fi^BJiilWiitiTtlrtl

YALE UNIVERSITY
LIBRARY

1941

A Plantation Scene near Tehuantepec

THE
MEXICAN SOUTHLAND

By Kamar Al-Shimas
Celebrated Persian Philosoipher and Traveler

An account of the author's wander
ings upon, and of the plants, animals,
people, commerce and industries of
the Isthmus of Tehuantepec.

Illustrated

Fowlor, Indiana
BENTON REVIEW SHOP
1922

Copyrighted 1922
By the Benton Review Shop
Fowler, Indiana

Printed ia U. S. A.

DEDICATED TO
EUNICE THE
CHILD OF MY HEART

TRANSLATOR'S FOREWORD.
It is with a feeling of deep satisfaction that I lay down
my pen upon having translated from the original Persian the
last line of Kamar Al-Shimas' great work on southern Mex
ico; for not only is the field one hitherto uncovered by any
writer, but the work itself is of such exceptional value, the
author's insight into local conditions is so profound, that in
making the translation I can not but think I have conferred
a special favor upon all lovers of Mexico.
As to the form of translation, I have thought it in the
best interests of all concerned that it be phrased in the most
approved modern diction, in a few places only, where the ex
pression was peculiarly happy, preserving the antique phrase
ology of the venerable author. In these few instances I feel
sure a discriminating public will approve my action.
Not much need be said on behalf of the original work,
which speaks for itself. The field, as has been noted, is in
large measure a new one. While the American reading public
is annually deluged with a fresh assortment of books upon
Mexico, these books are invariably either limited to the north
ern or central parts of the republic, or are superficial accounts
of the whole country written by some globe trotter who has
seen much and noted little. Only occasionally are as much
as a dozen pages devoted to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. On
the other hand the work of our master deals exclusively with
southern Mexico. Nor is this its only merit; the author's
style is in pleasing contrast with the flamboyant, would-be-
witty style which characterizes so many travel books of the
day. His words are packed with information and no attempt
is made to hide a paucity of matter beneath a superabundance
of phrases. VII.

VIII TRANSLATOR'S FOREWORD
It will be noted that certain of the chapters are written
largely for those who are looking to Mexico as a field for in
vestment. It is now three years since the author left the
Isthmus, but he has ever since kept up an extensive corre
spondence with friends residing there, thus keeping in close
touch with the economic and commercial situation. Immedi
ately before the translation went to press a conference was
had between us and all changes noted, so that, with one excep
tion, the reader has in the following pages an up-to-date sum
mary of conditions on the Isthmus.
That exception relates to the matter of brigandage. At
the translator's suggestion the author, for the purpose of
making the narrative more vivid, has incorporated several
accounts of bandit outrages. The bandit then loomed large
upon the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, but let the reader not on
this account assume that brigandage is a permanent institu
tion in those parts. Time was when Mexico was as well or
dered as any country in Europe, and under the able adminis
tration of the reorganized government conditions have been
rapidly improving and it will not be long before brigandage
is once more a thing of the past.
While distinctively a travel book, the chief value of the
work lying in the insight which it gives us into present-day
conditions upon the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, its usefulness is
greatly enhanced by the history of the Zapotec Indians re
counted in the last twelve chapters. This history cannot but
prove of special value to the large class of readers who are
interested in the legends and folk-lore of our Indian races.
January, 1922.
The Translator.

FROM KAMAR AL-SHIMAS TO OMAR THE SON OF
ABDULLAH.
As I promised ere we parted at Ispahan, even that I would
write thee concerning my wanderings and describe the strange
lands through which I might pass, so now I am sending thee
a full account of my life in southern Mexico, wherein it was
my lot to sojourn during the year 1918 of the Christian era.
In going to Mexico it was my intention to visit the various
cities of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and the State of Chiapas,
but there is no Might and there is no Majesty save in Allah,
the Glorious, the Great and my plans came to naught. Dis
turbed political conditions and the consequent difficulties of
travel prevented my visiting Chiapas. But I had ample oppor
tunity to look over Tehuantepec, Salina Cruz, and the other
cities of the Pacific plain of the Isthmus and to study the
strange customs of the unbelievers who dwell in those parts.
It was my habit to leave Salina Cruz and visit one of the other
cities of the plain every Sunday (which is kept as a feast-day
by the infidels) and thus I got me full knowledge of the land
and its people, and lo, I have preserved it for thee, 0 son of
Abdullah, in the first ten chapters of the following work. The
remaining twelve chapters are of a different nature, being the
semi-legendary history of the Zapotecs as it is found in the
works of Burgoa, Gay, Del Valle, and Gracida, and now for
the first time translated from the original Spanish.
KAMAR AL-SHIMAS.

IX.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.
SALINA CRUZ
The approach — Northers — Fuel Oil — Population — Mexican character
istics — Festivals — The Marimba — Posada — San Benito's Day —
Sharks — Goats — Burros — Cacti — The Pitaya  1
CHAPTER II.
QUIEN VIVE ?
The Bandits — Troop trains — System of defense — Attacks on Salina
Cruz and Tehuantepec — Use of bees in defensive warfare — Don
Pepe instructs his mozos — La Brigada Carrera — Dodging bullets 27
CHAPTER III.
TEHUANTEPEC
An agricultural center — Strategically located — Inhabitants — Archi
tecture — Brick-making — Homes of the poor — Churches — The
light on Dani Lieza — Wretched dogs — Sultan — The city's water
department  45
CHAPTER IV.
DON CARLOS DE SAN BLAS
Buzzards and cacti — The cemetery at Tehuantepec — A deaf priest —
The Plaza — Flower girls — A Tehuana dance — The rainbow
women — An avocado orchard — Hedges — The mucilage berry —
Ascent of Tiger Hill — The miracle-working church tower — Six
coy Tehuanas — Good Friday in the Holy City — A passion play —
Female finery — The Huipil Grande — John Story defends the
pumps  58
CHAPTER V.
FARTHER AFIELD
The Isthmus of Tehuantepec — The Gulf plains — The Central high
lands — Pacific plain — The seven rivers of the plain — A barbecue
at San Bias — San Geronimo — A bull fight — Garfia Salinas poses
as a bishop — Juchitan — A tragedy of Clipperton Island — Earth
quakes — Climate — Northers  73
CHAPTER VI.
THE PLANT WORLD
The trees of the plain — Palo-Mulato or balsawood — Spanish oak —
Lignum vitae — Dyes and dyewoods — The jecapezle — Lawn trees
— The wild cotton tree — Flowering trees — The Amistad del
Dia — The tree-killer — Fruits — Mangoes — The papaya — Anonas
— The land of cool drinks — The great Mexican haw  95
XI.

XII TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER VII.
ANIMAL LIFE
A sportsman's paradise — Deer— Cats — Peccaries — Armadillo — A nov
elty seeker — Tapirs — Vampires — Birds — The zopilote — Sanates
— The Chichilaca — Curassows — The frigate bird — Iguanas; a
table delicacy — Alligators — Sharks— Insects — The plague of
toads — Pearls  110
CHAPTER VIII.
THE INDIAN PEOPLES
Few white people on the Isthmus— The Zapotec Indians — Division of
labor between the sexes — Beautiful women — The Zapotec lang
uage — Costume — The wonderful Tehuana skirt — Honesty a na
tional trait — Intemperance- — Sexual morality — "Red Men" — Edu
cation — Religion — The Huave Indians — Choque-Mixes — The Pin-
ta— The Aztecs  119
CHAPTER IX.
TRANSPORTATION AND BANDITS.
Railroads of the Isthmus — Outlaws attack train — Don Lemon escapes
with his money — Mahoney makes his "getaway" — Terrors of the
Vera Cruz al Istmo — The Pan American line — Plateau of Chia
pas — River traffic on the Coatzacoalcos — The bandits strip Don
Alfredo — Traveling by balsa — The esteros of the Pacific shore —
Transportation needs — Wagon roads — Postal service — The cable
company — No telephones — Mexican hotels — The menu — Polite
ness at table  139
CHAPTER X.
INDUSTRIES AND FINANCIAL OPPORTUNITIES
Americans on the Isthmus — The wonderful Coatzacoalcos River — Op
portunities for foreigners in southern Mexico — Acquiring the
Spanish language — Openings for investment — Banking — Stock
raising — Hides — Indian corn — Don Jeronimo Mahoney — Beans — ¦
Chili pepper — Sugar cane — Coffee culture — Indigo culture — Rub
ber plantations — Sisal, Ixtle and Pita — Tobacco — Vanilla —
Fruit culture — -Bananas — The papaw — Pineapples — Coconuts —
Bee culture— The lumber industry — Mining — Salt marshes —
Onyx — Weights and Measures — Constitutional provisions affect
ing foreigners  159
CHAPTER XI.
RISE OF THE ZAPOTECS
The Valley of Oaxaca — Civilization of the early Zapotecs — The na
tional capital — Present desolation of Zaachila — Accession of King
Cosijoeza — Revolt of Loolaa — Vengeance of the Aztecs — Cosi-
joeza takes Tehuantepec  196
CHAPTER XII.
THE DEFENSE OF QUIENGOLA
Quiengola fortified — The siege begun — Nightly sallies — Salted Az
tecs — A bastion of skulls — Moctezuma proposes peace — Cosi
joeza conquers Soconusco — Ahuitzotl summons his wizards .... 203

TABLE OF CONTENTS XIII
CHAPTER XIII.
THE QUEEN OF ZAPOTECA
The Pool of the Marchioness — Coyolica comes from Anahuac — The
sign of the birthmark — Alarii visits the Mexican court — Ahuit
zotl tries duplicity — Coyolica displays the sign — Coyolica
brought to Tehuantepec — Marriage of Cosijoeza and Coyolica —
The Zapotees settle on the Pacific plain  210
CHAPTER XIV.
COSIJOEZA AND AHUITZOTL
Ahuitzotl meditates revenge — Sends embassy to Zaachila — Constancy
of Coyolica — Flight of the Embassadors — The Aztecs overrun the
southland — Birth of Naatipa — Death of Ahuitzotl — Birth of Cosi-
jopii — Birth of Pinopaa  220
CHAPTER XV.
THE MIXTEC REVOLT
Cosijoeza plans the revolt — Cetecpatl's perfidy — Cuitlahuac routed in
the Pass of the Serpent — His battles with the Sosoltecs — Regar-
risons Huaxyacac — Returns to Tenochtitlan — Birth of the Prin
cess Donaji — Revolt of the three cities — The cunning Mitlans . . ?. 229
CHAPTER XVI.
THE KING OF TEHUANTEPEC
Education of the royal princes — Elevation of Cosijopii — His marri-
age — Cosijopii departs for his new kingdom — Death of the prin
cess Pinopaa — Arrival at Tehuantepec — The cult of Pinopaa —
The Inquisition— Mystery of the Guixepecocba — The priests con
sult Pezelao  240
CHAPTER XVII.
THE ZAPOTEC RELIGION
The writer deprecateth the wrath of the son of Abdullah — The myth
ical Pecocha — He reforms the Zapotec religion — His disappear
ance on Monapoxtiac — Thought to have been the Chinese Fou
Sang — Illusions of Gracida — The Zapotec pantheon — Pitao the
Uncreated — The God of Abundance — Pezelao, the Oracle of
Heaven — The Spirit of Evil — The voice from the enchanted cave 247
CHAPTER XVIII.
THE MOUNTAIN CATS
Cosijoeza covets Cuilapan — Learns of the arrival of the Spaniards —
A currier sent to Cosijopii — Cosijopii dispatches envoys to Zaa
chila — The embassy to Cortez — Capture of Zaachila by the Mix-
tecs — Casandoo invades the territories of Tehuantepec — Cosijopii
begs assistance of Cortez — Orozco marches to relieve the Zapo
tees — He occupies Huaxyacac (Oaxaca) — An armistice  255
CHAPTER XIX.
PRINCESS GREAT SOUL
Princess Donaji given as a hostage — Orozco besieges Ixcuiltepec —
Donaji sends a messenger to Zaachila — Death of Donaji — A blue
lily grows from her blood  265

XIV TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER XX.
THE COMING OF ALVARADO
Alvarado leaves Coyoacan for Oaxaca — Conquest of Tututepec — A
chain of gold — Imprisonment and death of Casandoo — Spanish
colony founded at Tututepec — Conspiracy against Alvarado — The
Chontals — Alvarado visits Aztata and Quiengola — Arrival at
Tehuantepec — Cosijopii visits the Oracle of Heaven — Alvarado
and the Lord of Jalapa — Battle with the Chontals — "Conversion"
of Cosijopii — Expeditions against the Chontals and Huaves — Al
varado returns to Mexico City  271
CHAPTER XXI.
THE PASSING OF ZAACHILA
Death of Coyolica — Return of the Tututepecan colony to Huaxyacac —
Revolt of Tututepec — Marriage and death of Prince Naatipa —
Death of King Cosijoeza — The son of Oconana ascends the
throne — Abdication  286
CHAPTER XXII.
m THE FALL OF COSIJOPII
Cosijopii's generosity — Is stripped of his power — The priests of Mit-
la — Cosijopii betrayed — His arrest — Rising of the people — The
king calms the multitude — He appeals to the Crown of Spain —
Judgment of the Royal Audience — Death of Cosijopii — An auto
de f e — Remorse of Friar Bernardo — The children of Cosijopii . . . 294

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

A Plantation Scene Near Tehuantepec  Frontispiece
Facing Page
The Isthmus of Tehuantepec  X
The Salina Cruz Harbor  4
A Ship in the Salina Cruz Dry Dock  4
A Birdseye View of Salina Cruz  4
The Light House at Salina Cruz  12
Main Street Salina Cruz  20
The Principal Street in Salina Cruz  20
The Salina Cruz Market is Enclosed. Few on the Isthmus are  20
Salina Cruz and Vicinity  28
Savage Woman of the Mountains. Other Races of the Isthmus are
Inferior to the Zapotec  36
Church of San Sebastian Tehuantepec  40
Cathedral of Santa Domingo, Tehuantepec  40
Railroad Bridge and the City of Tehuantepec in the Background .... 52
San Bias a Suburb of Tehuantepec  52
A Chapel on the Hill, Santa Maria  60
A Street Scene in Tehuantepec  60
American Consulate, Salina Cruz  60
A Little Tehuana in National Zapotec Costume  68
Two Damsels of Tehuantepec in Gorgeous Tehuana Costumes  68
Vegetation is Luxuriant Along the Waterways  76
A Pastoral Scene on the Isthmus  76
Lake Oaxaquena, near Santa Lucrecia  76
The City Park at Juchitan, Lambimbo Trees in the Foreground  84
XV.

XVI LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
The Establishment of some of the Merchants are Quite Pretentious 84
A Watering Station on the Great Transportation Route  92
The Jaltepec River is a Beautiful Stream  92
The Water Carriers of Tehuantepec  92
Coconut Palms grow Luxuriantly on the Isthmus  100
Headquarters of a Prosperous Isthmus Plantation  108
A Banana Plantation  108
Cultivating the Young Sugar Cane Plants  108
Pelicans are Plentiful and Tame along the Coast  116
The Bats are Another Scavenger, Attacking Humans as well as In
sects after Dark  116
Buzzards the Great Isthmus Scavenger, as tame as Domestic Fowl .... 120
Senor Bigote, the Renowned Gringo Viajero, Dressed to ascend to
the Crater of Popocatepetl  122
A Peon's well kept Home  124
A Tehuana of the Upper Class in full Ruffled Skirt  132
A Zapotec Girl from the Highlands Showing Wrapped Skirt  132
A Bride of Tehuantepec, the Upper Garment is Evidently "Derived
from Old Spain  132
A Street Scene in San Geronimo, Railroad Ties are an Article of
Commerce  140
A Sugar Plantation Railroad, a Substantial Affair  140
The Primitive Cart and Oxen are the Common Means of Transpor
tation  140
Bananas on their way to Market Down the River  148
The Dry Dock at Salina Cruz, the Largest on the Mexican West
Coast  148
Mammoth Electric Cranes on the Wharf Make the Salina Cruz Har
bor Economical  148
The Market Building at San Geronimo  156
Little Tehuanas Accompanied by one of the Lords of Creation Who
Lacks his Pants  156
The Only Modern Brewery on the Isthmus, Some of Those Unused in
the United States could be Moved Down  164

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XVII
Cutting Sugar Cane Near Tehuantepec  172
Sugar Cane Plantation Offers Big Business Possibilities, Young
Sugar Cane on the Oaxaquena Plantation  172
A Kind of Vehicle Very Common on the Streets  180
A High Toned String Band on the Isthmus. Note the Headwear .... 180
The Post Office and Telegraph Station  180
Bananas are Often Carried from the Field  188
In the Oaxaquena Sugar Factory Everything is Modern — Cane Un-
loader at Work  188
The Peons Working on the Sugar Plantations Have no Labor-sav
ing Tools. Loading Cane  188
The Church of San Pedro Vixaana, Tehuantepec, The Men do not go
into the Church and have an Awning for their Comfort  196
The Church of the Laborio at Tehuantepec, The Palms form part of
the picture  196
Three Happy Flower Girls of Tehuantepec    200
A Face of Mystery    204
A Maiden of the Noble Zapotec Race  204
Indian Maid with Jecapezle prepared to visit the Market  212
Middle aged Zapotecs. Mango held on a Mango Fork, Readily
handled  212
Zapotec Beauty and American Gold  220
A Middle Aged Zapotec Lady  -  220
In the Suburb of Tehuantepec  228
Another of the Numerous Churches of Mexico at San Geronimo, Te
huantepec  236
The Church of Juchitan   236
Fair Face and Flowers, A Child of the Holy City  244
A Happy Daughter of the Sun  244
A Mountain Girl with Ancient Zapotec Costume    252
A Quarter Blood Italian and Zapotec Blooded girl with Pure white
Skin  252
A Rainbow Lady, the fan is used as protection against the sun  252
A Florist of the Isthmus  260

XVIII LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Living Flowers of the Isthmus  260
Ruins of Mitla where Cosijoeza was buried  268
Another View of Mitla Ruins the Seat of the Zapotec Ancient
Splendor  268 •V*
Butterfly Women  282
A Rich Zapotec Maiden, Note the Jewels  282
A Neat Little Tehuana  282 So,
Pancha, A Belle of Santa Maria  _  290 *&
A Tehuana in Middle life  296
A Tehuantepec Maid Decked with U. S. Gold Coins  290
A Full Blood Zapotec of San Geronimo  296
A Zapotec Type with Elaborately Embroidered dress  _  296

The
Mexican Southland

The Mexican Southland.
Chapter 1
SALINA CRUZ.
AS your ship beats eastward along the southern coast
of Oaxaca the scene continually changes yet is ever
the same. Mountain succeeds mountain, seemingly
without end, for you are coasting the Switzerland of America,
the home of those rugged mountaineers, the Zapotecs who for
so many generations successfully withstood the conquering
armies of Tenochtitlan. Fold on fold the ridges sweep away
toward the interior, rising ever higher to where on the distant
horizon the mountain monarchs sit, their peaks rising to
heights of ten and twelve thousand feet and bathed in that
pearly light which renders the Mexican Cordilleras so uniquely
beautiful. From these mountains, after you pass Puerto Angel east-
bound, transverse ridges stretch toward the sea, ending in bold
promontories, and between each pair of promontories nestles
a bay. The last of these headlands before reaching the plains
of Tehuantepec are Salina Cruz and Ventosa points. Between
them, partly sheltered from the northern gales, lies the port
of Salina Cruz.
The only natural feature of this port which is worthy of
note is Salina Cruz Point, a bare granitic promontory rear
ing its head some two hundred feet above the sea. Capped
by the harbor lighthouse, it is a thing of beauty, reminding
one of the bleak coast scenes of the northland. Many a wave

2 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
has it breasted, for when storm afflicts the Pacific the waves
borne along by a strong southwest current fall upon it with
fury and the sands of the sea are piled up its flanks to a
height of over a hundred feet. This same current rounds the
point and does not rest until it has carried its burden of sand
on into the harbor, which is kept open only by continuous
dredging. Some three or four miles to the northwest, between the
Salinas del Marques (Saltflats of the Marquis) and the plains
of Tehuantepec, runs a spur from the mountains of Oaxaca.
At that point the crest is crowned by an immense block of
phonolite which seen from the sea has the appearance of a
house-chimney, while from the plains it resembles the headless
bust of a woman. The Indians call this natural phenomenon
Xunirahui, after a famous Zapotec woman of the olden time.
A couple of miles southeast of this landmark the mountain
ridge divides, one spur passing to the west of Salina Cruz and
another to the east, terminating in the two points mentioned.
Salina Cruz lies thus in an arid little basin surrounded
by arid hills some five or six hundred feet in height, covered
with stunted trees and gigantic cacti. The place is noted for
the violence of its sand storms. Indeed for at least six months
of the year, during fully three days out of ten the "northers"
blow with frightful velocity, driving the sand in clouds and
cutting the streets to the bare rock. The trees in the public
park are canted over to the south at an angle of forty-five de
grees, and when the wind blows no one ventures abroad with
out automobile goggles.
It is a mercy that the northers do blow, for Salina Cruz
lies on the sixteenth parallel and when the winds cease to blow
the weather quickly becomes torrid. Ladies rarely move about
before nightfall. Strange to say, while in the cooler regions

SALINA CRUZ 3
of the central plateau women wear hats, on the Isthmus, where
they need them more, a hatted female is never seen. The ordi
nary head covering is a thick veil, the manta or reboso, which
is no protection whatever against the scorching sun. When
the poor creatures find it necessary to go abroad in the heat
of the day they often make a picturesque but pitiable attempt
to shield themselves from the sun's rays with the indispensable
fan or a tiny parasol. Poor things, they are still in bondage;
almost as much as though their feet were bound like those of
the heathen Chinese. The hat, in the days to come, shall be
their liberator.
The basin in which the city lies is absolutely barren.
Neither water nor food products are obtainable in the near
vicinity. The city's waterworks are located at Tehuantepec,
twelve miles distant, whence an abundant supply of crystal
pure water is pumped to Salina Cruz. Everything in the na
ture of fruit and vegetables is also brought from Tehuantepec.
All night long bull carts laden with produce wend their way
toward the port to provide the next day's supply of food. Were
this traffic interrupted for forty-eight hours, a state of famine
would exist at Salina Cruz.
It is a new town. A half century back, when the members
of the Shufeldt expedition visited the place, it was a mere
hamlet of some half dozen huts. The Indians of pre-Castilian
times did not navigate the seas and required no ports, and the
single port of Acapulco sufficed to meet the needs of New
Spain. Salina Cruz is the work, not of nature, but of man. It is
the work largely, I am almost tempted to say solely, of the
great English house of Pearson and Son, which built the rail
road across the Isthmus and constructed the great harbor
works at Puerto Mexico and Salina Cruz. The port works at

4 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
Salina Cruz consist of an outer and an inner harbor, of 138 and
69 acres, respectively, separated by a wharf 3,300 feet in
length. On this wharf are six immense warehouses, each 420
feet in length by 105 feet in breadth; floor space of each,
44,100 square feet. The outer entrance to the harbor is 600
feet in width and the inner entrance 100 feet. Two cantilever
bridges span the latter, permitting the movement of cars along
the whole length of the water front, while eighteen electric
cranes on the track next the inner basin facilitate the prompt
loading and discharge of cargo. The normal tides are four
feet, increased to six feet when the south wind blows. At low
tide there is thirty-two feet of water alongside the wharves.
Salina Cruz is one of the very few points on the Pacific
coast of North America where ships can bunker with fuel oil.
The oil is brought by train from Minatitlan on the north side
of the Isthmus and stored in a 46,000-barrel tank, whence it
is led to ship's side by a pipe line. The pipe line runs half the
length of the wharf, thus enabling three ships to take oil at
the same time.
Connecting with the inner harbor is one of the best dry-
docks on the Pacific coast, while there are over twenty-five
miles of terminal tracks on and in the neighborhood of the
wharf. These port works were completed in 1908. At that time
the Panama Canal was still unfinished, the Tehuantepec route
afforded the cheapest transportation from the Orient and the
islands of the Pacific to the Atlantic seaboard, and profound
peace prevailed in Mexico. No sooner was the port completed
than the Hawaiian Islands began to ship their enormous sugar
output via the Hawaiian-American steamship line and the
Tehuantepec Railroad to New Orleans and beyond. The harbor
was full of freighters, the population of Salina Cruz grew by

A Ship in the Salina Cruz Dry Dock

SALINA CRUZ 5
leaps and bounds, from a mere fishing village to a city of six
thousand souls, and no less than eighteen trains entered or
departed from the place daily.
But the prosperity of the place was short-lived. In April
of 1914, coincident with the occupation of Vera Cruz by Amer
ican forces, the "Gringos" fled from the Isthmus, and they
have not returned. Meanwhile the continuance of disturbed
conditions within the country, the opening of the Panama
Canal, and the disturbance of commerce occasioned by the
great war in Europe, have combined to prevent the resumption
of traffic on the Isthmus.
Salina Cruz is very quiet today. There is some inbound
movement of sugar from Salvador and Peru and tobacco from
Tepic, and some coffee moves outbound from Chiapas through
Salina Cruz to San Francisco ; but other traffic there is none.
Public opinion is pessimistic. It is felt that the Tehuantepec
route can never compete with the Panama Canal. This is
doubtless true, yet I am satisfied that when normal conditions
are restored this route will still be able to command a fair
share of through traffic; and with that restoration, and with
her fecund soil and gracious climate, the population of the
Isthmus should multiply twentyfold and her local traffic in
crease accordingly.
Nor should we forget that there is no port south of Salina
Cruz to the Guatemalan border, a distance of over two hun
dred miles, nor any suitable port to the north short of Mazat-
lan. Although Acapulco possesses one of the finest natural
harbors in the world, it is inaccessible from the interior ; and
Manzanillo, the next port to the north, is unhealthy and lacks
space for development. For these reasons Salina Cruz is
destined to remain, what it now is, the second port of the west
coast of Mexico.

6 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
Such was the Salina Cruz which I visited in December of
1917. The city itself lay a half mile back from the port.
Grouped about the business center were the establishments of
the principal merchants of the place, while a block further up
the main street we passed on our right the station of the Cen
tral and South American Cable Company, picturesquely perch
ed on a high rock which at that point jutted from the hills
which confined the city on the east. A little further on we
came to the public school just beyond which, on opposite sides
of the street, were the post office and the American consulate ;
the latter a two-story building surrounded with broad piazzas
and embowered in flowering trees.
Diagonally across from the consulate lay the little park
where the elite of Salina Cruz congregated nightly for the
evening promenade so characteristic of Latin life. A broad
walk bordered the park and there in the cool of the evening,
their beauty half revealed and half concealed by the electric
lights, the belles of the town foregathered and promenaded
under the watchful eyes of their elders. A difficult trysting
place you may perhaps think, yet this was the recognized
courting place of the town. All the young gallants were there,
tipping their hats, politely accosting the young ladies as they
passed, and exchanging covert glances. This is about the
limit of which courting is permitted among the upper classes
of the tropics, and yet I doubt not but that the young people
have adjusted themselves to these conditions and get just as
far as their northern cousins do with their freer manners.
This evening function is not at all exclusive. True, only
those of the upper class promenade, but the seats adjoining the
walk are always filled with Indian men and women of the lower
class, who seem to extract as much enjoyment from the
pageant as the elite themselves.
A block beyond the consulate we come to the Hotel Salina

SALINA CRUZ 7
Cruz, the town's leading hostelry. Here, except for short trips
to Tehuantepec, San Geronimo, and other cities of the vicinity,
I abode during my year's stay on the Isthmus. A detailed
description of the hotel is given further on in our narrative ;
suffice to state at this point that I was careful to choose a
room on the north side of the building, that most remote from
the business center of the town.
As will appear later on, I had a canny reason for making
this choice. The city cuartel or barracks was situated near
the municipal center. Whenever the bandits, rebels or revo
lutionists — a species of individuals fairly numerous at that
time — staged an attack on the town it was their custom to
enter by detachments through the defiles of the surrounding
hills, converging upon the cuartel. As soon as the garrison
became aware of their approach a hail of lead belched from the
cuartel and any civilian so unfortunate as to occupy a room
with windows opening toward the cuartel was apt to be found
by a stray ball. But the writer, sitting on the floor of his
bedroom with three solid hotel walls intervening between him
and the scene of operations, could smoke his pipe and await
the outcome with philosophic equanimity.
At that time Salina Cruz was the only point at which
travelers coming from the central plateau could secure pas
sage to the west coast of South America. The only ships reg
ularly carrying passengers to South America were those of
the Japanese line, which only touched at Salina Cruz every
second month; with the result that travelers were often de
tained at the hotel for several weeks. Early in the summer
three individuals with whom I was destined to become inti
mately acquainted blew in from the plateau. Mr. Peter Alli
son of San Luis Potosi was on his way to Peru to take up his
duties as superintendent at the Cerro de Pasco mine, and he

8 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
had with him a tall Swede named Abrahamson and a young
Scotchman whose surname I have forgotten, but whose first
name was Angus. With that readiness to confer titles peculiar
to the tropics we forthwith dubbed them Don Pedro, Don
Abrahamson, and Don Angus.
Our friends were delayed many weeks awaiting ship.
Presently time began to hang very heavily on their hands and
they vented their spleen, as men will under such circumstances,
upon the devoted republic in which they were unwillingly
sojourning. Don Angus was the loudest in his complaints.
He differed from any other Scot I have ever met in that money
would not stick to him — in fact Don Pedro informed me that
he could with difficulty prevent him from spending his last
cent — but he was a typical Scotchman in being frank to
blunthess. "When the devil is that ship ever going to put in her ap
pearance?" he would exclaim. "Here we are, marooned in
this miserable hole with every avenue of escape cut off. No
escape by sea, or by land either, for the whole country is
literally alive with rebels and bandits. It's Peru for me ; Peru,
where they have no revolutions and where the natives tumble
over one another to favor a Gringo !"
At that time, the three dons were the only English-speak
ing guests at the hotel, but I, who have a ready knowledge of
that tongue, could see from the worried looks of our fellow
guests that they understood enough of the language to know
that Peru and Mexico were being compared to the detriment
of their own country. So when Don Angus got too uproarious
I would take up the cudgels for Mexico, dwelling upon its
salubrious climate and the urbanity of its people. But I never
got far with this line of talk. Don Pedro and Don Abraham-
son invariably came to the support of their companion and

SALINA CRUZ 9
listening to them it was not long before I began to picture
Peru as a veritable paradise.
After having sung the glories of Peru for a full month
their ship came into port and the three dons took their depart
ure. I verily never expected to see them in this world again —
nor, since they were unbelievers, in the other world either.
What, then, was my surprise when, four months later and a
few minutes after a northbound Japanese liner had entered
port, the hotel entrance was darkened by no less a personage
than the redoubtable Don Pedro of San Luis Potosi. The wild
Scot was at his heels.
"Well, well! What brings you fellows back so soon?" I
asked as we shook hands. "You have barely had time to go to
Peru and return."
"That's where you're right," Don Pedro responded. "We
had barely reached Cerro de Pasco when the thin air at that
high altitude — you know it's 14,000 feet above sea level — got
the better of me and I had to beat it for the coast. Barely
reached there in time to save my life. And Abrahamson met
with an accident and smashed his ribs, and Angus was totally
disgusted with the country. Take it from me, we're mighty
glad to see the shores of good old Mexico once more ; eh, Angus,
my boy?" "I should say we were," responded that young man. "Mex
ico looks good to me. Seems like home to be back in a civilized
land once more."
All that day and evening they sang the glories of Mexico,
nor was there a word said of the "revolutions," "vile climate,"
and "beastly winds" of the Isthmus. It was neither the first
nor the last occasion upon which I have known men's thoughts
to color their surroundings. In the morning they took their

10 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
departure for San Luis Potosi and a few days later Abraham-
son, landing from the next boat, followed in their wake.
The city's present population does not exceed three thou
sand souls, of which at least two-thirds are full-blooded In
dians. There are not more than two hundred pure whites,
and of these the Europeans and Americans do not exceed a
score, all told. There are small colonies of Syrian ('Turco")
and Chinese merchants. The remainder of the population is
mestizo. This latter term is misleading, for the Mexican does
not follow the three-fold classification of population universal
in works upon Mexico. To him there are but two classes, white
and Indian, the mestizo (mixed blood) being accounted white.
His viewpoint is correct, for the mixed blood almost invari
ably adopts the dress, customs, language, and ways of think
ing of the white man. The mestizo, in these parts at least,
is very dark, almost as dark as the Indian, but he is an Indian
in no other respect.
Much has been written about the bad traits of the mestizo.
I cannot speak for other parts of the Republic, but at Salina
Cruz I found him in no respect inferior to the other elements
of the population. Many of the best people were of mixed
blood. One will wander far before finding a people as polite and
gracious as the Mexicans. And their politeness is not a mat
ter of training, as with us; it is inborn, innate. The self-
consciousness of the Teuton is not present. Nothing is more
common than to see a little child of three years, upon being
introduced into a circle of her elders, make the round of the
company, extending her hand and bidding each a pleasant
"Buenas tardes" without the slightest shade of embarrass
ment. The smallest urchin on the streets, if asked his name,
gives it without the least hesitation, always adding "servidor

SALINA CRUZ 11
de usted — your servant" — where your American boy would
suck his thumb and look silly — and the poorest Indian on the
trail expects to be politely accosted in passing.
Some weeks after taking up my residence in Salina Cruz
I arose early one morning for a walk before breakfast. Pass
ing up the Tehuantepec road I ascended the hill which over
looked the city from the north. I had gained the summit and
was beginning to descend the north slope when I perceived an
Indian approaching me. He was carrying a naked knife in
one hand. The blade was easily eighteen inches long and had
a sharp point. Frankly, I did not like the looks of that knife.
I was unarmed. There was no one in sight and I must
admit that a creepy feeling came over me. Fortunately at
this juncture I bethought me that Allah appointeth all things
and that it is not permitted unto any mortal to die until the
Day written in the Book, else had I turned tail and fled; in
stead of which I screwed up my courage and approached him
with every appearance of unconcern. My fears were ground
less. "Muy buenas tardes, senor — A very good morning, sir,"
he said, doffing his hat politely.
He stuck his knife in the ground and producing a package
of cigarettes, offered me one. In Mexico an offer of cigarettes
is considered essential when gentlemen meet. I reciprocated
the honor by striking a match and holding it to his cigarette,
and then we seated ourselves on the ground for a social chat.
My new acquaintance was a man past sixty, a denizen
of the little town of Huilotepec, a village on the lower course of
the Tehuantepec River plainly visible from where we sat. All
his life long, he said, he had been a charcoal burner, making
charcoal in the neighborhood of Huilotepec and carrying it on
his back all the way to Salina Cruz, there to be sold in the mar-

12 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
ket as fuel. I agreed with him that it was a hard life. Alas that
it is so ! The Indian is the burden bearer of Mexico ; he pro
duces all that is produced, and that by the most primitive and
laborious methods, and then receives a mere pittance for his
toil. After a time the old man arose, saluted once more with
the air of a hidalgo, and picking up his knife passed up the
hill towards Salina Cruz. As regards the knife, it should be
explained that the knife is the tool of all work in Mexico.
With his machete or corn knife the Indian clears the jungle,
cuts his crops, and builds his humble habitation. The ax is
practically unknown, even firewood being cut with this primi
tive tool.
While we are upon the subject of Mexican politeness it
may be stated that in that land the episode "After you, my
dear Alfonse" is enacted hourly. Whenever several gentle
men approach a gate or door together — and in Mexico every
one of the male sex is a gentleman — there is a great to-do, each
insisting that all the others enter before him, and it is gener
ally several minutes before anyone can be prevailed upon to
take the lead.
The old Spanish exclusiveness has largely disappeared;
the old proprieties have been appreciably relaxed. This will
not be so evident to the newcomer, owing to a peculiar cus
tom. Whereas with us a gentleman waits to be accosted by a
lady, in Mexico the contrary rule prevails; the gentleman
speaks first. Until the newcomer grasps this he naturally
imagines that the lady to whom he has been introduced and
who passes him the next day without favoring him with a
glance, is, to say the least, somewhat distant. But as soon as
he has learned the way of the land he will find her the reverse
of reserved. Indeed, the total absence of reserve and the readi-

The Lighthouse at Salina Cruz

SALINA CRUZ 13
ness of total strangers, of either sex, to extend the hand of
fellowship whenever given an opportunity is one of the great
est pleasures of that tropical land.
No matter how many times a day they meet, they stop
and shake hands, repeating the action ere they part. There
is no sham about this ; they are at heart kind and sympathetic,
and many a strong friendship one makes among this
people, once one learns their ways.
The Mexicans are a very democratic people. The poor
Indian may have but a limited conception of political matters,
but it is otherwise with the upper and middle classes. What
ever difficulties they may have experienced in governing them
selves, they are all out and out democrats. There are really
no class distinctions and royalty or monarchy would not be
tolerated for a moment.
To understand the Mexican one must visit Mexico. I well
remember the conception I formed of the Mexican when as a
child I conned books of travel and adventure in the seclusion
of my father's harem. It was that of a great tall fellow with
immense black mustachios and snapping black eyes, who, if
offended, crept stealthily upon his enemy and struck him from
behind with a huge dagger. This I have found to be the
general impression throughout the world outside of Mexico,
and when I went to that land I was even warned not to tamper
with the affections of any of the fair sex, as, if crossed in
love, they would carve a man's heart out without mercy.
How far from the truth! You will search far and wide
to find the Mexican of your dreams. Big mustachios are rare
and at least a third of the people of pure white blood, and
many of mixed blood, have gray eyes. Nor is the use of the
knife common. The Mexican of the Isthmus, when he does
resort to arms, prefers to settle matters with the revolver or

14 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
rifle. During a year spent at Salina Cruz, I do not recollect
hearing of a single assassination by stabbing with a dagger or
short knife ; and I am sure the gentle maidens of the Isthmus
would be the last creatures in the world to settle matters with
the knife, even though there, as elsewhere, there are bad men
who richly deserve such a fate.
The Mexican is gay, artistic, dramatic. Several amateur
plays were put on the boards while I was at Salina Cruz which
would have put many a professional troupe to shame. They
are great lovers of music. Every town boasts a fine band,
pianos abound, and that sweet Central American instrument,
the marimba, is much in evidence.

The social life of the Mexican centers in the ball, held
every few nights at the home of one or another of the principal
citizens. Would you see the pleasure-loving Mexican at his
best you must go to the ball. The guests begin to arrive about
nine o'clock; and such a scene! The Mexican knows how to
dress. No foreigner with twice the means can dress with
half the taste. The young men look like fashion plates; the
"chicas" are dreams. They dance and dance, until three or
four o'clock in the morning. But not always, for now and then
rumors spread, and that not infrequently, that the rebels are
about to make a descent upon the town. Now it is custom o±
the rebels to make their little friendly visits about nine at
night, and when a raid is expected the good people begin their
dance at four in the afternoon (on Sunday, of course), and
close at the early hour of eight, so as to beat the rebels to
their homes.
I have referred to the marimba, the musical instrument
most esteemed in southern Mexico. It is preferred by the
votaries of the dance, having greater volume than the piano

SALINA CRUZ 15
and being infinitely sweeter. The marimba somewhat resem
bles the zylophone, but is much larger. It consists of bars of
wood giving the chromatic scale, set over wooden resonators.
Four players are required, each provided with two sticks
tipped with balls of rubber. Some day this wonderful instru
ment will take its place in the United States alongside the
piano and organ. That four players are necessary probably
accounts for the fact that its use has not spread more rapidly.
Attempts have been made to provide it with a keyboard, but
so far without success, the keyboard marimba lacking the
exquisite ring of the simple instrument.*
The posada is a great institution in Mexico, as I presume
is the case in all Spanish-American countries. It begins nine
days before Christmas, being held one night at each of the
principal houses. All the upper-class people go, and when
they have assembled each of the young ladies and girls is given
a candle and they stand with their lighted candles outside the
closed door of the house singing the posada song, which relates
to the time when St. Joseph and the Virgin were hunting for
lodgings at Bethlehem.
When the song is finished they are admitted to the house.
In the corner of the room, all sparkling with tinsel and lights,
is a miniature representation of the Manger and the newly-
born Christ Child. After the young people have sufficiently
feasted their eyes upon this scene they betake themselves to the
porch to try their luck at the Pinate. The Pinate is a paper
effigy suspended from the ceiling of the porch and stuffed
with all sorts of goodies. One by one the children are blind
folded and, armed with a good stout staff, take turns in trying
to strike the Pinate. Finally someone hits him fair, splitting
his hide, and down comes a rain of confectionery ; then there is
*Tuxtla Gutierrez is a leading center for the manufacture of ma
rimbas.

16 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
a great scrimmage and everyone is happy. The remainder of
the night is now devoted to dancing, which of course was not
a feature of the posada as it was anciently celebrated. But I
suppose the people are not as religious as they once were.
The Church no longer holds the position it formerly
occupied in Mexico, possibly for the reason that for many
years the government has viewed its activities with a jealous
eye. Religious processions no longer play the part they did
of yore, being prohibited by law. Indeed, the civil authorities
seem to have been over severe with the ministers of religion,
not even permitting priests to appear upon the streets in dis
tinctive costume. Hence the anomaly that in a country the
people of which remain even today, nominally at least, over
whelmingly Catholic, a cassock is never seen on the streets;
the clergy, like the Protestant ministry of the United States,
being indistinguishable from the mass of the community. So
strict is the law in this respect that even the clerical collar,
vest, and dickey or "prep's bib" are banned. The bishop, or
rather vicar apostolic, of the neighboring town of Tehuantepec
evaded this restriction by wearing an ordinary layman's vest
and, as he was the only person on the Isthmus so attired, it
served to indicate quite effectively the fact that he was a gen
tleman of the "cloth."
Religion was at a low ebb at Salina Cruz. Although a
place of 3,000 inhabitants it had but one church, and that a
small one on a back street; but small as it was it appeared
ample for the religious needs of the community. Often of a
Sunday morning I have stood at the church door — I swear
before Allah and his Apostle, I entered not in — watching the
priest as he celebrated mass, and never on such occasions did I
see more than fifty persons present. Men of consequence never
darkened the church door. A few ladies there were, the wives

SALINA CRUZ 17
and daughters of two or three public spirited families who
still believed that, come what might, the Cross must be upheld,
but the remainder of the congregation was composed of bare
foot Indians of the lower class.
But let us turn again to the amusements of Salina Cruz.
On New Year's Eve they have another great time, a big ball,
and when the clock strikes twelve they all stop and begin to
hug one another and clap one another on the back. Sometimes
a little fellow will throw his legs about a big man's waist and
the big man will run about the room with him, each pounding
the other on the back.
At one time it was the custom of the army officers to
attend ball with loaded revolver on hip, and a most grotesque
figure these fierce captains and colonels cut as they whirled
about armed to the teeth. You may be sure the civilians
treated them very gingerly. After a time some order must
have been sent down from above, for the practice was happily
discontinued. Sometime in the spring — I think it was on San Benito's
Day — the children had another festival. This time it was at
the church. At the appointed hour the children filed up to the
church, each bearing in its arms some pet animal; a hen, a
cat, or a rabbit. Little dresses had been made for the pets
and they were gaily decorated with ribbons. The priest held
a children's service and solemnly blessed the animals, and then
the children trooped home supremely happy.
The second Sunday in May is a sort of local holiday, it
being the custom of the Tehuanas* to come to Salina Cruz at
that time each year and bathe in the sea. Many come the day
*Tehuana ; properly, a woman of Tehuantepec. But the term is
loosely applied to all the Zapotec women of the Pacific plain.

18 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
before so as to be on time, and by the following morning there
is a great concourse in town, all tricked out in their gaudiest
raiment. At ten o'clock we went down to the waterfront to see
them bathe. Their customs are slightly peculiar ; they are not
troubled with an excess of false modesty. They bathed in the
outer harbor and the women went down into the water in
their chemises, but the men merely went along the beach a
few rods and stripped naked for bathing. All the beach for
a mile or so was thronged with bathers, and they seemed to
be having a very good time after not having seen salt water
for a year.
They were not the only bathers, however. We stood on
the great pier which forms one side of the outer harbor. As
we looked on we saw four great dark objects moving to and
fro just under the surface of the water about three hundred
feet from the bathers. After a little we saw gigantic fins
thrown up out of the water. The sharks were taking a bath
too. I fear they also had their eyes upon the Tehuanas and
if the latter had ventured out too far would have made short
work of them.
I may state, in passing, that these seas are alive with
sharks. My neighbor, Garfia Salinas, had established a shark
industry on an island near Tonala. According to him there
were tens of thousands of these monsters in the shallow waters
surrounding the island. Shagrene, the tough skin of the shark,
was once of great value; but emery paper has largely taken
its place. However, there is still great value in the shark.
Shark oil finds a ready market, from its fins glue is made,
and the residue of the carcass is readily converted into fer
tilizer. The catching of sharks will in time become a lucrative
business.

SALINA CRUZ 19
But to return to our description of Mexican festivals.
On September 16, 1918, it was my good fortune to join with
the good people of Salina Cruz in celebrating the 108th anni
versary of the independence of Mexico. Just one hundred and
eight years before, at the village of Dolores in what is now
the state of Hidalgo, the parish priest Hidalgo raised the
standard of revolt against the Spaniard.
Salina Cruz put on festal attire to celebrate this great
event. A grand civic procession was the principal feature of
the day. At ten o'clock in the morning we assembled at the
presidencia (town hall) where the procession was formed. A
brass band led the way, followed by several hundred school
children marshaled in order. Then came the obreros (work
men) with their banner of blue. Next, and forming the lead
ing feature of the procession, came several floats bearing cer
tain of the prettiest sehoritas of the town, typifying the God
dess of Liberty, Law, Equality, Etc.
One young woman was rigged out in featherwork, Poca
hontas style, to represent the conventional Indian maiden.
Strange to say, she was about the only pure white girl in the
whole procession, the bronzed complexions of most of the
others indicating a liberal admixture of Indian blood, though
they would have been the last to see the joke; for, as I have
said, everyone there having a drop of white blood in his or
her veins, and dressing in European costume, is accounted
white. She was very beautiful and had I not had, by permission
of the Prophet, four wives at home in Persia, she might have
found favor in my eyes.
We were delayed for some little time by the tardiness of
Justicia, a circumstance which occasioned no little merriment.
As a Mexican friend slyly observed: "You know Justice is
somewhat slow in Mexico." But she finally put in her appear-

20 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
ance and took her place in the rear of the other civic virtues,
whereat the crowd laughed uproariously. Another brass band
followed; then three little damsels dressed respectively in
green, white and red, the national colors; and the procession
closed with a group of functionaries, the presidente, the cap
tain of the port, the members of the consular corps, and other
worthies. They marched the length of the principal thoroughfare,
then back on the next street, all reeking with sweat, but no one
heeded that, for they were bubbling all over with patriotism.
The day closed with a grand ball at the Hotel Salina Cruz.
This was to have kept up until four o'clock, in the morning,
but closed at one, it being rumored that rebels were approach
ing to attack the town.
The difficulty was that the garrison was rather small.
There were seldom more than fifty men at the barracks, all
told. Of course there was a colonel, a major, a captain, and
a lieutenant or two, and four or five musicians; so that the
number of privates was rather limited. They were good sound
fellows as a rule and many of them not lacking in courage;
but struck me as poor material for campaigning, barefooted as
they were and poorly armed. Their rifles were of all sorts
and descriptions. Only the officers were uniformed and
booted. They possessed no commissary, such a thing being
unknown in Mexico. Every soldier is married, or at least
keeps a woman who accompanies him on his campaigns, and
cooks the food which he purchases from his daily allowance.
The Mexican soldier is hot blooded, especially when in
drink, and quarrels are frequent. One night the colonel gave
a banquet at the hotel. Along toward the end of the feast
the colonel and major quarreled. They straightway betook
themselves to the patio of the hotel and drawing their pistols

The Principal Street in Salina Cr

The Salina Cruz Market is Enclosed. Few on the 1st]

SALINA CRUZ 21
began to fire ; but having had a little too much wine, neither
was able to hit the other though they were standing not more
than twenty feet apart. While they were indulging in their
little pistol practice, the dignified gentry of the town who were
guests at the banquet were lying prone on their stomachs
under the table.

The site of Salina Cruz is confined, the basin in which the
town is situated being not more than a mile and a half long
by three-fourths of a mile in breadth; and even this space
is broken by spurs from the hills, cutting off portions of the
basin from the general area. A considerable district to the
north of the town proper is known as the Espinal, while the
Costarican consul dwells in solitary grandeur in a little cove
known as the Barrio Juarez. Many of the huts of the poor
climb the slopes of the adjoining hills, and these are popularly
known as "las hormigas" (The Ants). It is said that this
custom of building up the hillsides is to some extent prompted
by the belief that sooner or later a tidal wave will sweep in
upon Salina Cruz, when those who dwell on the hillsides will
alone be saved. One building so situated bears the suggestive
sign "La Area de Noe" (Noah's Ark).
Never a year passes but these hills surrounding Salina
Cruz gaze down on some strange tragedy. Early one morn
ing my Indian servant came to me with the report that during
the night the soldiers had captured and executed a bandit.
"He is now hanging in the shrine on the hill north of
here," said the excited peon. "Better have a look at him be
fore he is cut down."
"Impossible, Juan," I replied, "the soldiers wouldn't hang
a man without trial."

22 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
"Maybe not," he answered with a grin, "but anyway that's
what they've done. You can see him from the doorway."
I stepped to the door. Straight north of the town, a half
mile distant on the hillside and at the end of the principal
street, a simple shrine had been erected in time past. It had
but three walls, being open to the weather on the side facing
the city. By the early morning light I could distinguish some
thing white against the darkness of the shrine's interior.
"See him?" said Juan.
"Yes, I see him," I replied, "but possibly it's not a bandit.
May be Don Jeronimo or one of my other friends, shot by
mistake. They don't hang around the hotel as closely as I do
and there is no telling when one of them may be potted. I'll
go take a look at the remains."
Breakfast would not be ready for another hour, so I
donned my hat and set out for the shrine. A fifteen minute
walk brought me to the spot and I was much relieved to find
the defunct a stranger. Poor fellow, he was not a bad-looking
Indian but he had evidently fallen into evil ways. Hanging
by a short rope from a crosspiece of the shrine, he swung
gently in the breeze, a salutary warning to the good people of
Salina Cruz to be circumspect in their ways.
The rearing of goats is one of the principal industries of
Salina Cruz. They are kept at night in corrals in the Espinal
and among the hormigas, and every morning the streets are
full of these picturesque creatures about to be driven up into
the hills. There is no grass in the hills, nothing but cacti and
stunted trees, and it is a mystery how the goats find a living;
but they do. These goats are great climbers, as they need to
be to escape starvation. I recollect one day seeing two of them
away up on the side of a steep cliff where no man could by
any possibility have climbed. While I was considering how

SALINA CRUZ 23
they were ever to get down, one of them turned and made the
bottom of the cliff at a run. She knew better than to attempt
to walk down.
Upon several occasions, while strolling through the hills,
my eye caught sight of what in the distance appeared to be
white-clad Indians standing among the trees; a disquieting
sight where the presence of bandits made it unsafe to stroll
beyond the crests of the hills overlooking the basin. But closer
observation invariably converted the supposed bandits into
harmless goats, standing perfectly upright with their forefeet
gently touching the trunks of the trees while they fed upon
the branches. The milk of the goat is made into a cheese which is much
relished by the natives and in normal times goat hides are one
of the chief articles of export.
Mexico is a land of glaring contrasts. Medieval conditions
exist side by side with evidences of the most advanced civiliza
tion. Salina Cruz is typical. Here we find port works con
structed at a cost of many millions of dollars, the best dry-
dock on the Pacific coast between Balboa and San Francisco,
and a splendid railway terminal. The upper class is cultured
and refined, pianos abound, and the nights are one gay round
of music, dance, and wine. But the schools of Salina Cruz
are limited to the first four grades, the place has no telephone
system, automobiles are unknown, there are but two public
and no private carriages in the town, but thirty-five private
letter boxes at the post office, and the place's supply of fuel
is brought in over rough mountain trails on the backs of men
and burros. It is no uncommon sight to see a woman enter
town with twenty pounds of charcoal on her back and leading
a burro bearing his burden.

24 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
There is not a book store in Salina Cruz, nor, so far as
I am aware, is there one in any of the cities of the Isthmus.
All books are ordered direct from Mexico City.
The automobile of this region is the burro; the tiny
donkey dwarfed by centuries of privation. All the firewood
needed for cooking is brought into town on the backs of
burros; a burro bearing two bundles, each about as large as
his poor little self. He is a proverbially patient creature,
which stands well in hand; but occasionally he gives vent to
a most dolorous bray. When the poor fellow's daily task is
over he is turned loose to shift for himself on the surrounding
hills. My favorite walk while at Salina Cruz was to the crest
of the hills to the east of the town. A bracing breeze always
sweeps across the hilltops, no matter how sultry it may be in
the basin below, and to the east the eye wanders over fifty
miles of hillock and plain and lagoon to the blue mountains of
the dividing range. I never tired of gazing upon that scene.
In the middle distance, like a great silver shield, lay the Upper
Lagoon, from whose center rose the mystic isle of Monapox-
tiac. And on that island was the Enchanted Cave, fane of
dead civilizations, where in the dim past the Indian had ques
tioned the Soul of the Universe. Often I planned to visit that
cave, but the intervening plains were infested by bandits and
I was never able to make the trip.
It mattered not what hill one ascended, he always found
a footpath at the top, for it is the custom of the Indian footman
in coming to and going from market to follow the skyline,
where the air is ever fresh and he can keep a sharp watch
against a possible holdup. The sagacious burro also un
doubtedly made use of these paths, it being a very common
occurrence on ascending a hill to find a lone burro on the very

SALINA CRUZ 25
peak. This seemed to be a favorite resort of the burro, but
whether sought to enjoy the scenery or to escape his master,
I know not.
The cacti are the most conspicuous plants hereabouts. I
noticed four species as I strolled among the hills : The prickly
pear with its great flat "leaves ;" a similar blue-green cactus
of more upright growth, the tender young leaves of which are
used for food; the tiny dwarf cactus; and the giant Organ
cactus. The latter grows to a great height, the best specimens
being generally found in the deep ravines which score the
sides of the hills. I saw several in such places with trunks a
foot and a half in diameter and branches rising to a height of
from twenty to twenty-five feet, like the pipes of some grand
cathedral organ. Sometimes when the natives wish to make a
hedge they fell one of these great cacti, cut it into lengths, and
plant the lengths, and in three or four years they possess a
hedge for which the numerous burros, pigs, and half-starved
cows which infest the locality have the profoundest respect.
In spring and early summer the cacti blossom. The
prickly pear has a beautiful yellow flower and so likewise has
the dwarf cactus, the blossom of the cactus with the edible
leaves is of the brightest pink, while forth from the pipes of
the organ cactus spring magnificent snow-white flowers as
large as saucers.
None of the four species mentioned bear edible fruits in
that latitude, but there is another giant cactus, cousin to the
Organo, very common in places, which in the spring bears a
luscious fruit known as pitaya. This fruit is globular and
about two inches in diameter. On splitting a pitaya open a
pulpy substance of the consistency of raspberry jam is dis
closed and, strange to say, it is of the same purplish color and

26 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
its flavor reminds one of the raspberry. A half dozen of these
purple globes split open and sprinkled with sugar make a
dessert fit for a king. The pitaya colors the urine red.

Chapter II.
QUIEN VIVE?
THANKS be to Allah, the Lord of all creatures, who
hath not shortened my days but hath permitted me
to live on, because the Appointed Hour is not yet
come. In very sooth I sometimes thought, what time I abode
upon the Isthmus, that the Day was at hand, more especially
when I heard upon the lips of the people those words of evil
omen, "Quien vive?" What meant they, ask you? Verily, my
brother, this thy servant at first marveled mightily and was
sore bewildered on hearing those words and beholding the civil
commotions which followed in their wake. But Allah All- Wise
hath revealed to me the meaning thereof, even as I shall now
reveal it to thee.
During the period of my sojourn on the Isthmus political
conditions were very unsettled in Mexico. The arms of the
Constitutionalists had prevailed over the enemy in the open
field, and practically every railway station throughout the
Republic was garrisoned by federal troops ; but seven years of
civil strife had bred the usual progeny of outlaws and the
country back from the railroads was everywhere infested by
bands of rebels and brigands.
On the Pacific plains there was no considerable number
in arms against the government; Tehuantepec, Salina Cruz,
San Geronimo, and Juchitan were garrisoned; the trains
moved on regular schedule; and the casual traveler might
easily persuade himself that peace prevailed. But this im
pression would involve ignorance of local conditions. Every-
27

28 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
where life was safe only in the larger towns, and only meas
urably so there. The whole country was a fortified camp.
There was no rebel army in the field, but the woods were
infested by numerous small bands of bandits. I use the term
advisedly, because it was not always easy to tell their actual
status. Some of them were mere robber bands, but the greater
number seemed to be composed of rebels owing a loose
allegiance to Felix Diaz, whose headquarters were said to be
in the mountains far to the north toward Vera Cruz. The
bandit element was being constantly reinforced by disaffected
elements from the towns. Their bands were composed of
diverse elements with nothing in common save hostility to the
government. There was the officer whose peculations had
become too notorious for even the easy conscience of Mexican
officialdom, the man whose property had been confiscated or
whose daughter had been carried away, the fellow who simply
loved the lawless life of the bush, and the earnest Felicista
who fought upon principle for the restoration of the ancient
regime. Trains moved only by daylight, leaving one terminus at
four or five in the morning so as to reach destination by night.
They were all mixed trains, and very much mixed, a typical
train embracing an engine, a baggage car, two passenger
coaches, perhaps a half dozen freight cars, and two or three
armored cars filled with troops.
Even this protection was not considered sufficient, every
train being accompanied by an "exploradora" or troop train.
The exploradora originally preceded the regular train, hence
the name; but, as the rebels frequently permitted the explora
dora to pass and, when it had rounded a curve and disappeared
in the jungle, held up the train, the process was reversed and
the exploradora has since followed after.

Salina Cruz and Vicinity

QUIEN VIVE? 29
As a rule none of the townspeople ever thought of leaving
the security of the town, except by rail. The Indian might
bring in produce, but the city people did not wander far from
the secure shelter of their houses ; and often and again have
I been warned against visiting points not a mile from the
town center.
The system of defense adopted by the Mexican garrison
is peculiar. At the intersections of the principal streets they
build little f ortines or blockhouses, about twelve feet square
and capable of holding five or six soldiers. The stranger
acquainted with the elaborate fortifications of other lands
will wonder of what service these little affairs can possibly
be. And yet they are well adapted to the system of street
fighting there in vogue. Pitched battles are not the rule. The
rebels enter the town at nightfall, sneaking through the alleys
and less frequented streets and striving to get as near as pos
sible to the town center, where the barracks are always located,
before being discovered. The main object of the garrison, on
the other hand, is, as soon as the rebels are discovered, to
get into the f ortines and keep the streets free from members of
the attacking party.
As the year advanced we heard more and more of rebel
depredations. They attacked Juchitan and San Geronimo, and
Tehuantepec was attacked upon several occasions. The Indian
populations of these towns though outwardly loyal to the gov
ernment were said to secretly sympathize with the rebels.
Their brethren, the Zapotecs of the mountains to the north
west, were in open rebellion, and there was no communication
between the Isthmus and Oaxaca City, the state capital. Armed
bands held all the passes and the rebel general Zuriaga held
his court at Santa Maria de Guiniagata.
But Salina Cruz was supposed to be safe from attack.

30 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
"The rebels will never try to take this place," my friends
assured me. "During all these seven years of revolution the
town has never been attacked, nor will they be foolish enough
to try it now." Their belief seemed well founded. Salina Cruz
was a seaport and a Mexican or American gunboat might put
in an appearance at any time ; and besides, the Indians of the
place were not natives of the Isthmus, but had been brought
thither from all parts of Mexico when the great port work''
were in course of construction. Finally, the town was isolated
geographically, lying among barren sand hills at a distance
from the inhabited parts of the plain.
But it is hard to figure on the vagaries of the genus rebel,
and my friends were mistaken. About the first of September
a small detachment of rebels entered the place at nightfall. I
was in the American consulate at the time, conversing with
an English lady who wished to take the Japanese liner for
Valparaiso. While we were talking we heard what we at first
mistook for firecrackers; but I remember finally going to the
window and saying, "It sounds almost loud enough for shots,
doesn't it?"
The lady prepared to leave and went out to the porch, but
came back immediately, saying, "Why, I don't understand it.
I had my porter place my portmanteau in the porch and bade
him remain until I had seen you. He has disappeared."
I sent my man with the lady to look up another porter.
Shortly afterwards I heard the sound of "firecrackers" again,
and this time went out to the porch to learn what was up;
but when I reached the porch all was silent. Shortly after
they returned with another man who took up the portmanteau,
and we all set off for the water-front. As we proceeded the
lady said: "Why, do, you know, we came near being shot a
few moments ago. There were rebels or something of the kind

QUIEN VIVE? 31
in town, and all kinds of shooting. One ball passed right by
my ear." After I had seen the lady to the ship I hastened back
to the upper end of the town and on inquiry learned that six
or eight armed rebels had entered the town, but had been given
such a warm reception that they promptly decamped.
I knew that from that hour the place was no longer safe.
Having escaped scott free they would come again unless the
garrison was promptly reinforced. But the military author
ities failed to grasp this and no reinforcements came.

Two weeks later I took the train for Tehuantepec, the
first town inland from Salina Cruz. There was to be a bull
fight there and a Malinche dance by the Huave Indians, and
Don Carlos — Mr. Charles A. Parkins, a Jamaican beekeeper
of that place — had come down expressly to persuade me to go
over with him to attend the doings. As we came into the
station I saw the exploradora ready on the side track. We
boarded the train and she put out of the station as if to take
the lead; but at a signal from the exploradora we backed up
and permitted her to go ahead. This admitted of but one ex
planation ; there was trouble ahead.
It was a run of twelve miles to Tehuantepec. We reached
Santa Maria, on this side of the Tehuantepec River, and
stopped. The exploradora moved on to the bridge head. Then
the fun began. The rebels opened fire from the further side of
the river and in reply smoke belched from the armored cars of
the exploradora. The rebels had thrown obstructions upon the track and
had set fire to the woodwork of the bridge. Fortunately the
bridge was a steel structure and they were unable to put it out
of commission in the limited time at their disposal. After a

32 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
short interval the exploradora moved forward into the city
and our train took its place at the bridgehead.
From there we had an excellent view of the fight. Before
us lay the city plaza, the near side of which was occupied by
the market, a huge structure the roof of which was supported
by massive brick pillars. Tehuantepec was the district capital
and upon the south side of the plaza fronted the district build
ing or palacio del gobierno. The government troops had left
the exploradora, relieved the garrison which was besieged in
the palace, and with its aid were chasing the rebels over the
hills back of the town.
When our train finally reached the plaza of Tehuantepec
we alighted and set about investigating the incident. The
rebels, to the number of about a hundred, had entered the town
about six in the morning and taking possession of the market
had opened fire upon the palace. They succeeded in killing one
of the defenders and wounding the officer in command, and
would probably have taken the palace had it not been for the
timely arrival of the troop train.
But that is a large "if," for the rebels knew that the train
was coming and was overdue, and they had taken no effective
measures to prevent its arrival, though that meant certain
failure for them. Had they removed a rail six or eight miles
up the track they could easily have delayed the arrival of rein
forcements for several hours. But that was not to be thought
of, since it would have involved considerable work. Their
ideas of warfare were limited to firing, Indian fashion, from
behind columns and stone walls.
Whether any of the rebels were injured is unknown. But
as Don Carlos and I made our way from the scene of combat
toward his residence some blocks to the northeast, in passing
the cathedral premises we saw a man lying in a pool of blood

QUIEN VIVE? 33
just outside the cathedral gate. On approaching we learned
that he had just been shot by the soldiers. Another lay just
inside the gate. Both were breathing their last. They had
been arrested some days before and had apparently, been
executed as a salutary warning to rebel sympathizers.
We passed on to the residence of Don Carlos, a corner
building about a block from the cathedral. We entered and
seated ourselves. Don Carlos wrinkled his eyebrows omin
ously. After a little he unburdened his heart. Nearly every
night, he said, a party of rebels would come to his corner and
he could hear them outside discussing plans to attack the gar
rison which occupied the cathedral house and adjoining mon
astery. Sometimes the rebels knocked at his door and de
manded admission. He was afraid they would break in sooner
or later. He possessed a shot gun but had only two rounds
of ammunition. The prospect was not reassuring.
Now Don Carlos was in the bee business and had several
hundred hives of bees in his patio or house court. It occurred
to me that here lay a way out of the difficulty. "That should
not trouble you in the least," I remarked. "All you need do is
fix a hive of bees against your door every night, and should the
rebels break in, so much the worse for them. The bees will
give them a warm reception."
Don Carlos was pleased with my plan, and after that
before going to bed always set a hive upon a shelf near the top
of the door. Thus fortified he slept the sleep of the just. This
is the first instance where, to my knowledge, bees have ever
been used in defensive warfare.
It was perhaps a week later, about eight o'clock in the
evening, that Morley Hurst (an employee of the cable com
pany) and I were sitting on the commodious porch of my hotel

34 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
drinking lemonade. A file of perhaps thirty men came along
the side street from the direction of the church. Some of them
were armed, and as they reached our street and began to cross
it, I fancied that the others shifted their blankets as though
they were carrying concealed weapons.
"What do you make of that layout?" said Hurst in an
undertone. "Well, I hardly know," I replied. They were very
quiet. Besides, I recollected that the commander of the gar
rison had boasted to me of having organized a company of
volunteers from the peons of the town. "Perhaps it is the
comandante's voluntaries out for practice."
We were not long kept in suspense for the next moment
they passed us at a dog trot, crouching low and hugging the
wall. As they passed one of them turned toward us and mut
tered beneath his breath: "Viva la Sierra," the battle cry of
the Indians of the mountains of Oaxaca. He said it in the
most friendly manner, but it was enough; we immediately
went inside. I glanced over my shoulder as we entered. They
had sprung into the middle of the street and were rushing at
full speed toward the center of the town. We bolted the door.
Not ten minutes later hell broke loose. They had attacked the
garrison. For the next two hours we remained cooped up in the
hotel while pandemonium reigned without. The garrison had
plenty of ammunition and spent it without stint. To the south
of us the rattle of musketry was incessant, the volleys fired
by the garrison, generally high, passing over our heads into
the Espinal beyond, and falling with the vengeful whine of the
Mauser ball.
Hurst and I at first kept close to my room. But we soon
discovered that we ran little risk in the hotel, which interposed
several walls between us and the flying missiles, and moved out

QUIEN VIVE? 35
into the court. We lit our pipes and sauntered about, pessi
mistically discussing the revolution in all its phases. We had
almost become resigned to our fate when Don Pepe and Don
Poncho, the proprietors of the hotel, put in their appearance.
"Well, Don Pepe," said I, "a fine evening, eh?" "Mil
diablos — a thousand devils," said Don Pepe, "these Indians
are very bad. What if they take the town? We have been
hiding in the cellar. I don't understand the way you fellows
take it. You don't seem at all excited."
Whereat we smiled loftily and were puffed up with con
ceit. But if the naked truth must be told it was but a matter
of training. Pride of race constrained us to conceal, even
from one another, the misgivings of our hearts and put on
a bold face; and this is called courage, forsooth.
After a time we heard a detachment from the garrison
charge past into the Espinal. It seemed another band of
rebels had come in and occupied that quarter. Wild oaths,
shrieks, and more rifle shots. One would imagine from the
uproar that men were being slain by the hundred. Then
the scene evidently shifted. The fight was raging in the Barrio
Juarez ; then among the hills to the west of the town. By ten
o'clock the firing began to slacken as the rebels, their ammu
nition exhausted, fled over the hills.
As soon as the management was satisfied that the fight
was over the lights were switched on and we gathered in the
cantina, as the bar-room is called in Mexico, to discuss the
situation. Hurst wanted to leave at once for the cable sta
tion ; in coming over to the hotel he had left only women there
and was anxious to assure himself that no harm had befallen
them. At least that was his excuse for wanting to go. As a
matter of fact Hurst was a fearless sort of fellow and appar
ently had not the least conception of the danger which lurks

36 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
in flying bullets. But I stoutly objected to his leaving the
building, representing that in the darkness of the night some
excited soldier was apt to take his white clad form for that of
a bandit and pot him without further ado ; and the proprietors
cinched the matter by refusing to undo the door. So he abode
with us the night.
The next morning I accompanied Hurst to the scene of
combat where we learned that the attack was far better
planned than we had supposed. While the force which we had
seen was attacking the garrison from the north, another band
had seized the cable office. This building occupies the crest
of a hill overlooking the plaza and commanding the heart of
the city. From it the rebels poured down a withering fire
upon the cuartel. Had they had sufficient ammunition the
town would have been at their mercy ; but from the traces left
after the battle it seemed they had but fifteen or twenty rounds
each. After counting the bullet holes in the cable building and
figuring out the direction from which they had come — always
a pleasant diversion on the day after an attack — we visited the
British consul's residence a few yards to .the rear of the cable
building and somewhat further up the hill. The women of the
place said they were up stairs when the bandits came and
the first intimation they had of their presence was a loud rap
at the door below. On one of them going down stairs she was
accosted by a bandit, who informed her that he and his com
panions were about to seize the cable building and open fire on
the cuartel, and politely suggested that she close the doors —
which were open — and keep within during the engagement.
It would certainly be difficult to find more considerate bandits
than those of southern Mexico!
Despite all the powder which had been burned during the

Savage Woman of the Mountains. Other races of the Isthmus
are Inferior to the Zapotec

QUIEN VIVE? 37
attack, the total casualties amounted to two killed and two
wounded, and these were civilians who had foolishly ventured
out upon the streets ; not a single combatant was injured. Both
sides were careful to keep behind stone walls, in which position
and in the obscurity of the night they were fully as safe as
the citizens within doors.
Don Pepe had profited by the night's experience. Imme
diately after breakfast he lined up the male servants and pro
ceeded to put them through a drill designed to prepare them
against the day of trouble.
I should explain at this point that in Mexico a sentry
does not say "Who goes there?" but "Quien vive?" that is,
"Who lives?"
"Now," said Don Pepe, "if an armed man challenges you,
what do you say."
"Vive Carranza — Long live Carranza," replied a peon.
"Carramba! but the man might be a rebel and then he
would shoot you !"
"Well," again ventured the peon. "Then I would say 'Vive
la Sierra — Long live the Mountain'."
"Wrong again," replied Don Pepe, "for he might be a
Carrancista, in which case you would also be shot. No, the
proper thing is to always say 'Vive Mexico,' that will pass
with either side."
This sage advice led to a story. Once upon a time a China
man who had always lived in town went out into the country
and was challenged by a rebel outpost: "Quien Vive?" He an
swered "Vive Carranza," whereupon the rebel fell upon him
and beat him unmercifully and for a finish gave him a kick,
sending him upon his way with an admonition to never be
guilty of such an offense again, but always say "Vive la Sierra"
when challenged.

38 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
Sometime later the Chinaman set his face towards home.
When he reached the outskirts of the town he was halted by
a sentry who put the usual question "Quien vive?" to which
the Chino responded, "Vive la Sierra." He was immediately
seized, his hands were bound behind him, and he was hustled
off pell mell to the municipal jail, with a solid kick at every
step to accelerate his progress. Nor did he escape from dur
ance until the last centavo had been wrung from him.
He stepped forth from confinement a sadder but a wiser
Chino. In fact he had been doing some pretty hard thinking
while in jail, and the next time he was challenged by a sentry
he answered in pidgeon Spanish, "Tu vivas pimelo — You viva
first." Meanwhile the spirit of disaffection was rife at Tehuan
tepec. One evening a general from Acapulco disembarked at
Salina Cruz with several officers. The next morning he took
the early train for San Geronimo. Three officers, a colonel,
a major, and a captain, who had been out late the night before,
overslept and were left behind. Fearing a reprimand, they
hustled about and after some dickering arranged with a couple
of peons to take them to San Geronimo on a hand car.
Reaching Tehuantepec they stopped off to drink coconut
water and chat with the Tehuanas. They spent a pleasant
half hour in this manner. It was their last drink. Death
was swiftly preparing for them while they loitered. They
resumed their positions on the hand car and started on their
way. Not a mile from the station they were riddled by shots
from the thicket bordering the right of way.
This occurred on Thursday. On the following Saturday
a major proceeded from Tehuantepec to San Geronimo, ar
rested three merchants of that place, and brought them back

QUIEN VIVE? 39
with him to Tehuantepec. He then arrested three others of
the latter place. That evening he informed the person in
charge of the street-lighting service that he was expecting a
rebel attack and asked him to turn off the power, which was
done. The town shrouded in darkness, he directed that the six
prisoners be taken to an unfrequented point on the river
bank, where they were frightfully tortured with knives. Then
nooses were thrown about their necks, the other ends of the
ropes were tied to the tails of horses, and the poor devils were
dragged to death. Their bodies were buried in the sands by
the riverside, but so illy was the work done that they were
dug up by the dogs on the following day.*
This sinister deed cast a pall over Tehuantepec. The in
habitants were oppressed with fear and after nightfall the
streets were deserted. Many in fact did not deem it safe to
remain in the city at night and a number of the leading citizens
for better protection began the practice of going to Salina Cruz
on the evening train, remaining there over night, and returning
to Tehuantepec the next morning. These worthies were
dubbed the Brigada Carrera (Car Brigade) by the local wits.
One of the favorite diversions of the good people of Salina
Cruz consisted in meeting the train when it came in at night.
It was a picturesque gathering ; the fierce warriors of the gar
rison, gaily-dressed Tehuanas, and all the pretty simpaticas
of the place were there. After endless signalling and whis
tling, in came the train, and no sooner had it come to a halt
than out jumped the doughty members of the Car Brigade,
headed by the redoubtable Don Carlos Parkins and the orbic
ular Dr. Martinez of Apizaco.
*This outrage seems to have been an act of private revenge on the
part of the major, who fled the same night immediately after the perpe
tration of the fiendish deed. He was subsequently captured and when
last heard of was confined in a military prison.

40 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
Now at the time whereof I write no newspapers were
printed in that part of Mexico. All the newspapers in circu
lation were published in Mexico City and these of course con
tained no local news. Thus it came about that news was
gathered in the good old way in vogue the world over a thou
sand years ago. Gossip was news and the traveler was the
principal newsvender. I developed long ears in those parts.
No sooner had Don Carlos and the doctor and their worthy
companions of the Brigade alighted from the train than the
dissemination of news began. Not with a blare of trumpets
by any means. The military maintained, or endeavored to
maintain, a strict censorship and it was inadvisable to speak
too loudly. But everyone was anxious to learn what was
going on, and it was surprising how rapidly every scrap of in
formation spread in whispers through the community.
Once again the rebels descended upon Salina Cruz. Night
had fallen and I had just left the consulate for the hotel, only
a block away. I had taken but a few steps when the enemy
opened fire just back of the park and seemingly not a block
from where I stood. By the beard of the Prophet, it was a
delicate position, and candor compels me to admit that I stood
not long upon the order of my going. One thinks rapidly in
such moments. I perceived on the instant that the hotel,
though the more remote, was the safer place of the two, and
set off for it at top speed, dodging bullets at every jump.
Verily I was without fear, but I acted upon the American
principle that discretion is the better part of valor.
I came in sight of the hotel entrance. The doorkeepers,
who had been reared amid revolutions and understood well
their business, stood ready to close the doors the instant the
last civilian had entered. There was a mad rush for the doors.

QUIEN VIVE? 41
The last soul entered and I was still some distance away. The
doorkeepers prepared to swing the doors, whereat I managed
to bawl out, "Hold, locos, can't you see me coming." They
paused and the next instant I made the entrance. Praised be
Allah who hath appointed my death-day from the beginning,
I had not suffered a scratch.
I hastened through the hall and into the patio. Here a
unique sight met my eyes. There they were, all of Don Pepe
and Don Poncho's guests, every one of them standing as stiff
as pokers with their backs to the wall. And there they stood
for some fifteen minutes, while the rifles cracked without. I
charge you to remember, O son of Abdullah, and it may stand
you well in hand should you ever have the good fortune to visit
southern Mexico, that revolution on the Isthmus has been re
duced to a science and has its fixed laws, one of which is that
the safest place during an attack is with back to wall.
The attack was soon over; in fact, it was a mere feint,
possibly a ruse to draw the garrison into the hills.
Following this attack the government strongly reinforced
the garrisons at Salina Cruz and Tehuantepec, and open at
tacks on the towns ceased. Matters now assumed a new phase.
Numerous arrests had been made and many persons executed
as suspects, generally on the evidence of some informer. The
rebels, no longer strong enough for open attack, now drew up
a list of the informers, whom they marked for destruction.
The method of disposing of their victims was characteristic.
Every two or three days a band of six or eight rebels
would enter the suburbs of one of the towns, search out their
man, and slay him ; — a venganza. Sometimes they led him out
into the woods, sometimes they slew him under his own roof;
but wherever the scene was so remote from the town center
that they felt certain of making good their escape before

42 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
arrival of the garrison, the victim was taken out and shot in
a public manner before the people of the barrio. Then the
rebels would flee over the hills or into the underbrush, mount
their waiting steeds, and gallop away.
Sometimes these acts of vengeance were perpetrated at
night, sometimes in broad daylight; and as a rule the slayers
escaped scot free, for the garrison, being few in numbers,
was ill disposed to leave the town center. I remember upon
one occasion a band of eight rebels entering Salina Cruz at
five o'clock in the afternoon. They found their man in the
Espinal, took him out into the plaza of the barrio, riddled him
with bullets, and made good their escape; though fifteen men
of the garrison were only four blocks distant.
Even these demonstrations ceased toward the end of the
year and we began to think the military had actually cleared
the region of bandits. But no, in a few days they were as
active as ever, only this time they found it advisable to shift
the scene of operations. Figuring that Salina Cruz and
Tehuantepec were too well garrisoned to be taken, they betook
themselves to the neighborhood of Niltepec — Niltepec lies on
the southern flank of the Mountains of Chimalapa some forty
miles northeast of Tehuantepec — and looted the ingenio or
sugar plantation at that point.
The news reached us in the usual way. One evening
shortly before I left the Isthmus three ladies alighted from
the train at Salina Cruz and put up at my hotel. Their arrival
produced quite a sensation. They were clearly Mexicans,
but were dressed in black and wore hats. Ergo, they were
white ladies from the central plateau. Very strange they
seemed to us who had so long seen only hatless women.
The ladies were vivacious and talkative like all of their

QUIEN VIVE? 43
race, and we were not long in learning all about them. It ap
peared they were friends of the manager of the ingenio at
Niltepec and had shortly before come down from central Mex
ico to pay his family a visit. Sometime previously the man
ager, fearful of an attack by marauders, had called upon the
government for a detachment of troops. The government sent
a guard of ten men ; but in calling for troops the manager had
acted inadvisedly, as he was soon to learn. Situated as he
was, the payment of a reasonable tribute to the bandit chief
of the locality was the only sure way of securing immunity.
One morning fully a hundred well-armed bandits de
scended upon the ingenio, scattering the guard like chaff be
fore the wind. It was the usual story; the soldiers, finding
themselves outnumbered, made no defense but fled on the
instant, leaving the manager and his fair guests to their own
devices. The bandits were not extortionate in their demands.
They compelled the manager to open the plantation safe and
pocketed its contents, a matter of a thousand pesos, and then
each of the leaders — there were five of them — appropriated a
riding horse from the plantation stables; but with this they
appeared satisfied. Of course the manager was locked up
temporarily for safe keeping.
The most talkative of the ladies, who told us all this,
assured us that the bandit chief was a perfect gentleman.
When the outlaws first took possession of the place he appeared
at their quarters and after politely saluting said :
"Have no fear, ladies; no harm shall befall you. I deeply
regret the necessity of relieving our mutual friend, the man
ager, of his surplus cash, and as soon as that is accomplished
and a few other little things attended to shall endeavor to
withdraw my men. It may easily happen, however, that some
may discover liquor before I can get them out of the place,

44 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
and in that event I cannot answer for their conduct. I shall
therefore lock you ladies in for the present and will return
later." He bowed again and taking the key from the door passed
out, locking the door from the outside. The helpless ladies
waited in great fear. They could not see what was taking
place without, but from the confused shouts and noises which
came to their ears it was plain that the business of looting
the place was in full swing. After about an hour the key once
more grated in the door, which was opened, disclosing the
amiable features of the bandit chief.
"Gather up your things, ladies, and come out," he said.
"Some of our men have discovered liquor and are fast getting
beyond control. I have secured a rig to take you to the nearest
railway station. By leaving at once and driving fast you will
reach the station in time to catch the train to San Geronimo."
The ladies hurried out and entered the waiting convey
ance, a light covered wagon drawn by two sinewy mules. The
chief had thoughtfully secured a driver from among the plan
tation peons. A general handshaking, a few hurried instruc
tions, and they were off before the rank and file of the bandits
had discovered what was under way. As they turned the first
corner the ladies caught a last glimpse of the ingenio. Before
the great front door of the ranch house stood their bandit
protector and even as they looked he removed his sombrero
with a mighty flourish and, placing his hand over his heart,
bowed low.
A drive of ten miles brought them safely to the station
just in time to catch the west bound train and two hours later
they alighted at San Geronimo. The next day they reached
Salina Cruz, where they remained until the arrival of the next
north bound ship.

^m^m*---^*^.

Chapter III.
TEHUANTEPEC.
PRAISE be unto the Lord of the Three Worlds, even unto
Almighty Allah who hath made the histories of the
Past an admonition unto the children of the Present.
I joyed with exceeding joy and returned grateful thanks to the
Most Compassionate, what time I first beheld that goodly
city of infidels, by them hight Tehuantepec the Holy. And I
have much to tell thee, 0 my brother, concerning the evils
which in days of yore and in ages long gone before befell this
place, and how Allah finally tempered their tribulations ; but
first I must needs describe to thee the city itself.
Tehuantepec lies upon the river of that name about mid
way between the point where the stream bursts forth from the
mountains of Oaxaca and its mouth at Ventosa Bay. At this
point a cluster of high hills breaks the monotony of the plain
and between these hills the river wends its way. The city is
built upon both sides of the river, partly upon the narrow
benches between the river and the hills and partly upon the
sides of the hills, terrace upon terrace.
It is the center of a rich agricultural district. Up and
down the river, as far as the eye can reach, is one succession
of bright garden patches and verdant fields, each surrounded
with living hedges of Spanish plum, piiion, or gulebere, or
bordered with stately rows of orange, mango, or the graceful
coconut palm. There is no agrarian problem here, for the
Mexican government long since made ample provision for the
Indians, alloting to each his little plot of ground. Enormous
45

46 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
crops of sugar cane, pineapple, coconuts, beans, and corn are
raised in this favored valley, and were its waters utilized to
full capacity it could easily feed all southern Mexico.
The history of Tehuantepec runs back into the distant
past. It was already the principal city of the Isthmus when
the Zapotec king Cosijoeza defeated the Aztecs at Quiengola
in the year 1497, and it is so still.
Its origin antedates the dawn of history, but it was prob
ably founded by the Huaves, whose capital city it seems to
have been before the successive waves of Aztecs and Zapotecs
overspread the land. The choice of site appears to have been
based upon both commercial and military considerations, it
being the nearest defensible position on the route leading from
the Pacific plains to the Valley of Oaxaca. The heights sur
rounding the city afforded vantage points from which the eyes
of its sentinels swept the plains for miles around and sites for
the erection of fortifications to which the population could
withdraw in the hour of peril.
While these hills shut in the city on the east and west, up
and down the river the view is unobstructed ; and looking north
one sees the gorge where the stream emerges from the moun
tains and on the left the imposing mass of Mt. Quiengola. In
a later chapter we shall have occasion to give at some length
the legends connected with this mountain. At this point let
it suffice to state that there in the fifteenth century King Cosi
joeza erected a fortress to dominate the Pacific plains of Te
huantepec which he had but lately conquered.
The remains of these fortifications are the most extensive
ruins in those parts of Mexico, and often as from Tehuantepec
I gazed upon its azure heights I determined to organize a party
for a trip to Quiengola. But Allah determineth all things,
and from this mad idea, as they called it, my friends as often

TEHUANTEPEC 47
dissuaded me. We would, they argued, need a pack train and
scaling ladders, for the way was a matter of seven leagues —
a Mexican league is about two and a half English miles — and
the ascent to the ruins, about half way up the mountain, was
very steep. The round trip would require three or four days
and, worst of all, the district was infested with bandits.
While I remained but half convinced and continued to
revolve the matter in my mind, an incident occurred which
dissipated for good all idea of visiting Quiengola. Tehuan
tepec was the district capital and a garrisoned town, and so
was Jalapa, a place some twenty-five or thirty miles up the
river ; and Tehuantepec being the nearest railroad point rein
forcements for Jalapa were dispatched from there.
On a certain Sunday in midsummer I made one of my
customary visits to Tehuantepec. Upon my arrival I hunted
up Don Carlos and we set out for a walk through the suburb
of Santa Maria; and as we were crossing the plaza for that
purpose a troop of horsemen, soldiers from the garrison, came
galloping past. I should have given them no heed had I not
espied among their number the jovial little major, second in
command of our own garrison at Salina Cruz. He was a won
derfully fat man and like most fat men exceedingly jolly, and
I loved him as a brother. He nodded and smiled as they passed.
"By Allah, Don Carlos!" quoth I, "this hath a savor of
mystery. There must be full thirty in that detachment. Per-
adventure there is something of importance afoot."
"Nothing out of the ordinary, I imagine," he replied.
"There is a garrison at Jalapa, you know, and I understand
these fellows are on their way to relieve the garrison. You
see the government has to keep switching the soldiers about
from point to point so that they won't get too well acquainted
in any one place. There is a big disaffected element in all

48 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
these towns and troops kept too long in a place are apt to
get mixed up in some treasonable business."
"I see, but how comes it, think you, that our Salina Cruz
major is with them?"
"Can't say," Don Carlos replied ; "wants to see the coun
try up that way, I suppose. Probably he will accompany our
colonel to Jalapa, where they will leave these men and return
with an equal number of the old garrison. They'll have a
rare outing; wish I was going with them."
We spent the afternoon visiting various points of interest
in Santa Maria, and after supper I bade him good-bye and
taking the evening train returned to Salina Cruz. Three
weeks later I was again in Tehuantepec and on meeting Don
Carlos happened to allude to the party that had left for Jalapa.
"What! Haven't you heard the news?" said that worthy.
"I thought everyone knew of what happened on the Jalapa
road." "No! Anything serious?"
"Well, rather. Half of those poor fellows who rode so
gallantly past us when you were last here have gone to their
eternal rest." Here he made the sign of the cross, after the
manner of the unbelievers, and continued : "All went well until
they reached the foot of Quiengola, but as they were passing
through the gorge between the mountain and the river the
rebels suddenly opened fire on them from the surrounding
heights." "Ambushed?" "Yes, ambushed. It was just the sort of place for an
ambuscade ; a narrow defile and high above rocks piled helter-
skelter, and behind every rock an Indian. Those fellows made
short work of the detachment. They poured down a wither
ing fire on the trapped soldiers and in a few minutes the ravine

TEHUANTEPEC 49
was filled with dead and dying men and horses. Our men
attempted a stand but the situation was desperate; they
couldn't scale the sides of the ravine to grapple with the ene
my, nor did they dare to advance, for they knew not how far
the way might be picketed by rebels. So after fifteen of their
number had fallen they turned and fled."
"But 4iow about the Jalapa garrison ?"
"Oh, they may consider themselves fortunate in that the
attack was not timed for the return trip."
It will be readily understood that after this recital I dis
missed from my mind all thought of visiting Quiengola.

The city of Tehuantepec is situated principally on the
left or eastern bank of the river, the business center being
crowded between the river and Dani Guibedchi or Tiger Hill,
the highest of the eminences which surround the city. The
word Tehuantepec is from the Aztec and means "tiger hill
town." It is said that the hill was formerly the lair of tigers
which preyed upon the inhabitants of the town until a com
paratively recent date. In Zapotecan, still the common speech,
the place is called Guisi.
A typical old Mexican town is Tehuantepec with its fifteen
heavy Moorish churches, its monotonous one-storied houses
with their grated windows and hidden inner courts, and its
narrow, crooked streets. Of its ancient glories before the
Spaniard came no memorial remains. The old church and
convent of Santo Domingo are said to have been built by
Cosijopii, the last king of Tehuantepec, but even fifty years ago
the members of the Shufeldt expedition pronounced their
architecture to be purely Spanish. This is hardly to be won
dered at since three centuries had intervened from the death
of Cosijopii, and what with time, earthquakes, and civil strife

50 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
these structures may have been several times destroyed and
rebuilt. But it is more difficult to understand why no remains
whatever, great or small, of the ancient Indian civilization are
to be found in or about the city. At Mixtaquilla, three miles
north, abundant archaeological material has been exhumed;
but none at Tehuantepec. Possibly while the larger monu
ments of the past have crumbled with age or have been torn
down to make way for new structures, those statuettes, celts,
and other small implements which must once have been so
numerous, have been carried away by the constant stream of
travelers passing through the place.
In the summer of 1918, as I was passing through Calle
Segunda Morelos, that little street which runs west from San
Sebastian church to the river, I came upon an Indian celt —
one of those stone chisels formerly used by the aborigines
to scrape skins and for other domestic purposes — lying in the
middle of the street. At first I was at a loss to account for
its presence there; but on looking about I observed that the
street had once been paved with dark gray cobble-stone, about
half of the pavement being still intact, and that the stones of
the pavement were of the same color and size as the celt. The
explanation was obvious. Some ignorant workman had taken
the celt for a pebble and incorporated it into the pavement,
from which it had but recently been broken loose.
It was upon this occasion that, in passing from the street
into the little square which fronts San Sebastian church, I
beheld a sight by no means uncommon in that part of Mexico.
A sturdy Tehuana was taking a live pig to market. She had
first tied his feet together before and aft and then, having
taken him up in her arms as one would a child, was marching
off to the market with the greatest unconcern imaginable. Not

TEHUANTEPEC 51
a grunt did the pig utter; he was probably accustomed to this
singular form of conveyance. Nor did the Tehuana grunt,
though the porker must have weighed fully sixty pounds.
Tehuantepec boasts a population of 15,000. There are a
few Syrian merchants in the place and perhaps two or three
hundred white Mexicans, in the liberal sense in which I have
used that term. Strange to say, there are neither Spaniards
nor Chinese. The remainder of the population is Tehuano.
There is among these a considerable strain of white blood, and
indeed, some of the Tehuanos are almost pure white. For
generations before the advent of railroads adventurers seeking
the west coast followed the route of the Isthmus, and many
surrendered to the charm of the Tehuana, stayed, and were
absorbed. And their descendants are counted as Indians,
yea, though as white as the beard of the Prophet; for the line
is drawn as I have said, not by blood, but by speech and dress
and manner of life, and as one counts himself an Indian or
a white man, so he is.
But the number of Tehuanos bearing any perceptible
strain of white blood is small. It is limited to the upper class.
Almost the entire population is evidently of pure Zapotecan
blood, as is evidenced by their color, varying from rich yel
low to dark brown. These Indians of the plains lack, how
ever, the over prominent nose characteristic of the Indian
race in general and their hair is generally short and fine, and
often dark brown in color rather than black. These circum
stances, combined with the beauty of the women (universally
acknowledged to be the most beautiful of the Indian race),
have led many to assume an extensive race admixture which
the facts do not warrant.
The houses of the well-to-do (and there are many such
among the Indians of Tehuantepec) are commonly of but one

52 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
story, without porches on the exterior, and built flush with
the street ; the long expanse of blank wall, broken only by small
grated windows, producing an effect the reverse of pleasant.
But step inside, and the feeling is at once dispelled ; for here
every house is built about an inner court, upon which porches
supported by massive columns face, a court in many cases filled
with shady trees and gorgeous flowering bushes of many kinds.
These houses of the better class are invariably con
structed of brick, for brick is cheap while lumber is very cost
ly on the Isthmus. Indeed, I was told by a friend that he paid
more for a few hundred feet of lumber used in connection with
the roof of his house than for all the rest, brick and labor,
taken together. In the dry atmosphere of the Pacific plains,
adobe or sun-dried brick is (or was until late years) the prin
cipal building material; the practice being to construct the
lower three feet of the wall of burnt brick, which is also used
about the doors and windows to give greater strength, the
remainder of the wall being constructed of the cheaper adobe.
The newer buildings are very generally built of burnt brick
throughout. Every Indian is ambitious to become the owner of a brick
house, and as money is not always ready to hand in the be
ginning, the custom is to build piecemeal as the money is
earned. The roof is always built first, and the walls one by
one as circumstances permit. In this way a house may be
seven or eight years in building, but in the end the owner
has a commodious brick dwelling.
During the years of the revolution there was but
little construction and with the return of peace building will
be abnormally active for some years. Not only will there be
great demand for common and pressed brick, but also for
floor tile and roofing tile, wooden floors and shingled roofs

Railroad Bridge anil the City of Tehuantepec in the Baekgi'ouwl

TEHUANTEPEC 53
being uncommon in this section. There will be a great oppor
tunity for the establishment of foreign brick-making plants,
for which San Geronimo and Ixtaltepec afford the best loca
tions; the former as possessing the best railroad facilities
and the latter because of the excellent brick-making clays
of that neighborhood.
Pass we now to the homes of the poor. They live in huts
thatched with palm leaves. The walls of some of these huts
consist merely of a matting made of wild cane ; while in the
better sort the walls are of wattle plastered over with red clay.
Sometimes the poor fellow sets up the frame of his little home,
nails strips on the outside and inside of the posts, fills in the
interval with small fragments of rock, and then plasters the
whole over with clay. In any event his abode is a miserable
one; destitute of chimney, window, and floor, every spell of
wet weather sweeps off great numbers of the unfortunate
poor. Bismillah, it is a shame that men should be permitted
to live thus without instruction. May Allah speed the day
when the poor Indian shall be taught a better way.
The majority of the Indians of Mexico live in miserable
hovels of the sort described above. Do you ask the reason?
It is not far to seek. Three causes in fact combine to keep
the bulk of the Indian population in a state of destitution ; the
apathy of the Indian; his exploitation by the white element,
Mexican and foreign alike; and the lack of public security.
And the cure as certainly lies in three remedies which for
tunately operate upon all the evils alike; better educational
facilities, a wider diffusion of the system of small land hold
ings, and a greater infusion of white blood. When a good com
mon-school education is within the reach of every child, and
when every Indian father owns his own little patch of land,
intestinal strife will cease in Mexico, a steady stream of Euro-

54 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
pean immigration will flow upon the great central plateau, and
destitution will disappear from the republic.
At Tehuantepec it is the custom to elevate the sidewalks
adjoining the better buildings some three or four feet above
the level of the street, and, that this may not inconvenience the
pedestrian in crossing the street, the side of the sidewalk is
stepped, not only at the corners but along the sides of the
block. In these narrow streets hitching posts are out of the
question and if the owner of a building keeps a horse or mule
he sets a ring in the wall to tie his animal upon occasion. The
beast so tied occupies the sidewalk and the passer-by must
take to the street. 'Tis the custom of the land.
Mexico is a much churched country so far as buildings
go. In the state of Oaxaca alone there are more than a thou
sand temples of masonry. But when I visited Tehuantepec
the plight of the church was sad indeed. During the revolu
tion the monks had been expelled from their convent and the
building converted into a jail and barracks for soldiery. The
neighboring cathedral was used as a horse stable, the high
altar defiled in an indescribable manner, and the congregation
was obliged to worship in an adjoining chapel.
Tehuantepec is certainly well called the Holy City.
Churches abound; there is the cathedral and twelve ward
churches, one for each of the twelve barrios into which the
city is divided. The churches are massive structures of mason
ry, with walls of such thickness that the space within is very
confined and little room is left for the worshipers. To fully
accommodate the congregation the space in front of the church
is generally roofed over, as seen in the picture of the Church
of the Laborio, given in this volume. During service the
women sit on the floor of the church facing the altar while the

TEHUANTEPEC 55
male portion of the congregation stands at attention without
the door. The Indians are great church-goers. Male and female
they flock to church at every call of the bell. The Church
satisfies both their religious and their social needs. Adjoining
the main structure there is generally a vestry where the older
men congregate every Sunday to converse and smoke cigar
ettes, irrespective of whether or not there are religious serv
ices on that particular day. This appears to be quite a social
institution. Across the river from Tehuantepec, in the suburb of
Santa Maria, are three small conical hills, rising perhaps a
hundred feet above the surrounding level. On the summit of
each the piety of past ages has built a little chapel, while on
the summits of the larger hills round about the city rude
crosses have been erected. To chapel and cross the Indians
resort to pay their vows. Visiting one of these chapels you
may perchance find the door open, and looking in may see a
young mother crouching before a lighted taper set between
the flowers which she has brought to the fane. She is keeping
a vow for the safety of her first-born child.
It is the policy of the church to keep the Indian busy with
rites and pilgrimages. On the outskirts of Tehuantepec, across
the river to the northwest, lies Dani Lieza, a hill somewhat
higher than the three chapel-crowned eminences to which I
have alluded. In the face of this hill, near the summit, is a
shallow cave ; and passing through Tehauntepec of an evening
you will observe a bright light shining from the cave. For
the good people of that barrio have taken it upon themselves
to send by turns a messenger nightly up the steep ascent of
the hill to set candles upon an altar in the cave.

56 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
In the next chapter we speak more at length of the relig
ious functions so dear to the heart of the Tehuano.
The streets of Tehuantepec are infested by a liberal as
sortment of half-starved hogs, dogs and burros. The hog is
the scavenger of the place and it is well that he is, for all the
refuse is thrown into the streets. Were it not for the hog and
the dryness of the climate the people of Tehuantepec would
have long since perished to a man. As it is, it is accounted a
healthy place.
The dogs of that land are wretched creatures. The cli
mate is too hot for dogs, and the Indian neither feeds nor pets
them ; and shall we wonder that the Friend of Man, deprived
of his just due, reverts to the condition of his savage ancestor,
the wolf. Indeed, this is only another instance where the In
dian needs instruction ; he is kind-hearted toward his fellows,
but has never been taught the duty of humanity to animals.
So miserable was the condition of many a dog that I came upon
that I should have killed it, had I not been afraid of causing
a riot. I one day came upon a poor dog paralyzed in its hind
legs, hopping about the streets with its forefeet, emaciated to
a skeleton, and literally covered with enormous woodticks.
Bismillah, my heart swelled within me ; and yet the inhabitants
of the ward were totally oblivious of the poor creature's
misery. But the dogs of the few stray whites who dwell in the
land thrive and grow fat. Senor Naufal, a Maronite merchant
of Tehuantepec, had a dog called Sultan, a great portly yellow
fellow, the envy of the town. This knowing beast was not
even satisfied with the abundance he received at home, but
whenever he met the Traveler on the street, followed him to
that sumptuous hostelry, the Hotel la Perla, and taking his

TEHUANTEPEC 57
seat beside him, put on his very best behavior, as a wise dog
will, lest he lose his share of the feast.
The dogs of the Isthmus have a peculiar custom of sleep
ing in the middle of the street ; and often in the daytime also,
when it is not too hot, you may see them lying there. I have
never heard this explained. Possibly it is to avoid vermin,
or it may be on account of the heat derived from the sand.
Passing through the streets of Tehuantepec of a morning
you are certain to encounter numerous burros, each with four
Standard Oil cans on his back, two on either side. You will
be run down if you are not careful, as the burros are not led.
A boy follows after with whip in hand and the burros, with
a wholesome respect for the whip, trot before, stopping at
every doorway for a possible sale ; for this, you must know, is
the city water department. The well water is alkaline and all
drinking water must be brought from the river. When their
loads are disposed of, the burros make back for the river, the
empty cans on their backs making a prodigious clatter as they
trot down the street.

CHAPTER IV.
DON CARLOS DE SAN BLAS.
HAVING thus briefly described the city and its envi
rons, it now behooveth me to tell thee of my exper
iences therein, even as I have aforetime promised
thee, 0 son of my sister. And of those things which I shall
relate take heed that thou question not, for I swear by the
Name graven on the signet of the Great King that the same
are true beyond the peradventure of a doubt.
Late in January of the year 1918 I took the 4:30 a. m.
train at Salina Cruz, arriving in Tehuantepec a little after
five. My friend Don Carlos met me at the station. It being
so early, we decided to take a stroll before breakfast. We
passed between Tiger Hill and another "cerro," both cactus
clad, toward the city cemetery. The mist was on the hills and
as we gazed up through the mist I noticed that the cacti on
the hilltops were tipped with black. Guess the explanation.
They were crowned with buzzards. The buzzards had certainly
chosen roosts where they were safe from attack, if that was
their object, though what would attack a buzzard I cannot
imagine. At any rate it seems the great organ cactus is their
favorite roost.
We passed on to the cemetery. Like the ordinary Span
ish cemetery it was enclosed by a high stone wall, but unlike it
the graves were not in niches in the wall but were laid out
upon the ground. In the center of the cemetery was a mag
nificent mausoleum containing the remains of the principal
woman of the town, Dona Juana Romero. She had died about
58

DON CARLOS DE SAN BLAS 59
two years before. Gazing through the plateglass doors of the
tomb we saw her casket, against the opposite wall an altar
surmounted by a beautiful brazen cross, and on each side of
the casket an immense candle fully three inches in diameter,
of pure beeswax. Don Carlos looked lovingly upon the latter
as he had the monopoly of the beeswax business in that part
of the country.
A unique feature of the cemetery was a miniature repro
duction of a Mexican church, bell-tower and all. It was the
tomb of one of the leading citizens. And near the center of
the enclosure was another feature of a nature not so pleasing.
Here was an extensive area covered with red tile flagging,
and Don Carlos told me that beneath the flagging lay the
remains of the many who had perished of yellow fever in the
years that had passed. That was many years back. There
has been no epidemic of yellow fever on the Isthmus of recent
years. I was disposed to linger amid these scenes but the
mercurial Don Carlos was of a different opinion. He had al
ready planned a walk around Tiger Hill, so we bade farewell
to the city of the dead and resumed our trip. A half hour's
walk brought us to San Bias, a suburb of Tehuantepec with a
population of three or four thousand. As we entered the
place Don Carlos' quick eye noted a large cotton tree. It was
in full bloom and, early as it was, one of his bees was at work
on each blossom.
Another fifteen minutes brought us to the principal
church of the place. We must attend church, for a due respect
for things ecclesiastical meant an increased sale of beeswax to
make the all-essential candle ; so we made our way toward the
church door. Inside the church the women, heads covered with
their beautiful lace huipiles grandes, sat in rows upon the

60 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
pavement, while the men filled the entrance and the space
before the door, which was roofed over to protect them from
the sun. An aged priest in full vestments was intoning the
mass ; an orchestra, for want of an organ, filling in the inter
vals. Now it so happened that the good old priest was as deaf
as an adder, and the musicians had taken advantage of his mis
fortune to play a dance tune instead of the sacred music pre
scribed. The congregation seemed thoroughly satisfied, their
point of view seeming to be that as the priest was deceived it
was all right.
We now proceeded on our way and eventually got back to
Tehuantepec and in a few minutes reached the municipal
center, which in Tehuantepec consists of a plaza or park with
an adjoining market. As in the case of most Indian towns,
stores such as exist in more northern lands are of minor conse
quence, most of the retail business of the place being trans
acted in the market. Thither every morning the Tehuanas
foregather with their wares.
The Tehuantepec market is famed throughout the Isth
mus. It is housed under a great tile roof supported by im
mense pillars of masonry. The market was jamb full of Te
huanas clad in the brightest colors imaginable. There were
few things which could not be bought in that market but what
interested me most were the fruits. Almost every sort of
tropical fruit was to be had ; great pineapples ; luscious chicos ;
fresh coconuts, each enclosing a good cool drink; immense
papayas; in fact, everything except oranges, which were ap
parently not in season.
The fruits investigated, we passed on to the flower mar
ket. One aisle of the market was occupied by the flower girls.
The display here was well worth seeing for I doubt if there is
among the children of men a race more fond of flowers than

Ifnlitli

r-i*>os*i

American Consulate, Salina Cruz

DON CARLOS DE SAN BLAS 61
the Tehuanos. Many of the little holdings on the outskirts of
the city are devoted exclusively to flower culture. Sunday
and Thursday are red-letter days in the flower market. In
the morning long trains of women troop toward the market
bearing on their heads great trays of flowers. These flowers
are sold during the day and in the cool of the afternoon an
other procession of women sets forth for the cemetery with
flowers to decorate the graves of the dead — a beautiful custom.
Escaping from the buzz of the market, Don Carlos and
I lunched at an adjoining restaurant; after which we made
our way toward Santa Maria, across the river from Tehuan
tepec. There was to be a fiesta there (it was the patron saint's
day) and we had invited ourselves to the function.
We arrived at the scene of festivities. A lively dance was
in progress in a great covered court. About the entrance many
booths had been erected at which all sorts of goodies were be
ing sold. Hot and thirsty after our walk under the broiling
January sun, we felt particularly in need of a good cool drink
and after looking about a bit decided on tamarind. You have
doubtless been accustomed to think of tamarind as a drug, but
I can assure you it makes a very pleasant drink. The woman
who served us took from a bottle a tamarind ball about an inch
in diameter, dropped it into a glass, and, filling the glass with
water, handed it to me. A few turns of the spoon sufficed to
dissolve the tamarind, and the result was a drink fit for a
king. The tamarind tree is very common in that land. It bears
an abundance of large beanlike pods containing beans em
bedded in a green pulpy substance, the tamarind of commerce.
Considering its cheapness it is a wonder that it has never been
introduced into either Europe or the United States as a
beverage.

62 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
When we entered the dance court there must have been
at least fifty couples on the floor. Being foreigners, and hence
distinguished visitors, we were immediately seized by certain
of the old men who were acting as the reception committee,
and taken to seats of dignity at the west end of the court.
Everyone of them, after the manner of elderly Zapotecs, wore
a little pointed beard,* and they were wonderfully polite and
hospitable. Nothing would do but we must go straight to -the
table and pledge them in a glass of strong mescal, and every
few minutes one of their number would come up to replenish
our glass. Among the dancers were four or five mestizo men, but all
the others, and the women without exception, were Indian.
All the women were dressed in full Tehuana ball costume: A
full skirt with a white flounce, the latter generally of fine
lace; a loose sleeveless jacket (the huipil) of red, purple, or
brown, with large white or yellow polka dots, trimmed with
broad bands of yellow embroidery; and chains of gold coins
about their necks. Their hair was worn in two braids tied
with pink ribbons, and each wore artificial flowers of the
brightest hue over her temples. As though this were not
color enough, each girl carried a silk handkerchief of red,
purple, blue, yellow, or some other gaudy color. Many of them
were, without exaggeration, dressed in every color of the rain
bow. With white women the result would have been ridic
ulous, but Tehuanas look charming in bright colors.
It is difficult to keep away from Tehuantepec. Early
March found me there again. In the morning Don Carlos and
I went out to visit a Mr. Wilbur Barker, an American who
*The Zapotecs, to which race the Tehuanos pertain, are much more
hairy than the northern Indian. Frequently the arms of the woman are
quite hairy, although the hair of their heads is noticeably short.

DON CARLOS DE SAN BLAS 63
had a small plantation in improved varieties of tropical fruits ;
principally coconuts and aguacates (alligator pears). The
trees were well started and in a few years would be bringing
him good money ; for though the Indian lacks the initiative to
procure and set out new sorts, he knows good fruit when he
sees it and is ready to pay the price. Barker also had a few
young bamboo trees. The bamboo is not native to these parts
and these were the only ones I met with while on the Pacific
plains. Mr. Barker has since been appointed American vice
consul at Salina Cruz.
We returned toward town, walking between lofty hedge
fences of Spanish plum and the Mexican mucilage tree (Gula-
bere). This is the land of the living fence. Several species
of bushes and trees make excellent fence material, the piiion
or tropical birch, the mucilage tree, and the Spanish plum
being most generaly used for this purpose.
The mucilage tree is a showy tree full of light yellow
flowers the greater part of the year, which flowers are suc
ceeded by large berries resembling white currants in appear
ance. The juice of these berries is extensively used as a substi
tute for the mucilage of commerce. On the bookkeeper's desk
you will generally find a bunch of them, which are crushed as
needed. If at a business office you ask for mucilage, they will
hand you one of these berries. The extracted juice may be
bottled and kept for a considerable time.
The Spanish plum is one of the best fencing materials.
In two or three years from planting it develops into a sturdy
little tree six inches in diameter with a beautiful top, and in
season is loaded with an abundance of fruit, yellow or red.
The Spanish plum is quite a different article from the true
plum, though in flavor somewhat resembling the latter. It is
extensively used for preserves.

64 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
I have already mentioned the organ cactus. It is the best
of all hedge plants both on account of its great beauty and
because it does not require irrigation and forms the most
effectual barrier against livestock. But cactus hedges are the
least used as more labor is required in starting them.
In the cool of the afternoon we hunted up the local judge
and started for the top of Tiger Hill to see the tiger's cave.
It was a long steep climb up narrow rocky gullies, with cacti
of many sorts growing on either hand. We did not come with
in sight of the peak until we were almost upon it. Then what
was our surprise to see it surmounted by what appeared to be
a pyramid of gaily-dressed Tehuanas. I was at a loss to ac
count for the phenomenom until coming closer, we perceived
that in some past time a stepped pyramid of brick had been
erected upon the summit.
It being Sunday, the Tehuanas had climbed the hill in
obedience to a vow, and were standing on the steps of the
pyramid trying to light the candles which they had placed
between the three crosses which surmounted it. Unfortunately
a stiff norther was blowing, which extinguished the candles
as fast as they were lit.
It is indeed a glorious vision which the traveler beholds
from the summit of Tiger Hill ; in the foreground the hills of
the Holy City while beyond in every direction stretches the
verdant plain, as level as a floor, save where here and there
solitary cerros lift their heads. Far to the northwest, seven
leagues away, tower the azure heights of Quiengola, rich in
legend; a lofty rampart walls in the plain until in the far
northeast the eye falls on pictured Dani Guiati ; and away to
the east, on the placid bosom of the great lagoon, sits the Isle
of the Enchanted Cave. The scene is grand beyond descrip
tion, nor could I find it in my heart to blame those gentle
Tehuanas if they had, as I half suspected, made the perform-

DON CARLOS DE SAN BLAS 65
ance of a vow but the pretense to excuse their journey to this
point of vantage.
The judge now explained that the tiger's cave was down
from the summit about fifty feet on the side opposite that
which we had ascended. Don Carlos, however, who had a soft
spot in his heart for fair women, refused to budge from the
neighborhood of the living pyramid; arguing that our objec
tive had been the summit of the hill, not the cave. So we left
him with the Tehuanas, who were seven, and began the descent
to the cave.
Ten minutes brought us to the mouth of the cave. The
entrance was very narrow and at a distance of eight or ten
feet the cavern branched into three corridors which ascended
at a steep angle into the heart of the hill. It was an ideal lair
for the tiger, and I do not wonder that with this means of
retreat he was able to set the town at defiance and make way
with many a head of young stock and an occasional youngster
before he was slain. Many generations have passed since the
tiger met his fate, but the remembrance of his ferocious deeds
still lives in the folklore of the people.
"There is a painting on the roof of the cave, made by the
Indians of the olden time," said the judge, "perhaps you would
like to see it." Of course I would, and so, although the cave
was very low, we entered it. And on the roof of the corridor
to the left, only a few feet from the outer entrance, we found
the painting. It was in black and was evidently intended to
represent a tiger.
Returning to the summit, we found Don Carlos deeply
enamored of three or four of the Indian maidens, but we
finally got him started and placing him before us, so as to
preclude the possibility of retreat, began the descent. When
we were halfway down the hill we turned and saw the Te-

66 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
huanas waving their handkerchiefs at us. Some of the hand
kerchiefs were red, some green, some yellow, and some white,
and as usual the girls were clad in every color of the rainbow.
I had the only handkerchief in our party. The Don borrowed
it of me and returned the salute ; after which he felt better.
Seizing the opportunity, I reminded him that something might
have occurred to his beloved bees during our absence, and he
fairly rushed down the hill with us at his heels.
The lure of the old town is irresistible and it was not
long before I found myself there once more. We were a party
of four and we took our way across the bridge to the suburb
of Santa Maria. This suburb has a fine church which we pro
ceeded to visit.
We found at the entrance a worthy Indian of great
breadth, who informed us that he was the principal (senior
warden) of the church and courteously offered to show us
through the edifice. Among other images which graced its
walls (may Allah forgive His servant for gazing upon them)
was a Black Christ. Our guide assured us that many para
lytics annually visited the church and kissing the Black Christ
were cured of their infirmities.
As we passed from the church the principal directed our
attention to the western bell tower. The bells were swung
by hand and it sometimes happened that a bell thrower lost
his footing and fell from the tower. Miraculous powers were,
it seemed, associated with the tower, for the principal assured
us that if a person falling from the tower cried "Asuncion
de la Augusta" he would not be harmed. This he said had
happened on several occasions. Questioned closer, he stated
that all those who had fallen had failed to utter the mystic
words while in mid air — which I can well believe — and had

DON CARLOS DE SAN BLAS 67
been injured or killed by the fall; which of course was proof
sufficient. In parting, the principal pressed us to attend a dance to
be held that afternoon. So after dinner we set out for the
barrio in which the function was to take place. On arrival
we found the house well filled with dancing Indians. After
each set the male dancers took seats on one side of the hall,
the Tehuanas on the other. Over at the end, behind a huge
table, sat the principal, who was officiating as master of cere
monies, surrounded by the members of the vestry; for the
dance, you must know, was a strictly church affair, though
the master of the house was expected to foot the bill.
We had come because two of our party had cameras and
we had been told the Tehuanas at this dance would be espe
cially handsome ; and so they were. Six beauties sat together,
and other six, not quite so pretty, next to them. At the first
intermission our photographers got busy with the girls, who
proved coy, after the manner of their sex. We thereupon re
sorted to strategy. Don Carlos and myself presented our
selves before the principal and his reverend colleagues and
gravely requested an "order" requiring the Tehuanas to sub
mit. The principal with great dignity acceded to the request
and I turned back to secure the photos. But even as I did so
the Don rushed upon us in great excitement, his eyes fairly
bursting from their sockets, with the announcement that we
had stirred up a veritable hornet's nest.
The master of the house had taken umbrage because we
had called upon the principal for assistance instead of calling
upon him. We returned to the table. A heated debate was in
progress between the two worthies. Each stood upon his
rights and neither would yield. All the men gathered about
the two disputants. The atmosphere grew every moment hot-

68 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
ter, and we finally decided we had best decamp. But on turn
ing to leave we discovered that our men had in the meantime
secured the coveted photographs, having represented to the
Tehuanas that the Traveler was very angry with them because
they would not permit the taking of their pictures.
I am very glad that I visited Tehuantepec on Good Friday.
It was a great day in the ancient city. In the morning we
went to the cathedral. The images of Christ, the Virgin, and
St. John, dressed in the most gorgeous apparel, were brought
out and paraded about the church. Christ was represented
in the likeness of a brown man, a concession to the Indians.
They held a long service before the image of Christ, who
was represented as carrying his cross, but clad in a rich robe
of blue velvet and with a golden auriole over his head. He was
attended by four little girls dressed up as angels with wings,
bearing little silver swords.
After this the chancel was converted into a stage, on
which was portrayed the old story of the Crucifixion. It was all
very realistic. Three crosses were erected, on which were
hung life-size figures of Christ and the two thieves. The
images of the Virgin, St. John, and the Magdalen were brought
to the foot of the cross, while certain men dressed as Roman
soldiers and others carried the spear with which his side was
pierced, the sponge, etc. Finally He was taken down from the
cross and buried; and in the last act He was being carried
about in state in a glass casket.
Now the ringing of bells is not permitted on Good Friday.
So instead of ringing bells, at appropriate times during the
service they shook a three-sided box having iron knockers on
the side, which made a tremendous racket.
After the service we went over to the plaza where we

. — ^ u£9| •• ," ^HMg OI - - v

Two Damsels of Tehuantepec in Gorgeous A Little Tehuana in National Zapotec Costume
Tehuana Costume

DON CARLOS DE SAN BLAS 69
found things the reverse of religious. All one side of the plaza
was occupied by gaming tables of one sort and another. Money
was piled high on every table and the games were in full swing.
Along the full length of a second side booths had been im
provised for the sale of liquor ; of whose potency we were well
able to judge by the number of "hombres" we saw making
their way toward home in the evening, with three sheets in
the wind, tacking from side to side as they went.
Every now and then a posse of police passed in the act of
conducting some over-hilarious individual to jail. The drunken
Indian is naturally about as unmanageable as those of his class
the world over, but the Mexican police have discovered a
unique method of expediting his movements. A stout staff is
passed through his belt at the back and given a twist. With
a policeman at each end of the staff and two others grasping
the culprit by either hand, he is kept on his feet and hustled
off to jail, whether or no.
This was of course a great occasion for the women. There
is a fine park in the plaza, surrounded by a wide brick-paved
walk. Here, in the cool of the afternoon, the belles of the town
foregathered and promenaded, dressed in their many-colored
skirts and gorgeously embroidered jackets, with huipiles
grandes of richly colored silk and fine lace surmounting all.
This huipil grande was evidently once an embroidered
upper garment, but has been reduced in size and metamor
phosed into the headdress of state. It consists of a body of
yellow or green, embroidered with orange or blood red, and
trimmed with a collar and deep flounce of stiffly starched
lace. In church the huipil grande is brought up over the head,
the lace collar fitting about the face so as to give these daugh
ters of the sun a rather nunnish appearance. But on leaving
the church it is pushed back and falls from the hair, trailing

70 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
down the back. The impression is much better. It reminds
one of the conventional Indian headdress of eagle feathers and
may perhaps be derived from it.
It is said that the number of handsome Tehuanas fre
quenting the streets was formerly far greater than at present.
It seems to have been the custom of certain lawless military
officers to carry off Tehuanas whenever it suited their fancy.
I was told that one of the most beautiful young women of the
town was spirited away in this manner. After a time she
escaped and returned to her home. Shame preyed upon her
and after a little she lost her reason. Such conditions existing,
it is not to be wondered at that many families had sent their
daughters away to dwell with friends in the fastnesses of the
mountains until the return of peace.
Perhaps I should mention here the matter of baptism.
Baptism is a great institution among the Indians. Of course
no children were baptized on Good Friday, but on ordinary
occasions one always saw a number of mothers bringing their
latest offspring to the cathedral for baptism. The event was
duly advertised by the proud parents, each baby being covered
with a pink silk handkerchief purchased expressely for the
occasion.

I had several dear friends in Santa Maria, across the
river from Tehuantepec. Mr. Barker has been mentioned.
Then there was another American, Clarence Harvey, who
lived in a little street behind the Santa Maria church, and
with him his younger brothers and sisters. There was Guen-
dolina, my paisana, a wonderful creature, but who, being a
good Catholic, never ceased to rate me because I had four
wives back in Persia ; there was Anastasia, stern as her eccles
iastical name; and two little brothers whose freckled faces

DON CARLOS DE SAN BLAS 71
bore witness to their northern blood. As I write, word comes
that they have all left with Clarence for Laguna Perdida in
the heart of the great forests of northern Guatemala.
Up the river a mile from the home of the Harveys, right
at the foot of Dani Lieza, lived old John Story, superintendent
of the pumps which furnished Salina Cruz with water. Story
was a great character. He was a one-armed man and well
past seventy, but bubbling over with life and as game as a
fighting cock. He formed a great liking for me. Don Carlos
had strict orders to send him word whenever I was expected
at Tehuantepec and I seldom alighted from the train but I
found Story on hand, insistent on immediate adjournment to
the Hotel La Perla for the all-essential glass of beer.
With a couple of bumpers of beer stowed away, the old
man grew loquacious, and would sit there reciting selections
from Bobbie Burns and singing the Song of the Alamo for
hours at a time.
But when autumn came and the bandits began to multiply
in the land the old man's joyous days came to an end. A know
ing bandit, reflecting that Story must draw a good salary as
superintendent of the pumps, made him a call and suggested
that he contribute two hundred pesos to the rebel cause. Upon
meeting with a refusal he left, but promised to call again.
Story at once sent for me and I left for Tehuantepec on the
next train. I conferred with the colonel in command of that
military zone, who promised to send a squad of soldiers to
protect the pumps. The soldiers were sent but after a few
days were withdrawn.
Story now prepared for trouble. He knew it was but a
matter of a few nights before the bandits would be upon him.
He accordingly secured a couple of revolvers and sent his fam
ily into the town every night. His helpers at the pumps, hav-

72 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
ing no liking for trouble, also left the place at sundown. The
old man was alone. Then the expected happened.
One evening Don Carlos telephoned me that there had
been trouble at the pumps. I took the morning train for Te
huantepec. Don Carlos met me at the station and together we
hastened across the river and made for Dani Lieza. We found
the hero of the Alamo sitting on the veranda of his house on the
hillside just above the pumps.
"How's everything, Story?" I asked. "Oh, everything is
all hunky-dory," he responded. "Had a little excitement last
night, guess Don Carlos told you. After everyone had left the
place, about nine o'clock, the bandits showed up ; quite a band
of 'em. They invited me to come out for a parley, but I
thought I'd better stay inside. Then they opened fire on the
house. Just look here." And with that he showed me over
the place. It was one of those Pearson frame houses and had
been literally riddled with balls during the night's encounter.
"I stayed here in the dark and fired through the window,"
Story resumed. "Couldn't do much, you know, as it takes lots
of time to load where a fellow has only one hand. But I feel
pretty sure that I got one of them. There were traces of
blood when we examined the ground this morning."
The inspection over, we sat down again and discussed the
situation. In the end I assured him that I would see that a
detachment of soldiers was stationed there permanently. We
shook hands and the Don and I made off for Tehuantepec. A
little pressure secured the desired guard for the pumps.
I am told that there has been no more trouble in the neigh
borhood of Dani Lieza and that the old man is alive and pros
pering; but this I know, that the pumps will never be taken
by any rebel band, save over the dead body of old John Story.

CHAPTER V.
FARTHER AFIELD.
THE picture of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec which I
conjured up when as a child I bent over my little
primary geography, was that of a depression, prac
tically at sea level, separating the plateau region of central
Mexico from the highlands of Chiapas and Central America ;
an impression which, I imagine, does not differ greatly from
that of most otherwise well-informed readers. But it is very
far from the reality. Everyone has heard more or less of the
various schemes for constructing a canal or ship railway
across the Isthmus. These schemes all came to naught because
the Isthmus was not a plain, but was on the contrary inter
sected by a mountain range many miles in width. It is a con
troverted question whether Captain Ead's plan for a ship
railway and Captain Shufeldt's project for a canal were either
of these feasible. Both involved works rising from sea level
to a height of over 700 feet and the traversing of many miles
of mountainous country.
The Isthmus of Tehuantepec runs in a direct east and
west line between the southwestern extremity of the Gulf of
Mexico on the north and the Gulf, or rather Bight, of Te
huantepec on the south. Across country from Puerto Mexico
on the Gulf to the shores of the Upper Lagoon, which connects
with the Pacific, the distance is but 125 miles ; though the dis
tance by rail from Puerto Mexico to Salina Cruz is 189 miles.
The dominant feature of this region is the great river
Coatzacoalcos. This stream rises in the rocky defiles of the
73

74 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
Chimalapa Mountains, within less than forty miles of the
Pacific, flows in a northwesterly direction until joined by the
Escolapa from the south and then, bending sharply to the
north, proceeds almost directly north to the latitude of Santa
Lucrecia, where it is joined by the Jaltepec. At Santa Lu-
crecia the Coatzacoalcos turns abruptly to the right and flows
in a general northeasterly direction until it enters the Gulf
at Puerto Mexico. It is a majestic river nearly a half mile
in width in its lower reaches, and is navigable for ocean going
vessels as far up as Minatitlan.
The northern third of the Isthmus, as far south as Santa
Lucrecia, is included within the Gulf plains, the true tierra
caliente of Mexico, a region covered with dense jungle, save
where cleared by man. The center, from Santa Lucrecia to
within thirty miles of the Pacific, is a mountainous region,
though an ever narrowing continuation of the Gulf plain
stretches back from the east bank of the Coatzacoalcos from
this point into the very heart of the mountains. At its mouth
in the latitude of Santa Lucrecia this valley is perhaps thirty
miles wide, narrowing as it enters the mountains and finally
disappearing as Santa Maria Chimalapa is neared.
Santa Lucrecia is at the junction of the Tehuantepec and
Vera Cruz al Istmo railroads, and thus is the gateway to the
Pacific region of the Isthmus ; for in normal times when travel
is safe the traveler will land at Vera Cruz and proceed by the
Vera Cruz al Istmo line to Santa Lucrecia, where he will put
up for the night, catching the morning train southbound. The
point is strategic, being not only at the junction of the only
two railroads in the northern part of the Isthmus, but also
finely situated at the junction of the Coatzacoalcos with its
most important tributary, the Jaltepec, and surrounded by

FARTHER AFIELD 75
lands of wonderful fertility. But for some reason the place
has not grown. It is still a small village of no commercial
importance. Immediately south of Santa Lucrecia the railroad crosses
the Jaltepec or Rio de los Mijes, at that point some 300 feet
wide. This beautiful stream has its source in the Mije Sierra,
a densely wooded district formerly inhabited by the once pow
erful Mije (or Mixe) Indians, who still inhabit the town of
San Juan Guichicovi.
South of the Jaltepec the railroad keeps well to the west
of the Coatzacoalcos and at a distance of thirty or forty miles
the scenery begins to change. The tropical landscape of the
plains is left behind ; the country through which we are speed
ing becomes broken and wild. Stony hills stretch away to the
west, while in the distant east tower the rugged ramparts of
the mountains of Chimalapa. Higher and higher the train
rushes through the hills, which now assume a wild grandeur,
and approach nearer and nearer, until at Chivela we reach
the summit of the pass.* Just west of the summit on the
crest of a high hill is a watch-tower, a monument to mark the
summit of the pass.
On the Isthmus the sierra takes an east and west direc
tion and, compared with the adjoining plateaux of Chiapas
and Oaxaca, is at this point both low and narrow. The high
est peaks have an elevation of less than 3,000 feet and the
mountain passes and plateaux of Chivela and Tarifa about
800 feet ; and the width of the mountain barrier is at its nar
rowest part barely twenty-five miles. This transverse moun
tain mass is composed of two limestone ranges, the northern
or Majada Range and the southern or Masahua Range, be
tween which lies a high synclinal valley constituting the table
•The pass is 778 feet above sea level.

76 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
lands of Tarifa and Chivela. The Masahua seems to be the
continuation of the Sierra Madre and forms the true dividing
ridge between the two oceans.
This mountain region abounds in beautiful scenery. Per
haps the most interesting locality is along the upper reaches
of the Monetza River. This river springs from under
a Gothic arch cut by its waters in the southwestern ex
tremity of the Convento Hill. The hill consists of pure black
marble, and the walls of the arch or tunnel which traverses
it are perforated and jagged, pouring in all directions fine
transparent streams of crystalline and delicious water. This
natural arch or bridge is twenty-five feet high, twenty-three
feet broad, and one hundred and twenty feet long. A thou
sand yards below this point the stream, flowing over a black
bed of fantastically water-worn rocks, plunges into a grand
cave fully a mile and a half in length, called the Large Con
vento. From Chivela the line descends and we pass rapidly
through San Geronimo, Tehuantepec, and Salina Cruz, the
cities of the Pacific plain. This district, much the smaller of
the three regions in to which the Isthmus is divided, has ever
been the more important notwithstanding, and our story lies
principally there.
The Pacific plains are but the continuation above sea
level of the Gulf of Tehuantepec ; indeed it cannot be so very
far back in geologic ages that the plains were themselves sub
merged, the Pacific washing the very feet of the mountains,
for even as late as a hundred years ago, if tradition is to be
believed, the great lagoons were much more extensive than
at present. These lagoons, of which there are four, known as the
Upper, Lower, Eastern, and Western (or Tilema) lagoons,
stretch fully thirty-five miles from east to west by fifteen

FARTHER AFIELD 77
miles from north to south. The Upper Lagoon, which is much
the larger of the four, discharges through the Santa Teresa
channel into the Lower Lagoon, which in turn communicates
with the sea by the Boca Barra. There is scarcely any per
ceptible tide in the lagoons, but being very shallow — depths
of twelve feet are uncommon — and entrance from the sea
being with difficulty effected because of the shifting sands,
strong currents, and heavy surfs to be contended with at the
Boca Barra, they cannot be utilized for marine purposes.
The natural entrance, the Boca Barra, is utterly impractic
able. The current is very swift, so that boats can with diffi
culty breast it, and the sea breaks a mile from the beach, send
ing in a surf that is impossible to work in. At some distant
date an artificial entrance will perhaps be constructed, making
of this group of lagoons one of the best harbors in the world.
In the meantime these lagoons will continue to be the
sportsman's paradise. Fish and wild fowl abound. The four
villages of Huave Indians situate upon the shores of the la
goons are supported entirely by the fisheries, the product
being shipped to all the cities of the plain.
From the lagoons seven rivers radiate, crossing the plain
like the spokes of a great wheel. Of these the Tehuantepec
River alone does not now reach the lagoons, but enters the
ocean at La Ventosa, some twenty-five miles west of Boca
Barra. Anciently, however, it entered the Tilema Lagoon
and the old bed may still be traced from a point a short dis
tance north of Huilotepec, eastward across the plain to the
west end of the lagoon. This river has its source away back
among the mountains of Oaxaca, it was along its course that
the conquering Zapotecs first made their way to the plains,
and it still remains the most generally used highway.
The location of Tehuantepec, on the river half way be
tween the mountains and its mouth at Ventosa Bay, was doubt-

78 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
less largely determined by these trade considerations. Not
all the Indians one sees at Tehuantepec are clad in Tehuano
costume ; in fact, in the market the dress of the mountaineers
(Vallistas) is almost as common. These people are merchants
from the mountains and the upper valley of the Tehuantepec
River. They come with strings of mules and burros laden with
the products of the tierra templada; sweet potatoes, Chinese
pomegranates, apples, quinces, peaches, immense thornapples
(tejocote), kindling wood of fat pine (ocote), beans, pecans,
etc. When these are disposed of they load their beasts with
the produce of the plains and return to their mountain homes.
Tehuantepec, as stated in the chapter devoted to that city,
lies between the river and the adjacent hills. Just beyond
those hills to the southeast lies the suburban town of San
Bias, and one stopping off at Tehuantepec will get but a super
ficial idea of the Indian, who looms so largely in those parts,
if he fails to visit San Bias. It is but a fifteen minutes' walk
from the plaza to Tehuantepec, and yet as you tread its streets
you feel that you have at last entered a city untainted by the
white man's civilization.
The population of the place is entirely Indian, and Indian
of the most conservative type. Even the white-flounced skirt,
sacred badge of the Tehuana, is almost totally lacking. The
women of San Bias prefer the refajo or wrapper of their an
cestors, though with them it is invariably of some bright color
as distinguished from the white wrapper of the mountaineers.
The place constitutes a separate municipality, Indian mayor
and all, and has steadfastly turned a deaf ear to all talk of
union with Tehuantepec.
Among other ancient customs San Bias possesses that of
the barbecue. While I was on the Isthmus the mayor of the
place, who resembled politicians the world over, decided to

FARTHER AFIELD 79
further ingratiate himself with the leading citizens by giving
a barbecue, and invitations were sent out accordingly. The
federal judge stationed at Tehuantepec, his wife, myself, and
of course the indispensable Don Carlos Parkins, were among
those invited. The entertainment was held in a commodious
building near the municipal center.
I had always supposed a barbecue to consist of an animal
roasted whole; but be that as it may, on this occasion the
repast was limited to ox heads ! Large plates were placed be
fore the guests, on each of which was deposited a substantial
ox head, horns and all. A flagon of beer was placed beside
each plate and then we were handed sharp knives and told to
get busy. The menu, ox heads and beer ! Yes, nothing more.
We were not permitted to overlook the purpose for which
the barbecue was given. Barbaric as you may think the re
past, it was prefaced with the usual flourish of Mexican ora
tory. The judge must first voice in ponderous periods the
community's deep appreciation of the mayor's civic services.
The latter of course responded, modestly disclaiming all merit
in himself and imputing the marked progress of the town
during the year last past to the 'enlightened and valorous'
nature of the electorate. Then, after we had at the instance
of the master of ceremonies, pledged the mayor in divers
bumpers of beer, we turned our attention to the ox heads.
Being a political function, only members of the sterner
sex (the judge's wife excepted, of course) had been invited.
There were twenty of us present and we fell to with gusto,
being heartily hungry after the long preliminaries. Ox heads
disappeared as if by magic, and as fast as they disappeared
before the onslaughts of the heavier eaters barefooted Indian
maidens removed the trenchers and returned with a fresh
"portion."

80 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
Moved by a desire to appear appreciative of the honor
bestowed upon us, we did our best to follow the example of our
betters, a task at which Don Carlos at least succeeded fairly
well. He ate and ate, cutting and tearing great chunks from
his ox head, — the while he, after the approved fashion, scat
tered compliments right and left among the pretty female
attendants — until I verily feared he would burst.
The dinner over we all arose and each in turn thanked
the mayor for his never-to-be-forgotten hospitality, shook him
effusively by the hand and, Mexican fashion, pounded him af
fectionately on the back. Then, departing, we crossed the
flank of Tiger Hill to the summit which bounds San Bias on
that side, and so looked down upon Tehuantepec.
But it is time we returned to our description of the seven
rivers of the Pacific plain. The first of these, the Tehuantepec
River, we have described. The next four discharge their wa
ters into the Upper Lagoon. Of these the more westerly, the
Rio de Perros, is also at present the most important, for on its
banks are San Geronimo and Juchitan, after Tehuantepec the
principal cities of the plain.
San Geronimo, a place of some 6,000 inhabitants, is at the
junction of the Tehuantepec and Pan American railways and
is destined to become an important commercial center. Its
sole industry at the present time is the Cerveceria del Istmo,
the only brewery in that part of Mexico; but with settled
conditions restored, it will be a leading center for the collec
tion of timber, coffee, hides, and other produce for export.
In fact, the Compania Comercial de Puebla, an American
controlled corporation, has already built a well-equipped estab
lishment at this point, and its genial manager, Mr. A. A.

FARTHER AFIELD 81
Melby, has built up a considerable business in corn, coffee,
hides and deerskins.
I know not whether San Geronimo derived its name from
the Latin father who wrote the Vulgate or from my old friend
Don Jeronimo Mahoney of Reforma — it matters not, for they
were both holy men — but certain I am that it is in appearance
the least attractive of the cities of the plain ; and this not be
cause of natural disadvantages, for its scenic attractions are
unsurpassed. To the southeast, a bare two miles distant, rises
the isolated cerro of Dani Guiati ; to the west tower the outer
most ranges of the Mountains of Oaxaca, broken only in the
center where a transverse depression leads back toward the
Valley of Oaxaca; while directly north lie the picturesque
mountains of the Pass of Chivela. Nor is the site of the town
itself without merit; it lies down by the river amid rolling
hills embowered for the greater part in verdure. But San Ge
ronimo has been not only the favored child but also the victim
of circumstance. While the coming of the railroads has in
sured her future it has also split the town in two; and the
Old Town, typically Mexican, lies in the river bottom a mile
west of the station about which the New Town has grown.
I do not suppose the New Town numbers a thousand
souls, and yet it is the business end of the place, all the com
mercial houses being situated there. A couple of blocks
northwest from the station stands the brewery, the Cerveceria
del Istmo, a fine brick pile and the most imposing edifice of the
place; while at the other extremity of the New Town lies the
huge compound of the Compania Commercial de Puebla. In
close proximity live quite a number of Americans, some con
nected with one or the other of these establishments and some
engaged in other lines of business ; among whom I take pleas
ure in mentioning George H. Adamik, for many years a di-

82 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
rector at the brewery ; Mrs. Laura K. Delplain, an aunt of Mrs.
O'Shaughnessy of international literary fame; and Meyer
Newmark, local representative of San Francisco lumber in
terests. Near the center of the town dwelt old Arturo Green,
an American who had come there in early days, married a
Tehuana, and become expatriate; despite which there was
none more persistent than old Arturo in insisting that he was
as good an American as ever.
A very crooked road led away over red clay ridges from
the heart of the New Town to the heart of the Old, and all the
way houses were scattered over the arid plain in the most
promiscuous manner, without any regard to each other or to
the points of the compass, for all the world as though they had
taken their cue not from the Polar Star but from the afore
said crooked road. In Mexico generally building restrictions
seem to be non-existent and everyone builds exactly as he
pleases, frequently with unfortunate results to the symmetry
of cities. But among the Mexican towns with which I am,
acquainted San Geronimo is easily the worst offender in this
respect. One day of the days when it so happened that I was in
San Geronimo, I accompanied Bolivar S. Kelly, superinten
dent of the brewery, and a number of boon companions on a
trip to the Old Town. We first visited the market, where
Kelly had assured me we should find some decidedly hand
some Tehuanas. Our visit was a failure; the market was
indeed full of life but it was in every way inferior to that of
Tehuantepec. The place was dirty, the articles displayed for
sale were uninteresting and, worst of all, the Tehuanas in
attendance were far from attractive.
I then proposed a visit to the church, the fine external ap
pearance of which had in the meantime attracted my eye. This

FARTHER AFIELD 83
was far from pleasing Kelly who, besides not being of a re
ligious turn, was peeved over my judgment respecting the Te
huanas ; but he accepted the situation with philosophic resig
nation and we set out for the church. Luckily for him we
found the place locked and he insisted upon at once pro
ceeding to a bull fight then supposed to be in progress.
We visited the large stockaded enclosure prepared for
the bull fight and took seats in the pavilion which had been
erected alongside for the accommodation of the elite. The
bull was brought forth. He was a very gentlemanly, amiable-
looking bull, not at all in keeping with my idea of the Mexi
can fighting bull, and he positively refused to fight. We looked
on for a full hour while the local heroes of the ring shouted,
and prodded him, and waved red cloths before him, all to no
purpose ; Mr. Bull — very decidedly and very wisely for him —
refused to get in the least bit excited.
That is the way it usually ends, in Mexico at least; the
bull can not be got to fight. All honor to the Mexican bull for
the good sense which he generally displays. It is a brutal,
degrading sport, which the authorities have done much to
discourage, but it has a very strong hold on the vulgar herd.
When they finally led the bull from the arena we mounted
our steeds and rode away toward the western hills. Soon we
were in the midst of a rural scene of surpassing beauty. What
a contrast to the city with its delapidated buildings and
crooked dusty streets crowded with dirty pigs and starving
dogs and redolent of strange odors. We rode through narrow
country lanes bordered with hedges of madre cacao, piiion,
and yellow-blooming cacti; through patches of forest where
grew the palmetto and the sapodilla tree; and anon among
well-tilled orchards of orange and banana.

84 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
Then our trail dipped down into a swale and we rode for
a time in the grateful shade made by wild mango trees, which
love the vicinity of underground waters. The trees were laden
with orange yellow fruit for it was June, the season of man
goes, and the Indians were busy picking the fruit. As fast
as the fruit was picked the women packed it in homemade
baskets and placing these on their heads disappeared in the
direction of the city. Some of them held one hand to the
basket to steady it, an unnecessary precaution where the
basket was broad and low. Few sights are prettier than a
line of these Butterfly Women moving rapidly along under
well-balanced loads, their shapely arms swinging rhythmically
to and fro, as their custom is, to preserve balance.
We rode up a slight rise to the home of the owner of the
mango grove, a simple structure surrounded by lignum vitae
trees then in full bloom. The trees in question were too small
to be of commercial value, but were very pretty, looking much
like hawthorne trees filled with deep blue blossoms. Kelly
conversed for a few moments with the mistress of the house
— they spoke in the Zapotecan tongue, so that I was none the
wiser — and then we turned about and made back for the city.
Midway between San Geronimo and Juchitan lie two in
teresting Indian towns, Iztaltepec and El Espinal. The former
is famed for its pottery works. This industry has existed for
generations and the inhabitants have acquired great cunning
in the art. Clays particularly adapted to the production of
white and black pottery exist there, and many of the articles
produced by these native workmen excel in classic finish the
products of the best European manufacturers. As we shall
see later on, Iztaltepec is also the center of the indigo industry
on the Isthmus.

The City J'aik

I i ] l.abli.-i mi ¦ t.- nf Some of the M.

FARTHER AFIELD 85
Halfway between San Geronimo and Iztaltepec lies an
isolated hill called Dani Guiati, upon the south face of which
are rock paintings dating from before the time of King Cosi
joeza, the Zapotec monarch who conquered this region toward
the end of the fifteenth century.
In speaking of Iztaltepec I am reminded of a little incident
told me by my friend M. Garfia Salinas. He was one of the
leading lawyers on the Isthmus and dwelt at Salina Cruz in a
house adjoining the American consulate, but the nature of his
business necessitated frequent visits to Tehuantepec, Juchitan,
and the other cities of the plain. Upon such occasions he al
ways wore a helmet and long linen duster. It should also be
mentioned in passing that Don Garfia contrary to the Mexican
custom wore no mustache, was slightly bald, and that his ex
pression was demure.
It so chanced upon a day of the days that Don Garfia
after having attended to certain legal matters at Juchitan
set his face toward home. Now the region between Juchitan
and Salina Cruz was at that time infested by outlaws, so that
he needs must pass by the roundabout way through El Espinal,
Iztaltepec, and San Geronimo, and in passing through Iztal
tepec a certain adventure befell him. As he was peacefully
pursuing his way through the city, suddenly shots were
heard and the next instant the streets were filled with bandits,
shooting right and left. Don Garfia bethought himself that
just at that moment the open street was no place for one of
his peaceful profession and fled amain for shelter.
Allah, praised be his name, hath ever a care for his own
and I doubt not that Don Garfia, though an unbeliever, had
found favor with the Most Compassionate, for as he sped up
the street he discerned to his right an open doorway. He en
tered without so much as saying "By your leave," and had no
sooner entered than the door was swung to and bolted.

86 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
Our hero found himself in the presence of some fifteen
or twenty of the good people of the town. They were Indians
of the lower class and being greatly frightened had cast them
selves on their knees and were busy invoking the intercession
of San Benito in their behalf. The moment they beheld Don
Garfia, however, they arose from their kneeling position and,
crowding around him, begged that he would lead them in their
devotions. "For you, holy father," they explained, "have surely
greater influence with San Benito than all of the rest of us
put together. Lead us in our supplications, we beg of you, that
we may be saved from the fury of the bandits."
"But I have no influence with San Benito," replied Don
Garfia, greatly embarrassed — for he was not strong in prayer
— "I am no priest but merely a humble member of the legal
profession." "You don't fool us so easily," one old lady replied. "We
have seen your reverence before and we know you for the
bishop of Tehuantepec."
Then, as Salinas stroked his smooth chin and scratched
his bald pate, a light dawned upon him; they had taken our
worthy friend for no less a personage than the venerable
bishop of Tehuantepec. He succeeded in persuading them of
their error, however, and they resumed their interrupted de
votions without his assistance. An hour later the bandits,
having shot a man or two and secured all the loose coin in
sight, left the town. As soon as they were gone the door of the
house was opened and Don Garfia took his departure for San
Geronimo. Juchitan, on the right bank of the Rio de Perros about
five miles from the point where it empties into the Upper

FARTHER AFIELD 87
Lagoon, is the second city of the plains. It is but a little
smaller than Tehuantepec and the rivalry between the two
places is great, each city contending that its sons exceed those
of the other in bravery as its daughters eclipse the daughters
of the other in beauty. If a mere stranger may be permitted
an opinion, I would venture the judgment that the men of
Juchitan are the braver. The Juchiteco takes naturally to
arms and Juchitan has always been one of the principal
recruiting points for the Mexican army. The warlike spirit of
her sons is evidenced in the vicissitudes through which the
city has passed. In the incessant wars which have afflicted
the country the place has been sacked and burned again and
again; but no reverse has crushed the indomitable spirit of
her sons. To the daughters of Tehuantepec, on the other hand,
I would award the palm for beauty ; though even this is stoutly
denied by the people of Juchitan, for the Juchiteca, who
dresses precisely like the Tehuana, is also famed for her
beauty. There is among the upper classes of Juchitan a con
siderable strain of French blood dating from the time of
Maximilian. The next three rivers as we pass from west to east are
the Verde, Chicapa, and Cazadero, all of which enter the Upper
Lagoon near its northeastern corner. Beyond, and further to
the east, the Xocuapa and the Ostuta descend from the moun
tains of Chimalapa, the former entering the Lower Lagoon at
its northeastern extremity and the latter discharging into the
Eastern Lagoon. There are no large towns on the railroad
east of Juchitan, but the rainfall increases and the country
improves as one proceeds toward the east, and a great region
lies there awaiting development, a country especially suited
to the rearing of livestock and the growing of Indian corn.

88 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
South of the railroad, between the Cazadero and Xocu
apa rivers, there is a distinct range of low mountains stretch
ing from Prieto Hill, five miles west of the Xocuapa, due west
to Mount Tiac-Tinayix, whose base is washed by the Cazadero,
The country between this range and the lagoons is covered with
isolated hills scattered about without order. These partly
submerged reappear in a beautiful chain of volcanic islands
which stretch across the northern portion of the Upper Lagoon
nearly to the mouth of the Rio de Perros. Of these islands the
principal are Mitiac Xocuou, Natartiac, and Monapoxtiac. The
latter, the holy isle of the ancient Zapotecs, lies midway of the
lagoon as you proceed from east to west. It has two peaks and
is on a clear day plainly discernible from the hills which over
look Salina Cruz.
There are some parts of this little Earth which stand so
detached, are so removed from the general current of human
affairs, that they may be as appropriately described as one
place as another. Such a place is Clipperton Island. A mere
dot in the Pacific, hundreds of miles from the nearest land,
and far from the customary routes of sea traffic, one would
think it the last place Romance would choose for her habita
tion; and yet even Clipperton is not without its story of
tragedy and intrigue.
The island lies several hundred miles to the southwest of
Salina Cruz and is a Mexican possession. Thither, shortly be-
f or the revolution, the Mexican government dispatched a naval
lieutenant with his wife and a number of attendants, male and
female, to take charge of the island and its sole institution of
importance, the Clipperton lighthouse. A negro also accom
panied the party in the capacity of lighthouse keeper.
In the troublous times which followed the outbreak of the
revolution the little party on Clipperton Island was completely

FARTHER AFIELD 89
forgotten. For years the island remained unvisited. After a
time their stock of provisions began to run low ; and the worst
of it was they were entirely dependent upon Mexico to supply
their needs, for the island upon which they were marooned
was a mere strip of sand, incapable of supporting even the
eight or ten persons of the party.
The lieutenant now took counsel of despair. All hope of
relief quite gone, he decided to stake all on an attempt to reach
the nearest Mexican port. And so one fine morning he and
two male companions hoisted sail and set out in a tiny open
boat for Acapulco. From that day forth nothing was ever
heard of them ; the sea had swallowed them up.
Those who remained behind kept up the uneven struggle
with nature. Reduced to the last extremity, they made clothes
for themselves of gunny sacks and eked out a miserable exist
ence by picking coconuts and gathering shellfish on the beach,
for other means of sustenance there was none. Thus two long
years dragged slowly by and then a ship appeared in the
offing. Friends of the lieutenant had at last reached the ears of
the Mexican government and the latter had secured the good
offices of an American naval vessel then cruising on the west
coast. The vessel in question put out from Acapulco and
having found the longitude of Clipperton sailed due south.
After a time a dark speck showed upon the horizon and soon
through their sea glasses they made out a beach fringed with
coconut palms, on which women could be seen gesticulating
and running to and fro. Over all, from a tall flag staff, floated
the banner of Mexico. But behold, even as they watched, the
colors were lowered! What could this mean? An instant
later the flag again rose to the top of the staff. Another
mystery !

90 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
Running under the lea of the island, a boat was lowered
and a party put out for the shore. Five women came down to
meet the landing party. They stated that they were the only
souls on the island, but when the officer in command ques
tioned them as to why the flag had been lowered they were
silent. It was evident they were concealing something. As
to what this was he was not long in learning, for as he and
his companions approached the flagstaff they were shocked
at discovering near its base the dead body of the lighthouse
keeper. The gory ax lying beside him explained the manner
of his death ; he had been cut down from behind.
Of course the women could no longer pretend ignorance
of the negro's presence on the island, but they continued to
stoutly maintain that they knew nothing of the cause of his
death. But this much at least was apparent to the officer ; he
had been slain by one of the women while trying to lower the
flag. The women and their few belongings were taken aboard
ship and were subsequently landed at Salina Cruz, where they
remained for some days while arrangements were being made
for their transportation to their homes on the central plateau.
While they were so detained many attempts were made to get
at the truth of what had transpired on the island. But there
were as many tales as there were women rescued and the mys
tery was never solved. Only this much was made clear, namely,
that the lighthouse keeper was alive when the rescuing ship
was first seen from the island, and dead before the landing
party set foot on the beach.
There is no evidence of recent volcanic action in the moun
tains of the Isthmus, nor are there any extinct craters of once
active volcanoes of any considerable extent. Ragged lime-

FARTHER AFIELD 91
stone peaks and crater-like precipices of the same material
are common, but no cones of lava, scoria, etc., so characteristic
of long-continued volcanic action are encountered. Earth
quakes occur but are less violent and not so frequent as in most
parts of Mexico and Central America. As dwellings of more
than one story are seldom built but little harm is ever done
the houses, but the larger churches are sometimes injured.
It goes without saying that on the Pacific plains, in lati
tude 16° north, the climate is tropical. The mercury ranges
between 65° and 100° F. the year round. At Salina Cruz the
average temperature in the shade for the year is 80° F. In
April or May a maximum temperature of 98° is reached, and
in the winter the mercury falls to about 66° F. Persons be
longing to the European race residing there seldom expose
themselves to the midday sun, but perform their journeys and
out-of-door work so far as possible in the mornings and even
ings, and at night. And yet the climate, while hot, is far from
enervating. On the whole it is a healthy climate. The natives
both male and female, are decidely robust, and even the wives
and children of European and American residents enjoy the
best of health.
The salubrity of the plains is largely due to the dryness
of the climate. The rains begin about the first of June and
end in September or October, and during the remaining eight
or nine months of the year there is no rain whatever. Often
for four or five months on a stretch not so much as a drop
of rain falls. Often times, standing at San Geronimo when a
norther is blowing, dense rain clouds may be seen deluging
the elevated table-lands of Tarifa and Chivela, but the instant
these clouds are driven over the dividing range into the dry at
mosphere of the Pacific plains they are absorbed and melt

92 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
away. A rainbow is often seen in the clouds, the whole afford
ing a beautiful and interesting phenomenon illustrating the
marked difference in the humidity of the atmosphere in the
two adjacent regions.
May is the warmest month, and December is the coolest.
With the beginning of June come the first rains, a double bless
ing, for the northers cease with the coming of the rains and
the temperature falls. Indeed the summers on the Pacific
slope are delightful. There is no excess of moisture, a rain
once a week being the rule; all the trees burst out in full
foliage ; and the winds veer about to the south and blow fresh
from the sea.
I have spoken elsewhere of the "norther," that furious
wind of the Isthmus. The north wind so prevalent in the Gulf
of Mexico in the autumn and winter, spreading from the south
west corner of the Gulf encounters the wide entrance to the
Coatzacoalcos valley before alluded to and, rushing up the ever
narrowing valley, increases continually in velocity as it ap
proaches the narrowest portion of this funnel-shaped passage,
until, reaching the plateaux of Chivela and Tarifa it blows a
furious gale. Thus a gentle breeze at Minatitlan becomes a
roaring norther ere it reaches Chivela.
From October until May the northers blow very violently
over the dividing ridge and Pacific plains, so violently in fact
that on the plains the gardens and growing crops require
thatched fences or hedges to protect them from the violence of
the winds. During the dry season they blow for at least a
third of the time, being most frequent in the months of Jan
uary and February.
On the long narrow sandspit intervening between the
ocean and the Tilema Lagoon the road crosses from time to
time gullies from ten to twenty feet deep and twenty-five to

A Watering Station on the Great Transportation Route

The Jaltepec River is a Beautiful Stream

The Water Carriers of Tehuantepec

FARTHER AFIELD 93
fifty feet in width. These were formed, not by the action of
water, but by the violence of the norther, which plows up the
loose sand and carries it along like drifting snow, thus form
ing deep ravines crossing the country in a north and south
direction. Roads and paths, if lying parallel with the winds,
are rapidly converted into gullies.
Salina Cruz is celebrated throughout Mexico as the Port
of Eternal Winds — which is a fallacy, for the northers do not
blow in summer. But in winter they certainly reign supreme.
Through the depression in the hills to the north comes the
winds, rushing with concentrated fury down the main street
of the city. In a moment the air is full of blinding sand. The
windows are battened down, and no one ventures on the streets
without automobile goggles. Down the main street the norther
rages, licking the sand clean to the very rock and piling it in
eddies at the street corners. The front yards of the adjacent
residences are filled with drifts and south of Luna's drug store,
in the middle of the street, lies an immense sand dune. It
were useless to remove it for the next norther would build an
other. Blowing wildly out to sea, the norther repels ships
from the coast, often preventing for days at a time their en
trance to the harbor.
Disagreeable as the northers are they are a distinct ad
vantage to the people of the Pacific plains. The summer cli
mate is, as we have seen, tempered by rains and breezes which
at that season blow from the sea. During the six rainless
months, on the other hand, the weather would be unbearably
hot were it not for the northers. As it is, when the winds
subside the blazing sun in a cloudless sky scorches the country
side, but not for more than two or three days at a time. Then
the norther returns, the temperature falls, and the people
again return to their labors in the fields. To the northers more

94 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
than to any other one cause I ascribe the remarkable vigor of
the Isthmean people.
During the so-called rainy season — I say "so-called" for
it is not very rainy, even in summer — it sometimes blows
strongly from the south-southwest, and occasionally heavily
from the south-southeast.
On the mountains and plateaux of the divide the rains
persist longer, and the dry season does not begin before De
cember or January. The temperature is considerably eooler
than on the Pacific plains, the difference being even greater
than the ordinary change due to elevation, for this would be
less than 3° Farenheit, while the actual difference in the winter
months ranges from 5° to 10°. The contiguous mountain
masses on either side to the east and west, and the increased
velocity of the northers as they pass through the narrow break
in the Cordillera, undoubtedly account for the temperate cli
mate of this part of the Isthmus. During a norther the tem
perature sometimes falls as low as 60°, and the piercing wind
makes it seem even colder. Thick woolen clothing and a pair
of heavy woolen blankets are needed in this region during the
winter months.
Frost is never seen on the Isthmus and none of the moun
tain peaks have snow on them, even in the winter.

Chapter VI.
THE PLANT WORLD.
THE account of no region is complete without a de
scription of its flora. Especially is this true of the
tropics and nowhere more so than in the case of the
Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Nature, everywhere exuberant in
the tropics, seems here to surpass herself. What varied, what
gorgeous forms of plant life! I wonder not that the first
question asked by a Mexican of a foreigner is whether he
does not think Mexico is very beautiful.
All the year round in the regions of abundant rainfall,
and in the drier sections so long as the rains persist, the coun
try is one great landscape garden. In the nearer distance the
eye rests on verdant woodlands, the trees of countless variety,
massed here and scattered there over velvety natural lawns.
Flowering trees with their burden of blossoms, some white,
some yellow, some mauve, and others scarlet, add color to the
rich scene; orchids hang from the branches; and wild fruits
of many sorts ripen in season. Picture all this with the ever-
present mountains for a background, and you have a scene a
thousand times repeated on the Isthmus.
Such is the scene which on the Gulf plains greets the
eye at all seasons of the year. On the Pacific plains, as stated
in the last chapter, no rain falls between October and May.
Throughout the winter the trees are withered and sear. In
April and May a few species, responding to the increasing
warmth, put forth foliage, but not until June heralds the first
rains are the woods again in full leaf.
95

96 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
It is different where irrigation is possible ; in the irrigated
tracts of the Pacific plains, as on the Gulf side, the trees are in
full leaf the year round. Supplied with the life-giving liquid,
the results are startling. In the gardens of Salina Cruz I have
seen coconut trees barely six years of age with trunks a foot
in diameter and already beginning to fruit.
With the limited space at our disposal a detailed descrip
tion of the flora of this section is impossible, and in the pages
which follow I shall attempt no more than a cursory view of
the more common timber trees, the dyes and dyewoods, the
lawn and flowering trees, and the leading fruits of that
favored land.
Owing to the semi-arid climate and the small amount of
water available for irrigation under present conditions, but a
small acreage has been cleared on the Pacific plains, and, due
to the same cause, the tree growth is in general of a stunted
nature. For the most part the plains are covered with a tree
growth not exceeding twenty feet in height, and the individual
trees are seldom a foot in diameter. Along the shores of the
lagoons and near the water courses the growth is more luxuri
ant. Here and in the numerous valleys running back into the
mountains is an abundant supply of dimension timber to meet
the needs of the Isthmus for a century to come.
On the arid plains lignum vitae, mesquite, rosewood, and
calabash are the most common and most valuable woods for
construction. They are all small and extremely hard, even
those varieties which when grown in other localities having
a moderate rainfall are accounted soft woods ; this is one effect
of the arid climate. Black mesquite is employed in the manu
facture of gun stocks and was in great demand during the
European war.
The Palo-mulato, a conspicuous forest tree with a red,

THE PLANT WORLD 97
smooth bark and generally destitute of leaves, is held in great
esteem by the Indians for its medicinal properties, a decoction
made from the bark being used in the treatment of malarial
fever. Being extremely light, it is also used in the construc
tion of rafts and floats. Another tree, the copalchi, abounds
on the plains, its scarred trunk, stripped of its bark, constant
ly attracting the traveler's attention. It is a medium-sized
tree with long spreading branches and scanty foliage, and the
bark is of a light gray color, bitter to the taste, and decidedly
aromatic. A decoction of this bark is also used in the treatment
of intermittant fever.
The Chimalapa mountain region, which walls in the plains
on the northeast, abounds in white pine, pitch pine, Spanish
oak, cypress, mammee zapote, and chico zapote. These valu
able timbers might be easily floated down the Coatzacoalcos
and its tributaries to convenient railroad points, whence they
could be transported wherever needed on the Isthmus. The
numerous rapids in the upper courses of the rivers afford
abundant water power for saw-mills.
Many of the pines are of great size and very tall and
straight. Pines first appear at a height of one thousand feet
above the sea, on the higher ridges and plateaux forming ex
tensive forests of gigantic trees, entirely free from under
brush. The ground beneath is carpeted with a growth of
verdant grasses which, combined with the bracing atmosphere
and the odor of the forest, renders these pine forests most en
joyable after months spent amid the swamps and jungles of
the lowlands. The "oak" found here is inferior to the oak of the United
States but is nevertheless of considerable value as a construc
tion material. Both the zapote mamay and the chico zapote
furnish timber of great durability. Neither are, when propr

98 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
erly cured, attacked by the white ant or other insects or
affected by the weather. Because of this they are preferred
for railroad crossties. It is said that well cured zapote ties
never decay unless split by the spikes when they are laid. The
chico zapote, especially, is a wonderful tree. It grows to a
goodly size, specimens three feet in diameter being common;
it makes a grand shade tree when grown in the open ; it bears
that delicious fruit called sapodilla in English and chico in
Spanish, a globular fruit about two inches in diameter,
with the color and taste of maple sugar; and its sap, chicle,
constitutes the base of all chewing gum.
Another famous tree of this region is the lignum vitae
(guayacan). The tree is quite common but logs of merchant
able size are difficult to obtain, for the forests within reach of
the railroads have been culled for this commodity for many
years. At every railway station guayacan logs may be seen
awaiting shipment, but few of them measure more than ten
feet in length by a foot in diameter. Grown in the open the
lignum vitae makes a beautiful shade tree, especially in spring
when it is loaded with beautiful dark blue flowers.

Dyewoods are among the leading exports, certain sections
being rich in Brazilwood which yields a red dye and Logwood,
which dies black. Besides these dyes many others, obtained
from various plants, are used by the Indian women in painting
the great calabashes used by them as receptacles for produce
carried on the head, and in coloring their gay apparel. The
pit of the avocado (guacate) is used for marking clothing,
from the achiote (Bixa orellana) a scarlet dye is obtained,
green ebony (Chloroxylun) yields a green pigment, the palo
amarillo (Morus tinctoria) yields yellow fustic, and from cas-
calote and uale (Genipa Americana) black dyes are obtained.

THE PLANT WORLD 99
This is the home of those two celebrated dyes of the
eighteenth century, indigo and cochineal, the latter being ob
tained from an insect which feeds upon the Tuna de Espana,
a species of cactus. Indeed, as late as 1850 indigo was the
leading export of this district ; but with the advent of mineral
dyes the demand for these products ceased, and they are now
produced only on a small scale to furnish dyes for native
fabrics. The Zapotec women are very fond of the Tyrian purple
skirt, the dye for which is secured from a shell-fish (Aplysia
depilans) which inhabits the salt waters of this coast. The
process of obtaining the dye is a tedious one, since each mollusc
only yields a drop or two of the dye, which is emitted on gentle
pressure of the shell-fish. The dyed fabric is very expensive,
three or four yards of cloth (enough for a wrapper) com
manding a handsome figure. It has a disagreeable fishy odor,
which is, however, greatly esteemed by the Zapotec women.
Thus fashion perverts even the unsophisticated Indian's sense
of smell. The Indians show great skill in the ornamentation of the
jecapezle in which the Tehuana carries her burden to and from
market. These jecapezles are made from great gourds grown
in the gardens of the Indians, the size of which may be gath
ered from the fact that the largest jecapezles exceed two feet
in diameter. The ornamentation of these jecapezles in beau
tiful flower designs is an industry peculiar to Santa Maria de
Guiniagate, a town lying among inaccessible hills some twenty-
five miles west of San Geronimo. They are also largely made
at Tuxtla Gutierrez, the capital of Chiapas.
The lawn of more northern climes, with its shade and
ornamental trees scattered singly here and there or gathered

100 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
in tasteful clumps, forms no part of the domestic economy
of this people. Their conception of home comfort is the little
cloistered patio with its rows of potted plants. And yet what
wonderful lawns this region could produce. The repertory of
beautiful shade and ornamental trees is inexhaustible.
Among the former I may mention the Lambimbo, a tree
with a compact head, in outline much resembling the hack-
berry. Then there is the lignum vitae, a small tree with low-
spreading top much resembling the haw of more northern
lawns. The Amate or wild fig is also common. It not only
makes a magnificent shade tree but it yields a small dry fig
which the natives cook with sugar, obtaining quite a palatable
sauce. The Almendra or false almond is a beautiful little
shade tree, appreciated by natives and foreigners alike.
Its limbs grow in whorles, with a space of five or six feet be
tween each two successive whorles. Besides its glossy green
foliage it bears an almond much affected by children, both
the exterior and the pit being eaten by the greedy urchins.
We must not forget that great prickly fellow, the ham-
matti or wild cotton tree. When young the trunk is covered
with gigantic prickles, but the tree is perhaps the best avail
able shade tree in these parts. Remarkably upright in growth
and covered with a prodigality of foliage, it is also a remark
ably quick grower and in time reaches gigantic proportions.
These immense trees are of no value as timber, as the wood
is very soft and decays in a short time; but they are of con
siderable value to the natives for the cotton which they bear.
They bear great pods like overgrown milkweed pods. These
pods are packed with a sort of cotton which is used for filling
pillows and cushions. The seed, kapok, has a commercial
value, selling for about twenty cents per pound, and might be

Coconut Palms Grow Luxuriantly on the Isthmus

THE PLANT WORLD 101
made profitable were it not for the difficulty in extracting the
seeds. The Ule, or India rubber tree, abounds but attains no
great size in that region. Its horizontal spreading top and
the fact that it does not shed its leaves in the dry season,
render it an exceptionally fine shade tree.
We invariably think of a tropical country as a land of
flowers. In this respect the Philippines, which I visited many
years ago, hardly came up to my expectations. There were
flowers there, of course, but I should hardly call it a land of
flowers. But the term certainly applies to southern Mexico,
where flowers bloom eternal ; and it is not so much the flowers
of the ground as the flowering trees which attract the eye.
And then what flowering trees there are for lawns.
There is never a time in all the year when the landscape is
not gladdened by the bright flowers of some magnificent flow
ering tree ; in March the pink-flowering Robles ; in April and
May the Arbol de Fuego or "Caballero", in all its scarlet glory ;
and the falling petals of the latter have no sooner strewn the
path than the Tenpasuchil on the hillsides bursts forth in
white. This is the softest of trees and when you break off a
branch the milk-white sap fairly spurts from the tree. After
this the Bignonia puts forth its yellow flowers and the Jasmine,
which here is a tree eight or ten inches in diameter, is filled
with dainty white blossoms.
But grandest of all is the Hapanico, which begins to
bloom in December and does not cease until the latter part of
March, and all that time is loaded with great yellow tulip-
shaped flowers. 0 wonderful tree ! Thy presence alone suf
fices to make of Mexico a paradise. I had a dream. Lo, I
was in the Garden of Allah, and behold, on every hand great

102 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
Hapanico trees stretching forth their hands toward me, and in
every hand six golden tulips.
In the public bath gardens at Tehuantepec there is a
plant having leaves like the maple. It bears a large white
trumpet-shaped flower in the morning, which by noon turns
pink and the same day perishes. This seems miraculous, and
I was myself inclined to doubt the truth of it until I had occa
sion to visit Mr. Barker at Santa Maria, as mentioned in a
former chapter. Upon my visiting him he showed me a snow-
white flower which he had picked and placed in a vase ; and lo,
when we returned a couple of hours later, it was bright pink.
The flower is called Amistad del Dia and I was told grows
wild in the mountains of Oaxaca. The name, which is by in
terpretation "A Day's Friendship" or "The Friendship of a
Day," is certainly appropriate.
The Mata-palo, or tree-killer, is a singular plant. Be
ginning life as a vine, it finally becomes to all intents and pur
pose a tree. Starting as a little vine not larger than a fish-
line, it either ascends the tree it is about to destroy, or springs
as a parasite from one of its branches, later establishing con
nection with the earth by sending down roots. Growing in
size it eventually envelopes the trunk and branches of the tree
with huge coils, which in time grow together and entirely hide
the tree from sight, save a few of the upper limbs. It always
destroys the tree to which it has attached itself, and presently
dies. And yet this pestilential plant is a thing of rare beauty.
All the year through it is laden with flame colored, honey
suckle like blossoms, and the prettiest sight that greets the
traveler's eyes as he passes through the woods of the plain
is that of trees lit up with the flame of this consuming para
site.

THE PLANT WORLD 103
I suppose there is not in all the world a region better
adapted to the growing of tropical fruits than this same Isth
mus of Tehuantepec. Despite the general lack of enterprise it
abounds in fruit, though none is at present exported. In the
markets one will always find in season an abundance of ba
nanas, coconuts, oranges, pineapples, chicos, and mangoes,
which are the principal fruits raised ; and custard apples, sour-
sops, tamarind, pomegranites, limes, and many other fruits
are always to be had.
Wherever there is water the coconut grows luxu
riantly on the Pacific plains. In six years from planting the
tree is a foot in diameter and begins to bear. Beautiful coco
nut groves surround Tehuantepec on every hand and the mar
ket is always well supplied with the fruit, little Tehuanas
sitting in rows with trays of nearly ripe coconuts. Slip one
of them a nickel and she immediately whips out a knife, cuts
a hole in one end of a nut, and presents you with a cool deli
cious drink. The nuts are used for no other purpose and only
enough are raised for local use.
The pineapples of this section are among the largest and
best in the world ; certainly better than those produced in any
other part of Mexico. With a suitable market, here lies a great
industry awaiting development. The pineapple and coconut
are easily the best fruits of this section.
There are two crops of oranges yearly. The first crop, of
small yellow oranges, ripens from October to January; the
second, of large green oranges, comes in summer. The former
are very sweet but are not equal to the orange of Florida or
California. In fact, the Pacific plains are rather too tropical
for the orange, which does better on the adjoining highlands.
The best fruit grows at Santa Maria de Chimalapa, its super
ior quality being doubtless largely due to the clear white sand

104 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
in which the trees are grown. A small bitter orange, probably
escaped from cultivation, is found growing in the woods in
many localities.
It is singular that the lime is not more generally culti
vated. The Mexican lime is shaped like a small lemon, and
indeed its flavor more resembles that of the lemon than the
ordinary round lime. I ever think with pleasure of the little
lime tree which grew by the porch of the American consulate
at Salina Cruz, from the juice of whose fruit I drank for
nine consecutive months during the year 1918.
There are many varieties of the banana, which ripens at
all seasons of the year. The most interesting variety is the
Enano, a dwarf banana. This kind is much raised because
of the destructive northers which fell the standard varieties
unless well protected. The fruit of this dwarf variety is f un
sized and bunches will often be seen touching the ground. The
plantain is ubiquitous. The Indians prefer it to the banana
and it constitutes for them, after Indian corn and black beans,
the most important article of diet. There are few native
dishes as palatable as the fried plantain.
The native mango flourishes wherever there is under
ground water, bearing a small but very sweet fruit. Its sea
son is June and it is quite free from the turpentine flavor of
the much larger "Manila" mango, which has been introduced
and is raised to a limited extent. It is not the easiest thing
in the world to eat a mango without soiling one's fingers ; but
I noticed that at some of the hotels the guests were provided
with "Mango forks," which obviated the difficulty appreciably.
The mango fork has a long central tine, very sharp, and two
short side tines. The long tine is thrust into the aperature at
the base of the mango pit, while the side tines keep the fruit

THE PLANT WORLD 105
from revolving; and then the mango may be peeled and eaten
at leisure, without soiling the fingers.
Another wonderful tree is the papaw (carica papaya) or
melon tree, which bears a fruit about the size of a cantaloupe
and intermediate in flavor between cantaloupe and squash.
The tree is very short lived, living only about six years; but
it grows prodigiously, reaching a height of eight feet the first
year, by which time it has begun to bear. It bears melons, a
great bunch of them, right up under the crown; and at all
year, by which time it has begun to bear. It bears melons, a
ing, larger ones, big green ones, and one or two ripe ones.
Every day for the whole five years you can pick your melon
from the tree!
The papaw is the ordinary dessert fruit of the tropics,
taking the place of our musk melon. What fortunes might
be made from it if it could be handled commercially ! But un
fortunately it will not bear shipment. Papaws are of two sorts,
yellow and red; the latter being the larger, but inferior in
flavor to the yellow variety. In addition to its use as a food
the papaw is the source of the drug papain, obtained by punc
turing the unripe fruit. This drug greatly resembles pepsin.
I have spoken of the chico zapote, that delicious fruit so
closely resembling maple sugar in color and flavor. Its cousin,
the Zapote mammae, is a much larger fruit containing two
immense seeds, each of the size of a small hen's egg. The
meat of these seeds is very rich in oil, which is used by the
Tehuanas as a hair dressing. There are two other zapotes,
the black and the white. The latter is not common in these
parts. Among the most delicious of tropical fruits may be classed
the anona or custard apple. The latter designation is apt to
deceive one not acquainted with this fruit, which does not in

106 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
the remotest degree resemble the apple. It is a heart-shaped
fruit with a very thin skin. The skin of the upper portion is
broken and then the rich interior, of the consistency of thick
custard, is scooped out with a spoon. Two species of anona,
the yellow and the pink, are grown. It struck me as singular
that the latter, which is quite distinct from the yellow or com
mon variety, was so little grown. It possesses a peculiar but
decidedly pleasing flavor.
Those who have never penetrated south of the Rio Grande
may form some idea of the anona from the so-called "papaw,"
a little fruit growing wild in the thickets of the central and
southern states of the American Union, for this fruit is a
northern relation of the custard apple which has strayed far
from its tropical home. It will, however, give one but a faint
conception of the exquisite flavor of the anona. It is unfor
tunate that the term "papaw" is applied to this fruit (Asimina
triloba) , which is in no way related to the true papaw of the
tropics. Guanabana ! That word stirs the soul of every true Mex
ican. The guanabana, or soup sop — to call it by it's ill-omened
English name — is a shy bearer, but one or two of its great
green fruits will always be found in the market, where they
are used in the preparation of that most delicious of all cool
drinks, guanabana. Mexico is a great country for "refrescos"
or cool drinks and one has his choice of lemon, orange, lime,
pineapple, tamarind, coconut, and guanabana, but the wise
man always chooses the latter.
The pomegranite is quite generally grown but does not
seem to prosper. Nor does the country appear to be suited to
the date. I saw an occasional date palm, but only one in bear
ing — in the garden of my old friend, George Adamik of San
Geronimo. The fruit was barely edible, but the tree had just

THE PLANT WORLD 107
begun to bear and it is possible that the quality of the fruit
will improve as the tree grows older. Here and there one
comes across a tree of the tame fig, which seems to do well, but
whose value is unknown to the Indian cultivator.
The Hicaco (coco plum) grows on a small tree seldom ex
ceeding eight feet in height. This is of all trees the most
difficult to transplant, in which respect, as well as in gen
eral appearance, it resembles the wild crabapple. The fruit
is perfectly round, about one and one-half inches in diameter,
and of three colors, white, black and pink. It is used ex
tensively in the preparation of a preserve, which to the for
eigner is decidedly insipid. But there is one compensation.
The hicaco has a very large pit which is easily broken by the
teeth, disclosing a kernel which is much more palatable than
the preserve. Another fruit commonly used for preserves is the Te-
jocote or Mexican thornapple (haw). These grow both wild
and in the state of cultivation in the high valleys among the
Oaxaca mountains, whence they are brought on pack mules to
the cities of the plain. They are immense thornapples aver
aging over an inch in length. In the hands of a progressive
race the tejocote might easily be developed into a fine fruit,
its size and flavor improved; but no improvement is possible
with the Indian. Everything is raised from the seed.
There is a native black grape, of a musky flavor and about
the size of the Concord. It grows wild and is especially abund
ant in the mountains of the dividing range. A very good wine
resembling claret is obtained from this grape.
Perhaps in this connection the avocado or alligator pear
(Sp., aguacate) should be mentioned, though to my way of
thinking this so-called fruit is more properly classed as a

108 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
salad vegetable. But be that as it may, southern Mexico seems
especially adapted to its culture and the number of varieties
which one finds there is great.
I first became interested in this fruit through a Mr.
Popenoe who dropped into Salina Cruz a few months after
my arrival. Popenoe was traveling as special representative
of the university of California, employed by that institution
to collect new varieties of avocado. He informed me that there
were countless varieties of this fruit, and during the time he
was in southern Mexico I am sure made considerable additions
to this collection. He spent several months exploring that re
gion and the neighboring parts of Guatemala for new vari
eties, going out from Salina Cruz and returning to that point
every few weeks.
Popenoe was a decidedly bright and agreeable young man
and I always looked forward with pleasurable anticipation to
his periodical returns to the Hotel Salina Cruz. He was also,
as one needed to be in his calling, a fearless man. One day
he blew in after a trip up the west coast, Pochutla way.
"Well, my son," I said as we shook hands, "from whence
come you this time and how has Allah prospered your under
takings?" "I'm just back from Pochutla and the region beyond,
where I obtained several new varieties of avocados."
"The region beyond! Indeed? why, I understood the
rebels were in control of the interior back from Pochutla."
"So they are," he replied. "I came to their outposts not
a mile from Pochutla."
"Ah! And of course they turned you back?"
"Not by a jug full. A Gringo can go anywhere he pleases
in this country so long as he minds his own business and
doesn't interest himself in matters political. When the rebel

Cultivating the Youiitf Sugar Cane Plants

THE PLANT WORLD 109
picket halted me I explained my business — told him I was a
botanist from the United States out collecting new varieties of
avocados. 'Are you a Carrancista or are you for the Felicis-
tas?' said he. 'Neither,' said I, 'for neither; I don't care a
peg about your blooming troubles.' 'Pass on with God's bless
ing,' he replied with a laugh, and I passed on. I was several
days behind the lines and met with no interference whatever."
Popenoe remained with us until the late fall and then took
ship for Gautemala.
It is hardly necessary to mention garden vegetables, which
grow to perfection wherever irrigated and given the proper
attention. They can of course be grown the year round. All
the sorts grown in temperate climates thrive there save those
which, like peas, white potatoes, and the members of the cab
bage family, are suited only to severe climes. In view of this
limitation it is to be feared that pea soup and sauer kraut
will never be popular dishes on the Isthmus. I noticed but
two species of garden vegetables differing from those culti
vated in northern Europe and America, the yam, which there
takes the place of the potato, and a string bean the pods of
which grew to the enormous length of a yard. It must have
averaged fifty beans to the pod.

Chapter VII.
ANIMAL LIFE.
WILD animals abound throughout eastern Oaxaca.
The Zapotec Indian is not much given to hunting
and as a consequence there has always been an
abundance of game; and during the eight years of civil war
which afflicted the country game multiplied greatly, for the
sportsman no longer came, ammunition was scarce, and few
were licensed to carry fire-arms. With peace restored to the
land it will be a sportsman's paradise.
The woods teem with deer of several species and every
year thousands of deerskins are exported to the United
States.* The deer come in quite close to the urban centers
and afford great sport where the country is not infested by
lurking bands of rebels and brigands. Deer are especially
numerous in the valley of the Ostuta.
There is also great abundance of cats : The lordly puma
or American lion; the jaguar, here called "tigre;" the wild
cat; and the ocelot or "tigrio." On my first arrival in the
country, at Mogafie among the hills of the pass, an Indian
offered me a beautiful jaguar skin for a peso and a half (75c).
My friend Adamik, one of the landmarks of San Geronimo,
kept a beautiful tigrio in a cage. This beast was widely
known, as everyone who visited San Geronimo must of neces
sity visit Adamik and so must, equally of necessity, drink a
"chica" with him and inspect the tigrio. But the beast as he
grew older developed a taste for poultry, in punishment for
*Over 95 per cent of Mexico's product of deerskin is exported.
110

ANIMAL LIFE 111
which he was handed over to Gonzalez Soto who took him to
Mexico City and delivered him to the Red Cross, and that was
the end of Adamik's tigrio.
Peccaries are also common. They are very gregarious,
wandering through the mountains in immense herds. They
have a great antipathy for snakes, which they search out and
kill with great zest. Living principally upon roots their flesh
is excellent, and both it and their lard are much esteemed by
the natives. Though small the peccary is of a very truculent
disposition and their habit of treeing lone travelers is well
known. Both hares and opossum are extremely common on the
Isthmus, and their flesh is in general use for food. One never
visits a market without seeing a liberal assortment of hares
for sale. The opossum is the pest of henroosts everywhere.
The quadrupeds, the armadillo, the tejan or coatimondi,
and the tapir deserve special mention. Armadillos are very
plentiful and their meat decidedly toothsome. When the In
dian has killed his armadillo and removed the flesh he does
not discard the animal's coat-of-mail, but devotes it to a most
unique use. The shell is carefully cleaned and rolled in upon
itself so as to make a receptacle capable of holding several
quarts of grain, the ends of a cord are attached to both sides,
the Indian sower fills the shell with seed, passes the cord over
his neck, and with the receptacle thus held conveniently in
front of him, sets forth to sow his field. The armadillo shell
is more often used as a wallet or knapsack. It is also employed
in making the sounding-board for the jarana, a four-stringed
instrument of the guitar family in use among the Indians of
southern Vera Cruz.
The tejan is a cousin of the raccoon, one of the dwarf
members of the bear family. They are gray above and nearly

112 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
white beneath, very long bodied, and with snouts and tails of
prodigious length. There are two species, one of which lives
in solitary pairs while the other is gregarious. They are very
active and perpetually in motion. The tejan is also a great
novelty seeker and is, like novelty seekers generally, very
stupid. A tejan will come down from a tree to look at a coyote,
who pretending to be dead, waits until the tejan begins to play
with his body. It then falls an easy prey to the coyote's cun
ning and its own curiosity. It is easily tamed and makes a
great pet.
Not the least interesting animal of the Isthmus is that
strange creature, half hog and half elephant, the tapir. The
tapir is a timid and solitary animal and is generally to be
found only in the most secluded spots; but strange to say is
easily domesticated if caught when young. Its skin is of won
derful thickness. No use is made of it at the present time,
but it would seem that it should make excellent material for
shoe soles. The skin is covered with short, lustrous, steel-
gtay hair. The head, while flatter, is much like that of an
elephant without tusks; and, indeed, while they somewhat
resemble the hog in general outline, on the other hand the tapir
is, one of the cleanest of animals as the hog is one of the
dirtiest. The tapir is found throughout this region wherever
the , timber is dense, but especially abounds in the upper
Coatzacoalcos and Rio Verde valleys. Among the natives it
is called Anteburro, that is, "once an ass."
Vampire bats, of which there are several species, are
quite numerous in mountainous or hilly localities. One sort is
as large as a pullet, measuring on extended wings from two to
three feet, while another variety is no larger than a meadow
lark. They are most numerous in the wilds of the Chimalapa
mountains, where they attack the horses of travelers on the

ANIMAL LIFE 113
trail almost every night, often biting the same horse two or
three times. They make an opening in the skin about a quar
ter of an inch in diameter, and not infrequently blood will
be seen oozing from the wound several hours later. Two ser
vants of the Shufeldt expedition, which traversed these moun
tains in 1871, were bitten by vampires about the feet. They
did not feel the bat until it was in the act of flying away. There
is an unconfirmed belief that the vampire keeps his wings in
motion while he bites, which prevents the bite being felt.
Death seldom results from the bite of a vampire save
in the case of infants bitten more than once the same night.
Neither horses nor men seem greatly affected by loss of blood.
Animals in the open are never attacked on a bright night, for
the vampires, disliking the light, always enter houses and
other dark places for their prey. A candle left burning in a
room is a sure defense. The Indians of the mountains close
their houses and out-buildings carefully to exclude these blood
thirsty creatures. Fortunately their operations are generally
confined to the neighborhood of the wild places in which they
dwell. Caves are numerous in the limestone hills and mountains
in and around the Pacific plains, and many of these caves are
tenanted by bats which pour forth in multitudes at set of sun.
Mount Quiengola is especially rich in bat caves. Vast quan
tities of bat guano have accumulated in these caves and some
day the collection of this guano will prove a lucrative busi
ness. Some guano is removed even at the present time.
The commonest bird in the neighborhood of human habi
tations is the Zopilote (buzzard), which, in partnership with
the hogs and dogs of the land, performs the duties of public
scavenger. All day long he sails on tireless wing over city

114 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
and village keeping a sharp lookout for carrion. His useful
ness is so generally recognized that in the state of Vera Cruz
it is made a misdemeanor to kill a zopilote. The law is not so
strict in Oaxaca ; nevertheless no one thinks of molesting them,
with the result that they are almost as tame as domestic
poultry. Another bird very much in evidence is the Sanate. The
male bird has glossy black plumage and a very long beak and
tail. He is quite a noisy fellow, and during the spring and
summer one is seldom out of hearing of his song. The female
bird is colored a deep gray. The Sanates breed in early sum
mer, building their nests in the most public places. In the
summer of 1918 there were no less than seven sanate nests
in the little back yard of the Hotel Salina Cruz, and when the
little birds came the fourteen old birds kept up an uproar from
morning to night which was positively deafening.
The greenwoods are full of bird life, covies of noisy green
parrots with red wings, many colored macaws, lovies, parro-
quets, and tiny gray owls not larger than a dollar. This is
also the home of the Chachalaca or mountain fowl, a fowl the
size of a small hen but in appearance much like the heron. In
color they are a greenish gray. They are easily domesticated
and cross readily with the domestic fowl, the cross making
great game birds.
In season the harbor at Salina Cruz is alive with great
pelicans, who pursue their fishing operations totally oblivious
of the close proximity of man, and the waters of the great
lagoons are tenanted by thousands of wild ducks.
Facing the little park in Salina Cruz is the residence of
a Mr. Tunnell. He has lived there many years and being some
thing of a cripple takes delight in keeping pets. He has six
curassows. The curassow runs wild in the forests of southern

ANIMAL LIFE 115
Mexico, Central America, and the northern part of South
America, but is easily domesticated. They are about the size
of turkeys which they much resemble in appearance, but are
much tamer than turkeys and would make valuable poultry,
were it not that they lay very few eggs. The male birds are
black and the hens are brown.
One of Mr. Tunnell's curassows was called Joe. Old Joe
was quite old and had a crippled foot. He spent much of his
time sitting on his master's knee. Then there was a famous
hen curassow named Sarah. It was Mr. Tunnell's custom to
jsit in front of his house in the evening, and when I called upon
him on such occasions Sarah would insist on getting between
us to protect him. She would make a very disconcerting noise
like the purring of a cat, and peck at me.
One day Capt. George Bryant, who commanded the port
dredge "Mexico," invited me to make a trip with him; so at
seven o'clock in the morning I went down to the dredge. We
steamed out to the sand bank in the outer harbor. Two great
18-inch tubes were lowered to the bottom of the harbor and
the suction pumps were set going. We went below to break
fast. By the time we had finished and came on deck the
dredge was loaded full of sand and mud. In less than three-
quarters of an hour she had sucked up two thousand tons of
mud. The dredge got under way and sailed out into the open
sea. About a half mile from the harbor entrance we stopped,
the ship's machinery was set in motion, and lo, great doors
opened in the bottom of the ship and her cargo of mud sank
into the sea. The dredge had great watertight compartments
on each side which kept it from sinking when the water rushed
into the hold.
While all this was in progress I noticed a bird hovering

116 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
far above. He was built on the plan of an aeroplane and
hardly moved his wings as he sailed about. The captain in
formed me that it was a Frigate Bird.
All of a sudden Mr. Bird espied a piece of meat floating
on the surface of the water, and down he dashed. He seized
the meat, bore it aloft, dropped it, darted down and seized it
again, and once more bore it aloft. He repeated this pro
cedure several times. What do you suppose his object to
have been? You will never guess; and yet it is as plain as
day. He had no hands to hold the meat while he ate it, so he
could only take one bite at a time and let it fall.
Iguanas and smaller lizards of many kinds are very plen
tiful. The iguana is much esteemed for his flesh, the Indians
preferring it to beef or chicken, and one never visits the mar
ket without seeing a goodly number of these reptiles, each
with mouth tied shut to prevent him from biting. They are
most repulsive-looking creatures, from two to three feet in
length, with immense tails by which the Tehuana carries them
from the market to the cooking-pot. The choicest are obtained
from the banks of unfrequented streams far up in the moun
tains. The reptile is caught in traps or chased into its hole
in the earth and then dug out.
Alligators infest the waters on both sides of the Isthmus,
being particularly numerous along the middle reaches of the
Coatzacoalcos River. They are also found in smaller num
bers in the great lagoons of the Pacific plain. These saurian
monsters destroy a considerable number of young cattle.
Shooting them affords great sport, and so numerous are they
on the Coatzacoalcos that the hunter can with ease dispatch
a dozen in a few hours.
Sharks abound along the coast and in the principal rivers.

Tlie Bats are Another Sen vender. Attacking' Humans as Well as Insects After Dark

ANIMAL LIFE 117
Facts hardly justify their reputation for voracity, for Huave
Indians are often seen standing up to their middles in the
water, some distance from the beach at the mouth of the
Tehuantepec River, with dozens of great sharks swimming
lazily along quite near them.
During the greater part of the year, owing to the dryness
of the climate, one is but little troubled with insect pests on
the Pacific plains. The cockroach is practically unknown and
flies and mosquitoes are so little in evidence that mosquito
nets are not in use ; and though the first rains of June herald
a recrudescence of insect life, insects never become so trouble
some as in more northern climes.
The effect of the early rains is startling. The trees, which
until then were for the most part dry and sere, put forth their
foliage almost over night, the insects begin to buzz about and
make a general nuisance of themselves, and the voice of the
frog is heard from every damp depression.
I shall never forget our first real rain. It just poured
down for twenty-four hours and then, during the night, the
clouds cleared away. The next morning the sun came up
bright and clear and the streets were completely dry, there
being a considerable slope to the sea and the soil being quite
sandy. You can imagine my surprise when I stepped from the
hotel into the street. As I moved along the path hundreds of
toads jumped to either side. The ground was literally covered
with them. Where do you suppose they came from ?
Well, that was a mystery to me until I came to the Amer
ican consulate. There were rifts of sand in the yard of the
consulate, blown there by the incessant northers, and I per
ceived that the rifts were full of holes, and a toad was jumping
from every hole. This plague of toads lasted for but one day
and then they disappeared. I was told this occurs every year.

118 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
I suppose the old mother toads lay their eggs in the sand and
the first good rain breaks them open, and out jumps Mr. Toad.
The sea yields great tribute and would yield much more
were the Zapotec Indians inclined to the water, which they are
not. Nevertheless the markets are always well supplied with
fish of many sorts. Turtle's eggs are as abundant as hen's
eggs. An immense species of crawfish is obtained from the
sea, while the fresh-water fisheries teem with a smaller species
of the same shellfish. Shrimps, also, are very abundant, and
constitute an important article of export.
Pearls are mentioned among the gifts which the ancient
Zapotec kings made to the Spanish conquistadores ; and pearls
are still found in the waters of the Pacific a few miles west of
Salina Cruz. In this neighborhood there exist extensive beds
of pearl oysters from which the natives have taken, from time
to time, many valuable pearls. During some seasons the In
dians inhabiting the coast collect a considerable number of
pearls by diving naked into the sea, and this work is said to be
more remunerative than any other employment within reach
of these people; but, notwithstanding this, there are other
seasons when, for some unknown reason, they cannot be in
duced to engage in this labor.

Chapter VII.
THE INDIAN PEOPLES.
IN writ of eld it is affirmed of the renowned Caliph Ha-
roun al-Raschid, Prince of Believers and Vicegerent of
God on earth, that at the height of his glory he ruled
over no less than three hundred races of men. Be that as it
may, certain it is that he that holdeth the scepter in Mexico
beareth sway over many more, and of these the greater part
be divers tribes of red men, or Indians as they are called in
the western world.
A description of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec would be
incomplete without some account of its inhabitants, and this
in turn would be of little value if the Indian were omitted;
for the Indian looms large in this region. It may be, as we
are told, that one-fifth of the population of Mexico is white;
but that is taking the republic as a whole. On the central
plateau of Mexico there is much white blood. For four hun
dred years the plateau regions have received a constant, and
during certain periods a considerable immigration from Spain.
There the Spaniard could live under conditions substantially
similar to those to which he was accustomed in the homeland.
But the Spaniard never settled to any considerable extent
in the tierra caliente (the hot coastal zone) , and hence the pop
ulation there has remained predominantly Indian. This is
true of the Isthmus. In the larger towns there are some
whites and mestizos, though even there the great majority
are aborigines. But the bulk of the inhabitants live in villages
or on isolated rancherias, and here you find nothing but full-
119

120 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
blood Indians. Taking the Isthmus as a whole, it is safe to
say that not one-tenth of the population possesses any ap
preciable strain of white blood.
Four Indian races dwell upon the Isthmus. The Gulf
plains and the lower Coatzacoalcos Valley are peopled by
Aztecs, the mountains of the center by the Choque-Mixes, and
the Pacific plains by the Zapotecs. Forming a small enclave
in the Zapotec area are the Huaves, a tribe of fishermen in
habiting the shores of the great lagoons.
Of these races the Zapotecs, an offshoot of the noble race
which anciently ruled over and still dwells in the great moun
tainous region to the northwest, easily stand first. Four cen
turies of subjugation have not sufficed to extinguish the na
tional spirit. They inhabit the Pacific plains and the elevated
table-lands from Tarifa to Petapa. The Zapotecs are the most
intelligent as well as the most industrious Indians on the
Isthmus and in personal appearance are superior to all others.
Their population is on the increase and is continually sending
forth emmigrants to people districts once the homes of other
races. They inhabit the greater part of the State of Oaxaca
and number somewhere between seven hundred thousand and
a million souls.
The Zapotec is a fine fellow physically ; short, as a rule,
but full-breasted and powerfully built. One seldom sees a
spare-built man among them. He has a broad back and he
needs it, for the burden he has to bear is far from light. It has
been the custom of writers making the tour of southern Mex
ico to belittle the male Zapotec. Several things have concurred
to deny him his due. The features of the male Zapotec are
generally plain, his costume has little of the picturesque, and
the traveler being himself of the male sex has given him but
scant attention.

Buzzards the Great Isthmus Scavengers, as Tame as Domestic Fowls

THE INDIAN PEOPLES 121
Owing to the insecure nature of the country the agricul
tural population tends to concentrate in the villages and towns
where some measure of protection is afforded. This results
in a special division of labor between the sexes. The women,
residing continually in the town, are the merchants. Such
a thing as a man selling goods at retail is practically unknown.
Women are the traders, while the men largely spend their
lives on their outlying ranches, caring for their stock, burning
lime, charcoal, etc., fishing and hunting, or tilling their little
holdings of corn or cane. I may add that the number of hunt
ers is few, for the Indians have little natural fondness for
hunting although the country abounds in game. This is not to
be wondered at, for they had passed from the hunter state and
had become an agricultural race long before the dawn of
history. In the daytime the absence of men is very noticeable in
the towns. This is the parent of two errors: first, that the
females far outnumber the males and, second, that the women
are the industrious part of the community and the men mere
drones. Writers have made no mistake in picturing the Zapotec
woman as the most attractive representative of her race, a
statement to the truth of which the many illustrations scatter
ed through this work bear witness. Varying in color from gold
en to rich brown, with well-rounded limbs and deep bosom, her
features possess none of that harshness which we usually
associate with Indian blood.
Venus is here revealed in the flesh. Here alone among
the living daughters of Eve will you find the straight project
ing breasts of classic Greece. The Zapotec maid needs no cor
sets. Her breasts stand erect not merely as a budding maid
but well on until the age of thirty or thirty-five, and it is no

122 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
uncommon thing to come upon a mother of three or four chil
dren whose breasts project like those of a young girl. This
plainly indicates great vigor in the race.
With her open face and ready laugh the Tehuana is the
reverse of Oriental ; she is most decidedly of the Occident. But,
aside from this, surface indications are to the contrary; and
beholding these gaudily dressed creatures moving upon the
streets, each with a tray or jar balanced on her head, I saw as
through a mist the Persian marts of my youth. The Tehuanas
persist in carrying everything on their heads, even in the most
violent winds. Sometimes they are compelled to navigate
pretty slowly, but they never under any circumstances permit
their burden to fall. It is no uncommon sight to see a woman
pass, balancing a squash on her head. Their dexterity in this
matter is the result of long experience. I have often seen a
little girl of ten or twelve years walking along quite uncon
cernedly, balancing an empty beer bottle on her head. She
was taking her first lesson in the art.
The Tehuanas are very strong and walk off with a stride,
even in the hottest weather. After the manner of Norwegian
peasant women they are much given to trotting when in a
hurry. Mexico presents a great object lesson to the student of
race absorption. Here you find every stage in the process;
the wild Indian, the Christianized Indian who still preserves
his mother tongue and the costume of his ancestors, and the
Spanish-speaking Indian who has assumed the costume of the
white man.
The Zapotecs were long since converted to the Christian
faith, whether for the better or not is an open question; but
they still preserve their own language. It is estimated that
the Zapotecan tongue is spoken by at least 500,000 souls. True,

Senor Bigote, the Renowned Gringo
Viajero, Dressed to Ascend to
the Crater of Popocatepetl

THE INDIAN PEOPLES 123
Spanish is spoken in the larger towns of Zapoteca. It is the
language of communication with the white; the language of
law, religion, and public affairs ; of the schools, such as there
are. But even in the towns you hear the aboriginal tongue
on every hand, and in the villages it alone is spoken. Indeed,
I do not exaggerate in saying that outside the cities of Te
huantepec, Juchitan, Salina Cruz, and San Geronimo but little
Spanish is heard upon the Pacific plains of the Isthmus. Even
in such large towns as Iztaltepec it is but little used. This
fact was forcibly impressed upon me by an incident which
occurred late in the fall of 1918.
It so befell that upon a certain Sunday Mr. James
Cowan and myself found ourselves at San Geronimo. Just a
word about Cowan before I go any further. This Cowan —
he was locally known as Senor Bigote (Mr. Mustache) — was
quite a character. I suppose there was no better known Gringo
in all southern Mexico. For many years he had traveled up
and down the country in the interests of first one firm and
then another, and at the time when I first met him was selling
enameled ware for some American house. He was a most
unique individual. In the first place he was a one-armed man,
though of course that was not his fault. He was a large man
and sported an immense mustache, immense even for one of
his size ; and he waxed the ends of the said mustache and drew
them out to pencil points which projected a good four inches
from his cheeks. And in addition to this he always wore a
great broad-brimmed hat the crown of which was carefully
brought to a peak. Altogether, he was a sight not soon for
gotten. Well, as I was saying, that Sunday Sefior Bigote and I
found ourselves at San Geronimo. We were considering a
trip to Iztaltepec and with that object in view hunted up

124 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
Adamik and Melby. Adamik was "conforme," as the Mex
icans say ; that is, he was willing to go. But Melby could not
go; he was ex officio funeral director of the New Town, it
seemed, and had a funeral on hand. However, he very oblig
ingly lent us a covered rig for the trip. So, after we had seen
him off on his mission, we entered the rig and set out for
Iztaltepec. It was a drive of six miles through practically uninhabited
country, and of course there was the ever-present possibility
of being waylaid by bandits ; but we assumed the risk. How
easily one becomes accustomed to taking chances in such mat
ters! Adamik occupied the front seat as driver, pushing the
sturdy mules forward at a good pace, while my young friend
Senor Bigote and myself occupied the rear. A mile out from
San Geronimo we turned the flank of Dani Guiati and whirled
out onto the arid plain. Less than an hour later we entered
the outskirts of Iztaltepec.
The outskirts of an Indian city are seldom prepossessing
and those of Iztaltepec were no exception to the rule. They
differed from those of most Indian towns, however, In one
respect; everything was laid out on the checkerboard plan.
Iztaltepec must have been a place of some size — I should say
it had a population of four or five thousand — and the suburbs
were extensive. For well on towards a mile we rode past
street after street, each flanked by two rows of Indian houses,
practically all of them wattle shacks plastered over with red
clay. They were the homes of the poor, without windows and
probably without floors; nor was there a tree in sight nor a
shrub of any description. I can not imagine more desolate
places in which to dwell, and yet such are the homes — if homes
they can be called — of nine-tenths of the Indians of Mexico.

»t,/M>jy,'i; ;¦ ,-ftH i'*&t[ ;;';'- .':

4fiw.73STT*. " '•-'
mm»r'4 *¦' ' t

A Peon's Well Kept Home

THE INDIAN PEOPLES 125
What can be expected of children raised under such condi
tions? The crying need of southern Mexico is not so much
legal reforms as social workers to teach the poor how to live.
Toward the municipal center the place took on a more
prosperous air, many of the buildings comparing favorably
with those occupied by the middle classes of Tehuantepec and
Juchitan. There was a small plaza, upon the further side of
which was a church of the usual Spanish type, while upon the
near side a building with some architectural pretensions
was in course of erection.
Of course there was a market. We could see to our right
the corner of that indispensable adjunct to every Isthmean
town, and so we alighted from the rig and proceeded in that
direction. We were short of cigars, at least that was the ex
cuse we made to one another, but our real object was to inspect
such Tehuanas as might be there. As luck would have it we
struck the market at the wrong hour; there were only a few
Tehuanas present and only one of these was passing fair.
I remember her well. She was clad in an embroidered
dress of rich wine-colored material and wore a golden neck
chain and gold rings upon her fingers. She was decidedly at
tractive and I immediately set out to perform the part of a
Mexican gallant by pinching her in the nape of the neck ; but
despite all my efforts she successfully eluded me, smiling good-
naturedly all the time, however, and chattering with Adamik
about her goods. At last, noting that my younger companion,
Sefior Bigote, was becoming greatly exercised at my conduct,
I was constrained to desist. Allah f orf end ! I but did this to
initiate my brother into the ways of the Isthmus.
We returned to the municipal building and sought audi
ence of the presidente. Having come all the way to Iztaltepec,
we would see its celebrated pottery works before going back

126 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
to San Geronimo. Could he tell us where they were located?
The presidente said we would find them somewhere in the
northeastern outskirts of the town, but was not certain as to
their exact location. It would be necessary, he said, for us to
inquire as we proceeded. So we entered our rig and took the
back track toward San Geronimo, stopping from time to time
to make inquiries.
Now for the first time we realized to what limited extent
Spanish was spoken at Iztaltepec. In nearly every instance
those accosted made answer in Zapotecan. This would have
been no great matter for wonder had they been women or chil
dren ; but, as I remember, we addressed only grown men, and
not one of them answered in Spanish. The location of the
pottery works under such conditions thus became a matter of
no little difficulty, but, what with a liberal use of sign lan
guage and much gesticulating and pointing about, we were
finally made to understand, and in the end actually found our
selves alongside the potter's home. After we had hallooed
three or four times the potter came forth. He was a full-blood
Zapotec. He led us to the pottery. Housed in a most disreputable
shack, the exterior was no index to what was contained there
in. The potter was evidently no mean craftsman; the place
was filled with the products of his genius, plain pottery, vases,
and statuary wrought in clay. Many of the patterns were of
exquisite design. I have seen samples of the ancient art of the
Zapotecs, but there was here no evidence of the aboriginal;
every line was classic and it was evident that the workman
had been thoroughly instructed in the craft by some Spanish
master. All this pottery was made of a fine blue clay. The potter
informed us that an unlimited supply of this clay was obtain
able in the immediate vicinity.

THE INDIAN PEOPLES 127
Once more entering our rig, Adamik whipped up the mules
and an hour and a half later we pulled up before the great gate
of the Compania Comercial at San Geronimo. The affable
Melby, having successfully concluded for the day his duties
as funeral director, was there to meet us. That same evening
Senor Bigote and I returned to Salina Cruz.

The Zapotecan seems to be in process of dissolution. It
is the language of the lower class, of the Indian, and the Span
ish-speaking element ever speak of it with a species of con
tempt which it is far from deserving. The cultivated Mexican
will tell you that it has no grammar and is only a "dialect,"
and makes a point of never calling it a language. It is true
that it has none of the needless grammatical complexities of
the Castilian, but that is rather in its favor. It possesses its
own simple grammar and, though not as sweet as the Spanish,
strikes not unpleasantly upon the ear.
I am told that under the Diaz regime the printing of
books in the Indian tongues was forbidded, and though now a
more liberal rule prevails the study of the native tongues is
still discouraged. It is unfortunate that this is the case.
Equally among Anglo-Americans and Latin-Americans the
policy has been to educate the Indian in the European tongue,
and instruction in the native dialect has generally been for
bidden; a false policy, since it has inevitably shut the older
portion of the Indian community out from the benefits of civil
ization. If instruction were given in the Indian dialect it
would penetrate the entire community to a greater or less
extent, and on the other hand, since the native dialect is with
out a literature, it would never rise to the rank of a rival.
An old professor residing at San Bias has published a

128 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
Zapotecan grammar and translated portions of the Bible into
the vernacular. During many months of association with these Indians
I never met so much as one who possessed a Zapotecan name.
There were no Cosijoezas, Cosijopiis, Donajis, or Pinopaas,
while on the other hand there was no end of Franciscos, Man-
uels, Joses, Marias, Rosas, and Lucias, and Dons and Donas
were as common among the Indians as among the families of
white blood. This condition of things has arisen, as we shall
see later on, from the practice of the early Spanish priests,
who in baptizing were always careful to endow each neophyte
not only with a Spanish surname but also with a suitable
Christian name. Without desiring to reflect upon the good
intentions of those early fathers, it seems a pity that such
native names as Zaachila, Pinopaa, Naatipa, and Donaji, as
sociated as they ever must be with the past grandeur of the
race, should have utterly passed from use.
This seems a convenient place to correct certain mis
apprehensions which have arisen as to the use of names and
titles among Spanish-speaking people generally. There seems
to be a prevalent impression that the title "Don" is indicative
of nobility. Nothing is further from the fact; "hidalgo" is
the term applied to a member of the lower nobility of Spain,
while "Don" is similar to the English "Sir" and "Senor" is
equivalent to the English "Mr.." The title "Don" is always
used with the Christian name ; for instance, Eduardo Guzman
may be addressed either as Senor Guzman or as Don Eduardo.
"Don" and its feminine "Dona" are applied indiscriminately in
Spanish-speaking countries to all adults above the servant
class ; differing in this respect from their English equivalents
"Sir" and "Lady," which are confined to the few.
From reading English novels dealing with Latin life one

THE INDIAN PEOPLES 129
gets the impression that the girls are all named Dolores, Mer
cedes, or Bonita. As a matter of fact, in southern Mexico at
least, these names are by no means common. Rosa, Clara,
Lucia, Maria, and Juanita are in much more general use.
Guadalupe, the name of the patron saint of Mexico, is also
popular. The Zapotecs of the mountains and those of the Pacific
plain speak slightly varying dialects and wear a different
dress. Those of the mountains preserve the costume of their
ancestors. The dress of the women consists of a short huipil
or sleeveless jacket, the refajo (a short wrapper descending
slightly below the knees and confined at the waist by a many
colored scarf), and a cloth wound about the head something
after the fashion of a turban. This dress, more or less orna
mented with bead-work or embroidery, is purely Indian.
The Zapotecs of the Pacific plains (the Tehuanos, as they
are generally, but loosely, called), while not adopting Euro
pean dress, have departed widely from the dress of their fore
fathers. The men are clad in white shirt-coats and pants of
lightest cotton, the shirt being worn outside the pantaloons for
greater comfort. On gala occasions silk* is frequently substi
tuted for cotton by the young gallants.
The only striking feature of the male attire is the hat or
sombrero. The festal hat is a great affair. It differs from the
steeple-crowned hat of the more northern parts of Mexico,
being lower and broader. All these hats are of exactly the
same shape, differing only in color; and there are only three
colors worn, gray, brick red, and purple.
Like all Mexican hats these have immense brims, which
are turned up sharply so that the brim forms a most convenient
receptacle for all manner of things. The Indian generally
*Silk is raised by the Indians of Santa Maria Guiniagata and sold to
the people of the plain.

130 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
carries his cigarettes and matches in his hat brim. On being
overtaken by a sudden shower the workman strips, and wrap
ping up his pants and shirt into as compact a bundle as pos
sible, pushes it up into the crown of his hat, claps his hat on
his head, and goes about his business.
With the Tehuana the ancient costume has undergone a
wonderful transformation. Her upper garment is the huipil,*
a sleeveless garment unconfined at the waist. This is most
commonly of brilliant red sprinkled with polka dots of white,
and with a gorgeous border of yellow needlework. She has
discarded the simple wrapper and adopted the skirt; not the
European skirt, however, but apparently one of her own de
vising. The skirt is very full and ends in a wide flounce, in
variably white. The latter is merely basted onto the skirt,
so that it may be detached and laundered weekly. I was told
that this skirt is derived from the Andalusian skirt introduced
long ago.**
Like her white sister the Tehuana covers her head with
the reboso or manta. Both sexes go barefooted about town,
though the male Indian generally wears sandals when in the
country. The Tehuana cannot be prevailed upon to wear
shoes under any circumstances. Their feet are of good size
and from constantly walking in the sand the toes are spread
*The huipil is not worn at weddings. The bride wears instead a
peculiar waist with wide ruff about the neck, and trimmed at the bottom
with lace of old gold. The women of Jalapa, up the river from Tehuan
tepec, do not wear the huipil at all, but wear a loose waist resembling
the upper portion of a lace night-shirt.
**So I was told by Lie. M. Garfia Salinas. Surgeon John C. Spear,
a member of the Shufeldt expedition, states that when they visited Te
huantepec (in 1871) the women of that place wore, "instead of the plain
white skirt (worn by the mountaineers), one composed of strips of va
rious-colored cloth, with the strips so arranged as to encircle the body,
which makes a very gay and pleasing costume." While it seems that we
have here the source of that wondrous creation, the Tehuana skirt, it is
equally evident that it was but the crude beginning.

THE INDIAN PEOPLES 131
wide apart. But this does not embarrass them in the least,
for these gentle creatures are not inclined to be silly.
The boys of the lower class go entirely naked until six
or eight years of age, and run about the streets in utter inno
cence; but the little girls, however young, are generally clad
as modestly as their mothers. Their dress is an exact minia
ture of that of the grown-up Tehuanas, huipil and skirt, white
flounce and all.
The Zapotecs are far and away the best Indians in Mex
ico. They alone never bowed to the lordly Aztec or Mexican;*
from Oaxaca sprang Mexico's two leading statesmen, Benito
Juarez, a full-blooded Zapotec, and Porfirio Diaz, of the same
race by his mother's side ; and even today the Sons of Zaachila
are accounted the bravest of the civilized races. Juchitan
in particular is renowned for the valor of her sons, with whom
the military service has for generations been a profession.
But this statement may be easily misunderstood. The
Zapotec and the North American Indian of the western plains
are as different as light and darkness. The latter is savage,
taciturn, and sullen; the former is joyous and happy. The
women in particular are forever smiling and laughing. In
fact, the Tehuano has few of the characteristics which we gen
erally ascribe to the Indian. It is seldom that one sees him
frown. His face is open and he looks you full in the eye. He
loves a jolly time and nothing pleases him better than a hearty
slap on the back, though it be administered by a total stranger.
The children have none of the proverbial stoacism of the
Indian child, but laugh and cry precisely like white children.
At school the children are full of life and when recess-time
comes pandemonium is let loose precisely as in Europe. We
"These Indians do not call themselves Mexicans. To this day the
term Mexican is applied by them, as it was of old, to the Aztecan races
which inhabit the central plateau and the State of Vera Cruz. Constant
applications of this usage occur in the historical chapters which follow.

132 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
may add that the Zapotec baby is a prodigious bawler who can
easily out howl his Irish cousin.
It is a pleasure to live among these people, for they are
uniformly honest. Thievery is practically unknown. Cen
turies of evil example have failed to corrupt the simple Indian.
During a year's residence at the Hotel Salina Cruz, with serv
ants changing continually, I never lost a single article, and my
bedroom door was never locked. On several occasions I left
small coins on my dressing table to try the Indian's honesty,
and in no case was as much as a cent purloined. On every hand,
from Mexican and foreigner alike, one heard the unanimous
and true verdict : "These Indians are honest."
Intemperance is the vice of the male Zapotec; a thing
not to be wondered at, since the prohibition movement has
not reached southern Mexico. Drinking is wellnigh universal
among the white Mexicans and foreigners of that region. Both
men and women drink and drunkenness is hardly considered a
disgrace; and it is not surprising that the Indian has not
advanced beyond the example set by his superiors.
Every Indian town is abundantly supplied with grog-
eries (cantinas) where the fiery liquors of the country, tequila,
mescal, and aguardiente, may be had for a pittance; and at
all fiestas (and fiestas are numerous) a large percent of the
male population become intoxicated, and the streets are full
of reeling Indians. The Indian women do not drink as a rule.
Their standards of sexual morality are not what they
might be. It is traditional that virtue hath her abode in the
regions of sleet and ice and that the tropic sun breeds immoral
ity, and a poor reason is better than none ; but the true expla
nation lies elsewhere. When the conquistadors (for the
most part military adventurers of the worst sort) entered the
land, they set upon a course of unbridled profligacy with the

A Tehuana of the Upper Class A Zapotec Girl from the Highlands A Bride of Tehuantepec. The Upper
in Full Ruffled Skirt Showing Wrapped Skirt Garment is Evidently Derived
from Old Spain

THE INDIAN PEOPLES 133
daughters of the soil ; and their evil example has descended to
modern times. Bachelors frequently keep house and the cus
tom exists of keeping a Tehuana. The marriage rite is not con
sidered essential and many Indian maidens regard a "Left-
handed" arrangement with a white man as eminently proper.
But among the Indians themselves the standard is higher
and concubinage is not common. Prostitution is almost un
known ; though in some places there are institutions known as
bafios dobles (double baths) which have given the Indians
an evil reputation, not deserved, for the girls connected with
these institutions generally come from afar and a girl of the
town who is seen in their vicinity is shunned by Indian society.
But while the Zapotecs are on the whole a moral race, they
are not prudish. They are much given to bathing and at Te
huantepec crowds of the lower classes may be seen at almost
any time of the day disporting in the waters of the river.
Bathing suits are conspicuous by their absence. The ladies
have a way of wiggling out of their clothes (save the chimese)
and into them again without exposing overmuch of their per
sons ; but the way the males strip to the skin and frolic about
would shock any good Moslem. In watching these males I
noted that in most cases their skin was neither yellow nor
brown, but of a deep brick-red color, and for the first time
realized that the term Red Man, sometimes applied to the
American Indian, was not a misnomer.
Very often, rather than go to the river they bathe in the
irrigation ditches adjoining their homes. On one occasion as
Clarence Harvey and myself were passing through an irrigat
ed district we came upon a shapely Tehuana in the midst of
her ablutions. She had turned her back ere my companion
called my attention to the situation, and there she sat, waiting
quite unconcernedly for us to depart; and why not, since she

134 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
had her back turned to us. And yet had this occurred in Persia
and had the matter been discovered, we had doubtless all three
been put to the sword. But there is no accounting for differ
ences in customs.
In passing through the market place the men are accus
tomed to lay their hands caressingly upon the women's shoul
ders and even pat their cheeks, and this conduct is not ordi
narily resented but answered with smiles. Many Tehuanas
regard it as a compliment to be chucked under the chin, and
that even by a stranger. But the curse of Allah be upon such
as imagine iniquity, for there is no guile in these women's
hearts and those who presume too much upon their simplicity
are sure to meet with a rebuff. In the tender-hearted Te
huana, however, this is indicated only by a pained expression,
for these gentle creatures never repel an advance by spitting
cat like, as do the women of western Europe, nor by scratching
or slapping the offender's face, as is the custom with their
sisters of Celtic blood.
The whites on the Isthmus readily intermarry with the
Zapotec Indian women. They make excellent wives, being
very loyal and industrious, and the children of such unions
are intelligent, energetic, and lovable and are always num
bered among the whites. Indeed, it is proper that they should
be since with the intelligence of the white they combine many
sterling moral qualities derived with their Indian blood. From
the moral point of view the Zapotec Indian is in not a few
respects the superior of many white races.
Education is at a low ebb on the Isthmus. All the towns
are provided with public schools, but the salaries of teachers
are miserably low and the methods of instruction are anti
quated. Schooling does not extend beyond the fourth or fifth
grade. In the remoter villages no provision whatever is made

THE INDIAN PEOPLES 135
for the education of the Indian. That noble woman, Dona
Juana Romero, who was fully alive to the educational needs
of her people, founded two schools at Tehuantepec, one for
boys and one for girls, which offer courses covering some six
or seven years. These are the highest institutions of learning
on the Isthmus. The youth of the well-to-do are sent away
to Oaxaca City, Mexico City, or to the United States or France
to finish their education.
The Christian religion is universally professed by the Za
potecs, among whom not a trace of the ancient heathen reli
gion can be found. They appear to regard with horror and
avoid with superstitious dread all those places containing
remains of the ancient faith. Singular as it may seem, the
Indians now-a-days pay more attention to the ceremonies con
nected with the Christian faith than the whites who introduced
it among them. Indeed, as the Indian villages are more remote
from the centers of European civilization the ordinances of
the church are more regularly observed, notwithstanding the
absence of priests. In such remote villages the "ave" and the
"oracion" are constantly heard, while in the larger cities of
the land the churches and convents are used for barracks.
All that the Zapotec needs is a fair chance. He is ignor
ant, but he is willing to learn. He is superstitious. He still
clings to the church. His life has become inextricably bound
up with its forms and ceremonies ; but f of him it has no higher
meaning. His intellectual and moral standards are not what
they should be, but through no fault of his. He has made the
most of his few opportunities. While the missionary societies
have compassed land and sea for one proselyte, they have
passed by this poor fellow. They have cast seed on stony
places, which if sown in this good soil would have brought
forth a hundred fold. What the Zapotec needs is the gospel

136 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
of righteousness taught in his own tongue, hospitals, orphan
ages, and schools of higher learning.
The Indians have the right of suffrage and very generallj
exercise it. In their towns the mayor and other officers ari
generally chosen from their own class, and exercise authority
as government officials and not as tribal chiefs. There ar«,
however, a few of the aboriginal laws and customs still in
existence, such as that of the village or tribe possessing land
as common property. In their music, songs, and dances they
have also retained much of the ancient culture. The arts for
which this race was at one time famous have, on the contrary,
for the most part perished; the manufacture of pottery and
certain sorts of dyed fabrics seeming to be the only exceptions.
Tradition tells us that the Huaves came from South
America. Prior to the coming of the Zapotecs they occupied
the whole of the Pacific plains; in fact, Tehuantepec appears
to have been founded by the Huaves. Their numbers are now
greatly diminished, and they are limited to four small fishing
villages situated in the district intervening between the great
lagoons and the Pacific ocean. They are greatly inferior to
the Zapotecs in civilization. Fish is their principal article of
food and fishing their chief occupation. They supply the
southern portion of the Isthmus with salt fish, which they
carry on their backs in huge baskets for many miles from
town to town in search of customers.
The ignorance and simplicity of this people is well illus
trated by the following story. It seems that at the time when
the French fleet which accompanied Maximilian was lying off
the coast of Mexico, the president of the republic sent to each
town a request for contributions of money, at the same time
directing that the people do their utmost to repel the invader.

THE INDIAN PEOPLES 137
The Huaves in response sent thirty pesos and a message stat
ing that, should the fleet appear off their coast, they would
immediately go forth in their canoes and attack it.
All the towns of the Huaves are named after saints, and
they are accounted Christians, and yet I was told that in case
of sickness they still made pilgrimages to Monapoxtiac to
propitiate the ancient gods.
The two divisions of the Choque-Mixe race people the
mountains on the opposite sides of the pass, the Choques or
Chimalapas occupying the towns of San Miquel and Santa
Maria Chimalapa, and the Mixes dwelling in and about San
Juan Guichicovi. They are rather darker than the Zapotecs
of the plains, although the true color of their skin is often
greatly obscured by the "pinta" a leprous skin-disease quite
prevalent among them.
The pinta affects a large percentage of the mountain
population, practically all of whom are Indians, as well as
several places on the Pacific side near the foot of the moun
tains. In fact, I met with several cases of pinta in Tehuan
tepec. White or blue spots, often the size of a silver dollar,
appear on the face, hands, and body, and sometimes an indi
vidual is met with whose face or hands are completely changed
from their natural color. The affected parts are neither
swollen nor painful, and the fingers and toes do not drop off,
as in the West Indian leprosy. It does not incapacitate anyone
for labor nor is it ever fatal. In order to contract it, it seems
necessary to live in very close relations with the affected per
son, and Europeans have seldom been known to contract the
disease. On the Atlantic plains of the northern portion of the
Isthmus dwell the Aztecs or Mexican Indians proper, who

138 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
speak the Nahuatl or ancient language of the Central Plateau.
They are nearly equal to the Zapotecs in personal appearance,
but are neither as intelligent and vivacious nor as warlike
as the Sons of Zaachila. As the region which they inhabit is
beyond the scope of this book we shall not consider them
further.

CHAPTER IX.
TRANSPORTATION AND BANDITS
THE transportation facilities of southern Mexico are
poor. There are but two railroads (both standard
guage, however), in all this region; the Tehuante
pec National Railway, across the Isthmus from Puerto Mexico
(Coatzacoalcos) on the Gulf to Salina Cruz on the Pacific, a
distance of 189 miles, and the Pan-American Railroad, which
connects with the Tehuantepec line at San Geronimo (30 miles
from Salina Cruz) and proceeds thence along the Pacific
littoral to Mariscal on the Guatemalan border, some 285 miles.
Daily trains departed from each terminus of these lines,
leaving early in the morning so as to reach the other terminus
by evening. Owing to the prevalent state of insecurity no
trains were run at night, and indeed there was no demand for
night trains, the day trains being sufficient to handle all
traffic. In fact, the lines of communication were kept open mainly
for military considerations. Each train was a moving fortress.
It ordinarily consists of not more than a dozen cars, two at
least of which are armored cars filled with soldiers. On the
Tehuantepec and Pan-American lines the trains have seldom
been attacked, and indeed there was practically no danger
in traveling by train on the Pacific plains, it being said that
the rebels in that section were indisposed to attack because
they did not wish to interfere with their own people, of which
the passengers mainly consisted. Others claimed, and with
greater appearance of reason, that this comparative immunity
139

140 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
from attack was the result of settled policy on the part of the
rebels or brigands, who had learned that the destruction of a
train meant an immediate concentration of government troops
and several weeks hard hiking for the rebels.
On one occasion it so happened that I was aboard train
making my usual Sunday trip to Tehuantepec. The car was
fairly well filled. Don Carlos Parkins and Gonzales Soto, man
ager of the Santa Cruz sugar plantation six miles west from
San Geronimo, Were with me while a number of Mexican ladies
and two or three men occupied the seats in front of us. Our
train passed through the defile north of Salina Cruz and sped
out across the plain, but we had barely passed the siding at
Pierson, two or three miles beyond, when the sound of shots
ahead greeted our ears.
Hastily raising the windows, we perceived smoke belching .
from the armored car in front of us. Whether or not the train
had actually been fired upon by rebels in the timber adjoining
the right of way we never learned, but at any rate the soldiers
appeared to think an attack was contemplated and so evidently
thought the engineer, for the train sped on faster than ever
and the military kept up a steady f usilade.
It was interesting to note the effect upon the occupants of
the car. We three managed to keep our seats though Soto,
who sat in front of Don Carlos and myself, turned green with
fear. Even Don Carlos I thought a trifle nervous though he
summoned a forced smile as he met my, to him, inscrutable
oriental gaze. But the effect on our fellow passengers was
more marked. The ladies glanced hurriedly about and then
one after another slid down between the seats and crouched
low. Garfia Salina's sister, who occupied the second seat
directly in front of us, followed the example thus set, but not
until she had cast a deprecating smile in my direction. I read

A .Street Scene in San Geronimo. Railroad Ties are an Article of Comnien

The Primitive Cait ami Oxen are the Common Mean? of Transportation

TRANSPORTATION AND BANDITS 141
that smile. Woman though she was she dreaded our ridicule
almost as greatly as she feared the enemy without.
Another passenger, a little man, was troubled with no
such misgivings. He boldly took counsel of fear and, first
stripping off his coat and spreading it on the floor of the car,
laid down at full length between the seats. As I watched him
I heard in my ear the sage voice of Don Carlos.
"That fellow adopts the proper course. When you lay
stretched out that way you run the minimum of risk; least
surface exposed to a ball, you see. He's evidently been through
this sort of thing before and is well up in the business."
Another item, 0 son of Abdullah, in the science of revolu
tions. Enter it in thy notebook against a possible visit to the
Isfhmus. As for the writer, my brother, candor compels the
admission that I felt ill at ease, though vanity prevented me
from taking any active steps for my safety.
A few moments later the firing ceased and the passengers
resumed their seats. If there were any rebels in the timber
we were now beyond their range.
Don Lemon Meyer, a young commission merchant who
was my fellow guest at the Hotel Salina Cruz during the early
months of 1918, once told me an interesting experience which
befell him. It so happened that some months before, as he
was traveling from Puerto Mexico to Salina Cruz, the train
on which he rode was beset by bandits. The scene of the hold
up was a point not far from Puerto Mexico where the railroad
penetrates a dense forest; the time, just before sunrise.
Don Lemon was carrying eight hundred pesos in a belt
about his waist, which, as the money belonged to his employers,
he felt he could under no circumstances surrender. He deter
mined to effect an escape from the train if possible. Throw
ing" up his window he perceived that the bandits had gathered

142 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
about the front end of the train, leaving the rear unguarded.
He sprang up and shouldering his way past his affrighted
fellow passengers, reached the rear platform and springing off
disappeared in the bush.
In the darkness and confusion he managed to work his
way into the dense jungle and avoid capture. For several
hours he lay concealed, fearing the bandits might be still lurk
ing somewhere about, and then started for the next station
six miles away. Even then he dared not take to the railroad
track. Slowly, in constant dread of discovery, he worked his
way through the jungle, paralleling the railway until he
reached the station. The adventure meant the loss of two
meals and hours of exhausting labor, but he had saved his
money and felt fully recompensed for the hardships through
which he had passed.
This leads me to speak of another incident which, while
it occurred some years earlier and is in no way connected with
the subject of transportation, throws a vivid light on the law
less conditions of those times. When the American troops
occupied Vera Cruz in the spring of 1914 the position of all
American residents in Mexico became more or less insecure and
such as could fled the country. At this time one Don Jeronimo
Mahoney dwelt at Reforma, the little station situated where
the Pan American Railway crosses the Ostuta River.
Now Don Jeronimo was neither a Mexican nor a Sinn
Feiner, as his name would suggest, but an American ; and when
he learned of the occupation of Vera Cruz he decided it was
about time for him to decamp, or, as he expressed it, to "make
his getaway." He accordingly set out for Salina Cruz, he and
Mrs. Mahoney and his sister-in-law Ruth, all mounted. To
avoid discovery they took to by-paths, following the lanes of
the forest and skirting the north shore of the Upper Lagoon.

TRANSPORTATION AND BANDITS 143
They reached and crossed the Rio de Perros below Juchitan
and then, veering to the southwest, turned the western ex
tremity of the great lagoon in the neighborhood of Punta de
Aguas. Hastening forward and still keeping to the forest
trails, they struck across country in the direction — as they
supposed — of the Tehuantepec River crossing; but lost their
way and fell off to the left, entering the timbered district which
intervenes betwixt the Tehuantepec and the Tilema Lagoon.
Soon they heard horsemen approaching and thinking
themselves pursued left the beaten way and plunged into the
thicket. They dismounted and turned their horses loose and,
fearful lest they be followed by their footprints, removed their
shoes — a fatal mistake, for soon their tender feet were cut to
the quick by the thorns and brambles of the jungle. Though
the women were every inch as heroic as the man — and Don
Jeronimo was fearless to a fault — there is a limit to what
mortals can endure, and after wandering aimlessly for a little
while longer they were compelled to surrender at discretion.
They were taken captive to Juchitan where for a time
things looked black, but were eventually through the aid of
native friends set at liberty and permitted to leave the country.
This, with varying details, is the story of scores of Gringoes
who fled from Mexico while the revolution was in full flood.
Adversity could not long deter people of the Mahoney
stamp. Mrs. Mahoney and her sister were, I believe, the first
American women to return to southern Mexico after the
revolution had spent itself, and I had the pleasure of meeting
them at Salina Cruz in the spring of 1918. A few weeks later
Don Jeronimo himself appeared upon the scene.
But it is time we returned to the subject of transportation
conditions on the Isthmus. At the present time southern

144 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
Mexico is practically isolated from the remainder of the repub
lic. There is a line (the Vera Cruz al Istmo) running from
Vera Cruz to a point of connection with the Tehuantepec
National at Santa Lucrecia, but this road was practically use
less at times because of the lawless condition of the country
through which it passed. The district was infested by robber
bands. Trains were frequently stopped, the escort shot to a
man, women passengers violated, and the cars burned or dyna
mited ; after which the bandits helped themselves to such of the
freight as struck their fancy, and carried off the most promis
ing male pasengers to be held for ransom.
Under such conditions it is hardly to be wondered at that
the trip was made but once a week or such a matter, when six
or seven trains proceeded together under a combined escort of
sufficient size to insure safety.
I took this route upon the occasion of my first coming to
Mexico. The trip from Vera Cruz to Salina Cruz (about 300
miles) consumed three days, with stops for the night at
Tierra Blanca and Santa Lucrecia. Fortunately I rode with
the army paymaster and we had an escort of a hundred men.
Evidently the right of way had not been cleared nor the road
bed repaired for years. For a great part of the way we
plunged through forests, the boughs of the trees sweeping the
sides of the cars and the train threatening to jump the track
at every turn. Our enjoyment of the trip was still further
heightened by the goodly array which greeted our eyes of dead
bandits hanging from trees and telegraph poles, their weather
ed appearance indicating that they had been hanging there
for a long period of time.
But I would not have the reader form an unjust opinion
of this region. In times of peace it is an earthly para
dise. Everywhere from Tierra Blanca to Santa Lucrecia, and

TRANSPORTATION AND BANDITS 145
even up on the Coatzacoalcos valley to Ubero and beyond, the
soil was of the deepest black and the vegetation of the bright
est green notwithstanding the fact that it was mid-winter
when I made the trip. Sometimes we passed through tropical
jungles, but oftener through mile on mile of glorious pasture-
land, studded here and there with clumps of majestic trees. I
have never beneath the sun beheld so beautiful a land. Here
American planters had dwelt in splendor only a few years
back, many of them having two plantations, one of them in
the United States where they spent the summer and the other
in Mexico where they made their winter home — an ideal ar
rangement. But four years before they had fled the country
and ruin had taken possession of the land.
At Tierra Blanca and Santa Lucrecia where we stopped
for the night there were only the most miserable excuses for
hotels, nor were there en route any accommodations whatever
for securing meals at midday. Having failed to provide our
selves with lunch baskets before leaving Vera Cruz, we were
compelled to satisfy our hunger as best we might from the
fragrant assortment of Indian delicacies offered by ragged
urchins at the car windows. Along that route the towns, and
even the station houses for the most part, had been burned by
the outlaws, and the country had reverted to nature.
Finally we made the upper reaches of the Coatzacoalcos,
surmounted the heights of the divide, and began the descent
through the cities of the Pacific plain. After the nightmare
country through which we had passed our relief may be con
ceived, as we entered the peaceful cities of the plain and beheld
the gay Tehuanas come flocking from all sides like great but
terflies to the car windows, holding aloft great baskets heaped
with every description of luscious tropical fruits, and crying
"Compra, Compra — Buy, buy."

146 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
The Pan-American, as I have stated, runs from San
Geronimo to Mariscal on the Guatemalan border. The line
formerly connected with the Guatemalan railway system, thus
permitting of through transportation from Vera Cruz to
Guatemala City; but the railroad bridge at the frontier was
destroyed and a couple of miles of track torn up on the Guate
malan side, thus practically eliminating land traffic between
Mexico and Guatemala. Goods intended for Guatemala then
had to be shipped to Salina Cruz, and thence by sea to Cham-
perico or San Jose.
Tapachula is the last city of importance on this line as
one goes toward Guatemala. Daily trains run between San
Geronimo and Tapachula; but on the link between Tapachula
and Mariscal there is but one train a week, on Sunday. A
branch line 13 miles long has recently been constructed, con
necting the important commercial center of Tonala with
Puerto Arista on the Pacific. This will perhaps in time result
in the diversion of much traffic from the Chiapas plateau to
the new port, traffic which now reaches ship's side at Salina
Cruz. Back of Tonala and Jalisco (Ariaga), important towns
on the Pan American, lies the beautiful plateau of Chiapas.
Tuxtla Gutierrez, San Cristobal de Las Casas, and Comitan
are its principal cities. This plateau enjoys an exceptional
climate* and abounds in natural wealth, but the bordering
range facing the Pacific is precipitous and the engineering
difficulties encountered have so far prevented the construction
of a branch from the Pan American to the cities of the plateau.
These difficulties are, however, far from insuperable, and
*In parts the Chiapas plateau is so cool that an inferior sort of rye
is raised by the natives; which sells readily among the German colonists
of Soconusco.

TRANSPORTATION AND BANDITS 147
within a few years this rich region will be opened up to world
traffic. The Chiapas plateau was then completely isolated.
Formerly communication was maintained by an automobile
stage running between Jalisco and Tuxtla Gutierrez ; but this
had been discontinued and at the time when I was on the Isth
mus the sole means of communication was by caravan. Once in
two weeks a caravan of a hundred or more carts left Jalisco,
under heavy escort, for Tuxtla Gutierrez. The mountains of
Chiapas were alive with bandits and on more than one occa
sion the escort was dispersed and the caravan plundered.
Tonala with a population in the neighborhood of 12,000
is the principal city of southwestern Chiapas. Situated mid
way between the semi-arid plains of Tehuantepec and the
water-soaked Soconuscan littoral, it enjoys a moderate rain
fall and with the final completion of the branch railroad to
Puerto Arista is destined to become a place of commercial
importance. Speaking of Tonala reminds me of a little inci
dent which I can not refrain from recording.
There lived in this place a gentleman of the most amiable
parts who possessed extensive property interests eastward
along the line toward Soconusco. Now it so befell that upon a
certain day of the days he had occasion to visit his properties.
Upon his return, and while still seven miles out from Tonala,
he was beset by a band of outlaws who not only relieved him
of his ready cash but also compelled him to disrobe, appropriat
ing his clothing and leaving him as naked as a newborn babe.
Whereupon Don Alfredo — for by such appellation was
he commonly known — set up a most piteous cry, representing
to the bandits that it would be impossible for him, a man who
had always gone about well dressed and shod, to make a jour
ney of seven miles in his then nude condition. Finally the

148 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
heart of the bandit chief was melted by his words and he
ordered that Don Alfredo's undershirt and shoes be returned
to him, and thus attired the latter made the return trip to
Tonala. History telleth not by what ruse he succeeded in en
tering the city without being seen of the people, but I am
certain he must have effected the seemingly impossible for
Don Alfredo was ever a most modest man.
I trust no one will question my veracity in recording this
incident. It may seem incredible to one unacquainted with
local conditions, but happenings such as this were by no means
uncommon during the Mexican revolution. The success of a
bandit attack was frequently measured by the extent to which
it enabled the victors to replenish their wardrobes, and it was
not uncommon for a band of these gentry to strip all the able-
bodied males of a village which they might chance to loot.
In former days there was considerable river traffic on
the Coatzacoalcos and its principal tributaries. Ocean-going
ships ascended the river to Minatitlan, and many of the Amer
ican plantations situated on its banks possessed steam launches
by which the produce of the plantations was conveyed to rail
road connections at Santa Lucrecia or Minatitlan. At that time
there was to my knowledge but one launch in use. This belong
ed to the Oaxaquena Plantation Company and plied between
the plantation of that company and Santa Lucrecia. Tank
steamers still ran between the oil wells of the Pearson interests
at Tuxpan Bar and its oil refinery at Minatitlan, and small
boats plied up and down the river daily between Minatitlan
and Puerto Mexico ; but vessels in the foreign trade no longer
ascended the river to Minatitlan. Minatitlan is an ancient
city destined to be eclipsed by the newer and more convenient
port of Puerto Mexico. While this is true, there will in time

Mammoth Electric Cranes mi the Wharf .Make the Salina Cruz Harl.or Economical

TRANSPORTATION AND BANDITS 149
be an extensive river traffic oh the Coatzacoalcos as far up as
Santa Lucrecia and perhaps considerably beyond.
A word as to the primitive river traffic of the Indians may
not be amiss. North of the Jumuapa or La Puerta River the
wagon roads are, on account of the mud and water, but little
used, canoe navigation there taking their place. These canoes
are made from a single stick of cedar or mahogany and are of
all dimensions, from the light traveling-canoe, accommodating
two passengers, to great freighting-canoes carrying six tons
of cargo and a half-dozen pasengers. The stern of the freight-
ing-canoe is roofed over to form accommodations for the pas
sengers. The crew is composed of three persons ; a patron or
captain who, seated in the stern, steers the boat with a huge
paddle and directs the movements of the others, and two
palenqueros who push the craft with long poles. Standing in
the bow the latter plant their poles on the river bed or against
some object on the banks of the stream, and then propel the
canoe forward, walking aft until they reach the stern of the
vessel, when they withdraw their poles, pass again to the bow,
and repeat the operation.
When ascending the river the boat is kept within arm's
length of the bank, and fifteen miles with a heavily loaded
canoe or thirty miles with a light traveling-canoe is accounted
a good day's work. In descending the stream, paddles are
used, the canoe is kept to the center of the stream to take ad
vantage of the current, and fifty miles is easily accomplished
between daylight and set of sun. At night the canoe is securely
moored and all hands sleep ashore, a precaution rendered
necessary by the fact that the rivers are infested by alligators.
On the upper reaches of the rivers, where the stream is
interrupted by rapids, navigation is effected by means of the

150 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
balsa, which is constructed of three unhewn logs of palo-
mulato, an extremely light wood, each about twelve feet in
length by eight inches in diameter, fastened together by wood
en pins. The balsa carries two or three persons and draws
less than six inches of water. Being very light they are easily
carried by the Indians on their shoulders at such portages as
are necessitated by the rapids.
"The novelty of this mode of travel, the dense over-hang
ing tropical vegetation of the river banks, the beautiful creep
ers and hanging vines, the monarchs of the jungle covered
with a profusion of parasites and epiphytes, the long lanes of
feathery hymbal and green camolote, forming here and there
trim borders to the river and looking like well-kept hedges,
the numerous flocks of screaming parrots, the monkeys chat
tering in the trees, and the water-fowl, in almost infinite num
ber and variety, lining the beaches and wading in the shallow
waters, all combined to make the ascent of the rivers, as we
went slowly along, day by day, exceedingly interesting and
enjoyable."* The rivers of the Pacific coast are unnavigable, but there
is a waterway through the great lagoons which should in time
form quite a channel of commerce. The four great lagoons of
the Pacific plain of the Isthmus are connected at their eastern
extremity with a series of esteros or lagoons which border the
seacoast almost to Tapachula, a distance of nearly 250 miles.
Formerly the passages between these lagoons were kept open
by the government, so as to permit of the passage of boats, but
this work has been neglected during these latter years and
some of the passages have become choked up; a condition of
things which may, however, be easily remedied. When this is
done the way will be open, if capital can be secured, for the
establishment of a regular line of steamboats plying between
*Report of the Shufeldt Expedition, p. 123.

TRANSPORTATION AND BANDITS 151
the western end of the Upper Lagoon and some point on the
Soconuscan shore.
Such a line would parallel the Pan-American Railroad;
but this would not prevent the boat line from securing abund
ant traffic, for the Pan-American for a great portion of the
way runs many miles back from the line of lagoons. Only at
Mapastepec, I believe, would the railroad and boat line ap
proach very closely. There is an extensive territory tributary
to these lagoons and possibilities for the development of fifty
paying lake ports.
When we consider that there are no railroads in all this
extended territory, from the Gulf to the Pacific and from the
Mountains of Oaxaca to the Guatemalan border, save the two
we have mentioned, and no branch lines except the lines to
Tierra Blanca and San Juan Evangelista, the little five-mile
spur from Carmen on the Tehuantepec railroad to Minatitlan,
and the branch of the Pan American to Puerto Arista, we can
form some conception of transportation difficulties on the
Isthmus. Nor can this country be fully opened up until branch
lines are constructed to points on the east bank of the Coat
zacoalcos, to the cities of the Chiapas plateau, and up the
great valley of the Tehuantepec river. At present, in the ab
sence of suitable transportation facilities all produce intended
for export must be transported, often over many weary miles
of rocky mountain trail, by lumbering ox-cart or by pack mule;
a condition which absolutely precludes development.
The wagon roads on the Pacific plains are very good,
considering that they exist for the most part as nature made
them. Automobiles would be impossible on these roads, but
they are passable for the rude two-wheeled carts of the coun
try. There is not enough sand in them to render hauling dif
ficult, but in the dry season they are very hot and dusty. There

152 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
are no bridges of any kind for wagon traffic and the streams
must be forded, but as they are broad and shallow this is
readily done, except occasionally for a few days in summer
when they are in flood. The lay of the land the nature of the
soil are such that excellent highways may be constructed at
very little expense.
The postal service of Mexico is well developed and every
town of any importance has a well equipped post office. All
letters received are entered on a typewritten list, which is
posted daily; a peculiar device which has its advantages. A
regular system of registering letters exists and this service
gives general satisfaction. Domestic and foreign postal orders
are sold, but for some reason must be purchased between 10
a. m. and 12 m., a rule which hardly seems in the public in
terest. The republic of Mexico is divided into states, and in
mailing letters to that country the name of the state as well
as of the city of destination should always be given.
The telegraph lines are run as a branch of the federal
government and are known as the Mexican National Tele
graphs. All towns of importance may be reached by telegraph.
The service leaves much to be desired at the present time,
largely because of the great number of military messages
passing over the lines, which of course have the right of way.
Because of this, one frequently receives a message by wire
several days subsequent to receipt of the confirmation copy
by mail. Messages should always be sent in Spanish ; other
wise they are apt to reach destination in so garbled a condition
as to be utterly undecipherable.
The Central and South American Telegraph Company
with headquarters at 64 Broad St., New York, has offices at
Mexico City, Vera Cruz, Puerto Mexico, and Salina Cruz. Its

TRANSPORTATION AND BANDITS 153
lines from Galveston, Texas, to Pacific coast Central and South
American ports cross the Isthmus from Puerto Mexico to
Salina Cruz. There are well-equipped stations at these points
which give an excellent cable service to all ports of the world.
This service makes Salina Cruz the best port of call for war
ships on the west coast of Mexico.
None of the cities of southern Mexico are equipped with
public telephone service.
It is a saying in the West that no description of a place
is complete unless its hotels are included. The hotel is the
caravanserai of the Occident, and especially is this true of
Mexico. For the Mexican hotel like the caravanserai Is con
structed about a court, and does not at all resemble the hotel
of the United States or northwestern Europe.
Salina Cruz had three hotels, not to mention the hostelry
which that prime spirit, Don Pedro Guasti, was just about
completing at the time of my departure. Now the best of these
to my way of thinking was the Hotel Salina Cruz ; and here I
abode while on the Isthmus. It was under the management
of those all-around goodfellows, Don Pepe and Don Poncho,
and was conducted in true Mexican style.
The hotel was constructed about a court or patio upon
which opened the rooms of the guests. It was the heart of
the town, for there foregathered travelers from all southern
Mexico, merchants from far Chiapas, Spaniards from Aca
pulco, brightly dressed Tehuanas from the neighboring towns,
charming Mexican ladies from the plateau, lank Gringos, Chi
nese, Syrian, army officers, a motley crew ; and for those who
loved conviviality there was a cantina to one side with pool
tables and an abundance of choice liquors just in from San
Francisco. But as Don Poncho was accustomed to say : "You

154 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
are in your own house." There was room for all, each to fol
low his own bent, and the philosopher might sit under the col-
lonade which encircled the patio, and undisturbed smoke the
weed as he pondered upon the scene before him.
The conventional "office" of European hotels, with its
desk and writing tables for the traveling public, is lacking.
Each guest keeps to his own room, which is his office for the
time being, and there he does his writing. Of course he carries
a typewriter with him. The hotel takes no newspapers ; people
are supposed to purchase their own periodicals. Nor is there
any telephone in the hotel — a great blessing.
In the bedrooms a rug is placed, not on the floor at the
side of the bed, but over the counterpane at the foot of the
bed. A singular custom, but easily explained ; it is to protect
the counterpane from the guest's boots when he lies down for
his midday siesta.
Meals are served three times a day at the usual hours.
From the foreigner's point of view the bill of fare cannot be de
scribed as excellent, but it is the business of one who goes
to Mexico to conform to Mexican ideas in such matters. Hot,
highly spiced dishes are the rule. The Mexican has a great
liking for chili pepper; sometimes in the form of enchiladas
(hashed meat wrapped up in a corn-meal wafer dipped in
chili sauce and garnished with grated onion) and again in the
shape of stuffed chili peppers. Beware of the latter. Upon
one occasion I had the temerity to eat an entire chili pepper.
It straightway burned a hole in the lining of my stomach and
for the next two days I was sick abed.
But despite the peculiarities of the Mexican menu it is
wholesome, more wholesome than that of the Yankees who in
habit the region to the north; no puddings and pastry to de
stroy the digestion, but plenty of meat dishes, corn bread, and

TRANSPORTATION AND BANDITS 155
black beans. I should not neglect to state that the Mexican
must have his black beans. They are the sine qua non without
which, according to his ideas, a meal cannot be eaten. He
grows black in the face if they are not on the table. There
are other beans in Mexico, red beans and white beans, which
taste much better. Frequently all three sorts are on the table,
and then he may eat all three for he is a great lover of beans ;
but in any event Mr. Mexican must have his black beans.
The national drink at table is coffee, and Mexican coffee
as it is served is autrocious; but this is evidently from the
method of preparation, for the Mexican berry has a deservedly
high reputation in the world's markets. The beverage is
simply spoiled in the making; but again I warn you, should
you go to Mexico, make no objections, for the Mexican is fully
satisfied that coffee as he prepares it is the only coffee fit to
drink. Chocolate (spiced with cinnamon) is also drunk; but
tea, never. The service obtainable at the average Mexican hotel seems
nothing short of miraculous when one considers the personnel.
The hotel is manned, according to size, by from half a dozen
to a dozen barefoot Indian men (mozos) and as many women.
The men not only act as doorkeepers, guarding the place against
a possible attack by bandits and running errands for the man
agement, but also act in the capacity of chambermaids. When
unemployed, and especially during the warmer hours of the
day, they lay at full length slumbering on the tiled floor of the
hotel porch ; nor does this attitude disturb anyone in that easy
going land.
The waiters, like the "chambermaids," are of the male
sex and of all exasperating creatures these Indian waiters
are the worst. Their only merit is that they expect no tips,
that accursed European custom never having taken root in

156 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
that part of the world. But a more brainless individual than
the average peon waiter it would be hard to find. If sent out
for a dish he invariably breaks it, or brings you the wrong
dish, or worst of all, forgets his errand ere he reaches the
kitchen and returns after fifteen minutes to take your order
afresh. One of his most common sins of omission is that of failing
to bring the black beans, a delinquency readily forgiven by the
foreigner who cares little for them, but viewed as a mortal sin
by the Mexican who loves black beans as the apple of his eye.
It is actually recorded that once upon a time a Mexican gen
tleman grew so enraged at a waiter who neglected to bring
him his beans that he drew his pistol and shot the offender
through the hand. At the trial which followed the gentleman
was acquitted upon the ground that the waiter's conduct was
an aggravating circumstance calculated to drive any respect
able hotel guest to acts of desperation.
One of the female servants generally supervises the
"chambermaids" in the performance of their duties. And
here I take occasion to state that the general run of Mexican
hotels are unobjectionable from the standpoint of cleanliness.
The bedrooms are uniformly neat and cleanly and the bed
linen spotless. Iron bedsteads are in general use and thanks
to them and the untiring efforts of the personnel that bete
noire, the bed bug, is little in evidence. The meals are clean
and appetizing, and best of all the guest need never concern
himself with keys and the locking of doors, for the people of
southern Mexico are still in a state so primitive that they do
not know what it means to steal. There are of course some
mortals so refined that any hotel not equipped with a buffet,
uniformed lackeys, and individual baths — in the Mexican hotel
everyone uses the public shower bath — is to them no hotel at

Little Tehuanas Accompanied hy One of the Lords of Creation-Who Lacks His ['.nil

TRANSPORTATION AND BANDITS 157
all ; but such people had best remain at home, they are not born
to travel in Mexico or any other country.
What Mexican lady would think of supervising her own
kitchen? The kitchen is in charge of a Tehuana cook and
female assistants drawn from the personnel of the house, and
considering the primitive cooking appliances at their disposal
some of these Indian women deserve the highest commenda
tion for their skill in the culinary art. Iron stoves and steel
ranges are but little used in Mexico. Three stones arranged
in a triangular shape to support a pot, griddle, or comal, or
a crude earthenware stove made on the same lines, suffices
for the poor, and even the upper classes and most of the hotels
make shift to get along with simple brick ranges provided with
pot holes and fire places. Only in a few of the better estab
lishments are steel ranges to be found.
The upper classes consume more or less white bread which
never, however, appears in the form of loaves, but always
in the little buns (panes) characteristic of Latin America.
This bread is seldom baked at home but is obtained from pro
fessional bakers who bake their stock in large open-air ovens.
A meal at a Mexican hotel is flavored with the sauce of
politeness. When a gentleman seats himself or arises from
the table he invariably says "Con permiso" (With your per
mission) , and when the landlord comes to the table he salutes
the guests with a "con povecho, Senores," as much as to say,
"May you dine with profit, gentlemen."
If you are making a lengthy stay at a Mexican hotel you
must not expect your bill at the end of the month. The land
lord is in no hurry about such matters; he trusts to your
honor, and it may be necessary to prompt him several times
before its production. And you may depend upon it, he will
not permit you to outdo him in politeness or generosity. The

158 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
Mexican is above all things open-handed and can be depended
upon to always return a favor.
Speaking of trusting to one's honor reminds me of a little
incident which occurred just before I left Salina Cruz, which
marks the Mexican's high sense of honor and innate delicacy.
One of the leading merchants of the place handed me four
hundred dollars in cash and asked me to deliver it at a certain
address in San Francisco, California. "Ah," I said, "but you
will wish a receipt for the money." "That does not matter,"
he replied, "it is quite unnecessary."
Now many would not mark such an incident but I, since
by the permission of Allah it was my lot to travel in that land,
have thought it worthy of note.

Chapter X.
INDUSTRIES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR INVESTMENT
IN the following pages we shall treat of the commerce and
industries, present and potential, of the Isthmus of Te
huantepec. This subject, of special interest to the con
stantly increasing numbers of Europeans and Americans who
are seeking opportunities for investment in Mexico — for which
reason we have made this our longest chapter — may prove of
minor interest to the general reader, to whom statistics of pro
duction and trade are generally more or less distasteful. If
our reader be of this class we would advise that he omit this
chapter, turning at once to chapter eleven, wherein is recorded
the rise of that nobles of all Indian races, the Zapotecs.
It was the policy of the government of President Porfirio
Diaz to encourage by liberal concessions the investment of
foreign capital, a policy which secured hundreds of millions
of dollars for the development of Mexico's resources. For
eigners flocked to the country by the tens of thousands. To the
Isthmus of Tehuantepec came Americans from the republic to
the north. The government was most liberal with the new
comers and soon the bulk of the land from below Santa Lu
crecia on the north to the pass of Chivela on the south passed
into their possession.
This land was controlled by companies in the United
States, each of which had its plantation and a resident man
ager on the Isthmus. It was an era of wild speculation in Mex
ican stocks. The idea in many cases was, not so much to con
duct a legitimate plantation business, as to empty the pockets
159

160 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
of the gullible American public of surplus cash. Flamboyant
prospectuses pictured the fortunes to be made from rubber,
coffee, sugar, and tropical fruits. Little show plantations of
a few acres each were set out, with driveways so arranged
that when prospective buyers arrived they might be driven, to
all appearance, through miles on miles of growing crops. By
such and kindred devices thousands of acres of wild jungle
were sold under colonization schemes, in which the buyers
reaped nothing but experience and taxes.
Eventually nearly all of these companies failed and many
of the investors lost their hard-earned money. New com
panies, organized on a more conservative basis, succeeded
them. Rubber had proven a complete failure on the Coatza
coalcos, and coffee was not far behind ; but sugar and bananas
were a success, and to the culture of these and the extraction
of forest products the Americans on the Isthmus now settled
down. It was a wonderful region, that Coatzacoalcos Valley, the
nearest approach to an earthly paradise to be found on the
continent of North America. As Egypt is the child of the
Nile, so the valley of the Coatzacoalcos is the child of the great
river. In one respect, especially, the Coatzacoalcos resembles
the Nile; overflowing its banks about every seventh year, it
leaves a deposit on the fields, returning to the soil all elements
taken by the crops and rendering the use of fertilizer un
necessary. This river, the greatest in all Mexico, is about one-fourth
mile wide at the Oaxaquena Plantation, fifteen miles below
Santa Lucrecia, and at Puerto Mexico, where it enters the
Gulf of Mexico, a full mile in width. Ocean-going vessels go
up some forty miles, beyond tide limit, for fresh water. Mina
titlan, some thirty miles above Puerto Mexico, is a regular port

INDUSTRIES AND FINANCIAL OPPORTUNITIES 161
of call for many ocean vessels; while vessels of 8 to 10 feet
draft can during nine months of the year ascend as far as
Santa Lucrecia.
In the peaceful days immediately before the Revolution,
American planters occupied the banks of the great river from
a point some thirty miles below Santa Lucrecia to the river's
source in the dividing range. From the northern limits of
the American holdings to the Gulf the country was in the
hands of the Pierson (British) interests. The Pacific plains
of the Isthmus, about Tehuantepec and Juchitan, had never
been invaded to any extent by American enterprise; but from
Reforma east to the Guatemalan border, along the entire ex
tent of the Chiapas littoral, a fair proportion of the planations
were American owned.
Life was exceedingly pleasant in the old days in the Amer
ican colony on the Coatzacoalcos and its tributaries. Culti
vation was confined to the sections in close proximity to the
railroad or the river banks, but the land was American owned
for a distance of from twenty to thirty miles back from the
river and road on either hand, affording unlimited opportunity
for colonization and development. Each plantation had a
commodious plantation house embowered in flowers, its or
chard of tropical fruits, its great sugar mill, and its wide acres
of cane. Its fields were tilled by a busy host of Indian em
ployees, while their fellows were bringing mahogany and
Spanish cedar from the neighboring forests. Down at the
river was the plantation pier, at whose side were moored huge
barges which conveyed the plantation's output to market and
a trim little launch in which the planter and his family visited
the market as business or pleasure impelled. Such were condi
tions when the planters fled the country in 1914.
Four years later, in 1918, these American plantations

162 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
presented an appearance of utter desolation; cane mills and
distilleries in ruins, the machinery rusted beyond redemption,
the fields burned over or grown up to jungle, the valuable
timber stolen. In a few instances only, native caretakers con
tinued to run the plantation in a small way, securing immunity
from attack by paying blackmail to the bandit chief of the
locality. In this isolated region, far from the center of authority
on the plateau, the planter, be he foreigner or Mexican, is in
times of revolution thrown on his own resources. He may se
cure personal immunity by removing to a garrisoned town, but
this affords him no protection in his property. The bandit
visits the plantation and demands a monthly contribution of
the caretaker. The planter may refuse to pay and call upon
the government for protection. It will avail him nothing. The
government does what it can to protect him ; a detachment of
troops is sent to the plantation. There is a skirmish, perhaps,
and a bandit or two is killed. But this is only adding fuel to the
flames, for manifestly the government cannot garrison every
plantation. After two or three weeks the garrison is with
drawn for use at some other point, and the bandits immediately
return and wreak vengeance by burning the plantation build
ings and destroying the crops.
Two factors have accounted for the prevalence of such
conditions during the last few years; the difficulty of trans
portation between central and southern Mexico, and the nature
of the country, which favors the bandit. As stated elsewhere,
the Vera Cruz al Isthmo Railroad, the only line of communica
tion between the central plateau and the Isthmus, was practi
cally out of commission, and the movement of troops from the
center of the republic consequently requires much time. On the
other hand the country, sparsely populated and covered for

INDUSTRIES AND FINANCIAL OPPORTUNITIES 163
the most part with a scrubby growth of timber, favors the
outlaw. The climate is mild, his horse finds abundant pasture
for the greater part of the year, and back in the heart of the
jungle he can make his little clearing and raise his year's sup
ply of corn and beans without fear of being molested. Driving
him to bay is wellnigh out of the question. The woods are in
tersected by trails and bypaths running in every direction, and
tracing a man is about as promising as hunting for the pro
verbial needle in a haystack.
It is safe to say that there were not then five hundred
foreigners (exclusive of Spaniards) in all southern Mexico.
I am sure the number of Americans, men, women and children,
fell far short of a hundred. But the situation is not perma
nent. Their property was still there and they will return.
Mexico will continue to invite the foreigner for several
reasons. For one thing, it is a land of great undeveloped re
sources, resources which its people lack the capital to exploit.
It is a country in the raw and, like all such countries, bristles
with opportunities. Two great needs of Mexico — industrial
Mexico — are men and capital. Not men to labor, for the
country abounds in competent laborers, but men with capacity,
energy, and sufficient executive ability to manage large indus
trial enterprises.
But in Mexico the foreigner has an additional advantage
in the comparative absence of competition. This arises from
the Latin character. The Mexican's ideals differ from those of
the United States or northwestern Europe. He aspires to the
political, military, or professional walks of life. To be a gov
ernment functionary, general, lawyer, physician, poet, artist,
or author, is the goal of most Mexicans of the upper class. The
proportion of this class who enter business is small and that
field is, consequently, largely left to the foreigner.

164 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
Again, the native business man is under a serious handi
cap as regards language, most of the foreign trade being with
the United States, Great Britain, and France. The English-
speaking foreigner has the advantage, and here it may be
stated that in Mexico the language is spoken by Americans,
British, Germans, and Scandinavians alike. These people are,
on the other hand, often handicapped by inability to speak the
Spanish vernacular. Resident Frenchmen and Italians almost
invariably speak Spanish with the fluency of the native, but it
is no uncommon thing to meet Englishmen and Americans who
have been in the country for years, and yet can scarcely speak
a word of the language.
Spanish is a beautiful and cultured tongue in no way in
ferior to English or French, and he who goes expecting to
make a success in Mexico should divest himself of any feeling
of race superiority he may have and set about the acquisition
of the language of the country. The road is comparatively
easy. The language is not particularly difficult, and no mat
ter how many mistakes you make the Mexican will never
laugh at you ; he is far too well bred for that. The newcomer
will make the most rapid progress by giving some Mexican
lessons in English, listening to natives converse together for
at least an hour daily, himself translating all Spanish corre
spondence that comes to the office, and by constantly reading a
good Spanish paper. This "combined method" is, I believe, the
only "royal road" to the knowledge of Spanish. By pursuing it
consistently, and never under any circumstances reading a
newspaper published in English, the student should by the
end of a year speak Spanish with fair fluency.
All important correspondence should be conducted in
Spanish, as Mexican courts will not admit in proof correspon
dence or documents written in any other language.

The Only Modern Brewery on the Isthmus. Some of Those Unused in the United States Could
Be Moved Down

INDUSTRIES AND FINANCIAL OPPORTUNITIES 165
It would not be fair to dismiss this subject without speak
ing of the difficulties which the foreign residents must meet.
The advantages are many; absence of competition, the genial
and upon the whole healthy climate, and a native population
affable and refined as far as relates to the upper class, while
the humbler ranks are gentle and honest to a degree. But
there are two disadvantages. In the first place, though other
wise healthy on the Pacific plains and east at least as far as
Tonala, it is exceedingly hot for the greater part of the time ;
while north of the divide in the great valley of the Coatza
coalcos the country is more or less malarial. The second draw
back is, of course, the absence of schools for ones children.
Hitherto the foreigner has been under the necessity of making
frequent trips to the United States to recuperate in health or
provide for his children's education. But these disadvantages
will, I am satisfied, be met when any considerable number of
foreigners return to the Isthmus. A sanitarium is then bound
to be established, either at the hot springs in the Pass of
Chivela or upon the higher plateaux. Success may be pre
dicted for such an enterprise, which would be patronized not
only by the entire foreign community but also by many Mex
icans, for even they find the tropical heat very trying.
A suitable high school is also sure to come as soon as there
is sufficient of the foreign element to form a nucleus. Among
the Mexicans there is a growing desire to acquire a knowledge
of English, and even today many persons (some of them with
a very defective knowledge of English) earn a livelihood by
giving private lessons. A high school with advanced courses
in both Spanish and English would be well attended and have
the monopoly of higher education throughout southern Mex
ico. Such a school should be located at San Geronimo, Te-

166 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
huantepec, or Salina Cruz, and would draw custom north as
far as Puerto Mexico and east to the Guatemalan border.
Bearing in mind the undeveloped state of the country
and the general absence of minerals, it is evident that openings
for foreign investment are in the main limited to agriculture,
stockraising, lumbering, and manufacture. In certain lines
the establishment of factories would pay. There is but one
modern factory in all that region, the brewery at San Ger
onimo. Small native industries exist, but none which could
for a moment compete with a well-equipped modern plant. The
trouble lies not there, but in securing a market for the product.
It would be necessary to begin operations on a comparatively
small scale unless the product is to be exported, for the pur
chasing power is not proportionate to the population. The
Indian consumes but little and the market for most manu
factured articles is limited to the upper and middle classes.
Among industries which would pay I may mention boot
and shoe, furniture, rope and twine, hat, soap, pottery, broom
and brush, and sash and door factories, paper, saw, and grist
mills, brick yards, fruit canneries, tanneries, ice and printing
plants,* and telephone systems. The opportunities in some
of these lines are touched upon in connection with other mat
ters and may be found by consulting the index.
Basketry and pottery making are native arts. Baskets
of beautiful design are made in nearly all parts of southern
Mexico by a large class of natives. As a rule their products
are offered for sale only in the public markets, although some
are exported by buyers who have agents visiting or residing
*In 1918 not a single daily newspaper was published in southern
Mexico (the Isthmus and Chiapas) and only one weekly, a small sheet
printed at Puerto Mexico. Nor was there a public telephone system in
any of the cities. Up to date of going to press 1922 no notice of change in
this particular has been received.

INDUSTRIES AND FINANCIAL OPPORTUNITIES 167
in the towns where basket making is extensively carried on.
Oaxaca is one of the principal states in the production of pot
tery, the Zapotecs possessing great deftness in work of the
sort. I know nothing of which that land stands in greater need
than banks. There is not a bank, great or small, in all south
ern Mexico, except one recently established at Salina Cruz.
Even paper money has disappeared; only gold and silver are
in circulation. Everyone having money keeps his own strong
box or deposits his money with some merchant having a safe.
The detriment to commerce may be imagined. Not only are
bank credits out of the question, but the business man must
cart his coin about with him wherever he goes. In more
"civilized" countries under such a system safe blowers would
flourish and train robbers multiply exceedingly, and it speaks
well for the honesty of the people of that land that safe-blow
ing is unknown and that trains are seldom "held-up." But
there is a crying need for banks, none the less, and a great
opportunity for those houses which first acquire a foothold in
Tapachula, Tuxtla Gutierrez, Tonala, San Geronimo, Juchitan,
Tehuantepec, and the other principal trade centers.
The region being destitute of banks, the large merchant
concerns perforce do a general exchange and collection busi
ness, acting as agents for New York and San Francisco
houses. They also receive deposits but rarely pay interest.
Deposits are not guaranteed.
United States gold circulates at par, that is, at the rate
of one dollar for two pesos. Exchange on the United States
fluctuates. United States silver and paper money do not
circulate. Owing to the present high price of silver and the conse
quent disappearance from circulation of the national cur
rency, a new silver currency of reduced silver content has been

168 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
introduced. Silver coins of the denomination of one peso,
fifty centavos, and twenty centavos are in circulation. The
composition of these coins is an alloy of 720 parts of silver to
280 of copper; in fact, the alloy is so great as to give them
quite a pinkish appearance. They are merely fractional cur
rency, the standard being gold.
Some $515,000,000 of "infalsificable" paper money was
issued by the Carranza regime, practically all of which has
been retired. This money is worth but a small fraction of its
face value, and nearly all of what is out is in the hands of
speculators. The Pacific plains are well suited to stock raising and cat
tle in normal times are everywhere numerous ; half starved in
the dry season, when it is often a mystery how they keep body
and soul together, but in fairly good condition in the summer
when grass is plentiful. The best herds are found in the high
lands of the divide, especially on the plains of Chivela and
Tarifa, and along the stripes of land which intervene between
the lagoons and the sea. A large number of calves are de
stroyed by the jaguars and pumas every year. So troublesome
are these cats that every ranch maintains a hunter and a pack
of dogs for the express purpose of hunting and killing them.
There is still abundant range for cattle and opportunity
for the beginner. Range land may be had for a song. Green
pasture exists throughout a great part of the year, not only
on the plains and in the valleys, but often on the mountain
tops as well. Mountain pastures exist in many places. There
is a beautiful meadow on the top of a steep mountain a few
miles to the southwest of San Geronimo, plainly discernable
to the traveler standing beneath Mr. Adamik's date palm. The
Cerro Atravesado, away to the northeast of Niltepec, is a

INDUSTRIES AND FINANCIAL OPPORTUNITIES 169
curious mountain engrafted on the Cordilleras with its greatest
length at right angles to their general direction. The top
of this conspicuous cerro is about 5,000 feet above the level of
the sea, flat, and covered with the richest of pasture. Yes,
there is every opportunity here for the newcomer. When
well fed the animals are of good size. Corn fodder is easily
raised, and by feeding a fair amount for two or three months
in the year the best results are obtained.
The total stock on the ranges is now small. The consensus
of opinion as to the present number of cattle, calves, sheep and
goats in Mexico places it at about 25 per cent of the stocks
existing in 1910 ; and this proportion probably holds for the
Isthmus country. Not only have great numbers of cattle been
slaughtered by the revolutionists for hides and meat, but also
by the owners themselves, in the effort to save them from
depredations. The number of calves killed has been negligible.
All calf skins find a ready market locally at as much as 25 per
cent above New York market quotations.
All the heavy hauling is done with oxen yoked to great
lumbering two-wheeled carts. These carts are made entirely
of wood and do not carry much more than half the load of a
good lumber wagon. There is great need here for the introduc
tion of improved carts and wagons. The oxen are yoked by the
horns, a most barbarous practice, and driven with the goad.
Kindness to animals does not seem to be one of the Indian
virtues. The Indians do not salt their beef, but cure it by cutting
it into long narrow strips like pieces of rope and drying it in
the sun. Beef prepared in this manner is called "tasajo."
Since it admits of easy transportation by pack animals it is
much esteemed by exploring parties, and when thoroughly
pounded and roasted is quite palatable.

170 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
It is a saying that Mexico is not a butter country. There
was no native butter to be had at Salina Cruz during my so
journ there, and the imported article cost a dollar gold a pound.
No one thought of eating butter, and even at the best hotel
there was no butter on the table. I was told, however, that
the Indians sometimes make an inferior butter for their own
use. The Indians are very fond of cheese, which they make
in immense quantities from goats' milk. There seems to be
no reason why dairying might not be made a success and the
country made to produce all the butter and cheese needed
for its own markets.
But little condensed milk is imported. An abundance of
goats' milk is always obtainable, while the supply of cows'
milk is sufficient for the upper classes.
Hides form a very important article of export ; not merely
those of meat cattle but also the hides of goats, which are much
more numerous. In fact, "No. 1 Oaxaca" is the standard of
excellence in the goat-skin markets of the world. All hides
and skins are exported in the raw, for there are no shoe or
Harness factories in southern Mexico. Tanneries exist in the
outskirts of many towns but they are little Indian affairs of
the rao't primitive description. With the enormous numbers
of cattle and goats raised, it is evident that the country affords
an excellent opening for the establishment of modern up-to-
date tanneries. There is also a demand for boot and shoe fac
tories, though the market is limited at present by the fact
that the Indian goes barefoot or wears sandals only. This con
dition will pass away as the status of the Indian is raised and
the price of footwear lowered by the existence of local fac
tories. All the shoes worn by the middle and upper classes are
of American make. On account of the high prices of leather

INDUSTRIES AND FINANCIAL OPPORTUNITIES 171
shoes, imported or made locally, there is a growing demand
for canvas shoes with rubber soles. Both white and colored
styles are popular, although the latter, such as tan and gray,
seem to be the best sellers. Leather shoes of only fair quality
made locally for adults cost about $10 United States currency,
while imported shoes are much more expensive.
The lands of the Pacific plain in the immediate vicinity
of the towns and along the rivers are generally possessed by
the Indians in small individual holdings, while the high
grounds further back belong to rich hacendados. The In
dians perform all the field labor, both in their own small hold
ings and as field laborers on the estates of the wealthy propri
etors. The ordinary farm laborer receives a peso (50c) or two
pesos a day according to the locality, and the common price
for clearing an acre of woodland is from eight to ten pesos.
The plains are coverd with a scrubby growth of lignum
vitae, Brazil-wood, mezquite, rosewood, and cactus, with occa
sional clumps of palm. From some vantage point in the Cor
dillera the whole plain, from the foot of the dividing range
to the Pacific, is distinctly visible. Its variegated tropical
vegetation, with here and there an isolated cerro rising like a
pyramid from the level plains, and the deep blue sea for a
background, all combine to render it one of the most fascinat
ing of landscapes. And such was the sight which met the eyes
of the conquering hosts of Cosijoeza when, some four cen
turies ago, they scaled the outermost ridges of the mountains
of Oaxaca and looked down on the scene below. Time has
wrought but little change; the country still lies awaiting de
velopment. Once fairly on the plain the sandy trails wind through
the scrub, and the traveler rides for hours without being able
to see more than a few rods in advance, encountering neither

172 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
fence, nor clearing, nor habitation. The plains are arid, hot,
and sandy, and in many parts almost destitute of vegetation,
except grass of a poor quality and the Jicara* tree (Crescentia
cujete). This tree bears a green sessile fruit or gourd about
six inches in diameter, from which the natives make their
cups and dippers. When ripe it is strong in the properties of
ergotin, of the uses of which the Indians, fortunately, are
ignorant. The soil is a light loam, generally of a yellowish or red
dish color. From October to June there is no rain and the
whole country becomes parched and barren. A limited area in
the neighborhood of the rivers is irrigated, but the water sup
ply for this purpose is limited, and indeed, toward the close
of the rainy season the smaller streams become quite dry. The
soil is fertile, but the want of rain and sufficient water for
irrigation, as well as the destructive northers, prevent agri
culture on a large scale.
But these same northers are the key to the situation.
Turning a thousand windmills they could lift the water from
the rivers and irrigate nearly all of the 1,400 square miles
of plain. And they might be used even at points remote from
streams, for abundance of water is obtainable at moderate
depths, the water level in the dry season not being greater
than thirty feet. A few windmills have been introduced, only
to be overthrown by the northers. What is needed is a low-
well-braced windmill which the winds cannot overthrow, and
the problem of irrigating these plains is largely solved.
Indian corn is the great staple crop, growing in all local
ities and at all seasons of the year. The period of growth
being less than ninety days, it is possible to raise four crops
yearly on the same ground ; indeed, at Tehuantepec it is said a
*Also called Totuma, Higuera, Dita and Chima.

Cutting Sugar Cam' Neai Telu

Sugar Cane Plantations Offer Big Business Possibilities — Young Cane on thf
Oaxaquena Plantation

INDUSTRIES AND FINANCIAL OPPORTUNITIES 173
crop is often grown in less than sixty days. On non-irrigated
land but two crops are generally grown, the principal crop
ripening in August. As soon as it is harvested the ground is
prepared for a second crop, which, coming after the rains
have ceased, is much inferior to the first, the ears being mere
nubbins. Growing corn under irrigation is a different matter. My
friend Jerome H. Mahoney of Reforma follows the plan of
planting one-third of his milpa (corn field) each month, thus
securing twelve crops of corn per year. It is fortunate that
this crop can be renewed so often, for very soon after the corn
ripens it is attacked by the weevil and reduced to powder.
The Indians smoke the corn to combat this pest, but even this
does not afford an absolute protection, and in consequence its
cost in certain seasons is very high. A drying plant, such as
is used on the Oaxaquena plantation near Santa Lucrecia, is
essential to enable the planter to preserve his crop unimpaired.
Here in southern Mexico corn is the staple article of food,
as rice is with the Oriental and wheat with the European. To
this fact is doubtless due in great measure the superior phy
sique of the Zapotec Indian. In preparing it for food the
grains are soaked in lime for a few hours to loosen the hard
exterior shells, which are then removed and the corn placed
on a flat stone, the metate, and with the aid of a stone roller
ground to pulp ; after which it is made into thin griddle cakes
and baked on a comal, a flat disk of unglazed pottery. The
ordinary cake is called "tortilla;" that baked to a crisp, the
form preferred by Europeans, "totoposti."
The day of the metate is passing. Already in the larger
towns the grain, after being prepared as has been described, is
ground at public mills run by electric motors. The next step
will be the introduction of the ordinary grist mill, grinding

174 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
the dry grain. It is strange, considering the slight expense
involved in installing grist mills, that they have not been
introduced before ; but this is possibly due to a native prejudice
against corn meal, though to the European's way of thinking
bread made from it is much more palatable than the tortilla.
People seldom go to the ends of the earth to raise beans,
and yet a person going to Mexico might do worse. The bean
grows in all parts of the Isthmus and yields abundantly, a
single pod often yielding as many as twenty beans. Two
crops can be raised yearly and the market is certain. The
Mexicans being great bean consumers, the entire crop, if not
consumed locally, always finds a ready sale in northern Mex
ico. Several sorts of beans are raised but the small black
bean — the common frijole — is the safest crop. It is not only
a staple article of commerce in Mexico, but when crops are
abundant is largely shipped to other Latin American countries.
On the Gulf plains of the Isthmus rice may be grown
without irrigation and an abundant crop is always certain.
From 100 to 200 fold is not uncommon, while a voluntary sec
ond crop, if cared for, will produce abundantly. Rice is
planted in Mexico at the beginning of the rainy season and
is harvested at its close ; giving ample time, after the rice has
been removed, to plant a crop of corn, or to take care of the
voluntary crop. Mexico will supply a home market for all the
rice which can be produced for many years to come. Rice is
not raised on the Pacific side of the Isthmus.
The northwestern portion of the Isthmus, between Santa
Lucrecia and Tierra Blanca, along the line of the Vera Cruz
al Isthmo railway, is largely devoted to the culture of Chili
peppers. In normal times the crop is large and profitable, and
quantities of the product are shipped to Mexico City, Toluca,
and other marketing and canning points. Three red varieties

INDUSTRIES AND FINANCIAL OPPORTUNITIES 175
are raised, the ancho (a wide, dried pepper) selling at 2 pesos
($1) per kilo (2.2 pounds) ; the Pico de Paparo, a small pepper
selling at 2:25 pesos ($1.13) per kilo; and the Chili Chiltepen,
also a small red pepper, bringing 5 pesos ($2.50) per kilo.
Green varieties sell at 1.50 pesos (75c) per kilo.
Chili peppers are so largely in demand for local consump
tion that they are seldom exported. Choice varieties are, in
fact, imported largely from Spain.
It is believed there is no country with Mexico's latent
powers for the production and consumption of sugar, which
at the same time has so few facilities for the actual refining
of sugar and its preparation for the market. The normal con
sumption of the Republic is 100,000 tons per annum. The
production fall far below this figure, the deficiency being
met by the importation of raw sugar from Central America
(especially Salvador) , Peru, Cuba, and Java.
Southern Mexico has practically unlimited possibilities
for the production of sugar. Its tropical climate, a marvel-
ously productive soil, cheap labor, and protective laws, create
conditions extremely favorable to the growing of sugar cane
and the manufacture of sugar.
Mexico's sugar industry is still in its infancy, only a
very small proportion of the land available for sugar grow
ing being now used. Sugar cane grows in all parts of the
Isthmus, but the Gulf plains and the lower valley of the Coat
zacoalcos are best suited to its cultivation. With practically
no cultivation the native Mexicans raise from 30 to 35 tons
of cane per acre, and on well cultivated plantations the yield
is nearly double that amount. Some of the cane fields of that
section have produced as long as thirty years without replant
ing, though nine years is the rule. On crushing the cane yields
a juice of density from 9 to 11.5 degrees Baume.

176 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
There are a few large plants which are prepared to turn
out large quantities of first-class sugar, and in connection
with these plants are large acreages of cane in cultivation
using modern methods in cultivating and harvesting. But in
many localities the most primitive methods are employed both
in cultivating the cane and in making sugar. In such instances
the output is a coarse, brown article known as panela, panocha,
or piloncillo, put up in small cones. This grade of sugar con
tains a high percentage of saccharine matter, but the flavor
and color are such as to prevent its use in the crude state ex
cept by the lower classes.
It is significant that nowhere in Mexico have the natives
taken up the cultivation of coffee or rubber to any great extent.
On the other hand, the official register of sugar in Mexico
includes the names of over a thousand large sugar plantations,
and there are innumerable small patches, more than nine-
tenths of which are owned and operated by native Mexicans,
On the large properties the native owners are beginning to
adopt modern methods.
The evolution of the sugar industry is particularly inter
esting to the observer in the tropics. In inland districts the
native Indian will plant a small patch of sugar cane far up
on the mountain side; grind it in the old-fashioned wooden
crusher, with its two upright creaking rollers, driven round
and round, sometimes by slowly plodding oxen, sometimes by
the diminutive mule, and again by peon laborers; reduce the
juice in handmade earthen pans or perhaps in a single kettle ;
shape it into small cones by permitting the syrup to settle in
earthen moulds ; and then transport it on muleback many miles
over the mountains, and sell it at a price satisfactory to him,
regardless of the labor involved.
The more wealthy planter, with his acres of sugar cane

INDUSTRIES AND FINANCIAL OPPORTUNITIES 177
skirting the banks of some river whose current affords easy
transportation to market, employs more advanced methods
for the reduction of juices, but his mills were generally built
fifty, sixty, or seventy years ago, largely of the open kettle
and pan-boiling process.
By one or the other of these crude methods more than
four-fifths of Mexico's sugar product is obtained. Now comes
the foreigner; the old appliances are discarded for vacuum
pans, "triple effects," centrifugal, etc.; steam and electricity
are replacing the ox and the mule ; and the cost of production
is reduced in proportion to the increased effectiveness of the
machinery. But the high prices are retained, because there
are few modern mills and the demand for sugar increases
annually. The leading sugar industry on the Isthmus is the Oaxa
quena plantation (property of the Tabasco Plantation Com
pany of Minneapolis, Minn.) located on the Coatzacoalcos
River fifteen miles below Santa Lucrecia. This property em
braces 15,000 acres, a large part of which has been brought
under cultivation. With its immense refinery, extensive sys
tem of plantation railway, river fleet, and army of workers, it
is a fine illustration of what American enterprise can make of
this part of the world. A launch plies regularly between Santa
Lucrecia and the plantation.
At Oaxaquena and on the Gulf plains generally cane ma
tures in 12 months, while in Hiawaii it requires 18 months.
On the Pacific plains the culture of sugar cane is also quite
general, though there are but few large plantations. Little
plantations, each with its own grinding mill (the machinery
for which is imported from the United States), at which a
dark brown sugar is made, are scattered up and down the
rivers. There are but three ingenios (sugar mills) in the

178 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
district equipped with modern machinery; the Ingenio de
Santa Teresa at Mixtequilla, three miles from Tehuantepec, the
Ingenio de Santa Cruz, a few miles west of San Geronimo, and
that of San Domingo, near Union Hidalgo on the Pan Amer
ican Railroad. All these manufacture a pure white sugar of
the best quality.
Mexico produces among the best grades of coffee obtain
able in the markets of the world, the great bulk coming from
the southern states of Oaxaca, Vera Cruz, Tabasco, and
Chiapas. Coffee plants are started in nurseries and when from six
months to a year old are transplanted to the orchard site. After
the third year a small crop may be harvested; perhaps 300
pounds per acre the fourth year, increasing to about 500
pounds the sixth year.
Large capital is not essential to the industry, and much
of the coffee is raised in small "fincas" of a few acres each.
From 500 to 600 trees are planted to the acre and the produc
tion per acre runs over 500 pounds as soon as the orchard is
well established. The usual life of the tree is about forty years,
but it is in its prime from the sixth to the thirteenth year. The
greatest danger in connection with coffee planting is a short
age of labor in the picking season.
Very little coffee is raised on the Isthmus. A small
amount is grown by the Indians among the foothills, both
about Mogane north of the divide and along the upper reaches
of the Tehuantepec; but the real coffee-growing districts are
elsewhere. The Soconusco district of Chiapas is the prin
cipal coffee producing region of Mexico. On the high hflls
lying back from Tapachula and the other towns of the lit
toral extensive coffee fincas have been laid out by a mixed
colony of Germans, French, Mexicans, British, and Americans.

INDUSTRIES AND FINANCIAL OPPORTUNITIES 179
The coffee ripens in the spring, when it is brought to town
and transported by rail to Salina Cruz, and thence by ship to
San Francisco.
The production of this district is enormous. The annual
crop of Chiapas approximates 150,000 quintals (33,060,000
lbs.). The product resembles the coffee of Guatemala in its
various grades and is easily substituted for it. This is espe
cially true of coffee from fincas whose altitude exceeds 3,000
feet. This Chiapas coffee is known to the trade as "Tapa
chula." A large amount of coffee is also produced in the district
west of Salina Cruz about Pochutla. This is loaded aboard
ship at Puerto Angel.
Mexican coffee is milder than that of Java, but its flavor
is not inferior ; that is, when properly prepared. Coffee is the
national drink, but among Mexicans the custom is to drink
"milk with coffee" rather than "coffee with milk." And in
this they show their wisdom, for coffee prepared after the na
tive manner is a most villainous concoction and the less one
takes of it the better.
The cacao tree is indigenous to Mexico. It has been culti
vated by the Indians for many centuries, and from its bean
they make their chocolatl (chocolate). The cacao requires a
warm and moist atmosphere, the lands best suited to its cul
ture lying between sea level and an altitude of 1,600 feet, in
localities protected from strong winds. The lower Coatza
coalcos valley is well suited to cacao culture. The plant bears
three or four years after planting, and usually gives three
crops a year. It reaches its maximum production in the ninth
or tenth year and after the twenty-third year its yield dimin
ishes. Trees are planted about 400 to the acre, the average
yield of 1,000 trees being 600 pounds.

180 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
The cultivation of indigo is limited to the Pacific plains,
in the light soil and dry atmosphere of which this plant does
remarkably well. It was once the most important article of
export on the Isthmus, but the demand for this commodity has '
fallen off greatly with the introduction of mineral dyes, and
cultivation is now confined to the neighborhood of Iztaltepec,
the indigo center for this region.
The indigo plant (Indigofera disperma) much resembles
a young asparagus plant after the leaves have formed, but
the leaves are not similar but resemble rather those of the
common locust. Indigo is planted in rows two feet apart, so
as to permit of hoeing. The best crops are derived from new
land, which is therefore generally selected. A planting lasts
four years, one crop being gathered each year. The second
and third crops are the best, and about forty pounds to the
acre is accounted a good crop. To extract the pigment the
whole plant is soaked in water for twenty-four hours, when
fermentation occurs and the indigo is extracted and held
suspended in the water. The plants are then removed and
the water agitated with paddles until the indigo curdles.
Gulabere juice is then added and the indigo is precipitated in
flaky masses, after which the water is drawn off. Then the
indigo is dried, pressed, and packed in bales for the market.
The public should exercise caution in investing in rubber
plantations in southern Mexico. Rubber planting requires
large capital and no returns can be expected for a number
of years. The Isthmus is covered with abandoned rubber
plantations from which the promoter alone has profited. Rub
ber trees grow wild in the forests of the Chiapas littoral and
there, and there alone, has the cultivation of rubber been
successful. The La Zacualpa plantation, under the able man
agement of Mr. Graham M. Kerr, consists of 18,000 acres, of

II

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the Streets

I'he Post Office and Telegraph Statu

INDUSTRIES AND FINANCIAL OPPORTUNITIES 181
which 10,000 are in rubber, the trees ranging from ten to
twenty years old. There is another considerable plantation
at Mapastepec under the management of Howard T. Manley.
All the plantations in Chiapas are planted with the tree known
as Castiloa elastica.
The dry Pacific plains of the Isthmus are well adapted to
the culture of plants of the agave family. Sisal or henequin
can be successfully grown in the region between Juchitan and
Tonala. But much more important in these parts are the
ixtle and pita. These abound wild and are also cultivated,
improving the quality. In general appearance they resemble
sisal, but are of much finer fiber, some varieties possessing a
silky texture. They are set out in rows four feet apart, the
plants in the row being at intervals of two or three feet. Their
blue-green leaves, springing from a fleshy bulb resembling a
pineapple, are from two to five feet in length and about three
inches in width at the base, tapering to a thorn-capped point.
The outer leaves are cut from time to time as they mature.
They are used in the manufacture of hammocks (the bed of
the Isthmean Indian), paper, cord, coarse cloth, and thread.
The best varieties, owing to the silky texture of their fiber,
are adapted to the manufacture of fine dress-goods.
Tons of second-hand newspapers are imported from the
United States yearly for use as wrapping paper. No paper is
manufactured locally and the price of paper is very high. With
practically inexhaustable supplies of agave growing on the
plains there is an excellent opportunity for the establishment
of paper mills.
Native tobacco and cigars are very cheap on the Isthmus.
Considerable tobacco is grown for home use but none for ex
port. This is an industry which will admit of considerable
expansion. The Mexican government imposes a high impori

182 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
duty on foreign tobaccos, and export duties are also imposed
from time to time on leaf tobacco. These vary from two and
one-half cents (U. S. currency) to four and one-half cents per
kilo on wrapper tobacco and from one to two and one-half
cents on filler tobacco.
Vanilla is a native of Mexico, where it has been used from
time immemorial for flavoring chocolate. Much of the vanilla
of commerce is still gathered from vines (Epidendrum vanilla)
growing wild in the Chimalapas. There the plant flowers in
February and the bean is ripe in June. It is cultivated to a
small extent but receives far less attention than the circum
stances warrant. Its culture is very simple and could easily
be made quite profitable.
A rich, well-drained soil is required for vanilla, the
plants being raised from cuttings, which should be set near
a tree or post for support. The plants commence to seed the
second year and are in full bearing the fourth year. They
flower in February and March and the pods are ripe in five
months. After the beans have been properly cured they are
packed in cans, soldered up, and shipped to market.
The sarsaparilla abounds along the upper waters of the
Coatzacoalcos and its tributaries, being so common along the
upper course of the Puerta as to give rise to the belief that the
waters are rendered medicinal by its presence.
The Palma Cristi or castor-oil tree grows wild along
all the river banks on both sides of the Isthmus. I say "tree"
advisedly, because the plant here attains gigantic proportions.
I recollect a beautiful tree fully fifteen feet in height which
grew close by the station house at Tehuantepec. The wild plant
is so abundant that a large amount of beans might readily be
gathered for export, and I believe it a very paying crop where

INDUSTRIES AND FINANCIAL OPPORTUNITIES 183
grown on irrigated land. Its culture without irrigation has
been tried with unsatisfactory results.
Rice is easily grown but is seldom raised, the American
Indian not being a rice eater. No wheat is raised on the Isth
mus nor in any of the adjacent parts of Mexico, though several
attempts have been made to grow it on the table lands of the
divide. Undoubtedly, however, wheat might be successfully
grown in the higher parts of the Chiapas plateau as an inferior
grade of rye is now grown there by the Indians. Flax of ex
cellent quality grows on the plateaux of the dividing range;
which reminds us that linen is said to have been in use among
the ancient Aztecs and Zapotecs.
Among other plant and forest products which may be
exploited to advantage are the following: Cassia, ginger, pep
per (black), cubebs, licorice, balsam of Peru, copal, guapinol
(frankincense) , liquidamber and sassafras.
Southern Mexico produces a great quantity of fruit gen
erally of poor quality it is true, for improved varieties have
been but seldom introduced and the Indian, who is the main
producer, grows entirely from seed. I have no doubt that ex
cellent varieties were originally introduced by the Spaniard,
but with continual growing from the seed ever since and no
attempt at selection or hybridization, the present fruits have
"reverted to type," to use the jargon of science, and the under
sized, gnarly, insipid specimens of apples, peaches, and quinces
brought to the market, in this land where the best could be
raised, are trying, to say the least. The native tropical fruits
are better, but even these are generally from seed.
The raising of fruit by the foreigner is another matter.
Before the Revolution there were hundreds of plantations in
improved varieties of fruit along the Coatzacoalcos and the
line of the Vera Cruz al Istmo railway. These are grown up

184 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
to jungle now, but two or three years, so great is the recupera
tive power of nature in this favored region, will see them again
in full bearing.
In a few instances foreigners have planted orchards of
temperate-zone fruits on the plateaux near the larger cities
and have met with marked success. There is no reason why
more might not do so. The Mexican consumer buys inferior
fruit because it is often the only kind available; but he will
always buy the best in the market, for he is a ready spender.
I know of no better investment than a large orchard of choice
varieties of fruits of the temperate zone, such as apples, pears,
and peaches. This would of course require an altitude of three
thousand feet or more.
The fact that orange, lemon and lime are found growing
wild in the Isthmus country is strong evidence that the coun
try is well adapted to their culture. These fruits are grown
on the Gulf side without the irrigation and fertilization so
necessary in southern California and come into the market a
good month earlier. When it is considered that fruit may be
shipped from the Isthmus to New York (2,000 miles) almost
entirely by cheap water transportation, while the California
citrus fruit growers must ship their fruit 3,177 miles by rail,
it does not require a very deep mathematician to figure the
Mexican grower's advantage.
While the grape fruit is not found wild like the orange,
lemon, and lime, yet being of the same family and reaching
perfection under the same climatic conditions, it has surprised
all who have given it a trial in the size and beauty of the fruit.
During my stay at Salina Cruz I was several times the re
cipient of a box of grape fruit from my friend Jesus Alvarez
(Who dwelt on the Coatzacoalcos midway between Santa Lu
crecia and Chivela) , fruit fully equal to the Florida product.

INDUSTRIES AND FINANCIAL OPPORTUNITIES 185
Tropical Mexico is the home of the banana, of which there
are some twenty varieties. The banana bears fruit one year
after planting, each plant bearing a bunch which, according to
the variety, contains from 100 to 200 bananas. The cultivation
of the plant could not be simpler. The young plants are set out
and the cultivator takes no further notice of them until the
fruit is ripe for gathering; the crop is certain. After pro
ducing a bunch of fruit the stalk dies ; but for each stalk that
withers, many shoots grow up around it, a generation of dif
ferent sizes arising to form a thicket in place of the single
trunk which formerly existed. Thus, from the first year the
production goes on, and four, six, or more bunches per annum
can be cut from the same clump, the harvest lasting the year
round. The generation is continuous, but the number of
bunches increases with the age of the plant.
The banana, to be successful and perfect in size and
flavor, requires irrigation or a rainfall of about 100 inches per
annum. It grows spontaneously in great abundance near the
Gulf coast. On lands near the sea great plantations of banana
trees can be laid out at a cost of 5 cents to 10 cents per plant,
which includes all expense up to the time of fruiting. An acre
will produce from 700 to 800 bunches, at a cost not exceeding
15 cents per bunch.
The regions of the earth where the banana may be grown
successfully on a large scale are limited, and of those regions
only a very small part can be devoted to banana culture with
assurance of commercial success, for the reason that he who
would grow for export must plant on the borders of navigable
waters giving ready access to harbors where ships may safely
lie while loading. These conditions are realized in the banks
of the lower Coatzacoalcos.

186 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
I have already spoken of the papaw (papaya ,Sp.). It is
one of the most common trees in southern Mexico, growing in
houseyards everywhere without any care whatever. Besides
the use of the fruit as a dessert, much as we use the cantaloupe,
it is also used in the preparation of papain, an article exported
and used in the manufacture of peptonized foods.
The milk of the papaw possesses the property of rendering
meat tender, and in fact partially digesting it. It is obtained by
making a scratch or shallow incision in the skin of the papaw
fruit while in green condition. A bone or wooden knife similar
to a paper knife should be employed in making the incision,
as it is essential that no metal implement be employed. The
milky fluid exudes rapidly and is caught in an earthenware
or glass vessel. The fruit is not removed from the tree and
may be tapped several times at intervals of two or three days.
The juice coagulates soon after collection and takes the
form of a snow-white curd possessed of a somewhat pungent
but not putrid smell. It speedily decomposes if not rapidly
dried and when decomposing emits a most unpleasant odor.
Drying is effected by spreading the coagulated milk on drying
frames made by stretching brown linen on light wooden
frames. The drying is continued until the product is crisp and
in such condition that it can be reduced to a fine powder. Then
it is ground to powder and packed in airtight tins or bottles.
The fresh papaya is very popular as a dessert fruit as it
promotes digestion.
If rapid transportation to San Francisco could be assured,
the pineapple industry would pay on the Pacific plains. The
climate is well suited to the growth of pineapples, which excel
in size and sweetness those of any other part of the Republic.
The question of transportation solved, the matter of labor
would need consideration. The planter on the plains would
of necessity employ Zapotec laborers, and the Zapotec is the

INDUSTRIES AND FINANCIAL OPPORTUNITIES 187
best kind of a workman if well treated but a very bad man if
abused. He must be met half way.
The pineapple is one of the most delicious fruits grown
in the tropics. It requires no more care and attention than
the cabbage, and like cabbage is planted about 4,000 plants to
the acre. The apple grows from the shoots which spring up
about the base of the mother plant when fruiting is complete.
These shoots when set out will produce ripe fruit in from 12
to 18 months, according to variety. There are a number of
varieties, which ripen at different seasons, producing fruit of
varying sizes. Pineapples weighing from ten to eighteen
pounds are often seen at Tehuantepec.
Coconuts and cohune nuts grow wild along the Pacific
littoral; but they can be raised successfully only near the
coast, not further back than twelve or fifteen miles at most.
There is a fortune in raising coconuts. In five years from
planting the tree attains a diameter of twelve inches and be
gins to bear, the yield increasing until the average is 300 to
400 nuts per tree per annum. The tree usually bears until it
is about fifty years old. The nut is always in demand and the
shell is used for making buttons, drinking cups, etc. A grove,
once established, yields a steady profit, without attention
except to gather and prepare the nuts for market. There is
a world market for copra and coconut oil, the latter being used
largely in the manufacture of soap, medicinal preparations and
druggists supplies, and as an adulterant for butter or substi
tute for lard and butter.
Cohune nuts or Coquitos de aceite (little oil coconuts)
are dwarf coconuts about two inches in diameter. They con
tain a very high percentage of oil, between 50 and 60 per cent.
The oil is used in the manufacture of soap, candles, and for

188 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
lighting purposes. These nuts are gathered in the winter and
are used by the local soap factories, but are not exported.
The success of bee culture has been demonstrated. For
eleven months in the year the bees can shift for themselves.
Sometimes they require feeding for a month or six weeks in the
latter part of summer. Bees are kept mainly for the wax,
vast quantities of Which are consumed in the manufacture of
candles for religious purposes. It is necessary to export the
greater part of the honey as the Indians have never formed
a taste for that article. Don Carlos Parkins, who conducted
an apiary at Tehuantepec, explained to me that one of the good
points of the business was that it rendered one independent
of the bandits. He could place his apiary in the court of a
city house and abide there in peace while his bees explored
the country round about for honey. They alone could gather
produce in the country without paying blackmail to the bandit,
I heard while there that an excellent wild honey was
obtained in great quantities in the mountains of Chimalapa
from a stingless bee, and I asked Don Carlos what he thought
of it and whether it would not be well to domesticate these
bees, since they had no stings. "Well, seeing that you want my
opinion, I'll tell you what I think," he said. "In my opinion
they are a poor sort of bees because, having no stings, they
evidently are lacking in 'pep'."
The timber business will always attract many to the
Isthmus and the Chiapas littoral, since it yields more imme
diate returns than most other lines and the demand for the
hard woods of the tropics is steady. The species of valuable
timber are numberless. The leading kinds exploited on the
Gulf plains are mahogany, Spanish cedar (Cedrela odorata),
macaya (said to petrify when cut) , guapaque, sapodilla, pi qui
(ironwood) , brazilwood, and guanacastle. The mountains pro-

The Peons Working on the Sugar Plantations Have no Labor-saving Tool-. Ln;u-Hm> Ch

INDUSTRIES AND FINANCIAL OPPORTUNITIES 189
duce pine, Spanish oak (Tecoma penlaphila), sapodilla, brazil
wood, and guanacastle; while the principal woods utilized on
the Pacific plains are lignum vitae (guayacan), rosewood,
jicara (calabash), ebony, mezquite (used in the manufacture
of gun stocks), boj (boxwood), brazilwood, cascalote, grana-
dillo, guanacastle, and palo bianco (satinwood). The region
abounds in waterpower for the operation of sawmills, and the
local prices for lumber are high, thus furnishing a good do
mestic as well as foreign market.
Lumber is largely imported from the United States, the
Mexican mills supplying but a small part of the demand. There
will be, on account of the recent revolution, a great demand
for railroad crossties for some years.
The present export duties on timber shipped from Mexico
are: Ordinary wood (logs), not otherwise specified, $0.75
U. S. currency per cubic meter (35,314 cu. ft.) ; ties or sleep
ers, $0.12 1-2 per 100 kilos (220.462 lbs.) .
One of Mexico's most pressing needs is well-equipped,
up-to-date furniture factories. There are at present none
in the country. Furniture is made by hand in a small way
in all the towns ; furniture distinguished by the excellence of
the material used (generally mahogany), but crude and
clumsy. In the nature of things light, cheap furniture is not
manufactured at all. A modern factory which could turn out
the cheaper as well as the more costly grades of furniture
would rapidly create a market for the former.
I fear the Isthmus will never be famed for its mines. The
scarcity of the precious metals is one of its marked features.
The region has been thoroughly explored for gold, which has
never been found in paying quantities, nor are there any indi
cations of the presence of silver, copper, lead or mercury.
There is, however, an abundance of iron ore in the dividing

190 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
range. Beds of specular iron ore exist in Chivela pass and
at Campanario Hill and red hematite has been discovered at
Tarifa; while magnetic iron ores exist north of Niltepec and
in the Laolaga hills. Unfortunately no coal fit for smelting
purposes has been discovered. Manganese also exists in the
Pass of Chivela.
Petroleum and asphaltum abound along the lower course
of the Coatzacoalcos and on the Coachapa, a tributary. These
minerals appear to be confined to the Gulf coast. All the oil
property on the Isthmus is controlled by El Aguila, S. A.
(Mexican Eagle Oil Co.), formerly the Pearson interest, but
now affiliated with the Royal Dutch Company. Their refinery
at Minatitlan is the oldest in Mexico. This field produces an
oil of from 25 to 32 Baume, and is characterized by the short
period of productivity of the wells and the shallow depth of
oil. Operations in this field have not been of great importance
during the past few years.
The Pacific plains abound in salt, the product of their
numerous salinas or salt marshes. The greatest of these is the
Salinas del Marquez, a series of great salt flats extending from
within a couple of miles of Salina Cruz westward for some
seven or eight miles, and separated from the waters of the
ocean by narrow sand spits. These flats were evidently at no
distant date a part of the sea, from which they have been cut
off by the beach, which is steadily encroaching on the sea along
this shore.
In the salinas the soil is saturated with salt to a depth of
several feet. During the summer these flat bottoms become
filled with fresh water from the rains. This water gradually
dissolves the saline matter in the soil, and when the water
evaporates with the return of the dry season the surface re
mains covered with a deposit of pure salt, sometimes as much

INDUSTRIES AND FINANCIAL OPPORTUNITIES 191
as three inches in thickness. The salt is generally collected in
February. It is gathered by hand and piled in heaps, from
which it is loaded onto ox-carts and hauled to Salina Cruz,
whence it is shipped to interior points.
Extensive salinas also exist on the borders of the Upper
Lagoon. These salinas are altogether, if properly handled,
capable of yielding an immense quantity of excellent salt. The
primitive methods employed result in a loss of nine-tenths of
the possible product.
There exists on the Pacific plain, half a mile from the
mountains and midway between the passes of Tarifa and
Chivela, a hot spring famed in this section of the Republic
as a remedy for rheumatism, scrofula, syphilis, and skin dis
eases. In the Pass of Chivela, at a point on the Rio Verde a
short distance above the ford, where the river flows between
high perpendicular walls of limestone, there are several re
markable thermal springs.
What the Isthmus lacks in metals is fully compensated for
by its abundant supply of good building stone. The Masahua
and Majada ranges of the divide abound in blue mountain
limestone, which forms everywhere the summits of the ranges.
In fact, soft and compact blue limestones, porphyry, syenite,
and granite, not only abound throughout the mountains of the
divide, but may be quarried as needed from most of the cerros
which dot the Pacific plains. Dani Lieza, at Tehuantepec, pro
duces a beautiful blue limestone, almost as hard as marble,
specimens of which may be seen in the street curbing at Salina
Cruz; and the finest of white and black marbles outcrop at
Chivela and Masahua passes, at the Convento Hill, and in the
Cucumates hills.
But the greatest mineral wealth so far discovered in this
region is found in the onyx fields which lie in the mountainous

192 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
upper portion of the Tehuantepec River valley and along the
Tequisistlan, a tributary of that stream. Several valuable
fields are known to exist in that locality, and it is probable that
more will be brought to light when the district shall have been
thoroughly explored. The main field thus far developed lies
four miles above Tequisistlan on the river of that name. Onyx
is known to exist here over an area of about 1,000 acres, lying
close to the surface, so as to require but little stripping. This
onyx is much superior to that of Lower California, bringing
$7.50 per cubic foot delivered on shipboard at Boston, Mass.,
as compared with $5 paid for the Lower California article
These quarries are located at a distance of 35 miles from
Tehuantepec, the nearest railway station. There are lesser
fields 12 miles further up the Tequisistlan River, also at the
town of Tequisistlan, and at a point on the Tehuantepec River
23 miles above Tehuantepec.
The principal field has been worked for a considerable
period. In the four or five years immediately preceding 1910
some 30,000 cubic feet of onyx were quarried and exported to
the United States. In 1910 the output was 3,000 cubic feet and
in 1912, 2,000 feet. After the latter date no shipments were
made, the fields being within the territory dominated by
bandits. The principal obstacle to the development of these fields
is difficulty of transportation. Up to the present all onyx
exported has been hauled a distance of 35 miles, a great part
of the way over rough roads, by ox cart, to the railway at
Tehuantepec. A railway is projected from Oaxaca City to
San Geronimo, but this will pass far to the northeast of the
fields and will not materially shorten the haul. It would, how
ever, be quite feasible to construct a narrow-gauge line from
Tehuantepec up the Tehuantepec and Tequisistlan rivers to

INDUSTRIES AND FINANCIAL OPPORTUNITIES 193
the onyx fields. Such a line would not only tap these quarries,
but would also secure abundance of traffic from these rich
river valleys.
At the Tequisistlan field the onyx is largely of the superior
white and pink varieties, the remainder being sometimes beau
tifully mottled. The size obtainable is limited only by trans
portation considerations. With the present facilities it is not
possible to bring out slabs larger than 3 by 6 feet, with a
thickness of six inches.

MEXICAN WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
The metric system of weights and measures is the sole
legal system, all others being forbidden. But the conserv
atism of the people has been difficult to overcome and many
of the old Spanish weights and measures are still in use. The
sitio mayor and fanega, for instance, are in common use for
land measurements; while the carga is frequently used in
market quotations and commercial transactions for corn,
wheat, beans, etc., and the ton is used for salt, corn, coal, and
coke. A table of equivalents follows.
Mexican Metric Mexican Metric
Units Equivalents Units Equivalents
Linear Measure Weight
Meters Kilograms
Legua  4,190.00 Quintal  46.02
Vara  83 Arroba  11.50
Pie  28 Lil>ra  46
Pulgada  02 Onza  28.76 grams
Capacity, Dry Measure Land Measure
Liters Hectares
Carga . . . 181.62 Sitio Mayor Grande  1,755.61
Fanega"!!!.'!.'!!!!...'  90.81 Cabaileria  42.79
Almud  7.57 Fanega de sembradura de
Cuartillo ! ! ! ! !!!!!!!!!  1.89 maiz  3.57
Capacity, Liquid
Jarra  8.21
Cuartillo  46
Cuartillo, for oil  51

194 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
Official units of ordinary surface measure are as follows,
in metric equivalents: Vara caudrada (square vara) 0.702244
square meters; pie cuadrada (square foot), 7.8027 square
decimeters. Official metric equivalents of units of volume
are: Vara cubica, 0.58848 cubic meters; pie cubico, 21.7956
cubic decimeters.
CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS AFFECTING
FOREIGNERS.
On February 5, 1917, a new constitution was promulgated
which attempted a radical change in the status of foreigners
within the Republic. The Governments of the United States,
Great Britain, France, and Holland have protested vigorously
against the decrees since from time to time issued in an
attempt to enforce the objectionable features of this constitu
tion. Now that the Carranza government has been over
thrown, it is questionable whether they will continue to be
enforced. The two articles which particularly affect for
eigners are given below :
Art. 27. The ownership of lands and waters within
the national territory is vested originally in the nation,
which had had and has the right to transmit title thereof
to private persons, thereby constituting private property.
Private property shall not be expropriated except for
cause of public utility and by means of indemnification.
The nation shall have at all times the right to impose
on private property such limitations as the public interest
may demand, as well as the right to regulate the develop
ment of natural resources, which are susceptible of appro
priation, in order to conserve them and equitably to dis
tribute the public wealth. In the nation is vested direct
ownership of all minerals, petroleum, and hydrocarbons —
solid, liquid, or gaseous.
Legal capacity to acquire ownership of lands and
waters of the nation shall be governed by the following pro
visions :
1. Only Mexicans by birth or naturalization and Mex-

INDUSTRIES AND FINANCIAL OPPORTUNITIES 195
ican companies have the right to acquire rights in lands,
waters and their appurtenances or to obtain concessions to
develop mines, waters, or mineral fuels in the Republic of
Mexico. The nation may grant the same right to for
eigners, provided they agree before the department of for
eign affairs to be considered Mexicans in respect to such
property, and accordingly not to invoke the protection of
their governments in respect to the same, under penalty, in
case of breach, of forfeiture to the nation of property so
acquired. Within a zone of 100 kilometer's (62.14 miles)
from the frontiers and 50 kilometers (31.07 miles) from
the sea coast no foreigner shall under any conditions
acquire direct ownership of lands and waters.
Art. 33. Foreigners are those who do not possess the
qualifications prescribed by article 30. (Citizenship by
birth or naturalization.) They shall be entitled to the
rights granted by chapter 1, Title I, of the present consti
tution ; but the executive shall have the exclusive right to
expel from the Republic forthwith and without judicial
process any foreigner whose presence he may deem inex
pedient.

Chapter XI.
RISE OF THE ZAPOTECS.
DUE southeast of the City of Mexico, some two hundred
miles as the crow flies, lies that grand wilderness
of peaks collectively known as the Mountains of
Oaxaca, and in the heart of these mountains lies a wonderful
vale, the Valley of Oaxaca. Situated upon the seventeenth
parallel of north latitude and at an average elevation of four
thousand feet above sea level, this valley enjoys a mild tem
perate climate excelled by but few localities. Perpetual spring
reigns there, flowers blossom the year round, and the exhub-
erent soil produces every variety of grain and all the fruits
of the temperate zone.
Allah intended this wonderful valley to be the home of a
great people, and such, at the dawn of history, we find it to
have been. The origin of the Zapotec commonwealth, the
Didjazaa of the Mexican southland, or Zapotecapan as it was
called by the people of Tenochtitlan in their sweet and ex
pressive tongue, is shrouded in obscurity ; but if the traditions
handed down by the Spanish annalists of the generation suc
ceeding the Conquest are to be believed, as early as the twelfth
century of the Christian era the Zapotecs were the dominant
race in that region. Their numbers at that time could not
have been great; they were at the beginning of their career
of conquest, and for some generations they held by perpetual
warfare and doubtful tenure the valley and its circumjacent
mountains. But as time passed the Zapotecs waxed strong in the land.
196

"mi Jlllin 1 1 i LiBtTWIIMlMMWinHn

The Church of San Pedro Vixaana, Tehuantepec. The Men do Not go Into
I In- Church ami Have an Awning' Cor Their Comfort

RISE OF THE ZAPOTECS 197
Under a long line of able monarchs they widened their borders
to the south and east and audaciously attacked the indomin-
able Chontals and Mixes in their mountain fastnesses. They
built watch-towers against the power of their brave rivals, the
Mixtecs, on the highest mountains of their frontiers, and the
name of Zapotec was repeated with fear and admiration from
the summits of Guaxolotitlan and Tilantongo to the utmost
rivers of Soconusco. Teococuilco, to the north, and the far
blue mountains of remote Ayoquesco and Miahuatlan bowed
to their yoke.
Nor imagine, dear reader, that the Zapotecs prevailed
solely by force of arms. Civilization marched with their arms.
Whence they derived the rudiments of their culture we know
not; but it is certain that from the beginning their customs
were more humane than those of the surrounding nations,
and that their laws were wiser and their religious rites less
indicative of superstition. It is said that under their polity
ecclesiastical and military or lay affairs were not confused but
were administered by two distinct orders, to which circum
stance the priesthood owed a preponderance and importance
which was reflected in the public advancement. Their monu
ments at Mitla, Monte Alban and elsewhere are mute but elo
quent witnesses to their ancient culture.
Zaachila Yoo, called by the Aztecs Teotzapotlan, was the
national capital. It was founded about the year 1390 A. D.
by the able ruler Zaachila I. A sort of second Tenochtitlan
it was, for like the latter it sat in the midst of a great lake,
called Roaloo, where the waters of the rivers Atoyac, Jalatlaco,
Huayapan, Tlacolula, Mixtepec, and others which had no out
let to the south, were stopped in their courses.
A high rock with several summits arose from the waters
of the lake and on this Zaachila I ordered the construction of

198 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
his castle. We are told that this castle was increased in height
from time to time, additional stories being added in proportion
as the Zapotecs won victories on the field of battle, in such
fashion that by the time of the Conquest it had thirty-five
stories,* paved and beautifully decorated.
Eight or ten years later the citizens of Zaachila contrived
to partly drain the lake. The city then grew rapidly and soon
became undisputed mistress of the valley and the favorite
abode of its kings.
This was indeed the era of national grandeur for the Za
potecs who, thanks to the teeming population of their capital
and the soverign influence of their laws, had waxed exceed
ingly rich and powerful. Gazing down from some mountain
height overlooking the quiet valley, one can almost imagine
that he hears the shouts of their warriors and the echo of
their folk-songs, and sees the haughty plumed lords bedecked
with gold and precious stones, the wide expanse of cultivated
fields, delicious gardens resplendent with many-colored flow
ers, and wandering among them the daughters of the valley,
wondrously fair.
Alas ! For a century and a half the city prospered. Beau
tiful and free, the seat of a benign government administered
by a long line of illustrious monarchs, Zaachila shone above
the silvery waters of the lake. But now, alas, how changed !
The scepter has departed from her. Read the sad words of
one who loved her greatly and bore unwilling witness to her
decay :
"I have passed that way many times and have viewed the
remains of what was once proud Zaachila. It is a large town
still, but monotonous and without grace. How different from
*This seems incredible. Possibly the castle or palace was built in ter
race form up the side of the hill, after the manner of the pueblos of New
Mexico.

RISE OF THE ZAPOTECS 199
that city in the days of her glory ! It lies parched and barren,
without cultivated fields, and its people are but the shades of
what they once were.
"In the valley of Zaachila I found but two lakes, the last
remnants of the great Lake Roaloo, and there I found the
white heron searching for its nest, for night was approaching,
even as it came for the lake and the palace, for the court and
for its fair denizens, for their glory and for their memory
also."

In the year 1487 the celebrated Cosijoeza ascended the
throne of Teotzapotlan upon the death of his father, Zaachila
III. A wise prince, a warrior like his ancestors, and like
them a statesman, it was the most glorious day of his race
and country. Determined to preserve the national independence, he im
mediately set about placing the country on such a war foot
ing as should make it respected by its neighbors and effectively
protect it from the ambitious designs of the court of Tenoch-
titlan. By these measures and the scholastic instruction which
the sons of the nobles had from ancient times received at the
Quehuiquijezaa* of Tectipac, he instilled patriotism and re
spect for authority among the masses, so that all loved and
obeyed him with a blind devotion.
Perplexed by the continued incursions of the Aztecs, he
sat on a certain afternoon in April of the year 1494, pensive
and silent. Presently he broke the silence. "Alarii," he said,
turning to his trusty counselor, "our freedom is endangered.
To insure our independence we must without delay drive the
Aztec from our territories. Methinks I hear a voice crying:
*The national college.

200 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
'Declare war on Mexico and make the Zapotecs great and re
spected.' Harken, my friend; the hour has come for action,
and to lead up to open hostility I have chosen two points,
Loolaa* and Liobaa. The first, Huaxyacac, detached from
the service of Ahuitzotl, will aid us effectively, and the second,
Mitla, once she becomes interested in the destruction of the
Aztec power, will place all her forces at our disposal. Of
course they will be the first victims of Ahuitzotl's wrath, but
the end justifies the means."
"Sir," answered the minister, "while your plan is auda
cious, I believe it can be put through. Make your instructions
a little more specific and I will answer for the result."
"Know then," replied the king, "that a caravan of Aztec
merchants is now on its way from Tuxtepec and should pass
by Mitla. There they must die at the hands of the Huaxyac-
atlecas, or even of our own people, if necessary, secretly."
"It shall be as you desire, Sir," Alarii responded. "You
will in due time receive word that the Aztecs have passed to
the better world."
Three days later the Aztec merchants were slain. Ahuit
zotl learned of this from certain Chalcas, also merchants, who,
returning from Coatzacoalcos and passing by stealth close to
Mitla, saw the bodies of their countrymen lying by the road
side. Indignant at this act of barbarity, he called in council
his advisers the kings of Texcoco and Tlacopan and, war being
decided upon, set out from Mexico with a great army to avenge
the affront. Reaching Huaxyacac he arrayed his army for battle and
gave the order to assault. The columns of the Aztecs dashed
furiously upon the city. They joined battle. Blood flowed in
torrents. The defense was heroic, but in the end the Aztecs
*Loolaa, the Zapotec name for Huaxyacac, the modern Oaxaca.

I ^r

.

M ^gbgrallV^lfli!

illLsJfM&s

' . ¦ '

aft_'!-Bff' ~te';

lE^unl
'< ^yflH
A^^WHH
sT'. T*^Jpj
H ti'iSBi^p^ '•T
Ift-uSwnHBr*''" ra
bJjj
Three Happy Flower Girls of Tehuantepec
RISE OF THE ZAPOTECS 201
triumphed and in characteristic fashion followed up their suc
cess by slaying the major portion of the inhabitants. After
this massacre Ahuitzotl directed his forces against Mitla and,
not encountering a vigorous resistance, set fire to the city,
leveled its houses with the ground, and put a great part of the
inhabitants to death irrespective of age or sex. The sanctity
of her temples was desecrated by the slaughter of her priests
and the demolition of her gods.
Ahuitzotl returned from Mitla with a train of prisoners
and, passing by the desolate Huaxyacac, directed a warning to
the kings of Zaachila and Cuilapan that they have him in
respect. From this point he dispatched the bulk of his army
in the direction of Tehuantepec, Soconusco, and Guatemala in
command of Tlacochcalcatl, and himself returned toward Mex
ico to enjoy the pleasures of victory. The Zapotec prisoners
were sacrificed according to custom at the feast of the Aztec
war-god. "King Ahuitzotl is fast bringing my plans to fruition,"
said Cosijoeza to his minister. "He has slain many Zapotecs
and has laid Mitla waste. The affront which he sent us from
Huaxyacac can be washed out only in blood. The hearts of
the people are moved to indignation and he is soon to learn
that the sons of Petela* may not be trampled upon with im
punity. "Leave at once for the city of Achiutla and speak with
King Dzahuindanda. Advise him that the march of the Mex
ican army toward Tehuantepec affords us the opportunity to
effect its annihilation, for distant as this is from his capital
it will be an easy matter to take one by one the garrisons which
the Aztec general leaves behind him. Tell him that to make
*Petela, the mythical progenitor of the Zapotec race.

202 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
the event certain I beg that he lend a contingent of troops to
accompany me on the expedition, during which the forces of
the Mixtecs will keep order in Zaachila Roo* while the king
dom of Achiutla checks and drives back whatever reinforce
ments may come from Mexico."
Alarii departed at once for the land of the Mixtecs** where
he conferred with Dzahuindanda and that king, an ally of the
Zapotec monarch, placed subject to his orders 24,000 war
riors commanded by twenty-four valliant captains. These
forces united to those of the Zapotecs formed a total of 60,000
men, with which army Cosijoeza set out for the southeast
in the summer of 1496. As had been foreseen, one after an
other the Aztec garrisons fell before them and the terror of
their name spread far and wide. After a heroic march over
two mountain ranges, which the allies surmounted in the face
of the enemy, Cosijoeza arrived victorious in the valley of
Tehuantepec. The strongly fortified city of Tehuantepec was
the key to the situation, and upon its possession the success
of the enterprise depended ; therefore without loss of time he
attacked the town and surrounding heights, winning a decisive
victory which placed him in possession of all the territory
which had been conquered by the Aztecs.
The following day he took counsel with his minister.
"Alarii," he said, "thus far we have triumphed over our ene
mies and have covered ourselves with glory. The work is but
half done, but I believe we have the strength to see it through
to the end, if we use good judgment. Tlacochcalcatl will
shortly return from the direction of Guatemala, and Ahuitzotl
will send his best troops against us. We must therefore choose
our position, fortify ourselves strongly, and await either vic
tory or death."
*Teotzapotlan.**The Zapotecs and Mixtecs are brother races speaking kindred
tongues. The latter dwell in western Oaxaca.

Chapter XII.
THE DEFENSE OF QUIENGOLA.
THE next day Cosijoeza and Alarii examined the field
closely and chose as the most eligible point of de
fense the heights of Quiengola,* a peak situated
about fifteen miles northwest of Tehuantepec at the point
where the Tehuantepec River bursts forth from the mountains.
"Here," said the king to his minister, "shall be the tomb
of the bold Mexican who thinks to enslave the Sons of Zaa
chila. Command that the crest of the mountain be circum
scribed with .stone walls capable of resisting any force how
ever great, and that there be made within the enclosure great
pools of water, which you will order to be stocked with live
fish. In forming these pools you will utilize so far as possible
the springs which burst forth from the mountain. Besides
this, lay in great store of salt meat, corn, beans, chile, and pro
visions of every sort against a siege which may be prolonged
to four or even six months ; by which time we shall have come
forth victorious."
"I go to execute your commands," said Alarii, "and you
may rest assured that within a few days this mountain will be
converted by our army into an impregnable fortress."
"Arrange also with the towns of Nejapa and Quiegolani,
that they supply us with contingents of men, provisions, ar
rows, spears, maces, and all manner of arms, so that the de
fenders lack for nothing. Direct that the pass of the Jalapa
River be obstructed ; and finally, see that our troops are well
*Quiengola, "the old mountain" as the word signifies in Zapotecan.
203

204 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
treated and thoroughly instructed as to their duties. In all
this I will be with you to encourage the laborers by my
example." While these preparations were under way those of the
Aztecs who had been dispersed during the recent campaign
made their way as best they could back to Tenochtitlan and
notified Ahuitzotl of the distster at Tehuantepec. The despot
could not conceive it possible that any force, however strong,
could hold out against the invincible might of Mexico, and
incensed at so great temerity, arrayed all his power against
the overbold Cosijoeza, sending against him his most famous
captains and the most warlike troops of his empire. So cer
tain did he feel of triumph that as his warriors set out he is
reputed to have said: "I charge you, valiant and powerful
champions, that you take this fellow Cosijoeza alive and bring
him before me, that I may punish him in a manner commen
surate with the enormity of his offense."
A few days later Alarii entered the king's presence. "Two
messengers have arrived," said he. "What news do they bring?"
"Dzahuindanda sends word that he has taken the field in per
son and has reached the neighborhood of the forces which
Ahuitzotl has sent against us ; and the Chiapanecs advise your
majesty that Tlacochcalcatl is three days' journey from
Soconusco."* "Tomorrow, Alarii, we will shut ourselves up
within Quiengola."
The following day the king with all his army marched to
Quiengola. He posted the Mixtecs, to the number of 20,000,
on the opposite bank of the Jalapa River, toward the north
and in a small valley, and with his own troops entered the
fortress, which had in the meantime been stocked with enor
mous piles of stones to be cast down upon the enemy, and well
supplied with arrows and poisoned darts.
*Soconusco; the littoral of Chiapas next the Guatemalan border.

A Face of Mystery

A Maiden of the Noble Race of Zapotecs

THE DEFENSE OF QUIENGOLA 205
"Here we die," he cried, addressing his men, "before we
stain the honor of the Zapotecs." "Yes, yes, we will all die,"
rejoined the multitude, "before we surrender to the tyrant of
Mexico." Four days later the Mexican army under the command
of Tlacatecatl appeared before Quiengola.
"To arms, brave warriors," cried Cosijoeza; "to arms,"
repeated the captains of the host; "Long live Zaachila!" cried
Alarii; and all the multitude answered "Viva!" The fire of
patriotism burned in the hearts of the noble Zapotecs who,
eager for battle, awaited the assault upon the fortress that
they might measure strength with the enemy.
But the army of the Aztecs, exhausted by its march of one
hundred and thirty-five leagues, determined to merely camp
for the time being by the springs at the foot of the mountain.
Indeed they felt but little inclined to storm the fastness, for
the dizzy height above them and the martial air of its de
fenders filled the hearts of the most valiant with terror. For
the first time in their career of conquest they realized that the
issue was doubtful.
Besides, many soldiers had arrived sick and others were
beginning to feel indisposed from breathing the sultry atmos
phere of the Isthmus. For this reason, and in order not to
stake all upon the issues of a single battle, the Aztec generals
resolved not to attack, but to reduce the defenders by hunger.
"By proceeding in this manner," said Tlacatecatl, "we reserve
our strength until the troops under Tlacochcalcatl, now in the
neighborhood of Cuauhtemallan and returning by forced
marches, are able to unite with us. Thus we make certain the
favorable termination of the campaign."
For some days the two armies watched each other, noth
ing occurring save certain unimportant skirmishes between

206 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
the advance guards of either side. The Mexicans completely
surrounded the mountain, precluding all ingress and egress,
while the Zapotecs, descending from time to time by secret
paths, fell suddenly upon the enemy. Every day the enemy
returned to the attack and when night fell, leaving a strong
guard, returning to their camp. One night when they were
least expected the Zapotecs, who had noted this latter practice,
fell upon the guard in its camp with such suddenness that the
guard with difficulty avoided a total rout. The Zapotecs
had descended so stealthily that the Aztecs were hardly aware
of the movement before they were upon them.
After this incident the Aztecs observed the strictest vigi-
lence but this did not prevent the Zapotecs from sallying forth
and attacking them again and again with equal surprise and
great havoc. In these sallies it was their custom to divide the
sallying party into two sections, so that when the vanguard
was in the thick of the fight the rearguard could throw its
weight into the balance.
Cosijoeza was never-failing in stratagems which were in
variably successful because they were the creations of his own
fertile invention. Frequently while one portion of his forces
feigned a retreat, he with the other part would creep through
the woods and ravines and, falling suddenly upon the Mexican
flank, surprise the enemy with frightful slaughter.
Thus the conflict continued day by day until presently
the Mexicans found that they had lost half their men, without
counting the sick and wounded who, far from being of service
to the army, were a burden upon them. And besides the Za
potecs, though they were unable to raise the siege, took the
bodies of the dead Aztecs from the field of battle, salted and
dried the meat, and thus replenished their stock of provisions.*
*Very possibly it is to conditions such as this that we are to look for
the origin of cannibalism. Besieged bodies of barbarians must have been

THE DEFENSE OF QUIENGOLA 207
To a wounded captain whom they captured they displayed
a sort of bastion which they had constructed from the skulls
and other bones of the Aztecs, whose flesh converted into dried
beef, they assured him, was already in their storehouses. Then
they set him at liberty that he might regale his comrades with
the tale of what he had seen and heard.
The siege dragged on; the Aztecs being neither able to
take the stronghold alone nor when joined by the forces from
Guatemala for whom they had been waiting. Within the space
of seven months (from March to September, 1497),* three
times considerable reinforcements had been sent from Tenoch
titlan, but had been unable to force the passes and reach the
valley of Tehuantepec.
Ahuitzotl, seeing that he could not take Quiengola, that
his army was rapidly melting away, as well from the ravages
of war as because of the diseases which decimated its ranks,
and that force acomplished nothing, instructed Moctezuma,
commander-in-chief of his armies, to open negotiations, pro
posing peace to Cosijoeza upon advantageous terms. Moc
tezuma accordingly sent a herald to Cosijoeza, who, on being
brought into the camp, thus addressed the Zapotec monarch :
"May the gods protect you, valiant and fortunate mon
arch. On behalf of my king I come to propose peace between
Aztec and Zapotec. Convinced of your military prowess and
approved valor, Ahuitzotl offers you as a pledge of his endur
ing friendship the hand of his fairest daughter. I beg you to
accept of this princely offer and also of this little token of his
often reduced to this extremity. What more natural than that, finding
the flesh pleasant to the taste, they were led to a repetition of the un
natural repast and, the taste once acquired, waged battle for the sole pur
pose of gratifying it. Considering the courageous defenses which pre
ceded these resorts to cannibalism, we can well understand how the belief
arose that the eating of the enemy's flesh imparted courage.
*On the authority of Manuel Gracida of Oaxaca, to whose excellent
treatise we are indebted for much of his narrative.

208 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
regard, a drum and a shield of gold, and know that he will
ever respect your dominions and conquests, won on the field
of honor and in just reprisal."
"Noble Aztec," Cosijoeza answered, "I am greatly pleased
to learn that your lord esteems alike the cause which I defend
and my valor, and yet more pleased with the pledge of peace
which he tenders. You will please inform him that, notwith
standing the misgivings with which his conduct have inspired
me, I accept his friendship and the hand of his beloved daugh
ter, of whose virtue and beauty I know only by common fame."
"Besides, noble sir," continued the herald, "my general
has charged me to bid you send an embassy to the court of
Mexico to demand the future queen of Zapoteca, where in con
firmation of the treaty she will be delivered to you by the
emperor." "Very well, captain, inform your general that from today
hostilities will be suspended, and that he may return to his
country without fear of molestation, as I will send instructions
to my people and allies that no attack be made upon his army."
As final arrangements for celebration of the marriage
were bound to be delayed by reason of Ahuitzotl being at so
great a distance, Cosijoeza, not wishing to waste time, took a
part of his troops and, proceeding by way of the seacoast, con
quered for himself the province of Soconusco with the tribu
tary district of Tonala, through which the Aztec arms had
passed, and returned to his place of encampment laden with
spoil. Cosijoeza shortly afterward established himself at Te
huantepec for the purpose of recuperating from the fatigues
of the campaign and also to organize the new territory which
he had just added to his dominions. While there a rumor

THE DEFENSE OF QUIENGOLA 209
reached him that Ahuitzotl had some covert design in view in
suggesting a matrimonial alliance.
"What is your opinion of the matter?" he asked of his
counselor. "My lord," answered Alarii, "it is well to proceed cir
cumspectly in such a delicate matter. Ahuitzotl's pride has
been wounded, and he is capable of any baseness which will
enable him to outwit one who has beaten him."
"Then," said Cosijoeza, "we had best appear pleased with
the prospect of marriage and in the meantime watch narrowly
the conduct of our future father-in-law."
This resolution could not be concealed from the keen mind
of Ahuitzotl, who, to avoid the demands which Cosijoeza might
make, called on his enchanters and wizards, and commanded
them to find before his eyes and those of his seductive daugh
ter, some means of withdrawing from the proposed alliance.

Chapter XIII.
THE QUEEN OF ZAPOTECA.
AS King Cosijoeza was taking a bath one January morn
ing at a certain spring embowered within a shady
grove, called the Pool of the Marchioness* from the
magnificent view and pleasant recreation which it afforded,
there appeared before him a maiden of such wondrous beauty,
grace, and gentleness as to fairly deprive him for the time
being of the power of speech. Recovering himself presently,
he thus accosted her :
"Who art thou, beautiful maiden, and what wouldst thou
of me?" The maiden replied: "Happy mortal, unconquerable
leader of men, shield of thy country, thou who art the thun
derbolt in battle, that killeth when thou breaketh forth in fury,
great prince, I salute thee.
"I am Coyolicaltzin, most beloved daughter of the em-
porer Ahuitzotl, chosen by him to wed with thee. Drawn by
your fame, the echoes of which reverberate through the forests
and mountains, and feeling the sacred fire of love burning in
my breast, longing to meet thee, I besought the gods with
fervent supplication that I might be conducted into thy
presence. "The propitious gods heard my prayers. First they
mitigated the violence of my passion ; then they wrapped me
in a white cloud and lovingly said, 'Go quickly and meet thy
future spouse.' In divine ecstasy sunk, I felt myself trans
lated. Like a flash of light I compassed flowery plains and
*This place, which is near the town of Laollaga about seven leagues
north of Tehuantepec, is called in the Zapotec language Niza Rindani.
210

THE QUEEN OF ZAPOTECA 211
precipitous mountains whose surface my foot scarce touched ;
and presently, floating through space, I reached this river.
'Enter here,' the gods whispered to me, 'and thou shalt find
the object of thy love.'*
"I penetrated to this spot and, enraptured, felt the gentle
call of love. My eyes were reflected in yours, and behold, that
which I sought and in my sorrow thought to have lost, was
found." Cosijoeza, fairly caught in the net of love, interrupted the
gentle damsel: "Coyolicaltzin, sweet Mexican princess that
shouldst be queen of beauty, blest of the gods, what brought
thee to my presence?" Then, beginning to doubt the evidence
of his senses and overcome with conflicting emotions, he cried,
"0 thou in face and form more perfect than the moon when
fullest, art thou a phantasm and do I but behold in a delirium
that which I seem to see? But no — be thou enchantress, dis
embodied spirit, or woman, I call thee blessed."
"Behold thou art in thy bath, master of my heart," re
sponded the future queen of Zapoteca and, putting aside the
articles which she had brought for her adornment, she pro
duced a bar of perfumed soap such as her father was want
to use and, commencing to pour water upon him from a golden
cup, bathed him with her own hands.
"Now you see," she said to the king in an endearing and
persuasive voice, "I am a woman. Are you convinced? I did
not appear to you by incantation from beneath the bubbling
waters of the spring. The gods brought me from Anahuac,
even as I have told you."
The king being now thoroughly satisfied that the lovely
creature was flesh and blood and no other than his intended
*For this portion of the narrative we are greatly indebted to Eduardo
del Valle, author of the poem "Coyolicaltzin."

212 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
spouse, the royal personages laid aside their heroics and pro
ceeded to discuss very prosaically their contemplated union.
"I," said Coyolica,* "wish the wedding to be celebrated with
greater magnificence than has even been seen before." "And
I," answered Cosijoeza, "want it to be celebrated as soon as
possible." "Calm yourself and heed me well," she said. "That same
sentiment of love with which my presence has inspired you
burns also in my bosom. But you being my father's enemy,
this love which today blesses me, aforetime, I confess to you,
terrified me greatly, for a mysterious voice ever whispered in
my ear, telling me that that of which I dreamed would never
come to pass. But my father, whose name has so long spread
terror and dismay far beyond the borders of Anahuac, has at
last grown tired of war and now offers you his powerful
friendship. If you can succeed in obtaining that boon of him,
I will seal it with my hand and thus the future of our mutual
love will be assured."
Cosijoeza was so affected by these words from the lips of
his beloved that he vehemently declared : "Princess, I am bound
captive by my love for you and will treat with your father,
free from all anger and ranchor. I will at once send embas
sadors with proposals of peace and a demand for your hand."
He spoke, and fixing his bright eyes upon the object of
his love, enveloped her in the effulgence of his tenderness ; took
her little hand, lifted it to his lips, and released it, all in a
sweet rapture. Thus in silence the two palpitating hearts were
joined, and the souls of the two were melted in heavenly ten
derness. The bath and interview concluded, the princess upon
taking leave showed him a birthmark on her right arm, say-
*Out of consideration for the reader's feelings we take the liberty
of cutting down the fair one's name to manageable proportions.

Indian Maid with Jecapezle Prepared to Visit
the Market

Middle Age Zapotecs. Mango Held on the Mango
Fork is Readily Handled

THE QUEEN OF ZAPOTECA 213
ing: "This shall be the sign by which your ambassadors will
be able to recognize me at the palace, for it may happen, as
my father loves me greatly, that he will refuse to deliver me ;
for you know from experience that one cannot be sure of the
loyalty of a supposedly reconciled but treacherous rival. Fare
well. My love, which will prove your fortune in the days to
come, will safeguard your ambassadors in the Mexican domin
ions. Farewell."
"Abide in peace," said the genii who, suddenly appearing,
snatched up the lady and bore her away through the air to
her native land.
The king, enamored of Coyolica's beauty and simplicity
of character, left the bath to inform his confidants of the extra
ordinary event which had just transpired. All listened in
amazement. "The princess and I have agreed," he concluded, turning
to Alarii, "to celebrate our nuptials with all haste and in the
most splendid manner, in keeping with our exalted station."
"Love conquers all things, my king," answered the minister,
"and if the princess be true to you, her constancy will prove
a wall against which the machinations of Ahuitzotl will be
dashed in pieces."
"So I think," responded Cosijoeza, "and in proof of my
confidence I have decided that you go as embassador to Tenoch
titlan. You will leave within three days, taking with you a
rich present for Ahuitzotl, from whom you will ask In my
name the hand of Coyolica. The most renowned of our nobles
will accompany you to heighten the brilliancy of the embassy."
"I thank you, my lord," Alarii replied, "for this fresh
proof of your regard. Count ever on my loyalty, which seeks
only the welfare of king and country"

214 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
The embassy left Tehuantepec on January 15, 1498, and
from place to place along the way, by order of the king, pro
vided that magnificent festivals be held on their return for
the reception of the queen.
Ahuitzotl, who had received notice in advance, gave orders
that his capital be adorned with palm branches, flowers, and
aromatic plants to receive the embassy from the king of Za-
poteca. The facades of the temples and palaces were covered
with tapestries of zempaxochitl in token that the city was pre
pared for a great festival, and on every hand pleasure and joy
were reflected on the countenances of the populace.
Suddenly a great shout resounded through the city; a
spontaneous cry in which the people voiced their approval of
the proposed alliance. The showy Zapotec cortege, slowly
crossing the eastern causeway, advanced with measured pace
toward the palace. It reached its destination and was received
at the door by a deputation of Aztec maidens dressed in the
most exquisite costumes.
Installed in the palace, Alarii asked speech with the em
peror that he might state the mission upon which he had been
sent by his king.
Ahuitzotl seated on his throne, surrounded by the most
select of the Mexican nobility, awaited the embassy of his
late adversary in arms. It was a solemn moment, of the utmost
importance to the peace of those two powerful nations. The
hoarse blare of the panhuehuetl announced to the people that
the Zapotecan suite was about to be received in audience.. It
came, passing between serried ranks of warriors whose cos
tumes mimicked, now the wild eagle, anon a serpent, and again
a jaguar. The highpriest leading the procession introduced
it into the imperial presence.

THE QUEEN OF ZAPOTECA 215
The assembled suite, in the presence of Ahuitzotl, bowed
low in token of reverence; an act which the emperor recog
nized with all courtesy.
Then the embassador spoke: "Noble lord of Anahuac,
potent ruler of the great and flourishing Mexican empire, be
pleased to accept this token of friendship from the king of
Didjazaa.* And at a sign from him the members of his suite
laid their rich gifts at the feet of the emperor. Then Alarii
turned toward the throne and continued : "Behold here in this
many-colored featherwork, stolen by the birds from the flow
ers, a mantle for your august person ; and here, 0 prince, by
these vases of resplendent gold — a magnificent present — my
lord expresses to you his abiding friendship. He accepts the
peace proposed by you, not because the late lamentable war has
weakened his power, for thou must know that the noble Za
potecs to the last man are ever ready to lay down their lives
for their native land, but because he seeks eternal friendship
between Anahuac and Zapoteca."
Ahuitzotl, with an appearance of tranquility concealing
well the tumult in his heart, made answer: "Sir embassador,
I accept with pleasure this magnanimous gift from your
valiant lord who has measured strength with me in battle.
That peace which is the greatest boon of nations shall be from
this day secure ; to that I pledge my sacred word."
"Your majesty," said Alarii, "the sure pledge of that alli
ance which should bind the Mexican and Zapotec nations in
unity is found in the hand of your noble daughter. Deign to
consent to her marriage with our king, who, enamored of
her grace, asks her of thee. Neither unworthy thoughts nor
fear for the future have impelled him to take this step. In
this matter he has been actuated solely by love ; of that I can
assure you."
*Zapoteca, the country of the Zapotecs.

216 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
This petition troubled Ahuitzotl exceedingly. His face
darkened and hard words came to his lips, but he stifled them
and made answer: "Noble Zapotec, you ask what is dearer to
me than all things else, but I have not tendered my friendship
in jest. I consent, therefore, to the marriage of my daughter
with your master."
At the crafty despot's command a venerable noble hastily
departed to bring the princesses and shortly returned with
three of them in his company. Then Ahuitzotl turning to
Alarii said, "Behold my children. All three are young, all
three are beautiful as tender roses unfolding with the first
blush of spring, all possess the magic reserve of ancient
lineage, and each of them has the imperial pride; make thou
thy choice." On beholding them Alarii wavered in perplexity. "Are
they all alike, as rumor hath it, the heavenly faces of the
daughters of Anahuac?" he muttered to himself. Whereupon
the beautiful Coyolica, who was not with her sisters but had all
this time been sitting beside the emperor, made a pretense of
raising her hand to compose her coiffure of precious jewels;
by this means discovering to the wavering envoy the birthmark
upon her right arm.
At this sign, regarding which the embassador had been
particularly instructed, he turned at once to Ahuitzotl and
joyfully exclaimed: "The princess whom my king selects and
whose hand he demands, is this lady."
The crafty monarch was fairly caught in his own toils.
No avenue of escape was open. Wounded to the heart's core
he gazed tenderly upon his daughter, faltering, "Coyolica,
innocent and pure, my sweet child, I must fulfill my promise
though it wound me unto death." Addressing the court, he
added : "My idolized daughter is the pledge of peace. I will

THE QUEEN OF ZAPOTECA 217
make this sacrifice for the nation," and presently, turning to
Alarii : "I will comply like a Mexican monarch. I resign her
to your king. The monarch consents and the father blesses."
A three days' feast followed; on the fourth the embassy
received its queen. The royal suite then left Tenochtitlan,
carrying their sovereign in a gorgeous litter. At the end of
each day's journey she was received with becoming pomp by
deputations sent out for that purpose by Cosijoeza, who in
this manner showed his wealth and power, as well in the recep
tions which he accorded his affianced as in the nobles who
were assigned to wait upon her.
Twenty days later the queen set foot upon the torrid soil
of Tehuantepec, and there the brave Cosijoeza received her
with a splendid cortege which astonished the Mexicans who
accompanied her.
"Great lady," he said, "we bid you welcome to your future
home. Be seated at my side and look upon your people," and
turning to the multitude he exhorted them to thank the benign
ant gods for the good fortune they had brought to the children
of Zaachila. "Here you have the precious pledge of peace,"
he said, "which secures to the Zapotecs their autonomy and
their conquests, to your king happiness beyond measure, and
to his people the tenderest watchcare. Let us ever love and
respect her."
Coyolica, naturally modest and shy, but carried away by
the enthusiasm of the occasion, addressing the assembled
nobles and people from her seat responded: "You behold in
me, my people, not the queen of their illustrious race, but a
mother ever ready to share your joys and console you in your
afflictions."

218 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
After this the solemn marriage ceremony took place in
accordance with the forms of the Zapotec religion. The nup
tials were the occasion of universal rejoicing and were par
ticipated in by Zapotecs, Mixtecs, and Aztecs with a brilliancy
and magnificence never seen at former feasts ; Coyolica being
the object of the most profound demonstrations of respect and
homage, as well at the court of Zaachila, which capital cele
brated the event with feasting and merriment, as throughout
the lesser towns of the kingdom.
At the end of the eight-days festival the Aztecs returned
to their country and later the Mixtecs, to whom Cosijoeza
ceded as a reward for their services a place near Tehuantepec
later known as Mixtequilla, following in this matter the policy
of his ancestors, which consisted in fulfilling a promise in such
manner that while the other party was not altogether de
frauded, neither was he completely satisfied. This measure
displeased the Mixtecs, who a few years later abandoned the
site, which finally became incorporated in the kingdom of
Tehuantepec. Cosijoeza and Coyolica loved each other greatly, remained
constant to one another, and lived a happy married life.
The king remained for a considerable time at Tehuan
tepec, enjoying the fruits of victory. The Zapotecs in the
meantime, pleased with the fertile plains of the Isthmus, took
possession of the lands which they had acquired by conquest,
confining the Huaves, the original possessors of the soil, to
the narrow area betwixt the great lagoons and the sea. The
Zapotecs settled the country eastward to the limits of Chiapas,
peopling the plains with that population ever active, restless,
and intelligent, which has stirred up so many wars through
its restlessness and indomitable bravery. These Zapotecs of

THE QUEEN OF ZAPOTECA 219
the plains have in the course of time become somewhat differ
entiated from those of the highlands in speech (they speak a
dialect slightly different from the mountaineers), and even
more in style of dress, but they are still essentially one people.

Chapter XIV.
COSIJOEZA AND AHUITZOTL.
IN October of the year 1498 the queen gave birth to a son
to whom was given the name Bitopaa, that is to say, Son
of Delight. The child died while very young. This sad
event filled with sorrow the parents' hearts, which a little be
fore had overflowed with joy as they fondled the first fruit of
their love. For this reason Cosijoeza removed to Zaachila,
leaving at Tehuantepec a relative in charge of the reins of
government. Ahuitzotl in the meantime being free from the cares of
war, for profound peace reigned throughout his dominions,
bethought himself that the time had come for putting into
effect his well-matured plan for subjugating the Zapotecs and
sacrificing Cosijoeza on the altar of Huitzilopochtli. The re
membrance of Quiengola was a goad which tortured his pride,
and he could not rest while his glory as a conqueror remained
eclipsed by the popularity of that famous warrior, who he
knew had by his valor and talents raised himself to an equality
with the greatest heroes. Vengeance on the one hand and
ambition on the other urging him to war, he set about the exe
cution of his plan, in which he counted upon the filial love of
Coyolica to aid him.
Calling before him two of his relatives who were in the
public service, he said: "You will go as ambassadors to the
court of Zaachila. Here is a magnificent gift. Take it and
carry it to my son-in-law Cosijoeza, to whom you will state
that by it he will understand how much I esteem him. This
220

A Zapotec Beauty and American Gold

A Middle Aged Zapotec Lady

COSIJOEZA AND AHUITZOTL 221
done, you will beg in my name permission for the passage of
my troops through his territories in the direction of Chiapas
and Guatemala, as I desire to conquer those provinces and
permanently incorporate them with my dominions. This
granted, you will thank him and request that his people furnish
the necessary supplies for the army en route.
"Besides this," he added, "you will endeavor to inform
yourselves as to the resources, power, and military forces at
his disposal, for you understand I wish to avenge myself of the
defeat which I suffered at Quiengola. In furtherance of this
object you will seek private audience with Coyolica and per
suade her to reveal to you the state secrets of her hubsand,
what the nature of his gods may be, and whatever else you may
judge of value to us. In revealing these things, you will tell
her, she will aid her father in striking his greatest enemy a
decisive blow."
The ambassadors bowed low and departed on their mis
sion. After having been fourteen days on the road they reached
Zaachila and being announced to Cosijoeza were immediately
brought before his. throne, that he might learn of them the
mission with which they had been entrusted by the ruler of
Anahuac. "To what cause do I owe this favor from the sovereign of
Mexico," he said.
"Mighty king," they answered, "Ahuitzotl sends you this
present in testimony of his friendship, and begs that you will
permit the troops of Anahuac to pass through your dominions
en route to Chiapas and Guatemala, provinces which he desires
to annex to his empire."
"Noble Aztecs," Cosijoeza replied, "in the name of my
people I cordially thank your lord for the present which he
has been pleased to send. I receive this token of friendship

222 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
as a significant pledge of our alliance and, believe me, trust
the gods will grant my father-in-law a long and happy life.
But as to the request of the ruler of Anahuac, that is a dif
ferent matter and must be determined in council, for which
reason I cannot make answer at once. As it will be some days
before the council assembles, I beg you will wait at court. In
the meantime we will take the matter under advisement."
And then the king directed that the ambassadors be quar
tered in the most luxurious apartments of the palace, in view
of their high station.
"It would seem," they said among themselves, for they
were completely deceived by the benign and trustful air of the
astute king, "that the gods are furthering the cause of
Ahuitzotl." Then, taking advantage of time and circumstance, the en
voys approached Coyolica and said : "Great lady, your father
has confided to us the secret mission of telling you that he
wishes you to ply Cosijoeza with your witcheries and when he is
in a trustful mood extort from him the secrets of what are his
protecting gods, and where he has deposited the poisoned arms
which caused the Aztec army such torments at Quiengola ; for
the end he has in view is to pounce precipitately upon the un
prepared Zapotecs, under the pretext of passing through to
Chiapas, seize their military stores, burn them, and destroy
the arms. In order that we may effect a complete surprise,"
they added, "you must observe the greatest caution."
Placed between father and husband by these demands on
the part of the former, the queen must make a choice and make
it without delay. Not at first seeing a way of escape for the
dilemma, she replied: "Give me a little time; I will not long
delay my answer," and retiring to her chamber she considered
the matter in her heart.

COSIJOEZA AND AHUITZOTL 223
Resolved to do only that which was right she decided in
favor of Cosijoeza and her adopted country, and calling in her
husband revealed to him Ahuitzotl's plot, at the same time
begging that he would spare the ambassadors. Fortunately
the king was not of a bloodthirsty turn. He listened calmly
to the disclosures made by his wife, and pleased with her love
and fidelity said : "Dear lady, I cordially thank you for having
revealed this thing to me and promise you, by Bidoo,* that
all shall come out well."
Cosijoeza retired to his chamber, meditating how he might
frustrate the designs of his father-in-law. The queen remained
in her own room, but a little later went out in search of the
ambassadors and, calling them aside, addressed them as fol
lows: "I alone know your mission. Depart and save your
selves ere it is too late. Tell my father that while I am his
daughter I am also a wife and queen."
An hour after the interview Cosijoeza had concerted with
Alarii his entire plan of action. Nothing escaped his farseeing
mind. He at once called the ambassadors into audience and
said in the sweetest and most ingratiating manner: "Know
ing that time hangs heavily on your hands, I have arranged for
your speedy departure from this court. Receive these gifts
which 1 bestow upon you, and inform the emperor that he
may count upon my permission for the passage of his troops
through this country, but that he may not avail himself of
this permission until he receives notice from me."
The ambassadors thanked Cosijoeza for his great kind
ness, and departing from his presence left Zaachila hastily and
in great fear ; for the treacherous are ever the most fearful of
treachery. They believed that the king having discovered their
*Bidoo, Bitoo, Bitao. A Zapotec divinity. Signifies: "God" or "Su
preme Being." From Bi or binni, "being," and doo, too, tao, "great" or
"supreme." Probably a corruption of Pitao.

224 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
treachery would, if they failed to make the utmost speed, seize
and sacrifice them to his resentment.
Arrived at Tenochtitlan they gave account to their mas
ter, who listened to their story and gave orders that the forces
be made ready for the campaign.
Cosijoeza without loss of time took all necessary precau
tions and prepared for the war which appeared inevitable.
He hastened the movement of regular troops to the frontier
and directed that the walls and fortifications of Quiengola be
repaired. Then he raised fresh levies with which to garrison
the strongholds of the land. The public storehouses were pro
visioned with all manner of foods and other supplies and,
lastly, store of new arms were provided, the points of the ar
rows being touched with poison.
When all these preparations had been made to his satis
faction he sent word to Ahuitzotl that his troops might pass
through the country on their way to Guatemala.
Ahuitzotl, directly he received word from Cosijoeza,
ordered that the Aztec army begin the march from Mexico.
Half the forces, under the command of Tliltototl, were to pass
by way of Tuxtepec, Cosamaloapam, and Coatzacoalcos, and
thence across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, where they were to
await orders ; while the other half, led by Moctezuma, were to
pass by the defile of Cuicatlan and attack Zaachila, making an
end of Cosijoeza whom he thought to be totally unprepared.
The first army overran the country as far as Jaltepec, a
place peopled by Mixes, and reached Amatlan in the present
state of Chiapas, but were unable to take Tehuantepec which
had been largely reinforced.
The other army followed the direct route leading to the
Valley of Oaxaca, but upon entering the territories of Zaachila
was met at Loobanna, the modern Etla, by a Zapotec army

COSIJOEZA AND AHUITZOTL 225
numbering twenty thousand, which received it with due honors
and joining the Mexicans watched closely their every step and
movement. Thus Ahuitzotl, who had thought to effect a sur
prise, was himself surprised and his designs frustrated. His
army passed through the land without being molested in any
manner, but with many misgivings and fears and constantly
acompanied by the Zapotec forces, who did not leave them until
they had passed well beyond Tehuantepec to points from which
they could not menace the kingdom.
These events occurred in the year 1500. If the fidelity
and love which the wife of Cosijoeza manifested on this occa
sion was admirable, surely no less so was the prudence of that
monarch who, far from taking advantage of the information
he had secured of Ahuitzotl's perfidy, to destroy his armies,
merely took the necessary steps to secure himself against cer
tain ruin without shedding a drop of the enemy's blood, pre
serving out of consideration for his wife the most friendly
relations with the ruler of Anahuac.
While Cosijoeza was thus successful in his plans of de
fense the gods favored him with a second son, whom his wife
Coyolica presented to him in the year 1500. The advent of
this child was celebrated with great court festivities, as well on
account of the birth of an heir to the throne of Zaachila as for
the favorable omens which preceded his birth. He was named
Naatipa, the Zapotec equivalent of "Strong Arm." The royal
parents kept careful watch over the rearing of the child and
at the end of two years were rewarded by seeing him playing
full of life on the tufted carpets of the palace.
About this time the queen became again with child. As
surances to this effect filled the court with joy as it was known
that the king had determined to make his third male child

226 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
king of Tehuantepec. All the people awaited the approaching
birth with the greatest interest. Everyone hoped that the
child might prove a male, for it was believed that, being
related to the Aztec dynasty, the emperor would be pleased to
see his grandson seated on a throne.
But in the midst of all this word reached Zaachila that
Ahuitzotl had expired on September 9, 1502. Cosijoeza for
getting his resentment mourned the death of his father-in-law
and Coyolica shed many tears for her parent and, following
the ancient custom, celebrated in her palace the prescribed
funeral rites. The court and principal families of Zaachila
joined in her mourning and the populace hastened to assure
her of their profound grief. I cannot help thinking that this
must have been largely a matter of good breeding, and that
inwardly they must have been devoutly thankful that the old
villain was dead.
A few days later Moctezuma II sent a messenger to Cosi
joeza to inform him that he had ascended the throne of
Tenochtitlan. He answered the messenger, congratulating the
Mexican people and the new ruler upon the happy event.
On a certain cold winter night there suddenly appeared
against the dark background of heaven fiery and radiant
flashes of light. A fantastic flame-colored vapor hovered on
the distant horizon.
"An evil portent," said a priest, "the child about to be
born to our king will be unhappy and unfortunate."
"What is his horoscope?" asked Alarii of the priest.
"Heaven announces," he replied, "that the prince will
begin his reign with the might and fury of the thunderbolt, and
close like the wind vanishes in a wail of sorrow."
This gloomy prophecy was repeated by more than forty
thousand souls who at Zaachila gazed in amazement at the

COSIJOEZA AND AHUITZOTL 227
prodigy in the heavens. For eight consecutive nights the
children of the Valley gazed in astonishment at the
strange portents in the sky, and on the seventh hour of the
ninth day, December 30, 1502, the queen gave birth to the
future king of Tehuantepec.
The astrologers, reassembling to interpret the omen, de
clared that the prince would be great and happy during the
first half of his life, that he would reign prosperously and be
feared and respected by the neighboring nations; but that in
the end, through an unfortunate succession of events beyond
his control, he would lose his power and his throne.
"The gods have revealed to us, sir, that the name of your
noble son will resound through the secluded glens and hidden
defiles of the blue mountains of our allies," said the chief priest
to the king, as the court, all in gala dress, awaited in expecta
tion the naming of the new-born babe.
"I fear greatly, Tiboot,"* replied the king. "Heaven and
the gods have in the clearest manner foretold the misfortunes
which await the child. By this token his name shall be Flash
of Lightning," he said, and the whole court repeated "Cosi
jopii! Cosijopii!"
A malediction had fallen upon the head of the infant;
upon that head which the grand ladies of the palace covered
with the finest linen and cloth of fine cotton bordered with
feathers of every hue.
Two years later, in 1504, the beautiful queen gave birth
to a fine daughter. The celestial signs which preceded her
birth were favorable and the soothsayers, interpreting the
omens, declared that the princess would be as beautiful as the
twilight upon the western sea and of exceeding virtue.
*Pontiff — literally "He who watched over the dead.

228 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
"Her name, her name?" cried the court.
"Her name?" repeated Tiboot.
"Essence of Virtue," cried the king, his heart bursting
with joy.
"Pinopaa! Pinopaa!" repeated the nobility with loud
clamor. The customary banquet, at which the king received the
felicitations of his people, followed the ceremony.

In the Suburb of Tehuantepec

Chapter XV.
THE MIXTEC REVOLT.
COSIJOEZA, feared and respected not merely for his
power but also because of his profound statesman
ship, could not rest so long as the Aztecs retained a
colony at the very gates of Zaachila.
"In an evil hour of the Thirteenth of June, 1486," he said
to his familiar, "my father Zaachila III permitted the founda
tion of Huaxyacac. It is a perpetual menace, a spy upon our
actions, and if not forestalled may become in time the mistress
of the valley. The Mexicans destroyed the city in 1494,* but
a few months since Moctezuma II restored the fortifications
under the pretext of passing that way when he set out for
Guatemala ; and this, Alarii, is but the beginning of prepara
tions for an assault upon us. We must not hesitate in this
matter, for decision is vital to the safety of the nation."
"And what do you propose doing?" asked the minister.
"Give ear, my friend, while I unfold to you a plan which
I have long been revolving in my mind. I propose that the
Mixtecs make an end of the garrison. They, as you know,
are ever restive under the Aztec yoke and eager to cast it off.
With this end in view they have for some years been secretly
preparing for war, and if they have not yet arisen in open re
volt it is because they imagine they cannot count upon the as
sistance of the King of Tututepec or upon us in their helpless
condition. *The Christian annalist has here substituted the Christian chronology
for that of the Zapotecs. 229

230 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
"Now we must induce them to revolt by working upon
their pride and patriotism and lending material assistance to
their kings; but we must at the same time use the utmost
caution to prevent the Aztecs from getting wind of our project.
While the Mixtecs and Aztecs slaughter one-another," he con
cluded, "we will wait in expectation, but to all appearances
neutral. By this means we will prevent our enemies from
strengthening Huaxyacac and besides we will be freed from
the presence of their troops, who are continually spying
upon us."
Admiration for the king's sagacity filled the soul of the
minister. "This plan, O king," he said, "is as certain of suc
cess as though already carried out."
Alarii set about the execution of the plan with his usual
promptness and within the space of two months the Mixtecs
were in arms. We shall see the result.
Cetecpatl, king of Coixtlahuaca, and Nahuilzochitl, king
of Sosola, were the leaders who stirred up the people. These
leaders possessed considerable resources of their own, and
besides they counted upon the aid of Dzahuindanda, king of
Achiutla, and Casandoo, king of Tututepec. They accordingly
got together and agreed upon a plan and to put it into execu
tion devised the following perfidy.
Cetecpatl held a feast to which he invited the chiefs and
headmen of the Mexican garrisons adjacent to his territories
and especially that at Huaxyacac, begging that they would
gather at his palace at Coixtlahuaca with their wives and chil
dren, as he desired to strengthen the bonds of friendship which
bound him to them.
All who were invited came to the feast without the least
suspicion of treachery and were received by the Mixtecs with

THE MIXTEC REVOLT 231
every appearance of cordiality. The feast over, Cetecpatl
bade the Huaxyacans farewell and they thanked him for his
kindness and took their departure. They set forth with their
families in the direction of Huaxyacac, discussing the late
banquet as they proceeded ; going on their way joyfully, totally
oblivious of the danger which menaced them. So confident
were they, in fact, that they had not even provided themselves
with arms for their protection.
They stopped for the night at Huauhtlilla, and the next
day resumed their journey in the same order as on the day
before. Descending through Duhuacoo (The Pass of the
Serpent), since called the Defile of San Antonio, as they were
passing through the narrowest part of the gorge Nahuilzochitl
with his men fell upon them from ambush and slew the entire
party. This signal act of perfidy occurred in the year 1506 and
left Huaxyacac wellnigh destitute of inhabitants; the main
object with Cosijoeza, who desired to destroy the hated Aztecs
at any cost.
Texacan, the king of Tlaxiaco, advised Moctezuma of the
occurrence, and the latter after taking counsel with the kings
of Texcoco and Tlacopan sent his commander Cuitlahuac with
a great army to take vengeance on the Mixtecs. Cuitlahuac
penetrated the enemy's country and after several encounters,
in the course of which he was routed by Nahuilzochitl in the
defiles of the Pass of the Serpent, retired to Huauhtla where
he surrendered to Cozcacuauhtli, brother of Cetecpatl.
This ruler of the Mazatecs, a man of a mean and cowardly
nature, fearing that he might be deposed if he upheld the
revolt, revealed to Cuitlahuac the designs of Cetecpatl and the
other Mixtec lords, assuring him that he had taken no part

232 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
in the plot. Cuitlahuac thanked him and did not fail to act
upon the information thus acquired.
The Mixtecs, believing that the enemy had retired to
Anahuac to return presently in greater strength, placed them
selves upon a war footing, formed new alliances, and fortified
their cities. Nahuilzochitl, the soul of the revolt, even made a
trip to Tututepec to urge upon Casandoo and his people the
vital importance of their lending assistance to preserve the
independence of the Mixtecs. At this time it was generally
believed that the probalities of success lay with the Mixtecs
and this ill-founded belief wellnigh worked the ruin of their
cause, for trusting to the absence of the Mexicans certain
chiefs took their departure from the center of operations, leav
ing the strongholds well guarded and intending to return to
the strife shortly with fresh levies.
In the meantime Cuitlahuac, far from desiring to return
to Mexico in dishonor, had merely sent word to Moctezuma
requesting reinforcements and the latter, hurt in his pride, at
once sent to Huauhtla a well-equipped body of troops, and the
campaign was opened anew. Following the counsel of Cozca
cuauhtli, the Aztec general now marched by way of the north
ern mountains in order to avoid the Sosoltecs becoming aware
of the movement of his army. The passage was accomplished
without discovery.
Reaching the neighborhood of the city by night at an hour
when he was least expected, and finding the Mixtecs heedless
of danger and without leaders, he arrayed his columns in
order of battle and assaulted the fortress with such impetu
osity that the surprised garrison barely had time to seize their
arms and place themselves on the defensive ; but though taken
at a complete disadvantage the Sosoltecs fought heroically,
finally compelling Cuitlahuac to fall back toward the river

THE MIXTEC REVOLT 233
where the men of Huaxyacac had been slain. There the enemy,
by occupying the strong positions which the defile afforded,
were able to save themselves from annihilation. The slaughter
was great on both sides.
The following day the combat was renewed. The Mixtecs
gave battle, assaulting the Mexicans in their chosen positions.
Both sides fought well but the assailants labored at a dis
advantage, many of their warriors having fallen in the pre
vious night's encounter and many others having, as we Have
mentioned, gone to their homes in the belief that Cuitlahuac
had retired toward Mexico. They were consequently forced
to abandon the attempt to dislodge the Mexicans from their
position, and therefore retired after suffering great losses to
the impregnable fortress of Sosola.
Nahuilxochitl received word of this disaster while on the
road from Tututepec with strong reinforcements and, hasten
ing his progress and gathering the dispersed as he went,
reached Sosola and offered battle to Cuitlahuac. The engage
ment which ensued was hotly contested and sanguinary, but
as one defeat opens the door to many others Nahuilzochitl
was repulsed and compelled to seek refuge within the walls of
Sosola. A part of his warriors were dispersed, some fleeing
down the Valley of Oaxaca and others taking to the mountains
for refuge. After this battle the Aztec army moved against Coix
tlahuaca which they attacked and captured, taking Cetecpatl
prisoner. Him they carried away to Tenochtitlan with other
prisoners, and there, after they had compelled him to divulge
the names of his accomplices, he was sacrificed to Huitzilo-
pochtli. Having placed new rulers over the conquered towns, not
ably at Coixtlahuaca, where Cozcacuauhtli was made chief

234 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
as the reward for his treachery, Cuitlahuac dispatched a new
garrison to Huaxyacac which was now peopled for the third
time, placing in command one Tlacatetl, a man of great valor
and administrative talents.
The only advantage gained by the Mexicans as the result
of this campaign was to secure a free passage by the defile of
San Antonio to Huaxyacac, for Nahuilzochitl was still at large,
keeping up the fight with a handful of braves.
The territories of the confederate kings of Zaachila,
Achiutla, and Tututepec were respected by the conqueror both
because of the strength of those rulers and because it would
have been imprudent to attack them in their positions, com
promising the safety of the expeditionary army. Thoroughly
comprehending this, Cuitlahuac dissimulated and confined his
efforts to humiliating them through their allies.
Knowing that Cuilapan, a Mixtec town, and Tlacocha-
huaya and Mitla, Zapotec towns, had lent countenance to the
rebellion, he moved from Coixtlahuaca and established him
self in Huaxyacac, from which point he intimated to their in
habitants that they would be declared tributaries of the Mex
ican empire if they persisted in provoking the wrath of Moc
tezuma. This done, he returned to Tenochtitlan to report progress.
"Events are shaping themselves," said Cosijoeza to his
familiar. "While we have not entirely succeeded in our plans,
at any rate one thing has been accomplished ; the Aztecs and
Mixtecs have shed one another's blood and are exhausted,
Huaxyacac is but poorly garrisoned, and we can afford to wait
our opportunity. Our garrison in Danni Dipaa* safeguards
our kingdom, and we must wait in patience while this colony
of Loolaa** grows, if the gods will."
*Now known as Monte Alban.
**Huaxyacac, the modern city of Oaxaca.

THE MIXTEC REVOLT 235
"You are right, my lord," answered Alarii, "we have
triumphed without striking a blow. True, two of our towns
have suffered at the hands of Cuitlahuac, but it is as the snarl
of the impotent jaguar that is unable to harm the skillful
hunter." "Listen," replied the king, "it is my opinion, and I believe
you will find it to be correct, that Mitla and Tlacochahuaya
are treating with Nahuilzochitl, which means further war.
The people are becoming more and more wrought up over the
sanguinary deeds of the Aztecs."
A few months after the termination of the war between
the Mixtecs and the Mexicans, in November of the year 1506,
Queen Coyolica gave birth to a daughter, her fifth and last
child. "If heaven has favored this royal pair with issue," said
Tiboot to those present, "it has also made their joy bitter,
bringing down misfortune upon the heads of their descend
ants." "What do you foresee?" asked the king of the pontiff.
"Sir," he answered, "at the moment when your daughter
was born there shone upon the eastern horizon a dazzling
cloud, while at the zenith there appeared a portentious cloud.
These signs indicate that the infant is the precursor of un
toward events, in the course of which, through love for her
people, she will be sacrificed."
"This being true," said the king, "it is fitting that she
be called Great-Soul."
"Donaji! Donaji! Donaji!"* repeated the court with
enthusiasm. "This name was also borne by a daughter of King Cosijopii, who after
the Conquest was known as Donna Magdalena.

236 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
The customary banquet followed, at which all present
expressed the hope that the child might possess that virtue,
beauty, and courage essential to enable her to accomplish that
which the gods had in store for her, be it what it might.
In the year 1509 the peace was again broken. The people
of Yanhuitlan and Sosola, making common cause with Mitla,
broke out in open war against Mexico. Cosijoeza, who saw in
this the final attainment of his desires, merely limited himself
to guiding by covert means the policy of the rebellious towns.
"What do you think of this new war?" he asked of Alarii.
"I believe, sir," answered the minister, "that it will not result
in profit to its promoters. Nahuilzochitl is a brave and active
warrior but he stands alone, for the king of Achiutla takes
no part nor does the king of Tututepec."
"I am of the same opinion," said the king, "I expect noth
ing more than that Mitla will be the victim of this ill-starred
revolt. Counting on her own naked strength and without first
securing promise of aid from the lords of Tlacochahuaya and
Macuilzochitl, she has precipitated the revolt without being
assured of further help from us than such as we are bound
to give her agreeably to the policy of my ancestors ; that is to
say, that of taking such steps as are necessary to safeguard
our own interest. If by misfortune Mitla should be conquered
and the Mexicans attempt to impose tribute upon her ; — this,
Alarii, I will never consent to. No town of our confederacy
shall ever be subjected to tribute until the conqueror shall first
have passed over my dead body."
"Then, my king, it is best that Mitla confine herself to
slight skirmishes with the enemy in case she is attacked, and
avoid staking all on the issue of a general engagement."
"Exactly, Alarii, but as it may chance that we must enter
the war, make ready the forces for a campaign."

THE MIXTEC REVOLT 237
Recognizing the seriousness of the revolt, Moctezuma
counseled with the kings of Texcoco and Tlacopan how he
might subjugate the southerners and obtain a supply of pris
oners for the festival of Tlacaxipehualiztli. He again placed
Cuitlahuac in command and the latter set out with a numerous
army for the land of the Mixtecs. He first attacked Yan
huitlan which, notwithstanding the strength of its fortifica
tions and the bravery of the defenders, was soon taken and
the inhabitants put to the sword.
After this triumph he directed his forces against Sosola,
which town he found deserted, for the defenders having learn
ed of the fate of Yanhuitlan had fled. In vain he spent four days
scouring the mountains in pursuit of its inhabitants. He
could not hit upon their trail. He accordingly set out for Mitla
in search of more prisoners, for he had only taken a thousand
at Yanhuitlan, a number which would hardly suffice to satisfy
the thirst for blood of the Aztec war god.
Now the Zapotecs who peopled Mitla were not wanting in
resourcefulness, as they had amply demonstrated at Quiengola.
They were as much distinguished for their cunning as for the
ingenuity with which they could extricate themselves from
the most perilous positions. An instance occurred on this
occasion. As soon as they learned that the Aztecs had arrived at
Huaxyacac they abandoned their town and withdrew to a
fortified hill situated a short distance to the west. The walls
of this fortress and the great store of stones which they ac
cumulated for the defense yet testify to their military skill.
Cuitlahuac arrived, reconnoitered the country, and after
viewing the position occupied by the Mitlans decided to take
it by asault. But in this he failed, for as often as the Aztecs
assaulted the stronghold, so often were they repulsed.

238 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
Desiring to save blood and knowing that the defenders
were short of provisions, he determined to reduce them by
siege. He threw his lines about the place and pressed them
closely. In truth the Mitlans were reduced to the greatest
extremity, for one night they disappeared as if by magic, with
out its being known how or by what road they had effected
their escape.
The Mexicans entered the deserted stronghold, marvel
ling greatly that its defenders had been able to leave without
being noted, for the place was narrow and their vigilance had
been extreme. But greater still was their astonishment when
they shortly discovered the enemy posted on a nearby moun
tain. They had, therefore, to undertake the taking of a new
position and to begin the work which they had thought to be
finished. The Mitlans conducted themselves on this second moun
tain in much the same manner as they had on the first, fight
ing with spirit but when they found themselves reduced to
extemities disappearing as if by enchantment, taking position
on a third inaccessible and well fortified rock, which was in
turn besieged by the Mexicans. The ingenuity of the one side
in interposing obstacles was as great as that of the other in
overcoming them.
The third position taken, the Mitlans disappeared as be
fore but in such manner that the Aztecs did not for some time
learn of their departure. This is hardly to be wondered at
as they made their escape by a subterranean passage.
Cuitlahuac being completely thwarted in his designs re-
concentrated his troops in Mitla and taking from there the few
old and infirm men who had remained behind, that he might
have wherewith to grace his triumph, set out on the march
for Tenochtitlan. In passing by Cuauhquechollan he attacked

THE MIXTEC REVOLT 239
and took that place, performing prodigies of valor in order
that he might secure prisoners to offer up to Huitzilopochtli,
since he had captured so few in his campaign against Mitla.
The wily Cosijoeza had kept in close touch with Mitla
and learned of everything that transpired to the smallest de
tail. As soon as word was brought him of the departure of
the enemy he smilingly said to his counselor : "Now Moctezuma
will learn through his general Cuitlahuac with what sort of
people he has to contend and how fully prepared we are for
war." "I am thankful," answered Alarii, "that Mitla has suffered
no great losses and am only sorry for our helpless old men
whom Cuitlahuac has carried away captive."
"Have no fear on that score, my friend," replied the king,
"he has merely taken them with him to grace his triumph.
Calm yourself. Moctezuma will not sacrifice our old men in
the Cuauhxicalli, not only on account of their age and inno
cence but also for fear of the Zapotecs, among whom he has
a colony at the gates of our court as well as free passage to
Guatemala; which, should he be guilty of so great infamy, he
would lose without hope of recovery, as Ahuitzotl lost it at
Quiengola." In truth, the old men of Mitla were not sacrificed, but
after a time were permitted to return to their homes. The
men of Yanhuitlan and Cuauhquechollan were the only victims
served up to satisfy the sanguinary appetite of Huitzilopochtli.

Chapter XVI.
THE KING OF TEHUANTEPEC.
AS the princes, Naatipa and Cosijopii, grew rapidly,
Cosijoeza in 1510 set about procuring them a careful
education that they might be prepared to govern
worthily. He placed them under the direction of wise masters
and seven years later found them fully instructed in politics,
morals, and the other subjects which went to make up a liberal
education. Cosijopii revealing civil and administrative talents which
recommended him in the eyes of his father, the king called
in his counselor and addressed him thus: "The Aztecs know,
Alarii, that the kingdom of Tehuantepec is destined for my
son Cosijopii. Very well then; as he is already fifteen years
old and well instructed in the duties of a ruler, I propose that
he next year be installed as king with all solemnity."
"My lord," answered the faithful minister, "notwith
standing the tender age of the prince the step which you con
template is prudent. By it you will strengthen the Zapotec
power in that remote region, and we shall besides be giving
the Aztecs an object lesson in the art of government, for they
do not seem to understand that justice should be the main
consideration in the government of conquered territories."
"Exactly," responded the king, "for that very reason I
wish to place Cosijopii there because, himself a Son of Zaachila,
he will know how to uphold with dignity their laws and reli
gion and defend the land. You shall accompany him and be
240

THE KING OF TEHUANTEPEC 241
his counselor," he added. "The new kingdom shall be upheld
by my son's valor and your wisdom."
"I am your servant," answered Alarii, "and you will dis
pose of me as you deem best for the welfare of our people."
"Thanks, most noble soul, and now let us attend to the
preliminaries; and believe me, Alarii, this separation will
cause me deep affliction."
Two weeks after this conference the capital was in festal
array. From all the cities of the Zapotecs and from many of
those of the friendly nations round about there had gathered
an immense concourse of nobles and commonalty, to be present
at the elevation of Prince Cosijopii. The palace of Zaachila,
richly adorned, was full of visitors and joy filled every heart.
At ten o'clock on the morning of January 10, 1518, Prince
Cosijopii appeared in the principal street richly dressed and
accompanied by many of the leading men of the court, who
proceeded with him to the palace. The rattle of drums and the
strident sound of the conch gave the signal as he passed with
his retinue between serried ranks of warriors who inclined
the head in token of respect.
Cosijoeza seated on his throne and surrounded by the
flower of the Zapotec nobility awaited the prince. The latter
was announced and Alarii introduced him into the royal pres
ence and seated him to the left of the king and next the queen,
for the high priest occupied the seat at the king's right. Con
ducted by the latter before the throne, the king addressed him
as follows :
"Prince Cosijopii, your father, King Cosijoeza, favored
by the gods and the valor of the people, conquered the region
of Tehuantepec twenty-one years ago after seven months of
continuous warfare with the Mexicans. Neither ambition to

242 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
enlarge our territories nor the desire for fame were the mo
tives which induced me to make that campaign. I fought in a
more noble cause ; — the vindication of our national rights, en
dangered by the overshadowing power of Anahuac.
"Peace being effected with the Mexicans through my mar
riage with your august mother, I agreed with her to erect a
throne at Tehuantepec to the second of our living male chil
dren, that we might show Anahuac that our conquests were
governed in the interest of their people. You are that child
and I am now prepared to fulfill my promise. I therefore in
the presence of the gods and the people declare you king of
Tehuantepec. Conserve this inheritance raised up by the valor
of your race as the most precious legacy which your country
men can offer you."
Then the high priest, anointing him with balsam and
presenting him with the insignia of royalty, said: "Receive
these emblems of authority which symbolize power and justice.
Use them with prudence and ever for the welfare of your
people." Cosijopii was deeply moved. In tones vibrant with loyalty
he answered his father as follows: "My honored father, I
thank you from the bottom of my heart for the unmerited dis
tinction with which you and the nation have been pleased to
honor me. I pray that the gods may strengthen my hands,
and I accept the charge, not for my own profit, but for the wel
fare of the people whom you consign to my care; and I do
solemnly promise to defend their religion, laws, and rights."
Then the lords and nobles came forward and bowing low
before the newly consecrated king offered to him their persons,
wealth, and subjects to make the nation great and happy. This
finished, Cosijopii gave largess to the poor.
Four days passed and then there was a renewal of fes
tivities ; for King Cosijopii on his father's advice then took to

THE KING OF TEHUANTEPEC 243
wife Zeetobaa, a damsel of fourteen years, perfect in face and
form, the daughter of a noble of the house of Macuilzochitl.
The wedding was celebrated with great magnificence and all
the nation approved of the alliance.
On the twenty-sixth of January, King Cosijopii, accom
panied by his beautiful wife, his counselor Alarii, and a re
tinue of Zapotecs, prepared to depart for Tehuantepec. As
they were about to leave his father said to him: "I commend to
your keeping your little sister Pinopaa, the playmate of your
childhood. You would feel lonely without her. Provide well
for her and may the gods be with you."
"Have no fear, sir," answered Cosijopii. "My queen and
I love her greatly and we will both watch over her."
He then embraced his father and departed full of faith in
the future. Throughout the journey he received ovations at
all the towns through which he passed. But upon reaching
Jalapa their contentment was disturbed for the Princess
Pinopaa became sick of a cold. Pausing there they tried to
effect her cure, but none of the remedies of the Indian phy
sicians would avail. She died, and Cosijopii, hardly more than
a child himself, shed bitter tears at the loss of the beloved
companion of his childhood.
The Zapotec lords met round about the bier and mourned
the premature death of this child beloved of heaven. Prepara
tions were made for the burial when all of a sudden the body
of the deceased disappeared. There was a loud report, and
behold the body was transformed into a sphere of stone, with
surface beautifully engraved, such as the gods designed for
the reception of those they loved.
"What was foretold has come to pass," said Alarii, "let
us bow to the divine judgment."

244 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
When the nine days of mourning were past Cosijopii pro
ceeded down the river to Tehuantepec where, notwithstanding
his affliction, he was received in state by his people, over whom
he began to reign on the sixteenth day of February. From the
beginning he ruled with great wisdom and justice, endearing
himself to the people by his exemplary conduct.
His first efforts were devoted to the making of alliances,
drawing closer the bonds of friendship with the neighboring
states that war might be avoided. Not that Cosijopii and
Alarii suspected the intentions of their neighbors or enter
tained any grave fears of them. The alliances were intended
rather as a precaution against Moctezuma, whom they feared
and of whose far-reaching designs they never lost sight. In
their allies they possessed bulwarks against the Aztec armies
on the north and the forces of the lord of Tabasco to the east.

A few months after the death of Pinopaa the Zapotecs
raised a temple to her memory on a height near Jalapa, in
which the miraculous sphere alluded to was deposited. This
temple was rediscovered in the year 1609 by a shepherd who,
having lost his way, discovered on the summit of the mountain
a spacious square, well swept, in the center of which stood the
once sumptuous chapel of Pinopaa. It was built of well-hewn
stone. He entered and in the central chamber found the precious
sphere. He reached out and took it, but as he held it in his
hands examining it, he heard the voice of an ancient Indian
who emerged from a nearby thicket, saying, "Do not profane
that holy object with your impure touch, my son, for that is
an impiety which heaven will not fail to punish, as has hap
pened in the case of many who have approached it without

Fair Face and Flowers. A Child of the Holy City

A Happy Daughter of the Sun

THE KING OF TEHUANTEPEC 245
reverence. Replace it and have a care that you reveal not
what you have learned, as you value your life."
The shepherd retired greatly frightened ; but being a good
Catholic informed the parish priest, Friar Pedro Sobrino, of
the existence of the idolatrous fane. The priest immediately
sought out the chapel and ascertaining the names of its secret
votaries reported the matter to his superior.
The latter entrusted the prosecution to Friar Alonso de
Espinosa who, proceeding with characteristic vigor, took the
necessary declarations; establishing the cult, sentenced the
accused, and handed them over to the secular arm.
The condemned were seven, and at the recantation they
were brought before the judge on a great scaffold, naked to the
waist, with halters about their necks, their faces masked, and
black veils in their hands. The penalties imposed were light.
The temple and the sphere of Pinopaa were destroyed.
Someone, perhaps the same parish priest or his successor,
perceiving that this righteous procedure failed to eradicate
the cult to which the Indians still clandestinely adhered, ef
fected a new transformation of the goddess Pinopaa, con
verting her into the blessed Magdalen, the patron saint of
Jalapa, to whom the same superstitious worship might be paid
without running any risk of punishment.
Nothing further of moment occurred during the first year
of Cosijopii's rule. But as one deeply versed in the mysteries
of statecraft and religion, he was from the beginning greatly
perplexed as he pondered upon the significance of a belief
which "had long prevailed among the Zapotecs and other tribes
of the present state of Oaxaca. For a persistent rumor spread
among the people that the time would come when there would
arrive from the east a strange race of men, fair of complexion

246 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
and strong in battle, who would conquer the land, despoil the
people of their treasures, and eradicate their ancient beliefs,
substituting therefor a new and unknown faith.
This belief, and the circumstance that about this time
the people of Tehuantepec became greatly exercised over a
certain monument called Guixepecocha* which existed within
the confines of the kingdom, whose strange heiroglyphics the
astrologers could not decipher, filled the mind of Cosijopii
with grave misgivings, as it had the former rulers of the land.
The origin of the monument in question has been imputed
to the Aztec god Quetzalcoatl who, in passing through the town
of Magdalena, was said to have cut on the pinnacle of a great
rork lying in the open country near an arroyo or dry water
course a figure representing a religious clad in a white habit
and seated in a high-backed chair, with hood drawn and cheek
resting on hand, the face turned toward the right, and on his
left an Indian woman with dress and white mantle (like that
used by the mountaineers to this day) , covered to the head and
kneeling as if in the attitude of confession.
This figure so disquieted the Zapotecs that Cosijopii on
the advice of his counselor gave command that the priests
proceed to the holy island of Monapoxtiac and there consult
Pezelao, that is to say, the Oracle of Heaven or, as they were
also pleased to call him, the Soul of the World, to the end that
it might be revealed to them what the carving signified. They
did as commanded and the oracle answered vaguely: "Behold
you have the figure for a mystery and a great omen."
*From the Zapotecan Guixe, mountain, and pecocha, prophet.

Chapter XVII.
THE ZAPOTEC RELIGION.
THOU wilt bear with thy servant yet a little, 0 son of
Abdullah, whilst he describes the religious tenets
and practices of the Sons of Zaachila. Our narra
tive deals with prodigies and wonders passing belief, and well
I know thee for a true believer to whom the abominations of
the idolater are as the stench which ariseth from the bottom
less pit. Yea, thy hand longeth for the sword of the Prophet,
blessed be his name, that thou mayest speedily make an end
of the unbeliever. Yet thou must needs stay thy righteous
anger and bear with me yet a little, for unless thou have
knowledge of these abominations thou canst not comprehend
what in the end befell this people.
And first I must tell thee what the good Gracida has to
say concerning the figure called Guixepecocha and the legend
ary character of Pecocha.
It appears that certain erudite historians have asserted
that the Guixepecocha was carved by the apostle St. Thomas or
certain of his disciples. Waiving this question for the time
being, Gracida devotes his attention to Pecocha. This Pecocha,
if we are to believe Gracida, was a Buddhist prophet who, pro
ceeding from Nicaragua arrived in the sixth century on the
shores of Huatulco, where he planted a cross much venerated
in ancient times and which the corsair Thomas Cambrick at
tempted to burn in 1587, but without success.
This prophet, according to the native tradition as given
by Madero of the Redemption, as he approached the Indians
247

248 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
saluted them in their own tongue, a circumstance which occa
sioned great surprise. He was, they averred, very old, corpu
lent, of a light complexion, and had a broad forehead, large
eyes, long beard, and long black hair; and was clad in a long
tunic and mantle. He remained among them for some time
preaching his doctrine, and they observed that he was of a
benevolent nature, humane, industrious, wise, prudent, and
just; one who sought to introduce wise laws. At the same
time they stated that it was he who had taught them the art
of smelting metals and sculpturing stone. They seem to have
considered him an extraordinary being similar to the Cul-
chunchan of the people of Palenque and the Quetzalcoatl of the
Aztecs. In retiring from that region he is said to have declared
to them that he left with them the symbol of refuge and that
the time would come in which they would recognize by it the
true god of heaven and earth.*
In passing by the River of Sand he sculptured a foot on a
round rock and another at the River of the Cross, near Bo-
quilla. From this point he set out for the country of the Cha-
tina, among whom he labored for some time, leaving as a
memento, on an arch (?) of the temple of Zentzontepec, three
hands painted in red and four or five letters thought to have
been Greek.
Tireless in his mission, he next set forth for the valley
of Lake Roaloo, that is to say, for the country of the Zapotecs,
teaching as he moved toward Totitlan of the Valley, in the
direction of Xaquija of the Zapotecs or of Mitla.
Installed among the princes and priests he reformed the
religion of the country, so that the Zapotec priests never
thereafter poluted their altars with human blood, but were
wiser and more enlightened than those of Anahuac.
*At this point the legend has evidently been tampered with in the
interest of Christianity by Madero or some later priest.

THE ZAPOTEC RELIGION 249
Having finished his work among the Zapotecs he depart
ed for the country of the Mixes, where he sculptured two feet
upon a great rock on Mt. Zempoaltepec. Persecuted by the
Mixes, he is said to have sprung from a great height before
their very eyes, without suffering harm, and disappeared.
Afterward he appeared among the Chontals preaching his
doctrines. He left among them a cross which he himself had
engraved and which was preserved until after the arrival of
the Spaniards. He then retired toward the Isthmus of Tehuantepec,
sculpturing at the town of Quietabene, now Magdalena, the
figure referred to as called Guixepecocha by the Zapotecs. And
at last he disappeared on the Enchanted Mountain of the Isle
of Monapoxtiac in the Upper Lagoon, and no man knoweth
what later became of him.
Our master Gracida, on very slight evidence it seems to
me, assigns a Buddhistic origin to Pecocha. He thinks the
apostle to have undoubtedly been that Hoei Chin (which in
the Chinese tongue means Universal Compassion), called by
his disciples Fou Sang, who is reputed to have visited the
shores of America in the sixth century of the Christian era.
Gracida contends that the doctrines which he preached and the
reforms instituted by him in the religion of the primitive Za
potecs clearly demonstrate their Buddhistic origin.
He alludes to the fact that his Zapotec name Pecocha
greatly resembled that of the Peruvian demigod, Viracocha;
and considers it surprising that Memquanteba, Bochica, and
Sube, the apostles of Bogata, Panama, and Nicaragua should
have appeared at the same time that Pecocha appeared among
the Zapotecs, and that their teaching should have been so
similar. He also adverts to the fact that all of these teachers

250 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
appeared to the several peoples and disappeared in the same
mysterious manner.
Was there but one prophet and was it his several disciples
who appeared on the American continent? Gracida compla
cently assures us that while this question cannot be answered
catagorically, on the other hand it is well known that the dis
ciples of Buddha suffered cruel persecution at the hands of the
Brahmins and from the leaders of the sect of Siva and were
driven out of Hindustan in the fifth and sixth centuries of the
Christian era, a period coincident with that of the appearance
of Pecocha in the new world. His argument is weak. Bud
dhism had entered China and had become established there
centuries before it was expelled from its original seat, and it
is admitted that Fou Sang was a Chinese Buddhist.
The Zapotec theogony as it has been handed down to us
by the Spanish missionaries of the time of the Conquest, tells
us nothing of the true moral and religious practices of the
Indians. The missionaries busied themselves solely with de
scribing the superstitious side of the religions of the new
world, the better to justify the vigorous methods employed
by them in eradicating the indigenous cults. They seem to
have been very careful to prevent the truth from coming to
light that the aborigines worshipped the Supreme Being, as
they unquestionably did.
But we are far from following Gracida in all his conclu
sions. From the fact that the Huaves who inhabit the shores
of the Upper Lagoon have been surprised on Monapoxtiac en
gaged in celebrating the summer solstice, he argues that they
had been taught the principles of Freemasonry. And again
because the number of priests of Mitla taken in the palace at
Tehuantepec was seven, and seven that of those of the temple
of Pinopaa he infers the Buddhistic origin of the Zapotec forms

THE ZAPOTEC RELIGION 251
of worship. The argument is not compelling. Whence Pe
cocha came no man knows, but there is little reason for be
lieving that he came from China and none whatever for assum
ing that he knew aught of Freemasonry.
We conclude this subject by calling attention to the fact
that the Pecocha of the Zapotecs should not be confused with
Quetzalcoatl, the Fair God of the Aztecs. Pecocha, described
as having a long black beard, is said to have appeared from the
south and to have disappeared southeast of Tehuantepec ; while
Quetzacoatl, with long white beard, came from the north and
departed toward the southeast in the direction of Coatzacoal
cos, in search of Tlapallan, without touching Oaxaca, for there
is no tradition of his having passed through the territories
of the Mixtecs and Zapotecs nor through Chinantla and Mix-
istlan. In attributing the Guixepecocha to the Aztec god tradi
tion had, as we have seen, become strangely confused.
Now we come to the Zapotec pantheon. Their god Pitao
was conceived of as uncreated, incorporeal, immortal, and en
dowed with attributes not pertaining to the other spirits. In
speaking of him as the Infinite, without beginning and im
mortal, they called him Coqui Cilia, Xetao, Piyeepao, Chillatao.
If they wished to express the idea that he was the creator of
the world they referred to him as Pitao Cozanna; if as the
creator of beasts and men, Huichanna ; while as the ruler and
sustainer of all things he was Coquiza Chibatiya, or Cosa-
anatao. To this supreme spirit, whose attributes the Zapotec lan
guage so fully defined, other spirits and supernatural beings
were subordinated, each of which had its part to perform in
the world order.

252 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
Pitao Cocobi was the god of abundance and of harvests ;
Pitao Cociyo, the genius of rain ; Pitao Cozanna presided over
fishing and the chase ; Pitao Xoo was the god of earthquakes.
Three spirits, Pitao Zey, Pitao Yaa, and Pitao Pee, watched
over the unfortunate and those in distress, and three others,
Pitao Peeze, Pitao Quelli, and Pitao Yaaye, distributed among
men pleasures and riches. Pitao Pecala was the divinity who
presided over dreams, while Pitao Peczi was the god of aus
pices. Besides these, each town and valley had its tutulary
spirit. From this list it will be seen that the Zapotecs admitted
the existence of a number of spirits, but that they recognized
the divine attributes as existing in perfection only in the great
spirit, Pitao.
Pezelao, which is by interpretation Oracle of Heaven,
is said to have been the principal god of Mitla; but in the
historic period we find him also established at Monapoxtiac.
Petela was the patriarch of the Zapotecs, saved accord
ing to them in the American deluge. He is reputed to have
lived a hundred years before Christ and his mummy, pre
served at Coatlan, a town of the district of Miahuatlan, was
publicly burned by the priest Bartolome de Pisa.
Bezello was the spirit of evil, the Devil ; and Hell, his habi
tation, called Gabela, was supposed to be located in the interior
of the Earth. In Tehuantepec and other Zapotec towns, even
to the present day, they call this mythical being Binigaba, that
is to say, "the bad man;" in Ocatlan, Mexabe; and in the
mountains, Tazani.
Bicha is a name applied to all animals, and as according
to their superstition the Devil takes whatsoever form he
pleases, the belief has arisen that he commonly appears in the
form of a dog. He is then called Bihui Bicha, which name is
also applied to a sorcerer. In Ocatlan and other towns of the

A Mountain Girl with Ancient Zapotec
Costume

A Quarter Blood Italian and Zapotec
Blooded Maid with Pure White Skin

A Rainbow Lady. The Fan is Used as a
Protection Against the Sun

THE ZAPOTEC RELIGION 253
Valley of Oaxaca this spirit is said to appear in the form of a
black dog to whom the name Becu Yace is given. Its mission
is to frighten and do evil to those who go forth at night on
evil errands. As to Matlacigua or Mictlancihuatl, called by the Zapotecs
Gobezguia, he was a fantastic being who now for a short time
would take the form of a little child, then that of a giant, and
again in the form of a beautiful woman would seduce men with
magical and irresistible enchantments ; or again as a gigantic
monster filled the boldest with dread.
He was a malevolent spirit whose mission it was to per
vert and injure, afterwards turning into smoke and disappear
ing before the eyes of the spectator. In Tehuantepec this
spirit is called Bixee and in the mountains of Ixtlan, Guatza.
His mission is ever the same ; his forms, the most extravagant.
From what has been said it will be seen that the Devil
and Matlacigua, if not the same being, have at any rate the
same characteristics.
The Zapotecs were far from being satisfied with the an
swer of the oracle respecting the Guixepecocha related in the
last chapter; and thus it was that on a certain occasion the
nobles and people approached Cosijopii and earnestly begged
him, in fact wellnigh compelled him, to go personally before
Pezelao and ask him the meaning of the omen. For they were
desirous to make an end once for all of the uneasiness which
the figure produced among them.
The king acceded to their petition and putting on the
priestly vestments — consisting of a long white robe and head
dress of featherwork — journeyed with the multitude to the
Upper Lagoon and offered up in the temple of Monapoxtiac
the prescribed sacrifice of birds and fishes. The accompanying

254 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
incantations were kept up for some time, for the Heart of the
Kingdom (Pezelao) long remained silent. In the end it spoke,
but in broken and incoherent phrases. The king, as soon as he
had fathomed the significance of the oracular utterance, re
turned to the capital and thus addressed the people :
"My people, the great god has responded and in sorrow
I bring you his message. He has revealed to me that the hour
has arrived in which we shall be driven from this land, for
presently our enemies will come from the land where the sun
is born. White men are they, mighty in battle, whose arms all
the kings of this land will not be able to resist, and they will
conquer us and reduce us to servitude."
"Afterwards they will bring other men clad in a dress like
unto that which you have seen in the figure, who will be our
priests and before whom those of us who remain will be re
quired to confess their sins on bended knees, as the woman in
the figure is seen doing."
Be this legend as it may, and I for one am tempted to be
lieve that it has been recast by priestly hands, it is certain
nevertheless that first King Cosijopii and after him the entire
Zapotec nation, having learned in advance of the coming of
the Spaniards supposed that they came from Pecocha. And
being influenced more or less by recognizing in the coming of
Cortez the fulfillment of prophecy, Cosijopii and his father
Cosijoeza abdicated their thrones, as we shall see later on.

Chapter XVIII.
THE MOUNTAIN CATS.
NOW, Cosijoeza, you must needs know by this time, 0
son of Abdullah, while a very good monarch as
monarchs go, was far from being a saint. While
everything smiled round about him, while peace overspread
with her beneficent mantle the Land of Zapoteca, this crafty
leader, trusting more to his fame than to the strength of his
armies, began to seize certain of the territories of Cuilapan,
alleging that they belonged to him of right.
Not content with this, he sent envoys to the king of
Achiutla, calling upon him to relinquish the valleys which he
occupied and confine himself to those mountains which had in
the beginning limited his domains.
Dzahuindanda answered that while it was perhaps true
that the lands in which Cuilapan was situated had once be
longed to the Zapotecs, nevertheless the Mixtecs had been for
a long time in possession and had erected their habitations
there ; and that many of the inhabitants had been born there
and their fathers before them. Upon these grounds as well as
because Cuilapan was the bulwark which guarded his frontiers
on that side, he professed his inability to yield to his neigh
bor's inconsiderate demand.
Cosijoeza refused to listen to reason, even though a large
part of his army was absent at the time guarding the eastern
frontiers against the incursions of the Mixes, and immediately
gave orders that the inhabitants of Cuilapan be forcibly ex
pelled, their houses razed and their crops destroyed.
255

256 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
This so infuriated the people of Cuilapan that they, with
out waiting for orders or disciplined troops, rose en masse
and attacked the Zapotecs, who were driven headlong from the
field. The officer in command was taken in the combat and
hung on a tree.
War broke out in all its fury. It was not simply a case of
two nations, friendly until then, shedding one another's blood.
All that portion of Mexico was shortly involved in the conflict.
To Cosijoeza the news of the defeat of his troops at Cuil
apan was as if a thunderbolt had descended upon his head
and he was meditating how he might vindicate his honor when
an event happened which led him to alter his purpose.
The Spaniards, under the command of that famous ad
venturer of the sixteenth century, Hernando Cortez, had over
thrown the power of the brave Tlaxcalans on September 23,
1519. The foul traitor Maxiscatzin, an old senator of the re
public but a man without principle who placed his personal
resentment before the good of his country, opened the gates of
the city to the foreign invader.
Word of this was brought to Cosijoeza who, reflecting
upon the gloomy prophecies of the sixth century, felt ill at ease.
Gazing into the future he perceived that Anahuac would fall
before the power of the stranger because the Aztecs had made
themselves odious to the surrounding nations. Standing alone
they would fall, not for want of bravery, but because the thun
derbolt which the invaders bore in their hands would fill them
with fear.
"We will await events," he said, "and profit from the
power of these white men for our own and our people's wel
fare. I am far from thinking them our superiors in courage,
for the gods know full well the valor of the Sons of Zaachila ;

THE MOUNTAIN CATS 257
but it were the better policy to maintain a friendly attitude to
ward them that in the event of their triumph they may respect
our territories. Let us conserve our strength, making war
neither upon the Mixtoguixe* nor upon the newcomers. The
conduct of Moctezuma will determine the policy of the inde
pendent states."
Cosijoeza's plan was ill-advised. It prejudiced his in
terests for it gave the Mixtecs time to organize their forces
and attack him in his own capital.
On the eighth day of November, 1519, the weak and super
stitious Moctezuma II without having fought a single battle
received into his palace him that was to overthrow the nation,
and who, under the pretext of civilizing the Indians and bring
ing them to the knowledge of the true God, was to drive the
rulers of the land from their thrones and add the land of
Anahuac to the crown of Castile.
Word traveled swiftly to the friends and enemies of Te
nochtitlan. All were surprised and all hastened to save them
selves, some from considerations of policy maintaining a
guarded neutrality, and others shaking off the yoke and wel
coming the Spaniard as the avenger of their wrongs. All
pursued a natural but mistaken course. Though they had
ample reason for hating the Aztec, wisdom counseled the giv
ing of every assistance to Tenochtitlan in her hour of peril.
Cosijoeza on learning of the event at first wavered and
knew not what course to pursue. At length he recollected the
prophecy : "In the end the Mexicans will lose their independ
ence." He hesitated no longer. No call came from Moctezuma.
The words of the prophecy rang in his ears and he felt con
strained to recognize in the Spaniards the avengers whom the
""Mountain cats," a term of reproach applied by the Zapotecs to the
Mixtecs.

258 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
god Pezelao had revealed to the Zapotecs at the temple of
Monapoxtiac. His decision made, he sent a courier to Cosijopii with this
message : "My son, the eternal gods have determined to divest
us of our power. I, your father, feel constrained by divine de
cree to receive the stranger beneath the lofty ceilings of my
palace. Let us join together in securing the happiness of our
people, returning to the gods the pledges which they have en
trusted to our keeping.
"If, as I imagine, you are of my opinion, I bid you name
ambassadors who, joining with mine, shall proceed to Tenoch
titlan and there demand audience of the chief of the strangers,
to whom they will offer our friendship and our kingdoms. By
this means since we are powerful we may secure ourselves
against disaster."
Now Cosijopii was still very young, nor thought he to
question his father's counsel. Gazing in perplexity at Alarii
he barely whispered : "Pezelao has declared unto us, 'The sons
of the sun will come quickly'." Alarii knew not what to an
swer. He doubted if the words of the oracle had been inter
preted aright but he felt that in this crisis he stood alone, so
he finally replied, "Let us follow your father's counsel."
So Cosijopii dispatched ambassadors to Zaachila as his
father had bidden him. Upon their arrival they were pre
sented to Cosijoeza, who appointed other ambassadors bring
ing the total up to twelve. He instructed the twelve fully and
delivered into their keeping a gift from Cortez.
Leaving Zaachila they journeyed to Tenochtitlan and
solicited audience of the Spanish captain who, learning from
whence they came, admitted them forthwith, receiving them
with a show of great cordiality.

THE MOUNTAIN CATS 259
The leader of the embassy opened the conversation, speak
ing to the following effect : "Mighty lord, in the names of the
rulers of Zaachila and Tehuantepec, also mighty, come I and
my companions to offer unto you their persons, their subjects,
and their kingdoms ; and at the same time that which is of still
greater value, their friendship loyal and enduring, if you will
be pleased to receive it, even in the same spirit as that in which
I now offer you this gift of jewels and gold, which out of
their good will they send you."
Cortez was greatly pleased, not only with the rich gifts
which they laid at his feet, but even more with the homage
of their principals.
"Brave Zapotecs," he said, "I receive the homage tendered
by your masters as representative of the king of Spain, whom
all should recognize as lord. As for me, I am but his mes
senger sent to make known to the peoples of this land the
true God of Heaven and Earth. You will tell my good friends
that I shall acquaint my king with their submission and good
will and that they may expect of his goodness great recom
pense, as they shall shortly see. In the meantime," he added,
"you will please convey to them my most cordial greetings."
He then presented each member of the embassy with a
rosary of glass beads and solemnly committing to their keeping
some equally worthless trinkets to be delivered to the lords of
Zapoteca, dismissed them ; and they returned to their country,
their souls filled with great wonder at the forms, costume,
arms and horses of the Castilians.
Moctezuma, who learned through Cortez of the pledges
of friendship which the embassy had offered him, was greatly
angered at the news, for he had hoped that they and the Taras-
cans, the two most powerful independent peoples, would lend
aid to save the situation in Anahuac, compromised through
his weakness.

260 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
Meanwhile Cosijoeza was having his own share of trouble
with the Mountain Cats. The action of Cosijoeza and Cosijopii,
abdicating in favor of the king of Spain the thrones which
they had until then occupied with so great fame, produced in
the Mixtecs profound misgivings, for they viewed all friend
ship with the foreigners with dismay. "There are no two
ways about it," they declared, "it is unbecoming and unworthy
of a ruler to ask aught of these adventurers who are trying
to subjugate the land."
These just and patriotic considerations as well as the con
tempt with which Cosijoeza viewed the Mixtecs who had lent
him such timely assistance at Quiengola, of which the invasion
of Cuilapan was proof sufficient, moved them to sever every
bond of friendship and, taught by experience and having had
time to prepare their offensive, they hastened to make an end
of the war.
The people of Cuilapan reinforced by contingents from
the other members of the league took the initiative and attack
ed the Zapotecs in their own positions, which were one by one
taken by main force. The capital, Zaachila, was next besieged
and taken and Cosijoeza was compelled to flee for refuge to
the mountain now called the Breast of Maria Sanchez, situated
near Santa Ana Zegache. From that point he issued urgent
orders to the chiefs who recognized his authority, and in par
ticular to the chief of Magdalena Mixtepec, to come to his
aid in all haste with men and munitions of war.
The Mixtecs were in the meantime engaged in re-establish
ing order in Zaachila and in conquering the towns of the north
ern part of the valley, as far as Huayapan. These operations
finished they turned toward the last place of refuge of Cosi
joeza, to which they laid siege with such vigor that his position

A Florist of the Isthmus

Living Flowers of the Isthmus

THE MOUNTAIN CATS 261
became critical in the extreme. By this time the conflagra
tion extended westwardly unto Chichicapan and in a southerly
direction to what is now San Martin Lachilaa.
But the vengeance of the Mixtecs was still unsated. Not
satisfied with these triumphs they sent a message to the king
of Tututepec, a member of the Mixtec league who dwelt in the
extreme southwest, bidding him march from his capital toward
the coasts of Tehuantepec, distracting Cosijopii upon that side
so as to prevent him from marching with reinforcements to
the assistance of his father. This King Casandoo at once
did, dispatching four regiments under the command of an able
captain. The territories of Cosijopii, who had kept the peace for
three years and had until then been feared and respected by
his neighbors, were again and again ravaged by the Mixtecs.
The bonfires of the enemy blazed on every hill, their war songs
were heard in the distance, cruel and impious war raged
throughout the southern part of the kingdom, and Cosijopii
was enveloped by the storm. The somber prediction pro
nounced at his birth began to bear fruit and the destruction of
an entire battalion which had been posted on the frontier
seemed to verify it beyond doubt.
This reverse and the critical situation of his father, of
which a courier had just brought him word, served but to fire
his valor. He collected a strong army and set out from Te
huantepec to relieve Cosijoeza; but he was detained in his
march, for Casandoo had defeated the warriors of Miahuatlan
at Dannixene, Guinas, and Tinagole and was prepared to at
tack Cosijopii if he came to their relief.
In view of the attitude of the Mixtecs, Cosijopii deter
mined to act on the defensive. He threw forces into Quiengola
and Quiengolani and immediately sent a messenger with a
present of gold to Cortez, advising him that in consequence

262 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
of the pact of friendship which he had made with him he had
been attacked by Casandoo and was unable to withstand him ;
that his father was besieged by the Mixtecs for the same rea
son ; and that to save the situation it was necessary that the
Spaniards send troops at once. If this were done they might
by combining their forces save the kingdom from destruction.
This action on the part of Cosijopii changed the face of
the Mixtec-Zapotec war and to it was due the fact that the
mountain of Maria Sanchez was not the tomb of that crafty
old fox, Cosijoeza.
Now Cortez was a man ever faithful to those who were
faithful to him, and no sooner had he received the messenger
from the king of Tehuantepec and learned of him the evil
plight of Cosijoeza than he ordered Francisco de Orozco to
proceed to the Valley of Oaxaca and establish peace between
the Mixtecs and Zapotecs.
Orozco accordingly left Coyoacan on October 30, 1521,with
thirty horsemen, eighty Spanish infantry, and a great number
of Indian auxiliaries and proceeded towards the country of the
Mixtecs. He entered their territories on the Sixth of Novem
ber and fought three severe engagements in which many were
slain on both sides. In the end he succeeded in forcing a pas
sage of the San Antonio River and penetrated to the Valley
of Oaxaca. On November 25, 1521, the Spanish expeditionary torce
occupied the site of the present town of Santa Anita, situated
on the right bank of the Atoyac and the slope of Monte Alban.
Here, beneath a huaje tree (acacia sculenta) the first mass
was said by Father Juan Diaz.*
*At the place where this tree stood there was erected about 1826 the
hermitage of Our Lady of Remedies, adjoining the national highway and
at a short distance from Garita de Xoxo.

THE MOUNTAIN CATS 263
In later times the Catholic clergy were accustomed to
celebrate this great event annually at the church of San Juan
de Dios, anciently called Santa Catarina. This church having
been destroyed by an earthquake on December 31, 1603, the
chapter arranged that thereafter the festival should be held
on July 8, the octave of San Marcial, at the church of the
Merciful. After vespers the religious formed in procession
and the gentry of the neighborhood all appeared mounted, but
upon reaching the gate of the cemetery they dismounted and
entered the church in order of precedence, and there they re
mained until five or six o'clock in the afternoon witnessing the
ceremonies of the occasion.
The following morning the civil and ecclesiastical func
tionaries, notables, and a great multitude of the people at
tended mass, and after the service they marched in solemn
procession, bearing at the front an ancient banner, the royal
standard bestowed, as some said, upon the city as a mark of
royal favor, or won, according to others, by the Conquistador.
But we have wandered from our subject. The garrison of
Huaxyacac, which was not thought strong enough to with
stand the enemy, withdrew to Peiioles where it made common
cause with the Mixtecs, retiring into the fortress of Ixcuin-
tepec, a rock surrounded by a stone wall of more than a league
in circuit. The place being thus abandoned, Orozco and Juan Nunez
del Mercado occupied Guazaca (as they called Huaxyacac) , a
civil government was instituted, Gutierrez de Badajoz who
accompanied the expedition with others of the town of Segura
de la Frontera, now Tepeaca, State of Puebla, being appointed
alcalde of Huaxyacac, rechristened Villa de Segura de la
Frontera.

264 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
Cortez directed this step from his residence at Coyoacan.
It was the beginning of the Spanish city, at first called Ante
quera, afterwards Guaxaca, and finally corrupted into Oaxaca.
As soon as Orozco had made himself master of Huaxyacac
he sent word to the Mixtecs and Zapotecs, commanding them
to cease hostilities. "Have done with your strife," ran the
mandate, "since your territories belong to the king of Spain
who is lord of the whole land and who in future you must re
spect and obey."
The Mixtecs were deeply offended at this, which they con
sidered an act of gross impertinence, but they were a wise
people and abstained from committing themselves to an open
breach with the Spaniard. They refrained from attacking
him but endeavored to justify their conduct, alleging that to
retire meant the loss of their conquests and the opportunity
of avenging themselves upon Cosijoeza; and that, on the other
hand that king, the siege abandoned, would unite his forces
with those already on the road to relieve him and would then
overrun their territories. They added that they were very
loath to withdraw because they would then be charged with
weakness and cowardice.
But Cosijoeza being the ally of Cortez these objections
had no weight with Orozco, who threatened to make war upon
the Mixtecs unless they complied with his demands. This
threat accomplished its immediate purpose, the cessation of
hostilities. An armistice, however, and not a permanent peace,
was the result.

Chapter XIX.
PRINCESS GREAT-SOUL.
BUT the Mixtecs would by no means yield Monte Alban,
the continued possession of which they deemed essen
tial to their safety. Since they distrusted Cosijoeza
whose subtle policy had so often taken them by surprise, so
that they had more than once been the victims of his stra
tagems, they demanded of him a pledge that the Zapotecs
would refrain from attempting to retake the fortifications on
Monte Alban.
"Let the Princess Donaji* be given as a hostage to the
people of Cuilapan," they said, "and let her life be the forfeit
if her father fail in his promises."
Seeing no other way out of the difficulty, Cosijoeza con
sented to this and sent the princess to the Mixtec camp where
she was received with the honor due her rank and remained in
pledge of peace.
The Mixtecs then raised the siege and Cosijoeza was set
at liberty. He was not long in conferring with Orozco and
as a result sent forces to succor Miahuatlan and orders to
Cosijopii to move upon Zaachila, taking the Quiechapa road,
to assist in the military operations of that district.
As soon as Casandoo learned of this he retired to Tutu
tepec and prepared to defend the integrity of his dominions,
threatened from the Valley by the Spaniards. The impregna
ble rock of Ixcuitepec guarded his frontier. Orozco attempted
its reduction, but finding that it could not be taken by force of
?Great Soul. 265

266 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
arms permitted its defenders to send a delegation to Cortez
to treat with him and another to the king of Achiutla for in
structions. The former returned shortly with bad news : The
Aztecs were conquered; Cortez would grant peace.
Dzahuindanda advised by his priests thereupon ordered
the Mixtecs to surrender to Orozco, informing him that they
did so because it was the will of the gods, who judged the fur
ther shedding of blood to be useless. Whereupon all returned
to their home, contented, the Mixtecs retaining their positions
and the Mexicans remaining in possession of Huaxyacac,
Tepeaca, Jalatco, Xochimilco, the Marquesate, Mexicapan, and
San Juan Chapultepec. Some four thousand persons who had
come with the Spaniards were united with the former colony
at Huaxyacac, forming the foundation upon which was erected
the new municipality of Segura de la Frontera.
In the meantime Father Juan Diaz was busily engaged in
baptizing many Indians of both races, among them the Prin
cess Donaji who was baptized under the name of Dona Juana.
The Indians regarded this as merely a political function indi
cative of subjection to the Spaniard. That they had no idea
of its religious significance will appear later.
"My lord," said Alarii to Cosijopii, "last night I saw the
soft golden light of a fire on the summit of Mount Quiengola,
and surely thou knowest that this betokens misfortune."
"Let it be even as the gods will," responded the king with
resignation, "for they dispose of the great of this Earth as
the fishermen of Roaloo set their nets in that beautiful lake.
Alarii," he continued, placing his hand upon the minister's
shoulder, "let us act as does the brook of the mountain glen,
running straight where there is no impediment and making a
turn when necessary, yet ever without complaining."

PRINCESS GREAT SOUL 267
Then Alarii spoke openly : "A messenger has just arrived
from Zaachila. He is the bearer of evil tidings."
"Let him enter that we may hear the story from his own
lips," replied the king.
"Noble lord," said the courier, "our people have bowed
the head to the Castilian. Your father Cosijoeza, driven out
of Zaachila by the Mixtecs, has been compelled by circum
stance to enter into a humiliating alliance with the stranger;
humiliating since he loses his throne, already abdicated in
favor of an unknown king, and is now stripped of his prero
gatives. Only at this price has he been able to save his life
and the lives of the members of the royal family. The proud
warrior of the Valley and conqueror of the Aztecs is no longer
the father of his people but the miserable slave of that monarch
whom the strangers call Charles the Fifth."
"He has spoken," said Alarii bowing low before the young
king. "I was born to misfortune, my dear friend," said the
prince with resignation, "misfortune has followed me from
the day of my birth. A voice of terror fills the heavens and
the thunderbolt of desolation has wounded us unto death."
"I have but informed you of your father's condition,"
said the messenger. "Permit me to complete my errand. He
wishes you to dispatch a strong force to Quiechapa to succor
the people of Miahuatlan and then move upon Zaachila to
reinforce that point."
"You will set out upon your return at once," the king
replied, "and tell my father that I will tomorrow dispatch six
batallions of one thousand men each to the Valley of Loolaa.*
If he needs more than this number, you are authorized to take
from them that are in Quiengolani, on the summit of the moun-
*Oaxaca.

268 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
tain. I will direct the commander there to place at your dis
posal such forces as you may require."
December came. The little princess Donaji sat brooding
in her unaccustomed confinement. Very gentle she seemed
and little her captors dreamed of what was passing in her
heart. She was the child of Cosijoeza and his heroic spirit
burned within her bosom. "I am become a millstone about the
neck of my people," she whispered to herself, "I am dragging
them down to destruction. I must find a way to free them;
yes, though it be at the sacrifice of my life." She still sat there
very quietly, did little Donaji.
Some nights later the princess discovered that the Mixtec
guard was sleeping in heedless abandon and, ready to yield
up her own life, if need be, that her countrymen might be
free, sent a female attendant by stealth to the men of Zaachila
with a message bidding them fall upon the enemy's camp with
out loss of time, for that the guard slept at their post. They
at once apprised Cosijoeza of the situation, and he answered
consenting to the attack provided every precaution were taken
to rescue Donaji ; and thereupon they sent back word that they
were about to attack, but that she must manage to make good
her escape when a warning arrow was shot into her apartment.
The signal of assault given, the Zapotecs assaulted the
fortifications and made a great slaughter of their enemies.
Taken completely by surprise, the latter wavered for the mo
ment, giving way before the superior numbers and resistless
impetuosity of the assailants, and finally retired in order over
the northern slopes of Monte Alban.
The victors searched high and low but could find nothing
of the princess. Finally one of the prisoners enlightened them.
"She is not here," he said. "Upon an arrow penetrating her
apartment, evidently shot on purpose by a skillful archer, she

Ruins of Mitla, Where Cosijoeza was Buried

Another View of Mitla Ruins, the Seat of the Zapotecs Ancient Splendo

PRINCESS GREAT SOUL 269
was hurried from the room by the captains who had her in
charge. They took her with them and all chance of rescue is
past, for they must have slain her ere this."
And so in truth it befell. By the right bank of the Atoyac
the Mixtec leaders met in council and decreed the death of
Donaji for having violated the pact. And there they slew her,
burying the body on the spot that the Zapotecs might not learn
of her end.
The two nations now seemed upon the eve of a general
resumption of hostilities. Cosijoeza was at the point of attack
ing Cuilapan and the Mixtecs Zaachila, for both sides were
strong and their mutual resentment was deep-seated; but
Orozco intervened and they contented themselves with holding
their old positions.
Perhaps matters would have proceeded quickly to the
shedding of blood had not the great lieutenant of Cortez, Pedro
de Alvarado, arrived in time to remedy the situation. As soon
as Alvarado reached Zaachila he established peace in such
manner that the Mixtecs and Zapotecs laid aside their enmities
forever. He then marched upon Tututepec and attacked
Casandoo, the soul of the war, who was threatening by turns
the valley of Loolaa and the kingdom of Tehuantepec.
After a time, we are told, the Zapotecs discovered that
the body of Princess Donaji had been buried at a point on the
right bank of the Atoyac. They visited the spot. A blue lily
grew from her blood. They removed it and opening the grave
beheld the mortal remains of Donaji, but they marveled greatly
on beholding the head lowered, the face turned to the east
and somewhat inclined to the left, with the roots of the lilv

270 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
spread over the forehead and right temple. Thus she lay ap
parently sleeping, her body having been miraculously pre
served from putrefaction.*
Rightly attributing this prodigy to the favor of the gods
they left the remains as they found them, for they interpreted
it as favorable to their destiny, making manifest that in the
days to come the Zapotecs would recover their power and the
surrounding nations would become subject unto them.
The likeness of a woman's head appears in the coat of
arms of the State of Oaxaca. It is the head of the little Za
potec heroine, Donaji, placed there by the state authorities
in the year 1827. The children of Petela still make up the
great bulk of the inhabitants of Oaxaca ; it is their state, and
among its many noble women there is none to compare with
little Great-Soul, who gave her life in the last attempt to pre
serve the independency of her people. The mysterious legend
of her death was obtained by Manuel Gracida from the tradi
tion preserved by certain old residents of the Valley of Oaxaca,
and accords with the prognostication made at her birth.
*In Cuilapan is a sepulcher bearing this inscription: "Don Juan
Agular — Dona Juana Cortez." The first is the Prince of Tilontongo, who
was governor of the Zapotecs after the death of Cosijoeza; and the sec
ond is the Princess Donaji, whose remains we believe may have been re
moved to that tomb by the Dominican friars upon building the church.
Tradition is silent on this point.

Chapter XX.
THE COMING OF ALVARADO.
ALL glory be unto Allah most high, the Lord of the Day
of Judgment. Unto him alone it pertaineth to de
cree destinies and to determine that which shall
come to pass. Needs must thy servant recount how manifold
evils befell the Land of Zapoteca, though it be not clear to
mortal understanding wherefore the Arm of Might was not
withholden. But who may question the counsels of the Most
Compassionate ? Inshallah ! Such blasphemy is not permitted
unto the true believer. Let us then proceed.
I know not whether it was that old Casandoo was more
turbulent than Dzahuindanda and Oconana, the other Mixtec
kings, or if perchance he put less faith in the specious promises
of the Castilian. Perhaps he was more patriotic than they.
But in any event he waged incessant warfare against the Za
potecs and Spaniards, doing them all the harm in his power,
regardless of consequences.
As this ruler continued obstinate and utterly refused to
recognize the Spanish authority, nothing remained but to
bring him to reason by force of arms. Cortez accordingly
directed Pedro de Alvarado to proceed to the conquest of
Tututepec. This famous captain left Coyoacan on January 31, 1522,
with 35 horsemen, 180 Spanish infantry, and more than 5,000
Mexican auxiliaries under Ixtlilxochil. He reached Huaxyacac
about February 20 and remained six days at that city and
Zaachila. During this time the forces from Tehuantepec
271

272 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
which Cosijopii had dispatched to the succor of Miahuatlan
appeared and presented themselves before Cosijoeza.
In the meantime Alvarado, with the assistance of the wise
and prudent Father Olmedo, consolidated the peace between
the Zapotecs and Mixtecs with such success that the two
peoples forgot their animosities and became good friends as
of yore. The combined commands of Orozco and Alvarado
made up a force of 80 horse, 200 Spanish infantry, and 5,000
Mexicans, which, united to 10,000 Zapotecs placed by Cosi
joeza at their command, gave them 15,280 men; with which
army Alvarado set out from Huaxyacac (then Segura de la
Frontera) on the twenty-sixth of February in the direction of
Coatlan, marching by the way of the great valley.
After three or four engagements with the southern Mix
tecs, who were dispersed without any great difficulty, on the
fourth of March Alvarado discried Tututepec in the distance.
Casandoo fought stubbornly against him. Seeing that
further resistance was useless and bearing in mind the old
adage that discretion is the better part of valor, he decided
upon a complete reversal of policy. He went forth with the
principal men of his court to meet the conqueror, whom he
conducted to his palace, and in that palace, spacious and beau
tiful, the Spaniard and his soldiers were entertained with the
utmost hospitality. We shall see in what manner Alvarado
repaid the king's kindness.
A few days after they entered the city Olmedo pointed
out to Alvarado that since the roof of the royal palace, like
those of the adjoining buildings, was covered with thatch,
they ran great risk that the inhabitants, being still hostile,
might set fire to the whole neighborhood as soon as the Span
iards relaxed their vigilance.
"By this means," he said, "they can by enveloping us in

THE COMING OF ALVARADO 273
flames fight us successfully. In such an emergency our cavalry
would be useless since the town is situated on broken ground.
I have for some time been studying the situation carefully
and have already found a safe position just outside the town,
to which he had best withdraw."
Alvarado heeded this timely advice and, commending the
priest for his zeal, removed with his troops to the site fixed
upon. The honest old king followed him to his camp, and sup
posing that Alvarado had been won over by his kindness and
was about to retire from his dominions, presented him with
a substantial gift of gold, pearls, and precious stones, and
at the same time provided him with abundance of provisions.
This generosity was the ruin of Casandoo, who was
ignorant not only of the real cause for the withdrawal of the
Spaniards from the city but — a more fatal ignorance — of the
character of the Spanish leader.
For the cupidity of Alvarado was awakened by this gift.
He demanded greater and ever greater sums of the king, who
made him daily gifts. Indeed, the thirst of this "illustrious
and Christian" conqueror reached such a pass that, notwith
standing what he had already secured, he ordered the king
to have his goldsmiths make for him stirrups of gold similar
to the wooden ones which he possessed. Marvelous as it may
seem, this was done. He next directed them to make a chain
of gold for his horse and the king delivered it without delay,
for the Indians handled gold as though it were clay or wax.
His greed still unsatisfied, Alvarado demanded more gold
and the king, whose treasures were now exhausted, was un
able to comply. Vexed at his refusal the unscrupulous ad
venturer charged the honest Casandoo with having formed a

274 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
conspiracy to burn the palace that the Spaniards might per
ish in the flames.
The king, who would have considered such an act deroga
tory to the honor of the lord of Tututepec, protested and
vigorously maintained his innocence. But it is folly to plead
with the unscrupulous when he has one at his mercy. Alva
rado not only would not listen but on the contrary, treating
Casandoo with studied contempt, ordered him to be placed
in irons and imprisoned until he turned over his royal
treasures. Ixtlilxochil asserts that he suggested and advised this act
of treachery, while Bernal Diaz says that the Zapotecs insti
gated it through hatred of the Mixtecs. But who will rely
on the testimony of the former? and as for Diaz, he speaks
from hearsay. Gracida thinks the whole matter a gratuitous
invention of Father Olmedo which Alvarado turned to his
own account to obtain the king's treasure, with which view
I coincide. Neither the king's innocence nor his treasures, of the
value of thirty-six thousand pesos, sufficed to liberate him
from prison. Fretting under this unaccustomed usage, his
health failed. Father Olmedo attempted to console him in his
misfortune, but his soft words availed not to stay the fatal
hour and in a few days he died of rage and despair.
Upon his death the royal prerogative descended to his
son who, being in Alvarado's power, suffered even greater
despoliation than his father.
Cortez, learning that Tututepec was the center of a rich
and populous district and fearing that the disaffected Mixtecs
might rise in revolt, thought it best to establish a colony
at that point. He accordingly directed Badajoz to transfer

THE COMING OF ALVARADO 275
the corporation of Segura de la Frontera from Huaxyacac to
Tututepec. This was done. In March, 1522, Badajoz left
Huaxyacac with all the members of the colony. Arriving at
Tututepec he immediately set about apportioning lands among
the colonists, whom he continued to govern as alcalde.
This disposition of Cortez who had in view the reserva
tion for himself of a rich district, for the time being furthered
the plans of Alvarado who, being in authority in a hostile
land, could practice every sort of extortion while widows
mourned the disappearance of their husbands and orphans
the loss of their parents.
Utterly licentious and selfish, he came very near perish
ing at the hands of his own men. The Spanish soldiers, with
equal will but lacking his special means of enforcing com
pliance, following his example had tried, but with indifferent
success, to enrich themselves. "If the captain puts the lead
ing Indians in the cannon's mouth to force them to give up
their gold, and kills them," they reasoned, "as he has done
with many who failed to yield, so let us also be diligent, since
he pays us so illy." They robbed but obtained so little that
they became the more infuriated against Alvarado, who had
taken what in their opinion belonged of right to them.
The disaffection spread and it was not long before a plot
was formed to make away with Alvarado ; but it failed because
one of the conspirators, the soldier Trebejo, revealed the con
spiracy to Father Olmedo.
The priest informed Alvarado of the plot. As he was
hunting at the time with certain of the conspirators he dis
sembled and, pretending to be taken by a sudden pain in the
side, returned to his dwelling. From thence by means of the
alcaldes, constables, and his brothers Gonzalo and Jorge he
apprehended the ringleaders of the conspiracy, two of whom

276 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
were hung, receiving the consolations of religion from the
same Father Olmedo who had betrayed them.

The conspiracy of Tututepec nipped in the bud, Alvarado
prepared to proceed against the Chontals. These Indians,
a race totally distinct from Mixtec and Zapotec, occupied an
enclave in the Zapotec country stretching from the seacoast
northward toward Miahuatlan; their principal cities being
Aztata and Huamelula. They had shown hostility toward a
party of Spaniards sent out to explore the coast lands, stoning
some of them at Aztata and compelling the remainder to beat
a hasty retreat to save their lives. Angered at this, Alvarado
set out from Tututepec on April 2, 1522, accompanied by the
son of King Casandoo and his allies, proceeding by the way of
the coast. Passing by Tonameca he learned that the ruler of
that place was rich, and upon the pretext that he had not
recognized the Spanish authority commanded him to be seized
and imprisoned together with certain of his leading men.
Three days later they obtained their liberty at the price of
much gold and pearls.
From this point he continued his journey to Pochutla.
Thence he descended to the coast and after reconnoitering the
littoral directed his march toward Huatulco, a Chontal town
which at first threatened hostilities but presently yielded and
opened its gates. On April 12 he continued his march through
the south of the Chontal country where the Indians offered
some resistance. Defeated by the Spaniards they reconcen-
trated in the mountains.
Four days later Alvarado reached Aztata and proceeded
to wreak vengeance upon the place for the ill manner in which
they had received the Spaniards, killing some and robbing
others of their gold. From Aztata he passed on to Huamelula

Butterfly Women

A Rich Zapotec Maiden. Note the
Jewels

A Neat Little Tehuana

THE COMING OF ALVARADO 277
which submitted without having made any great resistance,
and here he was met by envoys from Cosijopii, with whom
he departed for Quiengola. He made that fortress his head
quarters until the twenty-third of the month, exploring that
portion of the country and, the exploration concluded, set out
for Tehuantepec. On the following day he drew near the royal city. Cosi
jopii awaited him in his palace. Alvarado entered Tehuan^-
tepec and saluted the king in these words :
"Intrepid prince, rather as a friend than as the conqueror
of this beautiful realm, I come in the name of my commander
Hernando Cortez and of the great emperor to offer you their
protection and tender you their generous friendship. Your
father the great lord of Zaachila, may he live forever, has
accepted this offer and has become our friend and colleague.
This is well known to you, and I trust you will not lose the
opportunity of taking this occasion to become our friend and
the subject of the Emperor Charles V."
Cosijopii was far from being deceived by these beguiling
words, for he had heard much of Alvarado's conduct at Tutu
tepec and among the Chontals, but he concealed his feelings.
"I appreciate your offer, illustrious captain," he answered,
diplomatically, "and since the gods have permitted the visita
tion of our realm by such illustrious guests they shall be re
ceived in a befitting manner. We repose the utmost confi
dence in your knightly offers and bid you a hearty welcome
to our city."
The Spanish leader bowed in token of a humility which
he was far from feeling and the king continued : "Here near
my dwelling, captain, I have caused quarters to be prepared
for your accommodation, and there," pointing to another

278 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
building at some distance, "are those of your forces. My min
ister Alarii will conduct you to them. Take possession and
enjoy the repose which you so richly merit." "Thanks, my
lord," Alvarado replied, and entered his lodging full of the
confidence born of finding himself at last quartered within
the walls of a friendly city.
Alvarado pursued the same course with the kings of
Zaachila and Tehuantepec as his superior, Cortez, had pur
sued toward the Aztec emperor; the same dissimulation, per
fidy, and secret deceit. Cosijopii was not slow in imitation,
meeting deceit with deceit. It availed him not and served in
the end but to bring about his complete downfall.
Alvarado was greatly pleased with the city, as everyone
has been who has ever had the good fortune to visit it, and
rechristened it Guadalcazar because of the beautiful river on
whose banks it stood. But the name did not persist and the
place is still known by its Aztec name of Tehuantepec,* though
the inhabitants prefer the Zapotec name Guisi.
Three days after the arrival of Alvarado, the king ad
dressed his minister upon the subject nearest their hearts.
"I perceive, Alarii," he said, "that you are in great anguish
of soul. Have courage ; for the present we are in the enemy's
hands and can do nothing. Listen. Distrustful as to what
the future might have in store for us, last night I went secretly
to consult Pezelao for the last time. As is the custom on such
occasions, I vested myself in the double robes of royalty and
the priestly office. I made the journey alone and, as our rite
directs, to the temple of Monapoxtiac. At the portal I ex-
*It is a curious circumstance that practically all towns in the Zapotec
territory bear Aztec names; thus, Miahuatlan, Juchitan, Ixtaltepec, Nil
tepec, Huilotepec, Ocatlan. Was the land once completely dominated by
the Aztec power, or were the names first applied by Aztec colonists com
ing in the wake of the Spaniard?

THE COMING OF ALVARADO 279
tinguished my torch and put off my sandals. Complete dark
ness enveloped me. No sound was heard save that made by
the waves of the lagoon dashing against the foundation of
the edifice and the low mutterings of the guardians of the
sanctuary. I invoked the presence of the Oracle of Heaven,
rapping three times with the sacred rod. I consulted the god
and in a sad voice he responded: 'Thy empire is at an end
as I have already told thee, and with it the religion of thy
forefathers.' He spoke no more."
"Break then the arrows of our warriors," said the aged
counselor in despair, "and may the robes of our seers and
the flutes of our priests be consigned to the flames that are to
consume and destroy our race."
But Cosijopii was younger and hope died less easily in
his heart. He reassured his minister and before dismissing
him gave instructions as well for the security of the kingdom
as for the hospitable care of the Spaniards.
About this time the lord of Jalapa, in whose keeping the
sons of Cosijopii had been placed, refused to recognize the
king's authority. The latter to avoid civil war took the
matter up with Alvarado, giving him ten measures of gold
upon condition that he capture the offender and bring him
before him for punishment. Alvarado, upon whom the sight
of gold had a magical effect, told Cosijopii to have no fear as
he would see that the matter was properly attended to.
In referring to this incident the enemies of Alvarado
state that the king led him into a room filled with great store
of gold, sliver, jewels, precious stones, and elegant feather-
work, telling him that he might choose whatever he liked,
and that the captain took ten measures of the best. Seeing
the good effect produced by the gold Cosijopii promised him
more when the lord of Jalapa was delivered.

280 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
Alvarado was never long in hitting upon an excuse to
justify the greatest villainy ; nor was he in this instance. He
suddenly bethought himself that his intended victim had failed
to go through the form of rendering obeisance to him and
thereupon, notwithstanding that he had committed no act
of hostility, ordered him to attend upon him with the chief
men of Jalapa that he might be reprimanded for his conduct.
Fearing perfidy the lord did not respond to the summons.
Whereupon to enforce obedience Alvarado set out from Te
huantepec for Jalapa with his Spaniards and 24,000 warriors
whom Cosijopii had placed subject to his orders.
He reached Jalapa and, greedy for plunder, ordered the
recalcitrant lord and his brother and sister to be brought
before him. Upon their answering the summons he received
them with austerity and after his manner in such cases con
fronted them with trumped up charges. Their protestations
of innocence were unheeded by Alvarado who finally said:
"Make me a substantial present of gold to show the goodness
of your hearts, and I will dismiss you without punishment."
They denied possessing any treasure and he then ordered
that the two men be put to the torture ; the while remaining
himself with the lady for objects purely personal. The accused
in the end escaped torture by complying with their tormen
tor's request for gold.
Neither caring to set the men at liberty nor to take them
with him to Tehuantepec, he banished them to Mexico, placing
them in charge of Ramon Lopez and three other Spaniards.
They started for Mexico with their prisoners but before
reaching Tequisistlan were attacked by a party of Chontals
who freed the prisoners and slew one of the Spaniards. The
prisoners fled for Jalapa, which had in the meantime been

THE COMING OF ALVARADO 281
evacuated by Alvarado, while the three remaining Spaniards
made their way back to Tehuantepec.
The people of Jalapa, enraged at the conduct of this
scoundrel who was pleased to style himself the friend of the
Zapotecs, now rose in revolt. As soon as Alvarado learned
of this he returned against Jalapa which was taken after
some fighting. Master of the place, he ordered a general
massacre and consigned the city to the flames. Many were
slain, his enemies placing the number at twenty thousand
souls; but this figure seems incredible.
After these events Alvarado departed with his cavalry
for Tequisistlan to avenge the death of his countryman. He
found the Chontal Indians strongly fortified, the body of
their troops being hidden in a thicket on the outskirts of
which a detachment deployed for the purpose of attracting
the Spaniards towards the ambuscade and finishing with them.
Alvarado drew his forces up in line of battle. He recon-
noitered the position and fearing a surprise resolved to await
the arrival of his infantry before beginning the attack. But
he was not permitted to wait, for the Indians of the detach
ment understanding well the impression which their strong
position had made upon the Spanish leader waited not, but
fell upon the cavalry. Early in the engagement Alvarado was
struck in the forehead by an arrow which endangered his
life, and presently the Spaniards began to give way, over
powered by superior numbers. But at this critical moment
the infantry arrived and surrounded the Chontals.
It seemed now but a matter of minutes when the brave
little band of Chontals would be wiped out, when suddenly
the main body of their countrymen, who until then had re
mained hidden in the woods, emerged and with wild shouts of

282 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
rage fell upon the enemy. A state of indescribable confusion
ensued while Chontal and Spaniard met in hand to hand en
gagement. More than once the Chontals beat back the enemy ;
but in the end the superior arms and discipline of the Cas-
tilians prevailed. The Chontal leader was made prisoner and
his warriors were dispersed, leaving the field covered with
the slain. Alvarado was not the only Spaniard to water the ground
with his blood. Cristobal Flores, Garcia de Pilar, Gonzalo de
Ojeda, and others came forth wounded from the battle which,
although it went against the Chontals, did their bravery
credit. After this last attempt the Chontals remained sub
ject to the Spanish authority.
Alvarado returned to Tehuantepec with his prisoners.
In passing Jalapa he pardoned the lord of that place, an act
approved by Cosijopii who had himself already taken the same
action. The brave Chontal leader paid with his life for the Span
ish blood which he had caused to be shed in defense of his
country. The philosophic Alvarado naturally made no dis
tinction between traitor, spy, and the enemy taken in open
combat. Now our Alvarado prided himself greatly upon being a
good Christian, and his conduct as I have described it, O son
of Abdullah, will serve to show thee, I trust, wherein the good
Christian excels the miserable heathen. Well then, this good
Christian and Father Olmedo, valuing at their true worth
the talents and influence of Cosijopii, and realizing the ad
vantage to be gained by converting him to the Christian faith,
set about the accomplishment of that worthy object. Why
the captain did not resort to his usual argument, the sword,

THE COMING OF ALVARADO 283
is not entirely plain to me, but as a matter of fact he did not.
His conscience seems to have been rather tender on this point.
At any rate they depended on moral suasion alone. To their
surprise the king readily embraced the faith.
And thus it came to pass that on the seventeenth day
after the entrance of the Spaniards into Tehuantepec, on June
24, 1522, the baptism of Cosijopii was celebrated amidst salvos
of artillery and the blare of trumpets. The diadem which
until then had encircled his brows was discarded and in its
place he wore a broad-brimmed hat turned up on the left side
and adorned with a gallant blue plume.
All this seemed very proper to the Spaniards but pro
duced a very different effect upon his people, whose hearts
were filled with rage at beholding their king vested in Euro
pean dress and on hearing him accosted by his new name of
Don Juan Cortez Cosijopii de Moctezuma. The countenances
of the multitude darkened and the ominous words "traitor"
and "coward" passed from mouth to mouth. Matters soon
proceeded from bad to worse, the more violent plotting several
times both to compass his destruction and to attack the
Spaniards. In his extremity the king went to Alarii and told him all.
The ancient minister, who had been following developments
with a watchful eye, was ready with a plan. Cosijopii ap
proved and they immediately set about putting it into execu
tion. Alarii left at once for Monapoxtiac.
When night fell the king and his beautiful wife Zetobaa,
taking the San Bias road, followed after. Profound peace
brooded over the summer plains and as the royal travelers
pursued their way they found it hard to realize that the end
of their rule was nigh at hand. As they reached the edge of
the great lagoon a robust boatman emerged from the gloom.

284 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
Another moment and they were seated in his canoe. The pallid
moon shone on the distant horizon, the dark waters of the
lake were reflected in changing colors on the sides of the
silent craft, and away in the distance the Heart of the King
dom reared her lofty head; an enormous rock illumined on
one side by the last rays of the setting moon, holy Monapox
tiac, where dwelt the god of their hopes.
The canoe bearing the royal pair reached the hallowed
shore. They made their way up the steep ascent to the En
chanted Cave. In those silent precincts, in that cavern fra
grant with copal recently burned in honor of the god whose
shrine it was, Alarii at the head of the priests and ancients
awaited his master. He entered and all saluted him with
reverence. "I have come to you," the king began, seating himself
upon the throne which awaited him, "to cast in your faces
your injustice and ill-considered zeal for my person. True it
is that I have submitted to baptism, but false are the motiyes
which have been imputed to me. You, my people, should
know me better. I have but submitted that I might the better
conceal my real intentions from the eyes of our oppressors.
Later, when circumstances permit, I will sound the alarm,
call you to arms, and we will revindicate our honor, stained
by the enemies of our country and our gods."
The congregation bowed their heads in token of respect
and adhesion and the king departed, leaving the leaders of
the people satisfied.
While Cosijopii busied himself with rearranging the ad
ministration of the kingdom in conformity with the new order
of things, the conqueror spent his time in military expedi
tions, sometimes against the Chontals, passing by way of

Pancha, a Belle of Santa Maria

A Tehuana in Middle Life

A Tehuantepec Maid Decked with
U. S. Gold Coins

THE COMING OF ALVARADO 285
Jalapa, and at other times against the towns of the Huaves;
with the object of reducing all to the Spanish allegiance and
filling his coffers with booty.
As a reward for his services and to prevent further trou
ble between Cosijopii and the lord of Jalapa, Cortez gave
Alavarado the following encomienda, which I give verbatim
as throwing much light upon the manner in which the Cas
tilian dealt with Indians in those days. The document runs
as follows: "Cedula depositing in trust with Pedro de Alvarado
the towns of Tututepec and Jalapa and other towns — By
these presents are entrusted to you, Pedro de Alvarado, a
citizen of Villa de Segura de la Frontera, the lords and
inhabitants of the town of Tututepec, with Quisquitale,
Apichagua, Chacaltepeque, Centepeque, Teteltongo, and
Chila, which are subject to it, and the lord and natives of
Jalapa, that they may serve and aid you on your estates,
agreeable to the ordinances which have been and may be
made in this matter and with your oversight of the things
which concern our holy Catholic faith, exercising in that
behalf the care and vigilance possible and necessary.
Dated, August 24, A. D. 1522. Hernando Cortez— By
order of the great Captain, my lord — Alonzo de Vil-
lanueva." Thus authorized, Alvarado designated a lieutenant to
govern the town of Jalapa in his name and apportioned cer
tain towns amongst his principal friends, giving others allot
ments of land. Visiting Tututepec at a later date he chose
for himself a beautiful property at Jamiltepec, now known as
the Plain of the Widow.
His presence on the Isthmus being no longer required,
toward the end of September he started for Mexico accom
panied by Father Olmedo and the prince of Tututepec.
Alvarado did not retain the encomienda for long, for
Cortez, learning that it was of great value, took it from him.
Tututepec alone had been yielding him fifty pesos daily.

Chapter XXI.
THE PASSING OF ZAACHILA.
IN October of the year 1522 Queen Coyolica, mourning the
death of her daughter the Princess Donaji, whom she
loved greatly, sickened and died after an illness of seven
days in her palace at Zaachila at the age of fifty-four years.
This sad event caused profound sorrow at the court. The
aged Cosijoeza wept like a child over the loss of his faithful
companion. In his anguish he cried out before his friends:
"Stricken down by fate she has gone to the other world, leav
ing us overwhelmed with sorrow and crushed beneath the heel
of the oppressor."
Her remains were laid away with all the pomp of the Za
potec ceremonial in the royal tomb called Zeetobaa. Coyolica
had been a model of virtue and fidelity, her many acts of kind
ness had endeared her to the people of her adopted country,
and it was many years before they ceased to mourn the loss
of the good queen.
While these events were transpiring in Didjazaa* trouble
was brewing in the Tututepec colony of Segura de la Frontera.
The colony did not prosper, partly because the natives of the
place remained unreconciled to the new order of things and
partly because the torrid climate sapped the vitality of the
Spaniards and the Indians who had accompanied them from
the high plateau. Finally the colonists met in council and,
*Didjazaa: The country of the Zapotecs.
286

THE PASSING OF ZAACHILA 287
all being in favor of abandoning the place, decided to return
to Huaxyacac where living conditions were more suitable.
The removal was effected in November, the colony re
turning under the leadership of its officers, Gutierrez de Ba
dajoz and Juan Nunez Cedefio, to Tepeaca, a place adjacent
to Huaxyacac, where they set about re-establishing the colony
with enthusiasm. The climate of this locality was ideal and
they were resolved to settle there and die in the place.
As soon as Cortez was advised of the matter he ordered
Diego de Ocampo to proceed as examining magistrate against
the authors of this breach of authority. The judge made a
thorough investigation and in the end sentenced them all to
death; a penalty stayed only through the influence of Father
Olmedo, who prevailed upon him to commute the sentence
to banishment. Notwithstanding this the colony remained as founded,
thanks to the accession of power of Gonzalo de Salazar and
Pedro Almindez Chirinos in 1524. Before Cortez had been
long absent from Mexico these men openly declared against
him, ordering the colony repeopled and taking from him the
principal Zapotec towns, which they declared patrimony of
the Crown. In this they did well, for Cortez had appropriated
to his own private use practically all the lands now embraced
within the State of Oaxaca.
Although Cortez upon his return to Mexico set diligently
about the vindication of his rights he was unable to get the
colony included in the marquisate which he obtained in July,
1528. The vicissitudes through which Huaxyacac passed were
brought to an end in the same year by an event of the greatest
importance to the political life of the place. The emperor
Charles V sent to the Audiencia of New Spain a cedula of
date September 14, 1526, creating the place a royal villa. It

288 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
is thought that he left the naming of the new villa to the
Audiencia and that through the influence of one of the mem
bers it was named Antequera.
The Audiencia sent the cedula to the alcalde, Don Juan
Pelaez de Berrio, and the latter caused it to be published with
all pomp on July 24, 1529. Later, on April 25, 1532, the em
peror by royal cedula signed at Medina del Campo raised the
place to the rank of city.
The withdrawal of the colony from Tututepec naturally
weakened the Spanish power greatly in that district, but not
withstanding that the conquerors were now few in number
they continued to oppress the Indians. This led to the Mixtec
revolt of 1523. Their first and only act of vengeance is re
lated as follows : Learning that a party of some forty Span
iards was traveling by way of the coast they started in pur
suit of them and, falling suddenly upon them, made them pris
oners. After securely binding them they conducted them to
a court encircled by an embattled wall of considerable height.
More than two thousand Indians surrounded the enclosure
and from a safe distance hurled in firebrands upon the Span
iards. Their unfortunate captives in attempting to escape were
caught on the merlons of the battlements, upon which they
left the bloody imprints of their hands as a testimony to their
cruel fate. In the end they realized the impossibility of re
gaining their freedom and resigning themselves to their fate
fell upon their knees, raised their eyes to heaven, and encour
aging one-another laid down their lives with Christian
fortitude. When Cortez learned of the occurrence he directed Alva
rado to proceed for the second time against Tututepec. The
latter entered upon a vigorous campaign against the rebellious

THE PASSING OF ZAACHILA 289
city, in the course of which great numbers of the Indians and
not a few Spaniards were slain. Realizing that defeat was
certain the Indians finally surrendered at discretion. After
this the land remained pacified and the government of Tutu
tepec was entrusted to the son of King Casandoo, whom Alva
rado had taken with him to Mexico, Cortez wisely restoring
him upon promise of loyalty.
The Mixtecs of the south once more pacified, Alvarado
returned to the Valley of Oaxaca where he was well received
by the Zapotec lords and especially by King Cosijoeza, who
lodged him in his palace and conferred rich gifts upon him.
Profiting by the favorable opportunity thus afforded
Father Olmedo set about the conversion of the king and his
nobles. Cosijoeza to please him, and trusting in the future,
outwardly embraced the Christian faith. According to the
tradition he was baptized as Don Carlos Cosijoeza, many of
the nobles and people following his example.
After this event Alvarado returned to Mexico, well satis
fied that in assisting in securing the outward conversion of
Cosijoeza he had washed away his own many sins.
The fatal year 1529 witnessed the last of the glory of
Zaachila. It was but eight years since the first appearance
of the Castilians in the Valley of Oaxaca, but what a change
those years had witnessed. The Spaniard, we are told, filled
the land with rapine, robbery, and extermination. The native
lords were powerless. Their power and glory were submerged
by the waves of conquest and they could but wait futilely for
the day that should free the land from their oppressors.
Prince Naatipa, the heir apparent, married, taking as
his consort the beautiful Guielachi, daughter of Baaloo, lord

290 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
of Tlacochahuaya. That he might add brilliancy to his wed
ding the prince invited Zapotecs and Spaniards alike. An im
mense crowd gathered at the house of Baaloo and the enter
tainment was magnificent. There was joy and good feeling
without limit, and all rejoiced.
But presently a commotion arose among the guests ; they
seized their arms, they fought, and many Indians and some
Spaniards were slain, among the first being the young prince,
the hope of his race, who on the third day after his marriage
was buried with great pomp by those who had been invited to
his wedding feast.
Thus runs the current tradition but the actual facts are
shrouded in mystery. Burgoa, the historian of Oaxaca, af
firms that the prince died of his extreme lasciviousness. Car-
riedo follows him in this particular. But I adhere to Gracida's
belief that he was purposely killed by the Spaniards, who were
determined to remove the royal line of Zaachila from their
path, cost what it might, that their dominion might be made
secure; for the kings of Zaachila were the only ones who
might have made war with any prospect of driving the in
vaders from Mexico.
This sad event deeply affected Cosijoeza and the Zapotec
nation, who were dumfounded at losing their future king in
a manner so tragic.
And now the end of Didjazaa was near. Cosijoeza, with
out the ascendancy of former times, shorn of the powers which
he had inherited from his predecessors, old and full of sorrow
because one by one he had seen the members of his family
pass away, was stricken down at his palace in the year 1529
at the age of seventy-two years.
His last words were: "My subjects' faith in Heaven will
resign them to bear the orphanage in which I leave them, and
me to the peace of the future life."

THE PASSING OF ZAACHILA 291
His death was bewailed by all the Zapotecs, who saw the
Zaachilan monarchy extinguished with the passing of this
famous king, the honor of his race and the bulwark of its
liberties. On the third day his funeral took place in conform
ity with the national rites. Very early in the morning the
procession set forth for Mitla. A company of the royal guards
led the way with a military band playing solemn strains in
token of mourning. A multitude of functionaries and civil
and judicial officials followed in the order of their rank; and
behind these a choir of singers, chanting poetical lamentations
and recounting the achievements and wonderful exploits of
the defunct monarch. After this came another band of music,
and then the priests in their orders. Next came the nobility,
taking precedence according to rank and bearing in their
midst the body of the deceased king in a magnificent sedan
chair. The dead potentate, sitting bolt upright, was dressed in
his richest robes and adorned with precious jewels, necklaces
of gold, and massy bracelets. On his arm he bore the shield
and in his right hand the spear which he had carried in battle.
The procession closed with more members of the royal
household and another detachment of the bodyguard, followed
by people from the city of all classes and conditions.
At certain intervals along the way funeral fanes had been
erected, at which the priests, halting the procession, celebrated
the Office of the Dead.
They reached Liobaa* and the highpriest, followed by
the other religious, received the body and, conducting it with
ceremonies and chants, placed it in the vault prepared for the
purpose and left him buried in the pantheon of his forefathers.
?The Zapotec name for Mitla. The word signifies, according to Bur
goa, "Place of Rest." It is believed that the correct rendering was Yoo-
paa, "House of Burial."

292 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
Since by the death of Cosijoeza the throne of Zaachila
was left without a legitimate claimant, for they could not
elevate Cosijopii by reason of his having accepted the throne
of Tehuantepec, the principal lords of the realm gathered in
council to consider what might best suit their interests. A
long and hot discussion followed. Some proposed the brother
of Cosijoeza, while others contended that it was useless to elect
a king since they already had a sovereign who neither regarded
the ancient lords of the soil nor permitted them to exercise
authority, and that thus it would be better to remain without
a king who would be such in name only.
After wavering for some time between these two opinions
they finally came to decision, as men will in such cases, more
to experiment in a strange case than to accept either plan pro
pounded with so much eloquence by the orators of the occasion.
Recollecting the terms of friendship upon which they had
always lived with Oconana, king of Tilantongo, they chose as
their ruler the second son of that Mixtec lord, Don Juan de
Aguilar, who accepted the throne and entered upon the govern
ment of Didjazaa amid general satisfaction. But Spanish
policy viewed all exercise of real authority by the native kings
with disfavor, and as a consequence he was gradually stripped
of his powers. In disgust, he abdicated the royal authority,
which passed to the Zapotec chieftain, Don Luis de Velasco,
heir in the direct line to the crown of Zaachila, and afterwards
to Don Antonio, as governors of the Indians ; after which the
office was suppressed and the realm became an integral part
of the Spanish crown.
After that the people of Zaachila wisely refrained from
choosing a king. It is related that in 1672 the lineal descend-

THE PASSING OF ZAACHILA 293
ant of Cosijoeza in the fifth degree lived in a state of abject
poverty, and Burgoa tells us that out of pity the convent was
accustomed to pass him out a plate of food to keep him from
starvation.

Chapter XXII.
THE FALL OF COSIJOPII.
FOLLOWING the course agreed upon with his people
Cosijopii had, from the very beginning of the preach
ing of the Gospel at Tehuantepec, pretended to be a
most devout adherent of the Catholic faith which he had
ostensibly embraced; so much so, in fact, that he actually
bore the expense of constructing the church and convent of
Santo Domingo in that city.
From the year 1544 until the dedication of the church in
1550 the fathers Gregorio Beteta and Bernardo of Albu
querque ceased not to praise the generous king who supplied
their every want from his abundant resources and every
thing needed for the erection of the buildings. Even after it
was finished he presented the church with many articles of
value for its ornamentation and proper upkeep, for which
Father Bernardo commended him publicly.
But notwithstanding the favors which he had showered
upon the church, its ministers, and the Spaniards generally,
he was doomed to fall the victim of the one or the other. Let
the reader read the history of his fall and decide which. It
matters little.
Now Cosijopii possessed through the tribute paid him
great riches which he scattered with the utmost liberality
among his people, and from this in great measure sprang
his popularity and power. This the conquerors perceived and
they determined to take the kingdom from him as the only
294

THE FALL OF COSIJOPII 295
means whereby the flow of tribute into his coffers might be
stayed. This was the source of his downfall.
We must explain this matter of the tribute more fully.
Cortez had left the king in the enjoyment of a part of his
wealth, but the amount was barely sufficient to maintain his
family and establishment, even in a manner which ill com
ported with his rank. Notwithstanding this the viceroys still
further reduced his income to such an extent that it no longer
sufficed to meet the ordinary expenditures. In fact, in 1555
the Viceroy Luis de Velasco approved a decision made the
year before by the Visitor of the Marquis of the Valley
(Cotez), reducing Cosijopii's annual rents to one hundred
pesos. This contemptible action, taken in utter disregard of the
feelings of the friend and protector of the Spaniards, wounded
Cosijopii deeply, but he resigned himself without a murmur,
trusting that in the end his good works would be rewarded.
Now the big-hearted Zapotecs could illy brook this treat
ment of their king. They were no longer legally obligated
to pay tribute to him, for the tribute was imposed by the
conquerors; but when they beheld their king in such straight
ened circumstances their loyal hearts revolted, and rich and
poor came flocking with their substance. This source of in
come, in its nature precarious, besides wounding the natural
pride of the deposed monarch awakened anew the suspicions
of the conquerors, who determined to make an end of him.
The king's poverty compelled him finally to accept the
gifts of his people but, well aware of the danger involved,
he resorted to cunning, managing the matter with such cir
cumspection that for many years it remained a secret to the
Spaniards.

296 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
The constant intercourse of Cosijopii with his faithful
people, for the greater part still idolatrous, kept alive the re
membrance of his past glory and led him to view his fallen
state with secret chagrin. Such bitterness of spirit urged him
toward that act of apostasy upon which an unf orseen event
determined him.
Mitla having been occupied by the Spaniards, her priests
were no longer able to exercise their functions at that sanctu
ary, and so it came to pass that they removed with their idols
to Tehuantepec. The huijatoo, that is to say, the Great Watch-
tower, the copabitoo or Guardians of the Gods, and the subord
inate ministers of the cult presented themselves at the palace
and begged asylum of the king. Cosijopii was caught in a
dilemma. While on the one hand he could not receive the
old gods into his house without proving traitor to his bap
tismal vows, on the other hand his noble heart rebelled against
the thought of casting out the old priests, once held in so great
respect but now, alas, so unfortunate.
After weighing the matter for some time he finally de
cided to receive them and directed that the idols be housed in
a little frequented hall of the palace. There, at dead of night,
surrounded by a number of the faithful who entered by
stealth, the priests continued to offer the customary sacri
fices. Thus did Cosijopii apostatize.
It seems wellnigh incredible, but these idolatrous prac
tices remained a secret for some years ; nor would they have
been discovered had it not been for the greed of a certain
Spaniard. This individual had observed that Cosijopii fre
quently gave largess to the poor, from which he inferred that
the king possessed secret sources of revenue. Now the king
seldom shared his riches with the conquerors and the Spaniard
realized that he himself had nothing to expect from his bounty.

A Full Blood Zapotec of San Geronimo

A Zapotec Type with Elaborately Embroidered Dress

THE FALL OF COSIJOPII 297
What he could not gain through the benevolence of the mon
arch he determined to achieve by craft and deceit.
Keeping a close watch, the Spaniard was not long in
ascertaining that many Indians stealthily congregated at night
at the house of Cosijopii. Judging that the time had arrived
to possess himself of a share of the royal treasure, he dressed
himself in native costume, and sneaking along the darkest
streets made his way toward the palace. He experienced no
difficulty in gaining admission. His costume and perfect
command of the Zapotecan tongue proved an open sesame,
and he soon found himself mingling freely with the humble
worshipers at the shrine of the forbidden gods.
The hopes he had entertained were not realized, for he
was unable to share in the liberalities of the king who was
at the time dispensing gifts at some distance; but he wit
nessed the homage paid the ancient gods.
Possessed of an important secret, the Spaniard thought
that if he could but guard it his fortune was made ; and in this
he was right. But unfortunately for him, and still more so
for Cosijopii, he was not the man to keep the secret; for his
silence, being based upon interest and not upon principle,
could not endure. And thus it came about that from certain
hints which he let drop relative to the discovery which he had
made, the vicar of the place, Friar Bernardo de Santa Maria,
was led to entertain strong suspicions of the king's infidelity.
Actuated by more honorable motives but with no less
determination the priest set about unearthing the mysteries
connected with the king's palace. Since it would have been
impossible for him to gain admission without being recognized,
he made use of the fiscal, an Indian much attached to him,
whom he carefully instructed as to the precautions which he
must take to avoid recognition.

298 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
The fiscal, totally unconscious of the fact that he was
about to play the part of traitor to his king and executioner
of liberty of conscience, acceded to the friar's request. He
went from the priest's house by night, entered the palace as
one of the initiates, saw what took place in the secret cham
ber, and stealthily and swifty departing returned to the priest
and told what he had seen.
Having secured the evidence against Cosijopii, Father
Bernardo went straightway to the chief justice and addressed
him in this wise: "I beseech your Honor's powerful assist
ance. The Church is in grave danger, for I have just dis
covered that King Cosijopii, besides that he continues to at
tend the ancient rites in the Enchanted Cave on Monapoxtiac,
permits the meeting of Indians in his palace at night to offer
up adoration to the heathen gods."
"It is well," the justice gravely replied, "keep up the
good work of unearthing this idolatry and you will earn a
crown of glory in the world to come. I assure you my con
stables will not lose sight of the matter. Go without fear, my
father, and trust in my zeal and efficiency to do whatever the
service of God and our king requires." And the lawyer eyed
the ecclesiastic narrowly as the latter took his departure.
Friar Bernardo was far from being satisfied with the
judge's assurance. It was evident to him that the judge had
a warm spot in his heart for Cosijopii and that he looked
upon infidelity with a tolerant eye. So the priest talked the
matter over with the alcalde and they fixed upon a day to
surprise Cosijopii in the very act. It would then be impos
sible for anyone to shield him.
A few days later the alcalde and vicar again met at the
convent and with them various residents of Tehuantepec who
were to attend as witnesses, and with an escort of armed

THE FALL OF COSIJOPII 299
men set out silently at the hour of midnight for the palace.
They entered the great court without being seen. Recon-
noitering the halls of the palace by the light issuing from cer
tain windows they discovered the place of worship. Gazing
through the windows of the secret chamber they beheld what
passed within.
An idol surmounted a high altar illumined by the light of
many torches. At its feet Cosijopii, clad in a robe of white
and wearing a golden miter, performed the functions of
highpriest. Acolytes (Vi janes) received from the worshipers
the turkeys and other victims and carried them to the priests
of Mitla, who at once decapitated them, dying their hands in
their blood. Braziers and censers also burned, filling the
hall with the fragrant odor of copal.
Through the midst of the astonished natives the friar
made his way, advancing with grave mien the full length of
the hall. The altar reached, he and his companions turned
and faced the assembly. The surprise was so great that no
one thought either of resistance or flight. The alcalde con
ducted the six miserable priests to jail while Friar Bernardo
spirited the king away to his convent.
The priest gave his noble prisoner every care and atten
tion, nor could he have done less, for, besides other motives,
he was moved by the most imperative considerations of grati
tude. Cosijopii had employed the remnants of his fortune
in constructing the magnificent church and convent of Te
huantepec, the same convent in which he now found himself
a prisoner. Long and earnestly the two discussed the mat
ter, the friar laboring to persuade the king to renounce his
idols and admit his errors, and the king contending that as
he had paid the tribute and shared his wealth with the Span
iards they ought to leave him in peace with the gods of his
choice.

300 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
The news that the king had been imprisoned spread like
wildfire and caused great excitement among the Zapotecs.
From distant parts of the kingdom contingents poured into
the city and joining the inhabitants of the place threatened
the Spanish power. The spirit of revolt spread rapidly.
A few days after the arrest a great multitude gathered
before the convent and with wild cries and menaces demanded
the king's release. The Spanish residents were stricken with
terror and the monks hurried about in great confusion, not
knowing what to do. Every moment the situation grew more
tense and all were persuaded that the scene would terminate
in blood. In this extremity Friar Bernardo approached the king
and begged him to calm the people, at the same time assur
ing him that, rather than set him at liberty, he was prepared
to die at his side. The king listened patiently to the plea of
him who had, through his own foolish attempt to bind the
conscience of another, provoked the tumult, and then con
sented ; but before passing out to speak to the people he said :
"Priest, I have been to my people a true father and they
would not be my children if, seeing me yesterday king and
today a miserable prisoner, they were not prepared to die in
my defense. If I, once feared and respected by my neigh
bors, find myself treated like a very felon, what though I have
yielded my throne to your king, what have my people to hope
from you and yours? But let us go. I will speak to my people
and they will obey me and return to their homes."
This just reproach failed to touch the bigoted heart of
Friar Santa Maria who, full of joy at the success of his plea,
went to communicate to the alcalde and monks the fact that
Cosijopii had consented to address the people. They sur
rounded the king and led him forth to the court of the con-

THE FALL OF COSIJOPII 301
vent where most of the people were assembled. The latter,
when they saw him, redoubled their menacing cries, at the
same time manifesting their sorrow for the king by shrieks
which moved even the hearts of his captors.
The king lifted his hand and a hush fell upon the multi
tude. Repressing the anger in his heart he addressed them
on this wise : "I well know the fidelity, gratitude, and love of
my people and am satisfied there is no one among you who
would knowingly aggravate my affliction. I have long since
told you that the kingdoms of this land must come to an end
with the arrival of certain strangers, to whose dominion we
would be subjected. This was foretold by the powers above
whom it is not lawful to resist. Now it has come to pass."
"I desire to ease the burden of my misfortune, which has
been softened through the goodness of these priests. You
will not aid by your clamors ; rather, if you commit excesses,
my condition will be made worse and you yourselves will re
ceive chastisements which will add to my sufferings. Con
vinced that you love me, I charge you to submit to the new
order of things and keep the peace."
As soon as he had ceased speaking he returned to the
monks and entered the convent, leaving the people sad but
silent.

The passions of the populace calmed, the friars set about
convincing Cosijopii of his errors. The bishop, Bernardo
de Albuquerque, an old friend of the prisoner, learned of the
matter and without loss of time sent two religious commis
saries to Tehuantepec with the advice that in matters of this
nature it was ever better to resort to charity than to invoke
justice.

302 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
The judges arrived and visited Cosijopii. They saluted
him in a friendly manner and informed him of the commis
sion with which the bishop had entrusted them. After the
reading of the charge the king said :
"I except to the charge and interpose a challenge to your
jurisdiction, upon the ground that I am both a friend of the
bishop and a king of the land. The trial of my alleged crime
pertains to the crown of Spain, to which I appeal my case."
By this plea he freed himself from the ecclesiastical juris
diction which he rightly viewed with horror. Had he been
able to penetrate the future he might have decided otherwise ;
for as we shall see, he gained nothing by the appeal, and it is
quite possible that the church would have strained a point in
his favor. But this was withheld from his sight.
The matter now passed to the Royal Audience. The
authorities at Tehuantepec were instructed to produce Cosi
jopii to answer the charge and they so informed the king.
He answered that he was prepared to see the case through to
the bitter end.
The next day the king set out for Mexico. As he passed
through the cities and villages of the land over which he had
ruled for so many years the populace received him with every
mark of respect and love, offering their persons and wealth to
save him, for he was the idol of their hearts. The Spaniards
also greeted him with respect, not merely on account of his
noble descent, but also because of his true worth, demonstrated
on many an occasion.
He arrived at Mexico and the Royal Audience opened
the hearing. For more than a year he was kept waiting and
finally, in 1563, Spanish justice pronounced sentence, brutally
ignoring the many services which this magnanimous king had

THE FALL OF COSIJOPII 303
rendered the Spaniard and condemning him to the loss of his
towns, his office of Governor of the Indians, and his revenues.
This barbarous treatment wounded Cosijopii to the quick,
but he repressed his resentment and set out for his former
kingdom. On reaching the town of Nejapa he sustained an
attack of cerebral congestion from which death speedily en
sued, thus terminating his days in a tragic manner in con
formity with the gloomy prognostications pronounced at his
birth. While in Mexico he had given indications of having re
pented of his apostasy and in Nejapa immediately upon fall
ing ill called for a priest to reconcile him to the Church, but
death intervened and he passed away without having received
the last sacrament.
His companions, the six priests of Mitla, better called
the six Masters, who had remained in the power of the eccles
iastical authorities, were tried and being found impenitent
were relaxed to the secular arm; and whether the venerable
Cosijopii died of congestion of the brain or of poison adminis
tered by his guards, certain it is that these unfortunate
priests, to the eternal disgrace of their judges, were executed
in solemn auto de fe. The tribunal of the Inquisition brought
them forth with ropes about their necks, penitential robes,
black veils, and scourges in their hands, and they were con
signed to the flames.
It was the death-blow to the religion of the He-Who-Sees-
It-AU, the "It is finished" of the doom foretold by Pezelao
the oracle of Heaven, regarding Guixepecocha.
Friar Bernardo reaped little joy from what he had done.
Doubts struggled within him and gave him no rest. Should
he have surprised Cosijopii in his palace as he had done, or

304 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
ought he to have proceeded more in the spirit of charity and
used gentler measures for his conversion? We marvel not
that these thoughts should have assailed him; the wonder is
that they came so late.
Continued toil for the welfare of the Indians served in a
measure to divert his mind from these harrassing thoughts;
but even in the midst of his labors the bitter recollection of
the past assailed him. Consumed by remorse, his health gave
way. He removed to Jalapa (which lies above Tehuantepec
in the mountains), hoping that a change of climate would
mend matters, and there he died.
The Indians had received so many marks of kindness
from the friar that they forgot their resentment. They
greatly lamented his departure from Tehuantepec and when
he died, removing his remains to the latter place, gave them
honorable burial. Verily their hearts were ripe in mercy, for
had it been thy servant he had not found it in his heart to
forgive the priest, nay, not even in the last day.
But a little remaineth and our tale is told. Cosijopii had
three legitimate children born to him of Zeetobaa, known
after the conquest as Dona Magdalena, Don Felipe, and Don
Hernando, and one natural daughter whose name has not been
preserved. Dona Magdalena, legitimate heir to the throne of Te
huantepec, was in the Zapotecan tongue called Donaji. She
was renowned for her beauty, discreet, a good Christian and,
like her father, generous to a fault. Her people loved her ex
ceedingly and stood in such awe of her that they humbled
themselves before her and dared not look her in the face as
she passed by. Of this princess history records two incidents
which cast no uncertain light upon her character.

THE FALL OF COSIJOPII 305
The first is this: On the occasion of the good Bishop
Albuquerque making a visit to Tehuantepec in 1560, this
noble lady begged audience of him. The prelate having set
the hour, she proceeded to the parish house accompanied by
two hundred persons of rank, dressed in all the splendor and
majesty of the ancient kings. The bishop received her with
great benevolence. She saluted him with respect and was
about to kneel to kiss the pastoral ring, but the prelate re
strained her, saying: "Madam, I cannot permit such an act
from one of your rank." To which she responded: "I have
come to you that I might thank you for the labors which you
have undertaken on behalf of my people. In recognition of
such services, and in their name, I now present you with these
precious tiger skins, this beautiful plumage, and these jewels
of gold." The bishop accepted the tiger skins only, bidding the
princess divide the gold amongst the poor. This generous act
completely captivated Dona Magdalena, who took leave of the
bishop and returned home greatly pleased.
The other incident is this: Silencing the voice of her
just resentment after the imprisonment of her father, she
gave to the Dominican friars for the support of the church
the Tehuantepec salt flats ; her orchard, a park of fruit trees
half a league in extent; her baths, certain springs of crystal
pure waters which formed a beautiful pool at a point four
leagues from the city, called Laollaga; and, finally, she set
aside an ample endowment for the support of the convent.
As to her brothers Felipe and Hernando, who succeeded
their father in the government of Tehuantepec, all that is
known of them is that with neither the influence nor the
talents of Cosijopii, without that ascendency which the remem
brance of great achievements gives, and with no other power

306 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
than the petty authority conceded by the Spaniards to the gov
ernors of the Indians, Felipe and Hernando were little respect
ed or obeyed by their people. Their descendants sank into ob
scurity. And now, O son of Abdullah, my tale is told. It were
useless to follow the fortunes of this noble people through
the centuries of their oppression. Verily Allah ordereth the
lives of all creatures by his commandment, according to the
Writ which affirmeth the appointed term. But no man
knoweth what lurketh for him in the womb of the future, and
what the Omniscient hath decreed for him. Nor knoweth
any man what the Decree sayeth concerning the Sons of Zaa
chila. Of a surety it is not written in the Perspicuous Book.
Nevertheless it is borne in upon me that Allah will not leave
this people without a witness and that the day of the restora
tion of Zapoteca is at hand. Peace be with thee, my brother,
until we meet again. THE END,

Word List and Index

WORD LIST.
Where the accent is not indicated a Spanish word ending
in a vowel or in "n" or "s" is generally accented on the next
to the last syllable ; if in any other consonant, the accent is on
the last syllable.
Aguacate  -  avocado, alligator pear
Alcalde    .. magistrate
Almendra      almond
Arroyo   a dry watercourse
Balsa  raft
Bano      bath
Barrio  ward
Burro  donkey
Caballero   gentleman
Calle  _ street
Cantina   bar room, saloon
Capitan  captain
Carcel  „  jail
Carrancista  a partisan of Carranza
Cedula  _  _ rescript
Centavo  a cent, the one-hundredth part of a peso
Cerro  mountain, peak
Cerveceria      brewery
Chica  _  -  small, a little person or thing
Conforme  agreeable, willing
Conquistador  conqueror
Cuartel  .—  barracks
Dani (Zap)  hill
Estero  estuary, inlet, coast lagoon
Exploradora  troop train
309

310 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
Fiesta  _  feast, holiday
Frijole  bean
Guanabana  _  sour sop
Guayacan  lignum vitae
Hacendado  the owner of an estate
Hormiga .._.  ant
Ingenio  sugar mill
Istmo  Isthmus
Juchiteco  _  a citizen of Juchitan
Loco  crazy
Machete  corn knife
Mescal  a native alcoholic drink
Mestizo  mixed-blood
Milpa  -   a corn patch
Oracidn  prayer
Pan  bread
Palenquero  „  „  pole man
Patio  _  _  house court
Paisana  countrywoman, fellow citizen
Perro  _  _  dog
Peso  a Mexican dollar, worth at par 50c American money
Pitao (Zap)  _  god
Pitaya (Zap)  the fruit of species of cactus
Plaza _  _  —  public square
Posada  inn ; also a Christmas festivity
Presidente  mayor, village president
Pueblo    town
Rancheria  stock farm, ranch
Refajo  ¦.  wrapper
Robles  —  oak
Salina  salt marsh
Sombrero  -  _ hat

WORD LIST 311
Tehuana  a woman of Tehuantepec; also
used loosely to designate any Zapotec woman of the plains
Tehuano  a man of Tehuantepec
Tejocote (Zap)  haw
Tierra caliente  hot land, hot zone
Tierra templada  temperate zone, temperate lands
Venganza  vengeance, revenge
Viajero  traveler, traveling salesman
Zopelote  buzzard

INDEX.

Aboriginal customs  136
Acapulco, port of  5
Adamik, George H.,  81, 106, 110, 124
Adobe brick  52
Agriculture, 172-187; ajave plants, 181; beans, 174; cacao, 179;
castor oil, 182; chili pepper, 174; coffee, 178; corn, 172; indigo,
180; rice, 174, 183; rubber, 180; sugar cane, 175-178; tobacco,
181; vanilla  182
Ahuitzotl, Aztec monarch, 200, 214; declares war on Zapotecs, 204;
treachery of, 220; death of  226
Alarii, minister to King Cosijoeza, 199; embassador to Tenochtitlan,
213; accompanies Cosijopii to Tehuantepec  243
Alban, Monte,  234, 262, 265
Alcantar brothers, Pepe and Poncho  35
Alligator pears  63
Alligators  116
Allison, Peter, of San Luis Potosi  7
Alvarado, Pedro de, 271, 285; occupies Tututepec, 272; cupidity of,
273; troops conspire against, 275; arrives at Tehuantepec, 277;
destruction of Jalapa by, 281; crushes the Chontals, 281; second
campaign against Tututepec  288
Alvarez, Jesus  184
Americans, in southern Mexico, 159-161; number (1919)  163
Animals, wild,  110-118
Apiaries  188
Archeological remains  50
Architecture, domestic, 51-53; homes of the poor  53
Ariaga (Jalisco)  146
Arista, port of Tonala  146, 147, 151
Armadillo  Ill
Arms of Oaxaca  270
Asphaltum  190
Atravesado Mountain  168
Automobiles, none in Salina Cruz, 23; roads unsuited to,  151
Avocado (alligator pear)  63, 98, 108
Aztata, town of,  _  -  276
Aztecs, region inhabited by, 137; invest Quiengola, 205; make peace
with Zapotecs,  208

Balsa wood  97, 149
Balsam of Peru  183
Balsas, rafts used on mountain streams  149
Bananas, 104, 160, 185; dwarf species, 104; Coatzacoalcos Valley
especially adapted to,  185
Bandits, 27-44; elements from which recruited, 28; insecurity of
country, 29; method of attack, 29,32; politeness of, 3G, 43; the

313

314 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
"venganza," 41; summary execution of, 21, 144; blackmail
levied by, 71, 162; Popenoe's experiences with, 108; attacks on
trains, 140, 141; strip clothing from victims, 148; favored by
physical conditions  163
Bamboo, not native to Pacific plains  63
Banks, absence of  167
Barbacues  78-80
Barker, Wilbur  62
Basketry  166
Bathing, 17, 18, 133; public baths, 102; shower baths at hotels, 156;
"banos dobles," 133; at Laollaga, 210; Pool of the Marchioness 305
Bats, vampire  112
Beans  109, 155, 174
Bees  33, 188
Beeswax  _  59, 188
Bernardo de Albuquerque, early bishop  294, 301, 305
Bernardo de Santa Maria, early priest at Tehuantepec  297-304
Beverages, 61, 132, 179; "refrescos," or cool drinks, 61, 106; at
table, 155; intoxicating liquors  132, 153
Birds, 113-116; Buzzards, (See also names of birds)  58
Blackmail  71, 162
Boca Barra  77
Boj (boxwood)  189
Book stores, absence of,  24
Boots and shoes  170
Boxwood  _  189
Brazilwood  188
Bread, mode of making  157
Brewery at San Geronimo  166
Brick  52
Bridges, absence of  „  152
Brigandage, see Bandits 
Bryant, Capt. George,  115
Building restrictions  82
Bull fights  83
Burgoa, historian of Oaxaca, quoted,  290, 293
Burros (donkeys), 24; employed as water-carriers  57
Butter  170
Buzzards, (zopelotes)  58, 113

Cable service  152
Cable station, Salina Cruz  6
Cacao culture  179
Cacti, 25, 64; fruit of, 25; buzzard roosts  58
Calle Segunda Morelos, Tehuantepec  50
Cambrick Thomas, the corsair  247
Campanario Hill, iron ore deposits at  190
Cannibalism, reflections on possible origin of  206
Canoes, native  -  149
Cantinas  132, 153
Casandoo, lord of Tututepec  261, 265, 271, 274
Cascalote  189
Cassia  183
Castor oil plant, culture of  182

INDEX 315
Cathedral, at Tehuantepec  49, 54, 294
Cats, wild,  110
Cattle, see Stock raising 
Caves, Enchanted Cave on Monapoxtiac, 24; at Tehuantepec, 55,
65; the Large Convento, 86; bat caves  113
Cazadero River  87
Cedar, Spanish,  188
Celts  50
Cemeteries, 58; decoration of graves  61
Central and South American Telegraph Co., 152; station at Salina
Cruz  6
Cerveceria del Istmo  80
Cetecpatl, lord of Coixtlahuaca  230, 233
Chacalaca, or mountain fowl  114
Charcoal, use of, for fuel,  11, 23
Cheese, goat,  23, 170
Chiapas plateau, 146, 147; rye grown on,  183
Chicapa River  87
Chicle, obtained from the sapodilla tree  98
Children  10, 15, 17, 131
Chili pepper  154, 174
Chimalapa mountains, 75; pine forests of, 97; vampires numerous in, 112
Chimalapas  137
Chinese  10, 51
Chivela, Pass of, 75; hot springs of, 165, 191; iron ore deposits, 190;
marble  _  191
Chocolate  _  155, 179
Chontals, visited by Pecocha, 249; region occupied by, 276; crushed
by Alvarado  281, 284
Churches, 16, 54, 55; at Salina Cruz, 16; used as barracks, 54, 135;
Santo Domingo, Tehuantepec, 49, 54, 294; San Sebastion, Te
huantepec, 50; Laborio, Tehuantepec, 54; at San Bias, 59; Santa
Maria, Tehuantepec, 66; at Iztaltepec,  125
Cigars  181
Cities, public conveniences in, 23; arrangement of streets, (See
also names of cities)  54, 82, 124
Citrus fruits  103, 184
Clergy, restrictions on,  16
Climate, 91-94, 117, 165; invigorating, 91, 94; of Chiapas plateau 146
Chipperton Island, a story of,  88-90
Clothing, see Costume 
Coachapa River  190
Coal, absence of,  190
Coatlan, town of  252
Coatzacoalcos River, 73, 74; infested by alligators, 116; traffic on,
148; fertility of region drained by, 160; cacao culture, 179;
banana culture  185
Cochineal, former culture of  99
Coco plum  107
Coconuts, 96, 103, 187; rapid growth of palms  103
Coffee  155, 178, 179
Cohune nuts  187
Comitan, city of,  146
Communications, transportation and,  139-153
Compania Comercial de Puebla  80
Concubinage  133

316 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
Constitutional provisions affecting foreigners  194
Consulate, American, at Salina Cruz,  6, 104, 117
Convent of Santo Domingo, Tehuantepec  49, 294
Convento Hill  76, 191
Copal  183, 2S4, 299
Coquitos de aceite  187
Corn, Indian, 172; the destructive weevil, 173; manner of preparing
tortillas, 173; no grist mills  174
Cortez, Hernando, news of landing of, 256; character of, 262; appro
priates Zapotec towns, 285; deprived of, 287; obtains marquis-
ate,  287
Cosijoeza, Zapotec monarch, ascends the throne, 199; captures Te
huantepec, 202; marriage, 217; attacks Cuilapan, 255; submits
to Spain, 257-259; death, 290; burial,  291
Cosijopii, king of Tehuantepec, birth, 227; raised to the throne, 241;
marriage, 243; visits oracle at Monapoxtiac, 253; baptism, 283;
apostasy, 296; death,  303
Costume, female head-dress, 3, 42, 129, 130; dress of white Mex
icans, 14; Tehuana dress, 62, 125; the huipil grande, 69; male
Indian attire, 129; dress of Indian children  131
Cotton tree,  59, 100
Cowan, James  123
Coyolicaltzin, Zapotec queen, appears to Cosijoeza, 210; their mar
riage, 217; constancy to husband, 222; death,  286
Crawfish  118
Cubebs  _... 183
Cucumates hills, marbles of,  191
Cuilapan, attacked by Cosijoeza, 255; Princess Donaji hostage at,
265; tomb of Donaji  269
Cuitlahuac, Aztec captain,  231, 234, 237
Curassows  _  115
Currency, 167; "infalsificable" paper money  168
Custard apple (anona),  105

Dancing, among the upper class, 14; among the Zapotecs, 62, 67;
Malinche dance of Huaves  31
Dani Guiati  64, 81, 85, 124
Dani Guibedchi  49
Dani Lieza  55, 191
Date palms  106
De Espinosa, Alonso, friar  245
Deer  110
Deerskins  81, 110
Del Valle, Eduardo, referred to  211
Delplain, Mrs. Laura K.,  82
Democratic spirit of the Mexicans  13
Diaz, Felix, revolutionary leader,  28
Diaz, Porfirio, of Zapotec blood  131
Didjazaa, 196, 215, 286; last native ruler of,  292
Diseases, yellow fever, 59; the pinta, 137; malaria,  165
Dogs, climate unsuited to  56
Donaji, Zapotec heroine, birth of, 235; given as hostage to the
Mixtecs, 265; death, 269; tomb of, 269; mysterious legend
respecting  270

INDEX 317
Dress, see Costume 
Drinking places  132
Drinks  _...6l, 132, 179
Drugs, papain, 105, 186; Crescentia cujete, 172; balsam of Peru, 183;
cubebs, 183; licorice  183
Drunkenness  69, 132
Dry dock at Salina Cruz  4, 23
Duties, export, on leaf tobacco, 182; on timber  189
Dyes  98, 99
Dyewoods  98
Dzahuindanda, lord of Achiutla  201, 255, 266

Earthquakes  91
Ebony  189
Education, 23, 134, 135; among the ancient Zapotecs  199, 240
El Aguila Co., holdings of  190
El Espinal, town of  84
Enchiladas  154
Encomienda granted to Alvarado  285
Esteros of the west coast  150
Exchange  167
Exploradoras  28, 31
Export duties, on leaf tobacco, 182; on timber  189
Exports, coffee, 5, 179; dyewoods, 98; deerskins, 110; shrimps, 118;
hides, 23, 170; papain, 186; honey, 188; onyx  192

Fauna, see Animals, wild 
Festivities, the posada, 15; New Year's Eve, 17; San Benito's day,
17; Independence Day, 19; Good Friday at Tehuantepec, (See
also Dancing)  68
Fever, yellow  59
Fevers, native remedies for  97
Fiestas, see Festivities 
Fish, 116, 118; sharks  18, 117
Fisheries, 77; of the great lagoons  136
Flax  183
Flirtation  6
Floors, tile  52
Flora, see Flowers; Fruits; Trees; Woods, tropical 
Floriculture  61
Flower markets  60
Flowers, 60, 95, 101; Amistad del Dia, 102; bignonia, 101; caballero,
101; hapanico, 101; jasmine, 101; mata palo (tree killer), 102;
robles, 101; tempasuchil  101
Food, at hotels, 154; cheese, 23, 170; fried plantains, 104; lard of
the peccary, 111; armadillo, 111; iguana, 116; fish, 118, 136;
turtle's eggs, 118; tasajo, 169; milk and butter, 170; corn the
great staple  173
Foreigners in southern Mexico, 159-165; Germans, 146; American
companies on the Isthmus, 159; number (1919), 163; industrial
conditions invite, 163; drawbacks to residence, 165; constitu
tional restrictions affecting  194
Fortifications  - -  29

318 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
Fortines  29
Frankincense  183
French blood, traces of, at Juchitan  87
Fruits, 103-109; 183-187; apples, 78; avocado, 63, 107; banana, 104,
185; citrus fruits, 184; coco plum, 107; coconuts, 103, 187;
custard apple (anona), 105; dates, 106; grape, 107; grape fruit,
184; haw, 78, 107; lime, 104; mango, 84, 104; orange, 103;
papaw (papaya), 105, 185; peach, 78; pineapple, 103, 186;
pitaya, 25; plantain, 104; pomegranate, 78, 106; quince, 78;
sapodilla (chico), 98, 105; sour sop (guanabana), 106; Spanish
plum, 63; temperate zone fruits, 78, 184; wild fig  100
Fuel, domestic, 23; fuel oil  4
Furniture  189
Fustic  98

Gambling, at Tehuantepec  69
Game, see Animals, wild 
Garden vegetables  109
Garita de Xoxo  262
German colonists of Soconusco  146, 178
Ginger  183
Gourds  99
Gracida, Manual, quoted  207, 247, 249, 270, 290
Granadillo  189
Granite  191
Grape fruit, of the Coatzacoalcos valley  184
Grapes  „  107
Grazing land, abundance of  168
Green, Arturo  82
Guanabana (sour sop)  106
Guanacastle  188
Guano, bat  113
Guapaque  188
Guayacan (lignum vitae)  ,  84, 98, 171, 189
Guixepecocha, the  246, 251, 253
Gulabere (mucilage tree), 63; berries used in preparing indigo  180

Harbor works, at Salina Cruz  3
Harbors of west coast, 5; port of Arista  146
Hares  „  Ill
Harvey, Clarence  70
Hats, see Head-dress 
Haw, giant Mexican  78, 107
Head-dress  3, 42, 129, 130
Health, public  91, 94, 165
Hedges  25, 63, 92
Henequin culture  181
Hidalgo, Miguel, uprising under  19
Hides, 23, 170; deerskins, 110; calf skins  169
Holidays, see Festivities 
Honey  188
Horticulture, see Flowers; Fruits 
Hot springs  165, 191

INDEX 319
Hotel Salina Cruz  6, 33, 40, 42, 114, 141, 153
Hotels, 153-157; at Salina Cruz, 7, 153; at Tehuantepec, 56; at
Tierra Blanca and Santa Lucrecia, 145; menu, 154; black beans,
155; waiters, 155; bedrooms, 156; baths, 156; politeness at table 157
Huamelula, town of  276
Huaves, 77, 218, 285; villages inhabited by, 136; celebrate summer
solstice on Monapoxtiac  250
Huilotepec, village of  n, 77
Huipil, upper garment of Zapotec women  62, 129, 130
Huipil grande  69
Humidity, see Rainfall 
Hurst, Morley  33

Iguanas  116
Images, in Tehuantepec churches  66, 68
Incense, of copal, 183, 284, 299; frankincense  183
India rubber, culture of  180
Indian corn  172, 174
Indian races of the Isthmus, 120, 122. And see Aztecs; Chimalapas;
Chontals; Huaves; Mixes; Mixtecs; Zapotecs 
Indigo, culture of  .99, 180
Industries of southern Mexico, 159-193; openings in particular lines,
166; brewery at San Geronimo, 166; tanneries, 170; furniture
factories  189
"Infalsificable" paper money  168
Inquisition, Office of the  245, 303
Insects, 117; wood ticks  56
Intoxication  69, 132
Investment, opportunities for  159-193
Iron ore deposits  189
Ironwood  188
Irrigation  96, 172
Isthmus of Tehuantepec, geography, 73; inhabitants of  119
Ixcuintepec, fortress of  263
Ixcuitepec, rock of  265
Ixtaltepec, description of, 124; indigo center, 84, 180; pottery indus
try at, 84; bandit attack on, 85; Zapotecan language in com
mon use  123
Ixtle, suitability of for paper making  181

Jaguars  49, 64, 65, 110
Jalapa, town of, 47; costume of females, 130; cult of Pinopaa at,
244; visited by Alvarado, 280; destruction,  281
Jalisco (Ariaga)  146
Jaltepec River  74, 75
Jamiltepec, estate of Alvarado at  285
Jarana, an Indian musical instrument  Ill
Jecapezle  99
Jewelry in common use among Zapotecs  62, 125
Jicara (calabash tree),  96, 172, 189
Juarez, Benito  131
Juchitan, city of  — ¦  86, 131

320 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
Kapok  100
Kerr, Graham M  180

La Zacualpa rubber plantation  180
Lagoons of Pacific plain, 76, 87; extent of, 76; commercial possi
bilities  150
Lake Roaloo  197, 199, 266
Language, Spanish, 122, 127, 164; English spoken by foreigners of
Teutonic race, 164; Mixtecan, 202; Nahuatl or Aztecan, 138;
Zapotecan  122, 126, 129, 219
Laollaga  210, 305
Lard, of the peccary  Ill
Lawns, absence of  99
Lemonmeyer, Gustavo  141
Leprosy  137
Licorice  183
Lighthouses, at Salina Cruz, 1; on Clipperton Island  '.  88
Lignum vitae (guayacan)  84, 98, 171, 189
Lime making  121
Limes, excellence of Mexican  104
Limestone  191
Liquidamber  183
Live stock, see Stock raising 
Lizards  116
Lumbering, 161, 188; high cost of lumber  52

Macaya  188
Machete, general use of  12
Madero of the Redemption, cited  247
Mahogany  161, 188, 189
Mahoney, Jerome H., 81, 173; makes his "getaway,"  142
Majada Range  75
Manganese  190
Mangoes, 84, 104; mango forks  104
Manley, Howard T.,  181
Manners, Mexican, 10-13, 165; politeness at table, 157; high sense
of honor  158
Manta, the female head-dress  3, 130
Manzanillo, port of  5
Mapastepec, rubber plantation at  181
Marble  191
Maria Sanchez, Breast of  260
Marimba, a musical instrument  14, 15
Mariscal, town of,  146
Market, public, at Tehuantepec, 60; at San Geronimo, 82; at Iztal
tepec  125
Marriage, costume worn at, by Indian women, 130; laxity  133
Martinez, Dr., of Apizaco  39
Masahua Range  75
Measures, weights and,  193, 194
Medieval conditions  23

INDEX 321
Melby, A. A.,  81, 124
Menu at hotels  154
Mesquite  .\\\\\".".'."""!.""."!!!!!."!!."".!!!"!!! 189
Mestizos  ..........."....".".  '.'.  10
Miahuatlan, city of,  ..................1."  26L 265
Milk  170
Minatitlan, city of, a river port, 148, 160; oil refinery at  148, 190
Miner springs  191
Minerals of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, 189-193; black marble at
Convento Hill, 76; iron ore, 189; salt, 190; onyx,  192
Miracles, at church of Santa Maria, Tehuantepec  66
Missionary societies, absence of  135
Mitla, desolated by Aztecs, 201; cunning of its inhabitants, 237;
burial of Cosijoeza at, 291; abolition of ancient religion at,  296
Mixes  75, 137
Mixtecs, allies of King Cosijoeza, 202; war with the Aztecs, 229-
239; war with the Zapotecs  255-269
Mixtequilla, 50; sugar factory at, 178; derivation of name  218
Moctezuma (Montezuma), commands Aztecs before Quiengola, 207;
ascends throne of Tenochtitlan, 226; submits to Spain  257
Mogane, 110; coffee culture at,  178
Monapoxtiac, isle of, 24, 64, 88; pilgrimages made to, 137; oracle
consulted by Cosijopii, 246, 278, 283; Pecocha disappears on,
249; summer solstice celebrated on,  250
Money, 167; "infalsificable" paper  168
Monte Alban  234, 262, 265
Morals, 134; sexual, 70, 132; intemperance, 69, 132; honesty, 132, 156, 165
Mucilage tree (gulabere), 63; used in indigo industry  180
Music, 14; among the Indians  60, 136
Musical instruments, marimba, 14, 15; jarana  Ill

Naatipa, Zapotec prince,  225, 290
Nahuilzochitl, lord of Sosola  230, 234
Names, personal, 128, 129; manner of bestowing among ancient
Zapotecs  226-228, 235
Nejapa  203
New Year's at Salina Cruz  17
Newmark, Meyer,  82
Newspapers, absence of local, 40, 166; hotels do not supply  154
Niltepec, town of,  42, 190
Niza Rindani, spring of,  210
Northers  2, 92, 104
Nuts, pecans, 78; coconuts, 103; 187; cohune nuts  187

Oak, Spanish (robles)  101, 189
Oaxaca City, educational center, 135; origin of name, 200, 263, 264;
created royal villa, 287; raised to rank of city  288
Oaxaca, Mountains of,  1» 196
Oaxaca, State of, arms of,  270
Oaxaca, Valley of,  196
Oaxaquena plantation  148, 177
Ocelot (tigrio)  110
Oil, petroleum  4> 148

322 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
Onyx fields of Tequisistlan  192
Opossums  Ill
Opportunities for investment, 159-193; factories, 166, 189; tanneries 170
Oracle at Monapoxtiac  246, 284
Oranges  103, 184
Orchestras in churches  60
Orozco, Francisco de, Spanish captain  263, 265
Ostuta River  87

Pacific plains of the Isthmus, 76, 171; climate  91-94
Paganism, survivals of  137, 250
Palo Blanco  189
Palo mulato (Balsa wood)  96, 149
Pan-American railway  80, 139, 146
Panela (crude sugar)  176
Papain, drug obtained from the papaw  105, 186
Papaw  105, 185, 186
Paper pulp, available material for  181
Parkins, Charles A., 31, 39, 58, 79, 140; sage reflections of,  141, 188
Parks  6, 60, 69
Passion play at Tehuantepec  68
Pearl beds  118
Pecans  78
Peccaries  Ill
Pecocha, legandary prophet of Zapotecs  247-251
Pepper, 154, 174, 188; use at table  154
Periodicals, absence of local  40 166
Petela, Zapotec patriarch  201, 252
Petroleum refinery, at Minatitlan  148, 190
Pezelao, Oracle of Heaven  246, 252, 178
Phonolite  2
Pictured rocks, near San Geronimo, 64, 85; at Tehuantepec,  65
Pierson station  140
Pilgrimages  55, 137, 250
Pine forests of Chimalapas  189
Pineapples  103, 186, 187
Pinopaa, Zapotec princess, birth, 227; death, 243; cult of, at jalapa 244
Pinta, a species of leprosy  137
Pinates, at Christmas time  15
Pinon (tropical birch),  63
Piqui (ironwood)  188
Pitao, the Supreme Being  251
Pitaya, fruit of a cactus  25
Plain of the Widow  285
Plant life  95-109
Plantains, fried  104
Plantations, American, on the Isthmus,  159-162
Plum, Spanish  63
Pochutla, city of, center of coffee district, 179; Alvarado visits, 276;
Mr. Popenoe visits  108
Politeness of Mexicans, 10-13; of bandits,  36, 43
Political rights of Indians  136
Pomegranates  78, 106
Popenoe, Mr  108
Porphyry  191

INDEX 323
Ports, Puerto Angel, 1; Salina Cruz, 1-5, 93; Puerto Mexico, 3, 148;
Acapulco, 5; Manzanillo, 5; Mazatlan, 5; Puerto Arista, 146,
147 ; Minatitlan  148
Posada, a Christmas festivity  15
Postal service  152
Potatoes  78, 109
Pottery industry  125, 136, 167
Prehistoric relics  50
Preserves, Spanish plum, 63; coco plum, 107; giant haw  107
Priests, restrictions on,  16
Prostitution, not common among Indians  133
Puerto Angel, port of Pochutla, 1; coffee exported from,  179
Puerto Arista  146, 147, 151
Puerto Mexico, city of,  3, 139, 148
Pumas  110
Punta de Aguas  143

Quehuiquijepaa, the, of Tectipac  199
Quetzalcoatl, monument ascribed to  246, 251
Quiegolani  203, 267
Quiengola, Mt., 46, 64; bat caves of, 113; defense of  203

Railroads, 139; 144, 146, 151; Pan-American line, 139, 146; Tehuan
tepec National, 139, 151; the Vera Cruz al Istmo, 144; absence
of dining cars, 145; branch from Tonala to Puerto Arista, 146;
projected, from Oaxaca City to San Geronimo  192
Rainfall, 91, 92, 94; at Tonala,  147
Real estate investments, by Americans  159
Reboso, the native head-dress  130
Refajo (wrapper)  78, 129
Religion, 16, dress of the clergy, 16; condition of the church, 54;
alleged miracles, 66; baptisms, 70; faith of the ancient Zapo
tecs, 247-253; the prophet Pecocha, 247-251; ancient gods, 251-
253; priesthood, 296; form of worship, 299; present faith of
Indians, 135; relics of ancient faith  137
Reptiles  116, 117
Revolutionists, elements from which recruited  28
Rice  174, 183
Rio de los Mijes  -- 75
Rio de Perros  80, 86
River traffic  -----  --.-148-150
Rivers: Coatzacoalcos, 73; of Pacific plain, 77, 80, 87; of the high
lands  197
Roads, wagon, 151; gullied by the winds  93
Roaloo, Lake,  -  -----  -197, 199, 266
Rock paintings, near San Geronimo, 64, 85; at Tehuantepec, 65;
ascribed to Pecocha  -  ----  - -- -- 248
Romero, Dona Juana, of Tehuantepec, 58; endows schools at Te
huantepec  135
Roofs, tile  %i
Rosewood  J°*
Rubber culture  A°"
Ruins of Quiengola  ------ «>
Rye, grown in Chiapas  i4b> laa

324 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
Salina Cruz, city of, 1-26; lighthouse, 1; waterworks, 3, 71; harbor
works, 3; tides, 4; dry dock, 4; traffic, 5; hotels, 7; 153; popu
lation, 10; winds, 93; American consulate, 104; harbor dredging,
115; cable station at  153
Salinas del Marquez  190
Salinas, Lie. M. Garfia, 18, 130; mistaken for bishop of Tehuantepec 85
Salt fiats  190, 305
San Benito's Day  17
San Bias, town of, 59, 78; barbecue at,  79
San Cristobal de Las Casas  146
San Geronimo, city of, 80-84; terminus of Pan American railway,
146; brewery at,  166
San Juan Guichicovi  75, 137
San Miguel  137
Sanate, a Mexican bird  114-
Sandals  130, 170
Santa Anita  262
Santa Lucrecia, village of,  74, 144
Santa Maria Chimalapa  103, 137
Santa Maria Guiniaguata, 29; jecapezle industry at, 99; silk indus
try at  129
Santa Maria, Tehuantepec, 31; hill chapels, 55; church at,  66
Santo Domingo, convent of, at Tehuantepec,  294, 299, 305
Sapodilla (chico)  105, 188
Sarsaparilla  182
Sassafras  1  183
Satinwood  189
Scavengers  56, 113
Schools, 23, 134, 165; private, at Tehuantepec  135
Seasons, dry and rainy  91-94
Seismic disturbances  91
Sexual morality, among the Indians  132
Sharks  18, 116
Shrimps  118
Shufeldt expedition, referred to, 49, 73, 130, 150; members of, bitten
by vampires  113
Shufeldt nee Harvey, Guendolina  70
Sickness, yellow fever, 59; native remedies, 97; malaria, 165; pinta,
137; healthful climate  91, 165
Silk culture, at Santa Maria Guiniaguata  129
Sisal  181
Soap, nuts used in manufacture of, 187; used by the ancients  211
Sobrino, Pedro, early priest at Jalapa  245
Social functions, see Festivities 
Social life, in Salina Cruz, 14-17; at Tehuantepec  61, 62, 67
Social reform, need of  125
Soconusco, district of, 204; great coffee region  178
Soldiers, Mexican  20
Sombreros  129
Soup sop, (guanabana)  106
Spaniards, few on the Isthmus, 119; none at Tehuantepec  51
Spanish language, use of, 123; telegraph messages to be sent in,
152; best method of learning,  164
Spices, cinnamon, 155, 183; pepper,  174, 183
Springs, hot, 191; at Laollaga  210, 305

INDEX 325
Stock raising, 168-170; goats, 22; burros, 24; pasture lands, 145,
168; cattle, 168; tasajo  169
Stone, building, 191; phonolite, 2; marble at Convento Hill, (See
also names of stones)  76
Story, John  [][""".'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 71
Stoves, primitive nature of  157
Sugar, 175-178; methods of production, 176; panela, 176; the Oaxa
quena plantation, 177; culture on Pacific plains,  177
Syenite  191
Syrians, at Salina Cruz, 10; at Tehuantepec  51

Tamarind  61
Tanneries, native  170
Tapachula, city of  146
Tapirs  112
Tarifa plateau  75
Tarifa, red hematite at  190
Tariff, customs, see Duties, export 
Tea, use of  155
Tectipac  igg
Tehuana, term defined  17
Tehuanos  51
Tehuantepec, city of, 45-57; government building at, 32; founded by
the Huaves, 46; strategic location, 46, 77; origin of name, 49,
278; cemetery, 58; population, 51; streets and sidewalks, 54;
churches, 54; market place, 60; plaza of, 60; park at, 69;
limestone quarries  191
Tehuantepec River  45, 77
Tejan (Coatimondi),  Ill
Telegraph lines  152
Telephones  23, 153
Temperature  91, 92, 94
Tequisistlan, battle near, 281; onyx fields of  192
Thermal springs  191
Tides, at Salina Cruz, 4; in the great lagoons  77
Tierra Blanca  144, 145
Tiger Hill (Dani Guibedchi)  49, 64
Tigrio (ocelot),  110
Tilantongo, prince of  269, 292
Tile, extensive use of  52
Titles, personal  128
Tlacochcalcatl, Aztec leader,  201
Toads  117
Tobacco  181
Tonala, city of, 147; port of Arista  146
Tonameca  276
Tortillas, the Mexican staff of life  173
Transportation, 139-152; troop trains, 28; dangers incident to, 144;
between Chiapas plateau and littoral, 147; river traffic, 148,
160; along coastal lagoons, 150; wagon roads, 151; absence
of bridges, 151; Vera Cruz al Istmo Ry., 162; by ox cart, 169;
upper Tehuantepec valley  192
Travel, dangers incident to, 144; necessity of carrying lunch baskets 146

326 THE MEXICAN SOUTHLAND
Trees, 9B-10&, 171, 172, 188, 189; almond, 100; balsa-wood, 97; bam
boo, 63; Brazilwood, 98; cacao, 179; calabash (jicara), 96; coco
nut, 96; copalchi, 9,7; cotton tree, 59, 100; cypress, 97; jicara,
172; lambimbo, 100; lignum vitae, 84, 96, 98, 100; logwood, 98;
mesquite, 96; mucilage tree (gulabere), 63; pine, 97; pinon
(tropical birch), 63; rosewood, 96; rubber tree, 101; shade trees,
10ft; Spanish oak, 97; tamarind, 61; wild cotton, 59, 100; wild
fig, 10.0; zapote (sapodilla), (See also Flowers; Fruits, Woods,
tropical)  97, 105
Troop trains  28
Tuna de Espana  99
Turtle's eggs  118
Tututepec, Spanish colony established at, 274; colony abandoned,
286; Indian revolt (1523)  288
Tuxtla Gutierrez, city of, 146; marimbas manufactured at, 15;
jecapezle industry at  99
Typewriters, carried by traveling salesmen  154

Upper Lagoon, 24, 76, 77; rivers entering, 87; commercial possi
bilities, 150.; salt marshes of  191

Vanilla  182
Vegetables, garden  109
Ventosa Bay  45, 77
Vera Cruz, starting point for the Isthmus  144
Verde River, 87; thermal springs on,  191
Volcanic activity  _  90
Vows, performance of  55

Wages, for common labor  171
Wagon roads  151
Waiters, Indian,  155
Water-carriers, burro  57
Waterfowl  114, 150
W^terpower  189
Wedding costume, of the Tehuanas  130
Weights and measures  193, 194
Wheat  183
Wjndmills  172
Winds, 2, 92-94; ravines caused by, 92; protection of crops from, 92
Wine  107
Wood ticks  56
Woods, tropical, 96-98, 188, 189; dyewoods, (See also Fruits, Trees) 98

Xocuapa Riv^r  87
Xunirahvu,, a natural landmark  _  2

Yanhuitlan  ,  236, 237

INDEX 327
Zaachila I, Zapotec monarch  197
Zaachila III, Zapotec monarch,  199
Zaachila, city of, foundation, 197; present aspect, 198; taken by the
Mixtecs,  260
Zapotecan language  122-127, 129, 219
Zapotecs, 120-136; physical characteristics, 51, 120, 121; beauty of
women, 51, 67, 121; a hairy race, 62; costume, 62, 69, 125;
129, 130; intemperance, 69, 132; not hunters, 110; nor fisher
men, 118; present numbers, 120; agricultural race, 121; racial
vigor, 122; language of, 122-129; military qualities, 131; mental
qualities, 131; honesty, 132, 156, 167; sexual morality, 133;
simplicity of women, 134; moral traits, 134; rise of, 196; gods
of the ancient, 251-253; priesthood, 296; public worship  299
Zeetobaa, queen of Tehuantepec  304, 343
Zopilotes (buzzards), 113; favorite roosting place  58

YALE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY

3 9002 08837 4773

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