Ormus 1. Ormus Perfia 26 50 N. 57 ' 0 E. Oran Algiers Barbary 36 30 N. 0 . 5 E., Ofnaburg. Weftphalia -. Germany 52 31 N. 7 40 E. Oftend Flanders Netherlands 51 13 N. 3 oW. Omers, St. Elanders Netherlands jo 44 N. 219 E. L'Orient, (Port) Bretagne France, 47 45 N> 5 ,20 W. Padua - Paduan Italy 45 25 N. 12 8 E. Palermo - I. Sjcily Italy . 45 22 N, 12 oE. Palmyra, (Ruins) ,Syria Turkey in Afia 33 0 N.' 39 ° E. Pampeluna Navarre Spain ,43 15 N- l, 3° E- Panama . Darien Terra Firma 8 47 N. 80 6w. Paris Ifle of France France 48 59 N. '* 2S E. Parma Parma Italy v 44 45 N. 1 0 51 E. Pama Bengal ; Eaft. India ...25 45 N. s3 o,E. Pegu Pegu "Eaft-India 17 0 N. 97 0 E. Peking P^tchioli China 39 54 N. Ii6 29 E. Penfacola Weft Florid? North America 30 22 N. 87 20 W. Perlepolis Irac Agem Perfia 30 30 N. 54 , 0 E. Peterlburg _; /¦ Ingri^a Ruflia in Eur. 59 56 N. 3° 24 E. Philadelphia ; - Pennfylvania North' America 39-56 N. 75 9W. Pico ', ; Azores Atlantick Ocean 38 '£8 N. 28 21 W. Pifa . . Tufcany Italy >3 43 N- io.i7E.- 55 oW. 1 10 W. Placentia -I. Newfoundland North America 47 26 N. Poitiers . Poitou France 46 40 N, Pondicherry Coromandel Coaft Eaft India , . 11 41 N. 79 57 E. 79,45, W. 76 46 W. Porto Bello Terra Firma South America ,,9 33 N- fortRoyal I. Jamaica • Weft Indies 18 oN. Prague Bohemia Proper Bohemia 5° 4N. 14 jo E. 77 oW. Potofi Peru South America 21 0 S. Providence ¦ New England North America 41 50 N. 71 21 W. Prelburgh Up. Hungary Hungary 48 20 N. 17 30 W. i Quebec v 'Canada North America 46 55 N. 69 48 W. Quintin. St. Picardy France 49 50 N. 3 22 E. Quito Peru South America 0 13 S. 77 5° W. Ram illies 203 GEOGRAPHY. Names of Places . Provinces. Kingdoms, &c. Latitudes. 0 ' Lonpitedcs* 0 *» Ramillies Brabant Netherlands 50 46 N. 4 50 E. Ragufa Dalmatia Turkey in Eur. 42 45 N. 18 2JE. Ratiftibn. Bavaria Germany 48 56 N. 12 JE. R'ennes " ' ' Bretagne France 48 16 N. I 36 W. Rheims Champagn e France 49 14 N. 4 7£. Riga Livonia Ruffia in Eur. 56 55 N. 24 '0 E. Rdchelle Aunis France 46 9 N. 1 4W; Rpchfort Saintonge France 46 a N. 0 33W< Rome Ecclef. State Italy 41 53 N. 11 34 E. Rotterdam Holland Netherlands Si J6.N. -4 33 E. Rouen Normandy France 49 26 N. 1 oW. Samarcand Uftsec Tartary Afia 40 40 N. €9 0 E. Santa Cruz I. Teneriffe Atlantick Ocean 28 27 N. 16 iiWi Santa Fe New Mexico North America 36 0 N. 1 04 0 W» Savannah Georgia North America 31 55 N- 80 a'oW. Sayd, or Thebei : Upper Egypt Africa 27 0 N. 32 20 E. Samaria, (Ruin! ;) Syria Turkey in Afia 32 46 N. 38 "oE. Senegal Negroland Africa 15 S3N- 16 26 W. Siam' Siam Eaft India 14 18 N. 100 55 E. Seville Andalufia Spain 37 15 N' 6 5W. Sidon ' Syria Turkey in Afia 33 33 N' 36" 15 E. Smyrna Natolia Turkey in Alia 38 2d N. 27 2-4 E* Spa Weftphalia Germany jo 30 N< j 40 E. Stralfund Upper Saxony Germ'any 54 3 3 N> 13 22 E. St.raiburgh Alface France 48 34 N. 7 46 E. Stockholm Sweden Proper Sweden 59 20 N. 18 8 E. Spitliead Road Engiim Channel 50 48 ,N. 1 -6W, Suez Suez - Egypt 29 59 N. 33 27 E„ Surinam Surinam South America 6 6N. 55 30 Wi Surat Guzerat Eaft India 2i 16 N. 72 27 E. Syracufe I. Sicily Italy 36 58 N. 1 j 5E. Tanjour Tanjour Eaft India 11 27 N. 79 '' 7 Ei Tauris Aderbeitzan Perfia 38 20 N. 46 36 E. Teneriffe, (Pe'alt)-I. Teneriffe Atlantick Ocean 28 12 N. 16 24 W» Tercera Azores Atlantick Ocean 38 45 N. 47 1 Wi Thorn Regal Pruffia Poland ¦'52.56N. 19 oW. Tcrtis Georgia Afia 43 3oN' .47 oEj ToboWii Siberia Ruffia 58 12 N. 68 17 E.- Toulon Provence France 43 7 N' 6 1 £: Toledo New Caftile Spain 39 50 N. 3 2JW. Trent Auftria Germany 46 5N. 11 2 E. Troy, (Ruin;) Natolia Turkey 39 30 N. 26s 30 E. Torhea Weft Bothnia Sweden 6j jo N* 24 17 E. Tripoli Tripoli Barbary 32 53 N- ?¦13 12 E. •Tripoli Syria Turkey in Aija 34 30 N. 36 1 j E. Tunis Tunis Barbary 36 47 N. Io 0 E. ¦Turin Piedmont Italy 45 5 N- 7 45 E. Tyre Syria Tui key in Afia 3Jz 32 N. 36 0 E. Utrecht Holland Netherlands 52 7 N. e. 10E. Valentiennes GEOGRAPHY. 209 Names of Places. Provinces. Kingdoms, fife. Latitudes. Longitudes. Valenciennes VeniceValencia Vera Cruz Verona Verfailles Vienna Vigo Wurtzburg Wardhus Warfaw Williamlburg Worms WilnaWittenhurgWologdaZell Zurich Hainault Venice Eftremadura Mexico VeronefeI. of France Auftria GalliciaFranconiaNorwegian Maffovia Virginia Lower Rhine Lithuania Upper Saxony WologdaSaxony Zuric h Netherlands Italy Spain North America ItalyFranceGermany Spain GermanyLaplandPolandNorth America Germany PolandGermany Ruffia Germany Switzerland 52 22 N. 45 26 N. 39 '5 N- 19 12 N. 45 26 N. 48 48 N. 48 12 N. 42 14 N. 49 46 N. 70 22 N. 52 14 N. 37 12 N. 49 38 N. 54 4i N- 51 49 N- 59 19 N. 52 52 N. 47 51 N« 3 4° E. 11 59 E. 7 30 W. 97 25 W. 11 23 E. 2 12 E. 16 22 E. 8 23 W. 10 18 E. 31 11 E. 21 5 E. 76 48 W. 8 5E. 25 32 E. 12 46 E. 41 jo E. 10 8 oE. 30 E. THE I «" ] THE USE of the GLOBES. TERRESTRIAL GLOBE. PROB, I. to find the Latitude and Longitude of any given Place upon tb~e Globe. 1URN the globe on its axis till the given place is exactly under the figured edge of the brafs meridian, then that degree of the meridian which is directly over the place is the latitude fought ; and the degree upon the equator, which in this pofition is cut by the brafs meridian, is the longitude fought. Madras will be found to be in about 13° of north latitude, and 8o° 30 P 2 of §14 THE USE OF THE GLOBES. of eaft longitude j and Kirtgfton in Jamaica in about i8°i of north latitude, and 76° 38' of weft longitude* PROB. II. 'the' Latitude and Longitude of a Place given td find its Situation on the Globe. Find the given longitude on the equator, and bring it to the figured fide of the brafs meridian, then the fituation of the given place will be found under the given degree of latitude on the brafs meridian, If the latitude given be 1 90 12' north, and the longitude 970 25' weft, the place in that fituation will be found to be Vera Cruz, in Mexico. MOB. III. To find "all Places that have the fame Latitude as any given Place. Find the latitude of the given place (by Prob. 1.) then turn the globe on its axis, and all places which pafs under the fame degree of latitude on the meridian which the given place h-as, are the required places. PROB, THE ;TJSE~; OF THE GLQBE9, aJj : - or -J PROB- IV. to find all Places that have the fame Longitude as any given Place. Find the longitude Of the given place (by Prob. i.) then all places which are under the fame half of the brafs meridian from north to fouth when the given place is under it, have the fame longitude, { P R O B. V, to find the difference of Latitude between any - two given Places, Find the latitude of each place, then thq number of intermediate degrees, &c. upon the brafs meridian, contained between the two points which refpecTpivel'y anfwer to the latitude of thq given places, will be' the difference of latitude fought*. .. -^ . The difference of latitude between London. and Pi^ris will be found t- Bootes.Mons Menalus. Coma Berenices, Berenice's Hair. Cor Caroli, Charles's Heart. Corona Borealis, the Northern Crown. Hercules.Cerberus. Lyra, the Harp. Cygnus, the Swan. Fulpecula, the Fox. Anfer, the Goofe. Lacerta, the Lizard, CaJJiopeia. Camelopardalus.Serpens, the Serpent. Opbiucus Serpentarius. Scutum Sobiefki, Sobieflti's Shield. Aquila, the Eagle. Antinous.Delphinus, the Dolphin. Equulus, the Colt. Pegafus, the Flying Horfe. Sagitta, the Arrow. Andromeda. Perfeus.Auriga, the Waggoner. Lynx. Leo Minor, the Little Lion. T?-iangulu?n Borealis, the North ern Triangle. Mufca, the Fly, In 240 THE USE OF the GLOBES'. ' In the Southern Hemisphere. Cetus, or Balenus, the Whale. Eridanus, the River Po. Phoenix. Toucan, the American Goofe. Orion. Monofcerus, the Unicorn. Cams Minor, the little Dog. Apus, the Bird of Paradife. Hydra. Sextans, the Sextant. Crater, the Cup. Corvus, the Raven. Centaurus, the Centaur. Lupus, the Wolf. Ara, the Altar. Triangulum Aufiralis, the South- ' era Triangle. Pa — I Cor Leonis, in Leo Major — — — , — i CroJJiers, four ftars in the Crofs, the northernmoft and fouthernmoft of which are the Jointers to the fouth pole. Deneb, in the tail of Leo Major — 2 Enif, in the nofe of Pegafus — 3 Fomahaut, near the mouth of the Southern Fifh — 1 Marhal, in the figh't wing of Pegafus — — z Mirach, in the girdle of Andromeda — — 2 Mencar, by the mouth of Cetus, — — 1 North Pale Star, in the extremity of the tail of Urfa Minor 2 Procyon, on the body of Canis Minor — — t Orion's Belt, contains three remarkable ftars of the fecond magnitude. Pes Centauri, near the right hoof of the Centaur — 2 Pleiades, feven remarkable ftars in Taurus. Pollux, in Gemini — — — — 2 Ras Algiethi, in the head of Hercules — — 3 Ras Alhagne, in the head of Serpentarius — - — 2 Regel, in the left foot of Orion — — — I Scheat, in the right leg of Pegafus — — — 2 Schedar, in Cafiiopeia — >— • — — * > 3 R Sirius, 242 THE USE OF THE GLOBES. Mag. Sinus, in the mouth of Canis Major — — ¦*— i Spica, near the left leg of Virgo ¦ l Vindemiatrix, in the right wing of Virgo 3 Befide the abovementioned ftars, there are others of the firft, fecond, See. magnitudes, denoted only by the letters in the Greek alphabet; as ct, alpha; S, beta; y, gamma; i, delta ; e, epfilon, &c. The number of ftars of the firft magnitude are generally reckoned to be 20, of the fecond magnitude 65, of the third magnitude 205, of the fourth magnitude 485, of the fifth magnitude 684, &c. The number of ftars difcoverable in either hemifphere by the naked eye is not above a thoufand ; their feeming innu merable at firft fight arifes from our viewing them con- fufedly, and without reducing them to any order. PROB. I. to find the Declination and right Afcenfion of any fixed Star, alfo the Sun's right Afcenfion for any given tit 1. Bring the ftar to the meridian, and the degree over it will be its declination, and the degree of the equinoctial which is at the fame time cut by the meridian will be its right afcenfion. 1. If the fun's place fbr any given time be brought to the meridian, the de gree of the equinoctial which is at the fame 3 time THE USE OF THE GLOBES, 243 time cut by the meridian, will be the fun's right afcenfion for the time given. The declination of Aldebaran will be found to be about i6° north, and its right afcenfion 650; and the fun's right afcenfion on the 7th of June will be found to be 75". PROB. II. the right Afcenfion and Declination of any fixed Star given to find its Situation, alfo the Sun's right Afcenfion and Declination given to find its Place in the Ecliptic. 1 . Find the given degree of right afcenfion on the equinoctial, and bring it to the meridian 3 then look under the degree of the meridian which anfwers to the given declination, and the ftar's fituation, or the fun's, whichever was fought, will be found. If the right afcenfion of a fixed ftar be 98.+' and its declination be 16 j° fouth, Syrius will be found to be the ftar fought; and if the right afcenfion of the fun be 3021:°, and its declination 200 fouth, it will be found to be in the firft degree of Aquarius. R 2 PROB. 244 TtrE uSE of the Gt0BE?« PROB. III. to find the Latitude' and Longitude of a fixed Star. Bring the firft degree of Cancer to the north point of the horizon, Capricorn will then be in the fouth point, Aries in the eaft point, and Libra in the weft point, the pole of the eclip tic will be under the meridian and in- the ze nith of the horizon, which, in the prefent fitu ation coincides with the ecliptic. Fix the qua drant of altitude over the pole of the ecliptic, and bring its graduated edge over any ftar of which the latitude and longitude^s fought ; the degree of the quadrant over the ftar will be its latitude, and the diftance of the degree of the ecliptic, which is cut by it at the fame time, from Aries, will be its longitude. The latitude of Arclurus will be found to be 310 north, and the longitude 200 degrees. If the latitude and longitude of a fixed ftar be given to find its fituation, it will evidently be the converfe of the foregoing folution. PROB. THE USE OF THE GLOBES. 245 PROB. IV. to find the Amplitudes, the obliqne Afcenfion, and, fhe oblique Defcenfion of any fixed Star in any given Latitude ; alfo the Sun's Amplitudes, oblique Afcenfion, and oblique Defcenfion, for a giVii 1 time in any given Latitude. 1. Rectify the giobe for the given latitude, then bring any ftar to the eaftern part of the horizon, ana againft the ftar upon the horizon its amplitude ortive, and point ofthe compafs on which it rifes will be found, the horizon will at the fame time crofs the equino^.ial in the degree of oblique afcenfion ; bring any ftar to the weft ern part jf the horizon, and againft the ftar its amplitude occaiive, and point of the compafs on which it lets will be found, the horizon will at the fame time crofs the equinoctial in the degree of oblique defcenfion. 2. Rectify for the given latitude, then bring the fun's place to the eaftern and weftern parts of the horizon, and its amplitudes, &c. will be found in the fame manner as thofe of a fixed ftar are found. In latitude 511, the amplitude of R 3 Syrius 246 THE USE OF THE GLOBES. Syrius will be found to be about 28° foutherly, the oblique afcenfion 121, and oblique defcen fion 75. The amplitude of the fun in the fame latitude on the 21ft of May will be found to be about 24 degrees northerly, the oblique afcenfion 20, and the oblique defcenfion 58. By means of the afcenfional differences, (the difference between the right and oblique afcen fion), the femi-arches of the fun's or of a ftar's revolution above and beneath the horizon, may be obtained as follows. When the latitude and declination are both north or both fouth, reduce the afcenfional difference into time, (by reckon ing after the rate of 1 5° to one hour), and add it to fix o'clock, it will then give the femi-arch of revolution above the horizon ; the comple ment of which to twelve hours will be the femi- arch of revolution beneath the horizon. When the latitude and declination are one north and one fouth, reduce the afcenfional difference into time, and fubtract it from fix o'clock, it will then give the femi-arch of revolution above the horizon. The femi-arch of revolution above or beneath the horizon when doubled, will re- fpeftively give the time of the object's conti nuance above or beneath the horizon. PROB. THE USE OF THE GLOBES. 247 PROB. V. the Latitude, Day of the Month, and time of the Day being given to find the azimuth of the Sun or any Star when above the Horizon* -, alfo to find the times on which any Star rifes, culminates, and fets in any given Latitude on any given Day. 1 . Rectify the globe for the latitude, the fun's place, and the zenith, and turn it on its axis till the index points to the given time of the day ; then bring the edge of the quadrant of altitude over the place of the furl or ftar, and it will cut the horizon in the azimuth fought f . 2. With the globe rectified for the latitude and fun's place, bring any ftar to the eaftern fide of * The fun's or ftar's azimuth when beneath the hori zon, may be found by extending a piece of thread from the zenith ovef the fun's or ftar's place to the nadir, for the thread will then crofs the horizon againft the azimuth. The length of thread which extends from the horizon to the fun's or ftar's place, will, if meafured on the quadrant of altitude, fhew the depreffion beneath the horizon. f In the torrid zone, when the declination of the fun ex ceeds the latitude ofthe place, the fun will be on the fame azimuth circle twice in the morning and twice in the after noon. R4 the 248 THE USE OF THE GLOBES. the horizon, and the index will point to its time of rifing; bring it to the meridian, and the index will' point to its time of culminating ; bring it to the weftern part, of the horizon, and the index will point to its time of fetting. PROB. VI. to find at what time of the Tear a given Star will be upon the Meridian at a given Hour of the Night. Bring the ftar to the meridian, and fet the in dex to the given hour, then turn the globe on its axis till the incjex points to twelve at noon, the fun's place in the ecliptic will then be under the meridian, and its correfponding day will be the time fought. PROB. VII. to fhew at one View the prefent Situation of the. fixed Stars, alfo the fucceffive times on whicht different Stars will rife, culminate, and fet, together with many other ufeful and entertain- Phenomena. Rectify the globe for the latitude in, bring the fun's place for the prefent day to the meridian, fet THE USE OF THE GLOBES. £49 fet the index to twelve at nqon, and turn the globe on its axis till the index points to the pre fent hour, &c. then all thofe ftars that are in the eaftern part of the horizon are rifing, thofe on the weftern part are letting, and thofe under the meridian are culminating. If the globe be now turned flowly on its axis from eaft to weft, the index will fucceffively point out the times ori which different ftars rife, culminate, and fet*. The time of rifing fubtraeted from the time of fetting, leaves the time of a ftar's continuance above the horizon; which continuance above the horizon fubtraclred from twenty- four hours, leaves the time of its continuance below the ho rizon. Thofe ftars which are not more diftant from the elevated pole than the latitude in, are conftantly above the horizon ; and thofe ftars which are not more diftant from the deprefTed pole than the latitude in is from the elevated pole, are conftantly beneath the horizon. Let the heavens be now confidered, as they appear when viewed from different fituations of the earth's furface, ift. From the equator, ?dly, from the north or fouth pole, and 3dly, from any latitude between the equator and the poles, Suppofe London, * The time fhewn will not be ftridtly true. See the note Jn p. 256. ift. Oq 25° THE USE OF THE GLOBES. ift. On the equator half the heavens from north to fouth prefents itfelf to view, celeftial objects in the equinoctial rife due eaft and fet due weft ; their afcent and defcent is perpendi cular to the horizon, and the whole equinoctial circle in the heavens is in the plane ofthe equa tor, that is, if that fpace which lies evenly and direftly from the earth's center to the equator were infinitely extended in the fame place, it would pafs through all objects in the equinoctial. Celeftial objects north and fouth of the equi noctial refpectively rife and fet fo much from the eaft and weft points of the compafs towards the north or fouth points, as is equal to their de clinations, their afcent and defcent is parallel to the equinoctial, and the femicircle of their re volutions appears to diminifh to the north and fouth points of the horizon, where and whence the motion of the heavens appears to be gene rated as from an axis. 2dl'y. At either pole the fame half of the hea vens, from the zenith, or correfponding celeftial pole, to the equinoctial, prefents itfelf to view. Ce leftial objects in the equinoctial appear to revolve in the horizon ; and thofe between the equinoc tial and the zenith in their revolutions defcribe parallels to the equinoctial, and have their heights THE USE OF THE GLOBES. 25I heights fequal to their refpective declinations. The fixed ftars neither rife nor fet ; the fun is above the horizon one half of the year, and be neath it the other half j and the moon is above the horizon one half of the month, and beneath it the other half. 3 ther it be Mars, Jupiter, or Saturn. Of astronomy. jgo, Of G O M E T S. iii. They move round the fun, and crofs the orbits of the planets in all manner of directions. They are not confined within the zodiac, but admit any inclination to the ecliptic whatever. The eccentricity of their orbits is fo very great, that fome of them perform the greateft part of their motion almoft in right lines. In one part of their journey through the heavens, they ap proach fo near the fun as to be exceedingly heat ed ; and after having paffed the fun, they feem to haften back to the fixed ftars, entering fo far into the regions of infinite fpace, as to be almoft totally deprived of light and heat. Moft comets have a denfe and dark atmofphere furrounding their bodies* which weakens and blunts the fun's rays, but within it appears the nucleus, or folid body of the comet, which, when the clouds are difperfed, gives a fplendid and brifk light. Few of them can be feen till their near accefs to the fun ; but in their recefs they appear with long beards, like tranfparent hair, or with tails of fire, which, with regard to the comet, are always pointed directly, or nearly fo, toward that part of the heavens, which is oppofite to the fun. Thofe that are vifible before they U are 290 Astronomy. are in conjunction with the fun, begin, at a near approach, to put forth their beards, or tails, which at firft are fhort and thin, but grow longer and thicker $ and if very near the fun in the con junction, they fend forth fiery beams of light every way : after this they put forth a tail 40 or 50 degrees long, which becomes gradually lefs, and diminifhes in fplendor as the comet recedes fur ther. At any diftance in their recefs, their beards, or tails, are larger and longer, than at. an equal diftance in their accefs. Many of the comets, without their train, appear no bigger than ftars of the firft magnitude. 122. The comets are found to obferve the fame laws which the planets obey, in regard to defcribing equal areas in equal times, &c. (here after noticed.) 123, It is believed that there are at leaft 21 comets belonging to our fyftem -, but of all the comets, only the periods of three are known to any degree of certainty. One of thefe three appeared in 1 531, 1607, 1682, and 1758, its period being about 75 years. Another appeared in 1532 and 1661, and is expected to return in 1789, its period being about 129 years. The remaining one appeared in 1680 ; its periodical revolution :,s computed to be 575 years. Of ASTRONOMY, 297 Of the Fixed Stars. 1 24. Several ftars which appear fingle to the riaked eye, are difcovered by the telefcope tQ be double, and others treble. 125. Many change* have been obferyed to take place among the fixed ftars, in regard to magnitude, luftre, appearance, and difappear- ance, befides fome other very trifljng changes- of places ; for inftance, the bright ftars Syrius and Arcturus have been -obferved to change their places, by moving towards the fouth between two and three minutes of a degree in a century. As none of the ftars which fuddenly appeared, and after a time difappeared, were ever obferved to have motion,' parallax, or tails,- it is evident they could not be comets. 126. The fixed ftars are obferved to change their longitude weftward 50 feconds every year, thereby making a degree in 72 years, and taking 25,970 years to make an entire revolution ; and hence it is that the conftellatipns feem to have deferted the places anciently allotted them ; for the beginning of the fign Aries, which in Hip- parchus's time was near to, and gave name tp U 2 the 292 astronomy. the vernal equinoctial point of the ecliptic, is now removed near a whole fign, or 30 degrees eaftward, fo that Aries is where Taurus was, Taurus where Gemini was, &c. and thus it is that the conftellations on the zodiac of the ce leftial globe do not agree in figure and character. For to avoid confufion, aftronomers have thought fit to let the feveral portions ofthe ecliptic where thofe conftellations were firft obferved to be, re tain their old names, fb that the vernal equinoc tial point is ftill reckoned to be the firft point of Aries 1 however, thefe portions of the ecliptic where the conftellations were at firft obferved, are called Anaftra, to diftinguifh them from the places where they now are, which are termed Stellata. a tT]. Sir Ifaac Newton inveftigated the caufe of this motion of the heavens, which is termed the Preceffion of the Equinoxes, and demonftrated it to refult from the fpheroidal figure of the earth* whereby the poles of the world revolve round thof« of the ecliptic. From this preceffion of the equinoctial points in antecedentia, (i. e. con-, trary to the order of the figns), or from eaft to weft, the equinoctial points meet the fun every year 50 feconds of longitude before a complete revolution has been performed. The time in which ASTRONOMY. 293 which the fun * is revolving from tropic to tro pic, is called the tropical Tear, which, with the time he has yet further to go to complete the re volution, viz. 50 feconds, is called the Syderial Tear. As for the nature of the fixed ftars, their immenfe diftance leaves us at a lofs about it, what we can gather for certain from their phe nomena is as follows : 128, That the fixed ftars are greater than our Earth; becaufe if that were not the cafe they could not be vifible at fuch an immenfe diftance. 129. The fixed ftars are further diftant from the Earth than the furtheftof the planets ; for, we frequently find the fixed ftars hid behind them, and befides, they have no parallax \f which the planets have, 130. The fixed ftars fhine with their own native light, for they are much further from the fun than Saturn, and appear much fmaller than * I have before obferved, that it is cuftomary to fpeak of apparent motions as real, when the conclufion is not affedted by it. f Hereafter defined. TJ3 Saturn j £94 ASTRON&MYi Sattlrrt; but fince notwithftanding this thef are found to fhine much brighter than Saturn, it is evident they cannot borrow their light from the fame fource which Saturn does, viz. the fun j but fince we know of no other luminous body befide the fun, whence they might derive their light, it follows that they fhine with their own native light* 131. Befides, it is known, that the more a te lefcope magnifies, the lefs the aperture is through which the ftar is feen, and confequently the fewer rays it admits to the eye. Now, fince the ftars appear lefs through a telefcope which magnifies 200 times than they do to the naked eye, info- much that they feem to be only indivifible points, it proves at once that the ftars are at an immenfe diftance from us, and that they fhine by their own proper light. If they fhone by borrowed light, they would be as invifible with out telefcopes as the fatellites of Jupiter are; for thefe fatellites appear bigger, when viewed with a good telefcope, than the largeft fixed ftars. Hence* 132. We deduce that the fixed ftars are fo many funs, for they have all the characters of funs. 133. That ASTRONOMY. 295 133. That in all probability the ftars are not fmaller than our fun. 134. That it is highly probable each ftar is the center of a fyftem, and has planets or earths revolving round it in the fame manner as round our fun, i. e. it has opake bodies illuminated, warmed, and cherifhed by its light. As we have incomparably more light from the moon than from all the ftars together, it is abfurd to imagine that the ftars were made for no other purpofe than to eaft a faint light upon the Earth, efpecially fince many more require the afiiftanfe of a good telefcope to find them out, than are vifible without that inftrument. Our fun is furrounded by a fyftem of planets and comets, all which would be invifible from the neareft fixed ftar j and from what we already know of the immenfe diftance of the ftars, it is eafy to prove that the fun feen from fuch a diftance would appear no bigger than a ftar of the firft magnitude. From all this it is highly probable that each ftar is a fun to a fyftem of worlds, moving round it, though unfeen by us *. * From paragraph 129 to this reference, is the copy of a tranfcript I formerly made from fome author, but from whom I cannot now recolleft. U4 Of 2^6 ASTRONOMY. Of the E A R T H. 135. It has been obferved that Mercury and Venus are inferior planets, and that Mars, Ju piter, Saturn, and the Georgium Sidus are fu perior planets, alfo that Mars is the next pla net in order from the earth ; that the earth there fore revolves about the fun as a center, is evident from her place* and likewife from the phsenor- mena of the fuperior planets viewed from it ; for the fuperior planets viewed from it appear fome- times ftationary, i. e. ftanding ftill, and fometimes to have a retrograde, i. e. a backward motion ; which appearances of ftation and retrOgradation in bodies which move in circular orbits, and cir- cumfcribe a fixed point, cannot happen from the fixed point ; for the motion of a moving body in a circumfcribing circle will always fhew its motion, whether the fixed point be in, or near its centre, or otherwife, and will always appear to move in the fame order : but fuppofe feveral bodies with different velocities to revolve round one common center, then the fwifter motion of the body in a circumfcribed circle will fome times caufe an apparent ftationary or retrograda- tory appearance in the moving body, which re volves in a circumfcribed circle. - • • - '- < ii 136. The ASTRONOMY. Iff} 136. "The inferior planets have fometimes like appearances of ftation and retrogradation with the fuperior planets ; but this phaenomenon would happen if the Earth were at reft ; for while an in ferior planet paffes from near its greateft elonga-r tion, either towards the Earth, or from it, its, ap pearance will be ftationary, for the line of fight then paffing from the eye to the planet is a tan gent to the planet's orbit, (in all other fituations the eye paffes within, or cuts the orbit), and according as the planet's motion is quicker or .flower, it will to fight, remain a longer or fhorter time before it is apparently out of this tangent or touch line. When an inferior planet is paffing between its greateft elongation weft to its greateft elongation eaft, its, motion will appear to be in eonfequentia, or direct, that is, from weft to eaft, agreeable to the order of the figns j but while it is paffing between its greateft elongation eaft ^nd its greateft- elongation weft, its motion will appear retrograde, or from eaft to weft ; for in the firft mentioned paffage, it moves in that half of its orbit which is next the Earth, and in the fecond mentioned paffage, it moves in that half of its orbit which is furtheft from the Earth. Let any thing be moved in a circle before the eye, and it will have one motion from left to right^ and the other from right to left. 137. But 208 ASTRONOMY. 137. But the times in which either the fta- tions and retrogradations, or conjunctions and oppofitions of the planets happen, are not fuch as they would be if the Earth were at reft, but precifely fuch as would happen were the Earth to move round the fun in the fpace of a year. The Earth's period or revolution, moreover, is greater than that of Venus, and lefs than that of Mars, as would naturally follow from fuch a motion. 138. It has been obferved that all the planets revolve from weft by fouth to eaft, in orbits nearly circular ; the feveral phasnomena arifing from their motions prove them not to be ftrictly fb, and that the only curve they can move in, to reconcile all the various appearances, is an ellipfis *, and alfo that the fun is not placed in the center, but in one of the foci ofthe ellipfis. 139. The Center of an Ellipfis, is that point within it where two lines bounded by oppofite points in the curve, one the longeft, and the other the ftiorteft that can poffibly be drawn within it, crofs each other; the longeft of which lines is called the tranfverfe Diameter, and the ftiorteft, the Conjugate Diameter. " See Plate 3, fig. 1. 140- By Astronomy. 299 ¦¦ I40. The Foci of an Ellipfis, are two points ¦ in the tranfverfe diameter on each fide of the center. 141. If two lines be drawn from the foci of an ellipfis, fo as to meet each other in the peri phery, (or bounding curve), their fum will be always equal to the tranfverfe diameter* 142. The diftance between the center of an ellipfis and either of its foci, is called the Ec centricity. 143. If a line be drawn parallel to the con jugate diameter of an ellipfis through either of its foci, it muft divide the ellipfis into two unequal parts. From this circumftance it is, that our fummer is nearly eight days longer than our winter; for the fun takes about 186 days 12 hours in its apparent paffage from the firft de gree of Aries to the firft degree of Libra*, and only about 178 days 18 hours in its ap parent paffage through the winter figns. The fun's apparent diameter is alfo greater in our winter, at which time the Earth is in Perihe- * Let it be remembered, that the Earth is always in the oppofite fign to that in which the fun appears. lion, 30* ASTRONOMY. lion, than in our fummer, when it is in Aphe lion*, 144. The orbits of the planets and comets are ellipfes of different curvatures, having one com mon focus, in which the fun is fixed. 145. From what has been advanced it is evi dent that the planets are fometimes nearer to, and fometimes further from the fun. When a planet is in that point of its orbit which is neareft to the fun, it is faid to be in Perihe lion, and when in that point of its orbit which is furtheft from the fun, to be in Aphelion. The Aphelion is, called the Superior Apfiis, and the Perihelion, the Inferior Apfis, and a ftraight line that would join the inferior and fuperior Apfes, i§ called the Line of the Apfides. 146. The mean diftance of a planet from the fun, is, when the planet is at either extremity of the conjugate diameter. The planet's mo- * Hence it is evident that heat does not entirely depend on the vicinity of the fun, but in a great meafure on its vicinity to the zenith, whereby its rays pafs through a lefs portion of the atmofphere, or on its long continuance above the horizon. The fecondary caufes of different foils, the fituation of waters, and winds alfo, influence the degrees of heat and cold in equal latitudes. tion ASTRONOMY, 301 tion is likewife mean at that time, i. e. it would with fuch motion defcribe the whole orbit in the fame time it is defcribed in. 147. All the planets move fafter as they ap proach the fun, or come nearer to the Perihe lion, and flower as they recede from the fun, or come nearer to the Aphelion ; and hence it is, that the fun's apparent motion is no ways equal, but that he now and then flackens his pace, and afterwards quickens it again. The time, there fore, which the fun's apparent motion fhews, is different from the true and equable time fhewn by a well regulated clock, whereby all the ce-^ kftial motions are to be eftimated and account^ ed. The time fhewn by fuch a clock, and a true fun dial is never the fame, but on the 15th of April, the 1 6 th of June, the 31ft of Auguft, and the 24th of December. Had the Earth no other motion but that round its axis, all the days would be precifely of the fame length, but while the Earth is turning round its axis, it is likewife proceeding forward in its orbit, and likewife moves quicker or flower as it is nearer to, or far ther from the fun ; the fame will be found if, fet ting afide the confideration ofthe Earth, we con- fider the apparent motion of the Sun in lieu thereof, as being what we meafure time by. On 302 ASTRONOMY. On this principle we obferve, that the day nog only includes the time of one revolution ofthe globe on its axis, but it is increafed by fo much as anfwers to that part of the fun's motion per formed in that time ; for, when that part of the equinoctial which, with the fun was at the me ridian yefterday at noon, is come thither again to-day, it is not yet noon, the fun not being now at the place where he yefterday was, but gone forward near a degree, more or lefs ; and this additament above the 24 equinoctial hours is upon a double account unequal. In that, though the fun fhould always move equally in the ecliptic, yet equal arches of the ecliptic do not in all parts of the zodiac anfwer to equal arches of the equator, becaufe fome parts there of, as the two folftitial points, lie nearer to a parallel pofition to the equinoctial than others, for inftance, than thofe about the equinoctial points. As the natural and apparent days from their inequality, cannot properly be applied in mea- furing the celeftial motions, Aftronomers have been obliged to invent other days for the ufe of their calculations, that are of a mean length ber tween the longeft and ftiorteft of apparent days, Thefe are had by confidering the number of hours in the whole revolution ofthe Earth in the ecliptic, ASTRONOMY. 303 ecliptic, and dividing the whole time into as many equal parts as there are hours, 24 of which conftitute the day ; and the reduction of the days conftitutes the equation of natural days : confequently, computing thefe motions accord ing to equal time, it is neceffary to turn that time back again into apparent time, that they may corrrefpond to obfervation : on the con trary, any phenomenon being obferved, the ap parent time thereof muft be converted into equal time to have it correfpond with the times marked in the Aftronomical Tables. 148. The Earth revolves from any fixed ftar to the fame again in 36^ days, 6 hours, 9 mi nutes, and 141 feconds, which is 20 minutes, 171 feconds longer than the true folar or tropi cal year j for, 149. The, folar year, or the time which the Earth takes to revolve from either tropick or fol- ftice to the fame again, contains 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, and 57 feconds, which is the proper or natural year, becaufe it always keeps the fame feafons to the fame months, provided the excefs above 36^ days be pro perly accounted for. 150. The civil folar year contains 365 days for three years running, which are called com mon '2°4 ASTRONOMY- mon years ; and then comes in what is called the Biffextile, orLeapYoar, which contains 366 days; this is alfb called the Julian Year, on account of Julius Casfar, who appointed the in tercalary day every fourth year, thinking there by to make the civil and folar year keep pace together j and this day being added to the 23d of February; which, in the Roman Calendar, was the fixth of the Calends of March, that fixth day was twice reckoned; by counting the 23d and 24th as only one day, and this was called Bis fextus dies, and thence comes the name Biffextile for that year; In our almanacks this day is added to the end of February. 151. The year thus fettled was in ufe in England till 1752 ; but it being fomewhat more than eleven minutes, longer than the folar tro pical year, the times of the equinoxes went back ward, and fell earlier by one day in about 130 years. In the time of the Nicene Councily A.D. 325, the vernal equinox fell on the 21ft of March, and about the year 1582, Pope Gre gory XIII. who was convinced of the inequality between the Julian and the Solar Year, and that the Moveable Feafts had got too forward by ten days from the feafons, for which they were fixed at the Council of Nice, ordered ten days to be ASTRONOMY, •¦ 305 be ftruck out of that year, and the next day after the fourth of October was accordingly call ed the fourteenth. When the alteration was made in Great-Britain, eleven days were ftruck out of the Calendar, to make it agree with the GregOrian account. ILhis reckoning is now call ed the New Style, and the Julian the Old Style. 152. When the Gregorian Calendar was agreed toy that there might not again be occafion for a like alteration of ftyle, it was fettled, that in ftead of making every hundredth year a biffextile (which happens according to the common courfe) every four hundredth year only of the centuries, reckoning from 1600, fhould be fo accounted*. The length of the folar year, and the time of the vernal equinox, were by this means accurately fettled; for as a day was gained in about 13O years by the former method of reckoning, this proved fb nearly equivalent, that many thoufands of years will elapfe before there is occafion for any further correction of ftyle. 153. A Cycle of the Sun is- a revolution of 28- years, in which time the days of the months re- * This was provided for in England;, where the ftyle was not altered till 1752, by taking a day more out of the Calendar than was done at Rome,. &c. where the firft al teration of ftyle took place. X turn 306 ASTRONOMY. turn again to the fame days of the week, and the fun's place to the fame figns and degrees of the ecliptic which they were on 28 years before, fo as not to differ one degree- in a hundred years. 154. A Cycle of the Moon, called alfo the Golden Number, is a revolution of 19 years j in which time the conjunctions, oppofitions, and other afpects of the moon, are within an hour and a half of being the fame as they were on the fame days of the month 19 years before. 155. It has already been obferved, that when the fun appears in the equinoctial, the days and nights are equal in all parts of the world, the axis ofthe Earth muft therefore be then perpendicular to the plane of the equinoctial, and oblique to the plane of the ecliptic in the fame angle, viz. about 23^ degrees, that the plane of the ecliptic makes with the plane of the equinoctial ; and as the north pole ofthe Earth's axis inclines more or lefs toward the fun from the vernal to the au tumnal equinox, and more or lefs from the fun from the autumnal to the vernal equinox, in both cafes agreeable to the fun's declination, it is evident that the Earth's axis preferves the fame parallel fituation in every part of its orbit, and that its inclination to its orbit, that is, to the ecliptic, ASTRONOMY. 3O7 ecliptic, occafions the different feafons, and the different lengths of days and nights *. 156. Jupiter and Mars, whofe axes are perpen dicular to the plane of their orbits, muft thereby have equal days and nights^ and equal feafons, for the fun's rays muft conftantly fall perpendicu larly on their equators : but Venus muft have very different lengths of days and feafons, fince her axis is inclined to the plane of her orbit in fo large an angle as 75 degrees; whereby the fun's greateft declination from her equator will be 75 degrees, and confequently its altitude the fame when it is at its neareft diftance to the zenith of either pole. * If a circle of wire be plaeed horizontally round the flame of a candle, and croffed by another wire circle, in fuch a pofition as to make an angle of 2 3 \ degrees with it, ahd a terreftrial globe of about three inches diameter be fufpended from either pole by a ftring, and with a fteady hand moved round the circle, which makes the fame angle with the horizontal one that the ecliptic makes with the equinoftial, the parallels of latitude and frigid zones, when the globe is in different fituations of the circle, will be il lumined in the fame proportion as they are on the Earth itfelf. If the thread be firft twifted, the globe will at the fame time revolve as on an axis, and thereby in its pro grefs reprefent the diurnal as well as the annual motion .of the Earth, and the different feafons. X 2 157. The 308 ASTRONOMY. 157. The motions ofthe Earth and all the other planets are certain, and follow an immutable law, whereby " they all defcribe equal areas from the fun's center in equal times •," that is, if a ftraight line were to pafs from the center of the fun to the center of any planet, and to be carried with the planet round the fun, fuch a line, commonly called the Radius Veilor, would conftantly pafs over an equal fpace in an equal time : for though when a planet moves floweft, it defcribes a lefs portion of the elliptic curve; yet the planet at that time, from being more diftant from the fun, muft lengthen the Radius Vector, and there by caufe it to fweep a greater fpace than when the planet was lefs diftant from the fun, and paffed over a like portion of the curve. This law of the planets motions was firft difcovered by Kep ler, who demonftrated it from obfervation. Sir Ifaac Newton accounted for this law from a cen tripetal force, which urges the planets toward the fun. 158. The nearer any planet is to the fun, the quicker and fhorter its period of revolution will be. The great law which all the planets immu tably fulfil, is, that " thefquares ofthe times of their revolutions are to each ether as the cubes of their mean diftances from the fun " therefore if the ASTRONOMY. 30$ the diftance of any one of them be known, the diftance of any other may be found. Suppofe, for inftance, that the Earth's diftance from the fun were known, and it was required to find the diftance of Mercury ; then, As the fquare of the time in which the Earth performs its revolution about the fun, is to the fquare of the time in which Mercury performs his revolu tion about the fun, fo is the cube of the Earth's mean diftance from the fun, to the cube of the mean diftance of Mercury from the fun; and extracting the cube root of this laft number (viz. the anfwer to the rule of three ftating) will give the diftance fought, . By this rule it is de- monftrable, that if the Earth's mean diftance be fuppofed to be divided into 100,000 equal parts, Mercury's mean diftance from the fun will be equal to 38,710 of thofe parts j Venus's mean diftance to 72,3335 Mars's to 152,369; Jupi ter's to 520,096 ; Saturn's to 954,006 ; and that of Georgium Sidus to 1,894,736. The knowledge of this fecond law ofthe planets, from which the above calculations are made, we alfo owe to Kepler, who by obfervation difcovered it, and found it to obtain in all the primary planets, which aftronomers have fince found it to do, between all the fecondary planets and their re fpective primaries. Sir Ifaac Newton accounted X 3 fa 3IO ASTR0N0M*. .for this law from the centripetal force which urges the planets toward the fun being in an inverfe ratio ofthe fquare ofthe diftance. 159. From what has been advanced of the relative diftances of the planets from the fun, it is evident that when the real diftance of any one of them is known in miles, we may eafily find the diftances of all the reft ; fpr as the re7 lative diftance pf any planet? is to its real diftance, fo is the relative diftance of any other planet to its real diftance. 160. The real diftances of the planets are de termined by means of a parallax. 16.1. Parallax is the apparent difference of place that any celeftial object has, or would ap peal to have,' if viewed from different fituations. 162. The nearer any object is, the greater its parallax will be. Let, us firft confider parallax as it would find the diftance of earthly * objects. Suppofe, then, a perfon at fome diftance from a wall of confiderable extent, varied with different difcernible colours, and that any object at a fmall diftance, a tree for inftance, be between * I intreat the liberty of extending the ufual accepta- tion ofthe word Parallax to the prefent purpofe, the ASTRONOMY. 3H the fpectator and the wall, the fight would transfer the tree to a certain part of the wall, that is, the tree would eclipfe a certain part of the wall. Again ; fuppofe the fpectator to move tO fome diftance in any direction but in that of the prefent line of fight, [I mean the line which paffed from the eye to the tree, or the part of the wall eclipfed by it, in the firft fituation} he will then find the tree eclipfes a different part of the wall ; now the diftance between the prefent part of the wall which is eclipfed, and the former part, is the parallax which the tree appeared under from the two places of obfervation. If the fpectator goes at greater diftances from the tree, and meafures equal diftances between other two ftations, in like directions with the former, he will find the parallaxes become lefs and lefs, till - they appear almoft or totally in- fenfible. Now, if the angles of the bearing of the two parts of the wall which were eclipfed by the tree, or, which is the fame in the prefent cafe, the angle which the tree made with the line uniting any two ftations, be taken with a proper inftrument, and the diftance between the two ftations be meafured, then the diftance of the tree from either of thefe ftations may be found by plane trigonometry ; for it is a maxim, in trigonometry, that when any three things in a X 4 plane s 311 ASTRONOMY. plane triangle are known, except the three an gles only, the reft may be found. The tree in the prefent cafe is the vertex of the triangle, the diftance between the two ftations is the bafe, 4n4 the line of fight from each ftation, the angles of which, with the bafe, were meafured? aFe the othef 4des of the triangle, each of which is oppofite t© its refpective angle at the bafe. if 63. From what has been advanced concern ing the nature of parajlapc, and determining the diftance of objects, it appears that fome deter mined meafure, as a bafe whereon to form the angles, is required, „this being the cafe, it is therefore requifite in determining the diftance of celeftiai objects, to know the exact meafure of the diftance between the two places of obferva tion on the Earth's furface. Now not only a trifling fpace on the Earth's furface is known, but alfo its whole circumference, and its diameter j for the length of a degree or a 360th part of its circumference, may be found either on a meri dian, or on the equator, if the extreme point? which include the degree be firft accurately de termined by celeftial obfervation; but as a fitua tion cannot be found wherein deviations from a level and obftructions would not occur in mea- furing a degree according to the ufuaj manner of 3 meafuring ASTRONOMY. 313 meafuring the extent of a mile, it has been found neceffary towards obtaining the meafure of a degree with accuracy, to have recourfe to favourable fituations, the quadrant, telefcope, micrometer, and continued objects making ftraight or parallel lines with each other the whole extent of the degree. Suppofe the objects for obfervation to be in one continued ftraight line from each other, then the exact diftance between any two objects may be found by trigonometry, fuch diftance would form the bafe of a triangle, and the fum of all the bafes would be equal to the extent of the degree. 164. When one degree is obtained the whole circumference is nO longer unknown •, and when the circumference is known, the diameter may be foon found, for the proportion between the ciru inference of every circle, and its diameter is the fame*. * Archimedes fixed the proportion between the circum ference and diameter of a circle at zz to 7 ; but as 355 to 113 is nearer the truth, and as 3.14159 to 1 ftill nearer, this laft is within lefs than a three millionth part of an unit of the truth. The exact, proportion has hever been found, though the approximation to truth has been brought nearer to the real proportion than the proportion between a diameter, which is only one thou- fandth part of an inch fhorter than the diameter of the Earth bears to the diameter ofthe Earth, i65. A 314 ASTRONOMY. 165. A degree on the Earth's furface is about 69 i Englifh miles, the circumference 25,000, and the diameter 7,970. 166. The femi-diameter of the Earth being known, it ferves as a meafure between two fta tions, one in the rational horizon, and the other in the zenirh, wherefrom to find the difference of place which a celeftial object would appear to have in the celeftial fphere from two fuch fitua tions, which difference would be the horizontal parallax of the object, and would occupy fuch fpace in the heavens, as the Earth's femi-diame ter would appear to occupy, if viewed from the fame diftance as the celeftial object, 167. If the center of an artificial globe were exactly in the Earth's center, with its equator in the plane of the Earth's equator, and two lines were infinitely continued from its center, one paffing through its equator, and the other through one of its poles, fuch lines would pafs one through the Earth's equator to the equi noctial, and the other through one of the ter reftrial poles to the correfponding celeftial pole, and a line generated from the center of the arti ficial globe, and infinitely extended through one pf its parallels, would pafs through the like pa rallel ASTRONOMY. 315 rallel on the Earth's furface, and mark out the correfponding declination in the Heavens. Sup- - pofe again, a line to pafs from the pole of the artificial globe to the Earth's furface, parallel to that which paffed through its 'equator, the dift ance between thefe parallel lines is the diftance between the fenfible and the rational horizon of the artificial globe, and is the meafure of its femi-diameter ; fuch line then, fuppofing the ar tificial globe to be nine feet in diameter, would pafs nine feet from the true equatorial divifion, which is lefs than the eleventh part of a fecond ofa degree from it ; and fuch would he the angle, viz. about the eleventh part of a fecond of a degree, that the femi-diameter of fuch an artificial globe would appear under, were it poffible to be feen at the diftance of 0 90 5 miles, the meafure of the Earth's femi-diameter, 168. A body as large as the Earth would fubtend no more than a minute of a degree in the heavens, at a diftance where the circum ference of a circumfcribing circle would be a 1 ?6oo times greater than the diameter of the Earth. 169. The fixed ftars have no fenfible paral lax, the fun and primary planets have fmall ones, ' and the moon has a very confiderable one. 17°. If 316 ASTRONOMY. 170. If a Celeftial object have a fenfible pa rallax, it may from a latitude equal to the ob ject's declination be thus determined, viz. by finding the exact diftance in time from the object's being in the fenfible horizon * to its arrival at the zenith, and fubtracting this time from a fourth part of the time which the ob ject takes to pafs. from meridian to meridian again, viz. the time it takes to pafs from the rational horizon to the zenith : the difference between thefe times call the remaining time; Convert the remaining time into an arch of longitude by the following proportion, &c. As the time which the object takes to pafs from the rational horizon to the zenith, is to the time in which it was found to pafs from the fenfible horizon to the zenith, fo is 90 degrees to the content of the arch between the fenfible horizon and the zenith, which arch fubtracted from 90 degrees, will give the arch contained between the rational and fenfible horizons, and is the arch which agrees with the remaining time, which is the horizontal parallax of the celeftial * When a eereftial' objecTr is fo diftant that the Earth's femi-diameter would appear from it as a dimenfionlefs point, the rational and fenfible horizon of fuch a celeftial object wou4the Earth's, therefore, is as 1920 to 17 *. 1 8.1. The ** . * The apparent diameters of the planets, meafured with a micrometer, that of the- fun and of moon, according to De la Hire's Obfervations, and' thofe of Mercury, Vfin-us, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, according to Hevelius's Qfe» fervationjj, «j2 A STRONOMYa 181. The relative bulks Of fpherical bodied are proved by geometry to be to each other as the cubes of their diameters; the fun's bulk,' therefore, to the Earth's, is as 7,077,888,00a' to 5832, or fomething. more than a million of times larger*.' In like ' manner may the diamercr? and bulks of the reft of the planets be as eafily deter-' mined. The quantities 6f matter iri the feveral pla nets are determined by the laws of gravity. fervatiohs, are, when they appear leaft, mean, and greateft, as follows : Leaft. Mean. Greateft. , ir "> I it ttt t it i/r Su«v - 31 38 — 3Z 1 — 32 43 — Moon - 29 30 — 31 30 — 33 30 — Mercury — 44 — 63 — 11 48 Venus - — 9 30 — 16 46 1 5 58 Mars - — 2 26 — 5 2 — 20 50 Jupiter — 14 36 — 18 2 24 2Z Saturn — 14 10 — 16' z — 19 4d The apparent diameter of the Georgium Sidus is now about four feconds ; whence we infer, that its real diameter is to that ofthe Earth as 4.454 to 1 ; it is, therefore, of confi derable bulk, and except Jupiter and Saturn, by far the largeft of the remaining planets. * The fun is more than 500 times as bigias all the pla nets together. 182. Light ASTRONOMY. 333 182. Light is found by optical experiments .to decreafe in proportion as the fquares of the diftance increafes, .183. The light and heat, therefore, * fo far a? it depends on the >fun's rays, which are diftri- buted to the planets, are inverfely as the fquares ,of their diftantes from the fun *. 1 84. The motion of light, cornbined with the motion of the Earth in its orbit, produces a very .trifling alteration of the places of the fixed ftars, according to their fituations ; fuch alterations of place are termed the Aberration of their light. This, aberration completes all its various phse- nbmena regularly every yearf. * Hence it is, that the more a telefcope magnifies the difks of the planets, the dimmer they appear to the eye, becaufe the telefcope cannot magnify the quantity of light as it does the difk, and therefore the fame quantity of light is fpread over a larger furface. f Dr. Bradley was. the firft who completely folved thefe phenomena ; he had repeatedly, and almoft continually made the moft minute and exafl; obfervations on the fixed ftars from the year 172; till two or three years after, be fore he, from convincing proofs, could determine the caufes of the alternate and regular changes of the places pf the fixed ftars. A TABLE A TABLE, ob- the AFFECTIONS of th-e PLANETS. s* s. o or* < ' -M Periodical Revolutions on their Axes . Mercury. « • * Venus. days, hours. 24 8 Earth. day*. 1 Mars. hours, min. 24 40 Jupiter. hours, min. 9 56 Saturn. * # * Georgia m Sidus. * * « Periodical Revolution about the Sun~ days, hours. 87 2J days, hours. 124 J 7 days, hours. 365 6 days, hours. 686 23- days, hours. 4332 12 daySk hours. ioffg 7 days. 3°445 Proportionable mean Diftadces 3»7 7*3 1000 1523 J200 9540 19000 Mean Diftances from the Sun jn Englifh Miles 36841468 68891486 95173127 145014148 494990976 907956130 i8oor 00000 Diameters in Englifh Miles ; that of the Sun is 890000 3100 9360 797Q. SiJ° 94IOO 77990 35498 Proportion of Light, that of - the Sun being as 1 6.68 J.91 I. OCT ¦ .43 •°37 .011 .00276 Proportion of Bulk, that of the Sun being as 138000.0 1 .8. 9 r 7_ -5 + 1400 1000 90 Eccentricities, or Diftance of the Center frog) the FocusJ 7960 510 1680 I4Zl8 25277 53l63 82034 Inclinations of tHtir Orbits to the Ecliptic 0, ' 6 54 O ' 3 ZO * # » 0 ' I 5* O ' I. 20 0 ' 2 30 ,. « Ww- SRr//gg- Jfizgz 33S Ttak & L ,<*f" J- RL^jS ft &* f% f\ // tO J 7 5 / ASTRONOMY, 335 Of the Moo n, 185. It is not a primary planet, but only $ fatellite, or attendant pf the Earth, round "\vjjich it reyolves, and with 'which it is car? ried -round the fun. Its mean diftance from the Earth is fpund to be about 240^000 miles j its eccentricity 13,000, $nd the inclination pf its orbit to the plane pf the ecliptic about 5Q 18' ; its diameter about 2}8q miles ; its bulk equal to aljout a fiftieth part ofthe Earth's, and it revolves r*qjid its axis in the famp time in, ^feich it revolves round the Earth. Its axis aWo is almoft perpendicular to the ecliptic, *v 186. While the Moon is performing her courfe round the Earth in its own orbit, the Earth and it are making their' progrefs round the fun, and both are advancing toward the eaft; the time, therefore, which the Moon takes to revolve from one point of the heavens to the fame again, called the Siderial, or Periodical Re-volution,. wiH be different from the time it takes to revolve from the fun to the fame ap parent fituation* with regard to' the fun again, called the Synodical Revolution *. A 187. The r * The motions of the hour and minute hanjds of a watch inay ferve to give fome idea of the periodical and fynodical revolutions J36 4.ST3R.ONOMY. 187. The Moon completes her periodical re-. yolutipn in about 27 days, 7 hours, and 43 minutes, and her fynodical revolution in abpur, .g a daysj 11 hours, anc* 44 minutes. 188. Th-e l*ne o^thc Moan's nodes makes a complete revolution in antecedentia, in about nineteen years. 189. The node from, •which the Moon has, north latitude, is called^the^Afcending Node, or the Dragon's Head, ^rnarke^p' ; and the node from which the Moon has fouth latitude, is, called the Defcending 5>Tode? or the Dragon's, 'Tail, marked ®t 190. When the Moon is in conjunction, or oppofition to the fun, fhe is faid to be in her Sygizies, and when at 90 degrees diftance from, the fun, to be in her Quadratures. ' 191. When the Moon, or any planet is at its neareft diftance from the Earth,- it is faid revolutions of the moon, for when the minute hand has performed a complete revolution, it has yet fome diftance; tp go to have the fame meeting with the hour hand whicr^ it had an hour before. ASTROlfO to y. 237 to be in Perigee; and when at its farther! dift ance, in Apogee; 1 9 i i When the Moon is ih Perigee, it moves quickeft, and when in Apogee, floweft j its mo tion continuing to increafe or decreafe as it is moving towards the one point or the other; 193. The line -which Unites the points of Perigee and Apogee, is called the line of the Apfides,; 194. In the Moon's quadratures the fun's action adds to the gravity of the Moon, and the force it adds is greater as the diftance of the Moon from the Earth is greater, fo that the action of the fun hinders her gravity towards the Earth from decreasing, as much while the diftance increafes, as it ought to do according to the regular courfe of gravity ; and, therefore, while the Moon is in her quadratures, her apfides muft recede. In the Syzigies the action of the fun fubducts from the gravity of the Moon to-. wards the Earth, and fubducts the more as her diftance from the Earth is greater, fo as to make hef gravity decreafe more as her diftance in creafes, than according to the regular courfe of gravity j and therefore in this cafe the apfides Z , are 33% ASTRONOMY. are in a progrefTiye motion, becaiife the action* ofthe fun fubducts more in the fyzigies from her gravity than it adds in her quadratures, and, in general diminifhes: more than it augments her gravity ; and hence the progrefTiye motion of the apfides exceeds the retrograde motion, and the apfides are carried round in confequentia. 195, All bodies moving in orbits, have a tendency to fly off from their orbits, and to move in right lines * -, therefore, to keep them in their orbits, fome power muft conftantly draw or impel them towards the center. This laft impulfe is called the Centripetal force ; the other, by which they endeavour to fly off in right lines, is called the Centrifugal force. Thefe forces are fo wifely combined and adjufted, that the accelerated mqtipn in the lower apfis, and the diminifhed motion in the higher apfis re spectively .correct the increafe or decreafe of the gravitpry powers. I , 196. The center of gravity between any two revolving bodies, is the point in which they are in equibbrio ; its diftance from their centers is inverfely as their quantities of matter. * This may be inftanced by a pebble whirled round one's hand in a fling. 3 197. When ASTRONOMY, 33^ 197. When one body moves round another, both of them muft move round their common center of gravity: The common center of gravity between the ' Earth and the Moon is 6000 miles from the Earth's center. The Anomaly ofthe Mooh, or of any planet, Is the diftance of any fuch body in figns, and degrees, from that point of its orbit which is at the greateft diftance from that body round which it revolves. The true Anomaly is the real place of the body, and the mean Anomaly, the place which it would at any time be in, were it to move uniformly in its orbit. The Sun's Anomaly means the diftance it has apparently gohe frorrj its apogee with refpect to the Earth *, The apparent place pf the Moon, or pf any planet in the heavens, as feen from the Earth, .is called the Geocentric Place : and the place which the Moon* or any planet would appear to have in the heavens, if feen from the Sun, is galle4 th$ Heliocentric Placet 198. If the area of an ellipfis be fo divided, that the whole elliptic area may have the fame pro? # Not the diftance it has to go, however trifling. Z 2 portion 34O ASTRONOMY. portion to any arch, as the periodical time in which the planet defcribes its orbit has to the time given j the place of the planet in its orbit fof-fuch given time after it has left the aphelion, ' may be thereby found *. 199. From the inequalities in the Moon's mo tion, it has ever been confidered as a problem of the utmoft difficulty to calculate her true place in the heavens. Newton was the firft who pointed out the fource of her irregularities, and the mode of inveftigating them ; and from the principles he laid down, we have gradually ob tained a more exact theory of the Moon than could have been expected by former aftronomers, infomuch that tables are now calculated, which are feldom found to differ in any part more than a minute from the truth. Hod. A luminous body can enlighten only pne half of an opaque globe at once, and, therefore, at any given moment, the fun can enlighten only one half of the Moon. * Kepler's problem for determining a planet's place for any given time is Rated thus : " To find the pofition of a right line, which paffing through one ofthe foci of an el lipfis, lhall cut off an area defcribed by its motion, which ihall be in any giveja proportion to the whole area of the ellipfis." When ASTRONOMY. 341 When the Moon is in conjunction with the fun, fhe difappears, becaufe her unenlightened fide is then toward the Earth j when fhe is in oppofition to the fun fhe appears full, becaufe her whole illuminated fide is then toward the : Earth; when fhe is iri her quadratures, or a , quarter of a circle diftant from the fun, fhe appears half full, becaufe only one half of her enlightened fide is then toward the Earth. Be fore and after the quadratures fhe has all the poffible variety of phafes between a thin cir cular line and a full face, according to her fituation with refpect to the fun, The points of the circular line, which appear juft before and after the conjunction, or new Moon, are called the Moon's Horns. See plate 3, 201. All the planets and fatellites are enlightr encd by the fun, and caftfhadows toward that part ©f the heavens which is oppofite to the fun, 3s feen from them. 202. As the fun is bigger than any planet or fatellite, the fhadows of the planets and fatellites muft be conical, ending in points at certain dif tances, according to the feveral magnitudes and diftances ofthe bodies from which they are eaft. Z 3 203. The 344 ASTRONOMY* 2O3. The Moon is eclipfed when fhe falls into the Earth's fhadow -, but this can only hap pen when fhe is oppofite to the fun with refpect to the Earth, that is, at the time of Full Moon. 204. The fun is eclipfed when the Moon is rb directly between the Earth and the fun, as to prevent the rays of the fun from falling on a part of the Earth's furface ; but this can only happen at the time of New Moon. 205. If the Moon revolved about the Earth in the plane of the ecliptic, it would always be tclipfed when full, and the fun would always appear eclipfed in thofe parts of the Earth where the Moon happened to be vertical at the time of its Conjunction, i. c at every New Moon ; but one half of the Moon's orbit being towards the north pole of the eclipticj and the other half towards the fouth pole ofthe ecliptic, and making an angle of more than 5 i degrees with the plane of the ecliptic, the Earth's fhadow is too pointed at the diftance of the Moon to fall on the Moon's furface at the time of full^ except when fhe is in or 'within 12 degrees* of one of * This admits of fome variation, for when the Moon ii in perigee, fhe will be eclipfed if within l2°3g of one of AS T R O N 0 M'V. J4.3 of her nodes; and when the Moon , is more than 1 8 degrees from either of her nodes at the time of conjunction, fhe paffeth either northward or fouthward of the part of the ecliptic the fun is in. 206. When the Earth's fhadow covers the whole body of the Moon, the Moon is faid to be totally eclipfed ; when trie Moon paffes through the center of the Earth's fhadow, fhe is faid to be not only totally but centrally eclipfed ; and when the whole body is not covered by the Earth's fhadow, fhe is faid to be partially eclipfed. When the whole body of the fun is hid from any fpace of the Earth where the Moon is ver tical at the time of her conjunction, he is faid to be totally eclipfed *? When the diameter of the fun appears larger than the diameter of the Moon, fo diat a line uniting the cen ter of the Earth and Moon, would,, if conti nued, likewife pafs through the center of the fun, the eclipfe is faid to be annular, for a bright ring will appear to furround the Moon in thofe parts to which the Moon is then vertical. When of her nodes. The folar limit alfo is 180} iii perigeal eclipfes. . * Frorrt the motion of the Moon in her orbit, a total eclipfe ofthe fun can never exceed four minutes, Z 4 the 344 ASTRONOMY. the whole body of the fun is not hid from any part of the Earth's furface, he is faid to be parr tially eclipfed. 207. In folar e.clipfes, befide the entirely darke ened parts on the Earth's furface, there are adja cent parts, which are only partially deprived of the fun's light ; this partial deprivation of the fun's light, is called the Penumbra. See Fig. 3. plate 3, where p. p. reprefents the Penumbra. When the Penurribra firft touches the Earth, the general eclipfe begins, and when it leaves the Earth, the general eclipfe ends. ao8. The Moon's dark fhadow covers only a fpot on the Earth's furface, about 1 80 Englifh miles broad, when the Moon?s diameter appears largeft, and the fun?s fmalleft; but the partial fhadow, or Penumbra, may cover a circular fpace of 4900 miles diameter. The longeft duration of a total and central eclipfe of the Moon, frc.-m beginning to end, is, 3 hours, 57 minutes, and 6 feconds ; and the fhorteft du ration of the fame, from beginning to end, 3 hours, 37 minutes, and 26 feconds. The longeft duration happens when the Moon is in apogee,, at which time fhe moves floweft, and the fhorteft duration., a ASTRONOMY. 345 duration, when fhe is in perigee, at which time fhe moves quickeft. 209. A twelfth part of the fun or Moon's diameter, is called a Digit; and in eclipfes, it is generally faid how many digits are eclipfed at certain times, according to the number of parts which are involved in darknefs. 210. An eclipfe of the Moon always begins on the Moon's eaftern fide, and goes off on her weftern fide ; but an eclipfe of the fun begins on the fun's wefterri fide, and goes pff on his eaft ern fide. an. It is difficult to obferve exactly either the beginning or ending of a lunar eclipfe, even with a good telefcope, becaufe the Earth's fha dow is fo faint and ill defined about the edges, that when the Moon is either juft touching or leaving it, the obfcuration of her limb is fcarcely fenfible, and cannot be afcertained to within lefs than four or five feconds of time ; but both the beginning and ending of folar eclipfes are very difcernible, for the moment that the edge of the Moon's difk appears to touch the lun's difk, his roundnefs feems a little broken in that park and 346 ASTRONOMY. and the moment the Moon goes off from the fun's difk, he appears perfectly round again. 212. If the Mopn's nodes had no motion through the figns of the ecliptic, in whatever figns the Sun and Moon were eclipfed in any given year, they would be fo in every year after j but the eclipfes* fall fo much back every year, from the confequent toward the antecedent figns, as to prove that the nodes move backward about 191 degrees every year, and, therefore, the fame node will come round to the fun about 19 days foonerevery year than upon the preceding one, and in about 1 8 years, 225 days, the nodes will go backward through the whole ecliptic. 213. At whatever time ofthe year we have an -eclipfe about either of the nodes, in 173 days after there Will be an eclipfe about the oppofite node ; if the node had no motion, the interval between thefe conjunctions would be 182! days, or half a year. 214. In about 18 years and 11 days after a conjunction of the Sun and Moon with either node, there will happen a like conjunction with -the fame node, and, therefore, in that time there is A S T R O N -O^'Y. 34*? is a period, or return of the fame eclipfes. In this term of time there happen very nearly 223 lunatidns, for after the Sun, Moon, and nodes have been once in * a line of conjunction, they return fo nearly to the fame- ftate again, that the fame node which was in conjunction with the Sun and Moon at the beginning, wiU have been within 28 | minutes of a degree * ofa line of conjunction with the Sun and Moon again, when the laft of thefe lunations was completed. In this period', (which is generally allowed to have been firft difcovered by the Chaldeans), there are 18 Julian years, n days, 43 minutes, " and 20 feconds, when there have happened four Leap Years within that fpace of time'; and 18 Julian years, 10 days, 43 minutes, and 20 fe conds, when five Leap Years have happened within the fame time : therefore, if to the mean time of any eclipfe, either ofthe Sun or Moon, there be added one of thefe times, according as four or five days extraordinary have happened within fuch fpace, it will give the mean time of the return ofthe fame eclipfe. * The falling back of the line of conjunctions, or oppositions of the Sun and Moon, viz. 28 f minutes with refpeft to the line of the nodes in every ZZ3 luna tions, will, after many ages, b-e exhaufted, after which it will not return again in lefs than 12,492 years. ,215. The 348 ASTRONOMY. 215. The greateft number of eclipfes of both luminaries, which can happen in a year, is fe ven, and the leaft two, but the moft ufual num ber is four ; and it is very feldom that more than fix happen, one half of which are generally invifible at any particular place. 216. Eclipfes of the Sun are more frequent than thofe of the Moon, becaufe his ecliptic limits are greater, the Moon's limits being only about 12 degrees from the node, and 'the Sun's 17 } but there are more vifible eclipfes of the Moon than of the Sun, becaufe a lunar eclipfe may be feen from a whole hemifphere of the Earth's farface at once, whereas a folar eclipfe is con fined tp a fmall portion of the Earth's furface. 217. From what has been advanced concern ing eclipfes, it is evident that towards calcu lating the time in which eclipfes will happen, it is neceffary to know the number of mean conjunctions and oppofitions which will happen in the fpace of the year, and likewife how often at the times in which they happen the two lu minaries will be within the limits of the node which occafion an eclipfe. In order to facili tate fuch operations, there are aftronomical ta- blesj ASTRONOMY. 349 bles, computed from the theory of gravitation, by which the Sun and Moon's places, with every other neceffary particular may be had. 218. When the Moon is viewed through a good telefcope, there appear vaft cavities and afperities upon various parts of her difk ; fome parts exactly refemble deep caverns, and others mountains and valleys. Several aftronomers have given accurate maps of the face of the Moon, with the name, as well as figure of every fpot *. - 219. In every fituation ofthe Moon, the ele vated parts are found to eaft a triangular fha dow in an oppofite direction to the Sun ; on the contrary, the cavities are always dark on that fide next the Sun, and illuminated on the oppo fite fide, which proves exactly conformable to what we obferve of hills and cavities on the Earth's furface. .The line, moreover, which bounds the light and dark parts when the Moon is not full, is not an even, regular curve as it would be upon a fmooth, fpherical furface ; but an ir- * Their names are generally thofe which aftronomers have borne, who diftinguifhed themfelves in aftronomy. regular 3§9 ASTRONOMY. regular broken line, full of dents and notches * } beyond this broken line, On the darkened, part, fome fmall,. and many large bright fpots appeal? ftanding out at feveral diftances, which fpots, when ,the Moon is. increafing, in a few. hours become larger, ancl at laft unite with the. en lightened portion of the difk. 220. By finding with a micrometer in a te lefcope, what proportion the diftance of the top pf a mountain in the Moon from the "circle of illumination, bears to the diameter of the Moon, the height of a mountain on the furface is de termined. The depths of the lunar cavities are Found to exceed the heights pf the mbuptajns confiderably. '221.' A fpot, or place on the Moon, of abqut 70 Englifh miles diameter, is juft vifible to the naked eye : hence a telefcope which- magnifies 200 times will juft difcover a fpot, whofe diame ter is »bo part of 70 miles, which is lefs than half a mile. '* The outer edge of the diflc doe;s not appear jagged and irregular, becaufe the furface is mountainous all over; for we do not view a fingle row of mountains and cavities as in the aboye cafe, but a large zone having many moun tains. One behind another, thereby filling up cavities which would otherwife appear. 222. From, ASTRONOMY. 3| I 222. From the- Moon's revolving on its axis in the fame time that it revolves about the Earth, fhe always prefents the fame face towards us ; but fince this motion about her axis is equable and uniform, and her motion about the Earth,, or common center of gravity, is unequal and irregular, as being performed in an ellipfis, it muft follow that precifely the fame part of the Moon's face cannot be conftantly turned toward the Earth; and this is confirmed by the tele fcope, through which we often obferve a little gore, or fegment on the eaftern or weftern limb, appear and difappear by turns*, as if her body librated to and fro, from which this phsenome- non is called the Moon's Libration. 223. The Moon has no vifible atmofphere,, for fhe is never obfcured by clouds or vapours i and the fixed ftars, at the time of occupation, from the interpofition of her body, difappear inftantane- oufly, without .any gradual diminution of their light. 224. The attractions bf the Sun and Moon are found to be the caufes ofthe flux and reflux of the fea. Kepler was the firft who appeared to have had an idea of the true caufes : in his JntroducJion to the Phyfics of the Heavens, he thus explains 352 ASTRONOMY. explains himfelf: " The orb ofthe attracting' power, which is in the Moon, is extended as far as the Earth, and draws the waters under the torrid zone, acting upon places where it is vep-< tical, infenfibly on confined feas and bajs, but fenfibly on the ocean, whofe beds are large, and the waters haveJthe liberty of reciprocation, that is, of rifing and falling." And in the 70th page of his Lunar Aftronomy, " But the caufe of the: tides of the fea appears to be the bodies of the Sun and Moon drawing the waters of the fea/' Sir Ifaac Newton improved thefe hints, and foon- fhewed the manner in which the tides were affected. 225. The nature of the tides is fuch, that: they ebb and flow alternately, without inter- miffion, and follow a, general rule. In open feas the tides rife to very fmall heights to what they do in channels or wide-mouthed rivers* opening in the direction of the ftream or tide j for in channels growing gradually narrower, the water is accumulated by the confines ofthe banks. The tides are fo retarded in their paftage through ¦ channel's and fhoals, and otherwife fo varioufly affected by ftriking againft cliffs and headlands,, that at different places in, and nearly in the fame longitude, the ebb and flood happens at very ,A S T R O N O M Y. 3|0 veryr different times, and the times of flooding and offing are. unequal. v ^The* tjmes, however, of flood and ebb at any particular place, hap* pen at the fame interval of time from the full or change' of the Moohi' and cohtiflue to flow and ebb alternately in certain - intervals of time, the flood and ebb happening about 50 minutes later on any day .than, it did on- the preceding day, agreeable to the times on -which the Moon comes later to the meridian oh the particular day-thank did on the 'preceding one. 226. The tides in the Baltic and Mediterra* nean Seas, by reafon of the very narrow inlets by which they communicate with the ocean, are, in general, infenfible. < 227. Sir Ifaac Newton calculated the attractive powers of the Sun and Moon on the tides, and found the Moon's attraction to be about .••three times greater than the Sun's. When the Sun^ and Moon act jointly on she fides, which is at the change and full of the Moon, the tides are ftronger and run higher than at othe^times, and are called Spring tides ; but when the Sun and Moon are ninety degrees A a apart, 354 ^ s tros ti Mir. apart, 'their ai*raaive:^;6wers are 'op1 pofed, >*&d "occafion the tide's1 to be weaker Iridlbwer than at other times, and fare called \Nea~p "tWes*. 228 v When it is high water on any meridian, it is likewife high water. pn the oppofite meri dian. The caufe of this affection was alfo proved from the laws of fgravity by Sir Ifaac Newton; the following are the principles on which it is accounted for : • The Sp'ringSTides nappen 'about th'reV Says1 after the change and full of the Moon, by which time the accumu lated 'attracting powers of the Sim arid Moon, "not then overcome by their change- ofplace with regard to each other, is greateft; and the Neap Tides happen about three days "after the Moon has pafled'lier 'quadratures, *Dy which time , the diminifhed powers of attraction" frbm' trie oppofed a'dtfOns of the Sun and Moon, not then overcome by their change of place with regard to each '.tether, is" leaft. The Spring and Neap Tides are greater Or "lefs, in proportion as the Sun and Moon, are hearer to or further from the Earth at the times in which their attradling powers are united or oppofed ; and the tides, in geneVaI,^are iri'fome meaiTuVe'influenced ty the different declinations of the Sun and Moon. 'The rimes of high water on eaft and weft fhrJfes, 'where' the wa ters have' not been obftru&ed in their direct -p'affage, do hot happen when the Moon, is. on the meridian, or the- oppo fite meridian of fuch- eaft and weft fhores, but about three hours after fhe has paffed fuch rrierlctiahs, b'yuw1iich''vrfrne the .accumulated power which1 faifes ' the *tide 'is ' hot then overcome by the Moou's diftan&e from fuch meridians. 3 229. AU a g t r,o,n o M v\ 35 jf 229; All parts of the Earth having a ten dency to^fly.offv [in proportion .to their diftance from their center of gravity, therefore the waters which at any inftant are in the oppofite hemi- fphfre to the 'Moon, harye a gre^terjXeijprifpgal force than the Earth's center has ; and the Earth's center has a greater centrifugal force than the wgters •/f/yh\ch ave turned towards (the Moon. At the Earth's center the Mooa's attraction/ balances the centrifugal force, and confequently her attraction on the fide next her is greater than the centrifugal force on that fide, and lefs than the centrifugal force on the oppofite fide ; and as the Moon's attraction on the fide next, her is greater than the centrifugal force there, her attraction caufeth the tide to rife on $hat fide. As the centrifugal force pn the, fide , of. the. Earth, fartheft from the, Moon, \is ; as : much greater than her attraction, as her. attraction on .the fide 'next to her is greater than : the centrifugal fqrce, the tide muft. rife as .high. .on that fide- of the Earth, which is at any inftant furtheft ' from the* Moon, ¦ by the excefs of the centrifugal force there, as it rifes on the./ide-,, which is then neareft the Moort by the excefs of her attraction. A a 2. INDEX ( 3S& J N D E X TO THE INTRODUCTORY AND ASTRONOMICAL PART Si The Figures refer to the Paragraphs fo numbered, except ivhen note is mentioned, ivhex the Figures indicate the Page. Aberration of nght, i s*. Almacanters, what, 5 1 . Amplitudes, what, 47 and 48. Amphifcii, who, 59. Angle, right, what, 28. Antaeci, who, 60. Annual Parallax, what, 173. Anomaly, what, 197. Antipodes, who, 60. Apfides, line of, what, 145. Apfis, fuperior and inferior, what, 145. Aphelion, what, 145. Apogee, what, 191. Areas, defcribed by the planets proportionable to the times, 157. Afcenfion, right, 58. oblique, 59. Afcenfional difference, 57. Afcii, who, 59. Aftronomy, how reduced to a fcience, 41. Atmofphere, 61. AttraSitn, N D E X. 357 Attraction, decreafes as the fquare of the diftance increafes, 16. — ^ and Gravity, account for the planets being retained in their orbits, 1 8. caufes upward and downward, 21. tends bodies towards the Earth's center; 2 1 . Axis of a globe, what, 10. of the Earth, preferves its pa- rallelifm, 155. Azimuths, what, 48. B Searing of Places,- what, 50.'. Body, projected from a body in motion, partakes of the mo tion of the body it is projected from, 24. Bodies in the air partake ofthe Earth's motion, 25. Brafs Meridian, what, and how divided, 3(0. Bulks, relative of fpherical bodies, how proportioned, 181. Centripetal and Centrifugal forces , what, 195. Charts, depths of water, and certain lines in, 7. points of 1 the compafs in, 9. . Circles, great and fmall, what, 27. content of, ib. propor-^ tion between the diameter and circumference, 313, note. , Climates, what, 44. Table of. See table: Clicks and watches, why they feldom agree with the fun, ¦ even when they go true, 147. t ' Colures, equinoctial and folftitial, what, 41* Comets, a defcription of, 121 to 123. Compafs, points of in maps and charts, 9. variation ofy 252, note. Conftellations, what, &c. 41. Table of. See table. Crfpufculum circle, what,- 5-3. , . Cycle, folar, 153, cycle, lunar, 154. D Days and Nights, always equal at the equator, 55. -.-, Declination of the Sun, what, 42. of all celeftial objeSs, 65.. Degree, what, 27. Diameters, arid bulks of the planets, how found, 180 and 181. the apparent ones of the fun, moon, and planets, when • leaft, mean, and greateft, 331 and 332, note, _ Digit, what, 209. Diftances of the planets from the Sun, how found, 160, of the planets, table of. See Table, A a 3 Earth, M$ I' N P & X. . E, Earthy ancienfopinions of its form, I, of, a: globular Jrorat, proved by fundry phaspomena, 2. oblate;, proved by a&ual menfiiratiqh, 3* the principal divifions- pf- its- fur, .face, into, „lancUarid< water,' 5". its poles,. 12. its motion deduced from the" wife ordinations of Providence,, ib.; its motion on its axis deduced from analogy,. 13. dqir-nai motion' demonftrated by its oblate form, 14. a planet, from what inferred, 15. why either its diurnal or an nual motion cannot be felt, 2z. why its change of place cannot be difcerned, 23. why .bodies; prqj.e&ed from, its furface.par-take of its- motion, 24.. . why bodies iii the air obey its motion, 25. its;eqiiatbr, 26. degree, rjnri'ts fur face, how:much> 37. orbit, pjane of, what^ 3^.. the: fun feen from , it atfpears< in the oppofite point of its ojbit, 39. ideferi'ption of,- from 1.35? .to; 184. .: menfuratipn> of its furface, 163, 164, 165. its diurnal and annua} motion, illuftrated by an experiment, $qj, note. Eccentricity, what, 142. Ecliptic, what, 3 8 . on giobes^- hoftp. diftinguifhed and di- yjideft,; 40, its figns ', 41. , r Eclipfes, treated of, from 203 to 217. £c4ipfes .of , Jupiter's- Satellites. , See-,- Iffpiter; of the Mooh, .See.Moen. , Elongation, what, 76. '...', flliffis%£fib6fa,\Tfi. ' quinoilial, what, 12. points^ 41. t- . Equinoxes, vernal and auttimnalj Wh£>t^ 4-1, Equation of time, what, 14^. ,,-, ; fauator wf|a(r, 26. , .- ;„,.. fixed Stars, how claffed, 72.. derfc'rijitiorl of,' froni ify tq. - 134, <$- Galaxy, or MHky way, wfelt; j^: -> ' Geocentric plttce, what, 197. Geography. See Index, page 363 Gtorgium Sidiis,- a defcriptacjf of, 1.20. Globe, ter-peftrial, what-, 4. how the feveral parts of raan of, ib. Heat, not wholly occafioned by. thet vicinity pf, $g lhn 300, note. Hllioffgfrie .pjace,, w>a{:, 197. Heterofcii, who, 59. Horizon, fenfible. a&d, ratisn.aj, what, 4J, of theglphej by what reprefented, 40. phenomena, froin, different ones/ ib. pfth^glpbe, hpjvdj^ed, 47. %mmWjaralIqxJ what;, ,Ii5£. How cir.de, what, 53. Inclination of the orlits ef all the planets, from what efti mated, 38. ' I Jupiter, a defcription of, from 104 to 1 11. hat'itude, terreftrial, what, 29. • of celeftial obje^Si frPm what reckoned, 38. celeftial, what, 66. Light, velocity of, from what" deduced, 283, 284, note. de. creafes as the fquare of the diftance, increafes, 1 82. ^.ofigitude, terrej^riai, , what, 29. the proportion of its de- gree$, how.^bu^d,' 34. hpw tp reduce it into time, 35.' celeftial,, whnt; 6fs; hpw found by the eclipfes, of Jupi ter's, (atelljje^' 28,4, nopej M Jllars, a defcription of, from 97 to 103, Maps, how the feveral parts of land and wa^er, are 4ivide4 and fignified in them, .5, 6, 7, and 8. polntf ofthe com pafs iji, 9. latitude pf places in them, how found, -j,Vi. Jftngituie- of places in them, hpw. found, 33. diftances betwijtt places in them, how found, 3,^. - why defective, 3$ 3n£ 37« ftweogiaphie. prpjeftjpn pf, what, 37. or- m A a 4 thographic j«a I N D ; t X. thographic projection of, what, 37. projection on the plane ofthe meridian, what, ib. -projedion on the plane of the equator, what, ib. projection on the plane of the hori zon, what, ib-. ' ¦_.:.,!. ... Matter, of itfelf inadlive, 19. quantity of in the planets, -."by whatdeterMned, i8u Mercury, a defcription of, from 76 to 88. , Meridian, fixed or firft, what, 2g.-~brzCs, what, 30. how di vided, ib. _ Meridian line, how to find, 252 and 253, note'. Meridians, -what,' 281. ¦ • - , ', - " " r •¦ Moon, cycle of, 154. defcription of, from 185 to 2^9: fide- rial revolution, 186. fynodical revolution, ib. ' revolution of its nodes, 188. phafes of, 200. its eclipfes,' from 201 to 211. telefcopic appearance of, 218 and 219. moun tains of, how meafured, 22©. her libratioh, what, 222. no vifible atmofphere, 223. N ftadir, what, 45, Nodes, a defcription of, 80 and- 8 1. ..-.. V.Vq V Oppofition of a planet, what, 84. Orbits of the planets, their figures, 138. of the comets. See Comets, :,,;,- Parallels of latitude, what, 31. Parallax, what, 161 and i62t - horizontal, what, 166^ ofa celeftial objeft, a method pf finding it, r70. : the dift ance of an-objeft,; how fbund by it, 171, annual, what, 173. of the fun, truly found by the tranfit of Venus, 1^6, of latitude, 179. Penumbra what, 207, Perigee, what, 191. Perihelion, what, 14J, Perifcii, who, 59. Periaci, who, 60. Planets,, how diftinguifhed from the fixed ftars,' 1*,, note. their motions . in their, orbits, 77. inferior and fuperior, what, 85/ how known from each other; 288, note.1 mean diftance af, what, 146.-. move quicker. or flower* as they ¦ ;; - - •' ,ar of, 153. V ." " -"~^ '¦' Syderial 56* I N D E ! X.i Syderiat'Year, 1-27. ' Synigies,, what,' 190. Table, of the number of- miles contained: in a. degrees of longitude in- different parallels of latitude, pw 19. of cli mates, p. 28. geographical, ofxifies, town's, &c. p. 262. of theconfteljatioris, ^2^g. ofthe. diftances, &c. of the planets, p. 334. Tides, a defcription of, from 224 to £29, ' Time, howequated, 147. Tropics, what, 41. » Tivilight, duration ofj by what fhewn, 53. by what caufedi and its limits, 61 . continual time of at Lpndon, when, ib. Priority, what proportion of it balances gravity, 17. of Light, . from what deduced, 283 and 284, note. Venus, a defcription of, from 89 to 96. Dr. Halley's ac count of its tranfit, 176. remarks on its tranfit, 177, Vertical circles, what, 48. ••- . -•- - Verticals, prime, what, 48. U Upward and doipn.'ward, caufed by attraction, 21, W Winds, couries of, 63. , ' Y fear, fiderial^.12.7, folar, 149. civil, or Julian, 150. Z f.enith, what, 45. Zodiac-, its limits, 6-j. Zones, their limjts, 43, INDEX ( 365 ) I N P E X T O T K E GEOGRAPHICAL PART. Chab. I. nPHE extreme limits of the continents of Eu- A rope-, Aha, Africa, ancT America, 51, m II. Oceans, 53. „<.,, ... ¦ .f III. The boundaries ami graird? divifions of Europe, - with the principal European iflands, 54. ¦ IV. The boundaries and grand- divifions pf Afia, with the principal Afiatic iflands, 57. .. , >.y. The boundaries and grand divifions of Africa, with the principal" African iflands, 5-9; ¦„ VI. The boundaries and grand divifions of America, with the principal iflands in North America, and the Weft Indies, 61. VII. Seas, lakes, bays, &c. 63. ,r, -- . VII. Boundaries, divifion, &c. &c. of England and Wales, 67, * — — - VJII. Boundaries, divifion, 8cc. of Scotland, 85, -. IX. Of Ireland, 92. — i— -X. Of Denmark and Norway, 9S> • XI. Of Sweden, 97. r-XH. Of Ruffia, 98. ¦ XIII. Of Poland, gg. i XIV. Of Pruffia, 9.9. — ». XV. Of Germany, lot. .-—XVI. Of Bohemia, with Silefia and Moravia, 104, ' ' '< XVII, 3H I N D: E X. Chap: XVII. Of Holland, 105. XVIII. Of Flanders, 106, XIX. Of France, 108. 1 — XX. Of Spain, no. ' XXI. Of Portugal, iii. XXII., Of Switzerland, 112. XXIII. Of Italy, 113. XXIV. Of Hungary, 114. —XXV. Of Turkey in Europe, 115. XXVI. Of Turkey in Afia, 117. XXVII. Of Perfia, 120. ' XXVIIL Of India in general, of Indoftan, and of th» further peninfula, 121. XXIX. Of China, 127. XXX. Of Tartary in Afia, 128. — — — XXXI. Of Africa in general, and of Egypt, IZ9. ¦' XXXII. Of America in general, and of New Bri tain, 135. XXXIII. Of Canada, 139. XXXIV. Of New Scotland, 141. -XXXV. Of the United States of America, of New England, New York, New Jerf6y, Pennfyl vania, Maryland, Virginia, &c. 142. — — — XXXVI. Spanifh dominions in North America, of Eaft and Weft Florida, Louifiana, New Mexico, Sac. 149. — XXXVII. Spanifh and other dominions in South America, of Terra Firma, Peru, Chili, &C.152. ¦ XXXVIII. A particular defcription of feveral prin cipal iflands, 156. ,-— .- — '¦ . A particular defcription of the chief cities of Europe, 181. New difcovered iflands, 193. XXXIX. Ofthe principal mountains, ifthmufes, and rivers, 197. ¦ — •. . A geographical table, containing the fitu ation of the moft principal cities, towns, capes, &c with their latitudes and longitudes, zoz. INDEX IN D E X To the pArr containing the U-SE of the GLOBES. TERRESTRIAL GLOBE. Prob. I. 'T'O find the latitude and longitude of any given '•*¦ place upon the globe, p. 211. — - II. The latitude and longitude of a place given to find its fituation on the globe, 2 12. III. To find all places that have the fame latitude as any given place,'5i2. . . IV. To find all places that have the fame longitude as any given place, 213. — — V. To find the differenceof latitude between any two given places. 213. ' VI. To find the difference of longitude between any two given places, 214. »— — VII. The time of the day being given at any place, to find the correfponding time at any other place, '214. — VIII. To find the antaeci, periasci, and antipodes of any given,place, 215. l — IX. To reprefent a parallel fphere, a right fphere, and an oblique fphere, 216. .- — X. To find the fun's place in the eqliptici his decli nation, and the places to which he will be vertical, on any given day ofthe month, 217. XI. A place being given in the torrid ' zone, to find the two days in tjhe year in which the Sun will be vertical to the fame, 218, XIL $66 if N D t X. Prob. XII. To rectify the globe fpr the latitude of atly given place ; alfo for the fun's place for any given day, 218. — XIII. To find the diftance between any two given places-on the globe ; alfo to find all thofe places that are at the fame diftance from one of the? given places as the two given places are diftant fram'reacrk other, «8 1,9. . XIV. To find what (number of miles are equal to a degree of longitude in any given lati tude, V22-0. .. — XV. ' To find the meridian altitiide of the fun, and ; its zenith diftance on any given day, and in any given latitude lefs than 66|°; alfo the point of the compafs' it rifes on, and the time of rifing ; and the point of the compafs it fets, ^and the time- of fetting, 221. "XVI. To find the' length of the lorigefr and fhorteft day in any latitude between the equator and ,, the; polar circles, : 22 2 . —— .— • XVII. .The day.of. the.month. and time&of the 'day at fany; place beiag given, to, find \xhere,-fche fun ^8 vertical.at that precife rtime, ,323. -. •¦¦¦• XVIII. The .time of the. day ^einff-giv^n at?any place, to find all -thofe places,to . which ^he'fun is then riflng, .fetting, or - ci^ktiinatingj where it is midnight, , and. where,, the, twilight' begins and ends, '1 alfo... the, hqight bf the~*.fBn -above the horizon, in,.any .part. of the illumined hemi fphere,' or its, depreftion ; beneath (the- horizon, in any' part of the,oWc:ure,hem;fphere, 224. *___ XIX. iiphejday.Df the.moritLheifig^iv'enjito fhew at .one viewthe length of the. day. or night in all places where" the fun .rifes and fets within, the ,;fpace.of 24 hours, 226. — XX. Te fhew at one view thelengths, of the days and ¦•nights,- -at-- all times of.rthe, year, in.-iany lati tude^ 227. — «• - — XXI.i- A general explanation of the viciffitu.de of day and njght,,the alteration of the Jeafonsv &c. 'in .allplaces upon theearth^.. 229. t XXII. Tafiffld in- what -latitude, the, longeft day is of any, given- length-lefs than, 24 hours, 233. . Prob. XXIII, -INDEX. 1367 -—"XXIII. To 'find the ' tibur, -&c. |vri1ight begins, and when the evening twi lights ends in any latitude, 'at a time when ' the ' fun rile* ¦ and fets within 24- hours, -and 'the midnight depreffion is (greater than iS degrees, 233. — XXIV. To find' the time in which continual -twi- ' light begins': and ends, '¦ in any given latitude greater* than 48 i degrees, 235. i— !XXV. A place beifig'given in one of the frigid zones, to find what TBflfl-Ber of -days of 24 hours '•eTach, the \ fun -continues above the horiaen-of the fame ; alfo, whatfltSribefof days he con tinues' beneath the horizon- of the fame, and the firft and ¦ laft days of hisJ appearance and ¦difap'pe&fance, 236. —'XXVI. To find' in What ''latitude the longeft day is of any given- length iefs than half a year, 237. ~ XX'VlI. The day bftheimbnth iri the'6pr.*ng-or-Au- tumnal vquarters being -given, to find thofe ¦plactes "where the- Siin begins 'to conttin-ue-above the herifzfon ' more than - 24 hours without fet ting ; Rand alfo thofe places '• where- -he -begins to be : totally' abfent, 2-38. C EL EST IA'L G L' O B E. Table' of Conftellations, &c. 239. PftQB. 1. To find the declination and ' right -afcenfion of any fixed ftar; alfo the' Sun's right afcenfiort for any given time, 242. ~ — ;—' II. The" right afcenfion and declinat-ion-of-any fixed ftar'given/to'firid its " fituation ; "alfo"the Sun's right afcenfion a^nd' declination given to find'its place in the'^ecliptic, 243. — — ^— -III, To find the latitude "arid longitude of - a fixed ~ ftar, '244. »¦ . IV. To find the amplitudes, the' oblique -afcenfion, and the oblique defcenfion of any fixed ftar in any given latitude ; alfo the Sun's ampli tudes, -oblique-afeenftpn, and oblique defcen fion fora given time in any given latitude, 245. V"J* V. The latitude, day of the month, and time of the day being given, to find the azimuth of the Sun, or any ftar when above the horizon ; aUV j68 I N D EX. alfo to find the time oh which any ftar rifei, culminates, and fets, in any given latitude on any given day, 247. ¦ VI. To find,aj what time ofthe year a given ftar will be . upon the meridian at a given hour of the night, 248. .. VII. To fhew at one view the prefent fituation of the fixed ftars; alfo the fucceffive times on which different ftars will rife, culminate, and fet, together with many other ufeful ahd enter taining ph sen omen a, 248. _____ VIII- How to gain a knowledge ofthe ftars by means ofthe globe. Of the Correfpondence of the Terreftrial and Celeftial Spheres. . IX. To find the time of the year in which a ftar rifes or fets cofmically, or achronically to "any given place, Z58. . X. To find the time ofthe year in which a ftar rifes and fets heliacally, 259. ¦ XI. To find the hour pf the night, by obferving a ftar to he on the meridian, 260. . XII. The day ofthe month, and the azimuth of any known ftar being given, to find the hour of the night, 260. 1 1. XIII. Two ftars, either on the fame azimuth, or ' having equal altitude, given 'to find the hour ofthe night, 261. . XIV. To find the hour ofthe night by the altitude of any known ftar, 262, XV, Two ftars given, one on the meridian, and the other on the eaftern or weftern part of the ho rizon, to find the latitude of the place, 262. r»— — XVI. The declination ahd meridian altitude- of the Sun, or of any ftar, given, to find the latitude of the place, 263. An Appendix tp the ufe of the1 Globes, containing fevera) other ufes to which they may be applied, 264. Ofthe peculiarities of certain globes, 268. FINIS. YALE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 3 9002 08837 0979 I 'C § £ BJaew Cassini DejfLsle Ovans Mitchell THE Thorne Collection OF CARTOGRAPHY & GEOGRAPHY « Sattiiidteincfkerhoff Thorne '96 £ k 3 s YALE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY