mpfe Wm:f^^"WYyys-€\ I] | for the, founding tjif fatfegtwiftfagSc 'forty!' |_j| •YAIUE-WMVEKSinnr- • ILHIBKAKy • t i-ana; vvunaw WiibeVtoirce j Dictionary OP THE HOLY BIBLE, FOR GENERAL USE IN THE Study of the Sgriptures; WITH ENGRAVINGS, MAPS, AND TABLES. REVISED AND ENLARGED EDITION. AMERICAN TRACT SOCIETY, ISO NASSAU STREET, NEW YORK. COPYRIGHT, 1886 and 1914 by the AMERICAN TRACT SOCIETY. PREFACE One of the most cheering tokens of the progress of the gospel in our country and the world is the growing interest in the study of God's Word, which, as experience continually demonstrates more clearly, is the foun tain of all the truth and the channel of the only spiritual power that can regenerate man and reform the world. To promote and aid in its study the Tract Society has published many most valuable Bible Helps: among them Dr. Barrows' " Companion to the Bible," and his " Sacred Geogra phy and Antiquities;" "The Bible Text-Book," the "Bible Atlas," two Concordances, Locke's " Commonplace-book of the Bible," the " Family Bible with Notes," Hanna's " Life of Christ," and " The Dictionary of the Holy Bible." Of this latter volume over two hundred thousand copies have been circulated, and it has been the basis of translations into several foreign languages. But since its first publication great progress has been made in Biblical researches : the lands of the Bible have been more thor oughly explored — by the " Palestine Exploration " Companies, the " Brit ish Ordnance Survey," and recent travellers; the admirable Bible Diction ary of Dr. William Smith, with those of Fairbairn, Fausset, and others, have made a new era in Bible study ; and the Revised Version of Scrip ture has appeared. All these recent works have been used in preparing this revised Bible Dictionary, with the purpose to present clearly and briefly the best attain able results of Biblical research, new and old — gathering from many large and costly works all the important information which the pastor, the Sun day-school teacher, or any earnest student of the Bible would require. A great proportion of the articles have been rewritten, many new illustrations have been added, and improved maps; and in this revised and enlarged form the Dictionary is almost a new work. It is sent forth with the earnest recommendation that the student will use it only as an aid in the study of the Bible itself, turning to all the passages referred to, and inspecting them, with the purpose above all so to search the Scrip tures as to find Him of whom chiefly they testify, and who alone is " the Way, the Truth, and the Life." W. W. RAND. EXPLANATORY. In this work the received chronology, in general that of Ussher, is adopted. While no little uncertainty exists as to some ancient epochs, the scientific speculations which would add many thousands of years to the early ages of mankind upon the earth are not confirmed by later re searches. The meaning of Biblical names of persons and places is given in ital ics where it can be determined; but in many cases it is conjectured from a somewhat uncertain derivation. In proper names of Greek origin g before e or i is pronounced soft, as in Genesis. But in almost all Scripture names it should be pronounced hard, as in Gethsemane, Gihon. Ch, in both Hebrew and Greek words, is pronounced like k, as in Chloe, Chios, Charran. The exceptions are Rachel, cherub, and cheru bim. In referring to a passage of Scripture, the book is first named by the customary abridged form, then the chapter followed by a colon : the verses are separated from one another by commas, and from a following reference by a semicolon. When a dash is used, all the verses between the one pre ceding and that following the dash are referred to. A. V. stands for the Authorized, or King James, Version of the Bible. R. V. for the Revised Version. ARABIC WORDS OF FREQUENT OCCURRENCE. Abu, father. Khan, inn. Ain, fountain. Kh. for Khurbet, ruins. Bab, gate . Kubbet, dome. Bahr, sea. Kul'ah, castle. Bei.t, house. Kuryet, village. Benat, daughters. Merj, meadow. Beni, sons. Nahr, river. Bir, well. Neby, prophet. Deir, convent. Ras, head. Ghor, a long valley. Tell, mound or hill. Hummam, bath. Tur, mountain. J. for Jebel, mountain. Um, mother. Jisr, bridge. Wady, bed of a stream. Kefr, village. Wely, saint. The Arabic definite article, el, often changes its final consonant ac cording to the word to which it is attached, as ed-Deir, the castle ; er-Ram, Ramah; esh-Sheikh, the old man. DICTIONARY OF THE HOLY BIBLE. A., the first letter in almost all alpha bets. In Hebrew, it is called aleph; in Greek, alpha, the last letter in the Greek alphabet being omega. Both the Hebrews and Greeks used their letters as numerals ; and hence A (aleph or alpha) denoted one, or the first. So our Lord says, " I am Alpha and Omega, the beginning and the end, the first and the last;" thus declaring his eter nity, and that he is the cause and end of all things, and that what he has been and has done is a surety of what he ever will be and do, Rev. i:8, n; 21:6; 22:13. Compare Isa. 44:6; 48:12; Col.' 1. -15-18. AAR'ON, (ar'on), a teacher, or lofty, the son of Amram and Jochebed, both of the tribe of Levi, and brother of Moses and Miriam, Exod. 6:20; born about the year A. M. 2430; B. C. 1574. He was younger than Miriam and 3 years older than Moses, Exod. 7:7; and was the spokesman and assistant of the latter in bringing Israel out of Egypt, Exod. 4:16, 30; 7:19. His wife was Elisheba, daughter of Ammina- dab ; and his sons, Nadab, Abihu, Eleazar, and Ithamar. He was 83 years old when God summoned him to join Moses in the desert near Horeb. Cooperating with his brother in the exodus from Egypt, Exod. 4-16, he held up one of his hands in the battle with Amalek, Exod. 17:9; and ap proached Mount Sinai with him to see the glory of God, Exod. 24:1, 2, 9-1 1, though Moses alone ascended to the summit. Aaron's chief distinction consisted in the choice of him and his male posterity for the priesthood. He was consecrated the first high-priest by God's directions, Exod. 28, 29; Lev. 8; Psa. 106: 16; and was after wards confirmed in his office by the de struction of Korah and his company, by the staying of the plague at his interces sion, and by the budding of his rod, Num. 16, 17. He was faithful and self-sacrificing in the duties of his office, and meekly " held his peace " when his sons Nadab and Abi hu were slain, Lev. 10 : 1-3. Yet he fell sometimes into grievous sins : he made the golden calf at Sinai, as an image of Jeho vah for the people to worship,' Exod. 32; he joined Miriam in sedition against Mo ses, they presuming, the one as high-priest and the other as a prophetess, to claim like authority to his, Num. 12; and with Moses disobeyed God at Kadesh, Num. 20:8-12. God, therefore, did not permit him to enter the promised land ; but he died on Mount Hor, in Edom, near Mosera, Deut. 10:6, in the 40th year after leaving Egypt, at the age of about 123 years, and was buried by Moses and Eleazar, the latter succeeding him as high-priest, Num. 20 : 22-29 i 33 : 39- The Arabs pretend to show his tomb on the mount still bearing his name, and highly venerate it. In his office as high-priest, Aaron was an eminent type of Christ : be ing " called of God," and anointed ; offer ing sacrifices; bearing the names of the 5 BIBLE DICTIONARY. ABA tribes on his breast ; communicating God's will by Urim and Thummim ; entering the Most Holy place on the Day of Atonement, " not without blood ;" and interceding for and blessing the people of God, Heb. 6 : 20. See Abiathar, Eleazar, Hor, Priest. AAR'ONITES, descendants of Aaron the high-priest, so called, 1 Chr. 12:27; 27:17. 13 cities were assigned to them, in Judah and Benjamin, Josh. 21:13-19; 1 Chr. 6: 57-60. AB, father, found in many compound Hebrew proper names : as Abner, father, or possessor, of light; Absalom, father of peace. AB. The 5th month of the sacred, and the nth of the civil, year among the Jews. It. began, according to the latest authorities, with the new moon of late July or early August. It was a sad month in the Jewish calendar. On its 1st day a fast was ob served for the death of Aaron, Num. 33 : 38 ; and on its 9th another was held in mem ory of the divine edicts which excluded so many that came out of Egypt from enter ing the promised land ; and also of the overthrow of the ist and 2d temple. See Month. ABAD'DON, or Apol'lyon. The former name is Hebrew and the latter Greek, and both signify the destroyer, Job 31:12; Rev, 9:n._ He is called the "angel of the abyss," that is, the angel of death, or the destroying angel, Psa. 78 : 49. Abaddon frequently occurs in the Hebrew, and is translated " destruction," meaning often the world of the dead, Job 26 : 6 ; 28 : 22 ; Psa. 88: n ; Prov. 15: n. ABAG'TH A, fortune-giver, a court-officer of Ahasuerus, Esth. 1 : 10. RIVER ABANA, NOW BARADA, AND DAMASCUS. ABA'N A, perennial, and Phar'par, swift, rivers of Damascus, 2 Kings 5:12. The Abana (or, as in the margin, Amana) was undoubtedly the present Barada, the Chry- «orrhoas ofthe Greeks. It is a clear, cold, and swift mountain stream, rising in Anti- Lebanon, northeast of Hermon, flowing southeast into the plain 23 miles, bursting through a gorge 2 miles northwest of Da mascus, turning eastward, skirting the northern wall of the city, and terminating 20 miles east in 2 of 3 large lakes. It is a perennial river, and so copious, that though no less than 9 or 10 branches or canals are drawn off from it to irrigate the plain and 6 supply the city and the numerous villages around it, the stream is a large one to the end. The only other independent river of any size in the territory of Damascus is the Awaj, which rises on the southeast slopes of Hermon, crosses the plain 8 miles or more south of Damascus, and enters the southernmost of the 3 lakes above referred to. This is supposed to be the Pharpar of the Bible. As these rivers of Damascus were never dry, but made the region they watered like the garden of Eden for fertil ity and beauty, Naaman might well con trast them with the Jordan whose waters ABA BIBLE DICTIONARY. ABE are often turbid, and with most of "the waters of Israel," which dry up under the summer sun. See Amana. ABA'RIM, mountains beyond, or of the fords, east of the Dead Sea and the Lower Jordan, "over against Jericho," within the territory of Moab and the tribe of Reuben. It is impossible to define exactly their ex tent. The mountains Nebo, Pisgah, and Peor were in the Abarim, Num. 27:12; 33 : 47, 48 ; Deut. 32 : 49 ; 34 : 1. Ije-abarim, Num. 21:11; 33:44, seems to denote the southern part of the same chain. It is probably referred to in Jer. 22:20, where it is rendered " passages." A Hebrew word, apparently of the same derivation, desig nates the whole country beyond the Jor dan. AB'BA, a Syriac word signifying father, easily pronounced by infant children, and expressing the peculiar tenderness, famili arity, and confidence of the love between parent and child, Mark 14 : 36 ; Rom. 8:15; Gal. 4:6. Luther translated Abba, Pater, "Abba, dear Father." In the Old Testa ment God sought for the filial love and trust of his people, Jer. 3:4; but it is through Christ alone that we receive the true spirit of adoption, and learn to call God " Our Father," Luke 11:2; John 17: 1, 21; 20: 17. ABED'NEGO, servant of Nego ; a Chal- dee name given to Azariah, one of the three captive young princes of Judah, B. C. 604, who were Daniel's companions at the court of the king of Babylon, Dan. 1 : 7. Their virtue, wisdom, and piety secured their promotion at court, Dan. 1 :3~i9; 2: 17, 49; and their steadfastness in witnessing for God among idolators, with their deliver ance from the fiery furnace by the Angel- Jehovah, led many to acknowledge the true God, and rendered these pious youth for ever illustrious as monuments of the excel lence and safety of faith in Him, Dan. 3 ; Heb. 11:34. See Daniel, Furnace. a'bel, in Hebrew Hebel, vapor; the 2d son of Adam and Eve. His name was a recognition at the outset of the short ness of human life, Jas. 4 : 14. He became a shepherd, and offered to God a sacrifice from his flocks, at the same time that Cain his brother offered of the fruits of the earth. God received Abel's sacrifice and not Cain's; hence Cain in anger killed Abel, Gen. 4, who was the first martyr, Matt. 23:35- See Sacrifice. It was " by faith " that Abel offered a more acceptable sacri fice than Cain ; that is, his heart was right towards God, and he worshipped Him in trustful obedience to the divine directions. His offering, made by the shedding of blood, was that of a penitent sinner con fiding in the atonement ordained of God; and it was accepted, " God testifying of his gifts," probably by fire from heaven; "by which he obtained witness that he was right eous," that is, justified, Heb. 11:4. His life was short, but not therefore fruitless : for his bright and early example of faith in a divine atonement for sinners has been a beacon-light for all ages since, guiding men to Christ. The first of the human race to die, he was also the first to enter heaven, and a pledge and firstfruits of a harvest none can number. "The blood of Abel" called from the ground for vengeance, Gen. 4:10; but the blood of Christ claims for giveness and salvation for his people, Heb. 12 : 24 ; 1 John 1 : 7. See Sin. Abel is also a prefix in the names of several towns. In such cases it signifies a grassy place or meadow. ABEL-BETH-MA' ACHAH, meadow ofthe house of Maachah; a town in the tribe of Naphtali, north of Lake Merom, now prob ably Abil-el-Karub, in the upper region of the Jordan, in the latitude of Tyre. It was , a place of some value, and was besieged in the rebellion of Sheba, 2 Sam. 20 : 13-22. 80 years afterwards it was taken by Ben- hadad, 1 Kin. 15:20, and again, after 200 years, by Tiglath-pileser, 2 Kin. 15:29. It is called Abel-maim in 2 Chr. 16:4. Com pare 1 Kin. 15 : 20. Also simply Abel, 2 Sam. 20 : 18. ABEL-CARMA'IM, or Kera'mim, meadow of vineyards ; a village of the Ammonites, 6 miles from Rabbath-Ammon ; in the his tory of Jephthah it is called " the plain of the vineyards," Judg. 11:33. ABEL-MEHO'LAH, meadow ofthe dance, or Abel-mea, a town of Issachar, near the Jordan, 10 miles south of Beth-shean. Near this place Gideon defeated the Midianites, Judg. 7:22; and here Elisha was born, 1 Kin. 19:16. ABEL-MIZ'RAM, meadow (or, otherwise pointed, mourning) of the Egyptians ; so called from the 7 days' lamentation of Jo seph and his company on bringing up the body of Jacob from Egypt for burial, Gen. 50:10, 11. It lay in the plain of Jericho, between that city and the Jordan. Jerome locates it at Beth-hoglah. ABEL-SHIT'TIM, plain of the acacias, in the plains of Moab, east of the Jordan, and near Mount Peor. It was one of the last encampments of Israel, before the death of 7 ABI BIBLE DICTIONARY. ABI Moses, Num. 33:49; called also Shittim, Josh. 2 : 1. Here the Israelites were enticed by the women of Moab and Midian into uncleanness and the idolatry of Baal-peor, and 24,000 died of the plague, Num. 25. ABi'A. See Abijah. ABI'AH, the Lord is my father, 2d son of Samuel, who appointed his brother and him judges in Israel. Their corruption and injustice were the pretext upon which the people demanded a king, 1 Sam. 8 : 1-5. ABI'ATHAR, father of abundance, son of Ahimelech, and 4th high-priest of the Jews after Eli. When Saul sent his emis saries to Nob, Psa. 52, to destroy all the priests there, Abiathar, who was young, fled to David in the wilderness, 1 Sam. 22:1 1-23, with whom he continued in the character of priest, 1 Sam. 23:9; 30:7. Being confirmed in the high-priesthood on David's acqession to the throne, he aided in bringing up the ark to Jerusalem, 1 Chr. 15:11, 12, and adhered to David during the rebellion of Absalom, 2 Sam. 15:35; 1 Chr. 27:34; but afterwards was led to follow Adonijah, thus strangely betrayinghis royal friend in his old age. Solomon succeeding to the throne, degraded him from the priest hood, and sent him to Anathoth, 1 Kin. 2 : 26, 27; thus fulfilling the prediction made to Eli a century before, 1 Sam. 2 : 27-36 ; 3 : n-14. Saul, it would appear, had trans ferred the dignity of the high-priesthood from the line of Ithamar, to which Eli be longed, to that of Eleazar, by conferring the office upon Zadok. Thus there were, at the same time, 2 high-priests in Israel — Abiathar with David, and Zadok with Saul. This double high -priesthood continued from the death of Ahimelech till the reign of Solomon, after which the office was held by Zadok and his race alone. See Elea zar. A difficulty arises from the circumstance that, in 1 Kin. 2 : 27, Abiathar is said to be deprived of the priest's office by Solomon, while in 2 Sam. 8:17; 1 Chr. 18:16; 24:3, 6, 31, Ahimelech the son of Abiathar is said to be high-priest along with Zadok. The most probable solution is, that both father and son each bore the 2 names Ahime lech and Abiathar, as was not at all unu sual among the Jews. See under Abigail. In this way also we may remove the diffi culty arising from Mark 2 : 26, where Abia thar is said to have given David the show- bread, in allusion to 1 Sam. 21 : 1-6, where it is Ahimelech. A'BIB, the ist month of the ecclesiasti- 6 cal year of the Hebrews; afterwards called Nisan. It answered nearly to our April. Abib signifies green ears of grain, or fresh fruits. It was so named, because grain, particularly barley, was in ear at that time. The firstfruits of barley were to be offered ori the 15th of Abib ; and the barley harvest now occurs in the latter part of April. See Month. On the 10th of this month the passover was set apart; it was killed on the 14th towards sunset, and eaten the same evening after the 15th had begun. The 7 days from the 15th to the 21st inclu sive were " the feast of unleavened bread," closing with a solemn convocation, Exod. 12, 13- KB'VEL,,father of strength, I. the father of Kish and Ner, and grandfather of Saul and Abner, 1 Sam. 9:1; 14 : 51. II. One of David's 30 mighty men, 1 Chr. n : 32 ; Abi-albon, 2 Sam. 23 : 31. ABIE'ZER, father of help, great-grand son of Manasseh, Num. 26:29, 30: 1 Chr. 7 : 14-18 ; and founder ofthe family to which Gideon belonged, Josh. 17:2; Judg. 6:34; 8:2. In this last verse, "the vintage of Abiezer" means the ist rout of the Mid- ianites by the 300, mostly Abiezrites ; and "the gleaning of the grapes of Ephraim " means the capture of Oreb and Zeeb, and other fruits of the victory, gathered by the Ephraimites. AB'IGAIL, father of foy, I., formerly the wife of Nabal of Carmel, and afterwards of David. The issue of this marriage was, as some critics suppose, two sons, Chileab and Daniel, 2 Sam. 3:3; 1 Chr. 3:1; but prob ably these names were borne by one per son. II. A sister of David, and mother of Ama sa, 2 Sam. 17:25; 1 Chr. 2: 16, 17. ABIGA'IL, father of might, the wife of Rehoboam, king of Judah, 2 Chr. 11:18; the " daughter " — that is here, the descend ant — of Eliab, David's brother. ABI'HU, he (God) is my father, the 2d son of Aaron and Elisheba, Exod. 6 : 23 ; Num. 3:2; honored with his brother Na dab, Ex. 24 : 1 ; consecrated to the priest hood with his 3 brethren, Exod. 28 : 41 ; but shortly after killed by lightning from the Lord, with Nadab, for burning incense with common fire instead of the holy fire that was kept burning perpetually on the altar of burnt-offerings, Lev. 6:9,12; 10: 1, 2; 16:12; Num. 16:46. As this is imme diately followed by the prohibition of wine to the priests when ministering in the tab ernacle, it is not improbable that Nadab ABI BIBLE DICTIONARY. ABI ind Abihu were intoxicated when thus transgressing. Their death is a solemn warning not to presume to worship God except with incense kindled at the one al tar which Christ hath sanctified and made acceptable with his blood, Heb. 10:10-14. It is a dangerous thing, in the service of God, to decline from his own institutions. We have to do with a God who is wise to prescribe his own worship, just to require what he has prescribed, and powerful to punish what he has not prescribed, Col. 2 : 20-23. ABI'JAH, the Lord is my father, I., called, in Luke 1 : 5, Abia ; founder of a family among the posterity of Aaron and Eleazar. When David divided the priests into 24 ¦ courses, to perform the temple service in turn, the 8th class was called after him, 1 Chr. 24 : 10. To this class Zacharias be longed. II. Son of Jeroboam the ist king of Isra el. He died young, and much beloved and lamented, 1 Kin. 14:1-18. III. Son of Rehoboam the ist king of Ju- dah, Mat. 1:7; called, in 1 Kin. 15 : 1, Abi- jam. He came to the throne B. C. 958, in the 18th year of Jeroboam I., and reigned only 3 years. In war with Jeroboam he gained a signal victory, 2 Chr. 13 ; yet he followed the evil example of his father; 1 Kin. 14:23, 24. There is some reason for believing that the numbers in 2 Chr. 13:3, 17 should be, as Josephus and some editions of the Vulgate have them — 40,000, 80,000, and 50,000. His mother Maachah, or Michaiah, was probably the grand- daughter of Absalom and daughter of Uri el, 1 Kin. 15:2; 2 Chr. 11 : 20; 13:2. IV. The mother of king Hezekiah, 2 Chr. 29: 1 ; called Abi in 2 Kin. 18 : 2. ABILE'NE, a district on the eastern de clivity of Anti-Lebanon, from 12 to 20 miles northwest of Damascus ; so called from the city Abila, in a gorge, on the river Abana or Barada, and also called Abilene of Ly- sanias, to distinguish it from others. In the 15th year of Tiberius, Abilene was a tetrarchate under Lysanias, Luke 3:1. ABIM'ELECH, father-king, I., king of Gerar of the Philistines, who took Sarah into his harem, compare Gen. 12:15; Esth. 2 : 3 ; but being restrained by God in a dream, he restored her to Abraham, and gave him 1,000 pieces of silver as a "cov ering of the eyes " for Sarah, that is, as an atoning present, and to be a testimony of her innocence in the eyes of all ; or as some think, for a veil to hide her beauty, and " thus was she reproved " for not wearing one. He afterwards made a league with Abraham, Gen. 20, 21. II. Another king of Gerar, probably son ofthe former, and contemporary with Isaac. He rebuked Isaac for dissimulation in re gard to Rebekah, and afterwards made a new league with him at Beersheba, Gen. 26. III. A son of Gideon by a concubine- wife, Judg. 8:31, made himself king of Shechem after his father's death, and slew his father's 70 sons, only Jotham the youngest being left, B. C. 1235. Jotham reproached the Shechemites in his celebra ted fable of the trees. Three years after wards they rose against Abimelech ; he de feated them, but perished ignominiously in attacking Thebez, Judg. 9; 2 Sam. 11 : 21. ABIN'ADAB, father of nobleness, the same as Aminadab, b and m being often interchanged in Hebrew. I. A Levite of Kirjath-jearim, in whose house the ark of God, when restored by the Philistines, re mained 70 years, 1 Sam. 7 : 1 ; 1 Chr. 13 : 7. II. The 2d son of Jesse, one of the 3 who followed Saul in the war with the Philis tines, 1 Sam. 16:8; 17:13. III. A son of Saul, slain in the battle at Gilboa, 1 Sam. 31:2; 1 Chr. 8 : 33 ; 10 : 2. ' ABI'RAM, a high father, I., a prince of Reuben, who with Korah, Dathan, etc., conspired to overthrow the authority of Moses and Aaron in the wilderness. Num. 16. See Korah. II. 1 Kin. 16:34, a son °f Hiel, who per ished early because of his father's presump tion in rebuilding Jericho. See Hiel. AB'ISHAG, father of error, a beautiful virgin of Shunem, in Issachar, chosen to be a member of the household of David in his old age and cherish him. After his death, Adonijah sought her hand to promote his treasonable aspirations, and was punished by death, 1. Kin. 1, 2. ABISH' Al, father of a gift, eldest son of Zeruiah, David's sister, brother of Joab and Asahel, one ofthe bravest of David's chiv- alric order of " mighty men," 1 Chr. 2 : 16, always faithful to his royal uncle, and usu ally a personal attendant. He went with him alone to the tent of Saul, 1 Sam. 26: 5-12 ; and was a leader in the war with Ish- bosheth, 2 Sam. 2 : 18, 24, in the war with the Edomites, 1 Chr. 18:12, 13, and with the Syrians and Ammonites, 2 Sam. 10 : 10, 14. In a battle with the Philistines, he rescued David, and slew Ishbi-benob the giant, 2 Sam. 21 : 16, 17. He broke through their 9 ABI BIBLE DICTIONARY. ABR host around Bethlehem, and lifted up fus spear against 300, and slew them, 2 Sam. 23 : 14-18 ; and was with David in the affairs of Shimei, Absalom, and Sheba, 2 Sam. 16:9; 18:2; 19:21; 20:6,7. ABISH'U A,falher of welfare, son of Phin ehas, and 4th high-priest, 1 Chr. 6 : 4, 5, 50. He was probably a contemporary of Eglon and Ehud, Judg. 3. AB'NER, father of light, the son of Ner ; Saul's cousin, and the general of his armies, 1 Sam. 14 : 50. He knew David, and aided Saul in persecuting him, 1 Sam. 17:57; 26 : 3-14. For 7 years after Saul's death he supported Ishbosheth ; but being re proved by him for his conduct towards Rizpah, he undertook to unite the whole kingdom under David. He was, however, treacherously slain by Joab, either to re venge the death of Asahel, Joab's brother, whom Abner had formerly killed, or more probably from jealousy. David abhorred this perfidious act, and composed an elegy on his death, 2 Sam. 2:8; 3 : 33. He also charged Solomon to punish the crime of Joab with death, 1 Kin. 2:5, 6. See Joab. ABOMINA'TION, a term applied in Scrip ture to objects of great detestation. Idols and their worship were so named, because they robbed God of his honor, while the rites themselves were impure and cruel, Deut. 7 :25, 26; 12:31. The term was used respecting the Hebrews in Egypt, Gen. 43 : 32, Exod. 8 : 26, either because they ate and sacrificed animals held sacred by the Egyptians, or because they did not observe those ceremonies in eating which made a part of the religion of Egypt ; and in Gen. 46 : 34, because they were " wandering shep herds," a race of whom had for a time grie vously oppressed Egypt. The Abomination op Desolation fore told by Daniel, 9:27; 11:31; 12:11, de notes, probably, the image of Jupiter, erect ed in the temple of Jerusalem by command of Antiochus Epiphanes, 170 B. C, 2 Mac. 6 : 2 ; 1 Mac. 6 : 7. But by the Abomination of Desolation spoken of by our Lord, Matt. 24 : 15 ; Mark 13 : 14, and foretold as about to be seen at Jerusalem during the last siege of that city by the Romans under Ti tus, is commonly understood the Roman army, whose standards had the images of their gods and emperors upon them, and were worshipped in the precincts of the temple when that and the city were taken. Perhaps, however, it refers to some iniquity of the Jewish zealots near the beginning of the siege, Luke 21:20. See Armor. The 10 initials SPQR are for Senatus Populusque Romanus, the Senate and the People of Rome. A'BRAM, high father, afterwards named A'BRAHAM, father of a multitude, Gen. 17:4, 5; see Names; the great founder of the Jewish nation, as well as of the Ish- maelites and other Arabian tribes, Gen. 25. He was a son of Terah, a descend ant of Shem, and brother of Nahor and Haran, and was born in Ur, a city of Chal- dea, A. M. 2008, B. C. 1996, Gen. 11 : 27, 28. Here he lived 70 years, when at the call of God he left his idolatrous kindred, Josh. 24:2, 14, and removed to Haran, in Meso potamia, Acts 7:2-4, accompanied by his father, his wife Sarai, his brother Nahor, and his nephew Lot. A few years after, having buried his father, he again removed at the call of God, with his wife and neph ew, and entered the land of promise as a nomade or wandering shepherd, Heb. 11:8. Sojourning for a time at Shechem, he built here, as was his custom, an altar to the Lord, who appeared to him, and promised that land to his seed. Removing from place to place for convenience of water and pas turage, he was at length driven by a famine into Egypt, where he dissembled in calling his wife his sister, Gen. 12. Returning to Canaan rich in flocks and herds, he gener ously left Lot to dwell in the fertile valley of the Lower Jordan, and pitched his own tents, in Mamre, Gen. 13. A few years after, he rescued Lot and his friends from cap tivity, and received the blessing of Mel- chizedek, Gen. 14. Again God appeared to him, promised that his seed should be like the stars for number, and foretold their oppression in ABR BIBLE DICTIONARY. ABS Egypt 400 years, and their return to pos sess the promised land, Gen. 15. But the promise of a son being yet unfulfilled, Sa- rai gave him Hagar her maid for a second ary wife, of whom Ishmael was born, Gen. 16; and it is noteworthy, that though Abra ham took Hagar at the request of his wife, as Adam did the fruit, Gen. 3 : 17, great domestic troubles ensued. After 13 years, God again appeared to him, and assured him that the heir of the promise should yet be born of his wife, whose name was then changed to Sarah. He established also the covenant of circumcision, Gen. 17. Here, too, occurred the visit of the 3 angels, and the memorable intercession with the Angel- Jehovah for the inhabitants of Sodom, Gen. 18. After this, Abraham journeyed south to Gerar, where he again called Sarah his sister. In this region Isaac was born, when Abraham was about 100 years old, Rom. 4 : 19-22, and soon after, Hagar and Ish mael were driven out to seek a new home, Gen. 21. About 25 years after, God put to trial the faith of Abraham, by commanding him to sacrifice Isaac, his son and the heir of the promise, upon Mount Moriah, Gen. 22. After 12 years, Sarah died, and the cave of Machpelah was bought for a burial-place, Gen. 23. Abraham sent his steward, and obtained a wife for Isaac from his pious kindred in Mesopotamia, Gen. 24. He him self also married Keturah, and had 6 sons, each one the founder of a distinct people in Arabia. At the age of 175, full of years and honors, he died, and was buried by his sons Isaac and Ishmael in the same tomb with Sarah, Gen. 25. See Machpelah. The character of Abraham is one of the most remarkable in Scripture. He was a genuine Oriental patriarch, of free and simple manners, a prince in the land ; his property was large, his retinue very nu merous, and he commanded the respect of the neighboring people ; and yet he was truly a stranger and a pilgrim, the only land he possessed being the burial-place he had purchased. Distinguished by his integrity, generosity, and hospitality, lie was most of all remarkable for his simple and unwavering faith, a faith that obeyed without hesitation or delay, and recoiled not from the most fearful trial ever im posed upon man, so that he is justly styled "the father of the faithful," that is, of be lievers. He is repeatedly distinguished by the honorable title, "the friend of God," 2 Chr. 20 : 7 ; Isa. 41 : 8 ; Jas. 2 : 23 ; and the name El-Khulil, the friend, is still given by the Arabs both to him and to Hebron his home. No name in history is venerated by so large a portion of the human race, Mo hammedans as well as Jews and Chris tians. He understood and rejoiced in the promise that in his divine descendant the Messiah all nations should be blessed, John 8 : 56 ; and as the ancestor of Christ and the father of all believers, the cove nant is abundantly fulfilled to him : his seed are as the stars of heaven, and with them he shall inherit the heavenly Canaan. Abraham's Bosom, in Luke 16 : 22, the state of bliss in paradise which the father of the faithful was enjoying. This is often represented as a feast or banquet, Matt. 8:11; Luke 13 : 29. To lean on one's bosom refers to the Oriental mode of reclining at table, John 13 : 23. See Eating. AB'SALOM, father of peace, only son of David by Maacah, 2 Sam. 3 : 3, born about 1033 B. C. He was remarkable for his beauty and for his fine head of hair, 2 Sam. 14 : 25, which being cut when it incommo ded him, used to weigh 200 shekels, an ex traordinary weight, suggesting a copyist's error, or that a heavy coronet or other head ornament was included. Amnon, another of the king's sons, having violated his sis ter Tamar, Absalom caused him to be slain, and then fled to Geshur, where Talmai his grandfather was king. After 3 years, at the intercession of Joab, David permitted him to return to Jerusalem, and at length received him again into favor, 2 Sam. 14. Absalom, however, grossly abused his fa ther's, kindness ; by many artful devices "stole the hearts of the people," and got himself proclaimed king in Hebron. Da vid retired from Jerusalem; Absalom fol lowed him after a fatal providential delay, and in the battle which ensued he was de feated, and being caught by his head in a tree, was found and slain by Joab, and bur ied with dishonor, 2 Sam. 18 : 17, 18 ; Josh. 7 : 26. David was much affected by his death, and uttered bitter lamentations over him, 2 Sam. 18 : 33. See also Psa. 3. His history affords instructive lessons to the young against the sins to which they are prone, particularly vanity, ambition, lawless passions, and filial disobedience. The " Tomb of Absalom," as it is called, in the valley east of Jerusalem, is of com paratively modern date, and of unknown origin and purpose. It may possibly mark the site of the monument mentioned in 2 Sam. 18 : 18. ABS BIBLE DICTIONARY. ACH TOMB OF ABSALOM. AB'stinence. See Fasting. AC'CAD, band or fortress, one of the 4 cities built in the plain of Shinar by Nim- rod, founder of the Assyrian empire, Gen. 10 : 10. Its site is identified by some trav ellers with Nisibis, in northern Mesopota mia. By others, with ruins called Akker- kuf, which lie from 6 to 9 miles west of Bagdad. There is here a ruinous struc ture called Tell-nimrud, Hill of Nimrod, consisting of a mass of brickwork 400 feet in circumference at the base, and 125 feet high, standing on a mound of rubbish. ACCEPT', to receive with favor,. Luke 4 : 24. So the penitent and believing sinner is welcomed by God for Christ's sake — "accepted in the Beloved," Eph. 1 :6. AC'CHO, sun-heated, a seaport ofthe tribe of Asher, Judg. 1 :3i. In the New Testa ment, Accho is called Ptolemais, Acts 21 : 7, from one of the Ptolemies, who enlarged and beautified it. The Crusaders gave it the name of Acre, or St. John of Acre. It is still called Akka by the Turks. Accho, with all the sea-coast beyond it northwards, was considered a half-heathen land by the Jews. ACCURSED', devoted to destruction, Deut. 21 : 23 ; Josh. 6 : 17, 18. See Anath ema. ACCUSA'TION written, a statement of the crime for which one was executed. ACCU'SER, an enemy or adversary, es pecially in a court of law, Matt. 5 : 25 ; Luke 18 : 3. So Satan is the public accuser of 12 6 ; Zech. 3:1; Rev. God's people, Job 1 12: 10. ACE.VT>AMA,field of blood, a small field south of Jerusalem, which the priests pur chased with the 30 pieces of silver that Judas had received as the price of our Sa viour's blood, Matt. 27 : 8 ; Acts 1 : 19, the " potter's field," to be a burying-place for strangers. Judas is said, Acts 1 : 8, to have purchased the field, because it was bought with his money. See Judas. Tradition points out this field on the steep hill of Evil Counsel overhanging the valley of Hinnom on the south. It appears to have been used, after the time of the Crusaders, as a sepulchre for pilgrims, and great quantities of its soil were carried away by Crusaders for burial-places at Rome, Pisa, and elsewhere. ACHA'IA, trouble, used in the New Tes tament for the whole region of Greece south of Macedonia, including the Pelopon nesus, or Morea, and some territory north of the Gulf of Corinth, Acts 18 : 12 ; 19 : 21 ; 2 Cor. 1 1 : 10. It was a Roman province in Paul's time, and was governed by a pro consul, in our version " deputy," Acts 18 : 12. Achaia proper, however, embraced only the northwestern part of the Pelopon- nessus. See Greece. ACHA'ICUS. See Fortunatus. A'CHAN, troubler, the son of Carmi, of the tribe of Judah ; he violated the divine anathema and disobeyed the strict charge of the Lord, by purloining some of the ACH BIBLE DICTIONARY. ACH spoils of Jericho which were doomed to destruction. This brought a curse and de feat upon the people. He was discovered by lot, and stoned with all his family, prob ably accessories, in the valley of Achor, north of Jericho, Josh. 6 : 18 ; 7 : 1-26. He is called Achar in 1 Chr. 2 : 7. See Achor. A'CHIM, Heb. Jachin, an abridgment of Jehoiachin, the name of an ancestor of our Lord, in the genealogical register five de grees back from Joseph, Matt . 1 : 14. A'CHISH, angry, king of Gath, a city of the Philistines, to whom David twice fled for protection from Saul. On the first oc casion, being recognized and thinking his life in danger, he feigned madness, and so escaped, 1 Sam. 21 : 10. Several years after, he returned with a band of 600 men, and was welcomed by Achish as an enemy of Saul and of Israel. Achish gave him Zik- lag for a residence ; and being deceived as to the views and operations of David, ex pected his assistance in a war with Israel, but was persuaded by his officers to send him home to Ziklag, 1 Sam. 26-29. ACH'METHA, Ezra 6 : 2, supposed to mean Ecbatana, the chief city of Media, inferior to none in the East but Babylon and Nineveh. There were two cities of this name : the northern city, the capital of Cy rus, now Takht-i-Suleiman, was surround ed by 7 walls of different heights and colors. The southern and larger city was a sum mer residence of the Persian kings after Darius. Travellers identify it with the modern Hamadan, in which many Jews still reside, and where they profess to point out the tomb of Mordecai and Esther. A'CHOR, trouble, a valley north of Jeri cho, according to Jerome; so called, per haps, from the troubles occasioned by the sin of Achan, who was here put to death, Josh. 7 : 26. The prophets allude to it with promises of hope and joy in the gospel era, Isa. 65 : 10 ; Hos. 2:15. The northern boun dary of Judah reached it, Josh. 15 : 7; from which it would seem to have lain south of Jericho, which was in Benjamin. ACH'SAH, anklet, the daughter of Caleb, given in marriage with a large dowry to his nephew Othniel, as a prize for taking the city Debir, Josh. 15 : 15-19 ; Judg. 1 : 13. ACH'&HAPH, fascination, a royal city of the Canaanites, Josh. 11 : 1, conquered by Joshua, and assigned to the tribe of Asher, Josh. 12:20; 19:25. Dr. Robinson finds its ruins, now called Kesaf, a little south west of the curve of the Orontes, more than half way from Tyre to the Upper Jordan. ACH'ZIB, lying, I., a city of Asher, from which, however, the Jews were unable to expel the Canaanites, Judg. 1 131. It was afterwards called by the Greeks Ecdippa, and is now named Zib ; it lay on the sea- coast, 10 miles north of Acre. II. Probably called Chezib in Gen. 38 : 5, a town in the plain of Judah, towards La- chish and Gath, Josh. 15 : 44. See also Mic. 1 : 14, where the word rendered a lie is also achzib. 13 ACR BIBLE DICTIONARY. ADA A'CRE, i Sam. 14: 14; Isa. 5: 10, literally a yoke, as much land as a yoke of oxen would plough in a day. ACTS op the APOSTLES, the 5th canon ical book of the New Testament, written by Luke as a sequel to his Gospel, and a history in part of the early church from A. D. 30 to 63, Luke 1:1-4; Acts 1:1. It is not, however, a record of the acts of all the apostles, but chiefly of those of Peter and Paul. In his Gospel, Luke described the founding of Christianity in what Christ did, taught, and suffered : in the Acts he illus trates its diffusion, selecting what was best fitted to show how the Holy Spirit guided and blessed the first followers of Christ in building up his church. Beginning where his Gospel ended, he narrates the ascension of the Saviour and the conduct of the dis ciples thereupon; the outpouring of the Holy Spirit according to Christ's promise; the miraculous preaching of the apostles, their amazing success, and the persecutions raised against them, with other events of moment to the church at Jerusalem, till they were scattered abroad. He then shows how Judaism was superseded, and how Peter was led to receive to Christian fellowship converts from the Gentiles. The 2d divis ion of the narrative is devoted to the con version and calling of the apostle Paul, his missionary zeal, labors, and sufferings chiefly among the Gentiles, and ends with his 2 years' imprisonment at Rome. Luke himself witnessed, to a great ex tent, the events he narrates. See Acts 16 : 11 ; 20:6 to 28 : 31. His Greek is the most classical in the New Testament; and the view he gives of the spirit of the early church, so many of whose members had "been with the Lord," is invaluable. The book was probably written about A. D. 63 or -64, that is, soon after the time at which the narration terminates. The place where it was written is not known, but may have been Rome. Its genuineness was univer sally recognized by the early church, and is confirmed by the searching criticism of modern times. In order to read the Acts of the Apostles with intelligence and profit, it is necessary to have a sufficient acquaintance with geog raphy, with the manners of the times and people referred to, and with the leading historical events. The power of the Ro mans, with the nature and names of the public offices they established, and the dis tinctions among them, must be understood, as well as the disposition and political opinions of the unconverted Jewish nation, which were too prevalent among the Chris tianized Hebrews.- AD'AM, the progenitor and representa tive head of our race ; formed of the dust of the ground, to which (its redness) his name refers, and made a living soul by the Creator's breath. The account of the crea tion, etc., in Genesis, seems to be in 3 parts : the ist, ch. 1 : 1 to 2 : 3, being general and preliminary ; the 2d, ch. 2 : 4 to 4 : 26, rela ting to Paradise and the fall, and the fam ily of Adam ; and the 3d, ch. 5 : 1 to 9 : 29, giving the history of the patriarchs, down to Noah. See Creation. Adam alone, of all beings on earth, was made " in the image and likeness of God " — with reason, conscience, the faculty of knowing, loving, and communing with God, etc., and was the greatest and last work of the creation, and received domin ion over all that the earth contained. That he might not be alone, God provided Eve as a helpmeet for him, and she became his wife. Marriage is thus a divine institu tion, first in order of time, as well as of importance and blessedness to mankind. Adam was made a perfect man —complete in every physical, mental, and spiritual endowment; and placed in the garden of Eden on probation, holy and happy, but liable to sin. From this estate he fell by breaking the express command of God, through the temptations of Satan and the compliance of Eve ; and thus brought the curse upon himself and all his posterity. Sovereign grace interposed ; a Saviour was revealed, and the full execution of the curse stayed ; but Adam was banished from Eden and its tree of life, and reduced to a life of painful toil. His happiness was fur ther imbittered by witnessing the fruits of his fall in his posterity. Cain his firstborn son, and Abel the second, born in the like ness of their fallen parents, were erelong lost to them — the one slain, and the other a fugitive. They had many other sons and daughters, but the name of Seth alone is given. Adam lived to the age of 930 years, and saw the earth rapidly peopled by his descendants ; but " the wickedness of man was great upon the earth." At the time of his death, Lamech, the father of Noah, was 56 years of age ; and being in the line of those who "walked with God," had proba bly heard the early history of the race from the lips of the penitent Adam. The curse pronounced on man include? not only physical labor and toil on a bar- ADA BIBLE DICTIONARY. ADO ren and thorny earth, and the physical dissolution of the body, but also the ex posure ofthe soul, the nobler part, to ever lasting death. In that very day Adam lost the moral image of his Maker, and became subject not only to physical death, but also to God's eternal wrath and curse, which is death in the highest sense of the word, and is the doom which has fallen upon all his race. Such is the view of the apostle Paul, who everywhere contrasts the death intro duced into the -world through Adam with the life which is procured for the redeemed through Jesus Christ, Rom. 5. This life is spiritual ; and the death, in its highest sense, is also spiritual. So far as the pen alty is temporal and physical, no man is or can be exempt from it ; but to remove the spiritual and eternal punishment, Christ has died ; and he who comes to Him in penitence and faith will avoid the threat ened death, and enter into Jife eternal, both of the body and the soul. The Redeemer is called " the 2d Adam," 1 Cor. 15 : 45, as being the head of his spir itual seed, and the source of righteousness and life to all believers, as the ist Adam was the source of sin and death to all his seed. II. A city near the Jordan, towards the Sea of Tiberias, near which the waters of the Jordan began to be heaped up to open a dry passage for the Jews, Josh. 3 : 16. AD'AMANT, an old English name for the diamond, the hardest of all minerals. It is used for cutting or writing on glass and other hard substances, Jer. 17 : 1. It is also employed figuratively, Ezek. 3:9; Zech. 7 : 12. The diamond as a precious stone seems to have been unknpwn to the an cients, and some other hard and sharp mineral is meant, probably the smiris or emery-stone. A'DAR, the 1 2th month of the Hebrew ecclesiastical year, and the 6th of the civil year. On the 14th and 15th of this month occurred the celebrated feast of Purim, Esth. 3:7; 8:12; 9:21. It nearly answered to our March. As the lunar year, which the Jews follow, is shorter than the solar year by 1 1 days, which, after 3 years, make about a month, they then insert a 13th month, which they call Ve-Adar, or a 2d Adar. See Month. AD'DER, a species of serpent, more com monly called viper. The word adder is used 5 times in the Bible, as a translation of 4 different Hebrew words, denoting dif ferent serpents of the venomous sort. In Gen. 49: 17, it seems to -mean the cerastes, or horned viper, of the color of sand, and very deadly bite ; accustomed to lie hidden in the tracks in the sand, and dart up on the unwary traveller. In Psa. 58 : 4 ; 91 : 13, it is probably the asp. In Psa. 140 : 3 per haps the tarantula, or some serpent that strikes backward. See Serpent, Viper. ADJURE', to put one under oath, so bind ing him to speak or act as in the presence of God, Josh. 6:26; 1 Sam. 14:24; Matt. 26 : 63 ; Mark 5 : 7. See Oath. AD'MAH, earthy, one of the 4 cities in the plain of Siddim destroyed by fire from heaven, generally believed to be covered by the Dead Sea, Gen. 10 : 19 ; 14 : 2 ; 19 : 24, 25; Deut. 29:23; Hos. 11:8. ADONIBE'ZEK, lord of Bezek, the title of a Canaanite tyrant of Bezek, a city of Judah. Having taken 70 of the neigh boring petty chiefs, he disabled them for war by cutting off their thumbs and great toes, and fed them like dogs. The same barbarous treatment was deservedly me ted out to him, when defeated at the head of an army of Canaanites and Perizzites, by Judah and Simeon, Judg. 1 : 4-7. ADONI'JAH, fehovah is my Lord, the 4th son of David, by Haggith, 2 Sam. 3 : 4. After the death of Amnon and Absalom, and prob ably Chileab, he aspired to the throne, al though it was divinely promised to Solo mon, his younger brother. Having gained over Joab and Abiathar and other adhe rents, he at length openly revolted and claimed the crown while David was yet liv ing. The news of this revolt being brought to the king, he caused Solomon to be crowned king at once; upon which the friends of Adonijah dispersed, and he took refuge at the horns of the altar. Solomon dismissed him with only an admonition— a magnanimous course, very different from the prevalent custom in the East. But soon after the death of David he applied for the 15 ADO BIBLE DICTIONARY. ADR hand of Abishag, thus renewing his preten sions to the throne, for which he was put to death, i Kin. i, 2. ADONI'RAM, lord of height, a receiver of tributes under David and Solomon, and director of the 30,000 men sent to Lebanon to cut timber, 1 Kin. 4:6; 5 : 14. The same person is also called Adoram, by contrac tion, 2 Sam. 20:24; 1 Kin. 12: 18; and also Hadoram, 2 Chr. 10 : 18. He was stoned to death by the revolted 10 tribes, having been sent to them by Rehoboam, either to in duce them to return, or to test them by gathering the taxes. ADONI-ZE'DEK, lord of justice, the offi cial title of an Amorite king of Jerusalem, who made an alliance with 4 other kings against Joshua. A great battle was fought at Gibeon, where the Lord aided Israel by a terrific hailstorm, and by miraculously prolonging the day. The 5 kings were ut terly routed, and hid themselves in a cave at Makkedah; but were taken by Joshua, and put to death, Josh. 10. ADOP'TION is an act by which a person takes a stranger into his family, acknowl edges him as his child, and constitutes him heir of his estate. As a national custom, it was more common among the Romans than with the Jews, the Mosaic laws as to tribes, families, and inheritances standing in its way. Jacob's adoption of his 2 grandsons, Ephraim and Manasseh, Gen. 48 : 5, was a kind of substitution whereby he intended that these his grandsons should have each his lot in Israel, as if they had been his own sons. As he gives no inheritance to their father Joseph, the effect of this adop tion was simply the doubling of their inher itance. But Scripture affords instances of anoth er kind of adoption — that of a father hav ing a daughter only, and adopting her chil dren. Thus, 1 Chr. 2:21, Machir, grandson of Joseph, and father of Gilead, Num. 26 : 29, gave his daughter to Hezron, and their posterity are reckoned as sons of Machir, the father of Gilead. Nay, more, it ap pears, Num. 32:41, that Jair, who was in fact the son of Segub, the son of Hezron, the son of Judah, is expressly called "Jair, the son of Manasseh," because his mater nal great-grandfather was Machir the son of Manasseh. In like manner we read that Mordecai adopted Esther, his cousin; he took her to himself to be a daughter, Esth. 2:7. So the daughter of Pharaoh adopted Moses, and he became her son, Exod. 2 : 10. So we read, Ruth 4:17, that Naomi had a 16 son — a Son is bern to Naomi ; when indeed it was the son of Ruth. At the present day, adoption is not un common in the East, where it is made before a public officer with legal forms. In the New Testament, adoption denotes that act of God's free grace by which, on being justified through faith, we are re ceived into the family of God, and made heirs of the inheritance of heaven. It is " in Christ," and through his atoning mer its, that believers "receive the adoption of sons," Gal. 4 : 4, 5. Some of the privileges of this state are, deliverance from a fearful and servile spirit ; the special love and care of our Heavenly Father ; conformity to his image ; a filial confidence in him ; free ac cess to him at all times ; the witness of the Holy Spirit, whereby we cry, " Abba, Fa ther;" and a title to our heavenly home, Rom. 8 : 14-17 ; 9 : 4 ; Eph. 1 : 4, 5. ADORA'IM, 2 mounds j a town in the south of Judah, fortified by Rehoboam, 2 Chr. 11:9. Now Dura, a large village 5 miles west by south from Hebron. ADO'RAM, see Adoniram. ADORA'TION, see Worship. ADRAM'MELECH, splendor of the king, I., son of Sennacherib, king of Assyria, Isa. 37:38; 2 Kin. 19:37; 2 Chr. 32:21, who, upon returning to Nineveh after his fatal expedition against Hezekiah, was killed by his 2 sons, Adrammelech and Sharezer, through fear, according to a Jewish tradi tion, of being sacrificed to his idol Nisroch. They then fled to the mountains of Arme nia, B. C. 711. II. One of the gods adored by the inhab itants of Sepharvaim, who settled in Sama ria, in the stead of those Israelites who were carried beyond the Euphrates. They made their children pass through fire, in honor of this false deity, and of another called Anammelech, 2 Kin. 17 : 31. Some think that Adrammelech represented the sun, and Anammelech the moon. ADRAMYT'TIUM, a large maritime town of Mysia, in Asia Minor, opposite to the island of Lesbos, Acts 27 : 2. Paul no doubt visited it during his tours in Asia Minor, Acts 16:8; 27:2. It is now called Adra- myti. A'DRIA, in Acts 27 : 27, is the Adriatic Sea, lying between Italy and Greece, and extending on the south from Crete to Sici ly ; within it the island of Malta or Melita lies. So Ptolemy and Strabo. A'DRIEL, flock of God, a son of Barzil lai, married Merab, daughter of Saul, who ADU BIBLE DICTIONARY. AGA had been promised to David, i Sam. 18 : 19. Adriel had 5 sons by her, who were deliv ered up to the Gibeonites, to be put to death before the Lord, to avenge the cruel ty of Saul their grandfather against the Gibeonites. From 2 Sam. 21:8 it would seem that Michal, David's wife, had adopt ed the children of her sister Merab. ADULLAM, justice of the people, an an cient city in the "plain of Judah," south west of Jerusalem, probably not far from Eleutheropolis, Gen. 38 : 1 ; Josh. 15 : 35. Its king was slain by Joshua, Josh. 12 : 15. It was one of the cities rebuilt and fortified by Rehoboam, 2 Chr. 11 ; 7; Mic. 1 : 15, and was rebccupied by the Jews after the cap tivity, Neh. 11 :30. When David withdrew from Gath, he re tired to the " cave of Adullam," 1 Sam. 22 : 1. The location of this cave, however, is un certain. Tradition places it in the hill country, about 6 miles southeast of Bethle hem, the city of David; a large and fine cave at Khureitiln, visited by many travel lers. It is capable of holding thousands. Its vicinity to Bethlehem, whence the 3 war riors obtained water for David, agrees with this location of the cave, 2 Sam. 23 : 13, 14. Lieut. Conder places the cave 13 miles from Bethlehem, in the valley of Elah, near Adullam, where is a row of smaller caves still often used for shelter. ADUL'TERY is a criminal connection be tween a married man or woman and any other person than the lawful spouse; and thus it exceeds the guilt of fornication, which is the same intercourse between un married persons. As the highest sin of its kind, and so including all other sins of the flesh, it is forbidden in the 7th command ment. Where polygamy was allowed, as among the ancient Jews, illicit intercourse between a married man and a woman who was not married, nor betrothed, constituted not adultery, but fornication. Fornication may be, in some sense, cov ered by a subsequent marriage of the par ties ; but adultery cannot be so healed. Hence God often compares himself to a husband jealous of his honor, Jer. 31 :32; and hence the forsaking of the true God is compared to fornication and adultery of the vilest kind, Jer. 3:9; Ezek. 23 : 36-49. By the law of Moses, both the man and the woman who had committed adultery were punished with death by stoning, Lev. 20 : 10 . Deut. 22 : 22-24 ; John 8:5; or even by fire, Lev. 21:9. See Gen. 38:24. A woman suspected of this crime might, in order to clear herself, drink the " water o( jealousy," as prescribed in Num. 5. By our Saviour adultery only is made a sufficient ground for divorce, Matt. 19 : 9. ADUM'MIM, a border town of Benjamin and Judah, not far from Jericho on the road to Jerusalem. This ascent through a des olate and rocky region, Josh. 15:7; 18:17, furnished many lurking-places for robbers, and was the scene of our Saviour's para ble, The Good Samaritan, Luke 10. AD'VERSARY, see ACCUSER. AD'VOCATE, or Par'aclete, one that pleads the cause of another. In its tech nical sense, the office was unknown to the Jews till they became subject to the Ro mans. See Tertullus. It is applied to Christ as our intercessor, 1 John 2:1; com pare Rom. 8 : 34 ; Heb. 7 : 25 ; and to the Holy Spirit, as our teacher and comforter, John 14: 16; 15 : 26. .ffi'NEAS, a Greek, or Grecian Jew, at Lydda, healed of palsy by Peter, Acts 9: 33, 34- .flS'NON, see Enon. AFFIN'ITY, 1 Kin. 3 : 1, relationship by marriage, as consanguinity is relationship by blood. In early ages, good men sought wives among their kindred who worshipped the true God, Gen. 1 1 : 29 ; 24 : 2-4 ; 28 : 2. The degrees within which relatives were forbidden by the Levitical law to intet- marry may be found in Lev. 18. AG'ABUS, locust," a prophet " ofthe early church, perhaps one of " the 70 " disciples of Christ. He foretold the famine, of which Suetonius and others speak, in the days of Claudius, A. D. 44. It was very severe in Judaea; and aid was sent to the church at Jerusalem from Antioch, Acts 11:27-29. Many years after, at Csesarea, Agabus pre dicted the sufferings of Paul at the hands of the Jews, Acts 21 : 10. A'GAG, flame, a general name of the kings of the Amalekites, apparently like Pharaoh for Egyptian kings, Num. 24 : 7 ; 1 Sam. 15 : 8. The last one mentioned in Scripture was " hewed in pieces " by Sam uel, before the Lord. He seems to have incurred an uncommon punishment by in famous cruelties, 1 Sam. 15 : 33. Agagite, in Esther 3:1,10; 8 : 3, 5, is used to mark the nation whence Haman sprang, and to account for his hatred of the Jews. Josephus explains the word by Amalekite. AG' ATE, a precious stone, said to take its name from the river Achates in Sicily, where it abounded. Agates are semi-trans parent, and often beautifully veined and 17 AGE BIBLE DICTIONARY. AHA clouded, and present in miniature the pic ture of many natural objects. The agate was the 2d stone in the 3d row of the high- priest's breastplate, Exod. 28:19; 39:12. In Isa. 54 : 12 and Ezek. 27 : 16, a different Hebrew word is used, denoting perhaps the ruby. AGE. Old age, serene and wise, was re garded as a token of God's favor, Job 5 : 26 ; Zech. 8:4. The aged were venerated for their wisdom, Job 15:10; 32:4; and the law required the young to honor them, Lev. 19:32. See 1 Kin. 12:6-16; Prov. 16:31; 20 : 29. AG'RICULTURE. In early ages men lived a pastoral life, and the change to an agricultural life among the Jews took place on their settling in the land of promise, where each family received an inalienable inheritance, Lev. 25 : 8-16, 23-35. The soil of Palestine amply repaid the labor and care expended upon it — especially requi ring terraces and artificial irrigation. See Canaan. There are frequent allusions in the Bible to ploughing, sowing, watering, reaping, threshing, garnering, etc. ; it was customary to watch over the ripening crop ; the firstfruits were devoted to the Lord, as well as tithes of all ; and the poor were provided for by the divine law, Lev. 19:9; 23 : 22 ; Deut. 24 : 19-21 ; Ruth 2 : 2, 7-9. See Ploughing, Threshing, Rain, Sabbati cal Year. AGRIP'PA, see Herod III., IV. A'GUR, gatherer, an inspired Hebrew, author of the 30th chapter of Proverbs, in corporated with those of Solomon. A'HAB, uncle, I., the 7th king of Israel, succeeded his father Omri B. C, 918, and reigned 22 years. No king ofthe Jews has left a sadder record. His wife was Jezebel, daughter of Ethbaal king of Tyre ; an am bitious and passionate idolatress, through whose influence the worship of Baal and Ashtoreth was introduced in Israel. Ahab erected in Samaria a house of Baal, and set up images of Baal and Ashtoreth ; idolatry and wickedness became fearfully preva lent, the prophets of God were slain, his worship forbidden, and the king " did more to provoke the Lord to anger than all the kings that were before him." In the midst of this great apostasy, God visited the land with 3 years of drought and famine ; and then, at Mount Carmel, reproved idolatry by fire from heaven, and by the destruction of 450 prophets of Baal and 400 of Astarte. About 6 years later, Ben-hadad, king of Syria, invaded Israel with a great army, 18 but was ignominiously defeated ; and still more disastrously the year after, when Ahab took him captive, but soon released him, and thus incurred the displeasure of God. In spite of the warnings and mercies of Providence, Ahab went on in sin ; and at length, after the murder of Naboth, near his palace in Jezreel, his crimes and idola tries were such that God sent Elijah to de nounce judgments upon him and his seed. These were in part deferred, however, by his apparent humiliation. Soon after, hav ing gone with Jehoshaphat, king of Judah, to regain Ramoth-gilead from the Syrians, and joined battle with them in defiance of Jehovah, he was slain, and dogs licked up his blood at the pool of Samaria, 1 Kin. 16 : 29 to 22 : 40. II. A false prophet, who seduced the Is raelites at Babylon, and was denounced by Jeremiah and burned by Nebuchadnezzar, Jer. 29: 21, 22. AHASUE'RUS, lion-king, a royal title, common to several Median and Persian kings named in Scripture. I. The father of Darius the Mede, Dan. 9:1, B. C. 634. The most probable opinion is, that the name here designates Astyages, the last independent king of the Medes, father of Darius, who is the Cyaxares II. of Xeno- phon, and whose daughter Mandane was the mother of the famous Cyrus. See Cy rus and Darius I. II. Mentioned Ezra 4 : 6, probably Cam- byses, the son and successor of Cyrus, who reigned 9 or 10 years from B. C. 529. He was an unscrupulous despot, and a mur derer of his own brother and sister. He conquered Egypt, but was unsuccessful in attempts on Ethiopia and Carthage. His crimes provoked the rebellion in which the pseudo-Smerdis secured the throne. See Artaxerxes I. III. The husband of Esther, probably Xerxes, the 2d son of Darius Hystaspis, and father of Artaxerxes Longimanus. He is famous for his invasion of Greece at the head of 1,000,000 of men, and his defeat at Thermopylae and Salamis, whence he returned, in the 7th year of his reign, to seek comfort in his harem, and to repair the wastes of war by a general taxation, Esth. 10: 1. The Hebrew word for Ahasu- erus is formed from the Persian name of Xerxes ; and the feast in his 3d year, and the enlargement of his harem, Esth. 1:3; 2 : 1-4, sychronize with facts stated by He rodotus respecting Xerxes. See Esther. AHA'VA, water, a town in Chaldea, and AHA BIBLE DICTIONARY. AHI a stream on the banks of which the exiled Jews assembled their 2d caravan under Ezra, when returning to Jerusalem, Ezra 8 : 15, 21, 31. It may be the modern Hit on the Euphrates, nearly in the latitude of Damascus and Bagdad. A'HAZ, possessor, son of Jotham, and nth king of Judah. He ascended the throne at 20, or, as some ancient texts have it, 25 years of age, and reigned 16 years, 2 Kin. 16:1, 2, 20, B. C. 741-725. He was distin guished for his idolatry and contempt of the true God ; and against him many of the prophecies of Isaiah are directed, Isa. 7, 8, 9. He made his own children pass through the fire to idols ; he introduced the Syrian gods into Jerusalem, altered the temple after the Syrian model, and even closed it altogether. Having thus forfeited the aid of Jehovah, he met various repulses in battle with Pekah and Rezin; the Edom- ites revolted, and the Philistines harassed his borders. He turned yet more away from God in his distress, and sought aid from Pul, king of Assyria. This fatal step made him tributary to Pul, and to Tiglath- pileser his successor. Ahaz was reduced to great extremities in buying off the As syrians ; but became more infatuated still in idolatry, 2 Kin. 23: n, 12, and dying in his impiety at the age of 36, was refused a burial with the kings his ancestors, 2 Chr. 28. AHAZI'AH, upheld by the Lord, I., son and successor of Ahab, and 8th king of Israel, 1 Kin. 22:40, 51; 2 Kin. 1. He reigned 2 years, alone and with his father, who associated him in the kingdom the year before his death, B. C. 896. Ahaziah imitated Ahab's impiety, and worshipped Baal and Astarte, whose rites had been in troduced into Israel by Jezebel his mother. During his reign the Moabites revolted. Having joined king Jehoshaphat in a com mercial enterprise on the Red Sea, his im piety blasted the whole, 2' Chr. 20:35-37. After a fall from the gallery of his house, he sent to consult a god of the Philistines as to his recovery. Elijah the prophet fore told his speedy death — first to the messen gers, and again to Ahaziah himself, after 2 companies of 50 had been consumed by fire from heaven. II. Otherwise Jehoahaz, or Azariah, king of Judah, son of Jehoram and Athaliah, and 5th king of Judah ; he succeeded his father B. C. 885, 2 Kin. 8:25; 2 Chr. 22:2. He was 22 years of age when he ascended the throne, and reigned but I year at Jerusa lem. He followed the house of Ahab, to which he was allied by his mother, and did evil. He met his death at the hand of Jehu, while visiting Joram, son of Ahab. The 2 accounts of his death do not neces sarily conflict. He seems to have escaped at first from Jehu and concealed himself in Samaria ; then to have been seized and brought before Jehu, smitten in his chariot at Gur, and to have expired at Megiddo. AHI' AH, brother of the Lord, son of Ahi- tub, and high-priest in the reign of Saul, 1 Sam. 14 : 3, 18. He was probably the bro ther of his successor Ahimelech, slain by Saul, 1 Sam. 22 : 9. AHI'JAH, brother of the Lord, in Shiloh, a prophet and chronicler of the times of Solomon and Jeroboam, 1 Kin. 11:29; 2 Chr. 9 : 29. He is thought to be the person who spoke in God's name to Solomon while building the temple, 1 Kin. 6:11; and again after he fell into sin, 1 Kin. n : n. He no tified Jeroboam of the separation of Israel from Judah, and of the foundation of his house — the ruin of which he afterwards foretold, 1 Kin. 14:1-14. He was fearless and faithful. AHI'KAM, brother who stands, sent by Josiah to Huldah the prophetess, when the book of the law was found in the temple, 2 Kin. 22 : 12. He and his son Gedaliah, afterwards governor of Jerusalem, nobly befriended the prophet Jeremiah, Jer. 26 : 24 ; 39 : 14. AHIM'AAZ, brother of anger, the son and successor of Zadok, who probably became high-priest in the reign of Solomon. Dur ing the reign of David, he revealed to him the counsels of Absalom and his advisers in rebellion, 2 Sam. 17:15-21; and con veyed to him also the tidings of Absalom's defeat and death, 2 Sam. 18. AHIM'ELECH, brother ofthe king, I., son of Ahitub, and brother of Ahiah, whom he succeeded- in the high-priesthood. Some think, however, that both names belong to the same person. During his priesthood the tabernacle was at Nob, where Ahime lech dwelt, with many priests. Here he received David when fleeing from Saul, and gave him the show-bread and Goliath's sword. This act, as reported by Doeg the Edomite, Saul viewed as treasonous ; and by the hand of this idolatrous and malig nant foreigner he put Ahimelech and 85 other priests of Jehovah to death, 1 Sam. 22 — a crime sufficient of itself to forfeit the throne and the favor of God. II. Also called Abimelech, 1 Chr. 18 : 16, 19 AHI BIBLE DICTIONARY. ALA probably the same as Abiathar, which see, i Chr. 24:3, 6, 31. AHIN'OAM, brother of grace, I., daughter of Ahimaaz, and wife of Saul, 1 Sam. 14:50. II. A woman of Jezreel, wife of David and mother of Amnon, 1 Sam. 25 : 43 ; 27 : 3. She was taken captive by the Amalekites, at Ziklag, 1 Sam. 30 : 5 ; but was recovered by David, and accompanied him to Hebron, 2 Sam. 2:2; 3:2. AHI'O, brotherly, a son of Abinadab, who went before the ark of God on its way to Jerusalem from his father's house ; thus escaping the fate of Uzzah his brother, 2 Sam. 6 : 3, 7 ; 1 Chr. 13 : 7. AHITH'OPHEL, brother of folly, a native of Giloh in Judah, originally one of David's most intimate and valued friends and coun sellors, Psa. 41 : 9; 2 Sam. 16:23; but upon the defection and rebellion of Absalom, he espoused the cause of that prince, and be came one of David's bitterest enemies. Being disappointed that Absalom did not follow his sagacious advice, and foreseeing the issue of the rebellion, he hanged him self, 2 Sam. 15:12; ch. 17; Psa. 55:12-14. Ahithophel seems to have been the grand father of Bathsheba, 2 Sam. 23 : 34, com pared with n :3; and the loss of his friend ship may have been one of David's penal ties for wronging Bathsheba. AHI'TUB, brother of goodness, I., grand son of Eli, and son of Phinehas, in whose place he succeeded to the high-priesthood on the death of Eli, Phinehas having per ished in battle, B. C. 1141, 1 Sam. 4: n. II. Son of Amariah, and father of Zadok, 2 Sam. 8:17; 1 Chr. 6:8. AHO'LAH, her tent, and AHOL'IBAH, my tabernacle in her, 2 symbolical names, adopted by Ezekiel, 23 : 4, to denote the 2 kingdoms of Samaria and Judah. They are represented as sisters, and of Egyp tian extraction. The allegory is a history of the Jewish church. AHOLIBA'MAH, my tabernacle is on high, also called Judith, Gen. 26 : 34, a Hit- tite woman of Mount Hor, one of the 3 wives of Esau. Her 3 sons were heads of families or tribes in Edom, Gen. 36 : 18. A'l, ruins, called also Hai, Gen. 12:8; Aija, Neh. n : 31 ; and Aiath, Isa. 10:28. A royal city of the Canaanites, east of Bethel, near which Abraham once sojourned and built an altar, Gen. 12:8; 13 : 3. It is mem orable for Joshua's defeat on account of Achan, and his subsequent victory, Josh. 7 : 2-5 ; 8 : 1-29. It was rebuilt, and is men tioned by Isaiah. 20 AI'JELETH-SHAHAR, hind of the morn ing, in the title of Psalm 22, is conjectured to denote the melody to which the Psalm was sung. A'lN, eye, fountain, spelt En in the Eng lish Bible, in compound words, as En-rogel. It is the name of a city of Judah, afterwards assigned to Simeon, Josh. 15 : 32 ; 1 Chr. 4 : 32. It was given to the priests, Josh. 21 : 16 ; and called Ashan in 1 Chr. 6 : 59. Also a place in the north of Canaan, west of Riblah, Num. 34:11. AIR. The air or atmosphere surround ing the earth is often denoted by the word heaven ; so " the fowls of heaven " means the birds of the air. To "beat the air," and to " speak in the air," 1 Cor. 9 : 26 ; 14 : 9, signify to speak or act without judgment, or to no purpose. " The powers of the air," Eph. 2 : 2, proba bly means devils — many Jews, and heathen also, regarding the lower part of the atmos phere as the home of spirits, especially evil spirits. Yet Paul does not say that this is his belief. AJ'ALON, or Aijalon, place of gazelles. I. A town in the tribe of Dan, assigned to the Levites, sons of Kohath, Josh. 19 : 42 ; 21:24; Judg. 1:35, and a city of refuge. It was not far from Timnath, and was ta ken by the Philistines from Ahaz, 2 Chr. 28 : 18. It lay on the south side of a fine valley, not far from the valley of Gibeon, and is recognized in the modern village of Yalo, near the road to Jaffa, some 14 mites from Jerusalem. The valley is the place where Joshua commanded the sun and moon to stand still, and they obeyed him, Josh. 10 : 12. See also 1 Sam. 14:31. II. A town in Benjamin, some 3 miles- east of Bethel. It was fortified by Rehobo am, 2 Chr. n : 10. Some regard this as the same place as the above, in possession of different tribes at different times, 1 Chr. 6:66,69. III. In the tribe of Zebulun, the place of Elon's burial, Judg. 12 : 12. AKRAB'BIM, scorpions, a point in the south frontier line of Judah, Judg. 1 : 36, and in a region infested with serpents and scor pions, Deut. 8 : 15. Robinson identifies it with a line of cliffs running across the val ley El-Ghor, some 8 miles south ofthe Dead Sea ; it is from 50 to 150 feet high, and 7 miles long. In Josh. 15 : 3, it is called Maa- leh-acrabbim, the ascent of Akrabbim. AL' ABASTER, from Alabastron in Egypt ; a sort of stone, of fine texture, either the white gypsum, a sulphate of lime, or the ALA BIBLE DICTIONARY. ALE onyx-alabaster, a hard carbonate of lime, having the color of the human nail, and nearly allied to marble. This material being very generally used to fabricate ves sels for holding unguents and perfumed liquids, many vessels were called alabas ter though made of a different substance, EGYPTIAN BOTTLES. as gold, silver, glass, etc. In Matt. 26 : 6, 7, we read that Mary, sister of Lazarus, John 12:3, pouned an alabaster box of precious ointment on Christ's head. Mark says " she brake the box," or the neck of the flask; which may indicate her eagerness in honoring Christ, or that the seal which kept the perfume from evaporating had never been removed — it was on this occa sion first opened. See Cruse, Spikenard. AL'AMOTH, virgins, a musical term, in dicating probably music for female voices, Psa. 46, title ; 1 Chr. 15 : 20. ALEXAN'DER, helper of men, I., the Great, the famous son and successor of Philip, king of Macedon. He is alluded to in Dan. 7:6; 8:4-7, under the figures of a leopard with 4 wings, and a one-horned he-goat, representing the swiftness and ex tent of his conquests and his great strength. He was appointed by God to destroy the Persian Empire and substitute the Grecian. In the statue seen by Nebuchadnezzar in his dream, Dan. 2 : 39, the belly of brass was the emblem of Alexander, and the legs of iron the Roman power. See Darius III. He succeeded his father B. C. 336, and within 12 years overran Syria, Palestine, and Egypt, founded* Alexandria, conquered the Persians, and penetrated far into the Indies. It is related by Josephus that he visited Jerusalem, and was appeased by the high-priest Jaddua, Neh. 12:11, 22, whom he had seen in a vision ; and that he offered sacrifices in the temple, heard the proph ecies of Daniel concerning him, and con ferred favors on the Jews in Judaea and Babylonia. He died at Babylon at the age of 32, from the effects of intemperance, and left his vast empire to be divided among his 4 generals. The conquests of Alex ander, by giving the Greek language and civilization such an ascendancy in Pales tine and the countries around it, wonder fully prepared the way for the diffusion of the gospel. The Septuagint version of the Old Testament, 200 years before Christ, was in general use among Hellenistic Jews ; and the New Testament writers found in this widely-diffused language the best means of making this new revelation known to the world. See Alexandria, Talent. II. Son of Simon the Cyrenian, Mark 15:21, apparently one of the more promi nent early Christians. III. One of the council which condemned Peter and John, Acts 4 : 6. IV. A Jew of Ephesus, who sought in vain to quiet the popular commotion respecting Paul, Acts 19 : 33. V. A coppersmith, and apostate from Christianity, 1 Tim. 1 : 20 ; 2 Tim. 4 : 14., ALEXAN'DRIA, Acts 6:9, a celebrated city in Lower Egypt, between the Mediter ranean and the lake Mareotis, 12 miles from the most westerly mouth of the Nile. It was founded by Alexander the Great, B. C. 332, and peopled by colonies of Greeks and Jews ; it was the early home of Apol los, Acts 8 : 24. Alexandria rose rapidly to a state of prosperity, becoming the centre of commerciafintercourse between the East and the West, Acts 27 : 6 ; 28 : 1 1 , and in pro cess of time was, in point both of magnitude and wealth, second only to Rome itself. The ancient city was about 15 miles in circuit, peopled by 300,000 free citizens and as many slaves. From the gate of the sea ran one magnificent street, 2,000 feet broad, through the entire length of the city, to the gate of Canopus, affording a view of the shipping in the port, whether north in the Mediterranean, or south in the noble basin of the Mareotic lake, connected with the Mediterranean by 2 canals. Another street 21 ALE BIBLE DICTIONARY. ALE of equal width intersected this at right an gles, in a square half a league in circumfer ence. A magnificent lighthouse, one of the 7 " wonders of the world," stood opposite the city, on an island named Pharos. Upon the death of Alexander, whose body was deposited in this new city, Alexandria became the capital of Egypt, under the Ptol emies, and rose to its highest splendor in the reign of the first 3 princes of this name. The most celebrated philosophers from the East, as well as from Greece and Rome, resorted thither for instruction ; and emi nent men, in every department of knowl edge, were found within its walls. Ptolemy Soter, the 1st of that line of kings, formed the museum, the library of 700,000 volumes, and several other splendid works. Clem ent and Origen were born there. At the death of Cleopatra, B. C. 26, Alexandria passed into the hands of the Romans ; and was taken in A. D. 640 by the Saracens under Caliph Omar, and its library de stroyed. The present Alexandria, called Skan- deria, occupies only about the 8th part of the site of the ancient city. The splendid temples have been exchanged for wretched 22 mosques and miserable churches, and the magnificent palaces for mean and ill-built dwellings. But of late it has become a great commercial mart, and is growing rapidly. Many old streets are so narrow that the inhabitants can lay mats of reeds from one roof to the opposite, to protect them from the scorching sun. The popu lation of 240,000 consists of Turks, Arabs, Cop'.s, Jews, and Armenians. Many Euro peans have counting-houses here, and ex change European for Oriental merchan dise. One of the famous obelisks that for many years stood in its suburbs was re moved to London in 1877, and the other to New York in 1880. The Greek or Alexandrian version of the Scriptures was made here by learned Jews, 72 in number, according to the doubtful story of Josephus, and hence it is called the Septuagint, or version of the 70. The Jews established themselves in great numbers in this city very soon after it was founded. Josephus says that Alexander himself as signed to them a particular quarter of the city, and allowed them equal rights with the Greeks. Philo, who himself lived there in the time of Christ, affirms that, of 5 parts ALG BIBLE DICTIONARY. ALM of the city, the Jews inhabited 2. Jews from Alexandria had a synagogue in Jeru salem, Acts 6 : 9. AL'GUM, see Almug. ALL is sometimes used, as the context shows, in a general, not a literally univer sal sense, Exod. 9:6; Matt. 3:5; 10:22. AL'LEGORY, a figurative mode of dis course, which employs terms literally be longing to one thing, in order to express another. It is like a prolonged metaphor. Such are Nathan's address to David, 2 Sam. 12: 1-14, Psalm 80, and our Lord's parable of the sower, Luke 8 : 5-15. " Which things are an allegory," Gal. 4:24, means that these events in the life of Isaac and Ish mael have been allegorically applied. ALLELU'IA, see Hallelu'jah. ALLI'ANCE with the heathen, either by family and social intimacy or by entang ling political ties, was strictly forbidden to God's peculiar people, Ezra 9:2; Neh. 13 : 23-27 ; and in a special degree as to the ancient Canaanites, Deut. 7:3-6; Judg. 2: 2, 3. Hebrews, however, sometimes mar: ried converts from heathenism, as notably Rahab and Ruth ; and they were enjoined to maintain peaceful and friendly relations with other nations. But whenever they went beyond this, idolatry, corruption, and trouble ensued; as from Solomon's allian ces with Egypt, 1 Kin. 10:28, 29; 11:1-11. See also 2 Kin. 16:8-10; 17:4-18. See Covenant. AL'LON-BACHUTH', oak of weeping ; the spot where Rebekah's nurse was bur ied, Gen. 35:8. See Rebekah. ALL TO, an old English expression, giv ing additional force to a verb. " All to brake his skull," Judg. 9:53, thoroughly broke or crushed it. AL'MON-DIBLATHA'IM, covering of two cakes, one of the latest encampments of the Israelites on their way from Mount Hor to the plains of Moab, next before the mount ains called Abarim, Num. 33 : 46. AL'MOND-TREE, Gen. 43:11. This tree resembles a peach-tree, but is larger. In Palestine it blossoms in January, and in March has fruit. Its blossoms are pinkish white. Its Hebrew name signifies to watch and hasten, and to this there is an allusion in Jer. 1 : 11, 12. Aaron's rod was from an almond, Num. 17:8. In Eccl. 12:5, the hoary head is beautifully compared with the almond-tree, either on account of its whiteness, beauty, and winter blossoming, or the hastening on of decay. The golden bowls of the sacred candlestick were made ALMOND-TREE: AMYGDALJS COMMUNIS. " like almonds, with their knops and their .flowers," Exod. 25 :33, 34. LEAF, FLOWER, AND FRUIT OF THE ALMOND. ALMS, see Poor and Tithes. Alms giving is a Christian duty, Acts 10:31; 1 John 3 : 17, not to be practised ostenta tiously, Matt. 6:1-4, nor indiscriminately, 2 Thess. 3:10; but systematically, 1 Cor. 16 : 1-4, and liberally, 2 Cor. 9:6; Psa. 41 : 1. 23 ALM BIBLE DICTIONARY. ALT AL'MUG, or AL'GUM, a kind of wood which Hiram brought from Ophir for the use of Solomon in making pillars for the temple and his own house, and also musi- sandal-wood: santalum album. cal instruments, i Kin. io : n ; 2 Chr. 2:8; 9 : 10, 11. Perhaps what is now commonly called Brazil wood, which is also a native of the East Indies, Siam, the Molucca isl ands, and Japan, and has several species. Its wood is very durable, and is used in fine cabinet work. AL'OES, or more properly, Aloe, a tree of tropical Asia, yielding a rich perfume. Num. 24:6; Psa. 45:8; Prov. 7:17; Song 4 : 14. It was called by the Greeks Agallo- chon, and is known to moderns by the names of lign-aloe, paradise-wood, eagle- wood, etc. Botanists distinguish several kinds : one grows in Cochin-China, Siam, and China; arid another in Northern In dia. The tree is represented as large, with an erect trunk and lofty branches. Aloe- wood is said by Herodotus to have been used by the Egyptians for embalming dead bodies, and Nicodemus brought it, mingled with myrrh, to embalm the body of our Lord, John 19 : 39. This perfume is not the aloes of apothecaries. AL'PHA, see the letter A. ALPHJE'US, changing, I., father of the apostle James the Less, Matt. 10:3, Luke 6:15, and husband of the Mary regarded by many as sister to the mother of Christ, John 19:25. See Mary, I. and III. Com paring John 19:25 with Luke 24:18 and Matt. 10 : 3, it seems probable that Alphaeus 24 is the same as Cleophas; Alphaeus being his Greek name, and Cleophas or Clopas his Hebrew or Syriac name. II. Father of Matthew, or Levi, the evan gelist, Mark 2 : 14. AL'TAR, a table -like structure on which sacrifices and incense were of fered, built of various materials, usually of stone, but sometimes of brass, etc. Sacrifices were offered long before the flood, Gen. 4:3,4; but the first men tion of an altar in Scripture is when Noah left the ark, Gen. 8:20. Altars were reared by Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Moses. The latter built an altar of earth, Exod. 20 : 24. If stone was em ployed, it must be rough and unhewn, probably lest the practice of sculpture should lead them to violate the 2d com mandment. It was not to be furnished with steps, Deut. 27 : 2-6. From the first, the altar seems to have been the centre around which all religious services clus tered, even before the Jewish ritual was ordained. The altars in the Jewish tabernacle, and in the temple at Jerusalem, were the following: 1. The altar of burnt-offerings. 2. The altar of incense. 3. The table of show-bread, for which see Bread. 1. The Altar of Burnt - offerings was a kind of hollow coffer of shittim-wood covered with brass plates, about 7 feet 6 inches square, and 4 feet 6 inches in height, and was without steps, Exod. 20 : 26. At the four corners were 4 horns or elevations, Psa. 118:27. It was portable, and had rings and staves for bearing it, Ex. 27, 38. It was placed in the court before the taber nacle, towards the east. Its furniture was of brass, and consisted of a pan for the ashes that fell through the grating ; shov els ; basins for the blood with which thu ALT BIBLE DICTIONARY. AMA altar was sprinkled ; and forks, to turn and remove the pieces of flesh upon the coals ; also flesh-hooks and censers. The fire was a perpetual one, kindled miraculously, and carefully cherished, Lev. 6:12, 13 ; 9 : 24. Upon this altar the lamb of the daily morn ing and evening sacrifice was offered, and the other stated and voluntary blood-sac rifices and meat and drink offerings. To this also certain fugitives were allowed to flee and find protection, Exod. 21 : 13, 14; 1 Kin. 1 : 50. The altar in Solomon's tem ple was larger, being at least 30 feet square and 15 feet high, 2 Chr. 4:1. It is said to have been covered with thick plates of brass and filled with stones, with an ascent on the east side. It is often called "the brazen altar," Exod. 38:30. 2. The Altar of Incense, or Golden Altar, Exod. 39:38, was a small table of shittim-wood, covered with plates of gold ; it was 18 inches square and 3 feet high, Exod. 30; 37:25, etc. At the 4 corners were 4 horns, and all around its top was a little border or crown. On each side were 2 rings, into which staves might be inserted for carrying it. It stood in the Holy place ; not in the Holy of Holies, but before it, between the golden candlestick and the table of show-bread, and the priests burned incense upon it every morning and even- , ing. So Zacharias, Luke 1 :g, 11.* No other offering was permitted, Exod. 30 : 9, except yearly at the Feast of Atonement, Lev. 16 : 18, 19. See Temple. Altar at Athens, inscribed " to the un known God," Acts 17:23. It is certain, both from Paul's assertion and the testi mony of the Greek writers Pausanias and Philostratus, that altars to an unknown god or gods existed at Athens. Diogenes Laer- tius states that amid the terrors of a plague sheep were let loose in the streets, and sac rificed at the shrine near which they lay down. If some of these stopped where no altar was nigh, the people would offer them to appease the " unknown God " who abode on that spot, and whose power they hoped would do what their known gods' could not ; for many things reveal the conscious ness we know they must have had of the need of some God to adore and trust of vaster and nobler attributes than heathen ism could boast. AL-TAS'CHITH, destroy not, supposed to be the first words of some familiar refrain, to which the Psalms 57, 58, 59, and 75 were to be sung. AM'ALEK, a people that licks up, son of Eliphaz, grandson of Esau, and one of the princes of Edom, Gen. 36 : 12, 16. It is not certain that any distinct mention is made in the Bible of his posterity, people called Amalekites being in existence long be fore, Gen. 14:7; Num. 24:20. A rem nant of them may be referred to in 1 Chr. 4* 43- AM'ALEKITES, a powerful people, who dwelt in Arabia Petraea, between the Dead Sea and the Red Sea, Num. 13:29; and it does not appear that they possessed many cities, though one is mentioned in 1 Sam. 15 : 5. They lived generally in migrating parties, in caves or in tents, like the Bed ouin Arabs of the present day, Judg. 6 : 5. The Israelites had scarcely passed the Red Sea when the Amalekites attacked them in .the desert of Rephidim; and for this un provoked assault on the people of God the doom of extermination was passed upon them, Exod. 17 : 8-16. They came again into conflict with a part of the Israelites on the border of the promised land, Num. 14 : 45, and in the days of Ehud and Gideon, Judg. 3:13; 6:3; and after 400 years Saul at tacked and destroyed them at the com mand of the Lord, 1 Sam. 15. A remnant, however, escaped and subsisted after wards ; David defeated them on several occasions, 1 Sam. 27 : 8 ; 30 : 1 ; 2 Sam. 8 : 12; and they were finally blotted out in fulfilment of the prediction of Balaam, Num. 24:20. Haman, the last of the race mentioned in Scripture, perished like his fathers, in conflict with the Jews. See Agag and the book of Esther. AM'ANA, confirmation, the southern part or summit of Anti-Lebanon, adjacent to and north of Hermon, from which the river Amana or Abana poured down towards Damascus, Song 4 : 8. 25 AMA BIBLE DICTIONARY. AME AMARI'AH, the Lord says, I., son of Me- raioth, a descendant of Aaron in the line of Eleazar. He was the father of Ahitub ;il.), and grandfather of Zadok, in whose person the high-priesthood was restored to that line, i Chr. 6:7, 52. II. High-priest at a later period, a son of Azariah, and father of another Ahitub, i Chr. 6: 11. In like manner, in the same list there are 3 persons named Azariah. AM'ASA, a burden, I., David's nephew, the son of Abigail, David's sister, and Je- ther, an Ishmaelite. His parentage may have led David to show him less favor than his other nephews, and this may have dis posed him to join in the rebellion of Absa lom. He was the general of Absalom's army, and was defeated by his cousin Joab, 2 Sam. 17, 18. David afterwards offered him a pardon and the command of his troops in the place of Joab, whose over bearing conduct he could no longer endure, 2 Sam. 19 : 13. But in the confusion of She- ba's rebellion, Amasa was treacherously murdered by his powerful rival, 2 Sam. 20:4-10. B. C. 1022. II. A chief of Ephraim, who opposed re taining as bondsmen the men of Judah taken captive in a war with Pekah king of Israel, 2 Chr. 28 : 12. AMA'SAI, burdensome, a Levite, father of Mahath and ancestor of Ethan the sing er, 1 Chr. 6:25, 35. Perhaps the man who joined David with 30 gallant men, while in the desert flying from Saul, 1 Chr. 12 : 16-18. AMAZI'AH, the strength of the Lord, I., 9th king of Judah, son of Joash, began to reign B. C. 837, at the age of 25, and reigned 29 years in Jerusalem. He did good in the sight of the Lord, but not with a perfect heart. Having established himself in his throne and slain the murderers of his fa ther, he mustered a host of 300,000 men of Judah, and hired 100,000 men of Israel, for a war upon Edom. These hired forces he reluctantly dismissed at the command of God, who gave him the victory without their aid. But this did not prevent him from carrying home with him the idols of Edom, and setting them up as gods. For this defiance of Jehovah he was threatened with destruction by a prophet of the Lord ; and soon after went headlong into war with Joash king of Israel, in which he was defeated and humbled, being taken to his own capital as a captive, and obliged to ransom himself by treasures and hostages. Fifteen years after, he was slain by con- 26 spirators, after flying to Lachish to escape them, 2 Kin. 14:1-20; 2 Chr. 25. II. A priest of the golden calf at Bethel, who denounced the prophet Amos to Jero boam II., and sought to banish him into Judah for his fidelity, Amos 7 : 10-17. AMBASS'ADORS were sent by the Jews to foreign nations, not as permanent rep resentatives, but only as occasion required, in peace, 2 Kin. 14:8; 16:7; 18 : 14, as well as in war, Num. 20:14; 21:21; 1 Kin. 20: 2, 6. They were usually men of note, and their persons were held sacred, and indig nities to them avenged, 2 Sam. 10:1-5; 13 : 26-31. Ministers are Christ's ambassa dors, 2 Cor. 5 : 20 ; Eph. 6 : 20. AM'BER. The Hebrew word chashmal is translated by the Septuagint and Vul gate eleclrum, amber, and may deno'.e either amber itself or a very brilliant am ber-like metal, composed of 1 part silver and 4 parts gold, which was much prized in antiquity, Ezek.- 1:4, 27; 8:2. Others, as Bochart, refer here to a mixture of gold and brass, which exhibited a high degree of lustre. Something similar to this was probably also the "fine brass " in Ezra 8: 27 ; Rev. 1 : 15. A'MEN', firm, faithful, and true ; used as an adjective, an adverb, and a substan tive. God is called " the God of Amen" — truth, in Isa. 65 : 16. So in Rev. 3 : 14, our Lord is called "the Amen, the faithful and true Witness," where the last words ex plain the preceding appellation. See 2 Cor. 1 : 20. In its adverbial use it means cer tainly, truly, surely. It is used at the be ginning of a sentence by way of emphasis, frequently by our Saviour, and is transla ted Verily. In John's Gospel alone it is often used in this way double : Verily, ver ily. At the end of a sentence it is often used, singly or repeated, especially at the end of hymns and prayers ; as, " Amen and Amen," Psa. 41:13; 72:19; 89:52. This was the custom of the Jews, in private ; and of the early Christians, Matt. 6:13; 1 Cor. 14 : 16. The proper signification of it here is, to confirm the words which have prece ded, assert the sincerity, and invoke the fulfilment of them : So it is, So be it, Let it be done. Hence, in oaths, after the priest has repeated the words of the covenant or imprecation, all those who pronounce the Amen bind themselves by the oath, Num. 5:22; Deut. 27:15, etc; Neh. 5:13; 8:6; 1 Chron. 16:36. Compare Psa. 106:48. AMERCE', to punish by a fine, Deut. 22 : 19. The term implied that the debtor stood AME BIBLE DICTIONARY. AMO "at the mercy" of the creditor, who could pardon him if he pleased. AM'ETHYST, a precious stone of a violet- blue color, verging towards a purple. It is seldom uniform in color, and is generally cloudy and spotted with zigzag stripes. It is highly prized, Exod. 28 : 19; Rev. 21 : 20. AM'MI, my people, and RUHA'MAH, hav ing obtained mercy, were figurative names for God's covenant people; the word Lo, not, prefixed, gave these words the oppo site signification, Hos. 2:1. AMMIN'ADAB, my people is liberal, I., a son of Aram, a prince of the tribe of Judah, and father of Nahshon, He was one of the ancestors of Christ; and his daughter Eli- sheba was the wife of Aaron, Exod. 6 : 23 ; Ruth 4 : 20 ; Matt. 1 : 4. II. A son of Kohath, 1 Chr. 6 : 22. " The chariots of Amminadib," Song 6:12, were very light and swift, in allusion perhaps to some noted charioteer of that day. AM'MONITES, the descendants of Am nion, or Ben-Ammi, a son of Lot, Gen. 19 : 38. Their history throughout is involved with that of their brethren the Moabites. They destroyed an ancient race of giants called Zamzummim, and seized their coun try, which lay east of Judaea, Deut. 2 : 19-21. Their territory extended from the Arnon to the Jabbok, and from the Jordan a con siderable distance into Arabia. Their cap ital city was Rabbah (also called Rabbath Ammon, and afterwards Philadelphia), which stood on the Jabbok. Yet in the time of Moses they had been driven out of this region, towards the east, by the Ara- orites, Num. 21 : 21-35; 32:33- Moses was forbidden to assail them; Deut. 2 : 19. They were gross idolaters ; their chief idol being Moloch, 1 Kin. 11:5-7; 2 K>n- 23:13. They were a predatory race, fierce and cruel, 1 Sam. 11:2; Amos 1:13; and were early enemies of the Israelites, whom they op pressed in the time of Jephthah, and were defeated by him with great slaughter, Deut. 23 : 3-6 ; Judg. 11 ; and afterwards by Saul, 1 Sam. 11: 11; 14:47, and by David, etc., 2 Sam. 10-12; 2 Chr. 20:1-25. The chil dren of Ammon afterwards, at various times, troubled the Israelites, for which the prophets threatened them with divine judg ments, Jer. 49 : 1-6 ; Ezek. 25 : 2-10 ; and they were at last totally subdued by Judas Maccabeus, 1 Mace. 5:6-44. AM'NON, faithful, the eldest son of Da vid, by Ahinoam of Jezreel, 2 Sam. 3 : 2. He is known only by his guilt in violating his half-sister Tamar ; for which Absalom, 2 years after, caused him to be assassina ted, 2 Sam. 13, thus also getting an elder brother out of his way to the throne. LUXOR, A PART OF ANCIENT THEBES, FROM THE RIVER NILE. A'MON, or No-A'mon, or No, a city of I the Egyptian god Amon, called at Thebes ancient Egypt, the seat pr dwelling of I Amen-Ra, Nah. 3 : 8. Similar is its Greek 27 AMO BIBLE DICTIONARY. AMU name Diospolis, the city of fupiter-h.rn.on. In Ezek. 30:14, 15, 16, it is called simply No ; and in Nah. 3 : 8 and Jer. 46 : 25 also, the English version has only No. For "populous No" read No-Amon; and for " multitude of No " read Amon of No. The name designates, beyond all reasonable doubt, the city of Thebes, the ancient and renowned capital of Upper Egypt. The vast ruins of the temples of Luxor and Carnac proclaim the grandeur and magnificence with which the worship of Jupiter-Amon was conducted. The ruins of the ancient city of Thebes, covering 30 or 40 square miles— broken temples and pal aces, huge statues, avenues of sphinxes, etc. — are the wonder and delight of modern travellers, for their extent, their vastness, and their sad and solitary grandeur. They are covered with ancient hieroglyphics and historical sculptures, among which one in teresting scene is thought to record the exploits of Shishak against Jerusalem in the 5th year of Rehoboam, 1 Kin. 14:25. See Wilkinson, Robinson, and Olin. See Egypt and Shishak. A'MON, builder, the 14th king of Judah, son of Manasseh, began to reign B. C. 642, at the age of 22, and reigned only 2 years at Jerusalem. He did evil in the sight of the Lord, as his father Manasseh had done, by forsaking Jehovah and worshipping idols. See Zeph. 1:4; 3:3-11. His ser vants conspired against him, and slew him in his own house ; but the people killed all the conspirators, and established his son Josiah on the throne. He was buried in the garden of Uzzah, 2 Kin. 21:18-26; 2 Chr. 33 : 21-25. AM'ORITES, mountaineers, a warlike people descended from Emor, the 4th son of Canaan, Gen. 10: 16. They first peopled the mountains west of the Dead Sea, Gen. 14:7; towards Hebron, Gen. 14 : 13, and farther south, Deut. 1:7, 19, 20, 44; but afterwards extended their limits, and took possession of the finest provinces of Moab and Ammon on the east between the brooks Jabbok and Arnon, Num. 13 : 29 ; 21 : 21-31 ; Josh. 5:1; Judg. 11 : 13. Moses took this country from their king, Sihon, when he resisted the peaceful passage of the He brews into the land of promise, Judg. 11 : 19-22. The lands which the Amorites pos sessed west of the Jordan were given to the tribe of Judah, and those beyond the Jordan to the tribes of Reuben and Gad. The name Amorite is often taken in Scrip ture for Canaanite in general, Gen. 15:16; 28 Num. 14 : 45 with Deut. 1 : 44 ; Amos 2 : 9. See Canaanite. In Ezek. 16 : 3, God reminds the Jews that they were naturally no more worthy of his favor than the heathen Canaanites. A'MOS, a burden, I., the 3d of the minor prophets, was a herdsman of Tekoah, a small town of Judah, about 12 miles south of Jerusalem. He prophesied, however, concerning Israel, at Bethel, in the days of Uzziah, king of Judah, and Jeroboam II., king of Israel, about B. C. 800 to 787, and was thus a contemporary of Hosea and Joel. He was a herdsman, and not a " son of the prophets." The first 2 chapters con tain predictions against the surrounding nations, enemies of the people of God. But the ten tribes of Israel were the chief subjects of his prophecies. Their tempo rary prosperity under Jeroboam led to gross idolatry, injustice, oppression, and corruption ; for which sins he denounces the judgments of God upon them ; but he closes with cheering words of consolation. His holy boldness in reproving sin drew on him the wrath of the priests, who la bored to procure his banishment, Amos 7 : 10-17. I" regard to style, Amos takes a high rank among the prophets. He is full of imagery drawn from rural objects and occupations, concise, and yet simple and perspicuous. The authorship and canoni cal authority of the book are beyond ques tion. Two passages are quoted in the New Testament : ch. 5 : 25-27 in Acts 7 : 42 ; and ch. 9:11 in Acts 15: 16. II. One of the ancestors of our Lord, Luke 3 : 25. A'MOZ, robust, the father of Isaiah, 2 Kin. 19: 2;, .Isa. 1:1. AMPHIP'OLIS, on both sides the city, a city of Macedonia, not far from the mouth of the Strymon, which flowed " around the city." It was visited by Paul and Silas, Acts 17: 1. The village now upon its site is called Neokhorio, new-town. AM'RAM, an exalted people, a son of Kohath, and father of Aaron, Miriam, and Moses. He died in Egypt, aged 137, Exod. 6 : 18, 20; Num. 3 : 27. His wife was named Jochebed, and their faith is commended in Heb. ii : 23. AM'RAPHEL, king of Shinar in the time of Abraham. With 3 other petty kings, he made war upon the tribes around the Dead Sea and the cities of the plain, Gen. 14 : 1. AM'ULETS, still so largely used in Africa and the East, were common in ancient times, being worn as ear-rings, Gen. 35 : 4; ANA BIBLE DICTIONARY. AND Judg. 8:34; Isa. 3:20; Hos. 2:13; and in necklaces; precious stones being often clothed with superstitious power. Sacred words arranged in some cabalistic manner, and many other small objects, were thus associated with demoniacal influences and worn as safeguards. A'NAB, grape-town, still found under its old name, in the mountains of Judah, south- southwest of Hebron, Josh. 11:21; 15 : 50. A'NAH, answerer, of Mount Hor, the fa ther of Aholibamah, one of Esau's wives. While feeding his father's asses in the des ert, he is said to 'have found the "mules," Gen. 36:24, rather "warm springs;" and such springs are still found on the eastern coast of the Dead Sea, called Callirrhoe. Hengstenberg suggests that Anah took his other name, Beeri, of the wells, from the springs he found, Gen. 26 : 34. A'NAK, plural An'akim, long-necked, fa mous giants in Palestine, descended from Arba, founder of the city Hebron, Josh. 21:11. They spread themselves over the south of Judah, the hill country, and sev eral cities' of the Philistines. The Hebrew spies were terrified at their sight, Num. *3 : 33 J but in the conquest of Canaan they were destroyed or expelled, Josh. 11:22; 15:14; Judg. 1:20. ANAM'MELECH, see ADRAMMELECH. ANANI'AS, protected by God, I., a Jew of Jerusalem, the husband of Sapphira, who attempted to join the Christians, and pre tended to give them the entire price of his lands, but died instantly on being convict ed of falsehood by Peter, Acts 5 : 1-10, a timely warning for the early Christians and for us. II. A Christian of Damascus, who re stored the sight of Paul, after his vision of the Saviour, Acts 9 : 10-17 '< 22 : 12. III. A high-priest of the Jews, a son of Nebedaeus, A. D. 48. It was he before whom with the Sanhedrin Paul was sum moned, under Felix, and who ordered an attendant to smite Paul on the mouth. The apostle's prophetic denunciation in reply seems to have been fulfilled when, as Jose phus relates, in the commencement of the siege of Jerusalem, the assassins burned the house of Ananias, and afterwards dis covered his place of retreat in an aqueduct, and slew him, Acts 23 : 2 ; 24 : 1. ANATH'EMA, something set apart and devoted irrecoverably to God, sometimes in obedience to his command, sometimes by a spontaneous vow, Exod. 22 : 20 ; Num. 21:2; Judg. 11:31. It is understood to de note the irrevocable and entire separation of a person from the communion of the faithful, or from the number of the living, or from the privileges of society, Ezra 10:8; or the devoting of any man, animal, city, or thing, to be extirpated and destroyed, Lev. 27. Thus Jericho, Josh. 6 : 17-21, and Achan were accursed, Josh. 7. The word anathema is several times used in the New Testament with this idea of execration, Matt. 26:74; Acts 23 : 12> r4> 2IJ 1 Cor. 12: 3 ; Gal. 1:8, 9. Paul, remembering perhaps that Christ was "made a curse" for us, says he could himself suffer in like manner, if it were fitting and would avail for the sal vation of his countrymen, Rom. 9 : 3. Another kind of anathema, very peculi arly expressed, occurs 1 Cor. 16:22': "If any man love not the Lord Jesus Christ, let him be Anathema, Maranatha." The last word seems made up of two Syriac- words, signifying, " Our Lord cometh," that is, the Lord will surely come, and will execute this curse, by condemning those who love him not. At the same time, the opposite is also implied, that is, the Lord cometh also to reward those who love him. See Excommunication. AN'ATHOTH, answers (lo prayer), one of the cities given to the priests, in Benjamin ; identified by Robinson in Anata, a hamlet some 4 miles north by east of Jerusalem, Josh. 21:18; 1 Chr. 6:60; Ezra 2:23. It wasthe birthplace of the prophet Jeremiah, Jer. 1:1; 32 : 7. Its people, however, re jected his words, and sought his life, Jer. 11 : 21. AN'CIENT, aged. Before printing was invented and while books were scarce, aged men were the repositories of history and all forms of learning and wisdom, Job 12 : 12. Ancient of Days is a. title of the Eternal Jehovah, Dan. 7 : 9. AN'DREW, manly, one of the 12 apos tles, was of Bethsaida, and brother of Peter, John'i : 40, 44. Being a disciple of John the Baptist, he understood the intimations of 29 AND BIBLE DICTIONARY. ANG his master as to the Lamb of God, and was the first of the apostles to follow him, John 1 : 35-40, and come to the knowledge of the Messiah. Compare Jas. 4 : 8. His first step was to lead his brother Simon to the Lord — an example for all young converts. He was afterwards called as an apostle, on the shore of the Sea of Galilee, Matt. 4:18; and thenceforth followed Christ to the end, Mark 13 : 3 ; John 6:8; 12 : 22. Of his later history nothing is known with certainty. There is a doubtful tradition that after preaching the gospel in Greece, and perhaps Thrace and Scythia, he suffered crucifixion at Patrae in Achaia, on a cross of peculiar form (X), hence commonly known as " St. Andrew's cross." ANDRONI'CUS, man-conqueror, a Jew ish Christian at Rome, a relative and fel low-prisoner of Paul, Rom. 16 -.7. A'NER, a boy, I., of Hebron, one of Abra ham's allies in the pursuit of Chedorlaomer and the rescue of Lot, Gen. 14 : 13, 24. II. A Levitical city, in Manasseh, 1 Chr. 6:70. AN'GEL. The original word, both in Hebrew and Greek, means messenger, and. is so translated in Matt. 11 : 10 ; Luke 7 : 24, etc. It, is often applied to an ordinary mes senger, Job 1 : 14; 1 Sam. 11:3; Luke 9: 52; to prophets, Isa. 42 : 19 ; Hag. 1:13; to priests, Eccl. 5:6; Mai. 2:7; and even to inanimate objects, Psalm 78 : 49 ; 104 : 4 ; 2 Cor. 12 : 7. Under the general sense of messenger, the term is applied also to Christ, as the great Angel or Messenger of the covenant, Mai. 3 : 1, and to the minis ters of his gospel, the overseers or angels of the churches, Rev. 2:1, 8, 12, etc. In 1 Cor. 11:10, the best interpreters under stand by the term "angels" the holy an gels, who were present in an especial sense in the Christian assemblies ; and from rev erence to them it was proper that the wo men should have power 'veils, as a sign of their being in subjection to a higher power1 on their heads. See under Veil. But generally in the Bible the word is applied to a race of intelligent beings, of a higher order than man, who surround the Deity, and whom he employs as his mes sengers or agents in administering the affairs of the world, and in promoting the welfare of individuals, as well as of the whole human race, Matt. 1 : 20 ; 22 : 30 ; Acts 7:30, etc. Whether pure spirits, or having spiritual bodies, they have no bod ily organization like ours, and are not dis tinguished in sex, Matt. 22 : 30 ; though 3° whenever they have appeared to men it has been in a form like that of a man, more or less glorified at times, Gen. 18, 19; Luke 24:4. They were doubtless created long before our present world was made, Job 38:7. The Bible represents them as ex ceedingly numerous, Dan. 7:10; Matt. 26 : 53; Luke 2:13; Heb. 12:22,23; as remark able for strength, Psa. 103:20; 2 Pet. 2:11 ; Rev. 5:2; 18:21; 19:17; and for activity, Judg. 13 : 20 ; Isa. 6 : 2-6 ; Dan. 9 : 21-23 ; Matt. 13 : 49 ; 26 : 53 ; Acts 27 : 23 ; Rev. 8 : 13. They appear to be of divers orders, Isa. 6:2-6; Ezek. 10:1; Col. 1:16;. Rev. 12:7. See Cherubim, Seraphim. We have only glimpses of them as -they are in heaven, 1 Kin. 22 : 19 ; Dan. 7:9, 10; Rev. 5: 11-14. Their name indicates their agency in the dispensations of Providence towards man, and the Bible abounds in narratives of events in which they have borne a visible part, Dan. 4:13; 10:10, 13-21; Zech. 1,4, etc. Yet in this employment they act as the mere instruments of God, and in fulfilment of his commands, Psa. 91:11; 103 : 20 ; Heb. 1 : 14. We are not therefore to put trust in them, pay them adoration, or pray in their name, Rev. 19:10; 22 : 8, 9. Though Scrip ture does not warrant us to affirm that each individual has his particular guardian an gel, it teaches very explicitly that the angels minister to every Christian, Matt. 18:10; Luke 16 : 22 ; Acts 12:15; HeD- • : H- They are intensely concerned in the salvation of men, Luke 2 : 10-12 ; 15 : 7, 10 ; 1 Pet. 1:12; and will share with saints the blessedness of heaven for ever, Heb. 12:22. Those angels " who kept not their first estate," but fell and rebelled against God, are called the angels of Satan or the devil, Matt. 25:41; Rev. 12:9. These are repre sented as being " cast down to hell, and reserved unto judgment," 2 Pet. 2:4. See Synagogue, Archangel, Satan. ANGEL OF THE LORD, THE Angel- Jehovah, the usual title of Christ in the Old Testament. Compare Gen. 16:7-13; 22:11-18; 31:11-13; 32:24-30, with Hos. 12:3-5; Gen. 48:15, 16; Exod. 3:2-6, 14; 23:20, 21; Judg. 2; 13:16-22; Acts 7:30-38. Often he appeared in the form of man, as to Abraham, Gen. 18 : 2, 22 ; Lot, Gen. 19:1; and to Joshua, Josh. 5 : 13, 15. Christ thus appears in the Patriarchal, the Mosaic, and the Christian dispensation as the same Je hovah, the "Word" of God, revealing the Father to men, and carrying forward the same great plan for the redemption of his people, Isa. 63 : 9. ANG BIBLE DICTIONARY. ANO AN'GER, a violent emotion of a painful nature, sometimes arising spontaneously upon just occasion, but usualljf character ized in the Bible as a great sin, Matt. 5 : 22 ; Eph. 4:31; Col. 3:8. Even when just, our anger should be mitigated by a due consid eration of the circumstances of the offence and the state of mind of the offender, of the folly and ill-results of this passion, of the claims of the gospel, and of our own need of forgiveness from others, but espe cially from God, Matt. 6 : 15. Anger is in Scripture frequently attributed to God, Psa. 7:11; 90 : 11 ; not that he is liable to those violent emotions which this passion pro duces, but because he punishes the wicked with the just severity of a superior pro voked to anger. AN'GLE, a fishing-hook, Job 41 : 1, 2 ; Isa. 19:8; Hab. 1 : 15. AN'ISE, a well-known annual herb, re sembling carraway, etc., but more fragrant. The plant mentioned in Matt. 23 : 23 was no doubt the dill, which grows in Palestine, and was tithed by scrupulous Jews. ank'lets, see Bracelets, Rings, Am ulets. AN'NA, gracious, a daughter of Phanuel, of the tribe of Asher, early married, but left a widow after 7 years, and thenceforth devoted to the service of God. She was constant in attendance at the morning and evening sacrifices at the temple ; and there, nearly a century old, was blessed with a sight of the infant Saviour, and inspired to announce the coming ofthe promised Mes siah to many who longed to see him, Luke 2 : 36-38. AN'NAS, one who answers, a high-priest of the Jews, Luke 3:2; John 18:13. 24; Acts 4:6, along with Caiaphas, his son-in- law. He was first appointed to that office by Cyrenius, or Quirinus, proconsul of Syria, about A. D. 7 or 8, but was after wards deprived of it. After various chan ges, the office was given to Joseph, also called Caiaphas, the son-in-law of Annas, about A. D. 25, who continued in office until A. D. 36 or 37. But Annas being his father-in-law, and having great influence and authority, could with propriety be stilly termed high-priest along with Caiaphas. It' was before him that Christ was first taken on the night of his seizure. He also assist ed in presiding over the Sanhedrin which sat in judgment upon Peter and John, Acts 4:6. ANNIHILATION, see IMMORTALITY, Sadducees. ANOINT'ING was a custom in general use among the Hebrews and other Oriental nations, and its omission was one sign of mourning, Isa„ 61 : 3. They anointed with oil or ointment the hair, head, and beard, Psa. 104:15; 133:2. At their feasts and rejoicings they anointed the' whole body ; but sometimes only the head or the feet, Psa. 23 : 5 ; Matt. 6 : 17 ; John 12 : 3. It was a customary mark of respect to guests, Luke 7 : 38, 46 ; and a symbol of prosper ity, Psa. 92:10; Eccl. 9:8. The use of oil upon the skin was thought to be conducive to health. Anointing was then used, and is still, medicinally, Mark 6:13; Jas. 5:14; but the miraculous cures thus wrought by the apostles furnish no warrant for the .cer emony just before death called " extreme unction," and the papal ceremony so called was not heard of in the church until the 12th century. The anointing of dead bod ies was also practised, to preserve them from corruption, Mark 15:8; 16:1; Luke 23 : 56. Kings and high-priests were an- 31 ANO BIBLE DICTIONARY. ANT ointed at their inauguration, and some times prophets, Exod. 29 : 7, 29 ; Le v. 4 : 3 ; Judg. 9:8; 1 Sam. 9:16; 1 Kin. 19:15, 16, as also the sacred vessels of the tabernacle and temple, Exod. 30 : 26. King Saul is called " the Lord's anointed," also David and Zedekiah, 1 Sam. 24 : 6 ; 2 Sam. 23 : 1 ; Lam. 4 : 20, and Cyrus, who was raised up for God's purposes, though not anointed with oil; so also the high-priest is called "the anointed priest." This anointing of sacred persons and objects signified their being set apart and consecrated to the ser vice of God ; and the costly and fragrant mixture appointed for this purpose was forbidden for all others, Exod. 30:23-33; Ezek. 23:41. See Christ and Messiah. Christians are spiritually anointed by the Holy Ghost unto knowledge and holiness, 2 Cor. 1:21; 1 John 2 : 20, 27. ANON', Matt. 13 . 20, quickly, soon. ANSWER. Besides the common use of this word in the sense of to reply, it is very often used in the Bible, following the He brew and Greek idioms, in the sense of to speak ; meaning simply that one begins or resumes his discourse, Zech. 3:4; 6:4; Matt. 11:25; 12:38- Luke 7:40. It also means to sing in choruses or responses, Exod. 15:20, 21; 1 Sam. 18:7; 29:5, and to give account of one's self in judgment, Gen. 30:33; Job 9: 3. and the chrysalis state. The termites or white ant§ are large and very destructive. THE BROWN ANT : FORMICA BRUNNEA. 1. Worker. 4. Male. 6. Female. 3. Cocoon. 2, 5, ana 7 natural size of I, 4, and 6. ANT, a small insect, famous for its indus try and economy, for its social habits and skill in building. Some species build habitations truly immense compared with themselves, and able to contain a dozen men. Their roofs are impervious to rain, and they contain numerous stories, galler ies, etc., the result of skilful and incessant labor. Ants lavish the utmost care and pains upon their young, both in the egg 32 DWELLING OF THE TERMITES. Most varieties of ants are known to prefer animal or saccharine food ; and it is often said that no species has yet been found laying up stores of grain for winter use, for while the frost continues they all lie torpid. The contrary belief, however, was current among the ancients, as many pas sages in Jewish, Greek, and Roman writers prove ; and two species of harvesting-ants have been found in Palestine. Solomon, Prov. 6 : 6, commends them for toiling as soon and as long as the season permits their labor, and bids us make the same diligent use of life and opportunities, Prov. 30 : 24, 25. The inferior animals are in many re spects wiser than sinful man, Job 12 : 7, 8. AN'TELOPE, see under Roe. AN'TICHRIST, one opposed lo Christ. John says there were already in his time many having the spirit of antichrist : unbe lievers, heretics, and persecutors, 1 John 2:18; 4:3. They were characterized by the denial of the Father and the Son, and of Christ's coming in the flesh, 1 John 2 : 22 ; 4 : 3 ; 2 John 7. But the apostles and early Christians seem to have looked forward to some one great antichrist, who should pre cede the second coming of our Lord, stand ing in some connection with the "little horn " of Daniel 7, and the " beast " of Rev. 13; 19:11-21, and whom Paul calls "the man of sin, the son of perdition," 2 Thess. 2:3. To this passage John alludes, 1 John ANT BIBLE DICTIONARY. ANT 2 : 18. The antichrist was to come after the removing of an obstacle that "withheld" it— generally believed to be the old Roman empire — and after a certain "falling away;" was to be marked by open iniquity and opposition to God, claiming His attributes, doing pretended miracles, and having great power to deceive men and gain admiration and worship— whose spirit was already at work in apostolic times. It seems to de note an organized body of men and a cor rupt polity, perpetuated from age to age, opposed to Christ, and which he will de stroy, Rev. n ; 13; 17. ANT ART A (ANTIOCH IN SYRIA), ON THE ORONTES. AN'TIOCH, an opponent, I., a city on the river Orontes, 20, or by the river 40, miles from its mouth, at the meeting of the great mountain ranges of Lebanon and Taurus, and the metropolis of all Syria. It was founded by Seleucus Nicator B. C. 300, and called by him after his father Antiochus. This city is celebrated by Cicero as being opulent and abounding in men of taste and letters. It was at one time a place of great wealth and refinement, as well as luxury and vice, and ranked as the 3d city in the Roman empire, only Rome and Alexandria surpassing it. It was also a place of great resort for the Jews, and afterwards for Christians. It came under Roman govern ment B. C. 64. Here the ist church among the Gentiles was formed, Acts 11:20, 21. The distinctive name of " Christians " was here first applied to the followers of Jesus, Acts 11 : 19, 26; 13 : 1 ; Gal. 2:11. It is es pecially famous as the scene of Paul's first systematic labors in the gospel, Acts 11 : 22-26; and the home whence he started and to which he returned on his missionary tours, Acts 13:1-3; 14:26; 15:36; 18:22, 23. Three general councils were held there in the 3d century, and in A. D. 347 3 Chrysostom was here born. Few cities have suffered greater disasters. Many times it has been nearly ruined by earth quakes, one of which, in 1822, destroyed one-fourth of its population, then about 20,000. It is to-day a considerable village called Antakia. II. Another city, also founded by Seleu cus Nicator, was called Antioch of Pisidia, because it was attached to that province, although situated in Phrygia. It is mem orable for Paul's visits and sufferings, in his ist and 2d missionary tours, Acts 13 : 14; 14:19, 21; 2 Tim. 3:11. It is now called Yalobatch. AN'TIPAS, I. See Herod Antipas. II. A martyr in Pergamos, Rev. 2 : 13. ANTIP'ATRIS, city of Antipater, a city of Palestine, situated 7 or 8 miles from the coast, in a fertile and well-watered plain between Caesarea and Jerusalem, on the site of the former city Caphar-Saba. It was founded by Herod the Great, and called Antipatris in honor of his father Antipater. It was visited by Paul, Acts 23:31. The British Ordnance Survey place it at Ras el-Ain, 5 miles south of Kefr Saba. ANTO'NIA, a square fortress on the east 33 APE BIBLE DICTIONARY. APO side of Jerusalem, north of the temple area, with which it had a covered communica tion. There was a tower at each corner, and it was isolated by high walls and trenches. It was rebuilt by Herod the Great, and named after Mark Antony. Jo sephus often speaks of it. It was "the castle " from which soldiers came down to rescue Paul from the Jews in the temple ; and from its stairs he addressed the mul titude, Acts 21 : 31-40. m S*s-. iSmmk APE, an animal rudely resembling the human race. The tribe may be familiarly distinguished as monkeys, apes, and ba boons, apes proper being the tailless Quad- rumana. Solomon imported them from Ophir, 1 Kin. 10:22; 2 Chr. 9:21. They were at one time worshipped in Egypt ; and still are adored in some parts of India, where one traveller describes a magnifi cent temple dedicated to the monkey. There may be an allusion to large apes or baboons, literally "hairy ones," in Lev. 17:7; Isa. 13:21; 34 : 14. See Satyrs. APHAR'SACHITES, etc., Ezra 4:9; 5:6; named among the heathen subjects of the king of Assyria, transplanted into Samaria after the captivity of the 10 tribes, B. C. 721. The Apharsites, also named in Ezra 4 : 9, are regarded by Gesenius as Persians. A'PHEK, strength, I., a city in Lebanon, assigned to the tribe of Asher, Josh. 13:4; 10:30; but not subdued, Judg. 1:31. Its site may be still found on the northwest slopes of Mount Lebanon, called Aphka. 34 II. A place noted in the wars with the Philistines, 1 Sam. 4:1; 29:1. Perhaps 2 places are spoken of, one where the Philis tines encamped before Eli's death — -appa rently not far northwest of Jerusalem ; the other farther north, towards Jezreel and Shunem — a royal city of the Canaanites, Josh. 12:18. III. A city 6 miles east ofthe Sea of Gal ilee, the walls of which fell upon 27,000 Syrians under Ben-hadad, after his defeat by the Israelites, 1 Kin. 20 : 26-34. Now called Fik. APOCALYPSE signifies revelation, but is particularly referred to the revelations which John had in the isle of Patmos, whith er he was banished by Domitian. Hence it is another name for the book of Revela tion. This book belongs to,the prophetical writings, and stands in intimate relation with the prophecies of the Old Testament, especially with the writings of the later prophets, as Ezekiel, Zechariah, and par ticularly Daniel, inasmuch as it is almost entirely symbolical. This circumstance has surrounded the interpretation of this book with difficulties, which no interpreter has yet been able fully to overcome. As to the author, the almost entire weight of testimony is in favor of John, the beloved apostle; and this is undeniably implied in the writer's account of himself, Rev. 1:4, 9, with 1 John 1 : 1-3. and in the harmony of spirit between this and his other writings. Most commentators suppose it to have been written on the isle of Patmos after the destruction of Jerusalem, about A. D. 96 ; there is very slight ground for assign ing it an earlier date. It is an expanded illustration of the first great promise, " The seed of the woman shall bruise the head of the serpent." Its figures and symbols are august and impres sive. It is full of prophetic grandeur, and awful in its types, shadows, and mystic symbols: seven seals opened, seven trum pets sounded, seven vials poured out; mighty antagonists and hostile powers, full of malignity against Christianity, and for a season oppressing it, but at length defeat ed and annihilated ; the darkened heaven, tempestuous sea, and convulsed earth fight ing against them, while the issue of the long combat is the universal reign of peace and truth and righteousness — the whole scene being relieved at intervals by a cho ral burst of praise to God the Creator, and Christ the Redeemer and Governor. Thus its general scope is intelligible to all read- APO BIBLE DICTIONARY. APO ers, or it could not yield either hope or comfort. It is also full of Christ. It ex hibits his glory as Redeemer and Govern or, and describes that deep and universal homage and praise which the " Lamb that was slain " is for ever receiving before the throne. Either Christ is God, or the saints and angels are guilty of idolatry. The historical interpretation of its de tails is very difficult, though some of its most important portions clearly designate the deceitful and tyrannical papal power, in close alliance with Satan. See chs. 13 and 17 " To explain this book perfectly," says Bishop Newton, " is not the work of one man or of one age ; probably it never will be clearly understood till it is all ful filled." APOCRYPHA, concealed; as applied to books, it means those which assume a claim to a sacred character, but are really unin spired, and have not been admitted into the canon. These are of 2 classes : namely 1. Those which were in existence in the time of Christ, but were not admitted by the Jews into the canon of the Old Testa ment, because they had no Hebrew origi nal, and were regarded as not divinely in spired. The most important of these are collected in the Apocrypha often bound up with the English Bible, though without good reason; but in the Septuagint and Vulgate they stand as canonical. These apocryphal writings are 14 in number, namely, the 2 books of Esdras or Ezra, Tobit, Judith, additions to Esther, the Wisdom of Solomon, Ecclesiasticus, or Je sus the son, of Sirach, Baruch, Song of the Three Children, History of Susanna, Bel and the Dragon, Prayer of Manasseh, and the 2 books of the Maccabees. Their style proves that they were a part of the Jewish- Greek literature of Alexandria, within 300 years before Christ ; and as the Septuagint Greek version of the Hebrew Bible came from the same quarter, it was often accom panied by these uninspired Greek writings, and they thus gained a general circulation. Josephus and Philo, of the ist century, ex clude, them from the canon. The Talmud contains no trace of them ; and from the various lists ofthe Old Testament Scrip tures in the early centuries, it is clear that then as now they formed no part of the Hebrew canon. None of them are quoted or indorsed. by Christ or the apostles; they iave no prophetic element; they were not acknowledged by the Christian fathers; and their own contents condemn them, abounding with errors and absurdities. Some of them, however, are of value for the historical information they furnish — running down to within a half-century of Christ — for their moral and prudential max ims, and for the illustrations they afford of ancient life. 2. Those which were written after the time of Christ, but were not admitted by the churches into the canon of the New Testament, as not being divinely inspired. These are mostly of a legendary character, with trivial and absurd stories and pre tended miracles. The chief of them are The Shepherd of Hermas, and the Epistles of Clement and Ignatius. They have been collected by Fabricius in his Codex Apoc. New Testament ; and Tischendorf has edit ed 22 gospel fragments and 13 epistles. APOLLO'NIA, a city of Macedonia, be tween Amphipolis and Thessalonica, a long day's journey on foot, some 30 miles, from the former place, Acts 17: 1. Its ruins bear the name of Pollina. APOL'LOS, a Jew of Alexandria, a. learn ed and eloquent man, who through the Scriptures and the ministry of John the Baptist became a Christian. He visited Ephesus about A. D. 54, and publicly pro claimed his faith in Christ ; whereupon he was further instructed in gospel truth by Aquila and Priscilla. Passing thence into Achaia, he preached with great power and success, especially among the Jews, Acts 18:24-28. At Corinth, he for a time wa tered what Paul had planted, Acts 19:1; 1 Cor. 1:12; 3:6; and was with him at Eph esus when 1 Cor. was written, 16:12. His character was not unlike that of Paul ; they were equally grieved at the dissensions of the Corinthians, and at those personal par tialities which led many away from Christ, 1 Cor. 3:4-22; 16 12; and they cooperated to the end in serving him, Titus 3:13. Je rome is of opinion that Apollos afterwards returned to Corinth from Crete. APOL'LYON, see Abaddon. APOS'TLE, a messenger or envoy. The term is applied to Jesus Christ, who was God's envoy to save the world, Heb. 3:1; though, more commonly, the title is given to persons who were envoys commissioned by the Saviour himself. It is the term translated "messengers" in 2 Cor. 8:23, denoting delegates of, the churches on a charitable mission, ver. 1-6, 16-19; used in Phil. 2:25, of Epaphroditus ; and in the same sense of envoys perhaps, of Barnabas and Paul in Acts 14:4, 14. 35 APO BIBLE DICTIONARY. AQU In the specific and usual sense of the word in the New Testament, the apostles of Jesus Christ were his chief disciples, eye-witnesses of his glory, Luke 22:28; : Cor. 9:1, whom he invested with author ity, filled with his Spirit, intrusted particu larly with his doctrines and services, and commissioned to raise the edifice of his clmrch. Froni the nature of the case, the office of these witnesses of Christ's life ter minated with them, and could not be trans mitted to successors, Acts 1:21, 22 They were 12 in number, answering to the 12 tribes, Matt. 19:28, and were plain, un learned men, chosen from the common people. After their calling and charge, Matt. 10:5-42, they attended their divine Master, witnessing his works, imbibing his spirit, and gradually learning the facts and doctrines of the gospel. During his minis try he sent them out by twos on prepara tory tours in Judaea only, Matt. 10, Luke 9:1-6; and after his resurrection he sent them into all the world, commissioned to preach, to baptize, to work miracles, etc. See Jolin 15:27, 1 Cor. 9:1; 15:8; 2 Cor. 12:22; 1 Thess. 2:13. The names ofthe 12 are, Simon Peter ; Andrew, his brother ; James, the son of Zebedee, called also " the greater;" John, his brother; Philip; Bar tholomew ; Thomas ; Matthew, or Levi ; Simon the Zealot; Lebbaeus, surnamed Thaddaeus, also called Judas or Jude; James, "the less," the son of Alphaeus; and Judas Iscariot, Matt. 10:2-4; Mark 3: 16; Luke 6:14. The last betrayed his Mas ter, and then hanged himself, and Matthi as was chosen in his place, Acts 1 : 15-26. The apostles were on a footing of entire equality, no one claiming any authority or primacy over the rest; and none of the 12 was so eminent in endowments and servi ces as Paul, 2 Cor. 11:5, 23-28, They ad vanced slowly in their comprehension of Christ's mission, Luke 24:25; John 16:12, until the outpouring of the Spirit on them, Luke 24:49; Acts 1:8. In the Acts of the Apostles are recorded the self-sacrificing toils and sufferings of these Christlike men, who did that which was " right in the sight of God " from love to their Lord ; and gave themselves wholly to their work with a zeal, love, and faith Christ delighted to honor — teaching us that apostolic graces alone can secure apostolic successes. See Paul, and the Names of the Twelve. The " Apostles' Creed," so called, was not written by them, though an admirable compend of the belief of the early church. 36 APOTH'ECARIES, Neh. 3:8, makers and venders of perfumes and ointments, Exod. 30:25; 37:29; 2 Chr. 16:14; Eccl. 10:1. APPEALS' were recognized in the Mo saic law, Deut. 17:8, 9, and were allowed to accused persons in the period of the Judges and the Kings, far more than in the less favored heathen nations of old or modern times, Judg. 4:5; 2 Chr. 19:8, 10. Paul as a Roman citizen, though not sen tenced, appealed for a trial before the em peror, regarding himself as already con demned if left in reach of the Jews, Acts 25:1-12. AP'PHIA, Phile. 2, supposed by some to have been the wife of Philemon. AP'PII-FO'RUM, market-place of Appius, a village or market-town founded by Ap. pius Claudius on the great road (Via Appia) which he constructed from Rome to Capua Its remains are probably to be found near the present Treponti, situated 43 miles from Rome in the border of the Pontine marshes, where are the ruins of an ancient town. Three Taverns was a village near Cisterna, about 10 miles nearer Rome, Acts 28:15. AP'PLES OF SODOM, see SEA, III. APPLE- TREES, perhaps quinces, are mentioned in Song 2:3. 5; 8:5; Joel 1:12. Many suppose the cit ron-tree to be here meant. The rich col or, fragrant odor, and handsome appearance of this tree, both in flower and in fruit, agree well with the above passages, Song 7:8. Thoughts of wise men, well expressed, are like " apples of gold in pictures of sil ver," that is, like ripe and golden fruit in finely wrought silvei baskets, Prov. 25:11. " Apple " of the eye, literally " the little man" or "pupil" of the eye, Deut. 32:10; Psa. 17:8. APPREHEND', Phil. 3:12-14, to lay hold upon. AQ'UILA, an eagle, a Jew born in Pontus, a tent-maker by occupation, who with his wife Priscilla joined the Christian church at Rome. When the Jews were banished from that city by the emperor Claudius, Aquila and his wife retired to Corinth AR BIBLE DICTIONARY. ARA They afterwards became the companions of Paul in his labors, and are mentioned by him with much commendation, being found both at Ephesus and at Rome, Acts 18:2, 3, 24-26; Rom. 16:3, 4; 1 Cor. 16:19; 2 Tim. 4:19. AR, city, called also Rabbah and Rab- bath-Moab, the capital of Moab, Num. 21 : 28; Deut. 2; Isa. 15:1. Its supposed site, still called Rabbah, is found upon a hill some 17 miles east of the Dead Sea, and 10 south of the Arnon, midway between it and Kir Moab. AR'ABAH, desert, often translated "the plain," denotes the valley of the Jordan north of the Dead Sea, Josh. 18:18, and in some passages, south of it, Deut. 1:1 ; 2:8, to the Red Sea. See Canaan. " The Ar- abah " is often referred to in the Old Tes: tament, in connection with the Dead Sea and the Sea of Galilee, Deut. 3:17; 4:49; Josh. 3:16; 11:2, 16; 12:1, 3, 8; and with Gilgal and Jericho, Deut. 1 1 : 30 ; Josh. 8:14; 2 Kin. 25:4. It occurs in the history of Da vid, 2 Sam. 2:29; 5:7; and in the flight of Zedekiah, Jer. 39:4; 52:7. For history and description of this valley, and for the por tion south of the Dead Sea, see Jordan. A SCENE IN ARABIA. ARA'BIA is a country of Western Asia, lying south and east of Judaea. It extends 1,600 miles from north to south, and 1,400 from east.to west. On the north it is bound ed by part of Syria, on the east by the Per sian Gulf and the Euphrates, on the south by the Arabian Sea and the Straits of Ba- belmandel, and on the west by the Red Sea, Egypt, and Palestine. Arabia is dis tinguished by geographers as in 3 parts — Deserta, Petrasa, and Felix. Arabia Deser'ta, the desert, a vast steppe, or elevated expanse of sand, with occasional hills and a sparse vegetation. It has the mountains of Gilead on the west, and the river Euphrates on the east, and extends far to the south. It comprehends the country of the Itureans, the Ishmael- ites, the people of Kedar, and others, who led a wandering life, having no cities, houses, or fixed habitations, but wholly dwelling in tents ; in modern Arabic, such 37 ARA BIBLE DICTIONARY. ARA are called Bedawtn, or Bedouins. When Paul says he " went into Arabia and re turned again to Damascus," he meant doubtless the northern part of Arabia De- serta, which lay adjacent to the territories of Damascus, Gal. i : 17. Arabia Petr^'a, the rocky, lies south of the Holy Land, and had Petra for its cap ital. See Sela. This region contained the southern Edomites, the Amalekites, etc., whose successors are at present known under the general name of Arabs. In this country were Kadesh-barnea. Gerar, Beer-. sheba, Paran, Arad, Hasmona, Oboth, De- dan, etc., also the peninsula of Mount Sinai and the land of Midian. This portion of Arabia, though smaller than the others, is rich in historical associations. The patri arch Job was familiar with its scenery. At Horeb, Moses saw the burning bush, and Elijah heard the "still small voice." In this "great and terrible wilderness " from Mount Sinai to the promised land, the He brews spent their 40 years of wanderings. Arabia Fe'lix, the happy, lies still far ther south and east, being bounded east by the Persian Gulf, south by the ocean be tween Africa and India, and west by the Red Sea. As this region did not immedi ately adjoin the Holy Land, it is not so frequently mentioned as the former ones. The queen of Sheba, who visited Solomon, 1 Kin. 10:1, was probably queen of part of Arabia Felix ; and the Jewish kings ob tained gold and flocks from it, 1 Kin. 10: 15; 2 Chr. 17: 11. This country abounded with riches, and particularly with spices, and comprised the provinces now called Hed- jaz, Yemen, Hadramaut, etc. It is much celebrated in modern times by reason of the cities of Mecca and Medina being situ ated in it. There are, according to native histori ans, two races of Arabs: those who derive their descent from the primitive inhabi tants ofthe land, Joktan, etc., and those who claim Ishmael as their ancestor. Southern Arabia was settled in part by Cush and his sons, descendants of Ham, who also peo pled the adjoining coast of Africa, and in part by descendants of Shem, particularly Joktan, Gen. 10:25, 26. Ishmael, Gen. 25: 13-15, and the 6 sons of Abraham by Ketu- rah, Gen. 25:2, together with the seed of Esau and of Lot, first occupied the parts of Arabia near Judaea, and in time spread over almost the whole country. The changes of 40 centuries render it impossible to dis tinguish either of these parent sources in 38 the numerous Arab tribes descended from' them. These tribes have traditions- and peculiarities of their own, and incessant feuds ; yet as a whole they are but one peo ple, distinct from all others. The only gen eral division is into those who dwell in cities, as in Southern Arabia, and those who live in the fields and deserts. The latter are migratory, dwelling in tents and removing according to the convenience of water and pasturage, and are often rob bers. Each tribe is divided up into little communities, of which a sheikh or patriarch is the head. Such are the Bedaween or Bedouins. In ancient times the Arabs were idola ters and star -worshippers. A form of Christianity made much progress in the 3d century among them. They are now nom inally Mohammedans, but their religion sits but lightly on them. Isolated from other nations, and with slight exceptions free from all foreign control, they preserve their ancient manners with singular fidel ity, and the study of these throws much light upon Bible narratives. Their lan guage also is still spoken with great puri ty ; and as it is near akin to the Hebrew, it furnishes invaluable aid in the study of the Old Testament. Respecting the productions and peculi arities of Arabia, see Desert, Parched Ground, Sela, Sinai, Winds, etc. A'RAD, a wild ass, a Canaanitish city on the extreme south of Judaea, the inhabi tants of which drove back the Hebrews as they attempted to enter the promised land from Kadesh, Num. 21:1; it was afterwards subdued, Josh. 10:41; 12:14; Judg. 1:16. Robinson found its site on a hill about 18 miles south of Hebron. A'RAM, high, I., the name of 3 men in the Bible: a son of Shem, Gen. 10:22; a grandson of Nahor, Gen. 22:21; and an ancestor of our Lord, Ruth 4:19; 1 Chr. 2:10; Matt. 1:3; Luke 3:33. II. Nearly synonymous with Syria, the Hebrew name of the whole region north east of Palestine, extending from the Tigris on the east nearly to the Mediterranean on the west, and to the Taurus range on the north. It was named after Aram the son of Shem. Thus defined, it includes also Mesopotamia, which the Hebrews named Aram-naharaim, Aram of the two rivers, Gen. 24:10, or Padan-aram, the plain of ' Aram, Gen. 25:20; 48:7. Various cities in the western part of Aram gave their own names to the regions around them: as Da- ARA BIBLE DICTIONARY. ARC mascus (Aram-Dammesek), 2 Sam. 8:6; Maachah, near Bashan, i Chr. 19:6; Ge- shur, Josh. 12:5; 2 Sam. 15:8; Zobah, and Beth-rehob, 2 Sam. 10:6, 8. Several ol th-ase were powerful states, and often waged war against Israel. David subdued them and made them tributaries, and Sol omon preserved this supremacy. After him it was lost, except perhaps under Jero boam II. See Syria, Padan-aram. The Aramaean language, nearly resembling the Hebrew, gradually supplanted the latter as a spoken language, and was in use in Judaea at the time of Christ. It is still used by Syrian Christians around Mo sul. AR'ARAT, holy ground, a province in the centre of Armenia, between the river Araxes and the lakes Van and Ooroomiah, 2 Kin. 19:37; Isa. 37:38; sometimes used to denote the whole country, Jer. 51:27. On the mountains of Ararat the ark rested, Gen. 8:4; and from this region men jour neyed eastward, Gen. 11:2, to the land of Shinar. The noble mountain, which is called by the Armenians Masis, by the Turks Agri- Dagh or Steep Mountain, by the Persians Kuh-i-Nuh or Noah's Mountain, and by Europeans generally Ararat, consists of 2 peaks, one 4,000 feet higher than the other, connected with a chain of mountains run ning off to the northwest and west, which yet do not detract at all from the lonely dignity of this stupendous mass. Its sum mit, covered with perpetual snow, rises to the height of 16,915 feet above the sea level, and it is a volcano, having been in erup tion so late as 1840. The ark probably rested, not on the peak of Ararat, but somewhere on the lofty plateau in that re gion. ARAU'NAH, a Jebusite, residing on Mount Moriah after the Jebusites were dis possessed by David, 2 Sam. 5:6; 24:18. In 1 Chr. 21:18, he is called Ornan. The di vine choice of his land for the temple site, 2 Chr. 3:1, and his readiness to give it freely for this purpose, suggest the proba bility that he was a convert to the true re ligion. David seems to have bought the threshing-floor and oxen for 50 shekels of silver, and the whole hill for 600 shekels of gold. AR'BA, an ancestor of the Anakim, and founder of Hebron, to which he gave its ancient name, Josh. 15:13; Gen. 35:27. ARCHAN'GEL, u chief angel, only twice used in the Bible, 1 Thess. 4:16; Jude 9. In this last passage it is applied to Michael, who, in Dan. 10:13, 21; 12:1, is described as " one of the chief princes/' having a 39 ARC BIBLE DICTIONARY. ARI special charge of the Jewish nation, and in Rev, 12:7-9 as 'he leader of an angelic army. ARCHELA'US, prince of the people, a son of Herod the Great, by his Samaritan wife Malthace. He was educated with his bro ther Antipas at Rome, and after his father's death was placed over Judaea, Idumaea, and Samaria, with the title of ethnarch or tetrarch; whence he is said to reign, Matt. 2:22. This passage implies that he inherit ed the tyrannical and cruel disposition of his father; and history informs us that after enjoying his power for 10 years, he was accused before the emperor on ac count of his cruelties, and banished to Vi- enne ou the Rhone, where he died. AR'CHERS, see Bow. ARCHIP'PUS, ruler of horses, a Chris tian minister, closely associated with Phi lemon and Apphia, saluted by Paul as his "fellow-soldier," Phile. 2, and exhorted to fulfil his ministry at Colosse, Col. 4.17. ARCTU'RUS, the Bear's Tail, the con stellation Ursa Major. The " sons " of Arc- turus are probably the stars in the body and tail of Ursa Major, Job 9:9; 38:32. AREOP'AGUS, hill of Mars, the seat of the ancient and venerable supreme court of Athens, called the Areopagites, Acts 17 : 19-34. This was composed entirely of ex- archons, of grave and blameless character, and their wise and just decisions made it famous far beyond the bounds of Greece. The acting archons, or chief magistrates of the city for the year, had seats with them. RUINS OF THE AREOPAGUS AND ACROPOLIS. Their numbers and authority varied from age to age. Here a crowd once assembled to hear Paul preach. The stone seats of the 40 Areopagus lay open to the sky ; in the court stood Epicureans, Stoics, etc. ; around them spread the city, full of idolaters and their temples ; and a little southeast rose the steep height of the Acropolis, on whose lev el summit were crowded more and richer idolatrous structures than on any other equal space in the world. Amid this scene Paul exhibited the sin and folly of idol- worship with such boldness and power that none could refute him, and some were con verted. See Athens. AR'ETAS, a king of Northwestern Ara bia, who gave his daughter in marriage to Herod Antipas ; but she being repudiated by Herod, Aretas made war upon him and destroyed his army. In consequence of this, the emperor Tiberius directed Vitel- lius, then proconsul of Syria, to make war upon the Arabian king, and bring him alive or dead to Rome. But while Vitellius was in the midst of preparation for the war, he received intelligence of the death of Tibe rius, A. D. 37 ; on which he recalled his troops, and then left the province. Aretas, either taking advantage of this supineness, or favored by the new emperor Caligula, seems to have got possession of Damascus, over which he appointed a governor or eth narch, who, A. D. 39, at the instigation of the Jews, attempted to put Paul in prison, 2 Cor. 11:32. Compare Acts 9:24, 25. AR'GOB, stony, a city in Bashan and Ma nasseh east of the Jordan ; also the region around it, afterwards Trachonitis. This was very fertile, and contained at one time 60 walled towns, which were taken by Jair the son of Manasseh, and called after him, Deut. 3:4, 13, 14; 1 Kin. 4:13. Recent ex plorers in this region, the Lejah, south of Damascus and east of the Sea of Galilee, find it a vast basin full of basaltic rocks, in which are the remains of scores of Roman towns in a remarkable state of preserva tion. A'RIEL, the lion of God, one of Ezra's chief men, Ezra 8:16. This word is used, in 2 Sam. 23 : 20 ; 1 Chr. 1 1 : 22, as a descrip tive or perhaps a family name of 2 " lion like " men of Moab. In another sense, Ezekiel applies it to the altar of God, Ezek. 43:15, and Isaiah to Jerusalem, as. the hearth on which both the burnt-offerings and the enemies of God should be con sumed, Isa. 29:1, 2, 7. See also Gen. 49:9. ARIMATH^l'A, or Ra'mah (dual, Ra- mathaim), double heights, a city whence came Joseph the counsellor, in whose new tomb the body of Jesus was laid, Matt. 27 : ARI BIBLE DICTIONARY. ARK 57; John 19:38. We learn from Eusebius and Jerome that this city was near Lydda, a town 24 miles northwest of Jerusalem. It has generally been located at the modern Ramleh, a town near Lydda, of 3,000 in habitants, in which the route from Egypt to Syria crosses that from Jerusalem to Joppa. But its site is rather to be sought a few miles east of Lydda, in the hills which skirt the plain of Sharon. The ist book of Maccabees, 11:34, speaks of it as transferred, together with Lydda, from Samaria to Judaea, which may account for Luke's calling it " a city of the Jews," Luke 23:51. It has been supposed to be the same place as the Ramah of Mount Ephra im, the birthplace and residence of Sam uel. This was called also Ramathaim- Zophim, 1 Sam. 1:1, 19, from which name the form Arimathaea is readily derived. See Ramah. A'RIOCH, venerable, I., king of Ellasar, and ally of Chedorlaomer, Gen. 14: 1. II. A captain of Nebuchadnezzar's guard, Dan. 2:14. ARIST AR'CHUS, the best prince, a native of Thessalonica, a faithful fellow-laborer with Paul, Acts 20:4; 27:2; Phile. 24. His life was endangered in the riot at Ephesus, excited by the silversmiths, Acts 19:29; but having escaped, he continued with Paul, and was a prisoner with him at Rome,- Col. 4:10. ARISTOBU'LUS, best counsel lor, a resident of Rome whose household was saluted by Paul, Rom. 16:10. ARK of Noah, the vessel in which the family of Noah was preserved during the deluge when all the rest of our rate perished for their sins. We may regard it as a large, oblong, "« floating house, with a roof either j flat or only slightly inclined, ^m with 3 stories, and a door in =J|| the side. There were windows "above," probably in the roof, "a cubit in height, Gen. 6:16; 8:13. The dimensions of the ark, taking the cubit as 18 inches, were 450 feet in length, 75 in breadth, and 45 in height. It was built of light gopher- wood, and made waterproof with bitumen, and was no doubt large enough to accommodate the 8 persons of Noah's family and the animals to be saved in it— namely, of all birds and clean beasts 7 each, and of unclean beasts 2 each, male and female. Many questions have been raised, and discussed at great length by skeptics and others, respecting the form and dimensions of the ark; the number of animals saved in it — whether including all species then existing in the world, except such as live in water or lie dormant, or only the species living in the parts of the world then peopled by man ; and as to the possibility of their being all lodged in the ark, and their food during the year. Some of these questions the Bible clearly settles. Others it is vain to discuss, since we have no means of deciding them. Certain it is, that while the Bible eulogizes the faith and obedience of Noah, it shows that his sal vation was a miracle of Providence. It was by miracle that he was forewarned and directed to prepare for the flood ; and the same miraculous power accomplished all that Noah was unable to do in design ing, building, and filling the ark, and pre serving and guiding it through the deluge. It has been commonly supposed that the warning came to Noah 120 years before the flood. Compare Gen. 5:32 with 7:6, and Gen. 6 : 3 with 1 Pet. 3 : 20. Tradi tions of the ark are found in most na tions all over the globe. See Deluge and Noah. ARK of the Covenant, the sacred chest or coffer in which the tables of the law were deposited, written by the finger of God, and witnessing to his covenant with his people. Exod. 25 : 22 ; 34 : 29. It was of shittim-wood, covered within and without with plates of 41 ARK BIBLE DICTIONARY. ARM told, nearly 4 feet in length, and 2 feet 3 inches in width and height. On the top of it, all around, ran a kind of golden crown. It had 4 rings of gold, 2 on each side, through which staves were put, by which it was carried. These also were overlaid with the finest gold, and were not to be re moved from the rings, Exod. 25 : 10-22. The lid of the ark, all of gold, was called the mercy-seat ; and upon its opposite ends were two golden cherubim, fronting each other and the mercy-seat, which they cov ered with their outspread wings, Exod. 37 : 1-9. Here God specially dwelt, 2 Kin. 19: 15, 1 Chr. 13:6, and shone forth, perhaps by some sensible manifestations, Lev. 16 : 2 ; Psa. 80:1. It was his footstool, 1 Chr. 28:2; Psa. 99:5. Here he received the homage of his people, and dispensed his living ora cles, Num. 7:89. The great yearly sacri fice of expiation was here offered by the high-priest, Heb. 9:7, in the Holy of Ho lies, where no one else was allowed to enter. Hence there was no object held more sacred by the Jews than the " ark of God." During their journeys in the wilder ness, it was borne by the priests under a purple canopy and with great reverence before the host of Israel, Num. 4:5, 6; 10: 33-36. Before it the Jordan was divided, and behind it the waters flowed on again, Josh. 3, 4. The walls of Jericho fell down before it, Josh. 6:4-12. After this, the ark continued some time at Gilgal, whence it was removed to Shi- loh, Josh. 4:19; 10:43; 18:1. Hence the Israelites took it to their camp ; but when they gave battle to the Philistines, it was taken by the enemy, 1 Sam. 4. The Phil istines, oppressed by the hand of God, re turned the ark, and it was lodged at Kir- jath-jearim, 1 Sam. 7:1. It was afterwards, in the reign of Saul, at Nob. David con veyed it from Kirjath-jearim to the house of Obed-Edom, and thence to his palace on Zion, 2 Sam. 6 ; and lastly, Solomon brought it into the temple at Jerusalem, 2 Chr. 5:2. See Psalms 24, 47, 105, 132. It remained in the temple, with all suitable respect, till the times of the later idola trous kings of Judah, who profaned the Most; Holy place with their idols, when the priests appear to have removed the ark from the temple. At least, Josiah com manded them to bring it back to the sanc tuary, and forbade them to carry it about, as they had hitherto done, 2 Chr. 33:7; 35:3. The ark appears to have been de stroyed at the captivity, or perhaps con- 42 cealed by pious Jews in some hiding-place afterwards undiscoverable, as we hear nothing more of it; and the want of it made the second temple less glorious than the first. Besides the tables ofthe covenant, placed by Moses in this sacred coffer, God appoint ed the blossoming rod of Aaron to be lodged there, Num. 17:10; Heb. 9:4; agoldenvase of manna gathered in the wilderness, Exod. 16:33, 34; and a copy ofthe book of the law, Deut. 31 :26. At a later time these articles seem to have been removed, at least tem porarily, 1 Kin. 8:9. AR'KITES, descendants of Canaan, of the Zidonian branch, who settled a town called Arka, at the northwest foot of Mount Lebanon, Gen. 10:17; T Chr. 1:15. The ruins of Arka have been found by Burck- hardt and others about 14 miles northeast of Tripolis. ARM, the symbol of power, Job 38:15; Psa. 10:15; 89:13; Isa. 52:10; Ezek. 30:21. ARMAGED'DON, mountain of Megiddo, Rev. 16: 16. Megiddo is a city in the great plain at the foot of Mount Carmel, which had been the scene of much slaughter, Judg. 4, 5, 7; 1 Sam. 31 :8 ; 2 Kin. 23:29, 30. Hence it is referred to in the above text as the place in which God will collect to gether his enemies for destruction. Com pare the figurative 'name " valley of Je- hoshaphat," suggested by the grea*. victory of that king, 2 Chr. 20:26; Joel 3:2, 12; Zech. 14:2, 4. ARME'NIA, a large country of Asia, hav ing Media on the east, Cappadocia on the west, Colchis and Iberia on the north, Mes opotamia on the south, and the Euphrates and Syria on the southwest. It is an eleva ted table-land, with a cold but salubrious climate. Lying between the Caucasus and the Taurus ranges, with Mount Ararat tow ering in its central province, it gives rise to 3 notable rivers, the Euphrates, Tigris, and Araxes. It is only named in Scrip ture as the place of refuge of 2 Assyrian parricides, 2 Kin. 19:37. The modern Ar menian Church resembles strongly the Greek Church, and is sadly debased and corrupt. See Ararat, Minni, and To- garmah. ARM'LET, see Bracelet. ARMS and ARMOR. The Hebrews used in war offensive arms of the same kinds as were employed by other people of their time and of the East — swords, lances, spears, darts, javelins, bows, arrows, and slings. For defensive armor, they used ARM BIBLE DICTIONARY. ARO helmets, cuirasses, bucklers, armor for the thighs, etc. See War, Shield. In the accompanying engravings are rep resented specimens of the various weapons anciently used ; also of the several parts of the armor for defence, and the manner in which they were worn: i. The cuirass, or defence of the body, called in Scripture the coat of mail, habergeon, and breastplate ; it appears to have been made of leather or. some pliant material, sometimes covered with metallic scales, and capable of taking the form of the parts of the body it pro tected ; 2. The helmet, usually of tough hide or metal, with its flowing crest ; 3. The shield, target, or buckler, either of wood covered with tough hides, or of metal; 4. The leg-pieces, or greaves, of thick leath er or brass. See Eph. 6: 11-17. The offen sive arms are the bow and arrow ; the bat tle-axe; the spear, dart, and javelin or short spear; the sling; and the sword with its sheath, the ancient sword being short, Straight, and two-edged. Each Jewish tribe had its own banner. Under Abomination is a cut representing the ensigns of the Roman legions, which the Jews regarded as idolatrous, not only because they had been consecrated to idols, and by heathen priests, but as they had images on them, and were objects of ado ration, Exod. 20:4. AR'NON, roaring, a river rising in the mountains east ofthe Dead Sea, into which it flows, Deut. 2:24. It is now called Wady Modjeb, and anciently divided the territo ries of the Moabites in turn from those of the Ammonites, Amorites, and Reubenites, Num. 21 ; 13 ; Josh. 13 : 16. It flows in a deep arid wild ravine of the same name. Burck- hardt was 35 minutes in descending to the river bed. Here the heat of midsummer is extreme, and the river becomes almost dried up; but in the rainy season there is an impetuous torrent. AR'OER, laid bare, I., an ancient city on -the north side of the Arnon, in the south ern border of the tribe of Reuben, Deut. 2:36; 4:48; Josh. 13:9, 12 miles from the Dead Sea. It was in the territory of the Amorites, Josh. 12:2, but seems to have fallen at a later day into the hands of Moab, Jer. 48:19. II. A town in the tribe of Gad, probably east of Rabbath-Ammon, Josh. 13:25, and 43 ARP BIBLE DICTIONARY. ASA perhaps on the Jabbok, 2 Sam. 24:5. It is mentioned in Judg. 11:33. III. A town of Judah, to which David sent presents, 1 Sam. 30:28; 1 Chr. 11:44. Robinson found traces of it about 12 miles southeast from Beersheba. AR'PAD, support, a Syrian city, associa ted with Hamath, 2 Kin. 18:34; I9I Isa. 10:9; 36:19, and with Damascus, Jer. 49:23. Its site is unknown. ARPHAX'AD, son of Shem, born 2 years after the flood, Gen. 10:22; 11:10; Luke 3 : 36. Seven generations followed him be fore Abraham, and yet he lived till after the settlement of Abraham in the land of promise. He died A. M. 2096, aged 438. AR'RO W, used by the Jews both in hunt ing and in war; sometimes merely a sharp ened reed, sometimes feathered, barbed, and even poisoned, Job 6:4. The quiver hung by the side from the girdle or on the back, projecting above the left shoulder, so that arrows could easily be drawn. The bow was of various forms and materials, and many could be used only by the strongest men, Psa. 18:34. Arrows were used to convey fire to an enemy's house, or to his clothing or person, and the shield was sometimes wet as a safeguard, Psa. 120:4; Eph. 6:16; they were also employed in divination, Ezek. 21:21. The word is applied symbolically to children, Psa. 127:4, 5; to the lightning, Psa. 18:14; Hab. 3:11; to sudden calamities, Job 6:4; Psa. 38:2; 91:5; Ezek. 5:16; and to the deceit ful and bitter words of an evil tongue, Psa. 64:3; 120:4. ARTAXER'XES, great king, the name or title of several kings of Persia. I. In Ezra 4:7-24, Smerdis the Magian, w"ho usurped the throne after the death of Cambyses, B. C. 522, pretending to be Smerdis, the son of Cyrus, whom Cambyses had put to death. At the instigation of Rehum, etc., he stopped the rebuilding of the temple. He was murdered, after a- reign of 8 months, and was succeeded by Darius, son of Hystaspes. II. In Ezra 7, probably Artaxerxes Lon- gimanus, the son and successor of Xerxes, who ascended the throne B. C. 466, and died B. C. 427, after a mild reign of 39 years. In the 7th year of his reign, B. C. 459, Ezra led a 2d company of the Jewish exiles back to Jerusalem. In the 20th year, B. C. 446, Nehemiah was sent to Jerusalem as governor, Neh. 2:1 ; 5:14, etc. .AR'TEMAS, the gift of Diana, a faithful minister, cooperating with Paul, Titus 3:12. 44 ARTIL'LERY, or weapons; in 1 Sam. 20:40, bow and arrows. AR'VAD, wandering , a Phoenician city, on a small rocky island north of the mouth of the river Eleutherus, 22 miles north of Tripolis, now called Ruad, and in ruins. It lay in deep water 2 or 3 miles from the shore, with walls of huge bevelled stones, and was a stronger place than Tyre. The Arvadites also occupied the adjacent coast; were descendants of Canaan, Gen. 10:18; 1 Chr. 1:16; and were noted mariners, Ezek. 27:8, n. A'SA, healing, the 3d king of Judah after Solomon, son and successor of Abijam, 1 Kin. 15:8. He began to reign B. C. 956, and reigned 41 years at Jerusalem. The first part of his reign was comparatively peaceful and prosperous. He restored the pure worship of God ; expelled those who prostituted themselves in honor of their false gods; purified Jerusalem from the in famous practices attending the worship of idols ; and deprived his mother of her office and dignity of queen, because she erected an idol to Astarte. In the nth year of his reign, God gave him the victory over the vast army of the Cushite king Zerah ; and the prophet Azariah encouraged him to go on in his work of reform. He convoked the nation, and renewed its covenant with Jehovah. And yet, when Baasha king of Israel opposed this reformation, he sought aid not from God, but from heathen Syria. In the latter part of his life, he became dis eased in his feet; and Scripture reproaches him with having had recourse to the physi cians rather than to the Lord, 2 Chr. 16:12. Yet his reign was, on the whole, one ofthe happiest which Judah enjoyed, and the Bible repeatedly commends his piety as an example, 1 Kin. 22:43; 2 Chr. 20:32; 21:12. His funeral rites were celebrated with spe cial magnificence. There was ill-will and strife between Asa and Baasha all their days, as between Rehoboam and Israel, 1 Kin. 15:6, 16. AS'AHEL, a work of God, son of David's sister Zeruiah, and brother of Joab and Abishai ; one of David's 30 heroes, and ex tremely swift of foot; reluctantly killed by Abner at Gibeon, 2 Sam. 2 : 18, 23. Three others of this name are mentioned in 2 Chr. 17:8; 31:13; Ezra 10:15. A'SAPH, assembler, I., a celebrated mu sician in David's time, a Levite, and one of the leaders of the temple music, 1 Chr. 6:39; 15:17; 16:5; 25:1,2. This service appears to have been hereditary in his ASC BIBLE DICTIONARY. ASH family, Neh. 7:44; n :22. He is also called a seer, 2 Chr. 29:30; and his name is pre fixed to 12 Psalms (50, 73-83), perhaps written for him or his family to sing. See Music II. A recorder of king Hezekiah, 2 Kin. 18:18; Isa. 36:3. III. Keeper of forests under Artaxerxes, though from his name he appears to have been a Jew, Neh. 2:8. ASCEN'SION, the visible ascent of Christ to heaven. When our Saviour had re peatedly conversed with his apostles dur ing 40 days after his resurrection, and afforded them infallible proofs of its real ity, he led them out to the Mount of Olives, and thence rose to heaven in their sight, there to continue till he shall come again at the last day to judge the quick and the dead, Acts 1:9, n. The ascension was demonstrated by the descent of the Holy Ghost, as had been promised, John 16:7-14; Acts 2. It was Christ's real human nature that ascended; and he thus triumphed glo riously over death and hell, as head of his body the Church. While he blessed his dis ciples he was parted from them, the act a last pledge of his perpetual benediction ; and multitudes of the angelic host accom panied and welcomed him, Psa. 24:9; 68:17. The consequences resulting from his as cension are: the confirmation of types and prophecies concerning it ; his appearance as the great High-priest in the presence of God for us ; his more open and full as sumption of his kingly office ; his receiving gifts for men ; his opening the way to heav en for his people, Heb. 10:19, 20; and as suring his saints of their ascension to heav en after the resurrection, John 14:1, 2. ASCENT. See Akrabbim, Wall. AS'ENATH, servant of Neith, daughter of Potipherah, priest or prince of On ; given in marriage by Pharaoh to Joseph, as add ing honor and strength to his high office. She was the mother of Ephraim and Ma nasseh, Gen. 41:45; 46:20, B. C. 1715. AS'ER. See Asher. ASH, Isa. 44 : 14, conjectured to signify some variety of the pine. ASH'DOD, a stronghold, one of the 5 chief cities of the Philistines, assigned to the tribe of Judah, but not conquered by them, Josh. 13:3; 15:47; 1 Sam. 5:1; 6:17; Neh. 4:7. Here stood the temple of Da- gon ; and hither the ark was brought after the battle of Ebenezer, 1 Sam. 5:1. It was besieged by the Assyrian general Tartan, Isa. 20:1, and afterwards for 29 years by Psammeticus, Jer. 25:20. It was called by the Greeks Azotus, and belonged to Judaea in the time of Christ. Here Philip preached the gospel, Acts 8:40. It was a strongly fortified city, on an elevation halfway from Gaza to Joppa, and 3 miles from the Med iterranean ; and is now a miserable village, called Esdud. ASH'DOTH PIS'GAH, springs of Pisgah, on the east side of the Dead Sea, Deut. 3*17; 4:49J J°sh- '2:3; 13:20. ASH'ER, happy, the 8th son of Jacob and 2d of Zilpah, Gen. 30:13; 35:26; own bro ther of Gad. He had 4 sons and 1 daugh ter, Num. 26:44-47. On entering Canaan his tribe was the 5th in order, numbering 53,400. The portion of Asher touched the seaboard, having Phoenicia and Lebanon on the north, Carmel and the tribe of Zebulun on the south, including Dor, and the tribe of Naphtali on the east. It was fruitful in grain, wine, oil, and minerals, Gen. 49:20; Deut. 33:24, 25. Part of the Phoeni cian coast was included, Josh. 19:25, 28; but the Asherites were unable to expel the Canaanites, and dwelt among them, Judg. 1:31, 32, to the serious injury of their own piety and patriotism, Judg. 5:17, 18. They are honorably mentioned in the history of David, 1 Chr. 12:36, and of Hezekiah, 2 Chr. 30:11. Anna the prophetess belonged to this tribe, Luke 2:36. ASH'ES. To repent in sackcloth and ashes, or to lie down among ashes, was an external sign of self-affliction for sin, or of grief under misfortune, Psa. 102:9. We find it adopted by Job, 2:8 ; by many Jews when in great fear, Esth. 4:3; and by the king of Nineveh, Jonah 3:6. The ashes of a red heifer were used in ceremonial puri fication, Num. 19; Heb. 9:13. ASH'IMA, a deity adored by the men of Hamath settled in Samaria, 2 Kin. 17:30. ASH'KELON, see Askelon. ASH'KENAZ, son of Gomer and grand son of Japheth, Gen. 10:3; 1 Chr. 1:6. His descendants are named in Jer. 51 : 27 with Minni and Ararat, provinces of Armenia. Their land lay towards the Black Sea, and sent colonies into Europe, perhaps giving rise to the name Scandinavia. ASH'PENAZ, chief of the eunuchs of king Nebuchadnezzar, who had the charge of Daniel and his young companions, and was led to show them favor at his own peril, Dan. 1:3-18. ASH'TAROTH, images of Astarte, a city of Og, in Bashan, east of the Jordan ; with in the half-tribe of Manasseh, Josh. 13:31, 45 ASH BIBLE DICTIONARY. ASS and a Levitical city, i Chr. 6:71, called also Beeshterah, Josh. 21:27. ASH'TEROTH KARNA'IM, two -horned Astarte, Gen. 14:5, an ancient city of the Rephaim, supposed to be found at the modern town Mezareib, on the Haj or pil grim route to Mecca, some 50 miles south by west of Damascus. ashtoreth, from a tyrian coin. ASH'TORETH, plural ASH'TAROTH, called by the Greeks Astarte, a goddess of the Phoenicians, 2 Kin. 23:13, whose wor ship was also introduced among the Israel ites and Philistines, 1 Kin. 11:5,33; 1 Sam. 7:3; 31:10; and was very ancient and widely spread, Gen. 14:5. She is common ly named in connection with Baal, Judg. 2:13; 10:6; 1 Sam. 7:4; 12:10. Another Hebrew name for the same goddess is Asherah, the happy, the fortunate ; or more simply, fortune. This is commonly ren dered in the English version " grove ;" but both these Hebrew names of Astarte often signify wooden images or statues of Astar te, which are said to be set up, broken down, destroyed, etc. In connection with her worship there was much licentiousness. See 2 Kin. 21:7; 23 : 6. Compare Lev. 19:29; Deut. 23:18: See Baal. Compare Judg. 3:7; 6:25; 1 Kin. 18:19; Jer. 7:18; 8:2; 11:13; 44:I7i J8; Ezek. 16. A'SIA. Asia Minor is the peninsula which lies between the Euxine or Black Sea and the eastern part of the Mediterranean, and formerly included the provinces of Phry gia, Cilicia, Pamphylia, Caria, Lycia, Lydia, Mysia, Bithynia, Paphlagonia, Cappadocia, Galatia, Lycaonia, and Pisidia. Many Jews were scattered over these regions, as ap pears from the history in Acts, and from Josephus. The writers of the New Testa ment comprehend, under the name of Asia, perhaps (1) the whole of Asia Minor, Acts 19:26, 27; but usually (2) only the western part of that country, the region of Ionia, jEolis, and Doris, of which Ephesus was 46 the capital, and which Strabo also calls Asia, Acts 2:9; 6:9; 16:6; 19:10,22. Cicero speaks of proconsular Asia as containing the provinces of Phrygia, Mysia, Caria, and 1 Lydia. AS'KELON, migration, a strongly forti fied city of the Philistines, between Ashdod and Gaza, on the Mediterranean. After the death of Joshua, the tribe of Judah took Askelon ; but it subsequently became one of the 5 governments belonging to the Philistines, Judg. 1:18; 1 Sam. 6:17. Sam son went down there to slay and despoil 30 men, Judg. 14:19. Christians were cru elly persecuted there in the time of Julian, and it was occupied by king Richard dur ing the Crusades. It is now a scene of desolation, Zeph. 2:4; Zech. 9:5. ASNAP'PAR, leader, the Assyrian satrap, by whom the territory of the 10 tribes was peopled by emigrants from beyond the Euphrates, 2 Kin. 17:24; Ezra 4:10. Ezra styles him " great and noble ;" but no other trace of him is left. ASP, Hebrew pethen, a serpent, whose poison kills almost the instant it penetrates. It is mentioned in Deut. 32:33; Job 20:14, 16; Psa. 58:4; 91:13; Isa. 11:8; Jer. 8:17; Rom. 3: 13. A traveller in the desert south of Judah says, " One day we saw in our path an asp, a foot long, coiled up in the attitude of springing. Our Arabs killed it, saying it was exceedingly venomous." There is no reason to suppose these ser pents literally deaf; but they might act as if they were, refusing to follow the call and music of the serpent-charmer — as the co bras do at this day in Egypt. The Hebrew pethen signifies distension, and is now generally taken to mean the haje or Egyptian hooded-snake, which like the Indian cobra-di-capello swells its neck when excited, and rises on its tail to strike. It is often met in ancient Egyptian sculp tures under the name of Kneph. See Ser pent. ASS, an animal well known for domestic uses, and frequently mentioned in Scrip ture. They were not only used as beasts of burden, Gen. 49:14, and for ploughing, etc., but people ofthe first quality in Pales tine rode on asses. Deborah describes the nobles as those who " ride on white asses," Judg. 5:10. Compare Judg. 10:4; 12:14. And thus our Lord rode in kingly triumph into Jerusalem, Zech. 9:9; Matt. 21:2. The Oriental asses, compared with those of Northern countries, are far more stately, active, and lively. Iudeed, they were high- ASS BIBLE DICTIONARY. ASS ly prized, and were preferred for riding, especially the she-asses, on account of their sure-footedness. Hence we so often find mention of she-asses alone. The domestic ass was a faithful servant, Isa. 1:3, the mainstay of many a poor fam ily, Job 24:3, and a valuable property of the wealthy, Gen. 49:11 ; Job 1:3. The wild ass is a well-known Oriental animal, often mentioned in Scripture, Gen. 16:12; Job 39:5; Hos. 8:9, and is a much handsomer and more dignified animal than the common ass. These animals were an ciently found in Palestine, Syria, Arabia' Deserta, Mesopotamia, Phrygia, and Lyca- onia ; but they rarely occur in those regions at the present time, and seem to be almost entirely confined to Tartary, some parts of Persia and India, and Africa. Their hab its greatly resemble those of the wild horse. They assemble in troops under the conduct of a leader dr sentinel, and are extremely shy and vigilant. See Ishmael. ASSAY', to attempt, Job 4:2 ; Heb. 11:29. AS'SHUR, black. See Assyria. AS'SOS, a seaport in Mysia, on the Gulf of Adramyttium, opposite to and 7 miles north of the island of Lesbos ; and 20 miles south of Troas, though much farther by sea. Here Paul took ship for Mitylene, Acts 20:13, H- I' 's now a poor village, called Beiram. ASSU'RANCE of Faith, Heb. 10:22, is a full and hearty conviction of the truth of the gospel of salvation by Christ's sacri fice. Assurance of Hope, Heb. 6:11, is an abiding persuasion that we are children of God and heirs in Christ Jesus of eternal life. It must be inwrought in the soul by the Holy Spirit, Rom. 8:15, 16; 1 Cor. 1:22; : John 3:24; 4: 13,' but is greatly dependent on the measure of our penitence, faith, charity, etc., 1 John 2:3,5, 29; 3:14, 19, 24. Every believer ought to know that he is alive unto God by the conscious vigor and activity of his spiritual life in holy acts. One may have a prevailing assurance, and yet be at times harassed by doubts and fears ; but a confident assurance of salva tion, without penitence, love, etc., and the witness of a consistent life, is fatal pre sumption. ASSYR'IA, a celebrated country and em pire, had its name from Asshur, or Assur, the 2d son of Shem, who went out from Babylon and settled in that region, Gen. 10:11, 22, and appears from the recently discovered monuments to have been dei fied by the later Assyrians. Assyria ancient and proper, lay east of the Tigris, between Armenia, Susiana, and Media. Six provinces were attributed to it by Ptolemy, covering nearly the region of the modern Kurdistan and the pashalic of Mosul. Of these provinces, Adiabene was the most fertile and important; in it was situated Nineveh the capital ; and the term Assyria seems sometimes to have meant only this province. Generally, however, the word means the Kingdom of Assyria, including Babylonia and Mesopotamia, and extending to the Euphrates, which is therefore used by Isa iah as an image of this empire, Isa. 7:20; 8:7. In the height of its power it held sway over a large part of Western Asia. After the overthrow of the Assyrian state, the name continued to be applied to those countries which had been formerly under its dominion, as to Babylonia, 2 Kin. 23:29; Jer. 2:18; and to Persia, Ezra 6:22, where Darius is also called king of Assyria. The early history of Assyria is involved in obscurity. The most ancient of the Assyrian ruins, recently disentombed, are at Kileh-Shergat, 60 miles south of Nine veh, on the Tigris. This was anciently Asshur, and was the first seat of govern ment, probably from 1273 B. C. to 930 B. C. The most famous of the early kings, not mentioned in the Bible, were Tiglath-pile- ser I. in the time of Samuel, and Sarda- napalus, whose son Shalmaneser I. came in conflict with Ben-hadad, Hazael, and Jehu. We know from the sacred narrative that Assyria was a powerful nation, and during the reign of the Jewish kings it was an object of perpetual dread. Pul, king of Assyria, invaded Israel in the reign of Menahem. about 769 B. C, 2 Kin. 15:19, 20. Tiglath-pileser II. assisted Ahaz against a 47 AST BIBLE DICTIONARY. ATA confederate army formed of the Syrian forces in league with those of the io tribes, 2 Kin. 16:1-10. Shalmaneser II. invaded Israel, conquered Hoshea, and made him a vassal, bound to pay a yearly tribute. Hoshea wishing, however, to throw off the yoke, attempted to form a league with Egypt, and refused the tribute. On ascer taining this design of the Israelitish prince, ilie Assyrians again invaded Israel, re duced Samaria, loaded its king with fetters, and transported the people of the land into Media, putting an end to the separate king dom of the io tribes, 2 Kin. 17:5; 18:9, B. C. 721. The 3 tribes located east of Jor dan had already been deported into Media by Tiglath-pileser, when he ravaged Israel to save Ahaz and the kingdom of Judah. Sargon intervened between Shalmaneser II. and Sennacherib; and this latter king came into Judah with a powerful army in the reign of Hezekiah, but was miracu lously defeated, 2 Kin. 18:13; T9:35- Esar- haddon, his son and successor, ravaged Judah in the days of Manasseh, and car ried the conquered sovereign in chains to Babylon. After this period the empire of Assyria, having existed many years and flourished exceedingly for 500 years, began to wane. One of its last monarchs was Sardanapalus, Assur-bani-pal ofthe recent ly discovered stone records ; and it was he, or perhaps his son Saracus, who on the eve of capture collected his wives and treasures in his palace, and setting fire to the build ing perished in the flames. The kingdom fell, B. C. 625, into the hands of the Medes, and was divided between them and the Babylonians, and the very name of Assyria was thenceforth forgotten, Num. 24:24; Isa. 10 : 5-19 ; Nah. 3:19; Zeph. 2 : 13-15. Its capital, once the most powerful and re nowned city of the Eastern world, and its other cities, perished from history ; but their remains, exhumed from the huge mounds that have protected them, signally attest the sacred records. See Nineveh, Calah. These sculptured remains concur with the Bible to depict a powerful, stern, and war like race, familiar with many of the arts of civilized life, but barbarous, sensual, cruel, and idolatrous. ASTROL'OGERS, men who pretended to foretell future events by means of astro nomical observations, Isa. 47:13. It was fancied that the stars and planets had an influence, for good or for evil, on human affairs, and that certain aspects and rela tive positions of the heavenly bodies were 48 full of meaning to those who had skill to interpret them, Dan. 2:2; 4:7; 5:7, 11, 25. These superstitions were prevalent among the Chaldaeans, Assyrians, Egyptians, Phoe nicians, and Arabians, and were closely connected with the worship of the sun, moon, and stars, Deut. 4:19; 17:3; 2 Kin. 23:5, 12; Jer. 19:13 ; Ezek. 8:16; Zeph. 1 :^. They were thus idolatrous in their spirit, robbed God of his glory, and were highly offensive in his sight, Deut. 18 : 10. See Magi. ASTRON'OMY, the science of the heaven ly bodies, was much studied in Asia in an cient times. The Chaldaeans excelled in it. The Hebrews do not appear to have made great proficiency in it, though their climate and mode of life invited to the contemplation of the heavens. Revelation had taught them who created and governed all the worlds, Gen. 1, and the infinite pres ence of the one living and true God filled the universe, to their minds, with a glory unknown toothers, Psalm 19; Isa. 40:26; Amos 5 : 8. The Bible does not aim to teach the science of astronomy, but speaks of the sun, moon, and stars in the familiar lan guage of mankind in all ages. The fol lowing heavenly bodies are alluded to par ticularly in Scripture: Venus, as morning star, Isa. 14:12; Rev. 2:28; Orion and the Pleiades, Job 9:9; 38:31; Amos 5:8; the Great Bear, called " Arcturus," Job 9:9; 38:32; Draco, "the crooked serpent," Job 26:13; Mazzaloth and Gemini, 2 Kin. 23:5; Acts 28: 11. The planets Jupiter and Venus were worshipped under various names as Baal and Ashtoreth, Gad and Meni, Isa. 65:11. Mercury is named as Nebo, in Isa. 46:1 ; Saturn as Chiun, in Amos 5:26; and Mars as Nergal, in 2 Kin. 17:30. See Idol atry and Stars. ASUP'PIM, collections. The "house of Asuppim" was probably a storehouse in connection with the temple, 1 Chr. 26:15; in Neh. 12:25, "thresholds." ASYN'CRITUS, incomparable,Rom.i6:n. A'TAD, thorn, a Canaanite, at whose threshing-floor a solemn mourning was held for a week over the remains of Jacob, on their way from Egypt to Hebron, Gen. 50:10,11. See Abel-Mizraim. AT'AROTH, crowns. Several places of this name occur in Scripture: one in the tribe of Judah, 1 Chr. 2:54; one or two in Ephraim, Josh. 16:2, 5, 7; 18:13; an>>, VIEW OF BABIL FROM THE WEST, WITH THE KASR. men, pottery, etc. One of these is de scribed above. See Babel. Another, 4 miles north by west of Hilleh, and called by the natives Kasr, the palace, is supposed to be the ruins of Nebuchadnezzar's famous palace. It is an irregular square, some 8,000 feet in circuit ; no plan of the palace can be traced, but portions of the wall re main — of a fine yellow, burnt brick, laid in lime cement. Not very far from this on the north is the great mound called Mujellibeh, or by the natives Babil, 600 feet long, 400 wide, and 140 high. It was probably built in stages, is coated with a fine burnt brick laid in mortar, and is thought by George Smith to be the site of the ancient tem ple of Belus, rebuilt by Nebuchadnezzar.. From these mounds thousands of bricks have been dug, bearing arrow-headed in scriptions as ancient as the time of Nebu chadnezzar, whose name constantly occurs, and containing a full record of Babylonian kings down to the death of Darius Hys- taspis. South of the Kasr is another vast mound still more ancient.'more than 10,000 feet in circuit. It is called the Amram mound ; its bricks are inferior to those of the other two mounds, and the names upon them are anterior to Nebuchadnezzar. Many smaller mounds, embankments, etc., are spread over the plains around. The aspect of the whole region is dreary and forlorn. It is infested by noxious animals, and perhaps in no place under heaven is the contrast between ancient magnificence and present desolation greater than here. The awful prophecy of Isaiah, uttered more than a century before, has been most liter ally fulfilled, Isa. 13 ; 14. The name of Babylon is used symboli cally in Rev. 14:8; 16; 17; 18, to mark the idolatry, superstition, lewdness, luxury, and persecution of the people of God which characterized heathen Rome and modern Antichrist. No other city but Rome can be meant by "that great city that ruleth over the kings of the earth," sitting on its " 7 hills," " drunken with the blood of the martyrs of Jesus." Some thus interpret 1 Pet. 5:13; but this is only a fanciful conjecture. To use such an enigmatical name, in such a place, instead of the familiar Rome, would have been unnatural ; and there is no reason to doubt that the ancient Babylon is meant, since we know that Jews lived there at the time of Christ. See Peter. II. There was also a Babylon in Egypt, a fort not far from Heliopolis. Some sup pose this to be the Babylon mentioned 1 Pet. 5: 13, but with no good reason. BABYLO'NIA, the province of which Babylon was the capital ; now the Babylo nian or Arabian Irak, which constitutes the pashalic of Bagdad. This celebrated province included the tract of country lying on the river Euphrates, bounded north by Mesopotamia and Assyria, and south by 55 BAB BIBLE DICTIONARY. BAL the Persian Gulf. This gulf was indeed its only definite and natural boundary; for towards the north, towards the east or Per sia, and towards the west or desert Arabia, its limits were quite indefinite. Both in ancient and modern times, important tracts on the eastern bank of the Tigris, and on the western bank of the Euphrates, and still more on both banks of their united streams, were reckoned to Babylonia, or Irak el-Arab. The most ancient name of the country is Shinar, Gen. 10:10; Dan. 1:2. Afterwards Babel, Babylon, and Babylonia became its commdn appellation, with which, at a later period, Chaldaea, or the land of the Chal daeans, was used as synonymous, after this people had got the whole into their pos session. Babylonia is an extensive plain, extend ing some 400 miles northwest and south east along the 2 rivers, and about 100 miles wide, interrupted by no hill or mountain, consisting of a fatty, brownish soil, and subject to the annual inundations of the Tigris and Euphrates, more especially of the latter, whose banks are lower than those of the Tigris. The Euphrates com monly rises about 12 feet above its ordi nary level, and continues at this height from the end of April till June. To pro vide means for drawing off the superabun dant water, and distributing it to those tracts which were in themselves less wa tered, the whole land came to be divided up by a multitude of larger and smaller canals, which seem to be the " rivers of Babylon" spoken of in Psa. 137:1. Baby lonia also contained several large lakes, partly the work of art and partly formed by the inundations of the 2 rivers. It was therefore a land abounding in water ; and Jeremiah' might well say of it that it "dwelt upon many waters." Its soil, when well cultivated, is of extraordinary fertil ity; but now dry and waste lands alter nate with still more desolate marshes, Isa. 14:23; Jer. 51:13, 37, 42. The .Babylonians belonged to the She- mitic branch of the descendants of Noah, and their language had an affinity with the Arabic and Hebrew, nearly resembling what is now called Chaldee. Yet the Bab ylonian empire was apparently founded by Nimrod, a Cushite descendant of Noah, 20 centuries before Christ, and then embraced the cities Babel, Erech, Ur, Accad, and Cal- neh, Gen. 10:10. See Nimrod. After the building of Nineveh by Ninus, 1237 B. C, 56 that city became the seat of power, and con tinued so until about 606 B. C, when the Assyrian empire gave way to the Chaldaean, and Babylon reached its highest point in fame and power. Upon the return of the Jews from captivity, many still remained in Babylonia, and to their posterity the gospel was early conveyed. Peter wrote his rst epistle there, 1 Pet. 5:13. The Jews had thriving synagogues in Babylonia, and one of their Talmuds was there composed. See Babylon and Chaldaeans. BA'CA, tears, or weeping, Psa. 84:6. It is not necessary to understand here that there was really a valley so called, any more than in Psa. 23:4 any one valley in Judeea is meant. Those who are permitted to make the usual pilgrimages to Jerusa lem in order to worship Jehovah in the temple, love the ways which lead thither, even though rough and dreary; a vale of tears is to them as a well-watered country. BAD'GER, a small inoffensive animal, of the bear genus, which remains torpid all winter. It is an inhabitant of cold coun tries, and is not found in Palestine. Hence many think the " badgers' skins " men tioned Exod. 25:5; 26:14; Ezek. 16:10, and elsewhere, as being Used for covering the tabernacle and for shoes, were the skins not of this animal, but of a species of seal found in the Red Sea, and called the du- gong. Burckhardt remarks that he "saw parts of the skin of a large fish, killed on the coast, which was an inch in thickness, and' is employed by the Arabs instead of leather for sandals." Others, objecting to the dugong as ceremonially unclean, Lev. 11:10-12, think the animal in question was of the antelope species, the skins of which the Jews had obtained in Egypt. BAG, Deut. 25:13; Luke 12:33. Eastern money was often sealed up in bags con taining a certain sum, for which they passed current while the seal remained unbroken, 2 Kin. 12: 10. The disciples had a common purse, for the poor, John 12:6. BAHU'RIM, young men, a town of Ben jamin, near Jerusalem, on the road to the Jordan.' It is several times mentioned in the history of David, 2 Sam. 3:16; 16:5; 17:18. BA'JITH, a house, the site of an idol tem ple in Moab, where the king offered vain supplications against the Assyrians, Isa. 15:2; 16:12. BAKER. See Bread. BA'LAAM, lord of the people, a celebra ted diviner, of the city Pethor, on the Eu- BAL BIBLE DICTIONARY. BAL phrates, Num. 22:5. Balak, king of Moab, having seen the multitudes of Israel, and fearing they would overwhelm him as they had just done the Amorites, sent for Ba laam, who was famous for his supposed supernatural powers, to come and curse them. Balaam, though eager for gain, was led to ask counsel of God, who forbade his going. Balak afterwards sent other depu ties, whom Balaam finally accompanied without the approval of God, who sent an angel to meet and warn him in the way. Here occurred the miracle of Balaam's ass, which is spoken of throughout the Bible as a real occurrence and not a mere vision, Num. 22:22, 35; 2 Pet. 2:16. But instead of cursing, he was constrained by the Spirit of God to bless the children of Israel, in poetic strains of exceeding beauty and power. This he did a second and a third time, to the extreme mortification of Balak, who dismissed him in great anger. Balaam subsequently foretold what Israel should in future times do to the nations round about ; and after having advised Balak to engage Israel in idolatry and whoredom, that they might offend God and be forsaken by him, returned to his own land. His bad counsel was pursued ; the young women of Moab inveigled the Hebrews to the impure and idolatrous worship of Baal-Peor, for which 24,000 Israelites were slain, Num. 25:1-9; 31:16. Balaam was probably a descendant of Shem, and possessed many just ideas of the true God. He calls him " the Lord my God," Num. 22:18; and yet he seems to have been only an enchanter and false prophet, like many in the times of the kings of Israel, until he came in collision with the people of God. In this transaction he was made a bearer, against his own will, of the sublime messages of Jehovah; yet his heart remained unchanged, and he died not "the death of the righteous," Num. 31:8, but fighting against Israel, Josh. 13:22. His fearful doom warns us never to disre gard the monitions of conscience, nor seek for gain in ways God does not approve, 2 Pet. 2:15; Jude 1 1 ; Rev. 2:14. BA'LAK, waste, king of Moab when the Israelites were drawing near the promised land. Filled with terror lest they should attack and destroy him, as they had Sihon and Og, he entered into an alliance with the Midianities to war against them, and implored the soothsayer Balaam to come and curse them. His fears and his' devi ces were, both in vain, Deut. 2:9; Judg. 11:25. See Balaam. He found he had nothing to fear from Israel if at peace with them, and nothing to hope if at war with them, Rev. 2:14. BAL' ANCE, or scales, a dual word in Hebrew. Balances were very early in use, to weigh money, before coinage began, Gen. 23:16; 43:21; Job 31:6. They are shown on Egyptian monuments. Stones early gave place to lead for weights, which were carried in a bag, Deut. 25:13, and God made it a matter of religion to have them just and equal, Lev. 19 : 36 ; Prov. 20 : 10. Bread sold by weight was a symbol of fam ine, Lev. 26:26; Rev. 6:5. BALD'NESS. It was customary to cut off the hair, or to shave the head, as a to ken of mourning, on the death of a rela tive, Job 1:20; Jer. 16:6. This was forbid den to the Israelites, being a heathen cus tom, Deut. 14:1; yet it continued to mark the close of a Nazarite's vow, Num. 6:2, 18; Acts 21:24. Baldness was treated with contempt, because it exposed a man to the suspicion of leprosy. The cry of the chil dren at Bethel after Elisha, " Go up, thou bald-head,"- 2 Kin. 2:23, indicated great contempt for him as a prophet of the Lord, and at the same time a scoff at the miracle of Elijah's ascension. BALM, or more properly, Balsam, the gum from the balsam-tree, the Opobalsa- mum, anciently found in Judaea, and par ticularly in Gilead, Jer. 8:22; 46:11. It was reckoned very valuable in the cure of external wounds. The true balsam-tree is an evergreen, a native of Southern Arabia and Abyssinia, and is about 14 feet high. It yields its gum in very small quantities. 57 BAM BIBLE DICTIONARY. BAR At the present day, this is collected chiefly in Arabia, between Mecca and Medina, and is therefore sometimes called the balm of Mecca. Its odor is exquisitely fragrant and pungent. It is very costly, and is still in the highest esteem among the Turks and other Oriental nations, both as a medicine and as a cosmetic, Gen. 37:25; Jer. 51:8; Ezek. 27:17. BA'MAH, plural BA'MOTH, high places, Ezek. 20:29. Bamoth-baal was a station ofthe Hebrews near the Anion, in the bor der of Moab, Num. 21:20; 22:41; after wards assigned to the tribe of Reuben, Josh. 13:17; Baal was worshipped there, and it was perhaps referred to in Isa. 15:2. See High Places. BAND, Acts 10:1, a military cohort, or regiment, commanded by a tribune. BANNER. See Abomination, Ensign. BANQUET. See Eating, Feasts. BAP'TISM is the holy ordinance or sac rament by which persons are admitted as members of the Christian community. It is administered in the name of the Fa ther, the Son, and the Holy Ghost ; and is a visible and public profession of faith in Christ and his salvation, of vital union with him, of the obligation to live a new life according to his precepts and in his service, and of the expectation of sharing in his glorious and heavenly immortality. It is not by any means to be regarded as a regenerating ordinance, though signifi cant of regeneration. It was established in the Christian church by Christ and his apostles, as 1 of the 2 only sacraments of his church, Matt. 28 : 19 ; John 3 : 22, 26 ; 4:1, 2; Acts 8:12, 36; 16:33, and is bind ing on his followers to the end of time, Mark 16:16. The use of water in this ordi nance is grounded in part on its qualities as the great element of purification, Psa. 26:6; 51:2, 7; Isa. 1:18; Zech. 13:1; Acts 22:16, and on the rites of the ancient dis pensation, in which " water and blood " were the divinely-appointed symbols of moral renovation and atonement, Lev. 16:4, 16, 24. The proper subjects of baptism are true believers, and according to Paedobaptists their infant children, which Baptists deny; and the mode, as the Baptists believe, is by immersion only, while Paedobaptists believe sprinkling or pouring equally valid. Baptism " with the Holy Ghost and with fire," Matt. 3:11; Luke 3:16, is perhaps best explained by a reference to Acts 1:5; 2:3,4; 10:45; 11:13. The bap- 58 tism of John, Matt. 3:11, required peni tence, and faith in God's pardoning love, but preceded the outpouring of the Spirit with his special gifts, and the command to baptize in the name of the Trinity, Acts 18:25, 26; 19:1-6. In 1 Cor. 15:29, the question in other words may be, Why, when many suffer death for Christ's sake, do others still come forward and publicly confess Christ, thus taking the place of the dead ? BARAB'BAS, son of Abba, a noted rob. ber in Christ's time, who was imprisoned and awaiting death for sedition and mur der, Acts 3:14. It was a custom of the Romans, for the sake of conciliating the Jews, to release one Jewish prisoner, whom they might choose, at the yearly Passover. Pilate desired thus to release Jesus, but the Jews demanded Barabbas, Matt. 27: 16- 26; Luke 23: 16-25. Thus we see that men can prefer a ruffian to the Lord of glory, and a destroyer of life to Him who heals our sicknesses and saves our souls by giv ing his own life for ours. BA'RAK, lightning, the son of Abinoam, of Kedesh in the tribe of Naphtali. God summoned him, by means of Deborah the prophetess, to release Israel from the yoke of Jabin, king of North Canaan. Having first secured the attendance of the prophet ess, he gathered 10,000 men, and stationed them on Mount Tabor, perhaps to avoid the enemies' 900 chariots of iron, Judg. 4:3. God fought for Israel in the battle which ensued, and the song of Deborah and Ba rak, Judg. 5, chronicles their victory. Read ing the inspired narrative on the spot, one is struck with a vivid sense of its truth and accuracy, finding the same places around him, with thf. old names, in the order re quired by the history. Barak is enrolled among those illustrious for faith, Heb. 11:32. See Kishon. BARBA'RIAN, a foreigner. According to the Greek idiom, all other nations, how ever learned and polite they might be, were "barbarians." Hence Paul comprehends all mankind under the names of " Greeks and barbarians," Rom. 1:14. Luke calls the inhabitants of the island of Malta " bar barians," they being of the Phoenician race, and speaking the dialect of Carthage, Acts 28:2, 4. BAR-JE'SUS. See Elymas. BAR'LEY was sown in Palestine from November to February, and reaped at and after the Passover. The Hebrews fre quently used barley -bread, 2 Sam. 17:28, BAR BIBLE DICTIONARY. BAR 2 Kin. 4:42; John 6:9, though it was con sidered inferior to wheat. Compare Num. 5:15; Judg. 7:13; Ezek. 13:19. The mod ern Arabs ridicule their enemies as " eaters of barley-bread." Barley also was much used as food for cattle, 1 Kin. 4:28. BARN. Garners, storehouses, and gran aries are often spoken of in the Bible, Job 39:12; Psa. 144:13; Matt. 3:12. They were receptacles for grain and other produce, rather than for hay, and were often under ground. In some parts of the East, domes tic beasts are lodged on the ground floor of the owner's house, the family occupying the rooms above. BAR'NABAS, son of exhortation, or Jo- ses, was a Levite of the isle of Cyprus, who sold all his property and laid the price of it at the apostles' feet, Acts 4 : 36, 37. When Paul came to Jerusalem, 3 years after his conversion, about A. D. 38, Barnabas intro duced him to the other apostles, Acts 9:26, 27. Five years afterwards, the church at Jerusalem, being informed of the progress of the gospel at Antioch, sent Barnabas thither, who beheld with great joy the won ders of the grace of God, Acts 11:20-24. He afterwards went to Tarsus, to seek Paul and bring him to Antioch, where they dwelt together 2 years, and great numbers were converted. They left Antioch A. D. 45, to convey alms from this church to that at Jerusalem, and soon returned, bringing with them John Mark, Acts 11:28-30; 12:25. While they were at Antioch, A. D. 45, the Holy Ghost directed that they should be set apart for those labors to which he had appointed them, the planting of new churches among the Gentiles. Thus early in the Christian church was the missionary cause instituted: the Holy Ghost charging believers with the duty of consecrating chosen men to carry the gospel to the hea then, of providing what was necessary for the work, and of watching over its pro gress. They visited Cyprus and some cit ies of Asia Minor, Acts 13:2-14, and after 3 years returned to Antioch, gathered the church, and rehearsed all that God had done by them. In A. D. 50, he and Paul were appointed delegates from the Syrian churche's to consult the apostles and elders at Jerusalem respecting certain questions raised by Jewish zealots ; and having ob tained the' judgment of the brethren at Jerusalem, they returned with it, accom panied by Silas and Barnabas. At Anti och he was led into dissimulation by Peter, and was, inconsequence, reproved by Paul. While preparing for a second missionary tour, Paul and Barsabas, having a dispute relative to Mark, Barnabas' nephew, sep arated, Paul going to Asia, and Barnabas with Mark to Cyprus, Acts 13-15; Gal. 2:13. Nothing is known of his subsequent history. There is a spurious gospel, in Arabic, attributed to him, but written by some heretical Christian; also another spurious work, probably of the 5th century, profess ing to relate his labors in Cyprus and his death there ; and an epistle, treating main ly of the connection of the Mosaic dispen sation with the gospel, but evidently writ ten by some other hand, though at a very early date, probably near the beginning of the 2d century. A complete copy of the original Greek was found by Dr. Tischen- dorf, appended to the Sinaitic MS. of the New Testament. Its value is that of an ancient witness, not of an inspired author ity. Its language constantly accords with that of the New Testament. It shows no trace of pope, tradition, priests, masses, penances, confession, or purgatory — no word about prayers to angels, saints, or Mary. It distinctly recognizes the Chris tian Sabbath: " Wherefore also we pass the 8th day in rejoicing, wherein also Jesus rose from the dead, and having been man ifested, he ascended into the heavens." BAR'REL, 1 Kin. 17:12; 18:33, the word in Hebrew usually translated pitcher. BAR'RENNESS was an affliction pecu liarly lamented throughout the East, Gen. 16:1; 30:1-23; 1 Sam. 1:6, 19; Isa. 47:9; 49 : 2 1 ; Luke 1 : 25, especially by the Jewish women, who remembered the promised Messiah, Gen. 3: 15, and hoped for the hon or of his parentage. The strength of this feeling is evinced by the extraordinary and often unjustifiable measures it led them to adopt, Gen. 16:2; 19:31; 38:14; Deut. 25:5- 10. Professed Christians are charged with barrenness, if they are destitute ofthe fruits of the Spirit, and do not abound in good works, Luke 13:6-9; 2 Pet. 1:8. BAR'SABAS, son of Saba. I. Joseph Barsabas, surnamed The fust, was one of Christ's early disciples', and probably among the 70. He was 1 of the 2 candi dates for the vacancy left by Judas Iscariot in the apostleship, Acts 1. II. Judas Barsabas was " a prophet," or preacher of the gospel, and a distin guished member of the Jerusalem church. He was deputed, with Silas, to accompany Paul and Barnabas in a mission of impor- 59 BAR BIBLE DICTIONARY. BAS tance to the Gentile converts in the Syrian churches, Acts 15:22-33. BARTHOL'OMEW, son of Talmai, one of the 12 apostles, Matt. 10:3; Mark 3:18; Luke 6:14; Acts 1:13. He is named in connection with Philip, and seems to have been the same person whom John calls Nathanael, John 1:45-51, and mentions among the other apostles, John 21:2. See Apostle and Nathanael. BARTIM/E'US, son of Timaeus, a blind man, to whom Christ gave sight, by the wayside near Jericho, Matt. 20 : 29-34 \ Mark 10:46-52; Luke 18:35-43. There were 2 healed, according to Matthew, although Mark and Luke only mention Bartimaeus. As to the lime of the occurrence, we may suppose that Bartimaeus heard the ap proach of Christ, Luke 18:35, and learned who he was on the first day ; and encour aged by the mercy of the Saviour to Zac- chasus, and being joined by another blind man, called to him for help as he again passed by on his way to Jerusalem. The touching narrative of his steadfast faith, and Christ's ready compassion, should en courage all to go boldly unto Jesus. BA'RUCH, blessed, the son of Neriah, of a distinguished family in the tribe of Ju dah. He was the faithful friend of Jere miah. About 605 B. C. he wrote down, from the lips of Jeremiah, all the divine messages to that prophet, and subsequent ly read them to the people, and again to certain princes. These last took the book, and soon made known its contents to king Jehoiakim, who impiously destroyed it. Baruch wrote it down a 2d time as be fore, with some additions, Jer. 36. He is supposed by some to have accompanied his brother Seraiah to Babylon, with the predictions of Jeremiah respecting that city, Jer. 51:59-64. He afterwards shared the persecutions of the prophet, was im prisoned with him, and forced to go to Egypt with the i"ebellious Jews, Jer. 43. An apocryphal book is ascribed to him. Another Baruch is mentioned in Neh. 11:5; and a 3d among the friends of Nehe miah, Neh. 3:20; 10:6. BARZIL'LAI, of iron, I., of Meholah in Simeon ; father of Adriel, who married Me- rab the daughter of Saul, 1 Sam. 18 : 19 ; 2 Sam. 21:8. II. An aged and wealthy Gileadite, a friend of David when he was in exile dur ing Absalom's rebellion. . He sent a lib eral supply of provisions, beds, and other conveniences for the use of the king's fol- 60 lowers, 2 Sam. 17:27; 19:32. On David's return, Barzillai accompanied him as far as Jordan, but declined, in consequence of his great age, to proceed to Jerusalem and receive the favors the king had intended for him. See Chimham. David, in his final charge to Solomon, enjoined upon him to show kindness to Barzillai 's family, and to make them members of the royal household, 1 Kin. 2:7. III. A priest who married a daughter of the above, Ezra 2:61 ; Neh. 7:63. BA'SHAN, light soil, Num. 21:33, a Tlcn hilly district lying east of the Jordan, and between the mountains of Lebanon on the north and those of Gilead on the south, Josh. 12:3-5. It covered the same terri tory in general as the later Roman prov inces : Gaulonitis, now faulan, bordering on the Upper Jordan towards Hermon ; Trachonitis, now el Lejah, the rocky tract on the east ; Batanaea, now Bathanyeh, on the southeast; and Auranitis, now Hau- ran, on the south. Bashan is celebrated in Scripture for its stately oaks, Isa. 2:13, its fine breed of cattle, and its rich pas turage : " Rams of the breed of Bashan," Deut. 32:14; "Rams, bulls, goats, all of thern fatlings of Bashan," Ezek. 39:18. Travellers describe the interior as still abounding with verdant and fertile mead ows, valleys traversed by refreshing streams, hills crowned with forests, and pastures offering an abundance to the flocks. The Hauran plain is still thickly strewn with ruins of towns and villages, built entirely in or of the native rock. Many of these, though unoccupied for ages, are well preserved ; and though built since the time of Christ, their numbers confirm the Bible statement that in the time of Joshua, Argob, one of its chief districts, contained 60 walled towns, Deut. 3:4, 5; Josh. 20:8; 21:27. Bashan was assigned, after the conquest of Og and his people, to the half- tribe of Manasseh, Josh. 12:4; 13:29-31. Solomon drew supplies from this region, 1 Kin. 4:13. It was conquered by Hazael, but Joash recovered it, 2 Kin. 10:33; I3:25- BASH'EMATH, or Bas'kmath, fragrant, I., a daughter of Ishmael, and 3d wife of Esau ; mother of Reuel, and of 4 Edomite tribes, Gen. 36:2-4. She is also called Mahalath in Gen. 28:9. It may be that she dropped this name and took the other after the death of Bashemath or Adah, the daugh ter of Elon and the ist of Esau's wives, Gen. 26:34. BAT BIBLE DICTIONARY. BEA II. Bas'math, daughter of Solomon, and wife of Ahimaaz, i Kin. 4:15. BAT, classed among unclean fowls, in Lev. 11:19; Deut. 14:18, because of its so- called wings and its flying. These noisome animals still swarm in Eastern caverns, and find a congenial lurking-place in the ruins of heathen temples, Isa. 2:20. BATH, a Hebrew measure, containing 7 or 8 gallons, liquid measure ; and 3 or 4 pecks, dry measure, 1 Kin. 7:26, 38; Isa. 5:10. See tables at the end of this book. BATHING. See Washing. BATH-SHEBA. See below. battering-ram and tower. BAT'TERING-RAM, a military engine for battering walls, * Sam. 20: 15. A long and solid beam, armed at one end with a metal lic ram's-head, was suspended by the middle, and swung violently and re peatedly against the walls of a city or castle, till a breach was made. It Was sometimes in the lower part of a wooden tower built upon wheels and sheathed with skins, and was worked by more than loo men ; while the up per part of the tower was filled with archers and slingers, Ezek. 4:2; 21 : 22 ; 26:9. See War. BATH'-SHEBA, daughter of the oath, the wife of Uriah, and probably grand daughter of Ahithophel, which see ; called Bathshua in 1 Chr. 3:5. Da vid first committed adultery with her, ^= then caused her husband to be slain, and afterwards took her to wife. These sins greatly displeased Jeho vah, who sent the prophet Nathan to David, with the parable of the ewe lamb. David bitterly repented, but was yet pun ished, 2 Sam. 11:12. Bath-sheba was the mother of Solomon, whose succession to the throne she took pains to secure, 1 Kin. 1:15, and of 3 other sons, 1 Chr. 3:5. She is afterwards mentioned in the history of Adonijah, 1 Kin. 2: 13, in the title of Psa. 51, and among the ancestors of Christ, Matt. 1:6. BAT'TLEMENT, a balustrade around the roofs of ancient nouses, which were flat, and were much resorted to for fresh air, amusement, or retirement by day, and for sleep at night. The Mosaic law required a battlement for each house, Deut. 22:8, and the spirit of this rule is of very wide application. BAY-TREE. The laurel of North Africa and the south of Europe ; an evergreen tree, a wreath of which has been from time immemorial the symbolical crown of poets and warriors. The word rendered " bay- tree" in Psa. 37:35 seems to mean simply a native tree, green and vigorous. BDEL'LIUM is commonly supposed to mean the aromatic gum of a tree growing near the Persian Gulf, etc. It is transpa rent, and bitter to the taste, yet very fra grant while burning, Gen. 2:12; Num. 11:7.. BEANS, as well as other leguminous plants, are still much used in Syria, 2 Sam. 17:28. They blossom in January, and un til March. Pliny alludes, to their use with barley, etc., in bread, as in Ezek. 4:9. BEAR. That bears were common in Pal estine appears from many passages in the Old Testament, iSam. 17:34,36,37; 2 Sam. SYRIAN bear: ursus syriacus. 17:8; 2 Kin. 2:24; Dan. 7:5; Amos 5:19. The species known in Syria resembles the common brown bear ; it is still met in the recesses of Lebanon. To a sullen and fe- 61 BEA BIBLE DICTIONARY. BED rocious disposition the bear joins immense strength, considerable sagacity, and the power of climbing trees. Her ferocity, especially when her young are injured, is proverbial. See 2 Sam. 17:8; Prov. 17:12; Isa. 11:7; 59:11; Hos. 13:8. oriental heads, with beards. BEARD. The Hebrews regarded a thin, scanty beard as a great deformity; while a long, full, flowing beard was esteemed the noblest ornament of personal beauty and dignity. A man's honor was lodged, as it were, in his beard. To insult it by word or act was the grossest indignity ; to take it respectfully in the right hand and kiss it was a mode of expressing high esteem and love permitted only to the nearest friends. BEARDS FROM EGYPTIAN PAINTINGS. It was cherished with great care, Psalm 133:2; Dan. 10:3. To neglect, tear, or cut it indicated the deepest grief, Ezra 9:3; Isa. 15:2; Jer. 41:5; 48:37; while to be deprived of it was a mark of servility and infamy. Many would prefer death to such a mutilation. These facts explain many passages of Scripture : as the gross insult offered to David's ambassadors, 2 Sam. 10:4-14; the zealous indignation of Nehe miah, Neh.. 13:25; the mode in which the feigned insanity of David was expressed, 1 Sam. 21:13, and the grief of Mephiboj sheth, 2 Sam. 19:24; the treachery of Joab, 62 2 Sam. 20:9, and perhaps of Judas; also several passages in the prophets, Isa. 7:20; 50:6; Ezek. 5:1-5. The Assyrian monu ments show us all their kings, warriors, priests, etc., with full beards, often dressed with elaborate care ; while eunuchs are depicted without beards. In Egypt, on the contrary, only captives and other foreign ers are usually represented with beards; and Herodotus says the Egyptians only let them grow as a sign of mourning : hence Joseph, when released from prison, shaved before going to Pharaoh, Gen. 41 : 14. See Shaving. BEASTS. This word, used in contradis tinction to man, denotes all animals be sides, Psa. 36:6; sometimes it means quad rupeds, and not creeping things, Lev. 11:2- 7; and sometimes domestic cattle, in dis tinction from wild creatures, Gen. 1:25; 45:17. They were all brought to Adam to be named. Few are mentioned in the Bi ble but such as lived in Palestine and the countries adjacent. Beasts suffer with man under the penalties of the fall, Gen. 3:14; Exod. 9:6; 13:15; Ezek. 38:20; Hos. 4:3. Yet various merciful provisions for them were made in the Jewish law, Exod. 20:10; 23:11, 12; Lev, 22:28; 25:7; Deut. 22:4,6, 7; 25:4. Animals were classed in the law as clean or unclean, with a primary refer ence to animal sacrifices, Gen. 7:2; Lev. 11. See Clean. The word beasts is figuratively used to symbolize various kings and nations, Psa. 74:14; Isa. 27:1; Ezek. 29:3; Dan. 7; 8; Rev. 12; 13. It also describes the charac ter of violent and brutal men, Psa. 22:12, 16; 1 Cor. 15:32; 2 Pet. 2:12. One Hebrew word commonly rendered beast signifies living creatures. In Ezekiel's vision, Ezek. 1, this is applied to human beings or their symbols. In the book of Revelation two distinct words are employed symbolically, both rendered "beast" in our version. One is applied to persecuting earthly pow ers, Rev. 11:7; 13:1, etc.; the other to su perhuman beings or their symbols, Rev. 4:6, etc. This latter might be appropriate ly rendered " living creature," as the cor responding Hebrew word is in Ezekiel. BED, in the East, is, and was anciently, a divan, or broad low step around the sides of a room, like a low sofa, which an swered the purpose of a lounge by day for reclining, and of a bed by night for sleep ing, Exod. 8:3; 2 Sam. 4:5-7, It was fur nished with pillows, 1 Sam. 19:13. Some times it was raised several steps above the BEE BIBLE DICTIONARY. BEE AN EASTERN DIVAN, OR BED. floor, 2 Kin. 1:4; Psa. 132:3. It was cov ered very differently, and with more or less ornament, according to the rank of the owner of the house. The poor had but a simple mattress or sheep-skin, or a cloak EGYPTIAN BED, WITH HEAD-REST. or blanket, which also answered to wrap themselves in by day-, Exod. 22:27; Deut. 24:13. Hence it was easy for the persons whom Jesus healed to take up their beds and walk, Mark 4:21. Bedstead's, however, were not unknown, though unlike those of modern times. See Deut. 3:11; 1 Sam. 19:15; Esth. 1:6; 7:8; Amos 6:4. The Jews only laid off their sandals and outer garments at night. The bed-chambers for the females were the most secluded rooms of the house, Exod. 8:3; 2 Kin. 6:12. BEE. Bees are mentioned in Deut. 1 :44; Judg. 14:8; Psa. 118:12; Isa. 7:18, etc. Palestine abounded in "milk and honey." Many travellers speak of countless swarms, not only domesticated, but wild, Matt. 3:4, the latter often filling great cavities in the sides of cliffs, so that many natives get their living by the sale of this " honey out of the stony rock," Deut. 32 : 13 ; Psa. 81:16; Ezek. 27:17. On Isa. 7:18 see Hiss. BEEL'ZEBUB, " the prince of the dev ils," Matt. 10:25; 12:24; Mark 3:22. This name is derived from Baal-zebub, an idol deity among the Ekronites, signifying lord of flies, fly-baal, as though to protect his worshippers from the torment of the gnats and flies with which that region was infest ed, 2 Kin. 1:2, 3, 16. It is also sometimes written Beel-zebul, which signifies proba bly the dung-god. The Jews seem to have applied this appellation to Satan, as being the author of all the pollutions and abomi nations of idol-worship ; and Christ uses it as another name for Satan, Matt. 12:24-30; Mark 3:22-30; Luke 11:14-20. BE'ER, a well, I., a station of the He brews in Moab, where God gave them water, Num. 21:16-18; Isa. 15:8. II. A town in Judah, according to Euse- bius and Jerome a few miles west of Jeru salem, near Beth-shemesh. Jotham took refuge there from his brother Abimelech, Judg. 9:21. BEER'I. See Anah. BE'ER-LAHAI'-ROI, well of him living, and seeing me, a fountain on the southwest border of Canaan, where Hagar was visit ed by an angel, and near which Isaac long resided, Gen. 16:7,14; 24:62; 25:11. 63 BEE BIBLE DICTIONARY. BEH BEE'ROTH, wells, a city of Benjamin, near Gibeon, Josh. 9:17; 2 Sam. 4:2, 3. It is now El-Bireh, a village of 700 inhabi tants, on a ridge 10 miles north of Jerusa lem. It is the customary resting-place for travellers the ist night after leaving Jeru salem journeying north, and it is claimed that here the parents of Jesus missed him, as described- in Luke 2:43-45, and turned back to Jerusalem. XM "^^&^^^^^B ANCIENT WELL OF BEER-SHEBA — 12 FEET IN DIAMETER. BE'ER-SHE'BA, the wellofthe oath, Gen. 21:31 ; 26:31, 33, a city 28 miles southwest of Hebron, at the southern extremity of the Holy Land, while Dan lay at the north ern, Judg. 20: 1. At Beer-sheba, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob often dwelt, Gen. 21:31; 22:19; 26:23; 28:10; 46:1. The town that rose here was first assigned to Judah, and then to Simeon, Josh. 15:28; 19:2. Here Samuel established his sons as judges, 1 Sam. 8:2. Elijah rested here on his way to Horeb, 1 Kin. 19:3. It was a seat of idolatry in the time of Uzziah, Amos 5:5; 8:14. After the captivity, it was repeopled by the Jews, Neh. 11 :27, 30, and continued a large village many centuries after the coming of Christ. Dr. Robinson found its site at Bir-es-SebS, on the border of the great desert south of Canaan — the ruins of a small straggling city, and 2 deep stone wells of excellent water, surrounded by stone troughs and bearing the marks of great antiquity, the curbstones being deep ly grooved, as if fluted all around, by the action of ropes for many ages. BEESH'TERAH, a Levitical city, in Ma- 64 nasseh, beyond the Jordan, Josh. 21:27. It is also called Ashtaroth, 1 Chr. 6:71, and is probably a contraction of Beth-Ashta- roth, house of Astarte. BEE'TLE, in Lev. 11:22, a species of locust. BEEVES, cattle, including the larger an telopes, Lev. 22 : 19. It is the old plural of beef. See Cattle. begging. See Poor. HIPPOPOTAMUS, OR BEHEMOTH. BEHE'MOTH, beasts, elsewhere so trans lated, but retained from the Hebrew for the huge amphibious animal described in BEK BIBLE DICTIONARY. BEN Job 40: 15-24. Commentators are now gen erally agreed that it is the hippopotamus, or river-horse, now found only in the Nile and other great rivers of Africa. This is a very large, powerful, and unwieldy animal, which lives in the water, but comes out upon the banks to feed on grass, grain, green herbs, and branches of trees. The appearance of the hippopotamus on land is altogether uncouth, the body being ex tremely large, flat, and round, the head large in proportion, and the legs short. The length of a male has been known to be 17" feet, the height 7 feet, and the cir cumference 15 ; the head 3 feet and a half, and its girt 9 feet ; the mouth in width about 2 feet. The general color is brown ish ; the ears small and pointed ; the eyes small and black ; the lips thick and broad ; the nostrils small. The armament of teeth in its mouth is truly formidable, particu larly the tusks in the lower jaw, which are of a curved form, sometimes 2 feet in length, and weighing 6 pounds each. The tail is short and thick ; and the whole body is protected by a thick and tough hide, which swords and arrows cannot pene trate. BE'KAH, cleft, a half-shekel; in weight, 5 pennyweights ; in money, 25 to 30 cents. This sum each Israelite over 20 years old was to pay as a yearly poll-tax for the tem ple service, Exod. 30:13. BEL, the chief idol of the Babylonians. See Baal. BE'LA, a swallowing, Gen. 14. See Zoar. BE'LIAL, worthlessness. A man or son of Belial is a wicked, profligate, uncontrol lable fellow, Judg. 19:22; 1 Sam. 2:12. It is not a proper name in the Old Testa ment, but is abstract, and often is transla ted wicked, as in Deut. 15:9; Psa. 101:3. In 2 Cor. 6:15, Belial is put for the lord of evil, Satan. BELIEF usually means not only cre dence, but trust. " Ye trust in God ; trust also in me," John 14:1. "Trust in the Lord Jesus Christ," etc., Acts 16:31. See Faith. BELLS. The direction in Exod. 28:33- 35 reminded both the high-priest and all present to give their whole mind and heart to the worship of God. Small bells, cas tanets, etc., were and are still much used in the East. In the latter days, every pos session and pleasure of man shall conform to the will of God, Zech. 14:20. BELSHAZ'ZAR, prince of Bel, the last king of the Chaldees at Babylon, reigning 5 in conjunction with his father Nabonnedus at the time when that city was besieged by Cyrus, B. C, 538. Nabonnedus was close ly shut up in Borsippa, a neighboring city ; while in Babylon itself Belshazzar made an impious feast, at which he and his cour tiers drank out of the sacred vessels which had been carried away from the temple at Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar his grand father. He was terrified by the apparition of the hand which wrote upon the wall ; and in the same night was slain, and the city taken by the Medes and Persians un der Darius and Cyrus, Dan. 5. The in scriptions on some ancient cylinders found in the ruins of Mugheir remarkably con firm and explain the Scripture narrative. We may thus also understand how Daniel was made " the jd ruler of the kingdom," and not the 2d, Dan. 5:29. See Babylon, Daniel, Mene. BELTESHAZ'ZAR, prince of Bel, the Chaldaean name given to Daniel at the court of Nebuchadnezzar, Dan. 1:7; 4:8. See Daniel. BEN, found in many Hebrew names, means son. BENAI'AH, built by the Lord, son of Je- hoiada a chief priest, 1 Chr. 27:5, and commander of David's body-guards. Sev eral instances of his rare bravery are re corded, 2 Sam. 8 : 18 ; 23 : 20-23. He adhered to Solomon when some favored the preten sions of Adonijah, slew Joab at the com mand of Solomon, and was made general of the army in his stead, 1 Kin. 1:36; 2:29-35. Eleven other Benaiahs are mentioned in the Old Testament, none of them known except from the verse or two where they are mentioned. BEN-AM'MI, son of my people, son of Lot and father of the Ammonites, Gen. 19 : 36-38- BENEFACTOR, Luke 22:25; in Greek, Euergetes ; a title of honor given to several kings, as to Vespasian, and 2 of the Ptole mies. BEN-HA'DAD, son of Hadad, I., a king of Damascene Syria, hired by Asa king of Judah to make war upon Baasha king of Israel, 1 Kin. 15:18-22. He ravaged a large part of Naphtali. From 1 Kin. 20:34 it appears that he also gained some advan tages in a war with Omri the father of Ahab. II. Son and successor of the preceding. In 2 successive years he raised large ar mies, and made war upon Ahab king of Israel. He was utterly routed, by the aid 65 BEN BIBLE DICTIONARY. BET of Jehovah, God of the hills and the plains also, i Kin. 20. Ahab spared him, contrary to the command of God, and gave him con ditions of peace. These do not seem to have been fulfilled ; for, 3 years after, Ahab renewed the war and was slain, i Kin. 22. After about 9 years, Ben-hadad again in vaded Israel, and the prophet Elisha was instrumental in frustrating his plans, 2 Kin. 6:8-23. But once more renewing the war, he laid siege to Samaria, and reduced it to extremities by famine. God sent a sudden panic upon his army by night, and they fled precipitately, 2 Kin. 6:27; 7:6; Prov. 28:1. Shortly before his death, Ben-hadad, being sick, sent Hazael to ask the prophet Eli sha, then at Damascus, what the issue would be. The prophet answered that the disease was not mortal, and yet he would surely die ; a paradox which Hazael soon after solved by stifling his master in bed, 2 Kin. 8:7-15. 890 B. C. See Hazael. III. Son of the Hazael just named. His father had greatly afflicted and oppressed Israel ; but he lost all that his father had gained, being thrice defeated by king Je- hoash, 2 Kin. 13; Amos 1:4. BEN'JAMIN, son of the right hand, the youngest son of Jacob and Rachel, Gen. 35:16-18. Rachel died immediately after he was born, near Bethlehem, about 1730 B. C, and with her last breath named him Ben-oni, son of my sorrow; but Jacob called him Benjamin. He was a great comfort to his father, who saw in him the beloved wife he had buried, and Joseph whose loss he mourned. He could hardly be persuaded to let him go with his breth ren to Egypt, Gen. 42; 43. The 'tribe of Benjamin was small at first, and was almost exterminated in the days of the Judges, Judg. 20, but afterwards greatly increased, 2 Chr. 14:8; 17:17. It was valiant, Gen. 49:27, and "beloved of the Lord," dwell ing safely by him, Deut. 33:12; for its ter ritory adjoined Judah and the Holy City on the south — having for its eastern boundary the Jordan, Ephraim on the north, and Dan on the west. Bethel, Gibeon, Ramah, and Jericho were some of its chief towns, and Jerusalem was within the border assigned to it — which contained about 250 square miles. At the revolt of the 10 tribes, Ben jamin adhered to Judah ; and the 2 tribes were ever closely united, 1 Kin. 11:13; 12:20; Ezra4:i; 10:9. King Saul and Saul of Tarsus were both Benjamites, Phil. 3:5. BE'RA, king of Sodom in the days of Abraham, Gen. 14. B. C. 1913. 66 BERA'CHAH, blessing, a beautiful valley between Tekoa and Etham, where Jehosh- aphat and all Judah held a thanksgiving for their miraculous victory over the Moa bites and Ammonites, 2 Chr. 20:26. It is still called Bereikut. BERNI'CE, or Bereni'ce, bringing vic tory, eldest daughter of king Herod Agrrp- pa I., and sister of the younger Agrippa, Acts 25:13, 23; 26:30. She was first mar ried to her uncle Herod, king of Chalcis; and after his death, in order to avoid the merited suspicion of incest with her bro ther Agrippa, she became the wife of Pole- mon, king of Cilicia. This connection being soon dissolved, she returned to her brother, and afterwards became mistress of Vespasian and Titus. BERCE'A, a city of Macedonia, not far from Pella, towards the southwest, and near Mount Bermius. It was afterwards called Irenopolis, and is now called by the Turks Boor ; by others, Cara Veria. Paul preached the gospel here with success, on his ist vis it to Europe; the ingenuous Beroeans ex amined his doctrine by the Old Testament scriptures, and many believed, Acts 17:10, 14 ; 20 : 4. It was the home of Sopater. BERO'THAI, a Syrian town, conquered by David, 2 Sam. 8:8; called Chun in 1 Chr. 18:8. Perhaps the same as Berothah, which Furst and Mislin find in the modern Bey- rout ; but aside from the name, the indica tions point to an inland site, or two, nearer Hamath and Damascus, Ezek. 47:16. BER'YL, the name of a precious stone of a sea-green color, found principally in In dia, Exod. 28:20; Dan. 10:6; Rev. 21:20. The stone, however, meant in these passa ges is rather the yellow topaz. BE'SOM, a broom. Before "the besom of destruction " the hosts of God's enemies are like the dust of the floor, Isa. 14:23. BE'SOR, cool, a brook flowing into the Mediterranean 5 miles south of Gaza, pass ing by Aroer and Beer-sheba, 1 Sam. 30:9- 21. . It dries up in spring. BESTEAD', situated. " Hardly bestead," brought into distress, Isa. 8:21. BESTOW, in 2 Kin. 5:24; Luke 12:17, to lay away in safety. BE'TAH, confidence, or Tib'hath, a city of Syria-Zobah, taken by David, 2 Sam. 8:8; 1 Chr. 18:8; perhaps the modern Tai- beh, between Aleppo and Tadmor. BETH, house, found in many names of places: sometimes the place or dwelling, and at others the temple. It becomes Beit in modern Arabic. BET BIBLE DICTIONARY. BET BETH-AB'ARA, place of the ford, on the east bank of the Jordan, where John bap tized, John i : 28. It was perhaps the same as Beth-barah, where a ford was seized to intercept the Midianites defeated by Gid eon, Judg. 7:24. This, however, was prob ably in the region of Bethshean, while Beth-abara was more accessible to "Jeru salem and all Judaea," perhaps opposite the north end of the plain of Jericho. Many of the best Greek manuscripts, and the Revised Version, have Bethany, also un known, instead of Beth-abara. BETH'ANY,/>/ac small rollers, one at the beginning and the other at the end of the volume, Isa. 34:4; Luke 4:17-20. The writing was without separation into words or sentences, and in capital letters only. A roll was sometimes sealed, being first tied or wrapped about with a cord, on which the wax was dropped, and stamped by a signet, Isa. 29:11; Dari. 12:4; Rev. 5:1-3. , That writing was practised very early, may be inferred from allusions to the art in Gen. 5:1; Exod. 17:14; Job 9:25; 19:23; 31:35. The Egyptians were accustomed to it from the earliest known ages. Ancient writers, instead of writing their books with their own hand, often employed amanuenses. St. Paul notes it as a par ticular circumstance, in the Epistle to the Galatians, that he had written it with his own hand, Gal. 6:11. To other letters he only affixed his salutation with his own hand, . 1 Cor. 16:21; Col. 4:18; 2 Thess. 3:17. The amanuensis who wrote the Epistle to the Romans has mentioned him self at the close, Rom. 16:22. See Letter, Ephesus. Book of the Generation is used, in Gen. 5:1; Matt. 1:1, in the sense of a gen- eological record. See Generation. Book of the wars of the Lord, Num. 21 : 14, was probably a sort of mili tary journal, formed of detached odes. The book of Jasher, 2 Sam. 1 : 18, may perhaps have been a collection of national ballads, one of the forms most used for perpetuating history in ancient times. The books of the Chronicles of the kings of Judah and Israel were apparently national annals, 1 Kin. 14:19, 29. Book of Life, or of the Living, Psa. 69:28, perhaps refers to the custom of prin ces, of keeping a list of persons in their service, etc. So God is represented as in scribing the names, acts, and destinies of men in volumes ; and the volume of those who are chosen to salvation is " the book of life," Phil. 4:3. BOOTH, a shelter, made usually of poles fixed upright in the ground, and covered over with green boughs, Gen. 33:17; Job 27 : 18. The great Feast of Tabernacles, or booths, had its name from the circumstance that the Jews were directed by their law to dwell in booths during the 7 days of this feast, Lev. 23 : 40-42 ; Neh. 8:14. See Tab ernacle and Garden. BOO'TY. Spoils taken in war were to be shared equally by those who fought and those who guarded the camp, Num. 31:27- 32. The Lord's portion was first deducted from the whole; and in after times the king appropriated a large part to himself. BOR' ROW. The Hebrews are said to have " borrowed " of the Egyptians, Exod. 3:22; 12:35. The original word denotes simply asked. As they were known to be taking a final leave of Egypt, it is plain that the Egyptians did not expect the things asked foi to be returned. They asked for them by divine direction, and they un- 77 ' BOS BIBLE DICTIONARY. BOW doubtedly received much less than a fair compensation for their many years of hard service. BO'SOM. The Orientals wore long, wide, and loose garments; and when about to carry anything that their hands would not contain, they used a fold in the bosom of their robe above the girdle, Luke 6:38. See Girdle and Garments. The expres sion naturally came to be used even when the article was too large to be so carried. Thus in Isa. 65:6, 7, "measure their work into their bosom." Our Saviour is said to carry his lambs in his bosom, which beauti fully represents his tender care and watch fulness over them, Isa. 40:11. See Abra ham's Bosom, Eating. In Prov. 19:24; 26:15, the word is mis-translated "bosom" which is rendered "dish" in 2 Kin. 21:13, and "pan " in 2 Chr. 35:13. BOS'SES, the thickest and strongest parts, the projecting points, of shields, Job 15:26. goat-skin water bottles. BOT'TLE. The engraving shows the form of an ancient goat-skin bottle, out of which a water-carrier is offering to sell a draught of water. After the skin has been stripped off from a goat or kid, and prop erly dressed and tanned, the places where the legs had been are closed up ; and where the neck was is the opening left for re ceiving and discharging the contents of the bottle. These were readily borne upon the shoulder, Gen. 21:14. See also Josh. 9:4, 13; Jer. 13:12. They were liable to be much injured by exposure to heat and smoke, Psa. 119:83, and to lose their con tents by evaporation under the hot sun on a journey, and were often oiled on the out side as a safeguard. By receiving the liquor poured into it, a skin bottle must be greatly swelled and distended ; and still more, if the liquor be wine, by its fermentation while advancing to ripeness. Hence the propriety of put ting new wine into new bottles, which being 78 in the prime of their strength, may resist the expansion of their contents, and pre- egyptian bottles, etc serve the wine to maturity ; while old bot tles may, without danger, contain old wine, whose fermentation is already past, Matt. 9:17; Luke 5:38; Job 32:19. Such bottles, or skins, are still univer sally employed in travelling in the East, as well as by the public wat~r-carriers, and for domestic uses. They were made, for storage in wine-cellars, of the hides of oxen or camels. But the smaller ones, of goat or kid skins, were more generally used for water as well as wine. The ancients, how ever, were acquainted with the art of ma king earthenware, and had a variety of elegant bottles, vials, and vases for domes tic and toilet purposes, made of the pre cious metals, of stone, glass, porcelain, and alabaster, Isa. 30 : 14 ; Jer. 19 : 1, 10, 1 1 ; Lam. 4:2. See Cruse, Vine, Tears. BOW, a weapon much used in ancient times, both for hunting and for war. It was made of wood, horn, or steel, Gen. 27:3; Psa. 18:34; and the foot was some times used in bending it. It was carried in a case when not used, Hab. 3:9. The Benjamites were celebrated for their skill in the use of this weapon, 1 Chr. 12:2; 2 Chr. 14:8; 17:17. See Arms. Thephrase, "a deceitful bow," to which the people of Israel are compared, Psa. 78:57 ; Hos. 7: 16, means an ill-made or twisted bow, which does not shoot the arrow as it is aimed. In 2 Sam. 1:18, the words "the use of" are not in the Hebrew. The use of the bow in war had long been common among the BOW BIBLE DICTIONARY. BRA Jews, Gen 4/J 22; and to "teach them the bow" is by some supposed to tricar), teach them the song of 1 Mfc now, the lamentation over Saul and Jonathan, which follows; so called from the mention of the weapon in verse 22, as the first 5 books fn the Bible take their title in Hebrew from some of the first words in each. See Apk'jw. BOWELS are often put by the Hebrew writers for the inner man, just as we often use the word heart as the seat of merry, tenderness', compassion, etc, 1 Kin, 3:26; Jsa, 6,3:15; Jer. 31:20; Col. 3:12; 1 John 3/7; and in many cases the Hebrew or Greek word is so translated in our Bible, as it should have been in others, by " heart," " affections," etc, Col, 3:12; Phife. 7, (2, 20; 1 John 3: 17. BOWING. See Sali;-iations. BOX, in 2 Kin. 9.1,3, means flask, or bot tle, as in 1 Sam. io: 1 it is a vial. See Ala- bastkk, BOX-TREE, a well-known beautiful ever green, growing in many parts of Europe and Asia. Its wood is highly prized by engravers. The Hebrew word is employed in Isa, 41:19; 60:13; an but some kinds at least were forbidden to the Jews, Lev. 19:28; 21:5, either as barbarous or as idolatrous, 1 Kin. 18:28. The prohibition might also apply to tattooing, which is still practised in Arabia and India, and may be referred to in Ezek. 9:4; Rev. 13:16; 19:20, etc. CYM'BAL, a musical instrument consist ing of 2 broad plates of brass, of a convex form, which being struck together produce a shrill, piercing clangor. From Psa. 150 : 5, it would appear that both hand-cymbals and finger-cymbals, or castagnets, were used. They were used in the temple, and 121 CYP BIBLE DICTIONARY. CYR upon occasions of public rejoicings, i Chr. 13:8; 16:5, as they are by the Armenians HAND AND FINGER CYMBALS, AND TAMBOURINE. at the present day. In 1 Cor. 13:1, "tink ling" cymbals are better rendered clang ing or clattering cymbals. See Music CY'PRESS, an evergreen tree, resembling in form and size the Lombardy poplar. Its wood is exceedingly durable, and seems to have been used for making idols, Isa. 44: 14. The cypress is thought to be intended in some of the passages where " fir-tree " oc curs, 2 Sam. 6:5, etc. CY'PRUS, a large island in the Mediter ranean, situated in the northeast part of that sea between Cilicia and Syria, with Mounts Lebanon and Taurus both in view. It is about 140 miles long, and varies from 5 to 50 miles in breadth. It is. especially sig nified among "the isles of Chittim," Ezek. 27:6, etc. Its inhabitants were plunged in all manner of luxury and debauchery. Their principal deity was Venus, who had a celebrated temple at Paphos. The island was extremely fertile, and abounded in wine, oil, honey, wool, copper, agate, and a beautiful species of rock crystal. There were also large forests of cypress-trees. Of the cities in the island, Paphos on the western coast, and Salamis at the opposite end, are mentioned in the New Testament. The gospel was preached there at an early day, Acts 11 : 19, Barnabas and Mnason, and Other eminent Christians, having been na tives of the island, Acts 1 1 : 20 ; 21:16. The apostles Paul and Barnabas made a. mis sionary tour through it, A. D. 48, Acts 13:4- 13. See also Acts 15:39; 27:4. CYRE'NE, a province of Libya, west of Egypt, between the Great Syrtis and the Mareotis, now called Cairoan, in the prov- 122 ince of Barca. It was sometimes called Pentapolis, from the 5 principal cities which it contained — Cyrene, Apollonia, Ar- sinoe, Berenice^ and Ptolemais. Cyrene the city was colonized by Greeks about 631 B. C, and falling after the death of Alexan der the Great into the hands of the Egyp tians, was afterwards yielded by them to the Romans, 75 B. C. From this city came " Simon the Cyrenian," father of Alexan der and Rufus, on whom the Roman sol diers laid a part of our Saviour's cross, Matt. 27:32; Luke 23:26. It is now in ruins. There were many Jews in the prov ince of Cyrene, a great part of whom em braced the Christian religion, though others opposed it with much obstinacy, Acts 11 :2o; 13:1. Also Acts 2:10; 6:9. CYRE'NIUS, rather Publius Sulpitius Quirinus, according to his Latin appella tion, governor of Syria. According to his tory, Quirinus was not properly governor of Syria till A. D. 6, some years after the date of Luke 2:2; and the only census of that time mentioned by secular historians took place when Christ was 8 or 10 years old. Compare Acts 5:37. Recent critical researches, however, by Zumpt, show a strong probability that Quirinus was twice governor of Syria, the first time from B. C. 4 to 1 ; and the census of Luke 2:2 may have been less known and memorable than the second, which seems to have been a resumption and completion of the first. It was a Roman census, but made according to the Jewish modes. TOMB OF CYRUS AT PASARGAD.E. CY'RUS, the sun, son of Cambyses, a prince of Elam ; his mother, or perhaps adopted mother, was Mandane, daughter of Astyages, king of the Medes. His re- DAB BIBLE DICTIONARY. DAM markable bravery and ability soon placed him at the head of the Persian army ; and heading a revolt against Astyages, he de throned him, and became king ofthe Medes and Persians, B. C. 559. With their joint forces he began a career of conquest. With " Darius the Mede," probably his uncle Cyaxares, nominal "king of the Medes," he conquered the Lydians, the Greeks of Asia Minor, and Susiana, captured Baby lon, and overran the Assyrian empire. Syria and Palestine came under his power, and he made some attempts on Egypt and on India, and was slain in a war against the-Massagetae on the river Iaxartes, B. C. 529. Cyrus was foretold by the prophet Isaiah, 44:28; 45:1-7, as the deliverer and restorer of Judah, as he proved to be, 2 Chr. 36 : 22, 23 ; Ezra 1:1-4. The prophet Daniel was his favorite minister, Dan. 6:28, and great was the influence of these 2 remark able men on the countrymen of both. Cy rus appears to have revered Jehovah as the true God, Ezra 1:2, 3; Isa. 41:2; and this hero of Persian history, this conqueror re nowned in classic annals, we find in Scrip ture recognizing and obeying the King of heaven. D. DAB'ERATH, pasture, a Levitical town in the borders of Zebulun and Issachar, Josh. 19:12; 21:28; 1 Chr. 6:72; probably Deburieh, a small village at the foot, of Mount Tabor on the northwest. DA'GON, fish, a national idol ofthe Phil istines, with temples at Gaza, Ashdod, etc., 1 Chr. 10:10. That at Gaza was destroyed by Samson, Judg. 16:21-30. In that at Ashdod, Dagon twice miraculously fell down before the ark of God ; and in the 2d fall his head and hands were broken off, leaving only the body, which was in the form of a large fish with a human head, 1 Sam. 5:1-9. See Josh. 15:41; 19:27. There were other idols of like form among the ancients, particularly the goddess Der- ceto or Atergatis; and a similar form or " incarnation " of Vishnu is at this day much worshipped in India, and like Dagon is destined to be prostrated in the dust be fore the true God. DALMANUTHA, a town or village on the west shore of the Sea of Galilee, north of Tiberias, Mark 8:10. Compare Matt. 15:39, probably at 'Ain-el-Barideh, at the mouth of a glen 1 mile south of Magdala. DALMATIA, a province of Europe on the east of the Adriatic Sea, and forming part of Illyricum, and contiguous to Mace donia. Hither Titus was sent by Paul, 2 Tim. 4:10. See also Rom. 15:19. DAM'ARIS, u. heifer, an Athenian lady, distinguished as one of the few who em braced Christianity at Athens under the preaching of Paul, Acts 17:34. DAMAS'CUS, metropolis of Syria, first mentioned in Gen. 14:15; 15:2, and now probably the oldest cify on the giobe. It stands on the river Barada, the ancient Chrysorrhoas, in a beautiful and fertile plain on the southeast of Anti-Lebanon, about 140 miles north by east from Jerusa lem, and 2,300 feet above the Mediterra nean. See Abana. This plain is about 70 miles in circumference ; it is open to the desert of Arabia on the southeast, and is bounded on the other sides by the moun tains. The region around and north of Damascus, including the valley between the ridges of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, is called in the Scriptures " Syria of Da mascus," 2 Sam. 8:5, and by Strabo, Coele- Syria. This city, which at first had its own kings, was taken by David, 2 Sam. 8:5, 6, and by Jeroboam II., 2 Kin. 14:28. Its his tory at this period is to be found in the accounts given of Naaman, Ben-hadad, Hazael, and Rezin. It was subdued by Tiglath-pileser, 2 Kin. 16:9; and was after wards subject to the Assyrians, Babyloni ans, Persians, Seleucidae, and Romans ; its history having been in part foretold by Isaiah, 7:4; 10:9; 17 ; also by Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Amos. In the days of Paul it appears to have been held, for a time at least, by Aretas, king of Arabia Petraea under the Romans, and father-in-law of 123 DAM BIBLE DICTIONARY. DAN DAMASCUS: WITH PLAIN AND LAKES. Herod Antipas, 2 Cor. 11:32, 33. At this period the city was so much thronged by the Jews, that, according to Josephus, 10,000 of them, by command of Nero, were put to death at once. It is memorable to Chris tians as the scene of the miraculous con version of that most illustrious " servant of the Lord Jesus Christ," the apostle Paul, Acts 9:1-27; 22:1-16. Since 1516, Damas cus has been held by the Turks ; ft is the metropolis of "the Pashalic of Damas cus," and has a population of about 150,000, chiefly Mohammedans, and very bigoted. In i860, some 6,000 nominal Christians were slaughtered here and around here. The Arabs call it Esh-sham. It is still cele brated, with the surrounding country, by all travellers, as one of the most beautiful and luxuriant regions in the world. The Orientals themselves call it the " Paradise on earth," and it is pretended that Mo hammed refused to enter it, lest he should thereby forfeit his heavenly Paradise. The plain around the city is well watered and of exuberant fertility, and the eye of the traveller is fascinated by the sight ; but a nearer view discloses much that is offen sive to the senses as well as to the spirit. It is the most purely Oriental city yet re maining of all that are named in the Bible. 124 Its public buildings and bazaars are fine ; and many private dwellings, though out wardly mean, are decorated within in a style of costly luxury. Its position has made it from the first a commercial city, Ezek. 27:18. The cloth called Damask is supposed to have originated here, and Da mascus steel was long unequalled. It still carries on an extensive traffic in woven stuffs of silk and cotton, in fine inlaid cab inet work, in leather, fruits, sweetmeats, etc. For this purpose huge caravans as semble here at intervals, and traverse, just as of old, the desert routes to remote cities. Here, too, is a chief gathering-place of pil grims to Mecca. People from all the na tions of the East resort to Damascus, a fact which shows its importance as a mission ary station. An encouraging commence ment has been made by English Christians, and the fierce and bigoted intolerance of its Mussulman population has begun to give way. A street called by the guides "Straight," perhaps the same referred to in Acts 9:11, runs through the city from the eastern gate. DAMNATION, judgment and condem nation, Mark 16:16; Rom. 13:2; 14:23; 1 Cor. 11:29. DAN, u judge, I., a son of Jacob by Bil- DAN BIBLE DICTIONARY. DAN hah, Gen. 30:3; 35:25. The tribe of Dan was second only to that of Judah in num bers before entering Canaan, Num. 1:39; 26:43. A portion was assigned to Dan extending southeast from the sea-coast near Joppa. It bordered on the land of the Philistines, with whom the tribe of Dan had much to do, Judg. 13-16. Their terri tory was fertile, but small, and the natives were powerful. A part of the tribe there fore sought and conquered another home, Josh. 19 ; Judg. 18. Its name does not ap pear in the chronicles in 1 Chr. 2-12, nor among those sealed by the angel in John's vision, Rev. 7:5-7; and the reason may perhaps be found in their association with the Philistines, and their partial removal from the territory assigned to them by God to Laish, and the idolatry into which they there fell. See Dan, II. II. A city originally called Laish, Judg. 18:29, at the northern extremity of Israel, in the tribe of Naphtali. " From Dan to Beer-sheba " denotes the whole extent of the land of promise, Dan being the north ern city, and Beer-sheba the southern one, Judg. 20:1. Dan was seated at the foot of Mount Hermon, 4 miles west of Paneas, near one source of the Jordan, on a hill now called Tell-el-Kady. Laish at one time belonged to Zidon, and received the name of Dan from a portion of that tribe who conquered and rebuilt it, Judg. 18. It was an idolatrous city even then, ver. 30, 31, and was afterwards the seat of one ofthe golden calves of Jeroboam, 1 Kin. 12:28; Amos 8 : 14. Though once and again a very prosperous city, Judg. 18:10; Ezek. 27:19, only slight remains of it now exist. EGYPTIAN DANCE. DANCING. The Hebrew word signified "to leap for joy," Psa. 30:11 ; and the ac tion of the lame man healed by Peter and John, Acts 3:8, more nearly resembled the Hebrew dancing than the measured arti ficial steps of modern times do. The Jew ish (Jances were usually extemporaneous expressions of religious joy and gratitude. Sometimes they were in honor of a con queror, as in the case of David, 1 Sam. 18:6, 7; when he had slain the Philistine giant, " the women came out of all the cit ies of Israel singing and dancing;" and sometimes on occasions of domestic joy, as at the prodigal son's return. In the religious dance, the timbrel was used to direct the ceremony, and some one led, whom the rest followed with measured step and devotional songs; thus Miriam led the women of Israel, Exod. 15:20, 21, and king David the men, 2 Sam. 6:14, 21. See also Judg. 21:19-23; 1 Chr. 13:8; 15:29. Several important conclusions have been drawn from a careful comparison of the portions of Scripture in which there is allu sion to dancing. It was usually religious in its character; practised exclusively on joyous occasions ; only by one of the sexes ; usually in the daytime, and in the open air: no instances are on record in which the two sexes united in the exercise ; and it was not practised for amusement. The exceptions to this latter assertion are the " vain fel lows" alluded to by Michal, 2 Sam. 6:20, the ungodly rich families referred to by Job, 21:11, and the daughter of Herodias, Mark 6:22. Other passages occur where dancing is condemned by its association with idolatrous worship and with lewdness, as Exod. 32:19, 25; Isa. 3:16; 1 Cor. 10:7, and with drunkenness and revelry, 1 Sam. 30:16. Promiscuous dancing is thus une quivocally condemned by Scripture, as well as by the best men of all times. It is a pow erful stimulus to immodesty and licentious ness. Its more innocent forms are insep arably linked with its grosser, into which they are perpetually sliding. Its votaries sport in the edge of a whirlpool in whose depths of moral and spiritual death too many of them are sure to be lost. Among the Greeks and Romans dancing was a common pastime, resorted to in order to enliven feasts, and also on occasions of domestic joy. Still Cicero says, " No one dances, unless he is either drunk or mad ;" and these words express the prevailing sense as to the impropriety of respectable people taking part in the amusement. Hence the gay circles of Rome, as is the case in the East at the'present time, de rived their entertainment from the per formances of professional dancers. These were women of abandoned character ; and their dances, like those in heathen temples, were often grossly indecent Isa. 23: 16. "5 DAN BIBLE DICTIONARY. DAN In Psa. 150:4, the Hebrew word transla ted dance is supposed to mean a musical instrument. DAN'IEL, God is my judge, I., called Belteshazzar by the Chaldaeans, a prophet, Matt. 24: 15, descended from the royal fam ily of David, Dan. 1:3; who was carried captive to Babylon, when very young, in the 3d year of Jehoiakim king of Judah, B. C. 606. Compare Isa. 39:7. He was chosen, with his 3 companions, Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah, to reside at Nebu chadnezzar's court, where he found favor, like Joseph in Egypt, and made great pro gress in all the sciences of the Chaldaeans, as well as in the sacred language, but de clined to pollute himself by eating provis ions from the king's table, which would often be ceremonially unclean to a Jew, or defiled by some connection with idol-wor ship. At the end of their 3 years' educa tion, Daniel and his companions excelled all others, and received honorable appoint ments in the royal service. Here Daniel soon displayed his prophetic gifts in inter preting a dream of Nebuchadnezzar, by whom he was made governor of Babylon, and head of the learned and priestly class. Compare the similar history of Joseph. He seems to have been absent, perhaps on some foreign embassy, when his 3 compan ions were cast into the fiery furnace. At a later period he interpreted another dream of Nebuchadnezzar, and afterwards the celebrated warning to Belshazzar — one of whose last works was to promote Daniel to an office much higher than he had previ ously held during his reign, Dan. 5:29; 8:27. After the capture of Babylon by the Medes and Persians, Darius the Mede, who "took the kingdom " after Belshazzar, made him "first president" of his 120 princes; their envy designed the plot to have him cast into the lions' den, an act which recoiled on them to their own destruction, Dan. 6. Subsequently Daniel was continued in all his high employments, and enjoyed the favor of Cyrus until his death. During this period he earnestly labored, by fasting and prayer, as well as by counsel, to se cure the return of the Jews to their own land, the promised time having come, Dan. 9. He lived to*see the decree issued, and many of his people restored ; but it is not known that he ever revisited Jerusa lem, being now, 536 B. C, over 80 years old. In the 3d year of Cyrus, he had a series of visions disclosing the state of the 126 Jews till the coming of the promised Re deemer; and at last we see him calmly awaiting the peaceful close of a well-spent life, and the gracious resurrection of the just. See Shushan. Daniel was one of the most spotless char acters upon record. His youth and his age were alike devoted to God. He main tained his integrity in the most difficult circumstances, and amid the fascinations of an Eastern court he was pure and up right. He confessed the name of God before idolatrous princes; and would have been a martyr, but for the miracle which rescued him from death. His history de serves the careful and prayerful study of the young, and the lessons which it incul cates are weighty and rich in instruction. See Cyrus. II. The 2d son of David, also called Chi- leab, 1 Chr. 3:1:2 Sam. 3:3. III. A descendant of Ithamar, the 4th son of Aaron. He was one of the chiefs who accompanied Ezra from Babylon to Judaea, and afterwards took a prominent part in the reformation of the people, Ezra 8:2; Neh. 10:6. DAN'IEL, Book of. This is a mixture of history and prophecy. The first 6 chap ters are chiefly historical, and the remain der prophetical. It was completed about B. C. 534. The wonders related are of a peculiar and striking character, and were designed to show the people of God that, amid their degeneracy, the Lord's hand was not shortened that it could not save ; and also to exhibit to their enemies that there was an essential difference between Jehovah and idols, between the people of God and the world. The prophecies con tained in the latter part of the book extend from the days of Daniel to the general res urrection. According to some interpreters the 4 kingdoms are the Babylonian, Me dian, Persian, and Greek; but this first fulfilment of the vision was but prelimi nary to one or more additional fulfilments in later and Christian times. According to the general interpretation, however, the Assyrian, the Persian, the Grecian, and the Roman empires are here described under appropriate imagery. The precise time of Christ's coming is told ; the rise and fall of antichrist, and the duration of his power, are accurately determined ; the victory of Christ over his enemies, and the universal prevalence of his religion, are clearly point ed out. The book is filled with the most exalted sentiments of piety and devout DAR BIBLE DICTIONARY. DAU gratitude. Its style is simple, clear, and concise, and many of the prophecies are delivered in language so plain and circum stantial that some infidels have asserted that they were written after the events they describe had taken place. Sir Isaac New ton regards Daniel as the most distinct and plain of all the prophets, and most easy to be understood ; and therefore considers that in things relating to the last times he is to be regarded as the key to the other prophets. With respect to the genuineness and au thenticity of the book, there is the strong est evidence, both internal and external. We have the testimony of Christ himself, Matt. 24:15; of John and of Paul, who have copied his prophecies ; of the Jewish Church and nation, who have constantly received this book as canonical ; of Jose phus, who recommends him as the greatest of the prophets ; and of the Jewish Tar- gums and Talmuds, which frequently cite his authority. As to the internal evidence, the style, the language, the manner of wri ting, perfectly agree with the age; and especially, he is proved to have been a prophet by the exact fulfilment of his pre dictions. This book, like that of Ezra, is written partly in Hebrew and partly in Chaldee, the prevailing language of the Babylonians. See Alexander, I. I. DARI'US THE MEDE, Dan. 6:1; 9:1; 11: 1, was probably Cyaxares II. , son of Astyages king of the Medes, and brother of Mandane mother of Cyrus, and of Amyit the mother of Evil-merodach and grand mother of Belshazzar : thus he was uncle, by the mother's side, to Evil-merodach and to Cyrus. The Septuagint calls him Arta xerxes ; Xenophon, Cyaxeres ; and the He brew, " Darius the son of Ahasuerus of the seed of the Medes." With Cyrus his nephew, and as nominally "king of the Medes," he captured Babylon and slew Belshazzar king of the Chaldaeans, being then 62 years old, Dan. 5:31. He made Daniel the highest officer in the empire; and after the prophet's enemies had taken his place in the lions' den, he made a de cree that all his subjects should adore the God of Daniel, ch. 6. His reign at Babylon was short, ending in his death in the 2d year, when the government passed directly into the hands of Cyrus. II. DARI'US son of Hystas'pes, spo ken of in Ezra 4-7, Haggai, and Zechariah, as the king who renewed the permission to rebuild the temple, given to the Jews by Cyrus and afterwards recalled. He over threw Smerdis, the Magian usurper of the Persian throne, to which Darius was the rightful heir, B. C. 521, and reigned 36 years. He removed the seat of govern ment to Susa, whereupon Babylon rebelled against him; but he subdued the rebellion and broke down the walls of Babylon, as was predicted, Jer. 51:58. III. DARI'US CODOMA'NUS, Neh. 12:22, was one of the most brave and generous of the Persian kings. Alexander the Great defeated him several times, and at length subverted the Persian monarchy, after it had been established 206 years. Darius was killed by his own generals, after a short reign of 6 years. Thus were verified the prophecies of Daniel, ch. 8. DARK'NESS, the absence of natural light, Gen. 1:4, and hence figuratively a state of misery and adversity, Job 18:6; Psa. 107 : 10 ; Isa. 8:22; 9:1; of ignorance and unbelief, John 1:5; 3:19, and of death, Job 10:21, 22; also the absence of the sun and stars, and hence the fall of chief men and national convulsions, Isa. 13:10; Acts 2 : 20. " Works of darkness " are the impure mysteries practised in heathen worship, Eph. 5:11; Ezek. 8:12. "Outer darkness" illustrates the gloom of those on whom the gates of heaven are closed, Matt. 8:12. The dark ness in Egypt, Exod. 10:21-23, was mirac ulous ; also that which covered " all the land" of Judaea with sympathetic gloom at the crucifixion of Christ, Luke 23 : 43. This could not have been caused by an eclipse of the sun ; for at the Passover the moon was full, and on the opposite side of the earth from the sun. There 'are allusions to eclipses in Joel 2:10, 31; 3:15; Amos 8:9; Mic. 3:6; Zech. 14:6; and total eclip ses of the' sun occurred in the time of Amos, B. C. 784, and of Micah, B. C. 716. DATES. See PALM. DA'THAN, a Reubenite, one of the reb els, in company with Korah, against the authority of Moses and Aaron, Num. 16; 26:9; Psa. 106:17. DAUGHTER, in Heb. bath, is used in the Bible not only literally, but, like son, in other derived meanings. Sometimes it may denote any female descendant, Gen. 28:6, or a native or resident of a place, as the " daughters of Zion " or Jerusalem, Isa. 3 : 16. Tyre is called a daughter of Zidon, that is, a colony, Isa. 23: 12, and Sa rah is called in the Hebrew of Gen. 17:17, the daughter of 90 years. See Son. The young women of the richest families, and 127 DAY BIBLE DICTIONARY. DAV even princes' daughters, in ancient times were accustomed to domestic services and to an active and useful life. DA'VID, beloved, the youngest son of Jesse, of the tribe of Judah, born in Beth lehem B. C. 1085; one of the most remark able men in either sacred or secular his tory. His life is fully recorded in 1 Sam. 16 to 1 Kin. 2, and his spiritual life in the Psalms, by his own pen. He was " the Lord's anointed," chosen by God to be king of Israel instead of Saul, and conse crated to that office by the venerable proph et Samuel long before he actually came to the throne, 1 Sam. 16:1-13, f°r which God prepared him by the gift of his Spirit, and a long course of vicissitudes and dangers. In his early pastoral life he distinguished himself by his boldness, fidelity, and faith in God; and while yet a youth was sum moned to court, as one expert in music, valiant, prudent in behavior, and comely in person. He succeeded in relieving from time to time the mind of king Saul, op pressed by a spirit of melancholy and remorse, and became a favorite attendant, ver. 21 ; but on the breaking out of war with the Philistines he seems to have been released, and to have returned to take care of his father's flock. Providence soon led him to visit the camp, and gave to his no ble valor and faith the victory over the giant champion Goliath. He returned to court crowned with honor, received a com mand in the army, and the king's daughter Michal for wife, acquitted himself well on all occasions, and rapidly gained the con fidence and love of the people. The jeal ousy of Saul, however, at length drove him to seek refuge in the wilderness of Judaea, where he soon gathered a band of 600 men, whom he kept in perfect control and em ployed only against the enemies ofthe land. He was still pursued by Saul with impla cable hostility ; and as he would not lift his hand against his king, though he often had him in his power, he at length judged it best to retire into the land of the Philis tines. See Jesse. Here he was gener ously received; but had found the difficul ties of his position such as he could not honorably meet, when the death of Saul and Jonathan opened the way for him to the promised throne. He was at once chosen king over the house of Judah, at Hebron; and after about 7 years of hostilities was unanimous ly chosen king by all the tribes of Israel, and established himself at Jerusalem — the 128 founder of a royal family which continued till the downfall of the Jewish state. His character as a monarch is remarkable for fidelity to God and to the great purposes for which he was called to so responsible a position. The ark of God he conveyed to the Holy City with the highest demonstra tions of honor and of joy. The ordinances of worship were remodelled and provided for with the greatest care. He adminis tered justice to the people with impartial ity, and gave a strong impulse to the gen eral prosperity of the nation. His wisdom and energy consolidated the Jewish king dom; and his organization of the army and his warlike skill enabled him not only to resist with success the assaults of inva ders, but to extend the bounds of the king dom over the whole territory promised in prophecy — from the Red Sea and Egypt to the Euphrates, Gen. 15:18; Josh. 1 -.3. With the spoils he took in war he enriched his people, and provided abundant materials for the magnificent temple he purposed to build in honor of Jehovah, but which it was Solomon's privilege to erect. David did not wholly escape the demor. alizing influences of prosperity and unre stricted power. His temptations were nu merous and strong ; and though his general course was in striking contrast with that oi the kings around him, he fell into grievous sins. Like others in those days, he had numerous wives, and his later years were imbittered by the evil results of polygamy. His crimes in the case of Uriah and Bath sheba were heinous indeed; but on awa king from his dream of folly, he repented in dust and ashes, meekly submitted to reproof and punishment, and sought and found mercy from God. Thenceforth fre quent afflictions reminded him to be hum ble and self-distrustful. There were dis cords, profligacy, and murder in his own household, 2 Sam. 12:10. The histories of Tamar, Amnon, and Absalom show what anguish must have rent their father's heart. The rebellions of Absalom, Sheba, and Adonijah, the famine and plague that afflict ed his people, the crimes of Joab, etc., led him to cry out, " Oh, that I had wings, like a dove ; then would I fly away and be at rest." Yet his trials bore good fruit. His firmness and decision of character, his hu mility, nobleness, and piety shine in his last acts, on the occasion of Adonijah's rebellion. His charge to Solomon respect ing the forfeited lives of Joab and Shimei was the voice of justice and not of revenge. DAY BIBLE DICTIONARY. DEA His preparations for the building of the temple, and the public service in which he devoted all to Jehovah, and called on all the people to bless the Lord God of their fathers, crown with singular beauty and glory the life of this eminent servant of God. After a reign of 40 years, he died at the age of 71, and was buried " in the city of David," on Mount Zion, where his tomb is now shown. The mental abilities and acquirements of David were of a high order; his gen eral conduct was marked by generosity, integrity, fortitude, activity, and perseve rance ; gentleness and fire combined in his temperament, and his religious character was eminently adorned by sincere, fervent, and exalted piety. He was statesman, warrior, and poet all in one. In his Psalms he frankly reveals his whole heart. They are inspired poems, full of penitence and trust in God and delightful communion with him, containing many prophetic pas sages, and wonderfully fitted to guide the devotions of the people of God so long as he has a church on earth. Though first sung by Hebrew tongues in the vales of Bethlehem and on the heights of Zion, they sound as sweetly in languages then un known, and are dear to Christian hearts all round the world. In introducing them into the temple service, David added an impor tant means of instruction and edification to the former ritual. In his kingly character, David was a re markable type of Christ; and his conquests foreshadowed those of Christ's kingdom. His royal race was spiritually revived in the person of our Saviour, who was de scended from him after the flesh, and who is therefore called " the Son of David," and is said to sit upon his throne. DAY. The word " day " is used in many different senses. The scientific day is one ¦revolution of the earth on its axis. The civil day is that the beginning and end of which are determined by the custom of any nation. The Hebrews began their day in the evening, Lev. 23:32 ; the Babylonians at sunrise; and we begin at midnight. The ordinary day is the time of the sun's con tinuance above the horizon, which is un equal at different latitudes and seasons, on account of the obliquity of the equator. The sacred writers generally divide this day into 12 hours. The 6th hour always ends at noon throughout the year; and the 12th hour is the last hour before sunset. But in summer, all the hours of the day were longer than in winter, while those of night were shorter. See Hour, and Three. The word day is also often put for an indeterminate period, see Creation; for the time of Christ's coming in the flesh, and of his 2d coming to judgment, Isa. 2:12; Ezek. 13:5; John 1 1 : 24 ; 1 Thess. 5:2. The prophetic " day " by some has been under stood as 1 year, and the prophetic " year " or " time " as 360 years, Ezek. 4:6. Com pare the 3% years of Dan. 7:25 with the 42 months and 1,260 days of Rev. 11:2, 3. DAY'S JOUR'NEY. See JOURNEY. DAYS'MAN, Job 9 : 33, umpire, one to arbitrate at an appointed day. DEA'CON, an attendant, assistant, or helper, sometimes translated minister, as in Matt, 20 : 26 ; 2 Cor. 6:4; Eph. 3:7. Dea cons -are'first mentioned as officers in the Christian church in Acts 6; their duty was to collect the alms of the church, and dis tribute them to such as had a claim upon them, Visiting the poor and sick, widows, orphans, and sufferers under persecution, and administering all necessary and pro per relief. Of the 7 there named, Philip and Stephen are afterwards found labor ing as evangelists. The qualifications of deacons are specified in 1 Tim. 3:8-12, and those of bishops in the preceding verses. DEA'CONESS. At an early period of the Christian church, if not in the apostolic age, such women were called deaconesses as served the church in those offices in which the deacons could not with propriety engage ; such as keeping the doors of that part of the church where the women sat, privately instructing those of their own sex, and visiting the sick and those impris oned for the faith. In Rom. 16 it, Phoebe is said to be a deaconess of tl-.e church at Cenclivea. See also 1 Tim. -5:9-16. DEAD. Two Hebrew words are trans lated "the dead" in Scripture, one ex pressing merely the fact that they have ceased to live on earth ; the other entirely different, denoting disembodied spirits. This term is important as necessarily im plying the undying nature of the human spirit. See Rephaim. DEAD SEA. See Sea. DEAL, part ; as "a great deal." See Tenth-deal. DEATH is taken in Scripture, First, for the separation of body and soul, the ist death, Gen. 25: 11 ; secondly, for alienation from God, and exposure to his wrath, 1 John 3:14, etc. ; thirdly, for the 2d death, that of eternal damnation. Death in all 3 of these 129 DEB BIBLE DICTIONARY. DEC senses was the penalty affixed to Adam's transgression, Gen. 2:17; 3:19; and all his posterity are transgressors with him, and share the curse inflicted upon him. Christ is " our life." All believers share his life, spiritually and eternally; and though sin and bodily death remain to afflict them here, their sting is taken away, and in the resurrection the last enemy shall be tram pled under foot, Rom. 5:12-21 ; 1 Cor. 15. Natural death is described as a yielding up of the breath, or spirit, expiring, Psa. 104:29; as a return to our original dust, Gen. 3:19; Eccl. 12:7; as the soul's laying off the body — its clothing, 2 Cor. 5:3, 4, or the tent in which it lias dwelt, 2 Cor. 5:1; 2 Pet. 1:13, 14. Death nowhere means an nihilation. The body is not annihilated, but changed into other forms ; and the soul that dies is not annihilated, but consigned to everlasting woe. The death of the be liever is a departure, a going home, a fall ing asleep in Jesus, Phil. 1:23; Matt. 26:24; John 11: 11. See Immortality, Saddu- cees. The term death is also sometimes used for any great calamity, or imminent dan ger threatening life, as persecution, 2 Cor. 1:10. "The gates of death," Job 38:17, signify the unseen world occupied by de parted spirits. Death is also figuratively used to denote the insensibility of Chris tians to the temptations of a sinful world, Col. 3:3. DEBATE', Rom. 1:29, strife. DE'BIR, a sancluaiy, or oracle, Judg. 1:11, a place called also Kirjath-sepher, a city of books ; and Kirjath-sannah, a city of palm-leaf, Josh. 15: 15, 49. Judging from the names, it appears to have been some sacred place among the Canaanites, and a repository of their records. It was a royal city in Judah, lying 11 or 12 miles southwest of Hebron, conquered from the Anakim by Joshua, but recaptured by the Canaanites, and resubdued by Othniel, and afterwards given to the priests, Josh. 10:38, ?q; 15:15-17; 21:15. It is now Dhaheriyeh. There was another Debir in Gad, and a 3d on the border of Benjamin, Josh. 13:26; 15:7. For Debir, king of Eglon, see Josh. 10:3, 23-26. DEB'ORAH, a bee, I., the nurse of Rebe kah, whom she accompanied from Aram into Canaan, Gen. 24:59. At her death, near" Bethel, she was buried with honora ble marks of affection, under the famous 'oak which was then named Allon-bachuth, the oak of weeping, Gen. 35:8, B. C. 1732. 130 She was in Jacob's household at the time, Rebekah doubtless being now dead, and was about sixscore years old. There is something very beautiful in this simple record, which would scarcely find a place in our grand histories of kings, statesmen, and renowned warriors. They seldom take the trouble of erecting a memorial to obscure worth and a long life of humble usefulness. II. A prophetess, and wife of Lapidoth, judged the Israelites, and dwelt under a noted and perhaps solitary palm-tree be tween Ramah and Bethel, Judg. 4:4, 5. When the Jews, especially the northern tribes, were suffering under the tyranny of Jabin, 1296 B. C, as a prophetess she la bored to rouse them from their desponden cy; and sending for Barak, directed him to attack Sisera, and promised him victory. Barak, however, refused to go unless she accompanied him, which she did, but told him that the success of the expedition would be imputed to a woman and not to him. After the victory, Deborah composed a splendid triumphal song, which is pre served in Judg. 5. DEBT'OR, one under obligations, wheth er pecuniary or moral, Matt. 23:16; Rom. 1:14; Gal. 5:3. If the house, cattle, or goods of a Hebrew would not meet his debts, his land might be appropriated for this purpose until the year of Jubilee, or he might be reduced into servitude till he had paid his debt by his labor, or till the year of Jubilee, which terminated Hebrew bond age in all cases, Lev. 25:29-41 ; 2 Kin. 4:1 ; Neh. 5:3-5. See also limitations to the creditor's power in Deut. 24:6, 10-13. I"1 the time of Christ, imprisonment for debt had become customary, Matt. 18:34 DECALOGUE, the 10 principal com mandments, Exod. 20:3-17, from the Greek words deka, ten, and logos, word. The Jews call these precepts, The Ten Words. The usual division of the 10 command ments among Protestants is that which Jo sephus tells us was employed by the Jews in his day. Rome makes a different divis ion, losing the 2d in the ist— practically dropping it, in catechisms — and making 2 of the 10th. The 10 commandments are a summary of human duties to God and to man so comprehensive, wise, just, and good as to demonstrate their divine ori gin, and command the admiration of the world. Each one is grounded in the sound est reason, and both fitted for and meant for the ' whole race of man in all ages. DEC BIBLE DICTIONARY. DEF They are not national and temporary, like the details of the Jewish civil and ceremo nial laws, which have passed away, while their spirit is included in the gospel; "it is easier for heaven and earth to pass, than one tittle of the law to fail," Luke 16: 17. The Saviour himself reaffirms them all, and to annul any one of them, as some do the 4th commandment, is a defiance of the malediction in Rev. 22:18, 19. DECAP'OLIS (from the Greek words, deka, ten, and polis, a city), a country in North Palestine, which .contained 10 prin cipal cities, chiefly on the east side of the Jordan, Matt. 4:25; Mark 5:20; 7:31. Ac cording to Pliny, they were Scythopolis, Philadelphia, Raphanae, Gadara, Hippos, Dios, Pella, Gerasa, Canatha, and Damas cus. Josephus inserts Otopos instead of Canatha. Though within the limits of Is rael, the Decapolis was inhabited by many foreigners, and hence it retained a foreign appellation. This may also account for the numerous herds of swine kept in the dis trict, Matt. 8 : 20 ; a practice which was for bidden by the Mosaic law. It is now com paratively uninhabited. DECEIVED', Jer. 20:7, R.V. mar. enticed. DE'DAN, I., the grandson of Cush, Gen. 10:7; and II., the son pf Jokshan, Abra ham's son by Keturah, Gen. 25:3. Both were founders of tribes frequently named in Scripture. The descendants of the Cushite Dedan are supposed to have set tled in Southern Arabia, near the Persian Gulf, in which there is an island called by the Arabs Daden. The descendants of the Abrahamite Dedan lived in the neighbor hood of Idumaea, Jer. 49:8. It is not clear, in all cases where the name occurs, which of the tribes is intended. It was probably the Cushite tribe which was employed in trade. The " travelling companies " of Dedan are mentioned by Isaiah, 21:13. They are also named with the merchants of Tarshish by Ezekiel, 38:13, and were celebrated on account of their trade with the Phoenicians. DEDICATION, a religious ceremony by which any person, place, or thing was de voted to a holy purpose. Thus the taber nacle and the ist and 2d temples were ded icated to God, Exod. 40 ; 1 Kin. 8 ; Ezra 6. The Jews also practised a certain dedica tion of walls, houses, etc., Deut. 20:5; Neh. 12:27. The " feast of the dedication," on the 25th of Chisleu, was a yearly commem oration of the cleansing and rededication of the temple, after it had been polluted by Antiochus Epiphanes, B. C. 167, John 10:22. DEEP and DEPTHS. The deep, or the great deep, signifies in Scripture, hell, the place of punishment, the bottomless pit, Luke 8:31, compare Rev. 9:1; 11:7; 20:1; the under-world, Psa. 71:20; Rom. 10:7; the deepest parts ofthe sea, Psa. 69:15; 107 : 26 ; chaos in the beginning ofthe world, Gen. 1:2. See Hell. THE FALLOW-DEER. DEER, a wild quadruped, of a middle size between the stag and the roebuck ; its horns turn inward, and are large and flat. The fallow-deer is naturally very timorous ; it was reputed clean, and good for food. Deut. 14:5; 1 Kin. 4:23. There are 2 spe cies, now known as the Barbary stag and the Persian stag, bearing a general resem blance to the fallow-deer, and which were doubtless known to the Jews. Young deer- are noticed in Proverbs, Songs, arid Isaiah, as beautiful creatures, and very swift, Prov. 5:19. See Hind. DEFILE', DEFILE'MENT. Many were the blemishes of person and conduct which, under the Jewish ceremonial law, were es teemed defilements: some were voluntary, some involuntary; some were inevitable, being defects of nature, others the conse quences of personal transgression. Under the gospel, defilements are those of the heart, of the mind, the temper, the conduct. Moral defilements are as numerous, and as strongly prohibited under the gospel, as ever, though ceremonial defilements have erased, Matt. 15:18; Rom. 1:24. See Clean, 131 DEG BIBLE DICTIONARY. DEL In i Cor. 3:17, "defile," A. V., and "de stroy," are the same word in Greek, and both should be translated " destroy." DEGREE', 1 Tim. 3:13. "A good de gree " is, a step in advance in spiritual life. DEGREES', Psalms of, is the title pre fixed to 15 Psalms, from Psa. 120 to Psa. 134 inclusive. Of this title commentators have proposed a variety of explanations. The most probable are the following: First, pilgrim songs, sung by the Israelites while going up to Jerusalem to worship ; com pare Psa. 122:4; but to this explanation the oontents of only a few of these Psalms are appropriate, as, for instance, of Psa. 122. Secondly, songs of the steps, meaning the 15 steps leading from the court of the wo men in the temple area to that of the men, on each of which steps some Jewish au thors state that one of these Psalms was chanted. But, thirdly, Gesenius and some others suppose the title to refer to a species of rhythm in these Psalms, by which the sense ascends, one member or clause fre quently repeating the words with which the preceding member closes. Thus in Psa. 121, 1 I will lift up mine eyes unto the hills, From whence cometh my help. 2. My help cometh from the Lord, Who made heaven and earth. 3. He will not suffer thy foot to be moved ; Thy keeper will not slumber. 4. Lo, not slumber nor sleep will the keeper of Israel. Yet even this solution does not well apply to all these Psalms. DEGREES', Shadow of. See Dial. DEHA'VITES, a people beyond the Eu phrates, who furnished colonists for Sama ria, 2 Kin. 17:24; Ezra 4:9; supposed to be the Dahae, on the east of the Caspian Sea, and under the Persian government. DELI'LAH, languishing, a Philistine wo man in the valley of Sorek, whom Samson loved, and who betrayed him to the ene mies of Israel for 5,500 silver shekels, Judg. 16. • DEL'UGE, that universal flood which was sent upon the earth in the time of Noah, and from which there were but 8 persons saved. Moses' account of this event is re corded in Gen. 6-8. See Ark of Noah. The sins of mankind were the cause of the deluge : and most commentators place it A. M. 1656, B. C. 2348. After the door of the ark had been closed upon those that 132 were to be saved, the deluge commenced: it rained 40 days ; " the fountains of the great deep were broken up, and the win dows of heaven were opened." All men and all creatures living on the land per ished, except Noah and those with him. For 5 months the waters continued to rise, and reached 15 cubits above the highest summits to which any could fly for refuge ; "a shoreless ocean tumbled round the world." At lengthi the waters began to abate ; the highest land appeared, and the ark touched ground upon. Mount Ararat. In 3 months more the hills began to ap pear. Forty days after, Noah tested the state of the earth's surface by sending out a raven ; and then thrice, at intervals of a week, a dove. At length he removed the covering of the ark, and found the flood had disappeared: he came forth from the ark, reared an altar, and offered sacrifices to God, who appointed the rainbow as a pledge that he would no more destroy man kind with a flood. See Noah. Much labor has been expended in search ing for natural causes adequate to the pro duction of a deluge ; but we should beware of endeavoring to account on natural prin ciples for that which the Bible represents as miraculous. It is indeed true that mod ern science discovers many reasons for doubting the universality of the deluge- such as the apparent impossibility of find ing room and food in the ark for the im mense number of different animals now known to exist; the apparent certainty that all fresh water fishes would have perished in the ocean, and with them the numerous species of marine animals which cannot live except along shore ; also that the sea water would have destroyed all vegetable life. And many of the real friends of the Bible believe that the flood covered only that portion of the globe then occupied by man. There is, however, no proof of this ; the requisite miracles, however many and great, were equally easy to God with those known to have been effected ; and some excellent interpreters adhere to the natu ral sense ofthe inspired narrative. In the New Testament, the deluge is spoken of as a stupendous exhibition of divine power, like the creation and the final burning of the world. It is applied to illustrate the longsuffering of God, and assure us of his judgment on sin, 2 Pet. 3:5-7, and of the 2d coming of Christ, Matt. 24:38. Since all nations have descended from the family then preserved in the ark, it is DEM BIBLE DICTIONARY. DEU natural that the memory of such an event should be perpetuated in various national traditions. Such is indeed the fact. These traditions have been found among the Egyp tians, Chaldaeans, Phoenicians, Greeks, Hin doos, Chinese, Japanese, Scythians, and Celts, and in the western hemisphere among the Mexicans, Peruvians, and South Sea islanders. DE'MAS, a fellow-laborer with Paul and companion in his ist imprisonment at Rome, who after a while deserted him, either discouraged by the hardships of the work, or allured by the love of the world, Col. 4:14; 2 Tim. 4:10; Phile. 24. We may hope that his forsaking of Paul and of Christ was not final apostasy ; but the Bible leaves his case under a gloomy cloud — a serious warning to us. " This present world " tempting us not to follow Christ, is always a curse, and may be our ruin. DEMETRIUS, I., a silversmith of Ephe sus, who made silver models of the famous temple of Diana, which he sold to foreign ers, Acts 19:24-41. Observing the progress of the gospel, not in Ephesus only, but in the regions around, he assembled his fel low-craftsmen, and represented that, by this, new doctrine, not only their trade would suffer, but the worship of the great Diana of Ephesus was in danger of being ¦entirely forsaken. This produced an up roar and riot in the city, which the town- clerk with difficulty appeased by firmness and persuasion. II. A disciple, and probably a minister of high repute, 3 John 12. He may have been formerly the silversmith of Ephesus ; but this can be neither proved nor dis proved. DEP'UTY, a pasha or governor, 1 Kin. 22:47; Esth. 8:9; 9:3. The Greek word translated "deputy" in Acts 13:7, 8, 12; 18:12; 19:38, was the " proconsul," the reg ular title of the governor of a Roman prov ince when appointed by the Senate. Its use in the above passages, instead.of some vague or general title, is one of a multitude of undesigned evidences ofthe truthfulness of the sacred narrative. DER'BE, a small town of Lycaonia, in Asia Minor, to which Paul and Barnabas fled from Lystra, A. D. 41, Acts 14:20. It lay north of the Taurus Mountains, 16 or 20 miles east of Lystra, and not far from the well-known pass called "the Cilician Gates." The two missionaries gained many disciples here, and among them perhaps Gaius, who afterwards labored with Paul, Acts 14:21 ; 20:4. Paul revisited Derbe on his 2d tour, and perhaps on the 3d, Acts 16:1-4; 18:23; 19:1. DES'ERT. The Scriptures, by " desert," generally mean an uncultivated place, a wilderness, or grazing tract. Some des erts were entirely dry and barren ; others were beautiful, and had good pastures, Joel 2:22. David speaks of the beauty of the desert, Psa. 65:12, 13. Scripture names several deserts in the Holy Land. In Ezek. 47 : 8, the Jordan valley is meant. See Arabah. Other deserts particularly men tioned are " that great and terrible wilder ness " in Arabia Petraea, south of Canaan, Deut. 8:15, in passing through which for 40 years the Israelites took with them flocks and herds, Exod. 12:38; Num. 11:22; 32: 1 ; also the region between Canaan and the Euphrates, Exod. 23:31; Deut. 11:24. The pastures of these " wildernesses " are clothed in winter and spring with rich and tender herbage; but the heat of summer soon burns this up, and the Arabs are driv en to seek pasturage elsewhere. Similar uninhabited spots lay near many of thi towns in Palestine itself: as "the wilder ness of Ziph," of Maon, Gibeon, etc. The " wilderness of Judah " was the mountain ous tract west of the Dead Sea, 1 Sam. 17:28; Matt. 3:3. See also Luke 15:4; Acts 8:26. DESTRUCTION, City OF, Isa. 19:18. See Heres. DEUTERON'OMY, second law, or the rep etition of the law, the 5th book of the Pen tateuch ; so called by the Greeks, because in it Moses recapitulates what he had or dained in the preceding books, Deut. 1 : 1- 6; 29:1; 31:1; 33. This book contains the history of what passed in the wilderness from the beginning of the nth month to the 7th day of the 12th month, in the 40th year after the Israelites' departure from Egypt, that is, about 6 weeks, B. C. 1451. That part which mentions the death of Mo ses was added afterwards, very probably by Joshua. The book of Deuteronomy is the sublime and precious valedictory address ofthe in spired " man of God," now venerable for his age and experience, and standing al most in the gate of heaven. He gives the people of God his fatherly counsel and blessing, and then goes up into Mount Pis- gah alone to die. He recounts the deal ings of God with them, chs. 1-4 ; recapitu lates His laws, chs. 5-26 ; shows them why they should love Him, and how they should 133 Dev BIBLE DICTIONARY. DEV serve Him, chs. 27-34. It 's full of tender solicitude, wise instruction, faithful warn ing, and the zealous love of a patriot and a prophet for the people of God, whom he had borne on his heart so long. It is often quoted by later inspired writers, and by our Lord, Matt. 4:4, 7, 10. DEVIL, I., a fallen angel ; and particu larly the chief of them, the devil, or Satan. He is the great leader of evil in the world; and it is his grand object to counteract the good which God desires to do. He exerts himself, especially with his angels, to draw away the souls of men from embracing sal vation through Jesus Christ. His name, from the Greek diabolos, sig nifies the false accuser — slandering God to men, as in Gen. 3, and men, especially good men, to God, Job 1:9, 10; Zech. 3:1; Rev. 12: 10; as the Hebrew Satan means the ad versary — of God and man. But the Scrip tures give him various other appellations descriptive of his character. He is called, "The prince of this world," John 12:31; " The prince of the power of the air," Eph. 2:2; " The god of this world," 2 Cor. 4:4; "The dragon, that old serpent," Rev. 20:2; " That wicked one," 1 John 5: 18; " A roar ing lion," 1 Pet. 5:8; "A murderer," "a liar," John 8: 44; "Beelzebub," Matt. 12:24; "Belial," 2 Cor. 6:15. He is everywhere shown to be full of malignity, cruelty, and deceit, hating God and man. He is cease less in his efforts to destroy souls, and uses innumerable devices to adapt his tempta tions to the varying characters and condi tions of men, enticing wicked men, and even good men, as well as his own angels, to aid in his work. Almost the whole world has been under his sway. But he is a doomed foe. Christ "shall bruise the serpent's head;" shall dispossess him from the world, as He has done from individu als, and at length confine him for ever in the place prepared for him and his angels, Matt. 25:41. II. The word " devils " in the gospels is the translation of a different Greek word from that used to denote the devil, and might be rendered "demons." See Idols. The Bible speaks of "the devil, and his angels," Matt. 25:41; Rev. 12:7, 9, and of Satan as " the prince of the devils," Mark 3:22-30, representing the latter as like their leader in nature and actions — fallen an gels, Luke 10:17, *8. In the gospels they are " unclean " spirits, full of active malig nity; they believe and tremble, Jas. 2:19; they confess the deity of Christ, yield to 134 his authority, and dread his coming judg ment, Matt. 8:29; Luke 4:41; Acts 19:15. See also Eph. 6:12; Rev. 12:7-9. Theword " devil " is also sometimes applied to idols, intimating the special interest of evil spir its in the " lying wonders " and abomina tions of idol-worship, Deut. 32:17; 1 Cor. 10:20,31; Rev. 9:20. There are many examples in the New Testament of persons possessed by demons. These men are often called demoniacs. Some have argued that these were afflicted by natural diseases, such as epilepsy, in sanity, etc., and were not possessed by evil spirits. But the demoniacs are clearly distinguished from those afflicted with epi lepsy or any other disease, Matt. 4:24; Mark 1:32; 16:17, 18; Luke 6:17, 18; and our Saviour speaks to and commands the demons who actuated the possessed, which demons answered with superhuman knowl edge, recognized the Son of God, obeyed his commands, and gave proofs of their presence by tormenting those whom they were obliged to quit. Christ alleges, as proof of his mission, that the demons are cast out ; he promises his apostles the same power that he himself exercised against those wicked spirits, Matt. 10:1, 8; Luke 9:1; and his conversations with the Jews, and with his disciples when alone with him, imply the agency of evil spirits in the demoniacs, Matt. 12:22-29; 17:18-21. No one therefore can deny this fact without denying the inspiration of Scripture and the honesty of Christ. No cases ofthe same nature occur in our day. They were suffered to occur in Christ's time, since he came to save both the bodies and the souls of men and " to destroy the works of the devil," and had need to exhibit his saving power by heal ing diseases, forgiving sins, and casting out devils, Matt. 12:28; Luke 10:17, *8; 1 John 3:8. The possessed had probably invited the evil spirits by their vices and crimes, -which had also brought upon them the diseases Which in so many cases were found with the demoniacal possession. In all New Testament passages where " devils " occurs, in the plural, the Greek denotes " demons ;" also in the following passages where " devil " occurs, in the sin gular: Matt. 9:32, 33; 11:18; 12:22; 15:22; 17:18; Mark 5:15, 16, 18; 7:26, 29,30; Luke 4:33. 35! 7-'33J 8:29; 9:42; 11:14; John 7:20; 8:48,49,52; 10:20,21. In all other passages where " devil " oc curs in the singular, Satan, diabolos, is de- DEV BIBLE DICTIONARY. DIA noted in the original, viz., Matt. 4:1, 5, 8, n; 13:39; 25:41; Luke 4:2, 3, 5, 6, 13; 8:12; John 6:70; 8:44; 13:2; Acts 10:38; 13:10; Eph. 4:27; 6:11; 1 Tim. 3:6, 7; 2 Tim. 2:26; Heb. 2:14; Jas. 4:7; 1 Pet. 5:8; : John 3:8, 10; Jude 9; Rev. 2:10; 12:9, 12; 20:2, 10. DEVOTIONS, in Acts 17:23, objects of worship, DEW. The dews in Palestine and some other Oriental countries are very copious, and serve very greatly to sustain and pro mote vegetation in seasons when little or no rain falls. Maundrell tells us that the tents of his company, when pitched on Ta bor and Hermon, " were as wet with dew as if it had rained on them all night," Judg. 6 : 38 ; Song 5:2. Dew was especially heavy near the mountains, and just before and after the rainy season ; and did not fall in the midsummer. It was prized as a pre cious boon of Providence, Gen. 27 : 28 ; Deut. 33:28; 1 Kin. 17:1; Job 29:19; Hag. 1:10; Zech. 8:12. The dew furnishes the sacred penmen with many beautiful allusions, Deut. 32:2; 2 Sam. 17:12; Psa. 110:3; Prov. 19:12; Hos. 6:4; 14:5; Mic. 5:7. DI'ADEM, in the New Testament, the crown of kings, in distinction from con querors, etc., Rev. 12:3 ; 13:1; 19:12. ANTIQUE STONE SUN-DIAL. DI'AL, an instrument much used before the invention of clocks, to tell the time of day by the progress of the sun's shadow. The dial of Ahaz, 2 Kin. 20 : 1 1 ; Isa. 38 : 1-9, seems to have been peculiar either in struc ture or size, and was perhaps borrowed from Babylon or. Damascus, 2 Kin. 16:10. The sun-dial is mentioned in the Assyrian tablets. The term " degrees," or steps, sug gests its probable form, as that of a pair of stairs, with a gnomon or column casting its shadow on more or fewer of them as the sun was low or high. Compare the many- storied temples of Babel. The causing the shadow upon it to go back 10 degrees, to assure king Hezekiah of his recovery from sickness, was probably effected not by ar resting and turning backwards the revolu tion of the earth, but by a miraculous re fraction of the sun's rays, observed only in Judaea, though the fame of it reached Bab ylon, 2 Chr. 32:31. DI'AMOND, the hardest and most bril liant of gems, very rare and costly, sup posed to have been unknown to the Jews. Diamonds are used not only for ornaments, but for cutting and graving hard substan ces, Jer. 17:1. The Hebrew word shamir, here used, is called "adamant" in Ezek. 3:9; Zech. 7:12. See Adamant. There is another Hebrew word, yahalom, also trans lated "diamond," Exod. 28:18; 39:11; Ezek. 28: 13, and thought by some to mean the topaz. DIANA: FROM STATUE IN NAPLES MUSEUM. DIA'NA, or Ar'temis, a celebrated god dess of the Romans and Greeks, and one of their 12 superior deities. The Diana of Ephesus, however, was a very different deity from the fair and chaste huntress of the Greeks ; she was like the Syrian god dess Ashtoreth, and appears to have been worshipped with impure rites and magical mysteries, Acts 19:19. Her image, fabled 135 DIB BIBLE DICTIONARY. DIS to have fallen down from Jupiter in heav en, seems to have been a block of wood tapering to the foot, with a female bust above covered with many breasts, the head crowned with turrets, and each hand rest ing on a staff. It was of great antiquity, and highly venerated. The temple of this goddess was the pride and glory of Ephesus. It was 425 feet long, and 220 broad, and had 127 graaeful Ionic columns of white marble, each 60 feet high. Its treasures were of immense value. It was 220 years in building, and was one of the 7 wonders of the world. In the year when Alexander the Great was born, B. C. 356, an earlier temple had been burned down by one Herostratus, in order to im mortalize his name, but was afterwards rebuilt, as above described, with even greater splendor. Compare 1 Cor. 3:9-17, written there ; aud .Eph. 2 : 19-22. The " sil ver shrines for Diana," made by Demetrius and others, were probably small models of the temple for domestic use, and for sale to travellers and visitors. Ancient coins of Ephesus represent the shrine and statue of Diana, with a Greek inscription, "of the Ephesians," Acts 19:28, 34, 35. Others bear the same words which Luke employs, translated " deputy " and " worshipper " of Diana ; and some, with the name and head of Nero, were struck perhaps while Paul was there. DIB'LATH, Ezek. 6:14, probably Rib- lah, which see. DI'BON, pining, I., Di'mon, Isa. 15:9, and Di'bon-gad', Num. 33:45, 46, a town of Gad, Num. 32:34, but afterwards of Reu ben, Josh. 13 : 17. It lay in a plain just north of the Arnon, and was the ist en campment of the Israelites upon crossing that river. Later we find it in the hands of the Moabites, Isa. 15:2; Jer. 48:22. Traces of it remain at a place now called Diban. See Mesha. II. A town in Judah, Neh. 11:25, called Dimonah in Josh. 15:22. DID'YMUS, a twin. See Thomas. DIG'GING THROUGH HOUSES, Job 24:16. See Houses. DIK'LAH, a tribe descended from Jok tan, Gen. 10:27, and dwelling in Southern Arabia, or perhaps near the head of the Persian Gulf, i Chr. 1:21. DI'MON, Isa. 15:9. See Dibon. DI'NAH, judged, daughter of Jacob by Leah, Gen. 30:21, his only daughter named in Scripture. While the family were so journing near Shalem, she heedlessly asso- 136 ciated with the Canaanitish maidens, and fell a victim to the seductive arts of She- chem, a young prince of the land ; but was perfidiously and savagely avenged by Sim eon and Levi, her full brothers, to the great grief of Jacob their father, Gen. 34; 49:5, 7. Her fall furnishes one of myriads of warn ings not to associate with the irreligious and dissolute. She seems to have gone with the family to Egypt, Gen. 46:15. DIONYS'IUS, devotee of Bacchus, a mem ber of the court of the Areopagus at Ath ens, converted under the preaching of Paul, Acts 17:34. See Areopagus. Tradition says that he was eminent for learning, that he was ordained by Paul at Athens, and after many labors and trials, suffered mar tyrdom by fire. The works ascribed to him are spurious, being the product of some unknown writer in the 5th or 6th cen tury. DIOT'REPHES, nourished by fupiler, an influential member, perhaps minister, of some early church, censured by John for his jealous ambition and his violent rejec tion of the best Christians, 3 John 9, 10. DIP'PING in the dish, Matt. 26:23. See Eating. DISCERN'ING OF SPIRITS, 1 Cor. 12:10, a miraculous gift of the Holy Ghost to certain of the early church, empowering them to judge ofthe real character of those who professed to love Christ and to be in spired to teach in his name, 1 John 4:1; 2 John 7. Compare Acts 5:1-10; 8:21; 13:6-12. DISCI'PLE, a scholar, Matt. 10:24. I*1 the New Testament it is applied princi pally to the followers of Christ ; sometimes to those of John the Baptist, Matt. 9: 14, and of the Pharisees, Matt. 22 : 16. It is used in a special manner to point out the twelve, Matt. 11 :i; 20:17. A disciple of Christ may now be defined as one who believes his doctrine, rests upon his sacrifice, im bibes his spirit} imitates his example, and lives to do his work. DIS'CIPLINE, Job 36: 10, instruction. DISCOVER, Mic. 1:6, to uncover, or lay bare, Deut. 22:30; 2 Sam. 22:16. DISEAS'ES were introduced into the world by sin, and are greatly promoted by corrupt, indolent, and luxurious habits. Besides the natural causes of-diseases, evil sprits were charged with producing them among the Hebrews, Job 2:7; Mark 9:17; Luke 13:16; 2 Cor. 12:7. The pious Jews recognized the hand of God in sending them, Psa. 39:9-11; 90:3-12; and in many DIS BIBLE DICTIONARY. DOE cases special diseases were sent in punish ment of particular sins: to Abimelech, Ge- hazi, Jehoram, Uzziah, Miriam, Herod, the Philistines, etc., and those who partook of the Lord's Supper unworthily, i Cor. 11:30. Christ manifested his divine goodness and power by healing every form of disease ; and in these cases, as in that of king Asa, 2 Chr. 16:12, it is shown that all the skill of physicians is in vain without God's bless ing. The prevalent diseases in Bible lands were malignant fevers, cutaneous diseases, palsy, dysentery, and ophthalmia. Almost every form of bodily disease has a coun terpart in the maladies of the soul, and the Great Physician of souls has demonstrated his perfect ability to cure them all, Luke 5:24. See Devil, II. DISPENSATION, the charge of proclaim ing the gospel of Christ, 1 Cor. 9:17; Eph. 3:2. Also the scheme or plan of God's dealings with men. In the Patriarchal, Mosaic, and Christian dispensations, God has commenced, enlarged, and perfected his revelation of himself and his grace to this world, Eph. 1 : 10 ; Col. 1 : 25. The whole development of his great plan has been gradual, and adapted at every stage to the existing state of the human family. DISPER'SION, Jas. 1:1. See CAPTIVITY. The exiled Jews were not in Babylonia only, but in all lands around Palestine, far and near, Acts 2:9-11 ; and furnished many converts to the gospel who contributed greatly to its rapid spread, John 7:35. DISPOSITION, Acts 7:53, A. V., ordi nance or ministration. DITCH, a pit or pool, Job 9:31 ; Isa. 22:11 ; Luke 6:39. DIVINATION. The Eastern people were fond of magic, and the pretended art of in terpreting dreams and acquiring a knowl edge of futurity. When Moses published the law, to correct the Israelites' inclination to consult diviners, wizards, fortune-tellers, and interpreters of dreams, it was forbid den them under very severe penalties, and the true spirit of prophecy was promised to them as infinitely superior, Exod. 22:18; Lev. 19:26,31; 20:27. When this was for feited by disobedience, and sorcery em ployed instead, as by king Saul, ruin was not far off, 1 Sam. 28. See Acts 8 ; 13 ; 16 ; 19. Those were to be stoned who pre tended to have a " familiar spirit," or the "spirit of divination," Deut. 18:9-12- and the prophecies are full of invectives against the Israelites who consulted such, as well as against false prophets, who seduced the people, Isa. 8:19; 47:11-14; Ezek. 13:6-9. A fresh impulse to these superstitions was gained from intercourse with the Chaldae ans, during the reign of the later kings of Judah and the captivities in Babylon, 2 Kin. 21:6; 2 Chr. 33:6. See Magic, Sorcerers. Divination was of several kinds: by wa ter, fire, earth, air ; by the flight of birds, and their singing ; by lots, dreams, arrows, clouds, entrails of sacrifices, pretended com munication with spirits, etc., Ezek. 21:21. The art of divination was nothing but an imposing jugglery, having no basis but the credulity and superstitious fears of its dupes, and making an adroit use of some secret machinery or of scientific facts un known to the mass. It was usually in the hands of a priestly caste, Gen. 41:8; Isa. 47 : 13 ; Dan. 2 : 2, and gave them vast social and political power. In reference to his cup, Joseph spoke as a supposed Egyptian, Gen. 44:5. DIVORCE' was tolerated by Moses for sufficient reasons, Deut. 24:1-4; but our Lord has limited it to the single case of adultery, Matt. 5:31, 32; 19:3-9. Where for other causes a separation of husband and wife occurs, and they live asunder, neither is at liberty to marry another. Paul in 1 Cor. 7:10-17 applies the law of Christ to cases where a Christian convert has a wife still an unbeliever : he is not to separate from her if she will remain with him; if she will depart, he is not bound to insist on her remaining with him, but cannot marry another. DOCTOR, teacher. A Doctor of the law may perhaps be distinguished from a scribe, as rather teaching orally than giv ing written opinions, Luke 2:46. It implies one learned in the divine law. Doctors of the law were mostly of the sect of the Phar isees, but are distinguished from that sect in Luke 5:17, where it appears that the novelty of our Saviour's teaching drew to gether a great company both of Pharisees and doctors of the law. See Rab and Scribes. DOCTRINE, teaching, its method and its substance, Matt. 7:28; Mark 4:2. DOD'ANIM, or Rod'anim, i Chr. 1:7, a people descended from Japhet through Ja- van, Gen. 10:4. They are associated, by the above passage, and by dim etymologi cal inferences, with the island of Rhodes. DO'EG, fearful, an Edomite, overseer of Saul's flocks. At Nob he witnessed the relief kindly furnished to David when flee ing from Saul, by Ahimelech the high- 137 DOG BIBLE DICTIONARY. DOV priest, and carried a malicious and distort ed report of it to his master. The king gladly seized the opportunity to wreak his passion on a helpless victim ; and when the Jews around him refused to slay the priests of God, infamously used the willing servi ces of this alien and heathen. Doeg not only slew Ahimelech and 84 other priests, but put the town in which they dwelt to the sword, 1 Sam. 21 ; 22. David forebodes his wretched fate, Psa. 52 ; 120; 140. (M>N"**'-- A PERSIAN DOG. DOGS were held in great contempt by the Jews, but were worshipped, as well as cats, by the Egyptians. Among the Jews, to compare a person to this " unclean " an imal, Lev. 11:26, 27; Isa. 66:3, was the most degrading expression possible, 1 Sam. 17:43; 24:14; 2 Sam. 9:8. The state of dogs among the Jews was the same that nowprevails-in the East, where, often hav ing no owners, they run about the streets in troops, and are fed by charity or caprice, or live on such offal as they can pick up. As they are often on the point of starvation, they devour corpses, and in the night even attack living men, Psa. 59:6, 14, 15; : Kin. 14:11; 21:23. Vet dogs were kept some times to guard flocks and houses, Job 30: 1 ; Isa. 56:10; Matt. 15:26, 27. In various places in Scripture the epithet " dogs " is given to certain classes of men, as express ing their insolent rapacity, Psa. 22 : 16 ; Matt. 7:6; Phil. 3 : 2, and their beastly vices, Deut. 23:18; 2 Pet. 2:22; Rev. 22:15. DOOR. See Gates, House. DOR, a liabitaiion, a royal city of the Canaanites, on the Mediterranean between Caesarea and Mount Carmel ; after the con quest it was assigned to Manasseh, Josh. 11:2; 12:23; 17:11; 1 Kin. 4:11; 1 Chr. 7:29. There is now a small port there, and a village with about 300 inhabitants, called Tantura. DOR'CAS in Greek, the same as Tabi tha in Syriac, that is, gazelle, the name of 138 a pious and charitable woman at Joppa, whom Peter raised from the dead, Acts 9:36-42. This miracle testified God's spe cial approval of a life of practical and self- denying piety, and was followed by many conversions. DOTHAN, or Dotha'in, two wells, the place where Joseph was sold to the Ish- maelites, Gen. 37:17, and where the Syri ans were smitten with blindness at Elisha's word, 2 Kin. 6:13. It was on the caravan- route from Syria to Egypt, about 15 miles north of Shechem, and 4 or 5 southwest of Engannim, now Jenin. Its ruins still bear the old name, Dothin, though uninhabited, and are on a large hill, 2 Kin. 6:15, 17, on the south edge of a very fertile plain, Gen. 37: 16, 17. Mr. Tristram met there " a long caravan of mules and asses laden, on their way from Damascus to Egypt." THE EASTERN CARRIER DOVE. DOVES were clean according to the Mo saic ritual, and were offered in sacrifice, especially by the poor, Gen. 15:9; Lev. 5:7; 12:6-8; Luke2:24. Several kinds of doves or pigeons frequented the Holy Land ; and the immense flocks of them sometimes wit nessed illustrate a passage in Isaiah, 60:8. Their swift and long flight and their beau tiful plumage are alluded to in Psa. 55:6; 68:13, their tender eyes, mournful notes, etc., in Song 1:15; 2:14; Isa. 59:11. They are symbols of simplicity, innocence, and conjugal fidelity, Hos. 7:11; Matt. 10:16. The dove was the chosen harbinger of God's returning favor after the flood, Gen. 8, and was honored as an emblem of the Holy Spirit, Matt. 3 : 16. See Turtle dove. DOV BIBLE DICTIONARY. DRO DOVES' DUNG. It is said, 2 Kin. 6:25, that during the siege of Samaria, "the fourth part of a cab," little more than half a pint, "of doves' dung was sold for five pieces of silver," about 2j^ dollars. As doves' dung is not a nourishment for man, even in the most extreme famine, the gen eral opinion is, that it was akind of lentil, or tare, which has very much the appear ance of doves' dung. Two or three vegeta ble substances are still so named by the Arabs. DOWRY. In Eastern countries the bridegroom was required to pay the father of his betrothed a stipulated portion, in money or other valuables, proportioned to the rank and station of the family to which she belonged ; this was the dowry. Jacob purchased his wives by his services to their father, Gen. 29:18-27; 34:12; Exod. 22:16, 17; 1 Sam. 18:25; Hos. 3:2. Sometimes the father gave presents to his daughter, Judg. 1:15; 1 Kin. 9:16. DRACH'MA, Luke 15:8, 9. See Penny. DRAG, Hab. 1:15, 16; John 21:8, a net suspended and drawn near the bottom of the water. DRAG'ON answers, in the English Bible, to the Hebrew word signifying a sea- monster, huge serpent, etc.; in Gen. 1:21, "whales." Thus in Deut. 32:33; Jer. 51:34; Psa. 91:13; and Rev. 12, it evidently im plies a huge serpent; in Isa. 27:1; 51:9; Ezek. 29:3; 32:2, it may mean the croco dile, or any large sea-monster. A distinct Hebrew word is used in Job 30:29; Isa. 13:22; 34:13; 43:20; Jer. 9:11; 10:22; 14:6; 49:33; 5i:37; Lam.- 4:3; Mic- 1:8, and seems to refer to some wild animal of the desert, probably the wolf or the jackal. The animal known to modern naturalists under the name of dragon is a harmless spe cies of lizard, in Asia and Africa. It may be that some of the monstrous reptiles whose remains are from time to time unearthed, were known by Adam and his early de scendants. The application of the term to Satan is a metaphor easily understood. DRAG'ON-WELL, Neh. 2:13, probably the fountain of Gihon, on the west side of Jerusalem. See Gihon. DRAM, Ezra 2:69; Neh. 7:70, a gold coin of Persia, worth about $5. DRAUGHT, a cesspool, privy, or recepta cle for filth, 2 Kin. 10:27; Matt. 15:17. Also, all the fishes taken at one drawing of a net, Luke 5:9. DREAM. The Orientals greatly regard ed dreams, and applied for their interpre tation to those who claimed power to ex plain them. We see the antiquity of this , custom in Job 4:13-15; 7:14; 33:15-17, and in the history of Pharaoh's butler and ba ker, and Pharaoh himself, Gen. 40; 41. God expressly forbade his people to observe dreams, and to consult heathen explainers of them. He condemned to death all who falsely pretended to have prophetic dreams, even though what they foretold came to pass, if they had any tendency to promote idolatry, Deut. 13:1-3. But the Jews were not forbidden, when they thought they had a significant dream, to address the prophets of the Lord, or the high-priest in his ephod, to have it explained. The Lord frequently made known his will in dreams, and ena bled persons to explain them; as in the cases of Abimelech, Jacob, and Laban, Gen. 20:3-7; 28:12-15; 31:24; ofthe Mid- ianite, Judg. 7 : 13 ; of Nebuchadnezzar, Dan. 2 and 4; of Joseph, the Magi, Pilate's wife, and Paul, Matt. 1:20; 2:12; 27:19; Acts 27:23. Supernatural dreams are dis tinguished from visions, in that the former occurred during sleep, and the latter when the person was awake. God spoke to Abimelech in a dream, but to Abraham by vision. In both cases he left on the mind an assurance of the certainty of whatever he revealed. Both are now superseded by the Bible, our sure and sufficient guide through earth to heaven. DREGS. In Isa. 51 : 17, R. V., " bowl." DRESS'ES. See Garments. DRINK, Strong. See Wine. DRINK'-OFFERING, a small quantity of wine, part of which was to be poured on the sacrifice or meat-offering, and the resi due given to the priests, Exod. 29:40; Lev. 23:18; Num. 15:5, 7. It may have been appointed as an acknowledgment that all the blessings of the earth are from God, Gen. 35:14. In heathen drink-offerings, blood was sometimes mingled with wine in making some fearful vow, Psa. 16:4. DROM'EDARY. See Camel. The He brew word used in 1 Kin. 4:28; Esth. 8:10, 14 ; Mic. 1 : 13, is thought to mean swift horses. DROP'PING, Continual. See House. DROUGHT was an evil to which Pales tine was naturally subject, as no rain fell from May to September. During these months of summer, the ground became parched and cleft, the streams and springs became dry, and vegetation was kept from extinction by the dews of night and by artificial irrigation. If rain did not come 139 DRU BIBLE DICTIONARY. DUS in its season and abundantly, the distress was general and dreadful. A drought, therefore, is threatened as one of God's sorest judgments, Job 24:19; Jer. 50:38; Joel 1 : 10-20 ; Hag. 1:11; and there are many allusions to its horrors in Scripture, Deut. 28:23; Psa. 32:4; 102:4. DRUNK'ENNESS is referred to in the Bible both in single instances and as a habit. Its folly is often illustrated, Psa. 107:27; Isa. 19:14; 24:20; 28:7, 8, its guilt denounced, Isa. 5:22, its ill results traced, 1 Sam. 25:36; 1 Kin. 16:9; 20:16, and its doom shown, 1 Cor. 6 : 9, 10. It is produced by wine, Gen. 9:21; 19 : 33 ; Jer. 23 : 9 ; Eph. 5: 18, as well as by " strong drink," 1 Sam. I:I3_I5; Isa. 5:11. Hence the use of these was forbidden to the priests at the altar, Lev. 10:9; and all are cautioned to avoid them, Prov. 20:1; 23:30. To tempt others to drunkenness is a sin accursed of God, 2 Sam. 11:13; Hab. 2:15, 16. Its preva lence in a community is inseparable from the habitual use of any inebriating liquor. Hence the efforts made by the wise and •good to secure abstinence from all intoxi cating drinks, 1 Cor. 8:13. See Wine. DRUSIL'LA, the youngest daughter of Herod Agrippa I., and sister of the younger Agrippa and Bernice, celebrated for her beauty. She was first given in marriage by her brother to Azizus king of Emasa. When Felix came as governor of Judaea, he persuaded her to abandon her husband and her religion and become his wife. Paul bore testimony before them to the truth of the Christian religion, Acts 24:24. She and Felix had a son Agrippa, who after wards perished in an eruption of Vesuvius. DUKE. In Gen. 36:15-43, is a long list of "dukes" of Edom, Exod. 15:15; Josh. 13:21 ; but the word duke, from the Latin dux, merely signifies a leader, and not an order of nobility, 1 Chr. 1:51. DUL'CIMER, Dan. 3:5, 10, an instrument of music, which the rabbins describe as a sort of bagpipe, composed of 2 pipes con nected with a leathern sack, and of a harsh, screaming sound. The modern dulcimer is an instrument of a triangular form, strung with about 50 wires, and struck with 2 light and slender hammers. See Music DU'MAH, silence, I., a tribe and country ofthe Ishmaelites in Arabia, Gen. 25:14; 1 Chr. 1:30; Isa. 21:11 ; doubtless the same which is still called by the Arabs " Duma of the great stones " and " the Syrian Du ma," situated on the confines of the Ara bian and Syrian desert, with a fortress. 140 II. A town of Judah, a little southwest of Hebron, Josh. 15:52. DUNG. In Bible lands the dung of ani mals was and is used not only for manure, but, when dried, for fuel. In districts where wood is scarce, the inhabitants are very careful in collecting the dung of cam els or asses ; it- is mixed with chopped straw, and dried. It is not unusual to see a whole village with portions of this mate rial adhering to the walls of the cottages to dry ; and in autumn it is piled in conical heaps on the roof. It is employed in heat ing ovens, and for other similar purposes, Ezek. 4:12-16. The use of dung for ma nure is intimated in Isa. 25:10. Hence "dung-gate," Neh. 2:13. To sit upon a dunghill was a sign of deep humiliation and misery, 1 Sam. 2:8; Psa. 113:7; Lam. 4:5. See also Exod. 29:14; Deut. 23:12; 2 Kin. 10:27; Dan. 2:5. DU'RA, the plain at Babylon where Neb- uchadnezzar set up his golden image, Dan. 3:1. M. Oppert finds it at a mound called Duair, southeast of Babylon, where also he discovered what he took for the pedestal of a colossal statue. DUST, Josh. 7:6. Dust or ashes put upon the head was a sign of mourning; sitting in the dust, a sign of affliction, Lam. 3 : 29 ; Isa. 47 : 1. " Dust " is also put for the grave, Gen. 3:19; Job 7:21. It signifies a multitude, Gen. 13: 16, and a low and mean condition, 1 Sam. 2:8. To lick or kiss the dust expresses abject submission, Psa. 72 :g. We have 2 remarkable instances of casting dust recorded in Scripture, and they illus trate a practice common in Asia: those who demanded justice against a criminal were accustomed to throw dust upon him, signi fying that he deserved to be cast into the grave. Shimei cast dust upon David when he fled from Jerusalem, 2 Sam. 16: 13. The Jews treated the apostle Paul in a similar manner in the same city, Acts 22:22-24. To shake off the dust of the feet against another was expressive of entire renuncia tion, Matt. 10:14; Mark 6:11; Acts 13:51. The threatening of God recorded in Deut. 28:24, "The Lord shall make the rain of thy land powder and dust: from heaven shall it come down upon thee, until thou be destroyed," means that instead of fertil izing rains, clouds of fine dust, raised from the parched ground and driven by fierce and burning winds, shall fill the air. See Wind. The dust of Egypt was turned into gnats at Moses' word, Exod. 8:16. See Lice. EAG BIBLE DICTIONARY. EAR EA'GLE, Job 39:27-30, a large and very powerful bird of prey, hence called the king of birds. Four species of eagles have been observed in Palestine. The " golden eagle " measures 8 feet 4 inches from wing to wing ; and from the tip of his tail to the point of his beak, when dead, 4 feet 7 inches. In many passages the Griffon Vul ture is probably intended. Of all known birds, the eagle flies not only the highest, Prov. 23:5; Jer. 49:16; Obad. 4, but also with the greatest rapid ity. To this circumstance there are stri king allusions in 2 Sam. 1:23; Job 9:26; Lam. 4: 19. Among the evils threatened to the Israelites for disobedience were ene mies coming "as swift as the eagle flieth," Deut. 28:49; Jer. 4:13; 48:40; 49:22; Hos. 8:1. This bird was a national emblem on Persian, Assyrian, and Roman standards, as it now is on United States coins. The eagle lives to a great age, and, like other birds of prey, sheds his feathers in spring, and thus assumes the appearance of youth, Psa. 103:5; Isa. 40:31. The careful pains of the. eagle in teaching its young to fly, beautifully illustrate God's providential care over Israel, Exod. 19:4; Deut. 32:11, 12. The eagle is remarkable for its keen sight and scent, Job 39:29. It builds its nest on lofty crags, Prov. 23:5; Jer. 49:16; and often prefers to rob other birds of their prey rather than hunt for itself, Job 9:26. The vulture feeds on dead bodies, and is the chief scavenger in the East, Job 39:30; Matt. 24 : 28. Its flesh, like that of all birds of prey, was unclean to the Jews, and is never eaten unless in cases of necessity, Luke 17:37. EAR'ING, an old agricultural term for ploughing, Gen. 45:6; Exod. 34:21; Deut. 21:4; 1 Sam. 8:12; Isa. 30:24. EAR'NEST, a part of a debt, paid in as surance of the payment of the whole ; or part of the price paid down to confirm a bargain ; or part of a servant's wages, paid at the time of hiring, to ratify the engage ment. It differs from a mere " pledge," since it is identical in kind with the thing promised, while a pledge may be some thing altogether different. It describes the gifts of God to his people here, as the assu rance and commencement of the far supe rior blessings of the life to come, 2 Cor. 1:22; 5:5; Eph. 1:13, 14. EAR'RINGS. See Rings, Amulets. EARTH. In both Hebrew and Greek the same word js used to denote the earth, as a whole, Gen. 1 : 1, and a particular land ' or spot, Gen. 21 :32 ; 23:15; 33:3. The con text decides in which of these senses it is to be taken in a given passage. Thus in Matt. 27:45 we might render either "there was darkness over all the land," or over all the "earth," as in Luke 23:44, A. V. See Mark 15:33. The R. V. has " land " in all 3 passages. The expression " all the earth " is sometimes used hyperbolically for a large portion of it, Ezra 1:2. The word is used ofthe whole world, or its sur face, in distinction from the heavens ; of the people who inhabit the world, etc. In Job 26:7 the idea seems to be implied that the earth is freely suspended in space. But in their common language the He brews spoke of it as a vast convex surface of unknown extent, with pillars and foun dations, Job 9:6; 38:4, 6; Psa. 75:3; 104:5; with an abyss under all, Gen. 49:25; Psa. 24:2; 136:6; and an arched firmament above, in which the stars were placed, and through whose windows the rain came. See Deep and Heavens. One Hebrew word, adamah, denotes the mould, dust, or arable land of the world ; hence Adam's name, Gen. 2:7; Eccl. 12:7. It is used of Noah, Gen. 9:20, as becoming a " man of the soil." And of this material altars were to be composed, Exod. 20:24; 2 Kin. 5:17. In a moral sense, earthly is opposed to what is heavenly, spiritual, and holy, John 3:31; 1 Cor. 15:47; Col. 3:2; James 3:15. " The lower parts of the earth," means the unseen world of the dead, Psa. 63:9; Isa. 44:23; Eph. 4:9. EARTH'QUAKE, Scripture spea-ks of several earthquakes, Num. 16; 1 Kin. 19:11, 141 EAS BIBLE DICTIONARY. EAT 12. One occurred in the 27th year of Uz- ziah, and is mentioned in Amos 1:1; Zech. 14:5; and Josephus connects it with the crimes of Uzziah, 2 Chr. 26:16-20, and al ludes to a shaking down of a part of the Mount of Olives at the time. Compare Jer. 51 :25. A very memorable earthquake was that at our Saviour's death, Matt. 27:51, which some suppose extended throughout the world. Palestine has been often vis ited by earthquakes. So late as 1837 one occurred in the vicinity of the Sea of Gal ilee, by which about a third part of Tibe rias was destroyed, and thousands of peo ple perished. The subsidence of the south end of the Dead Sea shore was probably connected with an earthquake. Earth quakes were among the calamities foretold as connected with the destruction of Jeru salem, Matt. 24:7; and history proves the truth of the prediction. The word earthquake is also used figu ratively to denote God's power and wrath, as in Psa. 18:7; 46:2; 104:32, etc., and as an emblem of a great civil or national ca tastrophe, Matt. 24:7, 29; Rev. 16:18, 19. EAST. The Hebrews, in speaking of the different quarters of the heaven, always suppose the face to be turned towards the east. Hence "before," or "forwards," means the east ; " behind " is the west, the right-hand is south, and the left-hand, north. Besides the ordinary meanings of the word east, Josh. 4:19; Psa. 103:12, the Jews often used it to designate a large re gion lying northeast and southeast as well as east of Palestine, including Syria and Arabia near at hand, and Babylonia, As syria, etc., with the whole region from the Caspian Sea to the Arabian Gulf, Gen. 10:30; 29:1; Num. 23:7; Judg. 6:3; 7:12; 8:10. Job was great among the children of the East, Job 1:3. In Jer. 49:28, 29; Ezek. 25:4, the Bedouin-like tribes of North ern Arabia are meant. The wise men who visited the infant Saviour dwelt beyond the Euphrates, and being " in the east," saw his star — not saw his star east of them. It guided them westerly to Jerusalem, Matt. 2:1, 2. See 1 Kin. 4:30. EAST'ER is improperly put for Passover in Acts 12:4, for Herod and the Jews did not celebrate the resurrection of Christ. Easter, a word of uncertain derivation, is the modern name of a Christian festival, in commemoration of Christ's resurrection and the events of Passover-week, and fixed at the same period of the year. east wind. See Wind. 142 . EAT'ING. The Jews would have consid ered themselves polluted by eating with people of another religion, or with any who were ceremonially unclean or disreputa ble — as with Samaritans, John 4:9, publi cans, Matt. 9:11, or Gentiles, Acts 10:28; Gal. 2:12. " Eating" and drinking," Matt. 11:19, means freely mingling with society. Eating together was an established token of mutual confidence, a pledge of friendly relations between families, which their chil dren were "expected to perpetuate. The rites of hospitality were held sacred ; and to this day, among the Arabs, a fugitive is safe for the time if he gains the shelter of even an enemy's tent. The abuse of hos pitality was a great crime, Psa. 41 : 9. To " eat " a book, is to make its precepts, promises, and spirit one's own, Jer. 15:16; Ezek. 3:1; John 4:14; Rev. 10:9. So to eat Christ's flesh and drink his blood, is to receive him as a Saviour, and by a living faith to be imbued with his truth, his Spir it, and his heavenly life, John 6:32-58. Eating, Mode of. The Hebrews an ciently sat at their meals, Gen. 43 : 33 ; 1 Sam. 9:22; 20:25; Psa. 128:3; but after wards adopted the practice of reclining on table-beds or divans, like the Persians, Chaldaeans, Romans, etc., Amos 6:4. The accompanying engraving of a Roman tri clinium, three beds, will illustrate several points obscure to the modern reader of the Bible. It will be seen that 3 low tables are so placed as to form 3 sides of a hollow square accessible to the waiters. Around these tables are placed, not seats, but couches, or beds, one to each table, formed of mattresses stuffed, and often highly or namented, Esth. 1:6; 7:1, 8. The guests reclined with their heads to the table, each one leaning on his left elbow, and therefore using principally his right hand in taking food. Observe also that the feet of the per son reclining were readily reached by any one passing, Luke 7:36-50; John 12:3. Thus it was easy for our Lord to wash the feet of his disciples at the last supper, John 13:5-12, and "wipe them with the towel wherewith he was girded." This also explains the position of John at the same supper; for if he reclined next in front of the Saviour, he lay as it were in his bosom, John 13:23, 25, and might read ily lean back his head upon the Saviour's breast, a posture expressive of intimacy, friendship, and love, Luke 16 : 22 ; John 1:18. It is unknown, however, how far or how EAT BIBLE DICTIONARY. EAT '' ' =- 11 llSal ¦ 11111 Iiiii WflPpt' long this custom displaced the primitive Eastern mode still prevalent in Palestine and vicinity. The ordinary table was no more than a circular skin or carpet spread upon the floor, around which the family sat on the floor, or on rugs or cushions. Some times there was a small table in the cen tre, raising the principal dish a little above the floor. The meals of the Jews were generally 2, loosely distinguished as dinner and sup per, Luke 14: 12 ; John 21:12. The ist meal was usually light, consisting of milk, cheese, bread, or fruits, and eaten at various hours from early morning to the middle of the forenoon. In the early history of the He brews, the principal meal, corresponding with our dinner, was eaten about noon, Gen. 43:25; 1 Kin. 20:16. At a later pe riod, at least on festive occasions, it was taken after the heat of the day was over. This was the "supper." The Jews were wont to wash their hands before eating, a custom rendered necessary by their mode of eating, but made by the Pharisees a test of piety, Mark 7:2,3; Luke 1 1 : 38. Devout Jews, not only in their sacred feasts, but in their daily enjoyments at the family meal, recognized the Giver of all good, and im plored his blessing on their food, 1 Sam. 9:13; Matt. 14:19; 15:36; 26:26; Luke9:i6; John 6:11; 1 Tim. 4:3- Some families re peated the 23d Psalm as they seated them selves at meals. The food consisted of flesh, fish, or fowls, butter, honey, bread, and fruits. See Food. Animal food Was often cut into small pieces, or stewed, and served up in one large dish with melted butter, vegetables, etc. Knives, forks, and spoons were unknown as table-furniture; and the food was conveyed to the mouth by the right hand, Prov. 19:24. Each per son took a portion from the dish either with his thumb and fingers, or with the help of a small piece of thin bread. Sev- MODERN SYRIANS AT DINNER. , , eral hands were occasionally plunged 'into the same dish at once, John 13:26.' The head ofthe family was wont to send a dou ble portion of food to a stranger, as an honor, and to furnish him a greater vari ety, Gen. 43:31; 1 Sam. 1:4; 9:22-24; and 143 ' EBA BIBLE DICTIONARY. EBE often would select the choicest morsels and present them to his guest with his own fin gers. Compare Ruth 2:14, and John 13 : 26. This is still customary in the East. After eating, the hands were again cleansed by pouring water upon them, 2 Kin. 3:11. See Feast, Washing. E'BAL, bare mount, Deut. 27 ; 28 ; a moun tain in Ephraim, over against Mount Geri- zim, from which it is separated by a valley about 500 yards wide and 3 miles long, in which stands the town of Shechem. Both mountains are much alike in length, height, and form, and some 800 feet from the level of the valley. As you journey north from Jerusalem, and turn to pass into the valley west-northwest to Shechem, Ebal is on the right hand and Gerizim on the left. Some have described the mount of cursing as sterile and desolate, and Gerizim as smi ling and fertile, Deut. 11:26-29. But at present they are ^Uke steep and barren. EBAL ON THE RIGHT; GERIZIM ON THE LEFT; SHECHEM, AND THE MEDITERRANEAN. Mount Gerizim, however, is said to have a more fertile background, and to be a little lower than Mount Ebal— Ebal being 3,077 feet, Gerizim 2,849, and Nablus about 2,200 feet above the sea. They are both ter raced, and the base of Ebal is full of sepul chral excavations. See Gerizim, She chem. EBED'-MELECH, king's slave, an Ethio pian servant of king Zedekiah, who saved the prophet Jeremiah from famishing in a filthy dungeon, and was therefore pre served when Jerusalem was taken by Neb- uzar-adan, Jer. 38:7-13; 39:15-18. The Lord knoweth them that are his, and suc cors those who succor his saints, Matt. 10:41. EBEN-E'ZER, stone of help, the monu- 144 ment which Samuel erected in grateful re membrance of the divine help, given in answer to prayer, in a great battle with the Philistines. The same place had be fore witnessed the defeat of Israel and the capture ofthe ark, 1 Sam. 4:1; 5:1; 7;5~ 12; though it may not have been named Eben-ezer then, its original name having been displaced by the new one, at the time when the book was written. It was be tween Mizpeh arid Shen. E'BER, beyond, I., called HEBERin Luke 3:35, A. V. ; son of Salah and father of Pe leg in the patriarchal line, B. C. 2281-1817. The chief special interest in him is that the Hebrews claim to derive their name from him, Gen. 10:21,24, 25; Num. 24:24; 1 Chr. 1:19. See Hebrews. EBO BIBLE DICTIONARY. EGL II. i Chr. 5:13, in A. V. Heber, a chief among the children of Gad, in Bashan. III. 1 Chr. 8:12, a Benjamite. IV. 1 Chr. 8:22, in A. V. Heber, a chief in Benjamin. B. C. about 600. EB'ONY, the wood of various trees grow ing in India and Africa. The best ebony is the heart of the trunk in the Diospyros Ebenum, a large tree of Ceylon and South ern India; it is black, hard, heavy, and fine grained, arid receives a beautiful polish. It was anciently highly prized, Ezek. 27:15, and is still much used for musical instru ments and fancy articles. EBRO'NAH, Num. 33:34, 35, a resting- place of the Israelites near Ezion-geber, on the Gulf of Akaba. ECCLESIASTES, the preacher, the name of a book of the Old Testament, ascribed to Solomon — his personal legacy to his son Rehoboam, though many critics think it was the work of some later inspired writer, availing himself of Solomon's une qualled experience, and speaking as in his person, Eccl. 1:1. Compare 1 Kin. 3:12 and Eccl. 1:16; 1 Kin. 10:21, 27, and Eccl. 2:4-9; 1 Kin. 11:3, 4, and Eccl. 7:26, 28. It appears to have been written by Solo mon in his old age, when freed from the entanglements of idolatry, luxury, and lust, B. C. 977. It is a discourse upon the true wisdom, with many isolated precepts, illus trated from his own unexampled experi ence and from the most sagacious obser vation of the course of life ; the whole dtmonstrating the vanity of all earthly g ;od, and showing that there is a better lite to come; that men should cheerfully enjoy the gifts of Providence, with deeds of love and charity, and without feverish longings ; and that the only true wisdom is to "fear God and keep his command ments." This, he says, is the conclusion of the whole matter, Eccl. 12:13. Iri read ing this book, care should be taken not to deduce opinions from detached sentiments, but from the general scope and combined force of the whole. ED, a witness, Josh. 22:34. E'DEN, delight, I., a province in Asia, in which was Paradise, Gen. 2:8. Its topog raphy is thus described : " And a river went out of Eden to water the garden, and from thence it was parted, and became into four heads. The name ofthe first is Pison," etc. Such a region exists in the high lands of Armenia, west of Mount Ararat and 5,000 fee', above the sea. Here, within a circle IO but a few miles in diameter, 4 large rivers rise: the Euphrates, and Tigris, or Hidde- kel, flowing south into the Persian Gulf; the Araxes, flowing northeast into the Cas pian Sea; and the Phasis, or the Halys, flowing northwest into the Black Sea. This 4th river may have been the Pison of Eden ; and the Araxes may well be the Gihon, since both words mean the same, and describe its dart-like swiftness. This elevated country, still beautiful and fertile, may have been the land of Eden ; and in its choicest portion, towards the east, the garden may once have smiled. Another location of Eden is now pre ferred by many interpreters — near the spot where '.he Euphrates and Tigris form a junction after their long wanderings, 120 miles north of the Persian Gulf, and where the river Ulai flows in from the northeast. Wherever it was, it is there no more since the fall and the curse. The first chapters ofthe Bible show Paradise withdrawn from man's view, and no pilgrimage can dis cover it upon earth. The last chapters of the Bible restore to our view a more glori ous and enduring Paradise, secured to be lievers by the Second Adam. " Blessed are they that do his commandments, that they may have right to the tree of life." If. A region, probably northwest of Mes opotamia, alluded to as a mart of Tyre, and as ravaged by the Assyrians, 2 Kin. 19:12; Isa. 37:12; Ezek. 27:23; Amos 1:5. III. Two Levites in Hezekiah's day, 2 Chr. 29:12; 31:15. E'DOM, red, a name of Esau, Isaac's eldest son, appropriate on account of his complexion, but given, it would seem, from the current name of the food for which he sold his birthright — "that same red," Gen. 25:25,30. See Esau and Idum^a. ED'REI, strong, I., one of the 2 capitals of Bashan, near which Og and his forces were destroyed, Num. 21:33-35; Deut. 1:4; 3:I-3; Josh. 12:4. It afterwards fell with in the limits of Manasseh, Josh. 13:31. Its ruins, in almost inaccessible rocky fast nesses, cover a large space ; it was a place of some note in the early ages of Christian ity and in the era of the Crusades. It is now Edr'a, and lies about 35 miles east of the outlet of the Sea of Galilee. II. In Naphtali.near Kedesh, Josh. 19:37. * EG'LAH, a heifer, one of David's wives at Hebron, and mother of Ithream, 2 Sam. 3:5; 1 Chr. 3:3. EG'LAIM, two ponds, Isa. 15:8. See En- eglaim. 145 EGL BIBLE DICTIONARY. EGY EG'LON, calf-like, I., a king of Moab, who, with the help of Ammon and Ama- lek, subdued the southern and eastern tribes of Israel. He made Jericho his seat of government, and held his power 18 years, but was then slain by Ehud, and his people west of the Jordan destroyed, Judg. 3:12-33. II. A town in the Shephelah or low coun try of Judah, one of the 5 in league against Gibeon, Josh. 10 : 3-5 ; 15 : 39. It is now called Ajlan, 10 miles from Eleutheropolis and 14 from Gaza. E'GYPT, a celebrated country in the north of Africa, at the eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea. The Hebrews called it Mizraim, Gen. 10:6, and it is now called by the Arabs Misr. It is also called in Scripture "the land of Ham," Psa. 105:23, 27; and " Rahab," Psa. 87:4. The Greeks and Romans named it ./Egyptus ; but the origin of this name is unknown. The habitable land of Egypt is for the most part a great valley, through which the river Nile pours its waters, extending in a straight line some 450 miles from north to south, and skirted on the east and west by ranges of mountains, which approach and recede from the river more or less in different parts. Where this valley termi nates, towards the north, the Nile divides itself, about 70 miles from the sea-coast, into several arms, which inclose the so- called Delta, in the form of the Greek letter A, delta. The ancients numbered 7 arms and mouths ; the eastern was that of Pelu- sium, now Tineh ; and the western that of Canopus, now Aboukirl The prophet Eze kiel describes Egypt as extending from Migdol, that is, Magdolum, not far from the mouth of the Pelusian arm, to Syene, now Essuan, namely, to the border of Ethiopia, Ezek. 29:10; 30:6, margin. Here the Nile issues from the granite rocks of the cata racts, and enters Egypt proper. The length of the country, therefore, in a direct line is about 500 miles, and its area about 11,000 square miles. The breadth of the valley, between Essuan and the Delta, is very un equal, varying from 2 to 12 miles, averaging ANCIENT STATUES OF MEMNON, IN THE PLAIN OF THEBES. perhaps 7 ; in some places the inundations ofthe river extend to the foot of the moun tains; in other parts there remains a strip of a mile or two in breadth which the wa ter never covers, and which is therefore 146 always dry and barren. There are now about 5,600 square miles fit for cultivation, to which 1,500 might be added by suitable effort. Originally the name Egypt desig nated only the valley and the Delta; but EGY BIBLE DICTIONARY. EGY TEMPLE OF ABOO-SIMBEL, NUBIA, HALF BURIED IN SAND; STATUES SIXTY FEET HIGH. at a later period it came to include also the region between this and the Red Sea on the east, and part of the desert on the west. The country around Syene and the cata racts is highly picturesque ; the other parts of Egypt, and especially the Delta, are uniform and monotonous. The prospect, however, is extremely different according to the season of the year. From the mid dle of spring, when the harvest is over, one sees nothing but a gray and dusty soil, full of cracks and chasms. At the time of the autumnal equinox, the country pre sents nothing but an immeasurable surface of reddish or yellowish water, out of which rise date-trees, villages, and narrow dams, which serve as a means of communication. After the waters have retreated, and they usually remain only a short time at this height, you see, till the end of autumn, only a black and slimy mud. But in win ter, nature puts on all her splendor. In this season, the freshness and power of the new vegetation, the variety and abundance of vegetable productions, exceed every thing that is known in the most celebra ted parts of the European continent ; and Egypt is then, from one end of the country to the other, like a beautiful garden, a ver dant meadow, a field sown with flowers, or a waving ocean of grain in the ear, all de pending upon the annual inundations of the Nile. Hence Egypt was called by He rodotus " the gift of the Nile." See Nile. The sky is not less uniform and monoto nous than the earth ; it is constantly a pure unclouded arch, of a color and light more white than azure. The atmosphere has a splendor which the eye can scarcely bear, and a burning sun, whose glow is tem pered by no shade, scorches through the whole day these vast and unprotected plains. The only tree is the date-tree, which is frequent; but with its tall, slen der stem, and bunch of foliage on the top, this tree does very little to keep off the light, and casts upon the earth only a pale and uncertain shade. Egypt, accordingly, has a very hot climate; the thermometer in summer standing usually at 80° or 90° of Fahrenheit; and in Upper Egypt still higher. The burning wind of the desert, Simoom or Khamsin, is also experienced, usually about the time of the vernal equi nox. The provinces and cities of Egypt men tioned in the Bible may be arranged under these 3 great divisions: I. Lower Egypt. The northeastern point of this was "the river of Egypt" (see below), on the border of Palestine. The desert between this point, the Red Sea, and the ancient Pelusium, seems to have been the desert of Shur, Gen. 20:1, now El-Djefer. Sin, " the strength [key] 147 EGY BIBLE DICTIONARY. EGY of Egypt," Ezek. 30:15, was probably Pe lusium. The land of Goshen appears to have lain between Pelusium, its branch of the Nile, and the Red Sea, having been skirted on the northeast by the desert of Shur; constituting perhaps a part of the province Rameses, Gen. 47:11. In this district, or adjacent to it, are mentioned also the cities Pithom, Raamses, Pi-Beseth, and On or Heliopolis. In the proper Del ta itself lay Tahapanes, that is, Taphne or Daphne; Zoan, the Tanis of the Greeks; Leontopolis, alluded to perhaps in Isa. 19: 18. West of the Delta was Alexandria. 2. Middle Egypt. Here are mentioned Moph or Memphis, and Hanes, the Hera- cleopolis of the Greeks. 3. Upper Egypt. The southern part of Egypt the Hebrews appear to have called Pathros, Jer. 44: 1, 15. The Bible mentions here only 2 cities, namely, No, or more fully No-Amon, for which the 70 put Di- ospolis, the Greek name for Thebes, the most ancient capital of Egypt (see Amon) ; and Syene, the southern city and limit of Egypt. The chief agricultural productions of Egypt are wheat, durrah, or small maize, Turkish or Indian corn, rice, barley, beans, cucumbers, water-melons, leeks, and on ions; also sugar, flax, and cotton. The date-tree and vine are frequent. The pa pyrus is still found in small quantity. See Book, Bulrush. The animals of Egypt, besides the usual kinds of tame cattle, are the wild ox or buffalo in great numbers, EGYPTIAN AGRICULTURE. the ass and camel, dogs in multitudes with out masters, the ichneumon, the crocodile, and the hippopotamus— the last 2 only in the Upper Nile. Vultures and kites abound, also fishes and frogs; and in the desert, venomous serpents. Swarms of locusts are not rare. The modern inhabitants of Egypt may be considered as including 3 divisions : 1. The Copts, or descendants of the ancient Egyptians. 2. The Fellahs, or husband men, who are supposed to represent the people in Scripture called Phul. 3. The Arabs, or conquerors of the country, inclu ding the Turks, etc. The Copts are nomi nal Christians, and the clerks and account ants of the country. They have seen so many revolutions in the governing powers that they concern themselves very little about the successes or misfortunes of those who aspire to dominion. The Fellahs suffer so much oppression, and are so despised by the Bedouins or wandering Arabs, and by their despotic rulers, that they seldom acquire property, and very rarely enjoy it in security; yet they are an interesting race, and devotedly attached to their na tive country and the Nile. The Arabs hate the Turks ; yet the Turks enjoy most offi ces of government, though they hold their superiority by no very certain tenure. Of late years there has been added a growing element of European and American resi dents, occupied as missionaries and teach ers, in mercantile life and government ser- 148 vice. The opening of the Suez canal to the commerce of the world, and the innova tions brought by railroads and steamboats, are fast Europeanizing the land of the Pha raohs ; and by the defeat of Arabi Pasha in 1881, it has been brought into the condition of a virtual dependency of England. The most extraordinary monuments of ancient Egyptian power and industry were the pyramids, which still subsist, to excite the wonder and admiration of the world. No work of man now extant is so ancient or so vast as these mysterious structures. The largest of them covers a square area of 13 acres, and is still 474 feet high. It is generally believed that they were erected more than 2,000 years before Christ, as the sepulchres of kings. But besides these imperishable monu ments of kings long forgotten, Egypt abounds in other structures hardly less wonderful ; on the beautiful islands above the cataracts, near Syene, and at other places in Upper Egypt ; and especially in the valley of the Nile near Thebes, inclu ding Carnac, Luxor, etc. The temples, statues, obelisks, and sphinxes that cover the ground astonish the beholder with their colossal height, their massive grandeur, and their vast extent ; while the dwellings of the dead, tombs in the rock occupied by myriads of mummies, extend far into the adjacent mountains. In 1881 a fresh dis covery was made at Deir-el-Bahari, near Thebes, of a subterranean cavern into EGY BIBLE DICTIONARY. EGY which had been gathered some 40 royal mummies and mummv-cases whose names AVENUE IN THE GREAT HALL OF COLUMNS AT CARNAC, THEBES. have been identified— among them kings and queens of the 17th, 18th, 19th, and 21st dynasties, including Thothmes III. and Rameses II. , the most famous of Egyptian monarchs. Of these, 29 mummies, with sarcophagi and numerous relics, are in the museum at Boulak. The huge columns of the temples of Upper Egypt, their vast walls, and many of the tombs, are covered with sculptures and paintings which are exceedingly valuable as illustrating the public and the domestic life of the ancient Egyptians. See Shi shak. With these are mingled many hie roglyphic records, which have begun to yield their long-concealed meaning to the inquisitions of modern science. Some of these are mere symbols, comparatively easy to understand. But a large portion of them are now found to be written with a sort of pictorial alphabet — each symbol representing the sound with which its own name commences. Thus osir, the name of the Egyptian god Osiris, would be rep resented by the picture of a reed, a child, and a mouth; because the initial sounds of the Coptic words for these 3 objects, namely Oke, Si, and Ro, make up the name osir. There is, however, great ambiguity in the interpretation of these records; and in many cases the words, when apparently made out, are as yet unintelligible, and seem to be part of a priestly dialect under stood only by the learned. These more ancient forms of writing gave way many years ago to the later alphabetic Coptic, in which many Christian authors wrote, and which is now obsolete. To-day the preva lent language is the Arabic. The early history of ancient Egypt is involved in great obscurity. All accounts, however, and the results of all modern researches, represent its culture and civil ization as having been of high antiquity. The country in the earliest times was pos sessed by several contemporary kings or states, which at length were united into one great kingdom. The historian Mane- tho, an Egyptian priest 280 B. C.,as quoted variously by Africanus and Eusebius, gives a list of 30 Egyptian dynasties ; and these, if successive, would carry back the ist, that of Menes, to a very high antiquity. But the monumental inscriptions, as they are gradually deciphered, and Manetho himself in one place, seem to show that these dynasties, especially the early ones, EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPHICS. were sometimes contemporaneous, not suc cessive. For the later dynasties see Pha raoh. The religion of ancient Egypt consisted in the worship of the heavenly bodies and the powers of nature; the priests cultiva ted at the same time astronomy and astrol ogy, and to these belong probably the wise men, sorcerers, and magicians mentioned in Exod. 7:11, 22. They were the most honored and powerful of the castes into which the people were divided. It was 149 EGY BIBLE DICTIONARY. EGY SCULPTURED TABLET, ON A probably this wisdom in which Moses also was learned, Acts 7:22. But the Egyptian religion adopted living animals as symbols of the real objects of worship. Many spe cies of animals were sacred, and might not be killed without the punishment of death, and individual animals were kept SACRED BULL. in temples and worshipped with sacrifices as gods. See Exod. 12:12. Numerous pas sages from theeacred " Books ofthe Dead," written on mummy wrappings and recently interpreted, prove that at least the better class of Egyptians preserved many truths revealed by God to mankind in the early 15^ TEMPLE IN UPPER EGYPT. ages: they believed in one supreme God of infinite attributes, in the immortality of the soul, in future rewards and punishments; and their conception of God as the final judge and the protector of faithful souls, under the name of Osiris, was like that of Job in ch. 19:25-27. This ancient and remarkable land is often mentioned in Scripture. A grand son of Noah seems to have given it his name. Gen. 10:6. In the day of Abraham it was the granary of the world, and the patriarch himself resorted thither in a fam ine, Gen. 12:10. His wife had an Egyp tian handmaid, Hagar' the mother of Ish mael, who also sought a wife in Egypt, Gen. 21:9, 21. Another famine, in the days of Isaac, nearly drove him to Egypt, Gen. 26:2; and Jacob and all his household end ed their days there, Gen. 39-50. After the escape of Israel from their weary bondage in Egypt, we read of little intercourse be tween the 2 nations for many years. In the time of David and Solomon, mention is again made of Egypt. Solomon married an Egyptian princess, 1 Kin. 3:1; 9; 11. But in the 5th year of his son Rehoboam, Judah was humbled at the feet of Shishak, king of Egypt, 2 Chr. 12; and for many generations afterwards the Jews were al- EGY BIBLE DICTIONARY. ELA ternately in alliance and at war with that nation, until both were subjugated to the Assyrian empire, 2 Kin. 17; 18:21; 23:29; 24; Jer. 25; 37:5; 44; 46. Egypt was conquered by Cambyses, and became a province of the Persian empire about 525 B. C. Thus it continued until conquered by Alexander, 332 B. C, after whose death it formed, along with Syria, Palestine, Libya, etc., the kingdom of the Ptolemies. After the battle of Actium, 30 B. C.,it became a Roman province. In the time of Christ, great numbers of Jews were residents of Alexandria, Leontopolis, and other parts of Egypt ; and our Saviour him self found an asylum there in his infancy, Matt. 2:13. Since that time it has ceased to be an independent state, and its history is incorporated with that of its different conquerors and possessors. In A. D. 640, it was conquered by the Arabs; and in later periods has passed from the hands of the, caliphs under the power of Turks, Arabs, Kurds, Mamelukes; and since 1517 has been governed as a province of the Turkish empire. Thus have been fulfilled the ancient predictions recorded in God's Word, Ezek. 29:14, 15; 30:7, 12, 13; 32:15. Its present population is over 5,000,000. " The river of Egypt," Num. 34:5 ; Josh. 15:4, 47; 1 Kin. 8:65; 2 Kin. 24:7; Isa. 27:12; Ezek. 47:19; 48:28, is generally thought to designate the short-lived brook El-Arish, emptying into the southeast cor ner of the Mediterranean at Rhinocolura. In Gen. 15:18, a different word is used, signifying a permanent river — the Nile. EGYPTIAN. In Acts 21:38, the leader of a popular tumult in the time of Felix. Josephus mentions him as an Egyptian and a juggler, at the head of a troop of assas sins, with whom a mixed host of thousands were loosely joined ; part of these were apparently slain or captured on the Mount of Olives, and the rest fled to the wilder ness. E'HUD, union, a Benjamite, who deliv ered Israel from the Moabites, by first slay ing Eglon their king at Jericho, and then raising an army and defeating his people, 1336 B. C. Jericho was in the territory of his tribe. He judged Israel with honor for many years, Judg. 3: 12-31 ; 4: 1. EK'RON, uprooted, the most northern city of the Philistines, allotted to Judah by Joshua, 15:45, but afterwards given to Dan, 19:43, though it does not appear that the Jews ever peaceably possessed it. It is memorable for its connection with the cap tivity of the ark and its restoration to the Jews, 1 Sam. 5:10; 6:1-18. The fly-god was worshipped here, 2 Kin. 1:2. Its ruin was foretold, Amos 1:8; Zeph. 2:4; Zech. 9:5, 7. Robinson found its site at the Mos lem village 'Akir, some 12 miles northeast of Ashdod. There are no ruins. EL, strength, one of the names of. God, especially in poetry. In Gen. 33: 18-20, El- Elohe-Israel means, " The Mighty One, the God of Israel." This name of God is very often found in proper names, as Bethel, Daniel, Elijah, etc. Eloi, like Eli, means My God, Matt. 27:46; Mark 15:34. E'LAH, oak or terebinth, I., a valley in which David slew Goliath, 1 Sam. 17:2, 3, 19; 21:9. It was probably about 16 miles southwest from Jerusalem, near Socoh and Gibeah ; now Wady Sumt. II. Son and successor of Baasha, king of Israel, B. C. 926. After reigning less than 2 years, he was slain while intoxicated, by Zimri, one of his officers, who succeeded him as king. Zimri destroyed all the fam ily of Baasha, according to the prediction of Jehu, 1 Kin. 16:6-10. Others of this name are mentioned in 1 Kin. 4:18; 2 Kin. 15:30; 1 Chr. 1:52; 4:15; 9:8. E'LAM, age, the region afterwards called Persia, Gen. 14:1 ; Isa. 21 .2. It was called Elam after a son of Shem, Gen. 10:22; 1 Chr. 1 : 17. It corresponded to the Ely- mais of Greek and Roman writers, which comprehended a part of Susiana, now Khusistan, or more probably included the whole of Susiana. The city Susa, or Shu- shan, was in it, Dan. 8:2; and thence it ex tended southeast between Persia and the Persian Gulf. In Abraham's day it was the seat of a powerful monarchy. It long retained its own princes, but was reduced to a mere province of Babylonia, and after wards of Persia. For other ElaMs and Sons of Elam, see 1 Chr. 8:24; 26:3; Ezra 2:7, 31; 8:7; 10:2, 26; Neh. 7:12, 34; 10:14. See also Ezra 4:9; Acts 2:9. E'LATH, or E'LOTH, a grove, a city of Idumaea, situated at the northern extrem ity of the eastern gulf of the Red Sea, the Elanitic Gulf, now the Gulf of Akaba. Ezion-geber was also situated here, and very near Elath, Deut. 2:8; 1 Kin. 9:26. This gulf, although known to the ancients, has been almost unknown to modern geog raphers until the time of Burckhardt. This enterprising traveller explored it, and gave the first full account of it. The great sand valley called El-Arabah, and towards the 15i ELD BIBLE DICTIONARY. ELE north El-Ghor, runs from this gulf to the Dead Sea. Elath was annexed to Judah by David, who established there an exten sive commerce, 2 Sam. 8: 14. Solomon also AKABA: ENTRANCE TO THE FORT. built ships there, 2 Chr. 8:17, 18. In the reign of Joram the Edomites recovered it, but lost it again to Uzziah, 2 Kin. 8:20; 14:22; and he to Rezin, 16:6. Under the rule of the Romans it was a flourishing commercial town, named Elana, with the ordinances of Christianity. In 630 A. D. it fell under the power of Mohammed, and is now in ruins. The fortress of Akaba, near by, now often visited by travellers from Mount Sinai to Palestine, serves for the protection of pilgrims to Mecca. EL'DAD, loved of God, and ME'DAD, love, 2 of the 70 elders appointed to aid Moses in governing the people. The Spirit of God coming upon them, they prophe sied in the camp at a distance from Moses. Joshua censured them for this as an irregu larity, but they were nobly vindicated by Moses, Num. 11:24-29. EL'DERS of Israel, the heads of tribes, who, before the settlement of the Hebrew commonwealth, had a government and authority over their own families and the people, like the modern sheikh, the old man. Moses and Aaron treated the elders as representatives of the nation, Exod. 3:16; 4:29; 12:21. When the law was given, God directed Moses to take the 70 elders, as well as Aaron, and Nadab and Abihu his sons, that they might be wit nesses, Exod. 24: 1, 9. For sometime after wards we find this number of 70, or rather, 72, elders, 6 fnm each tribe, but we have no certain information how long this con- 152 tinued. There were always, however, el ders in each tribe and city. For instances of their agency and power, see Josh. 9: 18; Judg. 2:7; Ruth 4:2-11; 1 Sam. 4:3; 8:4; 30:26; 1 Kin. 8:1, 3; 20:7; 2 Kin. 23:1. In New Testa ment times there were " elders of the Jews," apparently dis tinct from the Sanhedrin, but cooperating with it, Matt. 16 : 21 ; 21:23; 26:59; Luke 22:66; Acts 22:5. In imitation of the Jewish el ders, the ordinary pastors and teachers ofthe Christian church are called elders, or presbyters, Acts 20:17, 28; Titus 1:5, 7; 1 Pet. 5:1:2 John 1. " Eldest " and " last," in John 8:9, mean the highest and low est in social rank. In Matt. 15:2; Heb. 11:2, the men of an cient times are meant. ELEA'LEH, the ascending of God, a town of the Amorites, near Hesh- bon their capital, assigned to the tribe of Reuben, Num. 32:3, 37, and long after wards threatened as a city of Moab, Isa. 15:4; 16:9; Jer. 48:34. Its ruins, now El- A'al, are a mile or more northeast of Hesh- ban. ELEA'ZAR, help of God, I., the 3d son of Aaron, and high-priest after him, Exod. 6:23; Num. 20:25-28. His mother Elishe- ba was daughter of Amminadab, of the tribe of Judah. He performed important priestly duties both before and after Aaron's death, Num. 3:32 ; 26:3; 27:22; 31:21 ; Josh. 14:1. The high-priesthood continued in his family 7 generations, till the time of Eli, when we find it transferred to the line of Ithamar. In the reigns of Saul and David it was restored to the line of Eleazar, and so continued till after the captivity. II. A son of Abinadab, honored with the charge of the ark while it was in his fa ther's house, 1 Sam. 7:1. III. One of David's champions, 2 Sam. 23:9; 1 Chr. 11:11-18. Three or 4 others are mentioned in 1 Chr. 23:21, 22; Ezra 8:33; Neh. 12:42; Matt. 1:15. ELECT', chosen. Usually applied in the New Testament to those who are not only " called " to come to Christ by the offer of free pardon, but who actually come to him and are saved, Matt. 22:14. They were " chosen " in Christ from eternity, Eph, 1:4, 5, and are beloved of God like Christ ELH BIBLE DICTIONARY. ELI himself, Luke 23:35; 1 Pet. 2:6. "The election " is used by Paul in Rom. 11:7 for " the elect." " The elect lady " in 2 John 1 was probably some woman eminent for her Christian virtues. But some understand the words to mean "The lady Electa;" and others some Christian church personi fied. Compare ver. 13. ELHA'NAN, I., one of David's heroes, who slew a brother of Goliath, 2 Sam. 21:19; 1 Chr. 20:5. II. The first-named of David's 30 mighty men, son of Dodo of Bethlehem; 1 Sam. 23 : 24 ; 1 Chr. 1 1 : 26. E'LI, ascension, a high-priest of the Jews, the ist in the line of Ithamar, 1 Sam. 2:27- 36 ; 2 Sam. 8:17; 1 Chr. 24 : 3. He was also a judge of Israel 40 years, and was emi nent for piety and usefulness, but crimi nally negligent of family discipline. For this the judgments of God afterwards fell upon his house, 1 Sam. 3:11-18. In battle with the Philistines his 2 sons were slain, and Israel was defeated ; but it was the capture of the ark of God that broke his heart, 1 Sam. 4. He was 98 years old. The divine threatening was fully performed in the day of Abiathar, which see. Also El. ELI'AB, my God is father, the oldest brother of David, towards whom his con duct was passionate and jealous, thus con firming the judgment of Him who looks not on the appearance, but the heart, 1 Sam. 16:6,7; 17:28. Five others are named in Num. 1:9; 26:8,9; 1 Chr. 6: 27; 12:9; 15:18. ELI'AKIM, raised up by God, I., a king of Judah, 2 Kin. 23:34. See Johoiakim. II. A son of Hilkiah ; an officer of high repute in king Hezekiah's court, called by God " my servant Eliakim," Isa, 22 : 20, 21 ; and appointed with others to treat with Rabshakeh, general of the Assyrian forces then besieging Jerusalem, 2 Kin. 18; 19; Isa. 36 ; 37. See Sennacherib. Eliakim is the name also of 3 others named in Neh. 12:41; Matt. 1 : 13 ; Luke 3:3°- ELI'AS. See Elijah. ELI'ASHIB, whom God restores, a high- priest in the days of Nehemiah, who took part in rebuilding the wall of Jerusalem, Neh. 3:1; Ezra 10:6. The same person probably was afterwards censured for pro faning the temple, by giving the use of one of its chambers to a heathen and an Am monite, his relative, Deut. 23:3, 4; Neh. 12:10; 13:1-9, 28. ELIE'ZER, my God is my help, I., of Da mascus, or Damascus Eliezer, the lawful •7* heir of Abraham, should he die childless, Gen. 15:2. He is generally assumed to be the " eldest servant," who was sent, 65 years afterwards, to obtain a wife for Isaac, Gen. 24. "Steward of my house" and " born in my house " — literally son of my house, Gen. 15:2, 3 — may mean the same thing, the lawful family heir. II. Second son of Moses and Zipporah; his name was a grateful memorial of deliv erance, Exod. 18 : 1-4. Some of his posterity were noteworthy, 1 Chr. 23:17; 26:25-28. III. Several others of this name are men tioned, 1 Chr. 7:8; 15:24; 27:16; 2 Chr. 20:37; Ezra 8: 16; 10:18,23,31; Luke 3: 29. ELI'HU, God is He, of the family or city of Buz, Gen. 22:21, located probably in or near Edom, Jer. 25:23. Compare also Jer. 49:7, 8, 13. He came to condole with Job in his calamities. Young, ardent, saga cious, and devout, he listened attentively to the discourses of Job and his 3 friends ; and at length broke in, with profuse apolo gies, to set them all right, Job 32. His ad dress to Job is friendly and soothing, yet faithful ; he censures him for justifying himself, rather than God. The adversaries of Job he blames for condemning him as a hypocrite, in their ignorance of the won ders of God's disciplinary providence. In several sentences he beautifully expresses his faith in the pardoning and restoring grace of God towards sinners, Job 33:23, 24, 27-30, passages in this oldest book of the Bible in the very spirit of the parable of the prodigal son. Other Elihus are named in 1 Sam. 1:1; 1 Chr. 12:20; 26:7; 27:18. ELI'JAH, my God is fehovah, the re nowned prophet, by birth a highlander of Tishbeh, in the mountains of Gilead, 1 Kin. 17:1. He is described as long-haired and tall, roughly-robed, 2 Kin. 1:8, with a sheepskin girdle and mantle, 1 Kin. 18:46; 19:13; in appearance as well as spirit a type ofthe true Hebrew seer. His parent age and early history are unknown. Ap pearing suddenly as a stern witness for God, when Israel had lapsed not only into the worship of the golden calves as symbols of God, but into the grosser idolatry ofthe Phoenician Baal, his bold faithfulness pro voked the wrath of Ahab and Jezebel, espe cially when he threatened several years of drought and famine as a punishment for the national sins, B. C. 908. By the divine direc tion the prophet took refuge on the bank of the brook Cherith, where he was miracu lously fed by ravens. Thence he resorted 153 ELI BIBLE DICTIONARY. ELI to Zarephath, in Phoenicia, within the grasp of Ahab and Jezebel, where one miracle provided him with sustenance, and anoth er restored to life the child of his hostess. Returning to king Ahab, he procured the great assembling at Mount Carmel, where God "answered by fire," and the prophets of Baal, 450 in number, and of Ashtoreth 400, were destroyed. See Carmel. Now, too, the long and terrible drought was bro ken, and a plentiful rain descended at the prophet's prayer. Finding that not even these mighty works of God would bring the nation and its rulers to repentance, Eli jah was almost in despair, He fled into the wilderness, and was brought to Horeb, the mount of God, where he was comforted by a majestic and significant vision of God's power and grace. Three charges of great importance were here given him : to sum mon Elisha to become his successor, and to anoint Jehu king of Israel in the place of Ahab, and Hazael king of Syria instead of Ben-hadad. The first of these he did at once, and the others by the agency of Eli sha, the appointed time not arriving till after his translation. Six years after his visit he denounces Ahab and Jezebel for their crimes in the matter of Naboth ; and afterwards again is seen foretelling the death of king Ahaziah, and calling fire from heaven upon 2 bands of guards sent to arrest him. Being now forewarned of the approach of his removal from earth, he gives his last instructions to the school of the prophets, crosses the Jordan miracu lously, and is borne to heaven in a fiery chariot without tasting death, leaving his mantle and office to Elisha, 1 Kin. 17-19; 21 ; 2 Kin. 1 ; 2. His translation occurred about B. C. 896. Previously, it is supposed, he had written the letter which, 8 years afterwards, an nounced to king Jehoram his approaching sickness and death, 2 Chr. 21:12-19. Oth ers think Jehoram had long been joined with his father on the throne, 2 Kin. 3:7; 8:16. Elijah was one of the most eminent and honored of the Hebrew prophets. He was bold, faithful, stern, self-denying, and zeal ous for the honor of God. His whole char acter and life are marked by peculiar moral grandeur. He bursts upon our view with out previous notice; he disappears by a miracle. He bears the appearance of a supernatural messenger of heaven, who has but one work to do, and whose mind is en grossed in its performance. His history is 154 one of the most extraordinary on record, and is fraught with instruction. It was a high honor granted to Moses and Elijah, as representatives of " all the law and the prophets," that they alone should appear on the Mount of Transfiguration, many cen turies after they had gone into heaven -lo bear witness of its existence, and commune with the Saviour concerning his atoning death, Luke 9:28-35. John the Baptist was foretold under the name of Elias, or Elijah, from his resem blance iri character and life to the an cient prophet of Israel, Mai. 4:5, 6; Matt. 17:10-13. E'LIM, trees, a station of the Israelites, on their way from Egypt to Mount Sinai, Exod. 15:27; 16:1; Num. 33:9, generally taken to be the present Wady Ghurundel, a broad valley, the first of 4 running south west to the sea, about 40 miles southeast of Suez. Here are fountains and a brook, many bushes and shrubs, and a few tama risks and palms. Laborde thinks it was Wady Useit, the second of the 4. ELIM'ELECH, my God is King, an emi nent Bethlehemite, husband of Naomi, Ruth 1:2. EL'IPHAZ, God is his strength, a native of Ternan, and friend of Job, Job 2:11. Compare Gen. 36:10; Jer. 49:20. He seems to have been older than Bildad and Zophar, and was the first to address Job, chs. 4, 5, 15, 22. ELISABETH, the oath of God, a devout woman, " of the daughters of Aaron," the wife of Zacharias, mother of John the Bap tist, and a relative of Mary our Lord's mo ther, Luke 1:5-25, 36, 39-80. ELISE'US, the Greek New Testament form of Elisha, Luke 4:27. ELI'SHA, God saves or sees, the pupil and successor of Elijah, s prophet of Is rael during the reign of Jehoram, Jehu, Jehoahaz, and Joash, B. C. 903-838. He was a native of Abel-meholah, where he was at work ploughing when Elijah called him to become a prophet, 1 Kin. 19: 16, first following him as his attendant. Some 7 or 8 years afterwards he witnessed the mirac ulous ascension of Elijah, divided the Jor dan with his mantle, and took his place at the head of the schools of the prophets. The " double portion " he asked for seems to have meant the "firstborn's share," to continue the sacred inheritance, 2 Kin. 2:9. During his long ministry he acted an im portant part in the public affairs of Israel. Many miracles also were wrought at his ELI BIBLE DICTIONARY. EMB word ; some of these were, healing the waters of Jericho ; supplying the widow's cruse with oil, and the allied armies of Ju dah, Israel, and Edom with water ; gaining a son for the woman of Shunem, and restor ing him to life ; healing the leprosy of Naa- man ; detecting and punishing Gehazi. His history is recorded in 2 Kin. 2-9; 13:14-21. He died lamented by king Joash and the people; and a year afterwards, a corpse deposited in the same sepulchre was at once restored to life. In 2 miracles — heal ing the leprosy and multiplying barley- loaves — he alone of all the prophets antici pated some ofthe miracles of Christ, whom also he reminds us of by the gentleness and kindness of his disposition. There is a marked contrast between Elijah and Eli sha in the general aspect of their charac ter and history: the first was the whirl wind and the fire, the second the still small voice; Elijah broke up the fallow ground and sowed the seed, and Elisha garnered the harvest. ELI'SHAH, eldest son of Javan, Gen. 10:4. " The isles of Elishah," which sent purple and scarlet stuffs to Tyre, Ezek. 27:7, are supposed to mean Greece and the adjacent islands. ELISH'EBA, the wife of Aaron, Exod. 6:23, and sister of Nahshon the prince of Judah, Num. 2:3. Elisabeth is the same name in Greek, Luke 1:5. ELKA'NAH, God provided, I., probably a grandson of Korah, Num. 26:11. Com pare Exod. 6:24; 1 Chr. 6:22, 23. II. A Kohathite Levite, husband of 2 wives, and father of Samuel the prophet; a man of piety and of means, 1 Sam. 1 ; 2. III. Others are mentioned in 1 Chr. 6:26, 35; 9:16; 12:6; 15:23; 2 Chr. 28:7. EL'KOSH, the home of Nahum, ch. 1:1, probably a village in Galilee. Many Jews visit as pilgrims a place called Alkush, 2 miles north of Mosul, where is a so-called tomb of Nahum, and a synagogue. EL'LASAR, Gen. 14:1, 9, the home of king Arioch, perhaps the same country as Thelassar, 2 Kin. 19:12; Isa. 37:12. But Rawlinson locates it at Larsa, now Senke- reh, on the east bank of the Euphrates, between Ur and Erech. Its ruins show its very high antiquity. The Arabic version calls it Armenia. ELM, Hos. 4:13. The original Hebrew word here, elsewhere translated oak, prob ably denotes the terebinth. See Oak. ELMA'DAM, A. V. Elmodam, ancestor of Jesus, Luke 3 : 28. ELNATHAN, God hath given, I., of Je rusalem, 2 Kin. 24:8, a leader in the reign of Jehoiakim. He was his agent in perse cuting the prophet Urijah, but protested against the burning of Jeremiah's proph ecy, Jer. 26:20-23; 36:20-25. II. Three Levites in Ezra's day, Ezra 8:16. E'LOI. See El. E'LON, I., Gen. 36:2. See Bashemath, II. Second son of Zebulun, Gen. 46:14; Num. 26:26. III. " The Zebulunite " who judged Israel 10 years, Judg. 12:11, 12. IV. A border town of Dan, Josh. 19:43. E'LUL, a Hebrew month, the 12th ofthe civil year, and 6th of the ecclesiastical, Neh. 6:15. It included the time from the new moon nearest to the ist day of Sep tember to that of October. EL'YMAS, wise, the Arabic name of a Jewish sorcerer, Bar-jesus, in the retinue of Sergius Paulus, the Roman proconsul at Paphos in Cyprus. He was sharply re proved by Paul, and struck with instant blindness for opposing the religious inqui ries of the proconsul, who was abandoning idolatry and superstition, and embracing the gospel, Acts 13:6-12. His blindness was to continue "for a season," and may have led to his spiritual illumination. In spite of his opposition the proconsul was converted, the island was opened to the gospel, and Gentiles as well as Jews wel comed it. Thus the Head of the church often makes obstacles in its way the very means of advancing it. EMBALM'ING. The process of embalm ing dead bodies among the Egyptians was as follows : The embalmers, who were looked upon as sacred officers, drew the brains through the nostrils with a hooked piece of iron, and filled the skull with astringent drugs ; they drew out all the enfails, except the heart and kidneys- through a hole cut in the left side, washed them in palm-wine, and replaced them, filling the cavity with astringent and pre servative drugs. The body was anointed repeatedly with oil of cedar, myrrh, cinna mon, etc., about 30 days, and was then put into nitre for about 40 days ; by which pro cess it was preserved from decay, retain ing at the same time a lifelike appearance. When Moses says that 40 days were em ployed in embalming Jacob, he probably speaks of the 40 days of his continuing in the salt of nitre, not including the 30 days spent in the previous ceremonies ; so that, 155 EMB. BIBLE DICTIONARY. ENC in the whole, they mourned 70 days for him in Egypt, Gen. 50:2, 3. The body was afterwards taken out of the salt, washed, wrapped up in long linen bandages, dipped in myrrh, and closed wiih gum. It was then restored to the rel atives, who inclosed it in a coffin, and kept it in their houses, or deposited it in a tomb. Thus the body of Joseph was preserved, to be conveyed into the land of promise after nearly 2 centuries, Gen. 50 : 26. Great num bers of mummies are still found in Egypt, in the subterraneous vaults where they were deposited 2,000 or 3,000 years ago. The common people of that country were embalmed by means of bitumen, a cheap material and easily managed. With this the corpse and its envelopes were smeared, with more or less care and diligence. Sep ulchres have been opened in which thou sands of bodies had been deposited in rows, one on another, without coffins, preserved in this manner. The usual embalming of the Jews was less elaborate and effectual. It consisted mainly in wrapping the body in many folds of linen, with a profusion of aromatic spi ces—myrrh, aloes, etc. Thus the body of the Saviour was embalmed entire by Jo seph and Nicodemus, while, ignorant of this, the 2 Marys and their friends were prepared to render him a similar honor when the Jewish Sabbath was past, John 19:38-40. The practice, even in this form, does not appear to have been prevalent among the Jews. See Burial. EMBROI'DERY, and "needlework" in 156 Exod. 26; 27; 36-39, are distinguished in HebrewTrom "cunning work," both prob ably denoting work with the loom, the for mer with various patterns and colors, the latter with cherubim or other figures in gold thread. EM'ERALD, Rev. 4:3; 21:19, a precious stone of a fine green color, found anciently in Ethiopia, but in modern times only in South America, Exod. 28:18; Ezek. 27:16; 28: 13. Josephus and the 70 make it a gem like a burning coal — the Indian ruby, or carbuncle. EM'ERODS, that is, hemorrhoids, the name of a painful disease occasioned by tumors, no doubt the piles, Deut. 28:27; 1 Sam. 5:12. E'MIM, terrors, a gigantic and warlike race, who in the time of Abraham occupied the country beyond the Jordan, afterwards possessed by the Moabites, Gen. 14:5-7; Deut. 2:10-12, 20-23. EMMAN'UEL, Matt. 1:23, A. V., better as in the Old Testament, Immanwel, God with us. It is applied to the Messiah, as having united the divine with the human nature, and having come to dwell with men, Isa. 7:14; 8:8. EM'MAUS, hot springs, the village where our Lord revealed himself to 2 of his dis ciples, on the afternoon of his resurrection- day. It lay about 7M miles, 60 furlongs, northwest from Jerusalem, Luke 24:13-33, perhaps Kubaibeh. Some manuscripts, in cluding the Codex Sinaiticus, read 160 fur longs, instead of 60; and Eusebius and Jerome locate Emmaus at the ancient Ni- copolis, 20 miles north-northwest of Jeru salem, where a village called Amwfis still exists. Dr. Robinson inclines to this loca tion, though its distance from the city seems too great. The 2 disciples could not return to it in less than 6 or 7 hours, long after midnight. EM'PEROR, THE, in R. V. put for "Au gustus " in Acts 25:21, 25, where Nero is the emperor intended. EN, a fountain, see AlN, compounded with many names of towns and places, as En-dor, En-gedi. ENA'BLE, empower or authorize, 1 Tim. 1:12. ENCHANT'MENTS, deceptive arts, mut tered spells, and charms practised by de signing men, and classed in the Bible with sorcery, magic, divination, witchcraft, and necromancy, or professed communication with departed spirits. All these are ex pressly forbidden and denounced in Scrip- END BIBLE DICTIONARY. ENR ture, Exod. 22:18; Lev. 19:26, 31; 20:27; Deut. 18:10, 11. The pretended power and skill of enchanters was ascribed to infernal agency, and the art was essentially hostile to true religion. Their seeming wonders were usually wrought by juggling tricks or sleight of hand, or by mysteries of science, known to but few. The magicians of Egypt are said to have done several things " with their enchantments," Exod. 7-9; Acts 19:19. See Divination. EN'-DOR, home spring, a city of Manas seh, Josh. 17:11, 4 miles south of Mount Tabor, near Nain, in the way to Scythopo- lis, Psa. 83:9, 10. Here the witch lived whom Saul consulted, 1 Sam. 28. The pre tence of this sorceress that she could call up the spirits of the dead from their re pose was evidently false. She was amazed and appalled when the form of Samuel really appeared, sent by God himself to put her to shame, and bring to king Saul his last warning, The ruins of a large vil lage called Endur are still found, on the north slope of Jebel el-Duhy, 8 miles north of Gilboa. Caves abound in the mountain above it. EN-EGLA'IM,_/"o«m/ of two calves, Ezek. 47 : 10, a town on the Dead Sea, west of the Jordan's mouth. EN-GAN'NIM, fount of gardens, I., a town in the low country of Judah, Josh. 15:34- II. A city of the Levites, in Issachar ; now Jenin, 16 miles south of Mount Tabor, Josh. 19:21; 21:29. The same as Anem, 1 Chr. 6:73. EN-GE'DI, fountain of the kid, 1 Sam. 24:1, 2; called also Hazezon-Tamar, that is, the city of palm-trees, there being great numbers of palm-trees around it, Gen. 14:7; 2 Chr. 20:1, 2, and flocks of wild goats. It stood near the middle of the western shore of the Dead Sea, about 24 miles southeast of Jerusalem, in the edge of the loftiest part of the wilderness of Judaea, a region full of rocks and caverns, 1 Sam. 23:29; Ezek. 47:10. See cut in Sea, III. Predatory bands from the east still, as of old, pass around the south end of the Dead Sea, and up its west shore to Ain Jidy, and there ascend to the high ground. The heights of En-gedi are 1,500 feet above the Dead Sea. At 400 feet from the sea a fine and copious fountain, still bearing its ancient name, flows down to the sea, watering in its course a fruitful valley and a plain half a mile square, in both of which ruins are found. The moun tain-side was formerly terraced, and the whole spot was an oasis of fertility, the only place in Palestine where camphire now grows, Song 1 : 14. See Ziz. EN'GINES, 2 Chr. 26:15. See Batter ing-ram and War. ENGRA'VER, in Exod. 35:35; 38:23, a carver on wood, stone, and gems. So in Zech. 3:9. The fine graving of signets and precious stones is implied in Gen. 38:18; 41:42; Exod. 28:11, 21, 36. The art was a familiar one to all ancient nations. EN-HAKKO'RE the fountain of him that called, opened at Samson's call, after his exploit at Lehi, Judg. 15:19. See Lehi. EN-MISH'PAT. See KADESH. E'NOCH, dedicated, I., a son of Cain, in honor of whom the first city named in the Bible was called Enoch, Gen. 4:17. II. " The seventh from Adam," a son of Jared, and the father of Methuselah ; emi nent as a patriarch who lived near to God, through faith in a Redeemer to come, Heb. 11:5, 13. It was a testimony to his rare piety in an ungodly age that he was trans lated without seeing death, like Elijah, these 2 eminent men of God being honored in this visible demonstration of a future life. He had lived only 365 years, A. M. 622-987, Gen. 5:18-24. Jude, ver. 14, 15, quotes a traditionary prophecy of Enoch, showing his belief in a judgment to come. There is an apocryphal book bearing the name of Enoch, which quotes the same tra dition. It was probably written by some devout believer of the ist century, or per haps shortly before the coming of Christ, and is only valuable for the light it throws on the beliefs of the time. It was never received as canonical. It was probably written in Hebrew; but the original, and the Greek version known by the fathers, are lost. The text has been recovered from Ethiopic versions. It is an exhibition of the universal providence of God. E'NON, springs, the place where John baptized, near Salim, on the west side of the Jordan, John 1:28; 3:22,26. It is sup posed by some to have been 8 or 10 miles south of Beth-shean ; but is rather 'Aynun, east of Nablfis in Wady Farah. See Sa lim. E'NOS, man, Heb. Enosh, i Chr. 1:1, the grandson of Adam. He lived 905 years, A. M. 235-1140. Adam, Seth, and Enoch were outlived by him. Noah was contemporary with him 84 years. Gen. 4:26; 5:6-11; Luke 3:38. EN-RO'GEL, fuller's fountain, by many 157 ENS BIBLE DICTIONARY. EPH believed to be the " well of Nehemiah," now called Bir Eyfib, Job's well, in the val ley of the Kidron, just below its junction with the valley of the son of Hinnom, on the southeast corner of Jerusalem, Josh. 15:7; 18:16. It is mentioned in the Bible in connection with the conspiracy of Absa lom, 2 Sam. 17:17, and afterwards with that of Adonijah, 1 Kin. 1:9. This well is situated in what is now the prettiest and most fertile spot around Jerusalem. It is 125 feet deep, with 50 feet of water, or at times full and overflowing ; it is walled up with large squared stones, which on one side rise and form an arch, and is appar ently of great antiquity. Others, however, now identify En-rogel with the " Foun tain of the Virgin," a living spring near the road to Mount Olivet, higher than the King's garden which was watered from it, and still much resorted to by the women of Jerusalem for washing. EN-SHE'MESH,_/b«re/ of the sun, in the border of Judah and Benjamin, Josh. 15:7; 18:17, located a mile below Bethany, to the east. EN'SIGN, a signal, or beacon on a hill top, Num. 21:8, 9; Isa. 13:2; 30:17; Ezek. 27:7. Another Hebrew word, generally translated standard, means a m ilitary stand ard, as for the 4 divisions of the Israelites in the desert, Num. 1:52; 2:2. It is not supposed that these were flags, but em blematic devices in wood or metal, at the top of a pole — as a lion for the tribe of Judah, an eagle for Dan. See Abomina tion. ENSUE', follow and secure, 1 Pet. 3:11. ENTREAT' is often used in the Bible in- 158 stead of treat, Gen. 12:16; Acts 27:3. Sometimes it means prevail upon, Isa. 19:22. EN'VY, sometimes hatred or ill-will. EP,ffi'NETUS, praiseworthy, saluted by Paul in his epistle to Rome, Rom. 16:5, and called " the firstfruits of Achaia," that is, one of his first converts there. Many of the best manuscripts and versions read Asia instead of Achaia, and the revised version has Asia. EP'APHRAS, supposed to have founded the church at Colossae, and denominated by Paul his " dear fellow-servant," and "a faithful minister of Jesus Christ," Col. 1:7; 4:12. He was for a time an inmate of Paul's house at Rome, Phile. 23, 24. EPAPHRODITUS, a member of the church at Philippi, charged with the sup plies from that church for the relief of Paul while imprisoned at Rome, Phil. 2:25; 4:18. This labor of love brought on him a serious illness at Rome, on which occa sion we see how much he was esteemed and beloved both by Paul and the Philip- pians, Phil. 2:25-30. On his return he was the bearer of the epistle to them. E'PHAH, darkness, I., a measure of ca pacity used among the Hebrews, contain ing 3 pecks and 3 pints. The ephah was a dry measure, as of barley, Ruth 2:17; and meal, Num. 5:15; Judg. 6:#ig; and was of the same capacity with the bath in liquids. See Bath and Measures. II. The son of Midian, and grandson of Abraham, Gen. 25:4, who settled and gave his name to a region in Arabia supposed to have been near Midian, Isa. 60:6. Two others of this name are mentioned in 1 Chr. 2:46, 47. E'PHER, a calf, 2d son of Midian, Gen. 25:4; 1 Chr. 1:33. His location is un known. Another Epher was a son of Ezra, and a 3d was head of a family in Manas seh, east of Jordan, 1 Chr. 4:17; 5:24. E'PHES-DAM'MIM, cessation of blood, where David slew Goliath, 1 Sam. 17:1; called Pas-dammim in 1 Chr. 11:13. See Elah, Socoh. EPHE'SIANS, Epistle to the. This epistle was written by Paul at Rome, Acts 28:16, probably A. D. 62, at the same time with that to the Colossians, which it greatly resembles, and both being sent by Tychi- cus. Though written primarily for the church he himself had founded and long labored with, and which he parted from so tenderly, Acts 18 : 19 ; 19 : 1-20 ; 20 : 18-35, this epistle seems to have been intended EPH BIBLE DICTIONARY. EPH also for the neighboring churches, and is now addressed to and intelligible by every one who studies it. The ist part of it is a grateful discourse upon the vast scheme of divine grace, and the blessings flowing from it. The latter part inculcates Chris tian consistency and steadfastness, and a faithful discharge of all relative duties. It is one of the richest and most valuable of the epistles, having a singular fulness of matter, depth of doctrine, sublimity of style, and warmth of emotion, which ren der it precious to the Christian of every land. EPHESUS A*ND| ITS ENVIRONS. i . Grove of Diana. *. Temple of Diana.' "4- 'City Port. 5. Great Gymnasium. 8. Theatre. 9. Stadium. • 6, 7. Market-places. EPH'ESUS, the capital of Ionia, a cele brated city of Asia Minor, situated near the mouth of the Cayster, about 40 miles southeast of Smyrna. It was celebrated for the worship and temple of Diana, which last was one ofthe 7 wonders ofthe world. See Diana. The " Ephesian letters " or amulets are often mentioned by classical writers, and the "magical arts" which Luke also refers to, books of magic to the value of $30,000 having been burned by penitent sorcerers. Paul first visited Eph esus about A. D. 54, Acts 18:19, 2I- This ist brief visit was followed by a longer one towards the. close of the same vear. and continuing through the 2 following years, Acts 19:10; 20:31. The church thus early established, enjoyed the labors of Aquila and Priscilla, of Tychicus and Timothy. It was favored with one of the best of Paul's epistles; its elders had an inter view with him at Miletus, before he saw Rome, and he is supposed to have visited them after his ist imprisonment. Among his friends here were Trophimus, Tychi cus, and Onesiphorus ; and his enemies, Sceva, Hymenaeus and Alexander, Phy- gelus and Hermogenes. Here the apostle John is said to have spent the latter part of his life, and written his gosoel and eol«- 159 EPH BIBLE DICTIONARY. EPH SITE OF EPHESUS. ties ; and having penned Christ's message to them in the isle of Patmos, to have re turned and died among them. Christ gives the church at Ephesus a high degree of praise, coupled with a solemn warning, Rev. 2:1-5, which seems not to have pre vented its final extinction, though it re mained in existence 600 years. But now its candlestick is indeed removed out of its place. The site of that great and opulent city is desolate. Its harbor has became a pestilential marsh; the lovely and fertile level ground south of the Cayster now lan- g"ishes under Turkish misrule; and the heights upon its border bear only shape less ruins. The outlines of the immense theatre, Acts 19:29, 660 feet in diameter, yet remain in the solid rock, and a few remains of the temple of Diana have been unearthed. EPH'OD, an ornamental part of the dress worn by the Hebrew priests. It was worn above the tunic and the robe (metl), was without sleeves, and open below the arms on each side, consisting of 2 pieces, one of which covered the front of the body and the other the back, joined together 011 the shoulders by golden buckles set with gems, and reaching down to the middle of the thigh. A girdle was inwoven with it, by which it was fastened around the body, Exod. 28:6-12. There were 2 kinds of ephod : one plain, of linen, for the priests, 1 Sam. 22:18; another for the high-priest, richly embroidered, and with golden clasps and rings to hold in place the 12-gemmed breastplate. Young Samuel wore an eph- 160 od, though only a Levite and a child, 1 Sam. 2:18. David, in transferring the ark to Jerusalem, was "girt with a linen ephod," 2 Sam. 6:14. The Jews had a peculiar superstitious regard for this garment, and employed it in connection with idolatrous worship. Gideon's ephod became a snare to Israel; and Micah made one, that his idol might be duly worshipped, Judg. 8:27; 17:5; 18:17. EPH'PHATHA, be opened, a Syro-chal- daic word, which our Saviour pronounced when he cured one deaf and dumb, Mark 7:34- E'PHRAIM, double fruitfulness, the 2d son of Joseph and Asenath, born in Egypt, Gen. 41 :52. Although the younger, he yet had the chief prophetic blessing of his grandfather Jacob, at whose death he was about 21 years old ; and his tribe was al ways more distinguished than that of his brother Manasseh, Gen. 48:8-20; Num. 2:18-21. Under the leadership of the no ble Joshua, who was an Ephraimite, the tribe rapidly advanced in numbers and in fluence. The portion of Ephraim was large and central, and embraced some of the most fertile land in all Canaan, Deut. 33:13- 17. It extended from the Mediterranean across to the Jordan, north of the portions of Dan and Benjamin, and included Shi- loh, Shechem, etc. A range of mountain ous country which runs through it, be tween the plain of Sharon on the west and the Jordan valley on the east, is called "the mountains of Ephraim," or "Mount Ephraim." This extends also farther south EPH BIBLE DICTIONARY. EPI into the portion of Judah, and is there called " the mountains of Judah." See Tribe. This ambitious tribe took the lead in the revolt of the io tribes from Reho boam, and indeed formed the heart and strength of the new nation ; Tirzah and Sa maria, the capitals, were within its bounds, and the name of Ephraim was often used for the whole kingdom of Israel, Isa. n : 13 ; Jer. 31:6; 50:19. Its decline and fall are most touchingly lamented in Hos. 11:1-8. The forest of Ephraim, where Absa lom lost his life, was on the east side of the Jordan, near Mahanaim, 2 Sam. 18: 6-8, still a well-wooded region.' The town called Ephraim, to which the Saviour withdrew from his enemies, John 11:54, was probably the same place men tioned in 2 Chr. 13:19, and called Ophrah in Josh. 18:23; 1 Sam. 13:17. See also 2 Sam. 13:23. It is supposed to be the present Taiyibeh, on a hill overlooking the Jordan valley, 5 miles northeast of Bethel. EPH'RATH, or Eph'ratah, fruitful, I., the 2d wife of Caleb, and mother of Hur, 1 Chr. 2 : 19 ; supposed by some to have given her name to the city of Ephrath or Bethlehem, 1 Chr. 2:50, 51 ; 4:4. But com pare Gen. 35:16, 19; 48:7. Elimelech was an Ephrathite of Bethlehem, Ruth 1:2; 4:11; so also was David, 1 Sam. 17:12. II. A name of Ephraim and Ephraim- ites, 1 Sam. 1 : 1 ; 1 Kin. 1 1 : 26 ; Psa. 132 : 6. ¦EPR!K.Otl, fawnlike, a Hittite at Hebron in the time of Abraham, Gen. 23. The charming account of his transaction with Abraham — as full of Oriental compliments and ceremony as those of to-day in the same land, and much fuller of sincerity — together with the subsequent mention of his name, point him out as a prince in the land. EPICURE'ANS, a celebrated sect of an cient Greek philosophers. They were materialists, and virtually atheists — believ ing that the atoms of nature existed from eternity, and that from their incidental union all things are formed, both visible and invisible ; and that the gods, wrapped in eternal repose, have nothing to do with this world. They denied a divine Provi dence and man's immortality, and believed there was no after-judgment, and no soul but what was material, like the body, and perishable with it at death. Their rule of life was self-gratification — the pursuit of pleasure, properly regulated and governed. Vicious indulgences were condemned only inasmuch as they on the whole lessen one's II happiness. Epicurus, their founder, was a learned and moral man, who died at Ath ens, B. C. 271, at the age of 73. His fol lowers, however, easily disregarded the limitations he imposed, and pursued pleas ure without restraint. At Paul's time they had become exceedingly corrupt, and of course their philosophy and their life both led them to oppose with violence his great truths concerning God, the resurrection, and the judgment, Acts 17: 16-34. EPISTLE, a letter, first mentioned in the history of Uriah, 2 Sam. 11:14; and then of Jezebel, 1 Kin. 21:8, 9; of Elijah, Heze kiah, Ezra, Nehemiah, etc. See Letters. But the term is applied particularly to the inspired letters in the New Testament, written by the apostles on various occa sions, to approve, condemn, or direct the conduct of Christian churches. The Holy Spirit has thus provided that we should have the great doctrines of the true gospel not only historically stated by the evange lists, but applied familiarly to the various emergencies of daily life. It is not to be supposed that every note or memorandum written by the hands of the apostles, or by their direction, was divinely inspired, or meant for preservation to distant ages. Compare 1 Cor. 5:9; Col. 4:16. Those only have been preserved by the over ruling hand of Providence which were so inspired, and from which useful directions had been drawn, and might in after ages be drawn, as from a perpetual directory, for faith and practice — always supposing that similar circumstances require similar directions. In reading an Epistle, we ought to consider the occasion of it, the circum stances and relations to each other of the writer and those to whom it was addressed, the time when written, the general scope and design of it, as well as the intention of particular arguments and passages. We ought also to observe the style and man ner of the writer, his modes of expression, the peculiar effect he designed to produce on those to whom he wrote, to whose tem per, manners, general principles, and ac tual situation he might address his argu ments, etc. Of the books of the New Testament, 21 are epistles; 14 of them by Paul, 1 by James, 2 by Peter, 3 by John, and 1 by Jude. Being placed in our canon without reference to their chronological order, they are perused under considerable disadvan tages ; and it would be well to study them occasionally in connection with what the 161 ER BIBLE DICTIONARY. EST history in the Acts of the Apostles relates respecting the several churches to which they are addressed. This would also give us nearly their order of time, which should also be considered, together with the situ ation of the writer; as it may naturally be inferred that such compositions would partake of the writer's recent and present .feelings. The epistles addressed to the dispersed Jews by John and James, by Peter and Jude, are very different in their style and application from those of Paul written to the Gentiles ; and those of Paul no doubt contain expressions and allude to facts much more familiar to their original readers than to later ages. See Paul. ER, watchful, son of Judah and a Ca naanite woman, Gen. 38:3, 7, slain by the Lord, 1 Chr. 2:3. ERASTUS, beloved, a Christian friend and fellow-laborer of Paul, a Corinthian, and chamberlain — that is, steward or treas urer — of the city. He followed Paul to Ephesus, and attended Timothy in a mis sion to Macedonia, Acts 19:22. He was at Corinth when Paul wrote to the Romans, 16 : 23 ; and remained there when Paul went as a prisoner to Rome, 2 Tim. 4:20. E'RECH, length, one of Nimrod's cities in the plain of Shinar, Gen. 10: id. Its probable site is found in the mounds of primeval ruins now called Warka, a few miles east of the Euphrates, midway be tween Babylon and the junction of the Euphrates and Tigris. ESA'IAS, the Greek New Testament form of Isaiah. E'SAR-HAD'DON, victor, son of Sennach erib, and his successor as king of Assyria, 2 Kin. 19:37; Isa. 37:38, B. C. 680-667. It is only said of him in Scripture that he sent colonists to Samaria, Ezra 4:2, but he was one of the most powerful of all the Assyri an kings. The stone-records state that he built a magnificent palace at Babylon, and made it his joint capital with Nineveh, and hither, not to Nineveh, though this would otherwise have been expected from an As syrian king, his generals brought Manas seh king of Judah as a captive for a time, 2 Chr. 33 : 1 1 ; also that he captured Thebes, Nah. 3:8-10, and all Western Asia. E'SAU, hirsute, the son of Isaac, and twin brother of Jacob, Gen. 25. He was the elder of the two, and was therefore legally the heir, but sold his birthright to Jacob. We have an account of his ill-ad vised marriages, Gen. 26:34; of his loss of his father's chief blessing, and his conse- 162 quent anger against Jacob, Gen. 27; of their subsequent reconciliation, Gen. 32; 33 ; and of his posterity, Gen. 36. He is also called Edom ; and settled in the moun tains south of the Dead Sea, extending to the Gulf of Akaba, where he became very powerful. This country was called from him the land of Edom, and in Greek Idu- m.ea, which see ; also Jacob. ESCHEW, shun, Job 1:1, 8; 1 Pet. 3:11. ESDRAE'LON, Plain of. See Jezreel. ESH'BAAL, Baal's man, 1 Chr. 8:33, the 4th son of Saul, generally called Ishbo- sheth. The word Baal, the name of an idol, was not pronounced by scrupulous Jews; they substituted Bosheth, confu sion. For Meribbaal they said Mephibo- sheth, etc. See Ishbosheth. ESH'COL, a cluster, I., an Amorite prince near Hebron, who joined Abraham in pur suing the eastern host who had ravaged Sodom and taken Lot captive, Gen. 14:13, *4- II. The small and well-watered valley from which the Hebrew spies obtained the specimen of grapes which they suspended from a staff borne by 2 men for safe car riage to Moses, Num. 13:22-27; 32:9; Deut. 1:24. This valley is believed to be one which closely adjoins Hebron on the north, and still furnishes the finest grapes in the country, as well as pomegranates, figs, olives, etc. ESHTAOL, a pass, a town on the west ern border of Judah, afterwards given to Dan, Josh. 15:33; 19:41. It is named in the history of Samson, Judg. 13:25; 16:31. ESHTEMO'A, obedience, a city of the priests in Judah, Josh. 15:50; 21:14; 1 Sam. 30:28; traced by Robinson in the modern village Semua, 9 miles south of Hebron. ESPOU'SALS. See Betrothing, Mar riage. ESTATE', or state, usually a settled condition in life, 1 Chr. 17:17; Esth. 1:19; Luke 1:48; Rom. 12:16; Jude 6. Some times a special class or official body of men, Mark 6:21; Acts 22:5. ESTHER, star, a Persian name of Ha- dassah, myrtle, a daughter of Abihail, of the tribe of Benjamin. The family had not returned to Judaea after the permission given by Cyrus, and she was born proba bly beyond the Tigris, and nearly 500 B. C. Her parents being dead, Mordecai, her excellent cousin, took care of her educa tion. See Adoption. After Ahasuerus had divorced Vashti, he selected Esther as queen, and married her with royal mag- ETA BIBLE DICTIONARY. ETH nificence, bestowing largesses and remis sions of tribute on Iiis people. She was thus in a position which enabled her 5 years afterwards to do a signal favor to her people, then very numerous in Persia. Their deliverance is still celebrated by the Jews in the yearly festival called Purim, which was instituted at that time. The husband of Esther is supposed to have been the Xerxes of secular history. Esther, the book of,- has always been esteemed canonical, both by Jews and Christians, though certain additions to it, found in some versions and manuscripts, are apocryphal. Who was its writer is not certainly known. It has been ascribed to Ezra, to a high-priest named Jehoiakim, and to Mordecai. This last opinion is sup ported by the internal evidence ; the book having tvery appearance of having been written in Persia, by an eye-witness of the scenes it describes. It presents a graphic picture of the Persian court and customs, and is intensely Jewish in its spirit. The chief value of the book is to illustrate the wonder-working providence of God, his control of human passions, his righteous judgment of sinners, and his care for his covenant people — whom, even when cap tives in a strange land, he can exalt above all their foes. Yet the name of God is not once mentioned in it. ETAM, lair, I., a town in Judah near Bethlehem and Tekoa ; a favorite resort of Solomon, and fortified by Rehoboam, 1 Chr. 4:3; 2 Chr. 11:6. Located at Urtas, or perhaps at 'Ain Atan, south of Solomon's Pools. "The rock Etam" to which Sam son withdrew, Judg. 15:8-19, may have been in this vicinity, or on the north of Eshtaol, where caverns and rock tunnels are found. II. There seems to have been another Etam, 1 Chr. 4:32, in Simeon. ETER'NAL. See EVERLASTING. E'THAM, limit of the sea, a station ofthe Israelites on their way out of Egypt, Exod. 13:20; Num. 33:6. It lay near the head of the west gulf of the Red Sea, near Ismai- lia on the Suez canal, and the wilderness east of it was often called by the same name. ETHAN, constant, I., one of 4 men re nowned for wisdom, though excelled by Sol omon, 1 Kin. 4:31 ; 1 Chr. 2:6. He appears to have been a son of Zerah or Ezra, and grandson of the patriarch Judah, Psa. 89. II. A Levite, son of Kishi, and one ofthe 3 masters ofthe temple music, 1 Chr, 6:44; 15:17-19. He would seem to be the same as Jeduthun, 1 Chr. 25:1; 2 Chr. 35:15. ETH'ANIM, constantly flowing, a month so named before the captivity, because the autumnal rains then begin to fill the dry river channels. It was afterwards called Tishri, and answers nearly to our October, often including part of September. It was the beginning of the civil year. On this month Solomon's temple was dedicated, 1 Kin. 8:2. See Tishri and Expiation. ETH'BAAL, with Baal, king of Zidon, and usurper of the throne of Tyre, B. C. 940-908. Jezebel was his daughter. ETHIO'PIA, burnt faces, one of the great kingdoms in Africa, frequently mentioned in the Scripture under the name of Cush, which see. Ethiopia proper lay south of Egypt, on the Nile ; and was bounded north by Egypt, at the cataracts near Syene ; east by the Red Sea, and perhaps a part of the Indian Ocean ; south by the regions of the Blue and White Nile ; and west by Libya and deserts. It comprehended the modern countries of Nubia, Sennaar, and Abys sinia. It chief city was Meroe, on the isl and or tract of the same name, between the Nile and the Astaboras, now the Tacazze, not far from the modern Shendi, Isa. 18 ; Zeph. 3:10. The name of Seba was given to the north ern part of Ethiopia, afterwards Meroe, by the eldest son of Cush, Gen. 10:7. This country was in some parts mountainous, and in others sandy; but was to a great extent well-watered and fertile. Ebony, ivory, spices, gold, and precious stones were among its articles of traffic. Its his tory is much involved with that of Egypt, and the 2 countries are often mentioned together in the Bible, Isa. 20:3-6; 43:3; 45:14; Ezek. 30; Dan. 11:43. Zerah "the Ethiopian" who invaded Ju dah in the reign of Asa, B. C. 944, 2 Chr. 14:9-15, is thought by some to have been an Egyptian king of an Ethiopian dynasty ; by others, to have been a king of Ethiopia on both sides of the Red Sea; that is, of the Arabian as well as African Cush. This would explain how he could obtain access to the land of Palestine without passing through Egypt. But the whole question is involved in uncertainty. The Ethiopian queen Candace, whose treasurer is men tioned in Acts 8:27, was probably queen of Meroe, where a succession of females reigned who all bore this name. As this courtier is said to have gone up to Jerusa lem " to worship," he was probably a Jew 163 EUB BIBLE DICTIONARY. EUP by religion, if not by birth. There appear to have been many Jews in that country. The gospel gained adherents among them ; and early in the 4th century the entire Bi ble was translated into the ancient Ethiopic language, from the Greek. The Ethiopia of Gen. 2 : 13 is not Ethio pia in Africa, but one of the regions in the East, called in Hebrew Cush. EUBU'LUS, prudent, 2 Tim. 4:21. EU'NICE, good victory, the mother of Timothy and daughter of Lois. A Jewess, though her husband was a Greek, Acts 16:1; 2 Tim. 1:5, she transmitted to her son the lessons of truth she herself had re ceived from a pious mother. EU'NUCH, bed-keeper, in charge of the interior apartments of Eastern palaces ; often the tools of their masters for all sorts of vice and crime. But the word often de notes merely a court officer. Such were Potiphar, Joseph's master, Gen. 39:17, and the treasurer of queen Candace, Acts 8:27. Our Saviour speaks of some who volunta rily abstained from marriage, in order more effectually to labor for the kingdom of God, Matt. 19:12; and the apostle Paul com mends the same abstinence in certain ex ceptional cases in times of persecution, 1 Cor. 7:26, 27. See Gaza. EVO'DIA, good journey. See Syntyche. EUPHRATES, copious, a famous river of Asia, which has its sources in the moun tains of Armenia, one near Ararat and the other near Erzeroum, runs along the fron tiers of Cappadocia, Syria, Arabia Deserta, Chaldaea, and Mesopotamia, and falls into the Persian Gulf. It re ceives the Tigris at a place called Kurnah, the united stream being called Shat- el-Arab. Five miles below, the Shat-el-Arab receives from the northeast the Ker- khah, which has a course of upwards of 500 miles. Sixty-two miles below the mouth of the Kerkhah, an other large river, the Ku- ran, comes in from the east. At present it enters the Shat-el-Arab 40 miles above its mouth ; but formerly it flowed into the Persian Gulf by a separate channel, east of the main stream. According to the view which places the garden of Eden near the junction of the Tigris with the Euphrates, these might be regarded as the 4 rivers of 164 Paradise. Scripture often calls the Eu phrates simply "the river," Exod. 23:31; Isa. 7 : 20 ; 8 : 7 ; Jer. 2 : 18 ; or " the great riv er," and assigns it for the eastern boun dary of that land which God promised to the Hebrews, Deut. 1:7; Josh. 1:4. It over flows in summer, when the snow on the mountains cf Armenia begins to melt. The nearest springs of this river and the Tigris are but a few miles apart. The Euphrates is a river of consequence in Scripture geography, being the utmost limit, east, of the territory of the Israel ites. It was indeed only occasionally that the dominion of the Hebrews extended so far; but it would appear that even Egypt, under Pharaoh-necho, made conquests to the western bank of the Euphrates. The river is about 1,800 miles long. Its general direction is southeast ; but in a part of its course it runs westerly, and approaches the Mediterranean near Cilicia. It is ac companied in its general course by the Tigris. There are many towns on its banks, which are in general rather level than mountainous. The river does not appear u be of very great breadth, vary ing, howe from 60 to 600 yards. Its ordinary current, after reaching the plains of Mesopotamia, is somewhat sluggish — 3ZA miles an hour — and in this part of its course many canals, etc., were dug, to pre vent injury . I secure benefit from the yearly overflows. At Seleucia, and Hilleh the ancient Babylon, it approaches near the Tigris, and some of its waters are drawn off by canals to the latter river. Again, A GOAT-SKIN FLOAT. however, they diverge, and only unite in the same channel about 120 miles from the Persian Gulf. It is not well adapted for navigation, yet light vessels go up about EUR BIBLE DICTIONARY. EXC 1,000 miles, and the modern steamboat, which now ascends from the ocean, meets the same kind of goat-skin floats on which produce was rafted down the river thou sands of years ago. EUROC'LYDON, the wave-stirring easi er, R. V. Euraquilo, a tempestuous wind which came down on Paul's ship on the south shore of Crete, and at length wrecked her on Malta, Acts 27. Its course then was east-northeast. It would now be called there a Levanter. EUTYCHUS, fortunate, a young man who was killed at Troas by falling from the window of a room in the 3d story, where Paul was preaching. His life was miraculously restored, Acts 20:6-12. EVAN'GELIST, one who proclaims good news, either by preaching or writing. There were orginally evangelists or preachers who, without being fixed to any church, preached wherever they were led by the Holy Spirit, like some missionaries in our own day, Eph. 4:11. Such was Philip, Acts 21 :8. Timothy also is exhorted to " do the work of an evangelist," 2 Tim. 4:5. We commonly call Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John " the Evangelists," because they were the writers of the 4 gospels, which bring to men the glad tidings of eternal salva tion. Wickliffe calls them " gospellers." EVE, living, Gen. 3:20, the first mother of our race, and the cause of our fall. Her history is so closely connected with that of Adam that the remarks made in the arti cle Adam apply also to her. She was made, we are tohj in Gen. 2:18-22, both for man and of him ; subordinate and weaker, and yet to be loved as his own body. The his tory pf woman in all ages has been a stri king fulfilment of the distinct penalties pronounced upon her, Gen. 3:16, and of the promises made to her, Gen. 3:15. See also 2 Cor. 11:3; 1 Tim. 2:13. EVE'NING. The Hebrews reckoned 2 evenings in each day; as in the phrase "between the two evenings," Exod. 12:6; Num. 9:3; 28:4, margin. In this interval the passover was to be killed, and the daily evening sacrifice offered, Exod. 29:39-41, Hebrew. According to the Cara'ites, this is the interval from sunset to complete darkness, that is, the evening twilight. Compare Deut. 16:6; Psa. 59:6. Accord ing to the Pharisees and the rabbins, the first evening began when the sun began to descend more rapidly, that is, at the 9th hour; while the second or real evening commenced at sunset. See Day. EVERLAST'ING, ETER'NAL. The He brew olam, world, and the Greek aion, age, in various forms (often " for ever and ever," to the ages of the ages), denote long- continued duration, usually without fixed end. As applied to certain things known to be transitory, they do not preclude the idea of an end, though long continuance is the thought conveyed, as in Gen. 17:13, 19; 49:26. But as applied to God and his attri butes they imply absolutely limitless dura tion, Psa. 90:2; 145:13; Isa. 40:28; Dan. 4:3,34; Heb. 1:8; 9:14. The phrase " for ever and ever " is used 20 times in the New Testament. In 16 of these it is spo ken of God himself, in one case of the fu ture bliss of the redeemed, and in two of the future woe of the ungodly — all alike unending. The decisions of the judgment day are final, in regard to both, Matt. 25:46; 1 John 3:15; 5:11. E'VIL-MERO'DACH, the son and succes sor of Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, B. C. 561. His friendly treatment of Jehoi achin the captive king of Judah, in relea sing him from prison and variously distin guishing him above other captives, is men tioned to his praise, 2 Kin. 25:27; Jer. 52:31-34. His reign and life were cut short by a conspiracy, headed by Neriglissar his sister's husband, who succeeded him, B. C. 559- EXCEED'ING, EX'CELLENT, surpassing description, Gen. 15:1; 2 Sam. 8:8; Job 37:23; Dan. 2:31 ; 2 Pet. 1:17. EXCOMMUNICATION, an ecclesiastical penalty, by which they who incur the guilt of any heinous sin are separated from the church, and deprived of its spiritual ad vantages. Thus the Jews " put out of the synagogue " those they deemed unworthy, John 9:22; 12:42; 16:2. There were sev eral degrees of excommunication among them : one a temporary and partial exclu sion from ecclesiastical privileges, and from society ; ..the last, a complete excision from the covenant people of God and their numerous privileges, and abandonment to eternal perdition. See Anathema. The right and duty of excommunication when necessary were recognized in the Christian church by Christ and his apos tles, Matt. 18:15-18; 1 Cor. 5:1-13; 16:22; Gal. 5:12; 1 Tim. 1:20; Titus 3:10. The offender, found guilty and incorrigible, was to be excluded from the Lord's Supper and cut off from the body of believers. This excision from Christian fellowship does not release one from any obligation to obey 165 EXE BIBLE DICTIONARY. EXO the law of God and the gospel of Christ ; nor exempt him from any relative duties, as a man or a citizen. The censure of the church, on the other hand, is not to be ac companied, as among papists, with enmity, curses, and persecution. It implies a with drawal from those offices of civility and fra ternity which a man is at liberty to pay or to withhold, but not from the indispensable duties of humanity, founded on nature, the law of nations, and the spirit of Christian ity, 2 Thess. 3:6, 15; 2 John 10, 11. EXECUTIONER, Mark 6:27, soldier of the guard. EX'ODUS, going out, the name of the 2d book of Moses and of the Bible, which nar rates the departure of the Israelites from Egypt. It continues the wonderful and important history begun in Genesis, now assuming a national rather than personal or family form, and rehearsing the steps which led on the establishment of the He brew Theocracy. It was evidently written by an eye-witness, and comprises a period of about 145 years, from the death of Jo seph to the erection of the tabernacle in the desert, A. M. 2369-2514. The various topics of the book may be thus presented : (1.) The oppression ofthe Israelites, under the change of dynasty which sprung up after the death of Joseph. (2.) The youth, education, patriotism, and flight of Moses, ch. 2-6. (3.) The commission of Moses, the perversity of Pharaoh, and the inflic tion of the 10 plagues in succession, ch. 7-1 1. (4.) The institution of the Passover, the sudden departure of the Israelites, the passage ofthe Red Sea, and the thanksgiv ing of Moses and the people on the oppo site shore, after the destruction of Pharaoh and his host, ch. 12-15. (5) The narration of various miracles wrought in behalf of the people during their journeyings to wards Sinai, ch. 15-17. (6.) The promul gation of the law on Mount Sinai. This includes the preparation of the people by Moses, and the promulgation, first of the moral law, then of the judicial law, and subsequently of the ceremonial law, inclu ding the instructions for the erection ofthe tabernacle and the completion of that house of God, ch. 19-40. The scope of the book is not only to pre serve the memorial of the departure of the Israelites from Egypt, but to present to view the church of God in her afflictions and triumphs ; to point out the providen tial care of God over her, and the judg-, ments inflicted on her enemies,. It clearly 166 shows the accomplishment of the divine promises and prophecies delivered to Abra ham : that his posterity would be numer ous, Gen. 15:5; 17:4-6; 46:27; Num. 1:1-3, 46 ; and that they should be afflicted in a land not their own, whence they should depart in the 4th generation with great substance, Gen. 15:13-16; Exod. 12:40,41. Their exodus in many particulars well illus trates the beginning, progress, and end of the believer's salvation, and the history of Christ's church in the wilderness of this world, until her arrival in the heavenly Canaan. See 1 Cor. 10 ; and also the Epis tle to the Hebrews. The book of Exodus brings before us many and singular types of Christ: Moses, Deut. 18:15; Aaron, Heb. 4:14-16; 5:4, 5; the paschal lamb, Exod. 12:46; John 19:36; i Cor. 5:7, 8; the man na, Exod. 16:15; 1 Cor. 10:3; the rock in Horeb, Exod. 17:6; 1 Cor. 10:4; the mercy- seat, Exod. 37:6; Rom. 3:25; Heb. 4:16; the tabernacle, Exod. 40, " The Word tab ernacled among us," John 1 : 14. This departure from Egypt, and the sub sequent wanderings of the children of Is rael in the desert, form one of the great epochs in their history. They were con stantly led by Jehovah, and the whole se ries of events is a constant succession of miracles. From their breaking up at Ram- eses, to their arrival on the confines of the promised land, there was an interval of 40 years, during which one whole generation passed away, and the whole Mosaic law was given, and sanctioned by the thunders and lightnings of Sinai. There is no por tion of history extant which sb displays the interposition of an overruling Provi dence in the affairs both of nations and of individuals, as that which recounts these wanderings of Israel. The 430 years referred to in Exod. 12:40, date, according to the received chronol ogy, from the time when the promise was made to Abraham, Gen. 15:13. From the arrival of Jacob in Egypt, to the exodus of his posterity, was about 215 years. The 75 souls had now become 600,000, besides women, children, and old men. They took with them great numbers of cattle, and much Egyptian spoil. It was only by the mighty hand.of God that their deliverance was effected ; and each of the miracles ex ecuted judgment on the beastly gods of the people, Exod. 12:12, while the death ofthe firstborn in each house must have seemed to them an avenging of their slaughter of the Hebrew infants, Exod. 12:12. EXO BIBLE DICTIONARY. EXO After the ioth and decisive plague had been sent, the Israelites were dismissed from Egypt in haste. They are supposed to have been assembled at Rameses, a chief city in the land of Goshen, about 50 miles northwest of Suez, on the ancient canal which united the Nile with the Red Sea. They set off on the 15th day of the ist month, the day after the Passover, that is, about the middle of April. Their course was southeast as far as Etham ; but then, instead of keeping on directly to Sinai, they turned to the south, Exod. 14:2, on the west side of the Red Sea, which they reached 3 days after starting, probably near Suez. Here, by means of a strong east wind, God miraculously divided the waters of the sea in such a way that the Israelites passed over the bed of it on dry ground ; while the Egyptians, who attempt ed to follow them, were drowned by the returning waters. The a/m of the sea at Suez is now only 3 or 4 miles wide, and at low water may be forded. It is known to have been formerly wider and deeper ; but the drifting sands of ages have greatly filled and altered it. The miracle here wrought was an amazing one, and revealed the hand of God more signally than any of the 10 plagues had done. It should here be stated, also, that some geographers think this miracle took place below Mount Ata- kah, 8 or 10 miles south of Suez, where the sea is about 6 miles wide. This opin ion is liable to several objections, though it cannot be proved to be false. At this late day the precise locality may be undis- coverable, like the point of a soul's transi tion from the bondage of Satan into the kingdom of God; but in both cases the work is of God, and the glory of it is his alone. 167 EXO BIBLE DICTIONARY. EXP Having offered thanksgiving to God for their wonderful deliverance, the Israelites advanced along the eastern shore of the Red Sea, and through the valleys and des ert to Mount Sinai. This part of their route may be readily traced, and Marah, Elim, and the desert of Sin have been with much probability identified. They arrived at Mount Sinai in the 3d month, or June, prob ably near the beginning of it, having been i]i months on their journey. Here the law was given, and her^ they abode during all the transactions recorded in the remainder of Exodus, in Leviticus, and in the first 9 chapters of Numbers, that is, until the 20th day of the 2d mjnlh (May) in the follow ing year, a period of about 11 months. Breaking up at this time from Sinai, they marched northwards through the desert of Paran, or perhaps along the eastern arm of the Red Sea and north through El-Arabah, to Kadesh-barnea, near the southeast bor der of Canaan. Rephidim near Mount Si nai, and Taberah, Kibroth-hattaavah, and Hazeroth, on their journey north, were the scenes of incidents which may be found described under their several heads. From Kadesh-barnea, spies were sent out to view the promised land, and brought back an evil report, probably in August ofthe same year. The people murmured, and were di rected by Jehovah to turn back and wander in the desert, until the carcasses of that generation should all fall in the wilder ness, Num. 14:25. This they did, wander ing from one station to another in the great desert of Paran, lying south of Palestine, and also in the great sandy valley called El-Ghor and chiefly El-Arabah. which ex tends from the Dead Sea to the Gulf of Akaba, the eastern arm of the Red Sea. See Jordan. Where and how these long years were spentwe are not informed, nor by what routes they traversed the desert, nor how they were furnished with food ex cept manna. Moses says they " compassed Mount Seir many days," always under the guidance of the pillar of fire and cloud, Num. 9:22; he also gives a list of 17 sta tions, mostly unknown, where they rested or dwelt before reaching Ezion-geber, Num. 33:19-35; and then mentions their return to Kadesh, ver. 36, 37, in the ist month, Num. 20:1, after an interval of almost 38 years. While thus a second time encamped at Kadesh, Moses sent to the king of Idu- maea, to ask liberty to pass through his dominions, that is, through the chain of mountains (Mount Seir) lying along the 16S eastern side of the great valley El-Arabah. See Idum.ea. This was refused; and Is rael, feeling too weak to penetrate into Pal estine from the south, in face of the power ful tribes of Canaanites dwelling there, was compelled to take the southern pas sage around Edom, Num. 21:4. Soon after turning they came to Mount Hor, where Aaron died and was buried, Num. 20:20-28. Proceeding southward along the valley El- Arabah to Ezion-geber, at the head of the eastern gulf of the Red Sea, they here passed through the eastern mountains, and then turned north along the eastern desert, by the route which the great Syrian cara van of Mohammedan pilgrims now passes in going to Mecca. They arrived at the brook Zered, on the southern border of Moab, just 40 years after their departure from Egypt. See a tabular view of the various en campments of the Israelites, under Wan derings. EXOR'CISTS, from a Greek word signi fying lo conjure, to use the name of God or certain magical ceremonies with design to expel devils from places or bodies which they possess. The apostles were enabled to cast out evil spirits in Christ's name, Matt. 10:1; Mark 16:17; Luke 10:17; and designing men, both before and after the Saviour's death, pretended to exercise the same power, Matt. 12:27; Mark 9:38; Luke 9:49, 50; Acts 19:13-17. Exorcists were thought to have gained this power by secret studies respecting the nature of demons, and the powers of certain herbs, drugs, and stones, and were accustomed to use vari ous forms of adjuration and incantation in their unlawful art ; but the whole was de lusion and imposture, and strictly forbid den. See Divination. EXPIATION, an act by which satisfac tion is made for a crime, and the liability to punishment for it is cancelled. It sup poses penitence and faith on the sinner's part. Among the Jews, expiation was ef fected by a divinely appointed and typical system of sacrifices, all pointing to Christ. The New Testament shows him to be the true sin-offering for mankind, "the Lamb of God," "our Passover," offering "his own blood," and putting away " sin by the sac rifice of himself," John 1:29; 1 Cor. 5:7; Eph. 1:7; Heb. 9:26. The day of Expiation, or atonement, was a yearly solemnity, observed with rest and fasting on the 10th day of Tishri, 5 days before the Feast of Tabernacles, Lev. 23 : 27 ; EYE BIBLE DICTIONARY. EZE 25:9; Num. 29:7. This would now be in the early part of October. The ceremonies of this all-important day are minutely de scribed in Lev. 16. On this day alone the high-priest entered the Most Holy Place, Heb. 9:7; but the various rites of the day required him to enter several times, robed in white : first with a golden censer and a vessel filled with incense; then with the blood of the bullock, which he had offered for his own sins and those of all the priests, in which he dipped his finger, and sprin kled it 7 times below and once above the mercy-seat. This done, he left the ba sin of blood behind, and withdrew again. The 3d time he entered with the blood of the ram which he had offered for the sins of the nation, with which he sprinkled to wards the veil of the tabernacle 8 times ; and having mixed it with the blood of the bullock, he sprinkled again towards the horns of the altar of incense 7 times, and once above it towards the east ; after which, having again left the sanctuary and taken with him the basins of blood, he poured out the whole on the floor of the altar of burnt-offering. The 4th time he entered to bring out the censer and vessel of in cense; and having returned, he washed his hands and performed the other servi ces of the day. The ceremony of the scape goat also took place on this day. Two goats were set apart, one of which was sacrificed to the Lord, while the other, the goat " for complete separation," which was chosen by lot to be set at liberty, was sent into the desert burdened with the sins of the peo ple, Num. 29:7-11. All these solemn rites pointed to Christ, and in every age there were many believers who had spiritual discernment of* their sacred meaning, Heb. 9-11. They looked unto Him whom they had pierced, and mourned. As this day of expiation was the great fast-day of the Jewish Church, so godly sorrow for sin characterizes the Christian's looking unto the Lamb of God, and " the rapture of par don " is mingled with " penitent tears." EYE. The same Hebrew word means both eye and fountain. Besides its com mon use, to denote the organ of sight, it is often used figuratively in the Bible. Most of these passages, however, require no ex planation. The eyes of criminals or cap tives are still sometimes put out in the East, as of old, Judg. 16:21; Jer. 52:11. The expression in Psa. 123:2, is elucidated by the fact that many Eastern servants are taught to stand always upon the watch, and are in general directed by a nod, a wink, or some slight motion of the fingers imperceptible to strangers. Many Scrip ture phrases intimate the soul-like nature of the eye, quickly and truly expressing the thoughts of the heart: such as "the bountiful eye " and the " evil eye," Prov. 22:9; 23:6; " haughty eyes " and " wanton eyes," Prov. 6:17; Isa. 3:16. " The lust of the eyes," 1 John 2:16, expresses a craving for any of the gay vanities of this life. The threatening against "the eye that mocketh at his father," Prov. 30:17, is ex plained by the habit of birds of prey, which attack the eyes of a living enemy, and quickly devour those ofthe dead. A " sin gle " eye, Matt. 6:22, is one which is clear, and sees every object as it is. See Apple. Jezebel, 2 Kin. 9:30, is said to have "painted her face," literally " put her eyes in paint." This was sometimes done to excess, Jer. 4:30; and was practised by abandoned women, Prov. 6:25, A small probe of wood, ivory, or silver is wet with rose-water, and dipped in an impalpable • •W{J' powder ; this is then drawn between the lids of the eye nearly closed, and leaves a narrow black border, which is thought to make the eyes appear large and lustrous. The powder for this purpose, called kohl, is deposited like lampblack over the flame of a kind of aromatic resin, and sometimes is medicated by lead ore and other sub stances for the benefit of the eyes. EYE-SER'VICE, performing duties reluc tantly, under watch, Eph. 6:6; Col. 3:22. EZE'KIEL, the strength of God, son of 169 EZI BIBLE DICTIONARY. FAI Buzi, a prophet of the sacerdotal race, was carried captive to Babylon by Nebuchad nezzar, with Jehoiachin king of Judah, B. C. 598, and placed by the river Chebar. See Nineveh. He began his ministry "in the thirtieth year " — of his age, according to the general account ; or rather, in the 30th year after the covenant was renewed with God in the reign of Josiah, Ezek. 1 : 1, which answers to the 5th year of Ezekiel's captiv ity. The elders of Israel resorted to him for direction, Ezek. 8:1 ; 14:1 ; 20:1 ; 33:31. He prophesied 22 years, B. C. 595-573, till the 14th year after the final captivity of Jerusalem. During the first 8 years he was contemporary with Jeremiah. Daniel also lived at the same time, Ezek. 14:14, 16; 28:3, though most of his predictions are of a later date. The manner in which his messages were received is described in ch. 33:30-32. There is wonderful vehe mence in his writings, and a profusion of allegories and symbols. He was zealous for the honor of God, and ready for any sacrifice for the good of his people, ch. 4:4- 6; 24:15-18. He was one of the four "great er prophets," so called, and a priest. The book of Ezekiel abounds with sublime visions of the divine glory, and awful denunciations against Israel for their rebellious spirit against God, and the abom inations of their idolatry, ch. 1-24. It con tains also similar denunciations against Tyre and other hostile nations, ch. 25-32. The latter part of the book contains oracles respecting the return and restoration of the people of God, ch. 33-48, with a symbolical description of the New Jerusalem, not in tended to be taken literally. EZ'ION-GE'BER, or -GA'BER, a man's spine, a city at the northern extremity of the Elanitic or eastern fork of the Red Sea, and close by Elath. The Israelites rested here in the last year of their wanderings from Egypt to Canaan, Num. 33:35; Deut. 2:8. At this port Solomon equipped his fleets for the voyage to Ophir, 1 Kin. 9:26. A similar enterprise of Jehoshaphat failed, 1 Kin. 22:48; 2 Chr. 20:36. See Elath and Exodus. EZ'RA, help, a celebrated priest and lead er of the Jewish nation. He was " a ready scribe in the law," a learned, able, and faithful man, and appears to have enjoyed great consideration in the Persian court. During the 80 years embraced in his nar rative, most of the reign of Cyrus passed, and the whole reign of Cambyses, Smerdis, Darius Hystaspis, Xerxes, and 8 years of 170 Artaxerxes Longimanus. From this last king he received letters, money, and every desirable help, and went at the head of a large party of returning exiles to Jerusa lem, B. C. 457 ; Ezra 7. Here he instituted many reforms in the conduct of the people and in the public worship, establishing synagogues, with reading of Scripture and prayers, Ezra 8-10; Neh. 8. After this he is generally believed to have written the books of Chronicles, Ezra, and part of Nehemiah ; and to have collected and re vised all the books of the Old Testament Scripture which form the present canon. In his work he was aided by Nehemiah and probably by Malachi. The book of Ezra contains a history, written partly in Chaldee, of the return of the Jews from the time of Cyrus, ch. 1-6 ; then, 60 years later, and comprising a sin gle year, ch. 7-10, an account of his own subsequent proceedings, B. C. 456. There are 2 apocryphal books ascribed to him under' the name of Esdras, the Greek form of his name. Two others of this name are mentioned in 1 Chr. 4:17; Neh. 12:1. FA'BLE, in the New Testament an idle, groundless, and worthless story, like the mythological legends of the heathen and the vain traditions of the Jews. These were often not only false and weak, but pernicious, 1 Tim. 1:4; 4:7; 2 Tim. 4:4; Titus 1:14; 2 Pet. 1 : 16. In the Old Testa ment there occur 2 fables in the better sense of the word : that of Jotham, Judg. 9:8-15, the oldest on record; and that of Jehoash, 2 Kin. 14:9. FACE, and presence, expressed by the same word in Hebrew, are often put for the person himself, Gen. 48:11; Exod. 33:14; Isa. 63:9. No man has seen the face of God, that is, had a full revelation of his glory, Exod. 33:20; John 1:18; 1 Tim. 6: 16. To see him " face to face," is to en joy his presence, Gen. 32:30; Num. 14:14; Deut. 5:4, and have a clear manifestation of his natur,e and grace, 1 Cor. 13:12. Those who rightly " seek his face " are blessed, 1 Chr. 16:11; 2 Chr. 7:14; Psa. 24:3-6. " Open face," in 2 Cor. 3:18, A. V., is properly " unveiled face." Compare ver. 14. A similar word is used in ch. 4:3, " if our gospel is veiled, it is veiled." FAIN, Job 27:22; Luke 15:16, gladly. FAIR, Isa. 54:11, beautiful. A fair com- FA1 BIBLE DICTIONARY. FAN plexion, not darkened by exposure to the sun, was highly prized not only as a beauty, but as a proof of rank, Gen. 12:11, 14. Compare Song 1:5, 6, 8. FAIR-HA'VENS, a roadstead or small bay, near the town of Lasea, midway on the southern coast of Crete, where Paul wished to winter when on the voyage to Rome, Acts 27:8. This harbor is 4 or 5 miles east of Cape Matala, where the coast turns to the north, and Paul's vessel on passing it would again encounter the north west wind. The sailors preferred Phenice as safer, and were wrecked in consequence. Fair -havens still retains its old Greek name. FAIRS, though not intended by the He brew word so translated in Ezek. 27, which rather signifies wares, were doubtless com mon in the East in ancient times, as now. FAITH is the assent of the understand ing to any truth. Religious faith is assent to the truth of divine revelation and of the events and doctrines contained in it. This may be merely historical, without produ cing any effect on our lives and conversa tion; and it is then a dead faith, such as even the devils have. But a living or sav ing faith not only believes the great doc trines of religion as true, but embraces them with the heart and affections ; and is thus the source of sincere obedience to the divine will, exhibited in the life and conver sation. Faith in Christ is a grace wrought in the heart by the Holy Spirit, whereby we receive Christ as our Saviour, our Prophet,' Priest, and King, and- love and obey him as such. This living faith in Christ is the means of salvation — not meritoriously, but instrumentally. Without it there can be no forgiveness of sins, and no holiness of life; and they who are justified by faith, live and walk by faith, Mark 16:16; John 3:15, 16; Acts 16:31 ; : John 5:10. True faith is an essential grace, and a mainspring of Christian life. By it the Christian overcomes the world, the flesh, and the devil, and receives the crown of righteousness, 2 Tim. 4:7, 8. In virtue of it, worthy men of old wrought great won ders, Heb. 11; Acts 14:9; 1 Cor. 13:2, being sustained by Omnipotence in doing what ever God enjoined, Matt. 17:20; Mark 9: 23; 11:23, 24. In Rom. 1:8, faith is put for the exhibition cf faith, in the practice of all the duties implied in a profession of faith. In Heb. 10 : 23, " profession of our faith " should read, as in R. V., " confession of our hope." FAITH'FUL, ill many passages in the Bible, means "believing." Thus in Gal. 3:9, believers are said to be blessed with Abraham, because of his preeminent dis tinction above all men for steadfast faith in God. This appellation is given in Scrip ture to true Christians, to indicate not only their saving faith in Christ, but their trust worthy and consistent Christian character, Acts 16:15; 1 Cor. 4:17; Eph. 6:21; Col. 4:9; 1 Pet. 5:12. "A faithful saying" is one that cannot prove false, 1 Tim. 1 : i0; 2 Tim. 2:11. FAITH'FULNESS is an infinite attribute of Jehovah ; adapted to make perfect both the confidence of those who believe his word and rely on his promises, and the despair of those who doubt his word and defy his threatenings, Deut. 28:26; Num. 23:19; Psa. 89:33, 34; Heb. 10:23. FAITH'LESS, means not false-hearted, but unbelieving, Mark 9:19. FAL'LOW-DEER'. See Roe. FAL'LOW GROUND, land suitable for cultivation, but not sowed, Hos. 10:12. FAME, rumor, tidings, Gen. 45: 16; Mark 1:28. FAMIL'IAR SPIRIT, household sprite or attendant. See Divination. FAM'INE. Scripture records several famines in Palestine and the neighboring countries, Gen. 12 : 10 ; 26 : 1 ; Ruth 1:1; 2 Kin. 6 : 25 ; Acts 1 1 : 28. The most remark able one was that of 7 years in and around Egypt, while Joseph was governor, Gen. 41. It was distinguished for its duration, ex tent, and severity ; particularly as Egypt is one of the countries least subject to such a calamity, by reason of its general fertility. Famine is sometimes a natural effect, as when the Nile does not overflow in Egypt, or rains do not fall in Judaea, at the cus tomary season ; or when caterpillars, lo custs, or other insects destroy the fruits. But all natural causes are under the con trol of God; and he often so di rects them as to chastise the rebellious with want, 2 Kin. 8: 1, 2; Ezek. 6:11; Matt. 24:7. The worst famine is a spiritual one, Amos 8:11. FAN, an in strument used for winnowing grain. In the East, fans are of two kinds : one, a sort 171 FAR BIBLE DICTIONARY. FAV of fork, having several prpngs, and a han dle 4 feet long; with this they throw up the grain to the wind, that the chaff may be blown away : the other sort of fan is formed to produce wind when the air is calm, Isa. 30:24. This process illustrates the complete separation which Christ the Judge will effect between the righteous and the wicked, Jer. 15:7; Matt. 3:12. See Threshing. FARTHING (ASSARION). FARTHING. Two different Roman brass coins are represented by this word: one of these, the assarion, Matt. 10:29, Luke 12:6, was worth a cent and a half; the other, the kodranles, Matt. 5:26, was probably nearly 4 mills. FASHTON, Phil. 2:8, make or form. FAST'ING has in all ages, and among all nations, been practised in times of sorrow and affliction, Jonah 3:5. It may be re garded as a dictate of nature, which under these circumstances refuses nourishment, suspends the cravings of hunger, and prompts to abstinence in other respects. In the Bible no example is mentioned of fasting, properly so called, before Moses. His 40 days' fast, like that of Elijah and of our Lord, was miraculous, Deut. 9:9; 1 Kin. 19:8; Matt. 4:2. The Jews often had recourse to this practice, when they had occasion to humble themselves before God, to confess their sins and deprecate his dis pleasure, Judg. 20:26; 1 Sam. 7:6; 2 Sam. 12:16; Neh. 9:1; Jer. 36:9. Especially in times of public calamity, they appointed extraordinary fasts, and made even chil dren at the breast fast, Joel 2:16; but see Dan. 10:2, 3. They began the observance of their fasts at sunset, and remained with out eating until the same hour the next day. The great day of expiation was prob ably the only annual and national fast-day among them, Acts 27:9; though there were several partial fasts in memory of the de struction of Jerusalem, etc., Jer. 39 : 2 ; 52:12-14; Zech. 7:3-5. In New Testament times strict Jews fast ed twice a week, on the 2d and 5th days, Luke 18:12. It does not appear by his own practice or by his commands that our 172 Lord instituted any particular fast, On one occasion he intimated that his disciples would fast after his death, Luke 5:34, 35. Accordingly, the life of the apostles and first believers was a life of self-denials, suf ferings, and fastings, 2 Cor. 5:7; 11:27. Our Saviour recognized the custom, and the apostles practised it as occasion re quired, Matt. 6:16-18; Acts 13:3; yet they did not enjoin it as imperative, Rom. 14:1- 3; 1 Tim. 4:3, 4. We should always re member that abstinence or entire fasting has no virtue by itself, but is valuable only as a help to penitence and holiness, Isa. 58:4-7. One mark of the great apostasy is " commanding to abstain from meats," 1 Tim. 4:3. The word fasting is omitted in R. V. in 1 Cor. 7:5. FAT. The fat portions of animals offered in sacrifice were always to be consumed, as being the choice part and especially sa cred to the Lord. The blood was also sacred, as containing the life of the animal. The Jews were forbidden to eat either, Lev. 3:16, 17; 7:23-27. This prohibition applied to the fat lying in masses and easily sep arated, not to that intermixed with the lean, Neh. 8: 10. The " fat of the wheat," " of the mighty," etc., denotes the choicest. In Psa. 17:10, a dull and sluggish heart is meant. FAT, or VAT, Joel 2:24; 3:13; Mark 12:1, a receptacle into which the juice of grapes flowed from the wine-press. FATHER, is often synonymous with an cestor, founder, or originator, as Gen. 4:20, 21; John 8:56; Rom. 4:16. Joseph was a father to Pharaoh, Gen. 45:8, as his coun sellor and provider. God is the Father of men, as their Creator, Deut. 32:6; Isa. 63:16; 64:8; Luke 3:38. But as we have forfeited the rights of children by our sins, it is only through Christ that we can call God by that endearing name, " our Fa ther," John 20:17; Rom. 8:15-17. In patriarchal times, a father was master and judge in his own household, and exer cised an authority almost unlimited over his family. Filial disobedience or disre spect was a high offence. Under the law, certain acts of children were capital crimes, Exod. 21:15-17; Lev. 20:9; and the father was required to bring his son to the public tribunal, Deut. 21:18-21. It is a first duty of parents to imbue their children with re ligious truth and train them to the service of God, Exod. 12:26, 27; Deut. 4:9, 10; 6:6, 7; 11:18,19; Psa. 78:5-8; Eph. 6:4, and to hope for success, Prov. 22 : 6. See Mother. FA'VOR, usually grace or good-will ; in FEA BIBLE DICTIONARY. FEA several passages literally face, or propi tious countenance, Psa. 45:12; 119:58; Prov. 19:6; 29:26. The same Hebrew word is rendered face in Gen. 43:3, 5; Num. 6:25; Job 33:26; Ezek. 39:29. FEAR, Gen. 31:42, 53, the being who is feared, i. e., worshipped. FEAR OF GOD is of two kinds. In un renewed men and in devils, Acts 24:25; Jas. 2:19, it is the sure consequence of sin, and leads to no repentance or faith. The heathen colonists of Samaria " feared the Lord," and offered some forms of worship, but " served their own gods " and sins also, 2 Kin. 17:25, 33. This fear mingles often with the feelings of true Christians, Rom. 8:15; 1 John 4:18, but ought to be ban ished. True filial fear is implanted by God himself, Psa. 86 : 1 1 ; Jer. 32 : 40 ; re strains from sin, Psa. 4:4; 2 Cor. 7:1; is associated with love, Deut. 10 : 12, trust, Prov. 14:26, and obedience, and is often spoken of as the synonym of all true reli gion, Gen. 22:12; Psa. 25:14; 112:1. Christ himself was the model in this fear, Isa. 11:2; Heb. 5:7; and they who thus fear God have nothing else to fear, Isa. 51 -.7, 12, 13; Luke 12:4-7. Sinners ought indeed to tremble before a just and holy God, Gen. 3 : 10 ; Matt. 10 : 28, and to fear their inevitable doom, Zeph. 1:12; Mai. 4:1; Rev.6:i5-i7; but this fear is remorse and despair, and can only be " the beginning of wisdom " when trans formed by penitence, love, and trust in his mercy through the Redeemer, John 3:16, 18; so that they can serve him with the reverence and godly fear of his children, Eph. 5:1; Heb. 12:28, 29. FEASTS. God appointed several festi vals, or days of rest and worship, among the Jews, to perpetuate the memory of great events : the Sabbath commemorated the creation of the world ; the Passover, the departure out of Egypt ; the Pentecost, as many think, the law given at Sinai, etc. At the 3 great feasts of the year, the Pass over, the Pentecost, and that of Taberna cles, all the males of the nation were re quired to visit the temple, Exod. 23:14-17; Deut. 16:16, 17; and to protect their bor ders from invasion during their absence, the shield of a special providence was al ways interposed, Exod. 34:23, 24. The other festivals were New Moons, the Feast of Trumpets, Purim, Dedication, the Sab bath year, and the year of Jubilee. These are described elsewhere. The observance pf these sacred festivals was adapted not merely to freshen the remembrance of their early history as a nation, but to keep alive the influence of religion and the expecta tion of the Messiah, to deepen their joy in God, to dispel animosities and jealousies, to promote beneficence, and to form new associations between the different tribes and families. See also Day of Expiation. In the Christian church we have no fes tival that clearly appears to have been in stituted by our Saviour or his apostles; but as we commemorate his death as often as we celebrate his supper, he has hereby seemed to institute a perpetual feast. Chris tians have always celebrated the memory of his resurrection by regarding the Sab bath, which we see, from Rev. 1 : 10, was in John's time known as "the Lord's day." Feasts of love, Jude 12, were public banquets of a frugal kind, instituted by the primitive Christians, and connected by them with the celebration of the Lord's Supper. The provisions were contributed by the more wealthy, and were common to ail Christians, whether rich or poor, who chose to partake. Portions were also sent to the sick and absent members. These love-feasts were intended as an exhibition of mutual Christian affection; but they became subject to abuses, and were after wards generally discontinued, 1 Cor. 11 : 17- 34- The Hebrews were a hospitable people, and were wont to welcome their guests with a feast, and dismiss them with anoth er, Gen. 19:3; 31:27; Judg. 6:19; 2 Sam. 3:20; 2 Kin. 6:23. The returning prodigal was thus welcomed, Luke 15:23. Many joyful domestic events were observed with feasting: birthdays, etc., Gen. 21:8; 40:20; Job 1:4; Matt. 14:6; marriages, when the festival often continued a week, Gen. 29 : 22 ; Judg. 14:10; John 2:1-10; sheep-shearing and harvesting, Judg. 9:27; 1 Sam. 25:2, 36; 2 Sam. 13:23. A feast was also provi ded at funerals, 2 Sam. 3:35; Jer. 16:7. Those who brought sacrifices and offerings to the temple were wont to feast upon them there, with joy and praise to God, Deut. 12:6, 7; 1 Sam. 16:5; 2 Sam. 6:19. They were taught to invite. all the needy to par take with' them, Deut. 16:11; and even to make special feasts for the poor, Deut. 12:17-19; 14:28, 29; 26:12-15; a custom which the Saviour specially commended, Luke 14:12-14. Most of these feasts were not merely seasons of social enjoyment, but occasions hallowed by religious emo tions and services, 173 FEL BIBLE DICTIONARY. FES The manner of holding a feast was an ciently marked with great simplicity. But at the time of Christ many Roman customs had been introduced. The feast or " sup per " usually took place at 5 or 6 in the afternoon, and often continued to a late hour. The guests were invited some time in advance; and those who accepted the invitation were again notified by servants when the hour arrived, Matt. 22:4-8 ; Luke 14:16-24. The door was guarded against uninvited persons; and was at length closed for the day by the hand of the mas ter of the house, Matt. 25:10; Luke 13:25. Sometimes very large numbers were pres ent, Esth. 1:3, 5; Luke 14:16-24; and on such occasions a " governor of the feast " was appointed, whose social qualities, tact, firmness, and temperance fitted him to pre side, John 2:8. The guests were arranged with a careful regard to their claims to honor, Gen. 43: 33; 1 Sam. 9:22; Prov. 25:6, 7; Matt. 23:6; Luke 14:7; in which mat ter the laws of etiquette are still jealously enforced in the East. Sometimes the host provided light, rich, loose robes for the company; and if so, the refusing to wear one was a gross insult, Eccl. 9:8; Matt. 22:11; Rev. 3:4, 5. The guests reclined around the tables; water and perfumes were served to them, Mark 7:2; Luke 7 : 44- 46 ; and after eating, the hands were again washed, a servant pouring water over them. See illustration in Bed. During the repast and after it various entertain ments were provided; enigmas were pro posed, Judg. 14:12; Eastern tales were told; music and hired dancers, and often excessive drinking, etc., occupied the time, Isa. 5:12; 24:7-9; Amos 6:5. A mission ary attending a wedding at Calcutta once saw an illustration in modern life of Luke 14:8-11. While conversing with the host in the gallery reserved for the more favored guests, she saw one man removed from the gallery who had no claim to be there, and another in the court below invited " up higher." See Eating, Food. FE'LIX, happy, a. Roman governor of Ju daea, originally a slave, but manumitted and promoted by Claudius Caesar, from whom he received the name of Claudius. He is described by the historian Tacitus as cruel, licentious, and base, and as having harmed Judaea by his mismanagement. In Judaea he married Drusilla, sister of the younger Agrippa, having enticed her from her hus band Azizus. Paul having been sent by Lysias to Caesarea, then the seat of govern- 174 ment, Felix gave him an audience, and was convinced of his innocence. Nevertheless he kept him a prisoner, though with many alleviations, in hopes that his friends would purchase his liberty by a heavy bribe. Meanwhile his wife Drusilla, who was a Jewess, desired to hear Paul explain the new religion ; and the apostle being sum moned before them, discoursed with his usual boldness on justice, chastity, and the final judgment. Felix trembled, but hasti ly remanded Paul to confinement, and sti fled his convictions — a melancholy instance of the power of lust and the danger of de lay. In rejecting Paul, he rejected Christ and heaven— it is to be feared, for ever ! Two years after, A. D. 60, he was recalled to Rome; and left Paul in prison, in order to appease the Jews. He was brought to trial, however, for maladministration, found guilty, and barely escaped death through the intercession of his brother Pallas, an other royal favorite, Acts 23 : 26 ; 24. FENCED, Num. 32:17, 36, fortified. FEN'CES, for the protection of vineyards and gardens, were often made of stones; or large cakes of sun-dried earth, with the addition in some cases of a thorn hedge, Psa. 80:12; Mic. 7:4. They were a favor ite resort of serpents and locusts, Eccl. 10:8; Nah. 3:17. FER'RET, a sort of weasel, Lev. 11:30. The Hebrew word means rather a species of lizard, the gecko, which Moses forbids as unclean. FESTUS, Porcius, succeeded Felix in the government of Judaea, A. D. 60. To oblige the Jews, Felix, when he resigned his government, left Paul in bonds at Caesa rea in Palestine, Acts 24:27; and when Festus arrived, he was entreated by the principal Jews to condemn the apostle, or to order him up to Jerusalem — they having conspired to assassinate him in the way. Festus, however, answered that it was not customary with the Romans to condemn any man without hearing him ; ana prom ised to hear their accusations at Caesarea. Five days after, on hearing Paul and learn ing the nature of the charges against him, and wishing like Felix to conciliate the Jews, he proposed to him to abide the issue of a trial before the Jewish Sanhedrin. But Paul appealed to Caesar, and so secured himself from the prosecution of the Jews and the intentions of Festus. The gover nor gave him another hearing during a congratulatory visit .of king Agrippa, in order to make out a statement to be for- FIE BIBLE DICTIONARY. FIR warded with him to Rome. Finding how greatly robberies abounded in Judaea, Fes tus very diligently pursued the thieves; and he also suppressed a magician, who drew the people after him into the desert. Josephus speaks well of his brief adminis tration. He died in Judaea, A. D. 62, and was succeeded by Albinus. FIELD, ground cultivated, but not in closed ; contrasted with the wilderness, Gen. 33:19; 36:35, and with a vineyard, Num. 22:23, 24, or a city, Deut. 28:3, 16. Bounds were marked by stones, to remove which was a great crime, Deut. 27 : 17. Fields were often traversed by public roads, Luke 6:1, and were much exposed to straying cattle, which therefore needed constant watching, Exod. 22:5. FIG. The fig-tree is common in Pales tine and the East, and flourishes with the greatest luxuriance in those barren and stony situations where little else will grow. Its large size, and its abundance of 5-lobed leaves, render it a pleasant shade-tree ; and its fruit furnished a wholesome food, very much used in all the lands of the Bible. Thus it was a symbol of peace and plenty, 1 Kin. 4:25; Mic. 4:4; Zech. 3:10; John 1:49-51. Figs are of 2 sorts, the "boc- core" and the "kermouse." The black and white boccore, or early fig, is pro duced in June; though the kermouse, the fig properly so called, which is preserved and made up into cakes, is rarely ripe be fore August. There is also a long dark- colored kermouse, that sometimes hangs upon the trees all winter. The fruit of the fig-tree is one of the del icacies of the East, and is very often spo ken of in Scripture. The early fig was especially prized, Isa. 28:4; Jer. 24:2; Nah. 3:12, though the summer fig is most abun dant, 2 Kin. 20:7; Isa. 38:21. It is a pecu liarity of the fig-tree that its fruit begins to appear before the leaves, and without any show of blossoms. It has, indeed, small and hidden blossoms, but the pas sage in Hab. 3:17 should read, according to the original Hebrew, "Although the fig- tree should not bear," instead of " blos som." Its leaves come so late in the spring as to justify the words of Christ, " Ye know that summer is nigh," Matt. 24:32; Song 2: 13. The fresh fruit is shaped like a pear. The dried figs of Palestine were probably like those which are brought to our own country ; sometimes, however, they are dried on a string. We likewise read of "cakes of figs," 1 Sam. 25:18; 2 Kin. 20:7; 1 Chr. 12:40. These were probably formed by pressing the fruit forcibly into baskets or other vessels, so as to reduce them to a solid cake or lump. In this way dates are still prepared in Arabia. The barren fig-tree which was withered at our Saviour's word, as an awful warn ing to unfruitful professors of religion, seems to have spent itself in leaves. It stood by the wayside, free to all— a single tree seen " afar off" to be in full leaf while others were not, Mark 11:13; hence it was reasonable to expect to find figs upon it. Yet there was " nothing thereon, but leaves only," Matt. 21:19. Fig-trees still overhang the path over the Mount of Ol ives, where this parable was spoken, Matt. 21:21. It furnishes a striking type of the Jewish nation, specially cared for by God, Isa. 5, and full of leaves; but not of the expected fruit. FILE, literally notchedness, 1 Sam. 13:21. This verse means simply, " when the mat tocks, etc., were dull." FINE, FI'NER, FI'NING, refine, etc., Job 28:1. FIR, an evergreen tree, of beautiful ap pearance, whose lofty height and dense foliage afford a spacious shelter and shade. The Hebrew word often seems to mean the Cypress, which see. It was used for shipbuilding, Ezek. 27:5; for musical in struments, 2 Sam. 6:5 ; for beams and raft ers of houses, 1 Kin. 5:8, 10; 9:11; Song 1:17. In Nah. 2:3, "fir-trees " means lan ces made of cypress. FIRE, in Scripture, is often connected with the presence of Jehovah ; as in the burning bush, the pillar of fire, and on Mount Sinai, Exod. 3:2; 13:21; 19:18; in Psalm 18, and the ode of Habakkuk. The 175 FIR BIBLE DICTIONARY. FIR 2d coming of Christ will be "in flaming fire," 2 Thess. 1:8; Dan. 7:9, 10. In the New Testament it illustrates the enlight ening, cheering, and purifying agency of the Holy Spirit, Matt. 3:11 ; Acts 2:3. By sending fire from heaven to consume sac rifices, God often signified his acceptance of them, as probably in the case of Abel, Gen. 4:4: Abraham, Gen. 15:17; Manoah, Judg. 13:19, 20; Elijah, 1 Kin. 18:38; and at the dedication of the tabernacle and the temple, Lev. 9:24; 2 Chr. 7:1. Hence the Hebrew for "accept" is "turn to ashes," Psa. 20:3, margin. The fire on the altar of burnt offering was to be preserved by the priests with the utmost care, Lev. 6:12, 13. Nadab and Abihu were slain for using other fire in burning incense, Lev. 10:1, 16:12, or in some way violating the divino command, Exod. 30:7, 8. Fire symbolizes the sin-consuming holiness of God, his re fining of his people, and punishment of the unbelieving, Psa. 66:10; Isa. 31:9; 48:10; Mai. 3:1, 2; Heb. 12:29. I'1 many ancient religions fire was worshipped ; and children were made to pass through the fire to Mo loch, 2 Kin. 17: 17 ; Jer. 7:31 ; Ezek. 16:21 ; 23:37- The Jews had occasion for fires, except for cooking, only during a small part of the year. Besides their ordinary hearths and ovens, they warmed their apart ments with " a fire of coals " in a brazier, Jer. 36:22, 23 ; John 18:18. They were for bidden to kindle a fire on the Sabbath, Exod. 35:3 — a prohibition perhaps only of cooking on that day, but understood by many Jews even now in the fullest extent ; it is evaded by employing Gentile servants. Another provision of the Mosaic law was designed to protect the standing corn, etc., in the dry summer season, Exod. 22 : 6. The earth is to be destroyed by fire, 2 Pet. 3:7; of which the destruction of Sodom, and the volcanoes and earthquakes which so often indicate the internal commotions of the globe, may serve as warnings. In Isa. 24:15, for "fires " say " East." FIR'KIN, John 2:6, a Greek measure, equivalent to the Hebrew bath, and con taining about 8 gallons. The quantity of wine produced by the miracle at Cana was large : but the assemblage was also large ; the festivities continued, it may be, a whole week, Judg. 14:12; and many might be drawn to the scene by hearing of the mir acle. FIR'MAMENT, Gen. 1:17, the expanse of the heavens immediately above the earth. The Hebrews seem to have viewed this as 176 au immense crystalline dome, studded widi stars, resting on the far-distant horizon all around the spectator, and separating the waters above us from those on the earth. Through its windows the rain descend ed. It is not necessary to suppose thej thought it was solid, Psa. 19:1; Isa. 40:22. It is not the aim of Scripture to give sci entific statements of natural phenomena. Teaching religion, not astronomy or phys ics, it does n^t anticipate modern discover ies, but speaks of natural objects and oc currences in the common language of men everywhere. Hence, in part, its attractive ness in all ages as a book for the people. FIRSTBORN. This phrase is not always to be understood literally ; it is sometimes taken for the preeminent, most excellent, most distinguished of things, Exod. 4:22; Psa.89:27; Rom. 8:29; Heb. 1:4-6. Thus Jesus Christ is " the firstborn of every crea ture," Col. 1:15, inasmuch as he was the " Only-begotten " ofthe Father before any creature was produced. He is "the first born from the dead," Col. 1:18, because he is the beginning, and the author of the resurrection of all who die in faith. After the destroying angel had slain the firstborn of the Egyptians, God ordained that all the Jewish firstborn, both of men and of beasts for service, should be conse crated to him, an acknowledgment of his right as owner and Lord of all, Exod. 4:22,23; 19:6; but the male children only were subject to this law, and he set apart the tribe of Levi to minister to him, in lieu of the firstborn, Num. 3:12, 45. If a man had several wives, he was obliged to pre sent the firstborn son of each one of them to the Lord. Every firstborn son was pre sented at the temple, and redeemed for 5 shekels. The firstling of a clean beast was offered at the temple, not to be re deemed, but to be sacrificed to the Lord, Deut. 12:6; 15:19-21; an unclean beast, a horse, an ass, or a camel, was either re deemed or exchanged ; an ass was redeem ed by a lamb or 5 shekels ; if not redeemed, it was put to death, Exod. 13:2, 11, etc. The firstborn son among the Hebrews, as among all other nations, enjoyed special privileges and honors. See Birthright. The "firstborn of death," Job 18:13, seems to mean the chief of deadly dis eases ; the " firstborn of the poor," Isa. 14:30, the poorest. FIRST-FRUITS were presents made to God of part of the fruits of the harvest, to express the submission, dependence, and FIR BIBLE DICTIONARY. FIT thankfulness of the offerers. The portion given was instead of the whole, in ac knowledgment that all was due to God. They were offered in the tabernacle or temple before the crop was gathered, and when the harvest was over, before the peo ple began to use their corn. The first of these first-fruits, offered in the name of the nation, was a sheaf of barley, gathered on the 15th of Nisan, in the evening, and threshed in a court of the temple. After it was well cleaned, about 3 pints of it were roasted, and pounded in a mortar. Over this was thrown a measure of olive oil and a handful of incense ; and the priest, ta king the offering, waved it before the Lord towards the 4 cardinal points, throwing a handful of it into the fire on the altar, and keeping the rest. After this, all were at liberty to get in the harvest. When the wheat harvest was over, on the day of Pen tecost they offered as first-fruits of another kind, in the name of the nation, 2 loaves, of about 3 pints of flour each, made of leavened dough, Lev. 23:10, 17. In addi tion to these first-fruits, every private per son was obliged to bring his first-fruits to the temple, but Scripture prescribes nei ther the time nor the quantity, Exod. 22 : 29 ; Deut. 26:1-11. There was, besides this, another sort of first-fruits paid to God, Num. 15:19, 21; Neh. 10:37: when the first bread of the season in the family was kneaded, a por tion of it was set apart, and given to the priest or Levite of the place ; if there was no priest or Levite, it was cast into the oven and there consumed. The first-fruits of cultivated fields, vineyards, fruit-trees, and of wool were required by God for the priests or Levites, Num. 18:11-13; Deut. 18:4. See Fruit. Those offerings are also often called first- fruits which were brought by the Israelites from devotion, to the temple, for the feast of thanksgiving, to which they invited their .relations and friends and the Levites of their cities. The first-fruits and tenths were the most considerable revenue of the priests and Levites, and the neglect of these offerings in days of apostasy was often reproved by the prophets, 2 Chr. 31:4, 5, 12; Neh. 10:35-37; Ezek. 20:40; Mai. 3:8. Christians have " the first-fruits of the Holy Spirit," Rom. 8 : 23 ; that is, more abundant and more excellent gifts than the Jews ; these were also a foretaste of the full harvest. " Christ is risen from the dead, 12 and become the first-fruits of them that slept," 1 Cor. 15:20, the forerunner of all those who, because he lives, shall live also, John 14:19. FIRSTLING, the first offspring of an an imal, Gen. 4:4; Neh. 10:36. FISH, FISH'ER. The Hebrews have very few names of particular species of fish. Moses says in general, that all sorts of river, lake, or sea fish, which have scales and fins, may be eaten ; all others shall be to the Hebrews an abomination, Lev. 11:9- 12 ; Deut. 14:9, 10. So in the parable, Matt. 13:48. The Nile had an early celebrity, which it still retains, for the abundance and excellence of its fish, and hence the significance of the plague that smote the river and Hapi its god, Exod. 7:18-21; Num. 11:5. The Sea of Tiberias also still abounds in fish, Luke 5:5; John 21:6-11. They were a common article of food among the Jews, Matt. 7:10, and were obtained from the Mediterranean, Neh. 13:16, and from the Jordan. They were caught with hooks, Amos 4:2, spears, Job 41:7, and nets, Isa. 19:8-10. Fish-worship was forbidden to the Jews, Deut. 4 : 18, but was prac tised by the Assyrians and the Philistines. See Dagon. The " great fish," Jon. 1:17, which swallowed Jonah, may have been of the shark genus, as this animal is common in the Mediterranean. The original word, both in Hebrew and Greek, Matt. 12:40, means a fish, and not specifically a " whale." See Whale. Fishermen are often spoken of in the Bible, and a large proportion of the 12 apostles of our Lord were of that occupation. Christ made them " fishers of men," Matt. 4:18-22. The early Christians, in times of perse cution, used to engrave the form of a fish on their medals, seals, and tombs, as a tacit confession of their faith ; as the 5 let ters of the Greek word for fish, 1%-dvg, are the initial letters of 5 words signifying "Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the Sa viour." This symbol has thus become the subject of a superstitious regard. FITCH'ES, or Vetch'es, a species of wild pea. Two Hebrew words are trans lated "fitches," one of which probably means spelt, Ezek. 4:9, and the othei gith, a plant resembling fennel, and very pun gent, Isa. 28:25. The seed is black and aromatic, and is used as a seasoning and for medicine. It is readily shed from the capsules, while the grains of spelt are firmly lodged in the husks. God exercises judgment in dealing with his people, not 177 FLA BIBLE DICTIONARY. FLE crushing with a wheel when beating with a staff will suffice, ver. 27-29. flag: cyperus esculentus. FLAG, Job 8: 11, a coarse grass growing in wet meadows and on river banks, prob ably the Cyperus esculentus, translated meadow in Gen. 41 : 2, 18. A different word is used in Exod. 2:3, 5; Isa. 19:6, in a more general sense. FLAG'ON. The Hebrew word every where rendered in the English version flagon, 2 Sam. 6:19; r Chr. 16:3; Song 2:5,; Hos. 3:1, means rather a cake, especially of dried grapes or raisins, pressed into a particular form. These are mentioned as delicacies, by which the weary and languid are refreshed ; they were also offered to idols, Hos. 3:1. They differed from the dried clusters of grapes not pressed into any form, 1 Sam. 25:18, and also from the " cakes of figs." We may refer, in illus tration, to the manner in which with us cheeses are pressed in various forms, as of pineapples, etc., and also the manner in which dates are prepared at the present day by the Arabs. See Figs. The word translated flagon in Isa. 22 : 24 means some times a leather bottle, and sometimes a musical instrument of similar shape. FLAX, a well-known plant, upon which the industry of mankind has been exer cised with the greatest success and utility, Josh. 2:6; Prov. 31 : 13! Moses speaks of the flax in Egypt, Exod. 9:31, which coun try has been celebrated from time imme morial for its production and manufacture, the rich deposits of the overflowing Nile rendering the soil most favorable for it. See Bolled. The " fine linen of Egypt," which was manufactured from this article, is spoken of for its superior excellence in 178 , Scripture, Prov. 7:16; Ezek. 27 : 7. " Linen yarn," however, in 1 Kin. 10:28, is translated "horses" in the R.V. Its production in Palestine is mentioned in Josh. 2:6; Judg. 16:9; Isa. 1:31; Hos. 2:5, 9. Most of the linen found wrapped around Egyptian mum mies will hardly compare with our common sheet ings. But some speci mens are found of re markable fineness; one containing 152 threads in the warp, and 71 in the woof, to each square inch ; and another, 270 double threads in the warp, and no in the woof, per inch. Modern cambric rarely contains more than 160 in the woof. See Cotton and Linen. The various processes by which flax is changed to fine and snowy linen well illus trate God's discipline in sanctifying his children. The prophet Isaiah, in speaking of the gentleness of the Messiah, uses a proverb ial expression, " The bruised reed shall he not break, and the smoking flax shall he not quench," Isa. 42:3; Matt. 12:20. Here " flax " means the wick of a lamp or taper. He will not break a reed already bruised and ready to be broken, nor extinguish a flickering, dying lamp, just ready to ex pire; that is, he will not oppress his hum ble and penitent followers, but cherish the feeblest beginnings of true grace. FLESH. In the Bible, besides the ordi nary sense, Job 33:25, this word denotes mankind as a race, Gen. 6: 12 ; Psa. 145:21 ; Isa. 40:5, 6; all living creatures on the earth, Gen. 6:17, 19; and in John 1:14 the human nature. It is often used in opposi tion to "spirit," as we use body and soul,. Job 14:22; and sometimes means the body as animated and sensitive, Matt. 26:41, and the seat of bodily appetites, Prov. 5:11; 2 Cor. 7:1. In the New Testament, " flesh " is very often used to designate the bodily propensities and passions which draw men away from yielding themselves to the Lord and to the things of the Spirit. The flesh, or carnal principle, is opposed to the spirit, or spiritual principle, Rom. 8; Gal. 5:17. To " know Christ after the flesh " implied glorying in merely outward relations to FLO BIBLE DICTIONARY. FOO him— as of belonging to Israel his nation, or having seen him in the flesh — instead of spiritually knowing him as having been created anew in him, without which all else is in vain, Matt. 7:22, 23; Luke 8:19- 21; 2 Cor. 5:16, 17; Phil. 3:3-10. FLOCKS. See Sheep. FLOOD. See Deluge. In Josh. 24:2 the Euphrates. FLUTE, a soft, sweet-toned wind instru ment of music. The word flute is used only in Dan. 3, and is supposed to mean a pipe with 2 reeds, such as are still to be found in the East. It is blown at the end. See Music, Pipe. FLUX, flow, in Acts 28:8, the dysentery. FLY, a genus of insects, of which there are a great many species. Moses declares them and most other insects to be unclean, Lev. 11:42. They abound in Egypt, and are annoying and vexatious in the extreme, attacking the eyelids, etc., in swarms and with the utmost pertinacity, and convey ing ophthalmia from one to another. How intolerable a plague of flies may be, is evi dent from the fact that whole districts in the Levant have been for a time depopu lated by them, the inhabitants being una ble to stand against their incessant attacks, Exod. 8:24. Dead flies polluting fragrant ointment, Eccl. 10:1, show what scandal a little "fol ly," i. e., sin, in a good man may cause, Corruption tends to diffuse itself, 1 Cor. 5:6. In Isa. 7:18, the prophet, describing the armies of Egypt and Assyria, each un der the symbol of one of the prevalent insects in those countries, says, " The Lord shall hiss for the fly that is in the 'utter most part' (or rather, as the same Hebrew word is rendered in Exod. 16:35, the 'bor ders ' ofthe streams of Egypt), and for the bee that is in the land of Assyria." It is thought by some that the fly here spoken of is the zimb, or Ethiopian fly, of which Mr. Bruce says, " It is in size very little larger than a bee, of a thicker proportion, and has wings which are broader than those of a bee, placed separate, like those of a fly ; they are of pure gauze, without color or spot upon them ; the head is large. As soon as this plague appears, and their buzzing is heard, all the cattle forsake their food, and run wildly about the plain till they die, worn out with fatigue, fright, and hunger. No remedy remains but to leave the black earth, and hasten down to the sands of the desert ; and there they remain while the rains last, this cruel enemy never daring to pursue them farther." The cam el also is obliged to fly before these in sects; and the elephant and rhinoceros coat themselves with a thick armor of mud. The Philistines and Canaanites adored Be elzebub, the fly-god, probably as a patron to protect them against these tormenting insects. FOLD, John 10:16, flock. FOOD. In ancient times the food of a people was more entirely the product of their own country than in our day. Pales tine was favored with an abundance of animal food, grain, and vegetables. But throughout the East vegetable food is more used than animal. Bread was the princi pal food. Grain of various kinds, beans> lentils, onions, grapes, figs, and dates, to gether with olive oil, honey, and the milk of goats and cows, were the ordinary fare. The wandering Arabs live much upon a coarse black bread. A very common dish in Syria is rice, with shreds of meat, vege tables, olive oil, etc., intermixed. A simi lar dish, made with beans, lentils, and various kinds of pulse, was in frequent use at an earlier age, Gen. 25:29-34; 2 Kin. 4:38-41. Fish was a common article of food, when accessible, and was very much used in Egypt. This country was also famous for cucumbers, melons, leeks, on ions, and garlics, Num. 11:5. Such is the food of the Egyptians still. See Clean, Eating, Corn, and Meat. Animal food was always used on festive occasions; and the hospitable patriarchs lost little time in preparing for their guests a smoking dish from their flocks of sheep and goats, their herds of cattle, 'or their dove-cotes, Gen. 18:7; Luke 15:23. The rich had animal food more frequently, and their cattle were stalled and fattened for the table, 1 Sam. 16:20; 1 Kin. 4:23; Neh. 5:18; Isa. 1:11; 11:6; Mai. 4:2. Sheep 179 FOO BIBLE DICTIONARY. FOO were brought by Abigail to David, i Sam. 25:18, and by others at Mahanaim, 2 Sam. 17:28, 29, as animal food is welcomed by soldiers. Among the poor, locusts were a common means of sustenance, being dried in the sun, or roasted over the fire on iron plates. Various wild plants were also eat en by them, Job 30:4. Condiments, as salt, mustard, etc., were much used, Isa. 28:25, etc. ; Matt. 23:23. In the East, "butter" (curdled milk) and honey are poured out of jars, Job 20:17. They were a common food of children, Isa. 7:15, and could be obtained even when the land was distressed by war, ver. 22. Water was the earliest and common drink. Wine of an intoxicating quality was early known, Gen. 9:20; 14:18; 40:1. Date -wine and similar beverages were common ; and the common people used a kind of sour wine, called vinegar in Ruth 2:14; Matt. 27:48. FOOL, any person who does not act wisely, that is, does not follow the warn ings and requirements of God, which are founded in infinite wisdom. Hence " = fool " is put for a wicked man, an enemy or neglecter of God, Psa. 14:1 ; Prov. 19:1. So folly is put for wickedness, 2 Sam. 13: 12, 13 ; Psa. 38:5, foolish lusts for wicked lusts, etc. Foolish talking, foolish questions are vain, empty, unprofitable conversation, 2 Tim. 2:23. In some passages "foolish men " is a better rendering than " fools," as in Luke 24:25. In Matt. 5:22 the phrase "thou fool " implies in those who use it an angry and contemDtuous spirit, displeasing to God, and fatal to its possessor unless repented of. FOOT. The expressions in Deut. 32:35, " their foot shall slide in due time," and in the traveller's song, Psa. 121:3, "ne will not suffer thy foot to be moved," Psa. 66:9, Jer. 13:16, have reference to the dangerous character of the narrow roads or paths of the East, over'rocks and beside precipices, where a sliding foot was often fatal. See also Isa. 8:14; Luke 2:34. Nakedness of feet was a sign of mourning. God says to Ezekiel, "Make no mourning for the dead, and put on thy shoes upon thy feet," Ezek. 24:17. It was likewise a mark of respect. Moses put off his shoes to approach the burning bush ; and most commentators are of opinion that the priests served in the tabernacle with their feet naked, as they did afterwards in the temple, being re quired first to wash their feet as well as their hands, Exod. 30:19-21, The Turks 180 never enter their mosques till after they have washed their feet and their hands, and have put off the outward covering of their legs. The Christians of Ethiopia en ter their churches with their shoes off, and the Indian Brahmins and others have the same respect for their pagodas and temples. See Eccl. 5:1. Eastern conquerors used to set their feet on the necks of conquered princes, Josh. 10:22-24, an action often fig ured in ancient sculptures, Tsa. 8:6; Isa. 49:23; 1 Cor. 15:25; Heb. 2:8. See Nin eveh. The Orientals used to wash the feet of strangers who came off a journey, because they commonly walked with their legs bare, and their feet defended only by sandals, Gen. 24:32; 43:24. So Abraham washed the feet of the 3 angels, Gen. 18:4. This office was usually performed by servants and slaves; and hence Abigail answers David, who sought her in marriage, that she should think it an honor to wash the feet of the king's servants, 1 Sam. 25:41. Paul would have a wid^w assisted by the church to be one who had hospitably washed the feet of saints, 1 Tim. 5:10. The prac tice is still met with in Palestine. Says Dr. Robinson, at Ramleh, "Our youthful host now proposed, in the genuine style of anc'.ent Oriental hospitality, that a servant should wash our feet. This took me by surprise, for I was not aware that the cus tom still existed here. Nor does it indeed towards foreigners, though it is quite com mon among the natives. We gladly ac cepted the proposal, both for the sake of the refreshment and ofthe Scriptural illus tration. A female Nubian slave accord ingly brought water, which she poured upon our feet over a large shallow basin of tinned copper, kneeling before us and rubbing our feet with her hands, and wi ping them with a napkin. It was one of the most gratifying minor incidents of our whole journey." Our Saviour, after his last supper, gave a striking lesson of humil ity and loving service, by washing his dis ciples' feet, John 13:5, 6, though the 8th verse shows that he had also a deeper meaning. In ver. 10 two different Greek verbs are used : " he that is bathed needs not save to wash his feet." After "the washing of regeneration," Tit. 3 : 5, the soul needs only the cleansing of daily defile ments, Luke 11:4. Christ's example we should follow, "by love serving one an other." See Sandals; and for "watering with the foot," Deut. 11:10, see Rivers. FOO BIBLE DICTIONARY. FOR FOOT'MEN, or runners, were attendants on Eastern princes, trained to run before their chariots, I Sam. 8:n ; 22:17. So Eli jah ran before Ahab, 1 Kin. 18:46. The speed and endurance of some of these couriers is almost beyond belief. The word is also the translation of another He brew word meaning unmounted soldiers, Exod. 12:37; Num. 11:21, in whom swift ness of foot was much valued, 2 Sam. 1 :23; 2:18; 1 Chr. 12:8; Jer. 12:5. FOOT'STOOL. The earth is spoken of as God's footstool, Isa. 66:1; Matt. 5:35; so are his enemies, Acts 2:35 ; and also the ark of the covenant, 1 Chr. 28:2; Psa. 99:5. FORE'HEAD, Ezek. 9; Rev. 7:3; 13:16. Immodest women are hard of forehead, Ezek. 3:7-9. An unveiled forehead indi cated immodesty, Jer. 3:3. See Veil. The devotees of different idols in India receive at this day different marks on the fore head, distinguishing them one from an other. By a similar method the slaves claimed by different owners were some times designated. Contrast Exod. 28 : 36-38 with Rev. 17:5; 22:4. FORE'KNOWL'EDGE, Acts 2:23; Rom. 8:29; 11:2; 1 Pet. 1, 2; an es sential attribute of Jehovah, incom prehensible by any finite mind, yet clearly revealed in Scripture as inclu ding all things that shall ever come to pass, Isa. 46:9, 10. Its harmony with freedom of the will in angels and men we cannot question, how ever vain our efforts to adjust the two. FOR' EST. Several are mentioned in the Bible, Josh. 17:15-18; 1 Sam. 22:5; 23:15; 1 Kin. 7:2; 2 Kin. 2:23, 24; 19:23; Zech. 11:2. In "the wood of Ephraim " Absalom was slain, 2 Sam. 18 : 6. " The forest of his Car mel," 2 Kin. 19:23, seems to denote the garden-like cedars of Lebanon. In Zech. 11:2," the forest of the vint age" is rather "the fortified forest," perhaps the thickly-wooded region beyond the Jordan. Royal property in forests was carefully guarded, Neh. 2:8. The word sometimes sym bolizes royal power, Isa. 10:18; also unfruitfulness as opposed to cultiva tion, Isa. 29:17. FORGIVE'NESS, a glorious mani festation of God's mercy to sinners, Exod. 34:7, freely granted for the sake of what Christ has done and suffered, to all who truly repent and accept the Saviour as their only hope, 2 Chr. 7:14; Job 33:27-30; Psa. 103:3, 12; Acts 5:31; 10:43; I3:38i 26:18; and- to no others, Prov. 1:24-31. Forgiveness between man and man is strongly required by Christ; Matt. 5:44,45; 6:14, 15; 18:21-35; and forcibly commend ed by his own example, Luke 23:34; Eph. 4:32. Without it we ourselves cannot be pardoned, Matt. 6:14, 15. FORKS, 1 Sam. 13:21, were simply large flesh-hooks. FORNICATION. This word is used in Scripture not only for the sin of impurity between unmarried persons, but for idola try, and for all kinds of infidelity to God. In Ezek. 16, the Jewish Church is symbol ized as a female infant, growing up to wo manhood, and then wedded to Jehovah by covenant. When she breaks her covenant bygoing after idols, she is justly reproached as an adultress and a harlot, Jer. 2:20; 3:8, 9; Hos. 3:1. Adultery and fornication are frequently confounded. Both the Old and New Testaments condemn all impurity and fornication, corporeal and spiritual — idol atry, apostasy, heresy, and infidelity. See Adultery. EGYPTIANS ATTACKING A FORT ON A ROCK. FORT. Men first used natural caverns as places of refuge, and fortified them for defence, Josh. 10:16; Judg. 6:2; 1 Sam. 181 FOR BIBLE DICTIONARY. FRA 22:1. But forts and castles, both de'.ach?d from city walls, and built upon them, and even within them as citadels, are early mentioned, Deut.' 1:28; 3:5; 2 Kin. 9:17. They were built of timber or of stone, with battlements, ditches, etc., 1 Chr. 27:25; 2 Chr. 27:4; Psa. 107:16. See War. FORTUNATUS, 1 Cor. 16:17, came from Corinth to Ephesus, to visit Paul. Paul speaks of Stephanas, Fortunatus, and Ach- a.cus as the firstfruits of Achaia, and as set for the service of the church and saints. They carried Paul's ist epistle to Corinth. See Stephanas. FOUNTAINS, or perennial springs of good water, were of inestimable value in Palestine, contrasted with the desert and with Egypt, Deut. 8:7; 11:11, and numer ous places took their name from some fountain in their vicinity.. See En. They have furnished to the sacred writers some of their finest illustrations of spiritual things. Thus, God is " the Fountain of living waters," Jer. 2:13. The atonement is a precious fountain of cleansing, heal ing, life-giving power, Joel 3:18; Zech. 13:1. The consolations of the gospel and the felicity of heaven are also described by this similitude, Psa. 36:7-9; Rev. 7:17. The grace of Christ to the believer is inex haustible and satisfying, John 4:14. See Wells. FOWL. Used for birds of prey, Gen. 15:11; Job 28:7; Isa. 18:6; for poultry, Neh. 5:18; 1 Kin. 4:23; and for birds in general, Luke 12:24. See Birds. FOX. This well-known animal is still found in Palestine, as well as the jackal, which is probably meant in several passages where " fox " now occurs. Both animals are cun ning, voracious, and mischievous, Ezek. 13:4; Luke 13:32, are fond of grapes, and do much harm in vine yards, Song 2: 15; the fable ofthe fox and the sour grapes is well known. Both burrpw in the ground or among ruins, Luke 9:58. But the fox is sol itary in his habits, while the jackal hunts its prey in large packs, howl ing and yelping at night, to the an noyance of all within hearing. They follow after caravans and armies, and devour the bodies of the dead, and even dig them up from their graves, Psa. 63:10; Lam. 5:18. Compare 2 Sam. 18:17. The incident in the life of Samson, where jackals are probably re- 182 ferred to, Judg. 15:4,5, has a parallel in the ancient Roman feast of Ceres, goddess of corn, when torches were bound to the tails of numbers of foxes, and they ran round the circus till the fire stopped and consumed them. This was in revenge for their once burning up some fields of corn. In Song 2 : 15 the symbolical reference seems to be to the subtle heart-sins against which we are less on our guard than against tempta tions to overt acts, but which are destructive to the fruits of the Spirit ; like the teachers of plausible false doctrines in the church. frankincense : boswellia serrata. FRANK'INCENSE, Hebrew root while, a white and yellowish resin or gum, glitter ing, brittle, and bitter, an ingredient of the FRA BIBLE DICTIONARY. FRO sacred incense prescribed for the temple- service, Exod. 30:7, 8, 34-36. It was also used by itself in connection with the fine- flour offerings, Lev. 2, and a golden cup of it was daily placed on both piles of the show-bread, Lev. 24:5-9. It was much used as * perfume and fumigator in the East, Song 3:6, and was one uf the precious gifts of the wise men to the infant Saviour, Matt. 2:11. It is called "frank" or free incense from its burning freely, with a steady flame and a highly aromatic odor. The best was obtained from Arabia, Isa. 60:6; Jer. 6:20, but now also from East Africa and from India, an exudation from the incised bark of the Boswellia serrata, a. tree 40 feet high. The Arabian olibanum, or an imitation of it, is now used in Greek and Roman churches. See Incense. FRANK'LY, freely, Luke 7:42. FRAY, Zech. 1:21, to frighten. FRET, Lev. 13:55,' eaten in, corroded. FRIE1TD. Abraham is signally honored in being called " the friend of God," Isa. 41: 8;. J as. 2:23. Christ granted a similar honor and blessing to his disciples, John 15:15. It is a different word, however, in Greek, by which he addressed Judas, Matt. 26:50; the word there translated friend means simply companion, and appears to have been used as a conversational term not implying friendship. The same word occurs in Matt. 20:13; 22:12. FRIN'GES. In the fringes or tassels at the 4 corners of the Hebrew outer mantle, Deut. 22:12, a thread or stripe of sacred blue was inwoven for the purpose assigned in Num. 15:38, 39. Hence perhaps the bor der of Christ's garment was touched by the diseased woman, Matt. 9:20; 14:36. The Pharisees enlarged their tassels, as if spe cially zealous to honor the law, Matt. 23:5. When the Jews became a persecuted race, they dropped the fringed mantle, and wore their fringes on an inner garment. A fringed outer garment is still sometimes worn at morning prayer. FROG, a. well-known amphibious animal, famous as the 2d of th plagues of Egypt, Exod. 8: 1-14. The original word is Egyp tian, and its use by Moses with that of other Egyptian words is an undesigned evidence of the truth of his narrative. The frog, though unclean to the Hebrews, Lev. 11:9-11, was a sacred animal, and one of the gods of Egypt, Haka, was represented with a frog's head; thus this plague was one fulfilment of Exod. 12:12. The magi cians are said to have brought up frogs upon the land by their enchantments ; but as they could not remove them, it is clear that they did not actually produce them. They penetrated everywhere — to the beds of the Egyptians, which were near the ground, and to their ovens, which were cavities in the ground. FRONT'LETS are thus described by Leo of Modena : The Jews take 4 pieces of parch ment, and write with an ink made on pur pose, and in square letters, these 4 passa ges, one on each piece: (1.) " Sanctify unto me all the firstborn," etc., Exod. 13:2-10. (2.) " And when the Lord shall bring thee into the land of the Canaanites," etc., ver. 11-16. (3.) " Hear, O Israel; the Lord our God is one Lord," etc., Deut. 6:4-9. (4-) " I' ye shall hearken diligently unto my com mandments," etc., 11:13^21. This they do in obedience to the words of Moses : " These commandments shall be for a sign unto thee upon thy hand, and for a memorial between thine eyes." These 4 pieces are fastened together, and a. square formed of them, on which the Hebrew letter 127 Shin is written ; then a little square of hard calfskin is put at the top, out of which come 2 leathern strings. This square is put on the middle of the fore head, and the strings, being girt about the head, are then brought before, and fall on the breast. It is called the Tephila, liga- 183 FRO BIBLE DICTIONARY. FUR ment or prayer, of the head. The most devout Jews put it on both at morning and noonday prayer ; but it is generally w orn only at morning prayer. See Phylacter ies. The use of such material aids to de votion, more needed then than now, was desirable only for spiritual ends, Prov. 3:3; 4:21 ; 6:20, 21 ; 7:3. But in many cases it becomes a superstition and a mere form— a worthless substitute for the grace it was designed to strengthen. FROST sometimes occurs on the high grounds in Palestine, and thin ice occa sionally forms on pools in Jerusalem. The quiet beauty of frost formations is hinted in Job 37 : 10. In all that region there is often a greater difference in the temperature of day and night than here, a frosty night being followed by a hot day, Gen. 31:40; Jer. 36:30. FRO'WARD, the opposite of toward, turned away, perverse, Deut. 32:20. FRUITS. The Hebrew has 3 generic terms for the products of the soil : the first, "corn" or "wheat," including all cereals arid field-produce in general; the second, "sweet wine" or "new wine," meaning the grape in all its stages, young and ma ture, vintage-fruit ; the third, "oil," inclu ding olives, figs, dates, nuts, and all or chard-fruits. The first-fruits and tithes of these were devoted to God, Num. 18:12; Deut 14:23. "Fruit "is often used meta phorically, Prov. 1:31; 11:30; Isa. 10:12; 57:19; Psa. 132:11; Gal. 5:22. FULFILLED'. The ordinary meaning of this word is sufficiently obvious. It will ultimately be recorded over against all the predictions and promises of Jehovah, every one having been fully accomplished at the proper time and place, Josh. 23:14; Matt. 2:17; 8:17; 12:17. There are in the New Testament many instances of such an ac complishment, where the purposes of men were very different, and those who figured in'the transaction did not dream of any thing but some evil project of their own. Thus in John 19:24, 28, 36, the actual agents in Christ's crucifixion had no thought that they were fulfilling the purposes of God. Sometimes also the phrase " that it might be fulfilled " signifies that the occurrence to which it is applied is a secondary fulfil ment, a verification, or simply an illustra tion, of the original prophetic passage— yet foreknown and foreordained of God. Thus the words of Hosea 11 :i, "I called my son out of Egypt," refer directly to the exodus of Israel from that land of bondage ; but, 184 as we learn from Matt. 2 : 15, they were not suggested by the Holy Spirit to the prophet without a regard to their foreseen applica tion to the case of Christ. Compare also Matt. 13:14 with Isa. 6:9; Luke 4:18-21 with Isa. 61:1-3; Acts 1:16, 20 with Psa; 109:8. EGYPTIAN FULLERS, FUL'LER, a cleanser and whitener of cloths, probably by stamping or pounding them in water with some alkaline admix ture. The process may have been offen. sive, and " the fullers' field " was outside of Jerusalem, 2 Kin. 18:17, and the fullers' fountain. See En-rogel. We read also of fullers' soap, Mai. 3:2. Christ's robes at the transfiguration were white " so as no fuller on earth can white them," Mark 9:3. Compare Dan. 7:9. He takes away the filthy garments of his people, Zech. 3:4, and gives them the white raiment of his justification, Rev. 3:18. FUL'NESS of the Godhead, Col. 2:9. The attributes ofthe one only true God, in all their perfection, dwell in Christ, and are pledged for the good of his redeemed, John 1:16; Eph. 1:22; Col. 1:19. "The fulness ofthe time," Gal. 4:4, is the period fixed in God's purposes and predictions, when all things previously needed have taken place, Matt. 23:32. Compare Rev. 12:14; 22:10. His 2d coming, like the ist, will occur un failingly " in the fulness of the times," Eph. 1 : 10, though the world scoff at and oppose him, as he foretold, Matt. 24:9 ; John 16:4; 2 Pet. 3:3-14. His people should share his calm faith, John 16:33; Isa. 28:16. FU'NERAL. See. Burial and Sepul chre. FUR'LONG is put, in the New Testa ment, for the Greek, or rather, Roman stadium, which contained about 202 of our yards. The English furlong, one-eighth of a mile, contains 220 yards ; and is thus one-twelfth longer than the Roman stadi um, Luke 24:13. FUR' N ACE, the translation of several FUR BIBLE DICTIONARY. GAD Hebrew words and one Greek, denoting (i) an oven for baking, Gen. 15:17; Neh. 3:11. See Bread. (2.) A furnace for smelt ing or a lime-kiln, Gen. 19:28; Exod. 9:8. (3.) A furnace for refining, Prov. 17:3; Isa. 48:10; Ezek. 22:18-22. (4.) A crucible, Psa. 12:6. (5.) The Chaldee structure for capital punishment, Jer. 29:22; Dan. 3:19- 26; Rev. 1:15; 9:2. FUR'NITURE, equipment, Gen. 31:34; often the vessels of the tabernacle, Exod. 31:7. The household " stuff " in the East was and still is scanty and simple, even among the rich, 2 Kin. 4:10, 13. We read, however, of skins and rugs to recline on, divans often ornate, Prov. 7:16, 17; Amos 6:4; costly hangings, Esth. 1:6 ; handmills, kneading-troughs, ovens, baskets, lamps, cups, and vessels of earthenware, gold, or silver, Gen. 44:2, 5; 1 Kin. 10:21. See House. FU'RY is attributed to God metaphori cally, or speaking after the manner of men ; that is, God's providential actions are such as would be performed by a man in a state of anger ; so that when he is said to pour out his fury on a person, or on a people, it is a figurative expression for dispensing afflictive providences. But we must be cautious not to attribute human infirmities, passions, or malevolence to the Deity. G. GA'AL, contempt, Judg. 9:26-41, son of Ebed. He joined the Shechemites when revolting against Abimelech, son of Gide on, inflamed their passions, and led them to battle, but was defeated, and excluded from the city. GA'ASH, quaking, a hill of Mount Ephraim, north of which stood Timnath- serah, celebrated for Joshua's tomb, Josh. 24:30. The brooks or valleys of Gaash, 2 Sam. 23:30; 1 Chr. 11:32, were probably at the foot of the hill. GAB'BATHA, an elevated place, the place in front of Pilate's palace and judgment- hall, John 19:13. In Greek it is called "the pavement." It was not the usual judgment-hall, or Praetorium, which the Jews could not then enter, John 18:28; I9:4, 9> l3\ but a court with a mosaic floor, on which his seat of judgment was erected. Such ornamented pavements were com mon at that day among the wealthy Ro mans. GA'BRIEL, a mighty one of God, a prin cipal angel. He was sent to the prophet Daniel to explain his visions ; also to Zach- arias, to announce to him the future birth of John the Baptist, Dan. 8:16; 9:21 ; Luke 1:11, 19. Six months afterwards he was sent to Nazareth, to the Virgin Mary, Luke 1:26-38. See Angel. GAD, I., 7th son of Jacob and firstborn of Zilpah, Leah's servant, Gen. 30:11. Leah called him Gad, and said, "A troop cometh." Compare Gen. 49:19; but many Hebrew scholars prefer the rendering, good fortune or prosperity cometh. The tribe of Gad came out of Egypt in number 45,650 m^n, Gen. 46:16; Num. 1:24, 25; 2 : 14. After the defeat of the kings Og and Sihon, Gad and Reuben desired to have their allotment east of the Jordan, alleging their great number of cattle. Moses grant ed their request, on condition that they should accompany their brethren, and as sist in conquering the land west of Jordan, Num. 32. The inheritance of the tribe of Gad lay between Manasseh on the north, Reuben on the south, the Jordan on the west, and the Ammonites on the east. The northwest point stretched to the Sea of Gal ilee. It was a fine pastoral region, though its exposure to the incursions of eastern Arabians compelled the Gadites to be well armed and on the alert, Gen. 49:19; Deut. 33:20; 1 Chr. 5:18-22, 25, 26; 12:8-15. The principal cities of Gad are called cities of Gilead, Josh. 13:25. Gad and Reuben built an altar by the Jordan, Josh. 22:1-29. The tribe was carried captive by Tiglath- pileser, 2 Kin. 15:29; 1 Chr. 5:26, and their land was possessed by the Ammonites, Jer. 49:1. The "men of Gad" are mentioned on the Moabite stone— about 890 B. C— as dwelling in Ataroth "from of old;" a con firmation of Num. 32:34. Their territory is elevated and spreads out in undulating downs, with rich grass and noble trees. Through it the Jabbok and Yarmuk flow in deep ravines down to the Jordan. II. David's friend, who followed him when persecuted by Saul, and was often sent with a divine message to David, 1 Sam. 22:5; 2 Sam. 24:11-19; 1 Chr. 21 :g- 19; 2 Chr. 29:25. Scripture styles him a prophet and David's seer. He appears to have written a history of David's life, which is cited in 1 Chr. 29:29. III. Rendered "troop " in Isa. 65:11, but generally supposed to be the name of a heathen god of Fortune, and perhaps of the planet Jupiter, the star of good fortune. Compare Josh. 11:17; I5:37- Meni in the same verse, translated " number," is sup- 185 GAD BIBLE DICTIONARY. GAL posed by some to mean destiny ; by others, the planet Venus, the goddess of good for tune. GAD'ARA, now Um-keis, a fortified chief city of Decapolis, of considerable impor tance in the time of Christ, and having many Greek inhabitants. It lay south of the river Hieromax, 7 miles southeast of the Sea of Galilee, upon the level summit of a steep limestone hill. A few ruins are found ou the top of the hill ; many excava ted tombs on its sides, still partly occupied as residences ; and warm springs at its base. The country of the Gadarenes ex tended, to the Jordan and the Sea of Gali lee; and in the part of it bordering on the lake occurred the miracle recorded in Matt. 8 : 28 (R. V.); 9:1. A legion of demons were cast out of 2 men, and entered a herd of swine, causing their destruction. It is a fearful and fatal sin to bid the Saviour depart from us, Deut. 31:17; Job 21:14, 15 ; Hos. 9:12; Matt. 25:41. On the other hand, one of the Gadarenes mentioned by Mark and Luke, being healed, entreated to re main with Christ; but being sent to tes tify to his neighbors who rejected Him, obeyed — a true disciple, though absent; While Judas, though present, was false. See Gergesenes. GA'IUS, or Caius, I., a Macedonian, who accompanied Paul in his travels, and whose life was in danger at Ephesus, Acts 19:29. II. A Corinthian convert of Paul, who hospitably entertained the apostle wftile laboring at Corinth, Rom. 16:23; x Cor. 1:14. III. OfDerbe; an attendant of Paul from Corinth, in his last journey to Jerusalem, Acts 20:4. IV. The 3d Epistle of John is addressed "to the well-beloved Gaius;" hospitable, like No. II. above ; yet there was a long interval between the 2 dates, and this Gaius appears to have been one of John's converts, ver. 4. The name was a common one among the Romans. GALATIA, a province of Asia Minor, lying south and southeast of Bithynia and Paphlagonia, west of Pontus, north and northwest of Cappadocia, and north and northeast of Lycaonia and Phrygia. Its name was derived from the Gauls, or Gal- ati ; of whom several tribes, Trocmi, Tolis- toboii, and Tectosages, migrated thither about B. C. 280, and mingling with the for mer inhabitants, the whole were called Gal- lograeci. They were conquered by Rome B. C. 189, yet remained self-governed but 186 tributary until B. C. 26, when Augustus made Galatia a Roman province, with a propraetor. Their language was partly Gallic, partly Greek. These Gauls of Asia retained much ofthe mercurial and impul sive disposition of the Gallic race. Com pare Gal. 1:6; 4:15; 5:7. Galatia was dis tinguished for the fertility of its soil and the flourishing state of its trade. It was also the seat of colonies from various na tions, among whom were many Jews; and from all of these Paul appears to have made many converts to Christianity, 1 Cor. 16:1, and founded several churches. His first visit, Acts 16:6, probably took place about A. D. 51-2, during his 2d missionary journey; and the second, Acts 18:23, after which his Epistle to the Galatians appears to have been written, was several years later. At his first visit he was sick; yet they received him " as an angel of God," and most heartily embraced the gospel. Four or 5 years afterwards, Jewish teach ers, professing Christianity, came among them ; they denied Paul's apostolic author ity, exalted the works of the law, and per verted the true gospel by intermixing with it the rites of Judaism. Paul, learning their state, probably at Corinth, A. D. 57-8, wrote his Epistle to the Galatians with his " own hand," ch. 6:11, not by an amanuensis, as usually. He indignantly rebukes his chil dren in Christ for their sudden alienation from him and from the truth ; vindicates his authority and his teachings as an apos tle, by showing that he received them from Christ himself; and forcibly presents the great doctrine of Christianity— justification by faith — with its relations to the law on the one hand and to holy living on the other. He clearly sets forth the true lib erty of the sons of God, and guards against abuse. The style is both severe and ten der. The general subject of the epistle is the same as of the Epistle to the Romans, and it appears to have been written at about the same time with that. The church es of Galatia are mentioned in ecclesiasti cal history for about 900 years. GAL'BANUM, an ingredient in the in cense burned at the golden altar, in the Holy Place, Exod. 30:34. It is the gum of an umbelliferous plant growing in Eastern Africa, called by Pliny stagonitis. The gum is unctuous and adhesive, of a strong and disagreeable smell, and is valued in medicine. GAL'EED, heap of witness, the name given by Jacob to the mound and pillar GAL BIBLE DICTIONARY. GAM erected by himself and Laban, Gen. 31 : 23, 25, 43-52. See Gilead. GAL'ILEE, a circle, originally a circuit around Kedesh-Naphtali and Hiram's 20 cities, near the northern limits of Israel's territory, Josh. 20:7; 1 Kin. 9:11. In the time of Christ it included all the northern part of Palestine lying west of the Jordan and north of Samaria. It was divided into Upper and Lower Galilee, the former lying north of the territory of the tribe of Zebu- fun, and abounding in mountains ; the lat ter, including the rich plain of Esdraelon, being more level and fertile, and very populous ; the whole comprehending the 4 tribes of Issachar, Zebulun, Naphtali, and Asher. Lower Galilee is said to have con tained 240 towns and villages, of which Josephus mentions Tiberias, Sepphoris, and Gabara, as the principal ; though Ca pernaum and Nazareth are the most fre quently mentioned in the New Testament, Mark 1:9; Luke 2:39; John 7:52, etc. " Galilee of the Gentiles " is supposed to mean Upper Galilee, either because it bor dered on Tyre and Sidon, or because Phoe nicians, Egyptians, Arabians, and other heathen were numerous among its inhab itants; many having been sent there when the Israelites were carried captive by Tig- lath-pileser, 2 Kin. 15:29. The Galileans were accounted brave and industrious, thqugh the men of Judaea affected to con sider them as not only stupid and unpol ished, but also seditious, Luke 13:1; 23:5; John 1:46; 7:52. They used a peculiar dialect and pronunciation, Mark 14:70. Many of the apostles and first converts to Christianity were men of Galilee, Acts 1:11; 2:7, as well as Christ himself; and the name Galilean was often given as an' insult, both to him and his followers. The apostate emperor Julian constantly- used it, and in his dying agony and rage cried out, "O Galilean, thou hast conquered!" Our Saviour resided here from infancy till he was 30 years of age, and during much of his public ministry, thus fulfilling the prophecy, Isa. 9:1, 2; Matt. 4:15, and show ing that God's thoughts often differ from men's, 1 Cor. 1:27-29. Some of its cities incurred peculiar woes by rejecting special light, Matt. 11 : 20-24; but the cities of Naz areth, Nain, Cana, Capernaum, with the whole region of the Sea of Galilee, are sa credly endeared to all Christ's people by the words he there spoke and the wonders he wrought. These are recorded chiefly by the first 3 evangelists. See Sea, III. GALL, a general name for anything very bitter. In Job 16:30; 20:14, 25, it means the animal secretion usually called the bile. In many other places, where a dif ferent word is used in the original, it refers to some bitter and noxious plant. See Deut. 29:18; Jer. 9:15; 23:15. In Hos. 10:4; Amos 6:12, the Hebrew word is translated "hemlock." In Matt. 27:34, it is said they gave Jesus to drink vinegar mixed with gall, which in Mark 15:23 is called wine mingled with myrrh. It was probably the sour wine which the Roman soldiers used to drink, mingled with myrrh and other bitter substances, very much like the " bitters " of modern times, Psa. 69:21. The word gall is often used figuratively for great troubles, wickedness, depravity, etc., Jer. 8:14; Amos 6:12; Acts 8:23. GAL'LEY, Isa. 33:21. See Ship. GAL'LIO, a proconsul of Achaia, under the emperor Claudius, in the time of Paul, Acts 18:12-17. He was the elder brother of the philosopher Seneca, who describes him as Uncommonly amiable and upright. His residence was at Corinth ; and when the Jews of that city dragged Paul before the judgment-seat, Gallio refused to enter tain their clamorous and unjust demands. According to Dion Cassius, he suffered death by order of the tyrant Nero, like his brother Seneca. GAMA'LIEL, recompense of God, I., Num. 1:10; 2:20; 7:54, 59; 10:23. II. Acts 5:33-40, a celebrated Pharisee in the generation after Christ, a doctor of the law, and member of the Sanhedrin. He possessed great influence among the Jews, and is said by some to have presided over the Sanhedrin during the reigns of Tiberius, Caligula, and Claudius. The Talmudists say that he was the son of rab bi Simeon, and grandson of Hillel, the celebrated teacher of the law, and that upon his death the glory of the law de parted. His noble intervention before the Sanhedrin saved the apostles from an igno minious death, and shows that he was gifted with wisdom and tolerance, if not strongly inclined towards the gospel. The apostle Paul thought it a high honor to have been one of his pupils, Acts 22:3, and no doubt received from him not only a zealous en thusiasm for the Jewish law, but many les sons of candor, impartiality, and liberality. His high renown among the Jewish rab bins of later ages seems inconsistent with the tradition that he embraced Christi anity. 187 GAM BIBLE DICTIONARY. GAR GAMES. There are few allusions in Scripture to the games for children and youth, which were no doubt practised among the Hebrews, as the monuments show they were among the Egyptians — some of them innocent and others not, Exod. 32:6; 2 Sam. 2:14; Psa. 19:5; Eccl. 9:11; Zech. 8:5; Matt. 11:16. They had, however, no national games like the fa mous games of Greece and Rome. These were introduced at Jerusalem by Jason about 187 B. C, but erelong were with drawn. Herod the Great afterwards built a theatre and amphitheatre, and celebra ted games every 5 years at Jerusalem and Caesarea, greatly to the displeasure of all faithful Jews. Yet Paul drew frequent il lustrations of Christian life from the well- known games of Greece. See Race. His fight with "beasts" at Ephesus, 1 Cor. 15:32, was probably with fierce and cruel men, for he was a free Roman citizen. In 1 Cor. 9:26, 27 he says, " I bruise under the eyes my body (the old flesh), lest when I have heralded to others I myself should be rejected and lose the prize." GAM'MADIM is used ill the A. V., Ezek. 27:11, as the name of a people; but it means simply heroes. GAR'DENS are often mentioned in Scrip ture, though in a sense somewhat peculiar; for, in the language of the Hebrews, every place where plants and trees were cultiva ted with greater care than in the open field was called a garden. Fruit and shade trees, with aromatic shrubs, sometimes constituted the garden, Song 5:1; though roses, lilies, and various flowers were often cultivated, and some gardens were used only for table vegetables, Gen. 2:8-10, 15; 1 Kin. 21:2; Esth. 1:5; 7:7, 8; Eccl. 2:5, 6. They were located, if possible, beside a river or fountain, Gen. 13:10; Num. 24:6. In other places reservoirs were provided, from which the water was distributed in various ways, as occasion required, Prov. 21:1; Song 4:12-16; Isa. 58:11. Gardens were inclosed by walls, or by hedges of rose-bushes, wild pomegranate -trees, or other shrubs, many of which in Palestine have long and sharp thorns, 2 Sam. 23 : 6, 7 ; Job 1:10; Prov 15:19; Hos. 2:6. Often, however, they were left uninclosed, and were watched when their fruits began to ripen, Isa. 1:8; Jer. 4:16, 17. It is still cus tomary in Egypt, Syria, Arabia, and Hin- dostan to plant a large level tract with melons, cucumbers, etc., and place a small hut or booth on a mound in the centre. In 188 this a solitary keeper is stationed, who re mains day and night until the fruits are -jdY ~=Y- '^^^fc' ~-j =~'*^S*r?™^^^^& ' LODGE IN GARDEN AT EUTAIHA. gathered, Job 27:1s; a picture of desola tion when left to fall into ruins, Isa. 1:8. Gardens and groves were often furnished with pavilions, seats, etc., and were resort ed to for banqueting and mirth, Isa. 51:3; for retirement and meditation, John 18:1; for devotional purposes, Matt. 26:30; John 1:48; 18:1, 2; and for idolatrous abomina tions, 1 Kin. 14:23; Isa. 1:29; 65:3; 66:17; Jer. 2:20; 3:6. A family tomb was often prepared in a garden, 2 Kin. 21:18, 26; John 19:41. There were many gardens around Jerusalem. " Solomon's gardens," Eccl. 2:5, 6, were in Wady Urtas, south of Bethlehem. "The king's garden" was near the pool of Siloam, where the valleys of Hinnom and Jehoshaphat meet, 2 Kin. 25:4; Neh. 3:15; Jer. 39:4. For " hanging gardens," see Babylon, Nebuchadnez zar. The mention of 250 botanical terms in the Hebrew Scriptures evinces the fond ness of the Israelites for plant-culture. .In Song 4:12-16, Christ likens his church to a garden, and calls on the winds of the Spirit to blow upon it that it may be fra grant and fruitful, to the glory of God, John 15:8. The garden of the believer's heart needs the cutting north wind as well as the warm and soothing south wind. GAR'LIC, a bulbous vegetable, of pun gent smell and taste, and highly prized in the East. The Jews acquired a liking for it in Egypt, Num. 11:5. Herodotus men tions it as part of the food of the builders of the pyramids. One variety, called the eschalot, or shallot, was introduced into Europe from Ascalon ; whence its name. GAR'MENTS. The chief garments of the Hebrews were the tunic or inner garment, and the mantle or outer garment. These seem to have constituted a " change of rai- GAR BIBLE DICTIONARY. GAR ment," Judg, 14: 13, 19; Acts 9:39. The tunic was of linen, and was worn next to the skin, fitting loosely to the body ; it had armholes, and sometimes wide and open sleeves, and reached below the knees; that worn by females reached to the an kles. The tunic was kept close to the body by a girdle, and was sometimes wo ven without a seam, like that of Jesus, John 19:23. The upper garment or mantle was a piece of cloth nearly square, and 2 or 3 yards in length and breadth, which was wrapped round the body, or tied over the shoulders, or worn loosely flowing. It was easily thrown off when one wished to have his arms free, Matt. 24: 18 ; Acts 7:58; 22:23. A man without this robe on was sometimes said to be "naked," Isa. 20:2-4; John 21:7. This could be so arranged as to form a large bosom for carrying things; and the mantle also served the poor as a bed by night, Exod. 22:26, 27; Job 22:6. See Bosom, Bed, Girdle. Between these 2 garments the Hebrews sometimes wore a 3d, called me-il, a long and wide robe or tunic of cotton or linen, without sleeves. It is mentioned in 1 Sam. 2:19; 24:4; 28:14; J°b 1:20; 2:12; but is not always a distinct middle garment, but any dress worn over the tunic. The head was usually bare, or covered from too fierce a sunshine, or from rain, by a fold of the outer mantle, 2 Sam. 15:30; 1 Kin. 19:13; Esth. 6:12. The priests, however, wore a mitre, bonnet, or sacred turban ; and after the captivity, the Jews adopted to some extent the turban, now so universal in the East. Women wore a va riety of plain or ornamented head-dresses. Veils were also an article of female dress, Isa. 3:23. They were of various kinds, and were used alike by married and un married women ; generally as a token of modesty, or of subjection to the authority ofthe husband, Gen. 24:65; 1 Cor. 11:3- 10; but sometimes for the purpose of con cealment, Gen. 38:14. See Veil. As the Hebrews did not change the fash ion of their clothes, as we do, it was com mon to lay up stores of raiment beforehand, in proportion to their wealth, Isa. 3:6. To this Christ alludes when he speaks of treas ures which the moth devours, Matt. 6:19; Jas. 5:1, 2. But though there was a gen eral uniformity in dress from age to age, no doubt various changes took place in the long course of Bible history; and at all times numerous and increasing varieties existed among the different classes, espe cially in materials and ornaments. In 189 GAR BIBLE DICTIONARY. GAR early ages, and where society was wild and rude, the skins of animals were made into clothing, Gen. 3:21 ; Heb. 11:37. Spinning, weaving, and needlework soon began to be practised, Exod. 35:25; Judg. 5:30. A coarse cloth was made of goats' or camels' hair, and finer clo:hs of woolen, linen, and perhaps cotton. Their manufacture was a branch of domestic industry, Prov. 31 : 13- 24. Silk was not known until late in Bible times, Rev. 18:12. The great and wealthy delighted in white raiment ; and hence this is also a mark of opulence and prosperity, Eccl. 9:8. Angels are described as clothed in pure and cheer ful white; and such was the appearance of our Saviour's raiment during his transfig uration, Matt. 17:2. The saints, in like manner, are described as clothed in white robes, Rev. 7:9, 13, 14; the righteousness of Christ in which they are clothed is more glorious than that of the angels. The garments of mourning among the Hebrews were sackcloth and haircloth, and their color dark brown or black, Isa. 50:3 ; Rev. 6: 12. As the prophets were penitents by profession, their common clothing was mourning. Widows also dressed them selves much the same. The Hebrews, in common with their neighbors, sometimes used a variety of colors for their gayer and more costly dresses, Judg. 5:30. So also according to our version, Gen. 37:3, 23; 2 Sam. 13:18; though in these passages some understand a tunic with long sleeves. Blue, scarlet, and purple are most frequent ly referred to, the first being a sacred color, Exod. 35:23, 25, 35; 38:18; Esth. 8:15. Embroidery and fine needlework were highly valued among them, Judg. 5:30; Psa. 45:14. The dress of females differed from that of males less than is customary among us. Yet there was a distinction ; and Moses ex pressly forbade any exchange of apparel between the sexes, Deut. 22:5, a custom associated with immodesty, and with the worship of certain idols. It is not clear for what reason clothing in which linen and woollen were woven together was pro hibited, Deut. 22:11; but probably it had reference to some superstitious usage of heathenism. In Isa. 3:16-23, mention is made of the decorations among the He brew women of that day; among which seem to be included tunics, embroidered vests, wide-flowing mantles, girdles, veils, caps of network, and metallic ornaments for the ears and nose, for the neck, arms, 190 fingers, and ankles; also smelling-bottles and metallic mirrors. Ill Acts 19:12, men tion is made of handkerchiefs and aprons. Drawers were used, Exod. 28:42, but per haps not generally. See Fringes, Gir dles, Rings, and Sandals. Presents of dresses are alluded to very frequently in the historical books of Scrip ture, and in the earliest times. Joseph gave to each of his brethren a change of raiment, and to Benjamin 5 changes, Gen. 45:22. Naaman gave to Gehazi 2 changes of raiment; and even Solomon received raiment as presents, 2 Chr. 9 : 24. This custom is still maintained in the East, and GAR BIBLE DICTIONARY. GAT is mentioned by most travellers. In Tur key, the appointment to any important office is accompanied with the gift of a suitable official robe. In the parable of the wedding garment, the king expected to find all his guests clad in robes of honor of his own providing, Matt. 22:11. The spreading of garments in the road, in honor of one riding, was an ancient and general custom in the East, Matt. 21 : 8. GAR'RISON, a military post, i» Sam. 13:23; 14:1-15, or a body of troops, 2 Sam. 8:6, 14. In 2 Chr. 17:2, the same word is used which is translated pillar in Gen. 19:26; perhaps a monument is meant in 1 Sam. 10:5, and a statue or idol in Ezek. 26:11. Compare Jer. 43 : 13. GASH'MU. See Geshem. GATE. The gates of Eastern walled towns were usually two-leaved, of wood, Judg. 16:3, often covered with thick plates of iron or copper, Psa. 107:16; Isa. 45:2; Acts 12:10, secured by bolts and bars, Deut. 3:5; 1 Kin. 4 : 13, and flanked by tow ers, 2 Sam. 18:24, 33- They were some times double — an outer and inner gate, 2 Sam. 18 : 24, 33, and surmounted by watch- towers. Palace and temple gates were highly ornate, Deut. 6:9; 1 Kin. 6:31-35; 2 Kin. 18 : 16 ; Ezek. 41 : 23-25. Large gates slabs, Isa. 54:12; Rev. 21:21, and many stone doors are found in the Hauran ruins. A city was usually regarded as taken when ancient gate. had keys ,2 feet or more in length. Com pare Isa. 22:22. Some gates were of stone ^"¦-.'^I'&Hffl.-iis'-- t&iJili' &Wl £'-/' 3T3Zjf: ANCIENT EGYPTIAN DOOR. its gates were won, Deut. 28:52; Judg. 5:8. Hence "gate" sometimes signifies power, dominion. God promises Abraham that his posterity shall possess the gates of their enemies — their towns, their fortresses, Gen. 22:17. So, too," the gates of hell" means the power of death or of hell itself, Matt. 16:18. Compare Jer. 43:8-11 ; 1 Kin. 7:7. The "Sublime Porte," i.e., gate, at Con stantinople, signifies the Turkish govern ment offices. In Oriental cities there was always an open space or place adjacent to each gate, and these were at the same time the mar ket-places and the place of justice, Gen. 23:10-18; Ruth 4:1-12; Deut. 16:18; 21:19; 25': 6, 7; 2 Kin. 7: 1 ; Neh. 13:19; Prov. 22:22 ; Amos 5:10, 12, 15. See also Dan. 2:48, 49; Zech. 8:16. There, too, people assem bled to spend their "leisure hours, Gen. 19:1 ; often idle loungers, who are coupled with drunkards, Psa. 69:12. The woes of a city were disclosed in the mourning or loneliness of these places of resort, Isa, 14:31; Jer. 14:2. Here, too, the public proclamations were made, and the messa ges of prophets delivered, Prov. 1 :2i ; 8:3 ; Isa. 29:21; Jer. 17:19; 26:10. Near the gate of a city, but without it, executions 191 GAT BIBLE DICTIONARY. GAZ took place, I Kin. 21:13; Acts 7:58; Heb. 13 : 12. To exalt the gate of a house through pride increased one's exposure to robbery, Prov. 17:19. To open it wide and high was significant of joy and welcome, as when the Saviour ascended to heaven, Psa. 24:7, 9; and the open gates of the New Jerusalem, in contrast with those of earthly cities carefully closed and guarded at night fall, indicate the h3ppy security of that world of light, Rev. 21:25. See Jerusa lem. GATH, wine-press, one of 5 principal cit ies of the Philistines, 1 Sam. 5:8; 6:17. It was a notable city, in the border of the Philistines nearest to Jerusalem ; but its site has long been lost. It was the home of Goliath, 1 Sam. 17:4. Compare Josh. 11:22; 1 Sam. 5:8; 6:17; 1 Chr. 20:8. Here David twice sought a refuge from Saul, 1 Sam. 21:10; 27:2-7. It came under his power in the beginning of his reign over all Israel, 1 Chr. 18:1, as a tributary king dom, 1 Kin. 2:39. Rehoboam rebuilt or fortified it, 2 Chr. 11:8. It fell into the hands of Hazael, king of Syria, 2 Kin. 12:17, but probably soon became a free city again, Amos 6 : 2 ; Mic. 1 : 10. Its strong border position rendered it liable to fre quent assault, and to destruction, and it is not mentioned by the later prophets, Zeph. 2:4; Zech. 9:5, 6. Its inhabitants were called Gittites, Josh. 13:3; and Ittai, with 600 fellow-citizens, faithfully served David, 2 Sam. 15:18-22. One site suggested for Gath is Tell-es-Safieh, a hill 200 feet high at the edge of the plain of Philistia, 10 miles east of Ashdod. GATH-HE'PHER, or GIT'TAH-HE'PHER, press on the hill, on the border of Zebu- lun, Josh. 19:13, was the birthplace of Jo nah, 2 Kin. 14:25. It lay near Sepphoris, 5 miles north of Nazareth. GATH-RIM'MON,/V«.s of the pomegran ate, I., a Levitical city in Dan, Josh. 19:45; 21:24; J Chr. 6:69, on the Philistine plain. II. A Levitical town of Manasseh, west of the Jordan, Josh. 2i:25,,perhaps Bileam, i.e., Ibleam, Josh. 17:11; 1 Chr. 6:70. GAU'LAN, or Go'lan, a Levitical town of Bashan, in Manasseh beyond Jordan. From it was named the small province of Gaulonitis, now Jaulan, Deut. 4:43; Josh. 20:8; 21:27; x Chr. 6:71. GA'ZA, or Az?Ah, strong, fortified, now Ghuzzeh, an ancient city in the southwest corner of Canaan, Gen. 10:19, belonging to the Avim, Deut. 2:23, and afterwards to the Philistines. Joshua assigned it to the tribe of Judah, but did not conquer it, Josh. 192 GAZA: THE MODERN GHUZZEH. 10:41; 11:21, 22; 13:3; 15:47. Judahseems to have held possession of it for a while ; but in the time of the Judges it was inde pendent, and one of the 5 chief cities of the Philistines, Judg. 1:18; 3:3; 13:1; 16. Samson carried away its gates, and after- GAZ BIBLE DICTIONARY. GED wards perished under the. ruins of its vast temple. When the Philistines returned the captured ark, Gaza sent a trespass-offering with it, i Sam. 6. It seems to have been subdued by David, 2 Sam. 8:1, and been subject to Solomon, 1 Kin. 4:21, 24, with 5:3, 4; but was afterwards independent again. Hezekiah smote it, 2 Kin. 18:8; 2 Chr. 21:16, 17; 28:18. At subsequent periods it was possessed by Chaldaeans, Persians, and Egyptians, Jer. 47:1, occu pying an important point on the great route from Egypt to Syria. For 5 months it withstood Alexander the Great. About 96 B. C. the Jewish king Alexander Jan- naeus captured and destroyed it. The Roman general Gabinius rebuilt it ; and not long after the ascension of the Saviour, a Christian church was planted there to struggle with the prevailing idolatry. In A. D- 634 it came under the Mohammedan yoke; and in the era of the Crusades had fallen into ruins. It was partially rebuilt and fortified, and is now an unwalled city of some 15,000 inhabitants, chiefly Moham medans; the principal mosque was for merly a Christian church. There are a few Greek Christians, and 3 Protestant schools. The few remains of the old city cover a large but low hill 2 or 3 miles from the sea. The modern city lies more in the plain, which is exceedingly fertile, and abounds in gardens, date-trees, and olive- trees. There was a landing-place and "port" for ancient Gaza, but no harbor worthy ofthe name. It was often referred to by the prophets, Jer^ 25 : 20 ; 47 : 5 ; Amos 1:6, 7; Zeph. 2:4; Zech. 9:5. The south ern route from Jerusalem to Gaza, mem orable in the history of the Ethiopian eu nuch, is called "desert" in Acts 8:26, as passing through a region then destitute of villages. GAZELLE'. See Roe. G before E and I, in Hebrew, O. T., words, is pronounced hard, as in get, give. In Greek words it is soft, like J. GE'BA, or Ga'ba, hill, a Levitical town 'of Benjamin, Josh. 18:24; 21:17; I Chr. 8:6, near Ramah, Neh. 7:30; Isa. 10:29, and not far from the northern border of the kingdom of Judah, 2 Kin. 23:8; Zech. 14:10. Here occurred Jonathan's exploit, 1 Sam. 13:3, and ch. 14. Near Geba David defeated the Philistines, 2 Sain. 5:25. Asa renewed it from the ruins of Ramah, 1 Kin. 15:22. It was 6 miles from Jerusalem, and was separated from Michmash on the north by a deep valley. See 1 Sam. 14 : 4, 5, where 13 Geba is meant. ' The half-ruined village of Jeba well marks its site, facing the village of Mukhmas, across the great Wady Su- weinit, where the invading Sennacherib left his heavy baggage, Isa. 10:28, 29. GE'BAL, mountain, I., the Gebalene of the Romans, was a district of Idumaea, called also at the present day Jebal. It is the northern part of the range of moun tains skirting the eastern side of the great valley El-Arabah, which runs from the Dead Sea to the Elanitic Gulf of the Red Sea, Psa. 83:7. See Jordan. This Psalm is thought by many to have been written on the occasion mentioned in 2 Chr. 20. Compare ver. 14. II. A seaport and district of Phoenicia, north of Beirut, called Byblos by the Greeks, now Jebail ; population 600. The inhabitants were called Giblites, and are denoted in the Hebrew word rendered " stone-squarers " in 1 Kin. 5:18. Their land and. all Lebanon were assigned to the Israelites, but never fully possessed, Josh. 13:5. It was an important place, Ezek. 27:9, and the seat of the worship of Tham- muz. GEDALI'AH, God is my greatness, son of Ahikam, appointed by Nebuchadnezzar to govern Judaea after the destruction of the temple and part of Jerusalem, B. C. 588. Like his father, he honored and befriended Jeremiah, Jer. 40:5. He began the admin istration of his government at Mizpeh with wisdom, but in 2 months was treacherous ly murdered by Ishmael, 2 Kin. 25:22-26; Jer. 39 : 14 ; 40 : 5-41 : 18'. His death was afterwards observed as a national fast, Zech. 7:5; 8:19. The same name was borne by 4 other men, 1 Chr. 25:3, 9 ; Ezra 10:18; Jer. 38:1-4; Zeph. 1:1. GE'DER, a wall, inclosure,forlifiedplace; an ancient Canaanitish town in the plain of Judah, taken by Joshua, Josh. 12:13; per haps the same with Gederah, or with Ge- dor, III. Gede'rah, the sheepcote, a city in the " valley " or hilly lowland of Judah, on the edge ofthe plain, Josh. 15:36. Some think it the same as Beth-gader, 1 Chr. 2:51. Ge- de'roth, sheepfold, and Gederotha'im, two sheepfolds, Josh. 15:41, 36, were in the same region. GE'DOR, a wall, I., Josh. 15:58; a town of Judah, now probabiy fedur, a ruined vil lage 2 miles west of the road midway from Bethlehem to Hebron. A name among Judah's posterity is thus preserved, 1 Chr. 4:4, 18. 193 GEH BIBLE DICTIONARY. GEN II. A Benjamite chief, ancestor of Saul, iChr.8:3i; 9:37. There was also a town in Benjamin which bore his name, 1 Chr. 12:7. III. On the southwestern border of Ju dah, 1 Chr. 4:39. GEHA'ZI, valley of sight, a confidential attendant of Elisha. He appears in the story of the Shunammite woman, 2 Kin. 4: 14-37, and in that of Naaman the Syrian, from whom he fraudulently obtained a por tion of the present his master had refused. His covetousness and falsehoods were pun ished by a perpetual leprosy, 2 Kin. 5:20- 27, B. C. 893. We afterwards find him re counting to king Jehoram the wonderful deeds of Elisha, at the moment when the providence of God brought the woman of Shunem before the king, to claim the res toration of her lands, 2 Kin. 8:1-6. GEHEN'NA. See HlNNOM. GEMARI'AH, accomplished by the Lord, I., the son of Shaphan ; a prince of Judah and a scribe of the temple in the time of Jehoiakim. In his apartment Baruch read aloud to the people the prophecies of Jere miah; and he with others secured a second reading to the nobles, in the king's house. The roll was afterwards read to the king, who caused it to be burned, Jer. 36. B. C. 606. II. The son of Hilkiah, sent to Babylon by king Zedekiah with the tribute-money for Nebuchadnezzar. He was also the bearer of a letter in which Jeremiah warned the captive Jews against false prophets who promised them a speedy return, Jer. 29:3, 4- B.C. 594. GENEAL'OGY, a record of one's ances tors, either the line of natural descent from father to son, or the line in which, by the laws, the inheritance descended, or that preserved in the public records. Nev er was a nation more careful to preserve their genealogies than the Hebrews, for on them rested the distinction of tribes, the ownership of lands, and the right to the highest offices and privileges, 1 Chr. 5:1, 17; 9:1 ; 2 Chr. 12:15; Ezra 2:62. Hence their public tables of genealogies were kept secure amid all vicissitudes. They were a record rather of inherited rights than of mere natural descent, and the " sons " of a patriarch were not necessarily his own children by birth, Gen. 48:5; Num. 26:41. Genealogies were often abridged by the omission of one or more generations, as in Levi's register, Exod. 6:16-20; Da vid's, Ruth 4:18-22; and Ezra's, Ezra 7: 1-5. Errors in copying are very liable to occur 194 in these lists. We find in the Bible a rec ord carried on for more than 3,500 years, 1 Chr. 1 ; 3; 6; and thus were guarded the proofs that Christ was born according to prophecy of the seed of Abraham, and heir to the throne of his father David, Luke 1:32; 2 Tim. 2:8; Heb. 7:14. GENEAL'OGY OF JE'SUS CHRIST. In the evangelists we have the genealogy of Christ for 4,000 years. The 2 accounts in Matt. 1 and Luke 3 differ from each othei"; one giving possibly the genealogy of Christ's reputed father Joseph, and the other that of his mother Mary. The 2 lines descend from Solomon and Nathan, David's sons ; they unite in Salathiel, and again in Christ. Joseph was the legal father of Christ, and of the same family connections with Mary ; so that the Messiah was a descendant of David both by law and " according to the flesh." Another explanation is that both evangelists give us the genealogy of Jo seph : Matthew, who wrote primarily for the Hebrews, giving the line of royal suc cession establishing Christ's claim to the throne of David; and Luke, who wrote for Gentiles, tracing the natural descent of Joseph and his adopted Son upwards to Adam. The discrepancies between the various genealogies may be reconciled in accordance with peculiar Jewish laws, as, for example, the laws of marriage pre scribed in Deut. 25:5; Num. 36:8. Had they been false or contradictory, the ene mies of Christ would have refuted them from the public records. These, which Josephus says were scrupulously kept down to his day, perished with the ruin of the Jews as a nation. It is now, therefore, im possible for any pretended Messiah to prove his descent from David. Melchizedek was "without descent," Heb. 7:3, as regards the Jewish race. No sacred records proved his right to be num bered among that people of God. His priesthood was of a different kind from that of Aaron and his sons. Compare Ezra 2:62. GENERATION, the translation of a He brew word meaning a circle, and of anoth er Hebrew and a Greek word implying successive births ; it is often used for peri ods of indefinite length, but usually denotes the average duration of human life, now currently reckoned as 30 years, but an ciently much longer, Gen. 15:16; Job 42 : 16 ; Eccl. 1:4; Matt. 1:17; 11:16; Luke 1:48. Another derived meaning is, a peculiar breed or race of men, Prov. 30:11-14; Isa. GEN BIBLE DICTIONARY. GEN 53:8; Matt. 3:7; 16:4; Luke 16:8; 1 Pet. 2:9. Still another use ofthe word is in the sense of a genealogical register : the origin and history of a person, family, or thing; in Gen. 5:1, the history of Adam's creation and his posterity; in Gen. 2:4, the history of the creation of heaven and earth ; in Matt. 1:1, the genealogy of Jesus Christ, the history of his descent and life ; in Matt. 24:34, the meaning is, some now living shall witness the initial fulfilment of the event foretold; and in Acts 2:40, save yourselves from the punishment which awaits these perverse men. GEN'ESIS, the ist book in the Old Tes tament, so called from the Septuagint title, signifying "the book ofthe generation " or creation of all things. The Hebrew title is Bereshith, from its opening word, " In the beginning." Moses is generally admit ted to have been the writer of this book, after the promulgation of the law. Its au thenticity is attested by the most indispu table evidence, and it is cited as an inspired record 33 times in the course of the Scrip tures. The history related in it comprises a period of about 2,369 years, according to the lowest computation, but according to Dr. Hales, a much larger period. Begin ning with the sublime announcement of the one only living and true God, it contains in its first main division 11 chapters, the rec ord of events and institutions belonging to the whole human race : an account of the creation ; the primeval state, probation, and fall of man ; the institution of the Sabbath and of marriage ; the history of Adam and his descendants, with the progress of reli gion and the origin of the arts ; the gene alogies, age, and death of the patriarchs until Noah ; the general defection and cor ruption -of mankind, the general deluge, and the preservation of Noah and his fam ily in the ark ; the history of Noah and his family subsequent to the time of the del uge; the repeopling and division of the earth; the building of Babel, the confusion of tongues, and the dispersion of mankind. In the rest of the book general history gives place to the special history of Abraham and his chosen seed— that line of persons and events in which the record of redemption lies— down to the removal into Egypt. It is a religious history, and was written, like the rest of Scripture, " by inspiration of God," with whatever immediate communi cations and direction He deemed neces sary. Yet many of the facts it records must have been well known among the Jews ; the account given by Adam himself may have been orally transmitted through 7 of the patriarchs to Moses, and he may also have had ancient historical writings to consult. The book of Genesis lays the foundation for all the subsequent books of the Bible. Its prophecies are the germ of all subsequent predictions. It is the most ancient of human records, and its value in the history of the earth, of man, and of re ligion, is inestimable. From the varying use of the names of God, Elohim and Jehovah, some critics have inferred that Genesis was compiled from a number of separate documents. But whatever use Moses may have made of previous writings — themselves perhaps inspired — Genesis is certainly no loose and careless compilation, but a carefully pre pared history, showing unity of plan and purpose throughout, and leading on, in the other books of the Pentateuch, to the estab lishment of the Israelitish Theocracy. GENNES'ARET, garden of the prince, now El Ghuweir, the little Ghor. A cres cent-shaped plain on the west shore of the Sea of Galilee, about 3 miles long, from Khan Minyeh on the north to Medjel on the south, and over a mile wide. It is over looked by bare and rugged hills, and is now mostly overgrown with thickets, but in the time of our Lord was a lovely and fertile region, producing a variety of fruits the year round. It was the scene of many of Christ's miracles, Matt, 14 : 34 ; Mark 6:53, and probably of the parable of the sower, Matt. 13:1-8. Magdala lay at its southern border. See Sea, IV. GENTILES, nations, Gen. 10:5; 14:1, including at times the Israelites them selves, Gen. 12:2; 35:11; Luke 7:5, but generally signifying other nations in dis tinction from Israel— often with the implied idea that thev were idolaters and not the favored people of God. Exod. 4:22 ; 19:4-6. In the New Testament, owing to the prev alence of the Greek language, the term " Greeks " is often used for Gentiles, inter changeably with " heathen " and "people," Acts 14:1; 17:4; Rom. 1:16; 2:9. Paul is commonly called the apostle of the Gen tiles, Gal. 2:8; 1 Tim. 2:7, because he preached Christ principally to them, Acts 13:46; whereas Peter preached generally to the Jews, and is called the apostle of the circumcision, Gal. 2:8. The Jews failed to appreciate their nearness to God, Exod. 19:5, 6; Psa. 147:19, 20; 148:14; Rom. 3:1, 2, and his design to make them the means 195 GEN BIBLE DICTIONARY. GES of blessings to all nations, Gen. 22:18. They were therefore " broken off" from the olive-tree, that the Gentiles might be "grafted in," Rom. 11:11-35. See also Luke 21:24. Gentiles, Court of the. Josephus says there was in the court of the temple a wall or balustrade, breast high, having pil lars at regular distances, with inscriptions on them in Greek and Latin, importing that strangers were forbidden to approach nearer to the altar, Eph. 2 : 14. See Tem ple. Gentiles, Isles of the, Gen. '10:5, Asia Minor and the whole of Europe, peopled by the descendants of Japheth. GENU'BATH, son of Hadad IV. GE'RA, enmity, grandson of Benjamin, Gen. 46:21; 1 Chr. 8:3. Perhaps the same person mentioned in Judg. 3:15; 2 Sam. 16:5. GE'RAH, a berry, the smallest Hebrew weight or coin, one-twentieth of a shekel, about 2^ cents, Exod. 30:13. GE'RAR, circle, a chief city of the Philis tines in the times of Abraham and Isaac, near Beer-sheba, Gen. 10:19; 20:1; 26:1,6, 17, in a fertile region, Gen. 26:12. It is mentioned in Asa's time, 2 Chr. 14:13, 14. Conder identifies it with Tel-Jema, a huge mound, with broken pottery, south of Khir- bet el Gerar. See Abimelech. GERASENES', Mark 5:1; Luke 8 : 26 (R. V.). Gerasa was a city on the eastern border of Peraea. Its ruins, now called Jerash, are the finest east of the Jordan. Its name and jurisdiction seem to have reached 40 miles, to the scene of the mir acle referred to under Gadara. See also GERGESENES', Matt. 8 : 28, where the R. V. has Gadarenes. There are ruins called by the Arabs Gersa, midway on the eastern shore of the Sea of Galilee, which probably mark the site of the ancient Ger- gesa, and the exact scene of the miracle. The ruins are but 40 feet from the water, and behind them rises a high and steep hill, with ancient tombs in its side. See Gadara. GER'IZIM, a mountain in Ephraim, be tween which and Ebal lay the city of She chem, Judg. 9:7. The world has beheld few scenes more awful and suggestive than when, having taken possession of Canaan, all the Israelites were summoned to this place, and 6 tribes were stationed on Mount Gerizim to respond to the blessings pro nounced on those who should obey God's law, and the other 6 on Mount Ebal to join 196 in denouncing curses on those who should break it; while all the people solemnly said, Amen, Deut. 11:29; 27:12-26; 28; Josh. 8 : 30-35. See Ebal, Samaritans, Shechem. Some American travellers re cently stationed themselves, part on Ebal and part on Gerizim, and read aloud in turn the blessings and the curses. The voices of each party were clearly heard on the opposite mount. GER'SHOM, a stranger there, the elder of the 2 sons of Moses and Zipporah, in Midian, Exod. 2:22; 18:3. Moses appears to have given them no rank or emoluments but those of simple Levites, 1 Chr. 23:14, 15. Another Gershom, a descendant of Phinehas, is mentioned in Ezra 8:2. B. C. 459- GER'SHON, banishment, called Gershom in 1 Chr. except in 6:1 ; 23:6, the eldest of Levi's 3 sons, from whom the 3 branches of the Levitical tribe were named, Gen. 46:11; Exod. 6:16. The 2d son, however, Kohath, had the honor of producing Moses, Aaron, and the priestly line. Gershon's sons were Libni and Shimi, Exod. 6:17, 1 Chr. 6:17, 20, 21, 39-43, called Laadan and Shimei in 1 Chr. 23:7-11. See also 2 Chr. 29:12, in the days of Hezekiah. Asaph, the famous singer and seer, was of his line. At the Sinai census the Gershonite males numbered 7,500. They encamped west of the tabernacle in the wilderness, and car ried its curtains and other parts from station to station, Num. 3:17, 25; 4:24-28, 38-41, marching in the rear of the first 3 tribes, Num. 10:17. Thirteen cities were assigned to them in Northern Canaan, 2 being cities of refuge, Josh. 21:6, 27-33; T Chr. 6:62, 71-76. GE'SHEM, or Gash'mu, carcase, an Ara bian, who opposed the work of the Lord in the time of Nehemiah, by ridicule and plots, Neh. 2:19; 6:1-9; about 445 B.C. GE'SHUR, a bridge, Gesh'URI, Gesh'u- rites, the name of a district and people in Svria. Geshur lay upon the eastern side of the Jordan between Bashan, Maachah, and Mount Hermon, and within the limits of the Hebrew territory ; but the Israelites did not expel its inhabitants, Deut. 3:14; Josh. 12:5; 13:13. They appear to have been brought under tribute, 1 Chr. 2:23, but to have retained their own kings. • One of David's wives, Maachah the mother of Absalom, was daughter of Talmai king of Geshur; and it was here that Absalom found refuge after the murder of Amnon, and remained 3 years with his grandfather, GET BIBLE DICTIONARY. GEZ 2 Sam. 3:3; 13:37; 15:8. The wild and rocky region they occupied, called Argob, in the New Testament Trachonitis, and now El Lejah, refuge, is occupied by fierce half-independent tribes, and is still sometimes a refuge, as in Absalom's day.— There was also a people of the same name, possibly a branch, in the south of Palestine, near the Philistines, Josh. 13:2; 1 Sam. 27:8. GARDEN OF GETHSEMANE, AND MOUNT OF OLIVES. GETHSEM'ANE, oil-press, a garden or olive-grove in the valley at the foot of the Mount of Olives, over against Jerusalem, to which our Saviour sometimes retired, John 18:2, and in which he endured his agony, and was betrayed by Judas, Matt. ,26:36-57. Here he "trod the wine-press alone," Isa. 63:3; Rev. 14:20, separated from his disciples, and even the chosen 3, taking into his hand the awful cup of sub stitution for the eternal sufferings of those for whom he was to die, though his human nature shrank from the ordeal, Isa. 53:4-6; Heb. 5:7-9. Human sympathy failed him, Isa. 53:3; Matt. 26:40, etc., but he was strengthened by an angel, Luke 22:43. He saw with composure the crowd with lant erns and torches following Judas down from the city gate, and into the dark gar den. At his simple word, " I am he," they " went backward and fell to the ground," John 18:6. Compare Matt. 14:27; Rev. 1 : 18. He restored the ear of Malchus, and gave himself " as a lamb to the slaugh ter." The bloody sweat in the garden has been proved to be an actual though rare phe nomenon. The anguish there endured, it is thought, so weakened the heart of the Redeemer that on the cross it actually broke. Tradition, as early as the visit of Helena the mother of Constantine, A. D. 326, lo cates Gethsemane near the base of Mount Olivet, beyond the brook Kidron. The place now inclosed by a low stone wall may be but a part of the original " garden." It is about 52 yards square, and contains 7 or 8 aged olive-trees, whose roots i.i many places project above the ground, and arc protected by heaps of stones. It is the spot which the Christian visitor at Jerusalem first seeks out, and where he lingers lon gest and last ere he turns homeward. A recent traveller, Professor Hackett, pass ing by Gethsemane one day, saw a shep herd in the act of shearing a sheep. The animal lay on the ground, with its feet tied, the man's knee pressed rudely against its side, while it seemed as if every move ment of the shears would lacerate its flesh ; yet during the whole it struggled not and opened not its mouth — a touching memen to, upon that sacred spot, of the Lamb of God, Isa. 53:7. GE'ZER, a precipice, a royal city of the Canaanites, Josh. 10:33; 12:12, whose king, going to help Lachish, was slain by Joshua; 197 GEZ BIBLE DICTIONARY. GIB between lower., Beth-horon and the Medit erranean, Josh. 16:3; afterwards on the southwest border of Ephraim, and assigned to the Kohathite Levites, Josh. 16:3; 21:21. The Canaanites long remained in it under tribute, Josh. 16:10; Judg. 1:29; and per haps became again independent, but were dispossessed by a king of Egypt, who gave the place to his daughter, the wife of Solo mon, 1 Kin. 9 : 16. It is called Gob in 2 Sam. 21:18; compare 1 Chr. 20:4 — a limit of Da vid's pursuit of the Philistines. Its site is found at Tel el Djezer, 5 miles south by west from Ramleh ; and near by is a hori zontal rock with an inscription in Greek and Hebrew at least as old as 100 B. C, marking "the limit of Gezer," Num. 35:5. Two other similar inscriptions are found not far off. GEZ'RITES, rather Ger'zites, i Sam. 27:8, a tribe on the southwest border of Palestine. Some scholars trace them back to Mount Gerizim. They were rich in Arabian treasures, 1 Sam. 27:9. GHOST, the spirit or principle of life in man. To "give up the ghost," is to die, to yield the soul to God who gave it, Gen. 25:8; Luke 23:46. See Spirit. GI'ANTS. It has long been supposed by many that the first men were of a size and strength superior to those of mankind at present, since a long life is usually associ ated with a well-developed and vigorous frame. We know also that there were giants and families of giants, even after the average length of human life was greatly abridged. These, however, appear to have been exceptions ; and if we judge from the mummies of Egypt, and from the armor and implements of the earliest antiquity found in ancient tombs, in bogs, and in buric 1 cities, we must conclude that man kind never exceeded, in the average, their present stature. There were; however, giants before the flood, Gen. C-.a; fruits of the union of prominent men of Sethitc fam ilies with heathen women, and extraordi nary in stature, power, and crime. After the flood, mention is made of a race called Rephaim, Gen. 14:5; 15:20; Josh. 17:15; kindred with whom were the Emim, early occupants of the land of Moab, and the Zamzummim in Ammon, Deut. 2:10, 20. Og was one of the last of this race, Deut. 3:11, 13. West of the Dead Sea, around and south of Hebron, lived the Anakim, whose aspect so terrified the Hebrew spies, Num. 13:28, 33; Josh. 11:21, 22. Of this race were Goliath and his kindred, 1 Sam. 198 17:4; 1 Chr. 20:4-8. See Anakim, Goli ath, and Rephaim. Giants, Valley of. See Rephaim. GIB'BETHON, lofty place, a city of the Philistines, within the bounds of the tribe of Dan, and assigned to the Kohathite Le vites, Josh. 19:44; 21:23. The Philistines, however, regained it, perhaps when Jero boam drove the Levites out of Israel, 2 Chr. 11:13, i \; and in the time of Nadab they were its masters, and he was slain by Baa sha while besieging it, 1 Kin. 15:27. Omri besieged it ij years later, 1 Kin. 16:15. Its after history and its site are unknown. GIB'EAH, hill, I., a city of Benjamin, 1 Sam. 13:15, and the birthplace and resi dence of Saul king of Israel ; whence it is frequently called " Gibeah of Saul," 1 Sam. 10:26; 11:4; 15:34; 23:19; 26:1 ; Isa. 10:29; and here 7 of his "sons" were sacrificed in retribution for his wrongs to the Gibeon ites, 2 Sam. 21:1-14. Gibeon at an earlier date, when " every man did what was right in his own eyes," was the scene of a flagrant crime, in the violence "done to a young Levite's wife, terribly punished by the de struction of nearly the whole tribe of Ben jamin, Judg. 19:20. The prophet Hosea, 5:8, 9; 9:9; 10:9, holds up Gibeah as a warning; and Israel, unfaithful like the woman at Gibeah, Judg. 19:2; Hos. 1:2; 9:17; 10:13, was destroyed also. See Prov. 1:31. Gibeah of Benjamin is further men tioned in the account of the Philistine wars of Saul and Jonathan, 1 Sam. 13; 14. Its ruins are found at Tuleil el-Ffll, about 4 miles north by west from Jerusalem on the way to Er-Ram. II. A town in the hill country of Judah, associated with Maon, Josh. 15:57, perhaps the same as Gibea, 1 Chr. 2:49. III. The place of the ark for a time after its return by the Philistines, 2 Sam. 6:3, 4. In 1 Sam. 7:1 the name is translated "the hill." And there are numerous other pla ces where one is in doubt whether Gibeah in the Hebrew means a town so called, or simply a hill. Thus "the hill" or Gibeah "of Phinehas," where Aaron's son Eleazar was buried, Josh. 24:33, is now traced in the narrow valley El-Jib, midway from Je rusalem to Shechem. See also Josh. 5:3; Judg. 7:1; 1 Sam. 10:5; 23:19; 2 Sam. 2:24; Jer. 31:39. GIB'EATH, Josh. 18:28, perhaps Gibe ah, I. GIB'EON, hill city, a considerable city of the Hivites, afterwards a Levitical city in the tribe of Benjamin, Josh. 18:25; 21:17. GID BIBLE DICTIONARY. GIH It lay near Geba and Gibeah on the west. Its Canaanite inhabitants secured a treaty with Joshua and the elders of Israel by stratagem, and were made hewers of wood for the sanctuary. See Nethinim. Five neighboring kings unitedly fell upon them, but were defeated by Israel in a great battle, during which "the sun stood still upon Gibeon," Josh. 9 ; 10. Compare Isa. 28:21. Here the tabernacle was set up for many years, though the ark was in Zion, 1 Chr. 16:39; 21:29; 2 Chr. 1:3, 4; and here God communed by night with young king Solomon, 1 Kin. 3:4-15; 2 Chr. 1:3-6. It is also memorable for two scenes in the life of Joab, 2 Sam. 2:12-32. Compare 3: 27; 20:5-10. Saul's slaughter of the Gibeon ites, 2 Sam. 21:1, is not narrated, but its chastisement — as a great crime before both God and man. Here Ishmael was overta ken after his murder of Gedaliah, Jer. 41 : 2. See also Neh. 3:7 ; 7:25, on the return from captivity. Its site is found in the village El-Jib, 6'y£ miles from Jerusalem, on a hill below which are the remains of a "pool" 120 feet by 100. The phenomenon of the apparent stand ing still of the sun, Josh. 10, was easily within the power of the Almighty, with all its consequences. Yet some contend that this is avowedly quoted from a poetical book, ver. 13, and not intended to be un derstood literally. Compare Psa. 114:4. Maimonides, a pious and learned Jew, un derstood the account to mean that Joshua besought the Lord to give him a decisive victory before the sun went down, and that God granted his petition. Giblites, Josh. 13:5. See Gebal. GID'EON, a hewer, the hewer down of Baal, the 5th judge of Israel, and its deliv erer from the Midianites, B. C. 1249 to 1209. He was the youngest son of Joash, family of Abiezer, tribe of Manasseh, and lived at Ophrah near Shechem. Israel was then groaning under the hand of Midian, for its sins ; and in harvest-time the whole coun try was overrun and despoiled by preda tory hosts from beyond the Jordan. It was "the Angel-Jehovah " who summoned Gid eon as a leader, commanded him to de stroy Baal's altar and the image of Ashto reth, "clothed" him with power — compare 1 Chr. 12:18; 2 Chr. 24 : 20 ; Isa. 61 : 10 — gave him signs to confirm his faith, and aided him in 3 battles to secure a complete release from Midian for 40 years. He left 71 sons, one of them a curse to Israel. See Abime lech. In punishing the refractory cities Succoth and Penuel, and the fratricides Zebah and Zalmunna, in soothing the jeal ousy of the Ephraimites, and in declining the crown offered him by the Jews, he evinced those qualities which made him a successful judge. In the matter of the golden ephod, however, he fell into a sin and a snare ; for this memorial of the won ders God had wrought became erelong an object of idolatrous veneration, Judg. 6-8; 1 Sam. 12:11; Psa. 83:11; Isa. 9:4; 10:26; Heb. 11:32. GIER (pron. jeer) -EAGLE, an unclean bird, Lev. 11:18; Deut. 14:17, the Egyptian vulture, still found in all the ancient Bible lands, about the size of a raven, filthy in habits and offensive to the eye and nose, but as a carrion bird very useful, and in Egypt safe from harm and sacred to Isis. See Vulture. GIFTS, in all ages common in the East, no important event passing without them. The Hebrew has 15 different expressions for the idea, specific, general, etc. . gifts from an inferior, Judg. 3:15; 1 Kin. 10:25; 2 Chr. 17:11; from a superior, 2 Sam. 19:42; Esth. 2:18; complimentary, Gen. 33:11; Judg. 1:15; to a judge, as a bribe, Exod. 23:8; to a conqueror, 2 Kin. 16:8 — the lat ter being often a compulsory tribute, or a bid for favor, Psa. 68:29; 76:11; Isa. 18:7; 36:16. A prophet was wont to receive a consulting fee, 1 Sam. 9:7; compare 12:3; 2 Kin. 5:5; 8:9. Presents were sent on any joyful occasion, Esth. 9:19, 22; Acts 2:33, with Eph. 4:8 ; and exchanged at weddings, Gen. 24:22; 34:12; 1 Kin. 9:16. An unusual withholding of a gift was an insult, 1 Sam. 10:27; compare Prov. 23:26; Rom. 12:1; and to refuse to accept a gift a great indig nity, Matt. 22:11. In the New Testament "gifts" sometimes denotes the offerings demanded in the law, Matt. 5:23, 24; the blessings of the gospel, Acts 8 : 20 ; the Christian graces, Eph. 4:8, 11; and mirac ulous endowments, 1 Cor. 12-14. See Cor- ban, Tongues. GI'HON, gushing forth, I., one of the 4 rivers of Paradise ; as some suppose, the Araxes, Gen. 2:13. See Eden and Eu phrates. II. A place beside Jerusalem where Sol omon was anointed king, 1 Kin. 1:33, 38, 45, apparently at a lower level than Jeru salem. Compare 2 Chr. 33:14. The "wa ters " or fountain of Gihon Hezekiah cov ered in from his besiegers, and led into the city on the west side, doubtless by a subterranean channel, 2 Chr. 32:3, 4, 30. 199 GIL BIBLE DICTIONARY. GIL Compare 2 Kin. 20:20. Gihon has usually been looked for on the west or northwest side of Jerusalem, where is now the pool called Mamilla, with water flowing by a small conduit into the city. A section of an ancient aqueduct was found running from west to east 20 feet below the surface, and may be a portion of Hezekiah's con duit. The pool Birket es-Sultan, in the lower part of Hinnom, has been taken for the lower Gihon; but some reasons are found for placing it on the east of the city, at the pool of Siloam. GILBO'A, a bubbling spring, a mountain ridge in Issachar southeast of the plain of Esdraelon, running 10 miles northwest and southeast, having on each side a valley connecting the great plain with the Jordan valley. The valley northeast of Gilboa, between it and the hill Moreh, Judg. 7:1, is the proper Jezreel ; that on the southwest side separates Gilboa from the hills of Sa maria. On the eastern part of Gilboa was the town from which it was named, now Jelbon. In this vicinity Saul and Jonathan were defeated by the Philistines, and died, 1 Sam. 28:4, 5; 31. It is now a dry and barren mountain, 2 Sam. 1:6, 21. En-dor, where Saul went the night before his death, lay 7 or 8 miles away on the northern slope of Moreh. Beth-shean, whither his body was sent, lay at the eastern opening of the valley of Jezreel. GIL'EAD, a hard, rocky region; I., a mountainous tract adjoining the Jordan valley on the east side of the river, extend ing from Bashan on the north to Ammon on the south, and sloping down the Ara bian plateau on the east. It is about 60 miles long and 20 in breadth. It is called " Gilead," Gen. 37:25; Psa. 60:7; "the land of Gilead," Num. 32: 1 ; or " Mount Gilead," Gen. 31 : 25. In a restricted sense the name may have denoted only the mountain range a few miles south of the Jabbok, some 10 miles long from east to west, still called febel fil'ad, and on which are ruins called Jil'ad. Jacob entered Gilead from the northeast, beyond the Jabbok and Maha- naim, Gen. 31:21-25; and by a play upon the name, slightly changing its sound and meaning, he called the spot Galeed, mound of witness, ver. 45-48. At the conquest Gilead was allotted to Gad and the half- tribe of Manasseh, Deut. 3:12, 13, 16, 17; Josh. 13:24-31. As a border land it was exposed to the wandering tribes of Arabia, and was somewhat isolated from Israel west of the Jordan; butjephthah and Eli- 200 jah were Gileadites. Its mountains fur nished an asylum for refugees, 1 Sam. 13:7. Here Ishbosheth made his headquarters, 2 Sam. 2:8; here David found refuge, 2 Sam. 17; and hither probably Christ twice with drew during his ministry, John 10:40. Here too, in Pella, his followers found refuge when Jerusalem was besieged. Mount Gilead, like most of the land be yond Jordan and the Dead Sea, viewed from the west across the Jordan depres sion stretches like a gigantic wall along the horizon, in Gilead 2,000 or 3,000 feet above the sea level. The surface is bro ken by many hills clothed with forests, the soil is fertile, and the scenery grand. It is still "a land for cattle," and the Bedouins value its rich pastures; but only a small portion is tilled. It was famous in early ages for its spices and aromatic gums, Gen. 37:25; Jer. 8:22; 46:11. See Ramoth-Gil- ead. II. The name of several, men, Num. 26:29, 30; Judg. 11: 1, 2; 1 Chr. 5:14. GIL'GAL, a wheel, or rolling, I., a cele brated place between the Jordan and Jeri cho, where the Israelites first encamped after the passage of that river ; where also they were circumcised, thus renewing their covenant with God, which had been for feited by neglect, and kept their first Pass over in Canaan, Josh. 4:19; 5:2-12; Mic. 6:5. It continued to be the headquarters of the Israelites for several years, while Joshua was occupied in subduing the land, Josh. 9:6; 10:6, 15, 43. A village was after wards built there, Josh. 15:7. Here the tabernacle rested until its removal to Shi- loh, Josh. 18:1; here also, according to the prevalent opinion, Samuel offered sacrifi ces, and held in turn his court as a judge of Israel; and here Saul was recrowned, 1 Sam. 7:16; 10:8; 11:15; 13:7^9; I5:33- Here the men of Judah met David on his return to Jerusalem, 2 Sam. 19:15, 4°- At this day no traces of it are found. Accord ing to Josephus, it lay 1% miles east of Jericho. II. Another Gilgal lay near Antipatris, Josh. 12:23. III. A third was in the mountains of Ephraim, north of Bethel, Deut. 11:30; 2 Kin. 2 : 1-6. A school of the prophets was here established, 2 Kin. 4:38; and yet it afterwards appears to have become a seat of idolatry, Hos. 4:15; 9:15; 12:11; Amos 4:4; 5:5- This is probably the Beth-Gilgal of Neh. 12:29, now represented by Jiljilieh, 5 miles from Bethel and 4 from Shiloh. GIL BIBLE DICTIONARY. GLA GI'LOH, exile, a town in the hills of Ju dah, Josh. 15:51; 2 Sam. 15:12; 17:23. GI'MEL, camel, Psa. 119, the 3d Hebrew letter. GIM'ZO, rich in sycamores, a town in Dan, captured by Philistines in the time of Ahaz, 2 Chr. 28 : 18 ; now fimzu, a village one hour from Ludd on the road to Jeru salem from Joppa. GIN, a trap; usually a net or "snare," with an elastic stick to spring it, Isa. 8:14; Amos 3:5. In Job 40:24, margin, the stick or ring passed through the nose of an un ruly animal. ANCIENT girdles. GIRD, GIR'DLE. The Orientals com monly dress in loose robes flowing down about the feet ; so that when they wish to run, or fight, or apply themselves to any business, they are obliged to bind their garments close around them with a sash or girdle. See John 13:4, 5, 15. Hence it was a symbol of strength and activity, 1 Sam. 2:4; Job 12:18; Isa. 45:5; Jer. 13:11 ; and "to have the loins girded," is to be prepared for action or service, 2 Kin. 4:29 ; Acts 12:8; to be waiting for the call or coming of one's Master or Lord, Luke 1 2 : 35. A tightened girdle was also thought to increase the power of endurance, and the simile is used in exhortations to Chris tian courage and fortitude, Job 38:3; Jer. 1:17; Eph. 6:14; 1 Pet. 1:13. To have the girdle loosed is to be unnerved and un prepared for action, Isa. 5:27; 11:5. Gir dles of leather were worn by the common people; and also by prophets, 2 Kin. i:8; Matt. 3:4. Sashes were likewise made of linen cloth, Jer. 13:1; also of silk, some times embroidered, Prov. 31 : 24 (" stom acher," Isa. 3:24); Dan. 10:5; Rev. 1:13; 15:6; and were used as presents, 1 Sam. 18:4; 2 Sam. 18:11. They were often wide and long ; and were folded lengthwise, and passed several times around the body. The girdle, moreover, answered the pur pose of a purse or pouch, to carry money and other things; see Matt. 10:9; Mark 6:8, where the word purse is put for fww?, Greek, girdle. The Arabs and other Ori entals wear girdles in the same manner at the present day ; they also carry a knife or dagger stuck in them, as was also the cus tom of the Hebrews, 1 Sam. 25:13; 2 Sam. 20:8. Clerks carried their inkhorns, car penters their rules, etc., in the same way, Ezek. 9:2. The girdles of the priests were of exceedingly fine linen, worn over the tunic, passing several times around the body, and with the ends hanging down to the feet, Exod. 28:4, 39, 40; 39:29; Lev. 16:4; Isa. 22:21. The " curious girdle " of the high-priest was a part of the ephod itself, Exod. 28:8; 39:5. See cuts in Gar ments. GIR'GASHITES. See Canaanites. GITTAH-HE'PHER, Josh. 19 : 13, the same as Gath-hepher. GITTA'IM, two wine-presses, 2 Sam. 4:3, a place occupied by Benjamites after the captivity,- Neh. 11:33. Site unknown, but northwest of Jerusalem. GITTITES. See Gath and Obed-edom. GIT'TITH, belonging to Gath. It proba bly denotes either a musical instrument or a kind of music derived from Gath, where David sojourned for a time during the per secution of Saul, 1 Sam. 27: 1-7. The word Gath also signifies in Hebrew a wine-press. Hence not a few have supposed that it de notes either an instrument or a melody used in the vintage. It is prefixed to Psalms 8, 81, 84, all of which require an animated strain of music. GLASS was well known to the ancients, and no doubt to the Jews ; and the arts of blowing, coloring, grinding, and cutting it were familiar to the ancient Egyptians. Images of glazed pottery and broken wine- vases have been found in Egypt, dating as far back as the Exodus; and the earliest known specimen of transparent glass was a bottle found bearing the name of Sargon, 700 B. C, and opaque glasses of many cen turies earlier. Glass does not appear to have been used at that time for mirrors, nor for windows, but for cups, bottles, vases, ornaments, sacred emblems, etc. In the New Testament glass is an emblem of smoothness and brightness, and crystal of transparency, Rev. 4:6; 15:2. The gold 201 GLE BIBLE DICTIONARY. GOA of the New Jerusalem has the gem-like brilliancy of translucent glass, Rev. 21:18, 21. Glass is probably alluded to in Job 28:17, where our English version has the word crystal. See Looking-glasses. GLEAN'ING, a right of the poor ill har vest and vintage, under the Mosaic law, Lev. 19:9, 10; Deut. 24:19-21; Ruth 2. Compare Judg. 8:2. Robinson often saw women in Palestine beating out with a stick small quantities of grain which they had probably gleaned. kite: milvus egyptius. GLEDE, a kind of hawk or kite, Deut. 14:13, an unclean bird of prey. GLO'RY, the distinctive excellence of any person or thing and its manifestation. The glory of Lebanon was in its trees, Isa. 60:13; the glory of a man is the soul, or often the tongue, the soul's organ, Psa. 16:9; 30:12, margin; 57:8; 108:1; Acts 2 : 26. The glory of God denotes his divine perfections disclosed to his creatures, Exod. 33:18, 19; Psa. 63:2; Hab. 2:14; often with a visible effulgence betokening his special presence, Exod. 16:7, 10; 24:9, 10, 16, 17; 40:34; 1 Kin. 8:11; Psa. 80:1; Acts 7:2. God's glory is revealed in all his works of creation and providence, Psa. 19:1; Isa. 6:3; Ezek. 28:22; Rom. 1:19, 20, 23; but above all in Christ and redemption, John 1:14; 2:11; 2 Cor. 4:6; Heb. 1:3 — where the word " brightness " means not a reflect ed lustre, but the outflowing "effulgence" of the Father's glory. The chief end of the Christian is to live to the glory of God, 1 Cor. 6:20; 1 Pet. 2:q, showing forth his praise by obeying his law, Matt. 5:16; John 17:4; 1 Cor. 10:31. Contrast Rom. 1:21. The adjuration, " Give God the glory," means, confess the truth in view of his 202 omniscience, Josh. 7 : 19 ; John 9 : 24. Glory is sometimes expressive of the heavenly state of Christ and believers, 1 Tim. 3:16; 1 Pet. 5:10. GNAT, a small 2-winged insect, a mos quito, Matt. 23:24; where read, as in the first English translations, " Ye strain out a gnat." Filtering wine, for fear of swallow ing an insect and becoming ceremonially unclean, Lev. 11:23, is applied to those who are superstitiously anxious in avoiding small faults, yet do not scruple to commit great sins. GO ABOUT, seek or endeavor, John 7:19, 20; Acts 9:29; Rom. 10:3. GO BEYOND, 1 Thess. 4:6, overreach. GO TO, an exhortation, Gen. 11:3, 4, 7, or a call for attention, Eccl. 2:1 ; Isa, 5:5; Jas. 4:13; 5:1. GOAD, ox-goad, Judg. 3:31, a pole 6 or 8 feet long with a sharp point at one end, to stimulate and guide the oxen, Eccl. 12:11, and a chisel-like iron at the head for clear ing the ploughshare, cutting roots, etc. See Plough ; also Shamgar; and compare Judg. 5:8; 1 Sam. 13:19-22. In Acts 26:14 the word pricks is used for goads in the A. V., also in Acts 9:5, where the clause is omitted in the R. V., not being found in the Greek MSS. Contrast Matt. 11 129. llfe-A SYRIAN goat: capra mambrica. GOATS formed an important part of the pastoral wealth of the East, Gen. 15:9; 27:9; 30; 31; 32: m; 37:3*; and wen; raised bv the Israelites in Canaan and Egypt, Exod. 12:5; 1 Sam. 25:2; and by the surrounding nomadic tribes, 2 Chr. 17:11; Ezek. 27:21. They were regarded as clean for sacrifice, Exod. 12:3; Lev. 3:12; Num. 15:27; and their milk and the GOA BIBLE DICTIONARY. GOD ypung kids were much used forfood, Deut. 14:4; Judg. 6:19; Prov. 27:27; Luke 15:29. The common leather bottles were made of their skins. Goat-skins were used for kneading-cloths, Exod. 12:34; and were worn as clothing by the poor, ascetics, mourners, and prophets, 1 Kin. 21:27; Isa- 20:2; Heb. .11:37; Rev. 6:12; but goats' hair was woven into outer garments, and was the common covering for tents, Exod. 26:7; 35:6; Song 1:8, that used for the tab ernacle being specially fine, Exod. 25:4; 35:26. Several kinds of goats were kept in Palestine : one kind having long silky hair, like the Angora, Song 4:1; 6:5, and anoth er, long and broad ears. This kind is prob ably referred to in Amos 3:12, and is still the common goat of Palestine. For many HEAD OF THE SYRIAN GOAT. sacrifices goats and kids were as accepta ble as sheep and lambs. For one, on the Day of Atonement, goats exclusively could be used, Lev. 16:5-28. See Expiation. A kid of the goats was the prescribed sin- offering on various occasions, Num. 28:11- 31; 29:1-38. The he-goat, leader of the flock, Prov. 30:31; Jer. 56:8, symbolizes leaders in wickedness, Isa. 14:9: Zech. 10:3. Compare Ezek. 34:17; Matt. 25:32, 33. Sa'ii\ the shaggy goat of the sin- offering, Lev. 9:15; Ezek. 43:25, is trans lated "hairy " in Gen. 27:11, 23; "rough" in Dan. 8:21; " devils " in Lev. 17:7; 2 Chr. 11:15; "satyrs" in Isa. 13:21; 34:14. A one-homed he-goat was an acknowledged symbol of the Macedonian empire, Dan. 8:5. See Wild-goat. Wild-goats are mentioned in 1 Sam. 24:2; Job 39:1; Psa. 104:18; Prov. 5:19, A. V. ''roe." This is doubtless the Ara bian Ibex or Beden, a large and vigorous animal still found in the mountains in the peninsula of Sinai, and east and south of %*¦ ,'fp the Dead Sea. These goats are very simi lar to the bouquetin or chamois of the Alps. They feed in flocks of a score or two, with one of their number acting as a sentinel. At the slightest alarm they are gone in an instant, darting fearlessly over the rocks, and falling on their horns from a great height without injury. Their horns are 2 or 3 feet long, and are used by the Arabs for bottles and cut into knife-handles, etc. For Scape-goat, see Expiation. GOB, a pit, 2 Sam. 21:18, 19, called Gezer in 1 Chr. 20:4; the scene of 2 battles be tween David's heroes and the Philistines. Some copies of the Septuagint and the Syriac have Gath in 2 Samuel. Compare 2 Sam. 21:20; 1 Chr. 20:6. GOD. This name, the derivation of which is uncertain, we give to that eternal, infi nite, perfect, and incomprehensible Being, the Creator of all things, who preserves and governs all by his almighty power and wisdom, and is the only proper object of worship. In our Scriptures God is the translation of various Hebrew and Greek words: 1. El, the mighty one, Gen. 14:18; 16:13; 17:1, etc. *. El6h!m, Deut. 32:15; Neh. 9:17, etc., the plural form ofthe word E16ah (used in Job and Daniel), expressing the excellence and majesty of the true God. 3. Jehovah, Lord— printed God in the Bible when preceded by another Hebrew word translated Lord. 4. The Greek The- os. 5. The Greek Kurios, Acts 19:20, 203 GOD BIBLE DICTIONARY. GOL usually translated Lord. All these words except Jehovah are in some cases applied to idols as well as to the true God. Other Hebrew names applied to the Deity but not translated God, are Elyon, " the Most High," Gen. 14:22; Shaddai, "the Al mighty," Gen. 17:1; Adonai, " Lord." The proper Hebrew name for God is JEHO VAH, which signifies He is. But the Jews, from a feeling of reverence, avoided pro nouncing this name, substituting for it, wherever it occurs in the sacred text, the word Adonai, Lord ; except in the expres sion Adonai Jehovah, Lord fehovah, for which they put Adonai El6h1m, Lord God. This usage, which is not without an ele ment of superstition, is very ancient, da ting its origin some centuries before Christ ; but there is no good ground for assuming its existence in the days of the inspired Old Testament writers. The word Jeho vah occurs in the stone record set up by king Mesha, which proves that this name of the Hebrews' God was not then un known to foreigners. Compare Josh. 2:9, 10. In Exod. 3:14, God replies to Moses, when he asks Him his name, I am that I am; which implies the eternal self-exist ence of Jehovah, and his incomprehensible nature. The name I am means the same as Jehovah, the first person being used instead of the third. According to De- litzsch the primitive name was Jah or Jahu, as it usually appears in compound names. The Bible assumes and asserts the exist ence of God, " In the beginning God cre ated the heavens and the earth;" and is itself the most illustrious proof of his ex istence, as well as our chief instructor as to his nature and will. It puts a voice into the mute lips of creation; and not only reveals God in his works, but illus trates his ways in providence, displays the glories of his character, his law, and his grace, and brings man into true and sa ving communion with him. It reveals him to us as a Spirit, the only being from ever lasting and to everlasting by nature, un- derived, infinite, perfect, and unchangea ble in power, wisdom, omniscience, omni presence, justice, holiness, truth, goodness, and mercy. He is but one God, and yet exists in 3 persons, the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit; and this distinction of the Three in One is, like his other attri butes, from everlasting. He is the source, owner, and ruler of all beings, foreknows and predetermines all events, and is the eternal judge and arbiter of the destiny of 204 all. True religion has its foundation in the right knowledge of God, and consists in supremely loving and faithfully obeying him. See Jesus Christ, Holy Spirit, Trinity. GOD'LINESS, right reverence and wor ship. It denotes the spirit that gives God his due supreme place in the heart and life, Gen. 5:22, 24; Psa. 12:1; Mic. 6:8; Mai. 2:15; 1 Tim. 4:7, 8; 2 Pet. 1:6. In 1 Tim. 3 : 16, " the mystery of godliness " means the substance of revealed religion, the " mystery " revealed in the incarnation and work of Christ, who is the Object of the faith of the godly, and the Life of their obedience. In -i Tim. 6:5, read, "sup posing that godliness is a way of gain," R. V. GODS. The words god and gods, He brew El6him, are several times used in Scripture to express the power, office, or excellence of some created beings, as an gels, magistrates, Exod. 22:20, 28; Psa. 86 : 8 ; 97 : 7 ; often also for the false gods of the heathen. These were exceedingly nu merous, and are denoted by various terms, signifying vanity, falsehood, etc. Among the first objects to be deified were the sun, the moon, and the chief powers of nature. Innumerable animals, deceased men, all ages, passions, and conditions of man, and everything which fear, lust, malice, pride, or caprice could suggest, were made ob jects of worship. The gods of modern India are numbered by millions. GOD SPEED, 2 John 10, II, A. V., good speed, as in Gen. 24: 12, a cordial greeting, "speed " meaning prosperity. GOG and MAGOG are usually spoken of together in Scripture. In Gen. 10:2, Ma gog, which seems to denote a country with its people, is reckoned among the descend ants of Japheth. In Ezek. 38 ; 39, Magog apparently signifies a country with its peo ple, and Gog the king of that people, prob ably the Scythians or the barbarous tribes north of the Caucasus. They reappear in the later predictions of John as enemies of the people of God, who are to be signally overthrown, Rev. 20:7-9. GO'LAN, exile, or circle, a city of Bashan, Deut. 4:43; assigned to Manasseh and to the Gershonite Levites, one of the 3 cities of refuge east of the Jordan, Josh. 20:8; 21:27; 1 Chr. 6:71. Its site is now un known. It became the head of the prov ince named after it Gaulohitis, now Jaulan, See Bashan. GOLD, known and valued from the ear- GOL BIBLE DICTIONARY. GOS liest times, Gen. 2:11, 12; found in many parts of the world, and obtained anciently in Ophir, Job 28 : 16 ; Parvaim, 2 Chr. 3:6; Arabia, 2 Chr. 9 : 14 ; Sheba, and Raamah, Ezek. 27 : 22. Job alludes to gold in vari ous forms, Job 22 : 24 ; 28 : 15-19. Abraham was rich in it, and ornaments were early made of it, Gen. 13:2; 24 : 22, 35. It is spo ken of throughout Scripture ; and the use of it among the ancient Hebrews, in its na tive and mixed state, and for the same pur poses as at present, was very common, as well as among other nations, Esth. 1:6; Dan. 3:1; Nah. 2:9. It was not coined among the Jews until the time of Judas Maccabaeus, but was weighed in exchange, Gen. 43 : 21. In the days of David and Sol omon it was plentiful, 1 Kin. 10; 2 Chr. 1:15; 9:1,9, 13-24. In Job 22 : 25, for " de fence" read "gold," as in ver. 24. The ark of the covenant was overlaid with pure gold ; the mercy-seat, the vessels and uten sils of the tabernacle and temple were all of gold, Exod. 38:24; 1 Chr. 22:14; 29:4, 7; 2 Chr. 3; 4. GOLD'SMITH, Neh. 3:8, 32 ; Isa. 40 : 19 ; 41:7; 46:6; literally a founder or finer. Compare Mai. 3:2, 3. Metallurgic pro cesses are also mentioned, Prov. 17:3; 27:21. The Scriptures refer to the work of Egyptian goldsmiths, and the sculptures of Thebes and Beni-hassan depict their processes and the beautiful results. GOL'GOTHA, the Hebrew name for Cal vary, which see. GOLI'ATH, exile, a celebrated giant of Gath, who challenged the armies of Israel, and was encountered and slain by David. The history is contained in 1 Sam. 17. His height was g'A feet; or, if we reckon the cubit at 21 inches, over 11 feet. He was one of 5 sons of a giant, margin Rapha, of Gath, Josh. 11:21, 22; see Anakim and Rephaim; 2 Sam. 21:15-22; 1 Chr. 20:4-8. See Giants. GO'MER, completion, I., Gen. 10 : 2, 3 ; 1 Chr. 1:5; Ezek. 38:6, a son of Japheth, and father of Ashkenaz, Riphath, and To- garmah. He is generally believed to have settled the northern shores of the Black Sea, and given name to the ancient Cim merians and to the Crimea. About 700 B. C. a part of his posterity ravaged Asia Minor for a time. Traces of his name and parentage are also found in the Cimbri, Umbri, and Cambri of historians, in Cymry and Kumeraeg, the names of the Welsh people and language, among the Gaels of Ireland and Scotland. Yet some ethnolo gists regard this identification ofthe Cimbri with the Cimmerians and the Celtic race as baseless, except the similarity of names. II. A harlot whom the prophet Hosea appears to have married in prophetic vis ion, as directed by God, that Israel might be ied to reflect on the guilt of their spirit ual uncleanness or idolatry, Hos. 1. GOMOR'RAH, submersion, one ofthe cit ies in the fruitful vale of Siddim, near the southern part of the famous Dead Sea, miraculously blasted by God. See Sodom. GOOD'MAN, Luke 12:39, "master," as in Matt. 10 : 25, or " householder," as in Matt. 13 : 27 ; also Prov. 7 : 19. GO'PHER, the wood of which Noah's ark was built. Many suppose it to be the cy press, which abounded in Assyria. Others take Gopher to be a general name for res inous trees, as the cedar, cypress, fir, and pine, Gen. 6: 14. GOSHEN, I., the^ tract of country in Egypt inhabited by the Israelites from the time of Jacob to that- of Moses. It was probably the tract lying east of the Pelu- sian arm of the Nile, towards Arabia, the modern district Esh-Shurkiyeh, including the valley et-Tumeylat. See Egypt. It appears to have reached to the Nile, Exod. 1 : 22 ; 2:3, since the Jews ate fish in abun dance, Num. 11:5, and practised irrigation, Deut. 11:10. It was near Heliopolis and Rameses, and not far from the capital of Egypt, Gen. 45: 10; 47:11; Exod. 8-12. It was a part of "the best of the land," at least for the pastoral Hebrews, Gen. 46:34, and was evidently better watered and more fertile than at present. Here they greatly multiplied and prospered, Gen. 47:27; Exod. 1:7, and here they were sorely af flicted, and yet not forgotten of God, Exod. 8 : 22 ; 9 : 26. Many Egyptians dwelt among and around them, Exod. 11:2; 12:12, 13, 22, 23, and the Hebrews more or less ac quired the arts of Egyptian civilization, Exod. 31:1-11; 35:10, 30-35; Acts 7:22. The railroad from Cairo to Suez makes a northern curve through Goshen, and the fresh water canal on the west bank of the Suez canal traverses it in going from the Nile at Cairo to Ismailia. See Pharaoh. II. A district in Southern Palestine, ap parently on the border of the hill country, perhaps adjacent to III. III. A city in the mountains of Judah, Josh. 15:51; not identified. GOS'PEL signifies good news, and is that revelation and dispensation which God has made known to guilty man through Jesus 203 GOS BIBLE DICTIONARY. GOS Christ our Saviour and Redeemer. Scrip ture speaks of " the gospel of the king dom," Matt. 24 : 14, the gospel " of the grace of God," Acts 20:24, "°f Christ," and "of peace," Rom. 1 :i6; 10:15. It is the "glo rious " and the " everlasting " gospel, 1 Tim. 1:11; Rev. 14:6, and well merits the no blest epithets that can be given it. The declaration of this gospel was made through the life and teaching, the death, resurrec tion, and ascension of our Lord. The writings which contain the recital of our Saviour's life, miracles, death, resur rection, and doctrine are called gospels, because they include the best news that could be published to mankind. We have 4 canonical gospels — those of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. These have not only been generally received, but they were received very early as the standards of evangelical history, as the depositories of the doctrines and actions of Jesus. They are appealed to under that character both by friends and enemies ; and no writer impugning or defending Christianity ac knowledges any other gospel as of equal or concurrent authority, although there were many others which purported to be authentic memoirs of the life and actions of Christ. Some of these apocryphal gos pels are still extant. They contain many errors and legends, but have some indirect value. There appears to be valid objection to the idea entertained by many, that the evangelists copied from each other or from an earlier and fuller gospel. Whether Mark wrote with the gospel by Matthew before him, and Luke with Matthew and Mark both, or not, we know that they "spake as they were moved by the Holy Ghost" while recounting the works and sayings of Christ which they had seen or knew to be true, using no doubt the most authentic written and oral accounts of the same current among the disciples. They have not at all confined themselves to the strict order of time and place. Gospel of Matthew. The time when this gospel was written is very uncertain. All ancient testimony, however, goes to show that it was published before the oth ers. It is believed by many to have been written about A. D. 38, by others between 50 and 60. It has been much disputed whether this gospel was originally written in Hebrew or Greek. The unanimous tes timony of ancient writers is in favor of a Hebrew original, that is, that it was writ- 206 ten in the language of Palestine and for the- use ofthe Hebrew Christians. But, on the other hand, the definiteness and accu racy of this testimony is drawn into ques tion ; there is no historical notice of a trans lation into Greek; and the present Greek gospel bears many marks of being an orig inal ; the circumstances of the age, too, and the prevalence of the Greek language in Palestine, seem to give weight to the opposite hypothesis. Critics of the great est name are arranged on both sides of the question ; and some who believe it to have been first written in Hebrew, think that the author himself afterwards made a Greek version. Matthew writes as "an Israelite indeed," a guileless converted Jew instruct ing his brethren. He often quotes from the Old Testament. He represents the Saviour as the fulfilment of the hopes of Israel, the promised Messiah, King of the "kingdom of heaven" — which expression he commonly uses where the other evange lists speak of the " kingdom of God." Gospel of Mark. Ancient writers agree in the statement that Mark, not himself an apostle, wrote his gospel under the influ ence and direction of the apostle Peter. The same traditionary authority, though with less unanimity and evidence, makes it to have been written at Rome, and pub lished after the death of Peter and Paul. Mark wrote primarily for the Gentiles, as appears from his frequent explanations of Jewish customs, etc. He exhibits Christ as the divine Prophet, mighty in deed and word. He is a true evangelical historian, relating facts more than discourses, in a concise, simple, rapid style, with occasional minute and graphic details. One of his peculiarities is his use of the Greek word translated " straightway," " immediately," " anon," etc., which occurs 40 times, more than in the other 3 gospels together. Gospel of Luke. Luke is said to have written his gospel under the direction of Paul, whose companion he was on many journeys. His expanded views and cath olic spirit resemble those of the great apos tle to the Gentiles ; and his gospel repre sents Christ as the compassionate Friend of sinners, the Saviour of the world. It appears to have been written primarily for Theophilus, some noble Greek or Roman, and its date is generally supposed to be about A. D. 63. Gospel of John. The ancient writers all make this gospel the latest. It was probably written at Ephesus, some time GOU BIBLE DICTIONARY. GRA after the destruction of Jerusalem. Out of 33 miracles of Christ it records 7, only one of them related by the other evangelists ; and out of 30 parables he records none. The gospel of John reveals Christ as the divine and divinely-appointed Redeemer, the Son of God manifested in flesh. It is a spiritual rather than historical gospel, omitting many things chronicled by the other evangelists, and containing much more than they do as to the new life in the soul through Christ, union with him, regen eration, the resurrection, and the work of the Holy Spirit. The spirit of the " disci ple whom Jesus loved " pervades this pre cious gospel. It had a special adaptation to refute the Gnostic heresies of that time, but is equally fitted to build up the church of Christ in all generations. Among his characteristic expressions are " abide " and "bear witness," which occur 40 and 30 times in this gospel. GOURD. It has been supposed that Jo nah's gourd was the Ricinus Communis, or castor-oil plant. It grows in the East with great rapidity, to the height of 8 to 12 feet, and one species much higher. Its leaves are large, and have 6 or 7 divisions, like a hand with outspread fingers, whence THE CASTOR-OIL PLANT. its name of Palma Christi. Since, how ever, it is now known that in the vicinity of the ancient Nineveh a plant of the gourd kind is commonly trained to run over struc tures of mud and brush, to form booths in which the gardeners may protect them selves from the terrible beams of the-Asi- atic sun, this goes far to show that this vine, called in the Arabic ker'a, is the true gourd of Jonah. If the expression, " which came up in a night," Jonah 4:10, is to be under stood literally, it indicates that God "pre pared " the gourd, ver. 6, by miraculously quickening its natural growth. The Ori ental gourd grows rapidly, forms a dense shade, flourishes best in extreme heat, and quickly withers when injured. The wild gourd is a poisonous plant, conjectured to mean the colocynth, which has a cucumber-like vine, with several branches, and bears a fruit of the size and color of an orange, with a hard, woody shell, within which is the white meat or pulp, exceedingly bitter, and a drastic pur gative, 2 Kin. 4:39. It was very inviting to the eye, and furnished a model for the carved and molten " knops " in Solomon's temple, 1 Kin. 6:18; 7:24. GOVERNOR, Jas. 3:4, pilot. GO'ZAN, the district, Isa. 37:12, to which Tiglath-pileser, and afterwards Shalmane ser and Sargon, carried the captive Israel ites, 2 Kin. 17:6; 1 Chr. 5:26. Identified by some with the modern Kizzil-ozan, a river flowing from Kurdistan into the Cas pian Sea ; but by Rawlinson and others with Gauzanitis in Northern Mesopotamia on the river Habor, now Khabur, an afflu ent of the Euphrates. GRACE, favor, mercy. Divine grace is the free and undeserved love and favor of God towards man as a sinner, especially as exhibited in the plan of redemption through Jesus Christ, John 1:17; 3:16; Rom. 3:24-26. It is only i>y the free grace of God that we embrace the offers of mercy, and appropriate to ourselves the blessings graciously purchased by redeeming blood.' The "grace of God," spontaneous, un merited, self-directed, and almighty, is the source of the whole scheme of redemption, Rom. 11:6; 2 Tim. 1:9. With it are united " the grace of our Lord Jesus Christ," who gave himself for sinners ; and that of " the Spirit of grace," by whom alone the grace offered by the Father and purchased by the Son is effectually applied. Thus grace in man, or all true holiness, 2 Pet. 3:18, is traced up to the grace of God as its only source; and the gospel of Christ and the work of the Spirit — both pure grace— are its only channels of communication. Hence 207 GRA BIBLE DICTIONARY. GRE also all the fruits and blessings of the gos pel are termed graces, 2 Cor. 8:7; Phil. 1:7; not only regeneration, pardon, en lightenment, sanctification, etc., but mirac ulous, official, and prophetic gifts, the pe culiar traits of Christian character, and everlasting salvation, 1 Pet. 1 : 13. In Gal. 5:4 "grace" means God's plan of salva tion by his mercy, not by our works. GRA'CIOUS, Prov. 1 1 : 16 ; Jer. 22 : 23 ; com plaisant and winning. GRAIN. See Corn. GRAPES, the fruit of the vine. The grapes of Palestine were very fine, of great size and high flavor, Num. 13:24. At pres ent, and probably the same has always been true, the wine that is made requires but a small part of the annual yield of the vines. Dr. Robinson says, " No wine is made from the very extensive vineyards of Hebron, except a little by the Jews." While yet green, grapes are used for food in various ways; and are dried in the sun, or their juice preserved in bottles, to secure a pleasant vegetable tart all the year round, Num. 6:4. Ripe grapes may be had in Syria 4 or 5 months, Lev. 26:5; and when the season closes many are hung up in clusters, suitably protected, and remain without drying up all through the winter. Grapes are exceedingly cheap, and form no small part of the ordinary food. Ripe grapes are also dried into raisins ; and after the hanging grapes are gone, the rais ins are used until the return of the new grapes. The expressed juice is boiled down to a syrup called dibs, much used as a condiment by all classes. -Besides the law which protected the first 3 years' growth of the vine (see First- fruits), there was another law requiring the Jews to leave the gleanings of their vineyards for the poor, Lev. 19 : 10, 23. The law also allowed one who was passing a vineyard to pick a few grapes to eat on the spot, but not to carry any away, Deut. 23 : 24. Everywhere we encounter proofs of the admirable humanity that characterized the Mosaic legislation. A vineyard nearly stripped of its clustered treasures was a frequent image of desolation, Isa. 17:6; 24:13 ; Obad. 5. See Vine. " Wild grapes " were the fruit of a wild vine, probably the Vitis Labrusca of Lin naeus, the wild claret-grape. The fruit of the wild vine is called cenanthes, or the flower of wine. They never ripen, and are good only for verjuice. In Isa. 5:2, 4 God complains of his people whom he had plan t- 208 ed as a choice vine, an excellent plant, that he had a right to require of them good fruit, but they had brought forth only wild grapes — fruit of a bad smell and a bad taste. GRASS sometimes means any green herb age, Isa. 15:6, and sometimes the usual food of cattle, Psa. 104:14. The quick growth of grass, its tenderness, and. its rapid combustion when dry, have furnished the sacred writers with some of their most appropriate illustrations, Psa. 90 : 5, 6 ; 92 : 7 ; 103:15, 16; Isa. 40:6-8; 51:12; Jas. 1:10; 1 Pet. 1:24. All sorts of grass and small shrubs are still used in Syria for fuel, on account ofthe scarcity of wood, Matt. 6:28- 30. Travellers in that country often see grass growing on the housetops, the roofs being flat and coated with earth trodden hard. Such grass quickly withers when the rainy season is over, Psa. 129:6, 7, where the rendering should be, " before it is plucked up," Isa. 37:27. GRASS'HOPPER, a kind of locust, and so called in 2 Chr. 7: 13. It was sometimes used for food, Lev. 11:22. Individually they are insignificant and timid creatures, Num. 13:33, and their worthlessness fur nishes a striking comparison in Isa. 40:22 ; while the feebleness of age is expressed by its inability to endure them, Eccl. 12:5. Yet coming in great numbers they are de structive to all herbage, Amos 7:1. See Locust. GRAVE, Isa. 22:16, to excavate. GREAVES, 1 Sam. 17:6, armor for the legs. GREECE, in the Old Testament, is put for the Hebrew word Javan, which is equiv alent to Ionia, and seems to include not only Greece but Western Asia Minor and the intervening isles, all settled by the Ionian race, Gen. 10:2. Greece proper, however, is chiefly intended. See Javan. In the New Testament Greece is usually spoken of as Achaia, but is once called Hellas, a name supposed to have belonged first to a single city is Thessaly, but at length applied to the whole country south of Macedonia, including the Peloponnesus, Acts 20:2. About B. C. 146 the Romans conquered Greece, and afterwards organ ized 2 great provinces, namely, Macedonia, including Macedonia proper, Thessaly, Ep- irus. and Illyricum; and Achaia, including all the country which lies south of the for mer province. See Achaia. Greece was bounded north by Macedonia and Illyri cum, from which it was separated by moun- GRE BIBLE DICTIONARY. GRI tains, south by the Mediterranean Sea, east by the jEgean Sea, and west by the Ionian Sea. It was generally known under the 3 great divisions of Peloponnesus, Hellas, and Northern Greece. Peloponnesus, more anciently called Pe- lasgia, and Argos, and now the Morea, was the southern peninsula; it included the famous cities Sparta, Messene, Elis, Cor inth, Argos, etc. The division of Hellas, which now constitutes a great part of Liva- dia, included the following cities : Athens, Megara, Plataea, Delphos, and Actium. Northern Greece included Thessaly and Epirus, with the cities Larissa, Nicopolis, etc. The large islands of Crete and Eu- boea belonged to Greece, as well as most of those in the Archipelago and on the west. The Greeks purchased Jewish captives as slaves from the Tyrians, Joel 3:6 about 800 B. C). Compare Ezek. 27: 13. Daniel foretold the rise of the Macedonian-Gre cian empire, Dan. 7:6; 8:5,21. Zechariah, 9:13, predicted the Maccabees' triumphs over their Graeco-Syrian oppressors; and Isaiah, 66:19, speaks of future Jewish mis sionaries to Javan, a prophecy fulfilled in the witness of the Jews against polytheism, and the labors of Jewish gospel missiona ries on Grecian soil. See Javan. The Jews and the Greeks appear to have had little intercourse with each other until after Alexander the Great overran Egypt, Syria, and the East. They then began to come in contact everywhere, for both races were widely dispersed. The Jews extend ed the name of Greeks (Hellenes) to in clude the people conquered and ruled by Greeks ; and the word is thus often synony mous in the New Testament with Gentiles, Mark 7:26; Acts 20:21; Rom. 1:16. The term " Grecian " or Hellenist, on the con trary, denotes a Jew by birth or religion who spoke Greek; in the R. V. "Grecian Jews." It is used chiefly of foreign Jews and proselytes, in contrast with the He brews, that is, those speaking the vernacu lar Hebrew, or Aramaean, Acts 6:1; 9:29. In Acts 11:20 "Greeks" is probably the true reading, for the "Grecians" would be included among the "Jews" of ver. 19. The Greeks were a vivacious, acute, and polished, but superficial people, compared with the Jews. They excelled in all the arts of war and peace; but were worship pers of beauty, not of duty. Their pride of intellect and their corruption of morals were almost insurmountable obstacles to their reception of Christianity, 1 Cor. 1:22, 23. Yet it was among the Greek cities and people that Paul chiefly labored, and with great success. Many flourishing churches were, in early times, established among them ; and there can be no doubt that they for a long time preserved the apostolic cus toms with much care. At length, however, opinions fluctuated considerably on points of doctrine; schisms and heresies divided the church; and rancor, violence, and even persecution followed in their train. To check these evils, councils were called and various creeds composed. The removal of the seat of government from Rome to Con stantinople gave a preponderance to the Grecian districts of the empire, and the ecclesiastical determinations of the Greek Church were extensively received. In the middle of the 8th century disputes arose, which terminated in a permanent schism between the Greek and Latin Churches. The Greek Church has a general resem blance to the Roman-catholic, and embra ces a p ipulati.m of not far from 70,000,000 of souls, in Russia, Greece, Turkey, Syria, etc. The Greek language is the original language of all the books of the New Tes tament, except perhaps the gospel by Mat thew; but the sacred authors have followed that style of writing which was used by the Hellenists, or Grecizing Hebrews, adopting many idioms and turns of speech from the Syriac and Hebrew languages, very differ ent from the classical style of the Greek writers, but like that of the Septuagint. They were also obliged to make use of' some new words, and new applications of old words, to express religious ideas before ' unknown to the Greeks; and for which they had no proper expression. After Alexan der the Great, Greek became the language best known throughout the East, and was ' generally used in commerce. As the sa cred authors had in view the conversion not only ofthe Jews, then scattered through out the East, but of the Gentiles also, it was natural for them to write to them in Greek, that being a language to which all were of necessity accustomed. It was the language commonly spoken by our Lord and his dis ciples, and the evangelists have doubtless given us in many cases the very words he spoke ; though the Hebrew (Aramaic) was probably more loved and spoken at Jeru salem by devout Jews, Acts 1:19; 22 : 2. GRIEF and GRIEVOUS often denote physical pain, Gen. 49:23; Isa. 53:4; Matt 8:6; 1 Pet. 2:19. 309 GRI BIBLE DICTIONARY. HAD grind. See Corn. GRIND'ERS, Eccl. 12:3, the molars, or jaw-teeth. GROVE, Heb. Asherah, means a wooden image of Ashtoreth see), and should be so understood, except in Gen. 21:33, where a different Hebrew word is used, meaning a tree, as in 1 Sam. 22:6; 31:13. The Israel ites were commanded to destroy the Ashe- rim, Exod. 34:13; Deut. 16:21; but often disobeyed, Judg. 3:7; 6:25, 26; 1 Kin. 15:13; 2 Kin. 17:10; 21:3, 7; 23:6; Isa. 17:8. Groves were early associated with the wor ship of the true God, Gen. 12:6, 7; 13:18, and seem naturally fitted for such a pur pose. The heathen and backsliding Jews resorted to them for idolatrous rites, some elevated spot being generally chosen, Jer. 17:2; Ezek. 20:28; Hos. 4:13. See High Places, Mamre, Oak. , GUARD, Gen. 37:36; 2 Kin. 25:8; Dan. 2:14, literally a butcher, hence a cook, and an executioner — the body-guard of the kings of Egypt and Babylon. See Foot men. GUDGO'DAH, Deut. 10:7; Hor-hagidgad, Num. 33:32. GUILTY, Matt. 26:66; Mark 14:64, in R. V. " worthy." H. HABAK'KUK, embrace, one of the minor prophets, probably a Levite, and perhaps a temple singer. Compare 3:19 with 1 Chr. 25:1-5. Of his life we know nothing, ex cept that he appears to have been contem porary with Jeremiah, and to have proph esied between 630 B. C, Josiah's 12th year, and 610 B. C, before Nebuchadnezzar's 1st invasion of Judaea, 2 Kin. 24:1. The book of Habakkuk consists of 3 chapters, which all constitute one oracle. In the first chapter, he foretells the woes which the rapacious and terrible Chaldae ans would soon inflict upon his guilty na tion. In the second, he predicts the future humiliation of the iniquitous conquerors. The third is a sublime and beautiful ode, in which the prophet implores the succor of Jehovah in view of his mighty works of ancient days, and expresses the most assured trust in him. Nothing, even in Hebrew poetry, is more lofty and grand than this triumphal ode, which inspires the most afflicted believer to rejoice in his God. HABER'GEON, Neh. 4:16; Job. 41:26, a coat of mail ; an ancient piece of defensive armor, in the form of a coat or tunic, de- 210 scending from the neck to the middle of the body, and formed of tough hide, or many quilted linen folds, or of scales of brass overlapping each other like fishes' scales, or of small iron rings or meshes linked into each other, Exod. 28:32; 39:23. HA'BOR, united, " the river of Gozan," a river and probably also a district of Assyria, 2 Kin. 17:6; 18:11; 1 Chr. 5:26. Identified with the Khabflr, which flows into the Euphrates at Karkesia. It is about 200 miles long, and traversed- the province of Gauzanitis (see Gozan), adjoining which was Chalcitis, formerly Halah. HACH'ILAH, a hill in the untitled land near Ziph (see), facing the Jeshimon (see). A lurking-place of David and his 600, where Saul's life was spared, 1 Sam. 23:19; 26:1, 3-12. Now found at Yekin or Hachin, a ruin on a high hill between valleys run ning north and south. HACH'MONITE, son of Hachmoni, to whose family the heroes Jashobeam and Jehiel belonged, 2 Sam. 23:8; 1 Chr. 11: 11; 27:32. HA'DAD, or Hadar, mighty, I., son of Ishmael, Gen. 25:15; 1 Chr. 1:30. II. A king of Edom, at Avith, Gen. 36 : 35 ; 1 Chr. 1:46. III. Another king of Edom, at Pau, Gen. 36:39; 1 Chr. 1:50, 51, perhaps contempo rary with Moses. IV. Another Edomite of the royal fam ily, who fled to Egypt while young, upon David's conquest of Edom, 2 Sam. 8:14; was well received, and married the queen's sister. After the death of David and Joab, he returned to Edom and made an ineffec tual effort to throw off the yoke of Solo mon, 1 Kin. 11:14-22,25. Hadad was also the name of the Syrian HAD BIBLE DICTIONARY. HAI sun-god, and is part of the name of several Syrian kings. HADADE'ZER, or Hadare'zer, helped of Hadad, a powerful king of Syria, reign ing in Zobah and the surrounding country, even to the Euphrates, i Kin. 11:23. He was thrice defeated and his power over thrown by David, 2 Sam. 8:3, 4; 10:6-14, 16-19; I Chr. 18:3; 19:6. Psalm 60 was written after David's first victory over the Syrians and Edomites, 2 Sam. 8:13, 14. HA'DAD-RIM'MON, named for 2 Syrian deities, a city in the valley of Megiddo, the scene of national lamentation over Josiah's death, in battle with Pharaoh-necho, 2 Kin. 23:29; 2 Chr. 35:20-25; Zech. 12:11. After wards, Jerome says, called Maximianop- olis. HADAS'SAH. See Esther. HA'DES. See Hell. HA'DID, Ezra 2:33; Neh. 7:37; 11:34, in Dan, though belonging to Benjamin ; now El-Haditheh, 3 miles east of Ludd. HADO'RAM, Hadar is exalted, I., Gen. 10:27; 1 Chr. 1:21. II. Son of Toi, king of Hamath, called Joram in 2 Sam. 8:10. III. 2 Chr. 10:18, contracted from Ado- NIRAM. HA'DRACH, the land of, Zech. 9:1. Not identified, probably a part of Syria. HA'GAB, Hagaba, one of the Nethinim, Ezra 2:45, 46 ; Neh. 7:48. HA'GAR, stranger, an Egyptian bond maid in the household of Sarah, Gen. 12:16, who, being barren, gave her to Abraham for a secondary wife, that by her, as a sub stitute, she might have children, in accord ance with the customs of the East in that age.' The history of Hagar is given in Gen. 16; 17; 21. In an allegory, Paul makes Hagar represent the Jewish Church, which was in bondage to the ceremonial law; as Sarah represents the true church of Christ, which is free from this bondage, Gal. 4:24. Her name is much honored among the Arabs claiming to be her de scendants. HAGARENES', or Ha'garites, 1 Chr. 5:10, 18-22, descendants of Hagar and Ish mael. In Psa. 83:6 the name seems to be given to a distinct portion of the Ishmael- ites. A Hagarite was fitly placed over Da vid's flocks, 1 Chr. 27:31. HAG'GAI, festive, one of the minor proph ets, probably accompanied Zerubbabel in the first return of the Jews from Babylon, B. C. 536. He prophesied during the sec ond year of Darius Hystaspis, B. C. 520. urging his countrymen to resume the build ing of the temple, for about 14 years inter rupted, and at last suspended, Ezra 4:4, 5, 23, 24. The Jews had become indiffer ent, and excused themselves from building until the end of the 70 years. Haggai's reproof roused them for a time, ch. 1 : 1-1 1 ; Ezra 5:1,2; but they soon became despond ent, and he was charged with a 2d message of encouragement, ch. 2 : 1-9. The exceed ing glory of the 2d temple was foretold by him. " The desirable things of all nations shall come, and I will fill this house with glory, saith the Lord of hosts." Again he taught them that attention to outward rites cannot atone for disobedience to God, and assured them of God's blessing now that they had begun to build, ch. 2:10-19. He also instructs the inquiring Zerubbabel in regard to the national revolutions foretold, ver. 7, and the safety of Judah represented by Zerubbabel, ver. 20-23; Jer- 46:28. The book still admonishes the people of God when listless and slothful in his service, and cheers those who strive to build his spiritual temple, 1 Pet. 2:5. HAG'GITH, rejoicing, one of David's wives, Adonijah's mother, 2 Sam. 3:4. HAIL ! a salutation customary among our Saxon ancestors, and importing "health to you," including all kinds of prosperity. HAIL'STONES, drops of rain formed into ice by the power of cold in the upper re gions of the atmosphere. Hail was among the plagues of Egypt, Exod. 9:24, and was the more terrible because it rarely occurred in that country. Hail was also made use of by God for defeating an army of Ca naanites, Josh. 10:11; and is used figura tively to represent terrible judgments, Isa. 28:2 ; Rev. 16:21. HAIR. Egyptian men cut their hair and shaved, except in mourning, and Joseph ASSYRIAN HEAD. did likewise, Gen. 41 : 14. Egyptian women wore their hair long and braided, as now. Wigs were worn in Egypt. Hebrew men cut their hair moderately short, and this was required of the priests, Lev. 21:5; 211 HAL BIBLE DICTIONARY. HAM Ezek. 44:20; 1 Cor. 11:14. Fragrant oint ments were used, Exod. 30:33; Psa. 23:5; Eccl. 9:8. In mourning men cut, or shaved off, or plucked out the hair, Ezra 9:3; Amos 8:10, or let it go dishevelled, Lev. 10:6; Ezek. 24:17. In Jer. 7:29, Jerusalem is addressed as a woman. Women plait- GRECIAN HEADS. ed, perfumed, and decked their hair in many ways, Isa. 3:18, 24; 1 Cor. 11:15, so much as to call for apostolic interdictions, 1 Tim. 2:9; 1 Pet. 3:3. Nazarites wore their hair uncut as a sign of humiliation EGYPTIAN OFFICER AND WIFE. and self-dedication to God, Num. 6:5, 9: Judg. 13:5; 16:17. Absalom's hair perhaps weighed 20 shekels, not 200, a copyist's er ror being possible in the numerals, 2 Sam. 14:26. Arabians cut the hair around their temples in a circular form in honor of their god Orotal, Jer. 9:26; 25:23; 49:32, mar gins ; and in mourning marred their beards, .Jer. 48:37, practices forbidden to the Isra elites, Lev. 19:27. Lepers, when cleansed, and Levites on their consecration, shaved the whole body, Lev. 13 ; 14:8,9; Num. 8:7. "Hair like women's," Rev. 9:8, was sug gestive of semi-barbarous hosts like the long-haired Saracens, afflicters of Christian Europe in the 7th and 8th centuries. HA'LAH, 2 Kin. 17:6; 18:11; 1 Chr. 5:26. Probably a province of Mesopotamia called Chalcitis by Ptolemy, on the Khabfir north of Gauzanitis. See Gozan and Habor. The name is traced in the modern Gla, a large mound on that river. HA'LAK, smooth, perhaps not a proper 212 name, but descriptive of some unknown hill, the southern limit of Joshua's con quests towards Mount Seir, Josh. 11:17; 12:7, perhaps the pass es-Sufah. HALE, Luke 12:58; Acts 8:3, to draw or drag. HALL, Luke 12:55, the court or uncov ered space in the midst of a house. The "porch," Matt. 26:71 ; Mark 14:68, was the vestibule leading to the court from the street. See House. HALLELU'JAH, and in the New Testa ment Alleluiah, Praise ye fehovah. This word occurs at the beginning and at the end of many Psalms. It was also sung on solemn days of rejoicing, as an expression of joy and praise, and as such it has been adopted in the Christian church, and is still used in devotional psalmody, Rev. 19 : 1, 3, 4, 6. The Jews gave the name Hal- lel to the Psalms from 113 to 118, and sang them on their Feast days, as Christ and his disciples are supposed to have done at the Lord's Supper, Matt. 26:30. HAL'LOW, to render sacred, set apart, consecrate. The English word is from the Saxon, and means to make holy; hence hallowed persons, things, places, rites, etc. ; hence also the name, power, and dignity of God are hallowed, that is, reverenced as holy. HALT, Psa. 38:17; Matt. 18:8, limping. HAM, hot, sunburnt, I., a son of Noah, Gen. 5:32; 7:13; 9:18; 10:1. His name may prophetically refer to the hot territo ries of his descendants. Compare Gen. 5:29. The impiety revealed in his' conduct towards his father drew upon him, or rath er, according to the Bible statement, on his son Canaan, a prophetic malediction,. Gen. 9:20-27. Ham was the father of Cush, Miz- raim, Phut, and Canaan, that is, the ances tor of the Canaanites, Southern Arabians, Ethiopians, Egyptians, and the Africans in general, Gen. 10:6-20. A Cushite descend ant of Ham is mentioned as the founder of Babylon, Gen. 10:8-10; a statement con firmed by the earliest Babylonian monu ments exhumed, the language of which is Cushite. II. A poetical name for Egypt, Psa. 78 : 51 ; 106 : 22, the first civilized of the Hamite settlements. III. An unknown place of the Zuzim, Gen. 14:5. IV. 1 Chr. 4:40, probably the Philistines, as descended from Ham through Mizraim, Gen. 10:14. HA'MAN, magnificent, a favorite of Ahas- HAM BIBLE DICTIONARY. HAN uerus, king of Persia. In order to revenge himself upon Mordecai the Jew, he plotted the extermination of all the Jews in the kingdom; but in the providence of God he was thwarted by Esther, fell into disgrace with the king, and wrought his own ruin and the upbuilding of the Jews. He is called an Agagite ; and as Agag was a com mon name of the Amalekite kings, the Jews believe he was of that race. This would help to explain his malice against the Jews. See Amalekites. Similar wholesale slaughters are still plotted in Asia, and the whiole narrative is confirmed and illustrated by the descriptions of East- . ern life furnished by modern travellers in the same region. The death of Haman took place about 473 B. C. His eventful history shows that pride goes before de struction; that the providence of God di rects all things ; that his people are safe in the midst of perils ; and that his foes must perish. HA'MATH, fortress, an important city and province of Upper Syria, settled by a Canaanite tribe, Gen. 10:18. "The Enter ing in of Hamath " is probably the north ern part of the valley which led up to it from Palestine between Lebanon and Anti- Lebanon, often mentioned as Israel's north ern boundary, Num. 13:21; Josh. 13:5; Judg. 3:3. The land of Hamath, appar ently independent in David's time, 2 Sam. 8:9, 10, seems to have come under Solo mon's control, for he had " store cities " in it to accommodate his northern commerce, 2 Chr. 8:4. It is mentioned in the Assyrian inscriptions of Ahab's time as an ally of Damascus ; was " recovered " by Jeroboam II., 2 Kin. 14:28, taken by the Assyrians, 2 Kin. 18:34; 19:13; Amos 6:2, 14. Com pare 1 Kin. 8:65. Hamah now belongs to the Turkish empire, is built on both sides of the Orontes, and has 30,000 inhabitants. HA'MATH-ZO'BAH, 2 Chr. 8:3, perhaps Hamath. HAM'MATH, hot springs or baths, a forti fied city in Naphtali, Josh. 19:35; probably the Levitical city called Hammoth-dor, Josh. 21:32, and Hammon, 1 Chr. 6:76. About a mile south of Tiberias are still 3 or 4 hamm&m, i. e., hot springs. HAMME'LECH.ttefau^, probably should be so translated, meaning Jehoiakim in Jer. 36:26, and Zedekiah in Jer. 38:6. HA'MON-GOG, Ezek. 39:11, 15, a prophet ic name given to a ravine on the east of the Dead Sea, on the thoroughfare of com merce with Arabia and Egypt. HA'MOR, an ass, Gen. 33:19; 34; Judg. 9:28, a Hivite prince, father of Shechem. From his sons Jacob bought some land for ioo "lambs," Gen. 33:19, margin, proba bly rings of silver stamped with the figure of a lamb, Josh. 24:32. Called Emmor in Acts 7:16, A. V., where Stephen, speaking to men familiar with the facts, elliptically sums up the Old Testament narrative of 2 purchases and 2 burial-places, Gen. 50:13. HAMUTAL, kin ofthe dew, 2 Kin. 23:31 ; 24:18; Jer. 52; 1. HANAM'EEL, the grace of God, son of Shallum, a kinsman of Jeremiah, from whom the prophet bought a piece of ground before the captivity, and had the legal rec ord made, in token of his prophetic assu rance that his people would return to their possessions, Jer. 32:6-15, 37, 43, 44. See Anathoth. The law prohibiting the alien ation of Levitical lands, Lev. 25:25, 34, ap parently did not forbid sales within the tribe of Levi._ HANAN'EEL, the tower of, on the north eastern wall of Jerusalem, between the fish- gate and the sheep-gate, Neh. 3:1; 12:39; Jer. 31:38; Zech. 14:10. HANA'NI, gracious, I., a Levitical musi cian and director under David, 1 Chr. 25:4, 25. B. C. 1014. II. A seer in the time of Asa, imprisoned for his fidelity, B. C. 941. He was also the father of the prophet Jehu, 1 Kin. 16:1-7; 2 Chr. 16:7-10; 19:2; 20:34. III. A brother of Nehemiah, who brought to Susa an account of the wretched state of the Jews then at Jerusalem, and afterwards had charge of the gates of the city, Neh. 1:1-3; 7:2,3, B. C. 446. IV. Neh. 12:35, 36." HANANI'AH, gift of the Lord, I., 1 Chr. 25:4, 5,23- II. A false prophet of Gibeon, who for his impious hardihood was overtaken with speedy death, according to the word of God, Jer. 28. Compare Acts 5:1-5; Rev. 21:8; 22:15. III. 1 Chr. 3:19. Identified by some with Joanna, Luke 3:27. IV. The Hebrew name of Shadrach, Dan. 1:3.6,7- V. A pious and faithful officer under Ne hemiah, Neh. 7:2. Many others of this name are mentioned. HAND, a symbol of skill, power, and various actions, Psa. 24:4; Ezek. 23:37; also of God's vengeance, 1 Sam. 5:6, 7; Psa. 21:8, and mercy, Isa. 65:2. The hand was given as a pledge of faithfulness to an 213 HAN BIBLE DICTIONARY. HAR agreement, Prov. 6:1 ; of submission to a master or conqueror, 2 Chr. 30:8, margin; Ezek. 17:18; Lam. 5:6; Jer. 50:15. It was raised in taking an oath, or in blessing, Gen. 14 : 22 ; Lev. 9:22, also in prayer, Job 11:13; Psa. 28:2; 63:4; 1 Tim. 2:8. The offerer of a sacrifice, by placing his hand on its head, betokened the transfer of his guilt and pen alty to a divinely-appointed substitute, Lev. 1:4; 3:2; 4:15; Isa. 53:6; 2 Cor. 5:21. In the case of the scape-goat, Lev. 16, the com plete removal of pardoned sin was sym bolized. Compare Psa. 103:12; Mic. 7:19. The " laying on of hands " signified conse cration to office and the bestowal of a bless ing or of divine gifts, Gen. 48:14; Num. 8:10; 27:18; Mark 10:16; Acts 6:6; 19:6; 1 Tim. 4:14; Heb. 6:2. To kiss the hands was an act of adoration, Job 31:27; to pour water on them, of service, 2 Kin. 3:11 ; to wash them in public was a protest of inno cence, Deut. 21 :6, 7; Matt. 27:24. "Atthe right hand of God " is the place of honor, power, and happiness, Psa. 16:11; 45:9; 110:1; Matt. 26:64; Col. 3:1. In descri bing location, " to the right hand " meant south, "to the left hand" north, the He brews being wont to speak as if facing the east, Gen. 14:15; 1 Sam. 23:19, margin. In Zech. 13:6, one calls on an idolatrous prophet to account for the scars in his hands. Compare 1 Kin. 18:28. See Wash ing. HAND'BREADTH, the width of the palm, nearly 4 inches, Exod. 25:25; 1 Kin. 7:26. Symbolic of shortness, Psa. 39:5. HAND'ICRAFT. See Craft. HAND'IWORK, Psa. 19:1, products of one's labor. HA'NES, Isa. 30:4, a city of Egypt, prob ably Tahapanes. HANG'ING was practised among the Jews upon the dead bodies of criminals, as a mark of ignominy, Num. 25:4; Josh. 10:26, in which case they were to be re moved by nightfall, Deut. 21:22, 23. Com pare John 19:31; Acts 5:30; Gal. 3:13, where Christ's crucifixion is spoken of. Hang'ing, literally cover, means the curtain before the door of the tabernacle, Exod. 26:36, 37; 39:38, before the entrance of the court, Exod. 27:16; 38:18; Num. 4:26; and the same Hebrew word is "the veil of the covering " which shut off the Most Holy Place, Exod. 35 '12; 39:34; 40:21; Num. 4:5. HANG'INGS, the translation of another Hebrew word, meaning " that which is in motion," formed the walls of the court of 214 the tabernacle, Exod. 27:9; 35:17; 38:9; Num. 3: 26; 4:26. In 2 Kin. 23:7, for "hang-. ings " read " tents," for the impure worship of Ashtoreth. HAN'NAH, grace, favor, the pious wife of a Levite of Ramathaim-zophim named Elkanah, and mother of Samuel, B. C. 1171. She had earnestly besought the Lord for him, and freely devoted him to serve God according to her vow. She was afterwards blessed with 3 other sons and 2 daughters, 1 Sam. 1-2:21. Compare Luke 1:46-55. HA'NUN, a king of the Ammonites, whose father Nahash had befriended David in his early troubles. Compare 1 Sam. 11. Upon the death of Nahash, David sent an embas- . sage to condole with his son. The shame ful treatment received by these ambassa dors led to a destructive war upon the Ammonites, 2 Sam. 10; 12:25-31; 1 Chr. 19; 20. Two others are honorably on record as builders of the wall of Jerusalem, Neh. 3:T3, 30- HA'RA, hill-country, 1 Chr. 5:26, a place in Western Assyria, apparently on or near the Khabur, identified by many with Ha ran. HA'RAN, strong, mountaineer, I., 3d son of Terah, brother of Abraham and Nahor, and father of Lot, Milcah, and Iscah. He was born in Ur, and died before his father, Gen. 11:26-31. B. C. 1990. II. A Gershonite Levite in David's time, 1 Chr. 23:9. HA'RAN, or CHAR'RAN, parched, I., son of Hezron's son Caleb, and Ephah, 1 Chr. 2:46. II. An ancient city, called in the New Testament Charran, in the northwest part of Mesopotamia, that is, Padan-aram, Gen. 25:20. Here, after leaving Ur, Abraham dwelt till his father Terah died; here he received a 2d call, Gen. 12:1; Acts 7:2; here Nahor remained ; and to this old homestead Isaac sent for a wife, and Jacob fled from the wrath of Esau, Gen. 11:31. 32; 12:5; 24; 27:43; 28:10; 29:4. Haran was ravaged by the predecessors of the Assyrian king Sennacherib, 2 Kin. 19:12; Isa. 37:12. It traded with Tyre, Ezek. 27:23. Here Crassus the Roman general was defeated and killed by the Parthians. Harran, as it is now called, is on the Belik, a branch of the Euphrates, in 36° 52' N. lat., and 39° 5' E. long., in a flat and sandy plain, and is peopled only by a few wan dering Arabs, who select it for the deli cious water it furnishes. It is 20 miles HAR BIBLE DICTIONARY. HAR from Orfah. See Ur. The traditional tomb of Terah is still shown. HARD, Psa. 63:8; Matt. 25:24; Acts 18:7, close. . HARD'LY, Isa. 8:21; Matt. 19:23, with difficulty. HARD'NESS, 2 Tim. 2:3, hardships. THE COMMON HARE OF PALESTINE. HARE, prohibited to the Israelites for food, Lev. 11:6; Deut. 14:7. The hare masticates at leisure food which it has cropped and retained in its cheeks, and also keeps down the undue growth of its incisors by a constant grinding motion, re sembling the cud-chewing of true rumi nants ; hence it is popularly classed with them. Five varieties of the hare are found in Palestine. HA'RETH, Forest of, David's refuge, 1 Sam. 22 : 5. Conder identifies it with the village Kharas a mile above Keilah, where ruined walls, cisterns, and caves are found — in a region full of ravines and thickets. HAR'LOT, in old English, any person re ceiving hire, even wages honorably earned ; afterwards an abandoned woman, Prov. 29:3; a type of idolatrous nations and cit ies, Isa. 1:21; Ezek. 16; Nah. 3:4; Rev. 17. Among the Hebrews, prostitutes were often foreigners; hence their name of "strange women." They were often devoted to hea then idols, and their abominations were a part of the worship, Num. 25:1-5; Hos. 4:14; a custom from the defilement of which the house of God was expressly de fended, Deut. 23:18. HAR'NESS, armor or weapons, 1 Kin. 20:11; 22:34; 2 Chr. 18:33; a coat of mail. The Hebrews went out from Egypt " har nessed," that is, properly equipped or ar ranged. HA'ROD, terror, a spring near Jezreel in the valley between Little Hermon and Mount Gilboa, Judg. 7:1 ; 2 Sam. 23:25, now Ain Jalfid. HARO'SHETH of the Gentiles, so called from its mixed population, a city in North Canaan, the residence of Sisera, Judg. 4:2, 13, 16. Thomson places it at the base of Mount Carmel, the entrance to the narrow pass through which the Kishon flows from the plain of Esdraelon to the plain of Acre. Here are found a village and a large mound with ruins, called Ha- rothieh. Stanley and some others locate Harosheth near Lake Merom. HARP, Heb. Kinn6r, invented by Jubal, Gen. 4:21. It was used on joyful occasions, sacred or secular, and was the national musical instrument of the Hebrews, Gen. 31:27; 1 Chr. 16:5; 25:1-5; Psa. 81:2. Compare Psa. 137:2. David was a pro ficient in its use, 1 Sam. 16:16, 23; 18:10. Harps were of various shapes and sizes, some being small enough to be played upon by one walking, 1 Sam. 10:5. Jose- ANCIENT. HARPS OR LYRES. phus says they had 10 strings, like the in strument called Nebel in Hebrew, trans lated "psaltery," Psa. 33:2; 57:8; 144:9. It was played with the hand, 1 Sam. 16:23, or with a plectrum, a short iron rod. See Music. HAR'ROW, 2 Sam. 12:31, probably a sharp threshing machine, as it is unlikely that anything like our harrow was known to the Hebrews. After ploughing and be fore sowing, in modern Palestine, the clods are still broken by the trampling of oxen or dragging a rugged thorn-bush over the ground, Job 39:10; Isa. 28:24; Hos. 10:11. HART, or Stag, a species of deer, clean by the Levitical law, Deut. 12:15, and cel ebrated for its elegance, agility, and grace, Song 2:9; Isa. 35:6. It may have been the fallow-deer or the red deer. See Hind and Roe. HAR'VEST, began in Palestine with bar ley, at the presentation of the first-fruits in the temple in Passover-week, the middle of Abib, Lev. 23:9-14; 2 Sam. 21:9, 10; next came the wheat harvest, the first-fruits being offered at Pentecost, Lev. 23:15-20; Ruth 2:3; the grain being cut with the sickle, Joel 3:13, gathered by hand, bound 215 HAS BIBLE DICTIONARY. HAZ in sheaves, Psa. 129:7, and carried, some times in carts, Amos 2 : 13, to the threshing- floor or granary. The end of the world is described under the figure of a harvest, Matt. 13:30, 39. "Feast of Harvest," see Pentecost. HASHABI'AH, whom God regards, the name of many descendants of Levi, 1 Chr. 26:30; 27:17, etc. HATE, a rooted dislike, which in some cases is sinless, for God hates all sinful thoughts and ways, Jer. 44:4, and the char acter of sinners, Psa. 5:5, 6, while he yet earnestly desires their salvation, Ezek. 18:23, 32; John 3:16. And so with all holy beings. But hatred in men is usually a malevolent passion — a " work of the flesh," Gal. 5:20. No one can hate without sin who is not perfect in love. We should hate sin, but love and bless even our enemies, Matt. 5:44. Hate often in Scripture de notes only a less degree of love, Gen. 29 : 30, 31; Deut. 21:15; Prov. 13:24; Mai. 1:2, 3; Luke 14:26; Rom. 9:13. HAUNT, Ezek. 26:17, to frequent. HAU'RAN, caves, a country east of the Jordan and south of Damascus, bounding Palestine on the northeast, Ezek. 47:16, 18, its name changed to Auranitis by the Greeks and Romans ; now the Hauran. It was included loosely in Bashan, the king dom of Og, Num. 21:33-35. Its limits va ried at different periods, at times including, besides the beautifui and fertile country now called en-Nukra (the granary of Da mascus, occupied by Arab farmers), the rocky Trachonitis on the northeast, now el-Lejah, and the Hauran range running north and south on the east, these hills and rocks presenting an astonishing number of ruined cities and towns. See Bashan. These buildings, including churches and amphitheatres, Wetzstein assigns to Arabs from Yemen, who settled here and were Christianized, retaining the land till con quered by the Moslems, A. D. 635. Some of the cave-dwellings of Mount Hauran he traces to the ancient Rephaim, Gen. 14:5; Deut. 3:13. HAV'ILAH, circuit, I., Gen. 2:11, accord ing to one theory, on the southeastern end of the Black Sea; according to another, at the head of the Persian Gulf. See Eden. II. A descendant from Ham, Gen. 10:7. III. A descendant from Shem and Jok tan, Gen. 10:29. Some suppose these two Havilahs to have given name to one re gion in which both Cushites and Joktanites 216 are found, and locate this region in Yemen, in Arabia Felix, now Khawlan. IV. Gen. 25:18, a boundary of the Ish- maelites, supposed by Kalisch to have been a country between the Persian and Arabi an Gulfs. V. 1 Sam. 15:7, thought to be the region around Mount Seir. HA'VOTH-JAIR, huts or villages of fair, 23 small villages taken by Segub's son Jair, and so called after him, Num. 32:41, in creased to 30 in the time of the judge Jair, Judg. 10:4. They were in Gilead or Ba shan, and are supposed to form, with Ke- nath and its villages taken by Nobah, Num. 32:42, the 60 "fenced cities" of Deut. 3:3, 4, 14. Others distinguish them as being, one in Gilead, the other in Bashan. See 1 Kin. 4:7, 13. HAWK, or Falcon, a strong-winged and rapacious bird, of several migratory spe cies in Syria; unclean for the Hebrews, Lev. 11:16, but sacred among the Greeks and Egyptians. In its migrations it illus trates the wise providence of the Creator, Job 39:26. HAY, in Prov. 27:25 and Isa. 15:6, de notes the first shoots of grass. The He brews did not prepare and store up hay for winter use, as is customary in cold cli mates. Grass was cut as it was needed. The word translated chaff in Isa. 5:24; 33:11, means withered grass . See Mow ings. HAZ'AEL, God is seeing, an officer of Ben-hadad king of Syria, whose future accession to the throne was revealed to the prophet Elijah, 1 Kin. 19:15. Many years afterwards he was sent by Ben-hadad to consult Elisha, then at Damascus, as to his recovery from sickness, and on the next day smothered the king with a wet cloth, 2 Kin. 8:7-15, B. C. 886. His discomposure under the eye of the prophet was an indi cation that he had already meditated this crime. Having usurped the throne, he reigned 46 years ; and by his successful and cruel wars against Judah and Israel justified the forebodings of Elisha, 2 Kin. 8:28; 10:32; 12:17; !3:3,7- Compare2Chr. 22:5; Amos 1:3, 4. Hazael is mentioned on Assyrian monuments as an opponent and afterwards a tributary. His son Ben- hadad lost the conquests he had made, 2 Kin. 13:25; 14:25-27; Amos 1:4. HA'ZAR, or HA'ZER, pi. Hazerim and Hrzeroth, inclosure, village — found in many Hebrew names, and denoting a semi permanent collection of dwellings, like the HAZ BIBLE DICTIONARY. HEA rude stone walls roofed with tent-cloth still found in the East. HA'ZAR-AD'DAR, Num. 34:4, called Ad- dar — in A. V. Adar — in Josh. 15:3, on the southern border of Palestine, west of Ka desh ; now el-Kudeirat, on a ridge between Canaan and the desert. HA'ZAR-E'NAN, village of springs, at the junction of the north and east borders ofthe promised land, Num. 34:9, 10; Ezek. 47:17; 48:1. Perhaps Ayun-ed-Dara, a fountain in the midst of Anti- Lebanon. HA'ZAR-GAD'DAH, village of fortune, Josh. 15:27, now el-Ghurra, 9 miles east of Beer-sheba. HA'ZAR-HAT'TICON, middle village, on the border of Hauran, Ezek. 47: 16. HA'ZAR-MA'VETH, court of death, 3d son of Joktan, Gen. 10:26; 1 Chr. 1:20, ancestor of the people of Hadramaut, in Southwestern Arabia, a region abounding in myrrh and frankincense, but unhealthy. HA' ZAR-SHU' Alij'ackal-village, in South ern Judah, Josh. 15:28, afterwards given to Simeon, Josh. 19:3; 1 Chr. 4:28; repeopled after the Captivity, Neh. 11:27. Now Sa- weh, between Beer-sheba and Moladah. HA'ZAR-SU'SAH and SU'SIM, village of horses, Josh. 19:5; 1 Chr. 4:31. Now Beit- Susin, south of Beit-Jibrin. HA'ZEL, Gen. 30:37, probably the wild almond-tree. HAZE'RIM, villages; Deut. 2:23, ancient abodes of the Avim, Josh. 13:3, 4, in the southernmost part of Canaan. HAZE'ROTH, villages, the Israelites' 2d station from Mount Sinai, Num. 10:11, 33; Ii:3> 34. 35," 33:17, 18; where Aaron and Miriam spoke against Moses, Num. 12:1- 16; probably Hudhera, 40 miles northeast of Sinai. HAZE'ZON-TA'MAR, Gen. 14:7. See En-gedi. HA'ZOR, inclosure, I., a chief city of Northern Canaan, near Lake Merom, whose king Jabin, at the head of an allied host, was defeated by Joshua, Josh. 11:1-13. Hazor revived, however, and for a time oppressed the Israelites; but was subdued by Barak, fortified by Solomon, and re mained in the possession of Israel until the invasion of Tiglath-pileser, Josh. 19:36; Judg. 4:2; 1 Kin. 9:15; 2 Kin. 15:29. The site suggested by Wilson and Anderson of the English Palestine Survey is Tell Hara, a hill 2% miles southeast of Kedesh, where are ancient ruins. II. Josh. 15:23, in South Judah. III. Another town in South Judah, Ha- zor-Hadattah, Josh. 15:25, now el-Hudhe- rah. IV. Also named in Josh. 15:25, where Canon Cook reads " Kerioth-Hezron, which is Hazor," and identifies with Kurretein. V. A city of Benjamin, Neh. 11:33. VI. An unidentified region in Arabia, laid waste by Nebuchadnezzar, Jer. 49:28- 33- HEAD'-DRESS, among the Hebrews an occasional adornment, the head being or dinarily uncovered. It was covered in mourning, 2 Sam. 15:30; Jer. 14:3, 4, usu ally with the mantle, 1 Kin. 19:13. One of the Hebrew words for the ornamental cov ering indicates a form of the turban : worn by distinguished men and kings, Job 29: 14; Isa. 62:3, "diadem;" and by ladies, Isa. 3:23, "hoods." It is the name given to the high-priest's mitre, Zech. 3:5. Com pare Exod. 28:39. The ordinary priests'1 bonnets were " for glory and for beauty," Exod. 28:40. Another Hebrew term, sig nifying ornament, denotes a head-dress worn by the priests. Exod. 39:28; Ezek. 44:18, "bonnets;" by ladies, Isa. 3:20, "bonnets;" by a "bridegroom, Isa. 61:10, "ornaments;" and by others on festive occasions, ver. 10, "beauty." Compare 2 Sam. 13:19; Ezek. 24:17, 23, "tire." The word translated " hats," in Dan. 3 : 21, prob ably signifies cloaks. HEAD'STONE, Zech. 4:7, the crowning or chief stone of a building. HEALTH, healing or wholeness. God's "saving health," Psa. 67:2, is his gracious soul-healing and salvation. HEART. In the Bible the seat of the affections, desires, hopes, motives, and will, Acts 16:14, also of the intellectual percep tions as influenced by the moral character, Psa. 14:1; John 12:40; 1 Cor. 2:9; thus in cluding the whole spiritual nature of man, Rom. 1:21 ; 2 Cor. 4:6. The heart of fall en mankind is naturally and everywhere alienated from God, Gen. 8:21; Eccl. 9:3; Jer. 17:9, the fountain of sin and crime, Matt. 15:19, needing to be renewed by the special grace of God, Psa. 51:10; Jer. 32:40; Ezek. 36:26. It is then the seat of faith, Rom. 10:10, whereby God purifies it, Acts 15:9 (compare Heb. 10:22); the abode of Christ, Eph. 3:17; ofthe Holy Spirit, 2 Cor. 1:22; of the Father, John 14:23. Its re newal is evidenced in the life, Matt. 12:35. God looks upon it, 1 Sam. 16:7; Acts 8:21, and judges both it and the life, Jer. 17:10; Rev. 2:23. We are commanded to yield it wholly to God, and to keep it diligently in 217 HEA BIBLE DICTIONARY. HEB his ways, i Sam. 7:3; Prov. 3:1, 4; 23:26; Psa. 51:17; Jer. 4:14; Joel 2:12, 13; Phil. 4:7; 1 Pet. 3:15. HEARTH. In Gen. 18:6, heated stones on which cakes of dough were laid, and covered with hot ashes and embers, as is still the Bedouin custom. In Psa. 102:3 a fagot. In Isa. 30:14 a burning mass. In Jer. 36:22, 23 a large pot or brazier. Such portable furnaces, with lighted charcoal, placed when required in a cavity in the middle of a room, are still used in the East. In Zech. 12:6 a small pan for hold ing fire. HEATH, supposed to Ue the juniper, a low and stunted tree found in desert and rocky places, and thus contrasted with a tree growing by a water-course, Jer. 17:5- 8; 48:6. HEATH'EN, Jer. 10:2; Zech. 9:10; Gal. 3:8, a frequent rendering of the Hebrew goyim and the Greek elhne, otherwise trans lated "nations," Gen. 18:18; Josh. 23:7; Matt. 28:19, and "Gentiles," Isa. 11:10; 42:6; Rom. 11:25. In the English Bible this term is applied to all the nations ex cept Israel. It now denotes all except Jews, Christians, and Mohammedans. The inspired descriptions of the moral and mental darkness of the ancient nations that ignored the true God, Jer. 10; Rom. 1, are borne out by modern heathendom ; while the Bible promises, which have already re ceived glorious fulfilment, still enjoin and encourage faithful effort to win the whole race for Christ. HEAVEN, heaved up, high, either the material realm of the atmospheric and stel lar regions, or the special abode of God - and holy spirits. In both cases the plural is often used, and always in Greek, in the expressions " Father in the heavens," "kingdom of the heavens." 1. In the former sense heaven is con trasted with earth, "heaven and earth" meaning the universe, Gen. 1:1. It is spo ken of as a broad expanse, " firmament," Gen. 1:6-8, metaphorically represented as having doors and windows, opened or shut to give or withhold rain, etc., Deut. 11:17; 28:12; Psa. 78:23; in it the sun, moon, and stars are set, Gen. 1:14-17; Deut. 4:19; Nah. 3:16; in the midst of it the fowl fly, Gen. 1 : 20 ; Rev. 19:17. It is to be destroyed with the earth, and give place to " a new heaven and a new earth" at the end of time, Isa. 51:6; Matt. 24:35; 2 Pet. 3:10; Rev. 21:1. 2. In the second sense the word denotes 218 the world of holy bliss, the peculiar dwell ing-place of God, 1 Kin. 8:30; Matt. 5:45; whence Christ descended, John 3:13; 1 Cor. 15:47, whither he ascended, Luke 24:51; 1 Pet. 3 : 22, and whence he is again to come, Phil. 3 : 20. It is the abode of angels, Matt. 22:30; Mark 13:32. Into it Elijah passed, 2 Kin. 2:1. There Christ intercedes for his people, Heb. 7 : 25 ; 8 : 1 ; 9 : 24 ; and there he has a place prepared for them, John 14: 2, 3; 1 Pet. 1:4, where all shall at length be gathered. From it all sin and its bitter fruits are for ever excluded. To set forth its happiness, which is beyond our concep tion, many images are employed. It is a kingdom, an inheritance ; there are rivers of pleasure, trees of life, glorious light, rapturous songs, robes, crowns, feasting, mirth, treasures, triumphs. God also gives us positive representations: the righteous dwell in the divine presence ; they appear with Christ in glory. Heaven is life ever lasting ; glory, an eternal weight of glory ; salvation, repose, peace, fulness of joy, the joy of the Lord. There are different de grees in that glory, and never-ceasing advancement. It will be a social state, and its happiness, in some measure, will arise from mutual communion and con verse, and the expressions and exercises of mutual benevolence. It will include the perfect purity of every saint; delightful fellowship with those we have here loved in- the Lord, Matt. 8:11; 17:3, 4; 1 Thess. 2:19; 4:13-18; the presence of Christ, and the consciousness that all is perfect and everlasting, Rev. 7:9-17. We are taught that the body will share this bliss as well as the soul : the consummation of our bliss is subsequent to the resurrection of the body; for it is redeemed as well as the soul, and shall, at the resurrection of the just, be fashioned like unto Christ's glori ous body. By descending from heaven, and reascending thither, he proves to the doubting soul the reality of heaven; he opens its door for the guilty by his atoning sacrifice ; and all who are admitted to it by his blood shall be made meet for it by his grace, and find their happiness for ever in his love. See Kingdom of heaven. " The third heaven," 2 Cor. 12:2, is prob ably equivalent to the " heaven of heav ens," Deut. 10:14, 'he highest heavens, thought of as above the aerial and also the starry heavens. HE'BER, alliance, I., a grandson of Ash er, Gen. 46:17; Num. 26:45; 1 Chr. 7:31. II. A Kenite descended from Hobab. HEB BIBLE DICTIONARY; HEB He resided in North Canaan, and seems to have been a man, of note. His wife Jael slew Sisera, Judg. 4:11, 17; 5:24. III. Used in the A. V. for Eber, Luke 3:35. See Eber, Hebrews. Four others are named in 1 Chr. 4:18; 5:13; 8:17, 22. HE'BREWS, that branch of Abraham's posterity whose home was in the land of promise. The name is first applied to Abraham himself, Gen. 14:13, and is gen erally supposed to have been derived from Eber, Gen. 10:24; 11:14-17, who was the last of the long-lived patriarchs, and out lived Abraham himself, after whose death he was for many years the only surviving ancestor of Isaac and Jacob. Others de rive the name from the Hebrew verb abar, to pass over, and suppose it to have been applied to Abraham by the Canaanites as the man from beyond the Euphrates. " He brews" appears to have been the name given to and used by the chosen people in their relations with foreigners, Gen. 39: 14; 40:15; 41:12; Exod. 2:7; Deut. 15:12; 1 Sam. 4:6; Jonah 1:9. Their home name was "the children of Israel." Compare Exod. 3: 15 and ver. 18. The name "Jews," at first applied to the inhabitants of Judaea only, 2 Kin. 16:6, afterwards became more general. 1. Origin. God chose Abram in Ur of the Chaldees to be the founder of the He brew nation, Gen. 11:31; 12:1, 2, through Isaac and Jacob ; hence their names, "the seed of Abraham," " the children of Isra el," or of "Jacob," Exod. 1:13; Psa. 105:6; John 8:37. 2. Government. This was patriarchal under Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. After their 430 years in Canaan and Egypt, dur ing 215 of which they were subjects and slaves of Egyptian kings, Gen. 15 : 13 ; Exod. 1, God brought them out by his ser vant Moses, and established the theocracy, Exod. 6:7, a form of government in which God is the recognized king of the state, gives it its laws, and specially manages all national affairs. This government was va riously administered under the legislator Moses, his successor Joshua, the judges, kings, and high-priests ; but amid all these revolutions God was considered the true monarch of Israel, and more or less loy ally served. In the time of Moses God dwelt among his people as a king in his palace or in the midst of his camp. He gave them the law, moral, ceremonial, so cial, and political, and compacted them into a nation during their 40 years in the wil derness. He dwelt visibly among them in the pillar of cloud and fire, ordering their journeyings and encampments, accessible for consultation, giving relief in emergen cies, and miraculously supplying their wants, while punishing their rebellions. This was the time of the theocracy in the strictest sense of the term. Under Joshua and the judges it continued nearly the same : the former was appointed by God, Num. 27:18-21, and being filled by the spirit which animated Moses, would under take nothing without consulting Jehovah ; and the latter were leaders, raised up by God himself, to deliver the Hebrews and govern in His name. The demand of the people for a king occasioned to Samuel, the prophet-judge, great disquietude, for he regarded it as a rejection of the theo cratic government, 1 Sam. 8:6, 7. God complied with the wishes of the people; but he still asserted his own sovereign au thority, and claimed the obedience of all, appointing and deposing Saul, 1 Sam. 10:1; 16:1, and choosing David, 16:12, and Solo mon and his descendants, 1 Chr. 28:6, 7. 3. Religion. The religion of the He brews may be considered in different points of view, with respect to the different condi tions of their nation. Under the patriarchs they were instructed in the will of God by direct revelation, worshipped him by prayer and sacrifices, opposed idolatry and athe ism, used circumcision as the appointed seal of the covenant made by God with Abraham, and followed the laws which the light of grace and faith discovers to those who honestly and seriously seek God, his righteousness, arid truth. They lived in expectation of the Messiah, the Desire of all nations, to complete their hopes and wishes, and fully to instruct and bless them. Such was the religion of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Judah, Joseph, etc., who main tained the worship of God and the tradi tion ofthe true religion. After the time of Moses the religion of the Hebrews became more fixed, and ceremonies, days, feasts, priests, and sacrifices were determined with great exactness. This whole dispen sation only prefigured that more perfect one which should in after times arise, when the Messiah should come, and bring life and immortality to light in his gospel, and make a full atonement for the sins of the world, Heb. 8:7; io-i; 1 Pet. 1:10-12. See Type. The long abode of the Hebrews in Egypt 219 HEB BIBLE DICTIONARY. HEB had nourished in them a strong propensity to idolatry; and neither the miracles of Moses, nor his precautions to withdraw them from the worship of idols, nor the rigor of his laws, nor the splendid marks of God's presence in the Israelitish camp, were able to conquer this unhappy perver sity. We know with what facility they adopted the adoration of the golden calf, when they had recently been eye-witnesses of such divine wonders. Saul and David, with all their authority, were not able en tirely to suppress such inveterate disorders. Superstitions, which the Israelites did not dare to exercise in public, were practised in private. They sacrificed on the high places, and consulted diviners and magi cians. Solomon, whom God had chosen to build his temple, was himself a stone of stumbling to Israel. He erected altars to the false gods of the Phoenicians, Moabites, and Ammonites, and not only permitted his wives to worship the gods of their own country, but himself to some extent adored them, i Kin. 11:5-7. Most of his succes sors showed a similar weakness. Jerobo am introduced the worship of the golden calves into Israel, which took such deep root that it was never entirely extirpated. It was for this cause that God gave the Hebrews over into the hands of their ene mies, to captivity and dispersion. See Idolatry. After the Captivity they ap pear to have been wholly free from the worship of idols ; but they were still cor rupt and far from God, and having filled the cup of their guilt by rejecting and cru cifying the Lord of glory, they were extir pated as a nation, and became strangers and sojourners over all the earth. 4. Political History. This may be divi ded into 7 periods, as follows: (1.) From Abraham to the Exodus. This embraces the partriarchal period and the sojourn in Egypt, where Jacob's descend ants dwelt 215 years, during which time the Egyptians reduced them to state of sore bondage. See Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, etc. (2.) From the Exodus to the Kingdom. The Hebrews were delivered from Egypt by Jehovah through Moses, who led them out with great signs and wonders to Sinai, where God gave them his law; and then, after 40 years of wanderings, he brought them to the borders of the promised land. Here Moses died, and was succeeded by Joshua, who conquered the desired coun try, and allotted it to the several tribes. 220 From this time they were governed in the name of Jehovah by chiefs, judges, or pa triarchal rulers, until the time of Samuel, when the government was changed to a monarchy, and Saul anointed king. See Moses, Exodus, Judges, Samuel. (3.) To the Division of the Kingdom. This period, of about 120 years, includes the time of Israel's greatest prosperity, under David and Solomon. David, a shepherd youth, but the man after God's own heart, was made king instead of the disobedient and rejected Saul, and founded a family which continued to reign in Jerusalem un til the entire subjugation of the country by the Chaldaeans. It was during the reigns of David and Solomon that Israel's territo rial limits were most extended, 1 Kin. 4:21-24. Foreign nations then most ac knowledged the glory and power of the kingdom, 1 Kin. 5:1; 10:1. But Solomon's reign, the period of the greatest prosperity, was marked also by the beginnings of de cline — in the introduction of idolatry and oppression, 1 Kin. 11:4-8; 12:4. See Saul, David, Solomon, Temple. (4.) To the Return from Captivity. At Solomon's death the 10 tribes revolted from his son Rehoboam, and formed under Je roboam a separate kingdom, that of Israel, between which and that of Judah there were hostile feelings and frequent wars. Both fell into idolatry, and prophets were sent, from time to time, to reprove, warn, and instruct them. Temporary and par tial recoveries from idolatry were followed by relapses. Both kingdoms came into collision with surrounding nations, God's instruments to punish them for their sins ; and both declined in power, until the north ern kingdom was finally led away captive by the Assyrians, B. C. 721, 2 Kin. 17:6-18, and the southern by the Babylonians, B. C. 588, 2 Kin. 25:1-21. Between B. C. 536 and 457 two colonies of Hebrews, chiefly of Ju dah, Benjamin, and Levi, returned under Zerubbabel and Ezra, Ezra 2:2; 8:1, being followed by Nehemiah in 445, Neh. 2:7-11. They rebuilt the temple, and the walls and houses of Jerusalem, and attempted to re establish their nation, the majority of which preferred to remain in the lands of their captivity. See Kings. (5.) To the Coming of Christ. Contrary to the command of God, Jer. 42:7-22, many Jews after the Chaldaean conquest went into Egypt, Jer. 43:1-7, fell into idolatry there, Jer. 44:15-19, and were taken cap tive by Nebuchadnezzar when he overran HEB BIBLE DICTIONARY. HEB Egypt, B. C. 570, Jer. 46:13-28. Later, un der Alexander the Great and the Ptolemies, great numbers of Jews settled in Egypt, where they enjoyed many privileges. In Alexandria they became exceedingly nu merous ; and there, under the patronage of Ptolemy Philadelphus, B. C. 285, their schol ars made the Septuagint version of the Old Testament. About B. C. 168 the Jews erect ed a temple at Leontopolis in Lower Egypt, and worshipped there after the Mosaic rit ual. This temple, like that in Jerusalem, was destroyed in Vespasian's reign. Philo, the celebrated Jewish philosopher and his torian contemporary with Christ, was a resident at Alexandria. After the return from captivity, B. C. 536, the Jews remained under the dominion of Persia till the overthrow of that kingdom by Alexander the Great, who granted them many favors. On the disruption of his kingdom at his death, B. C. 323, Palestine was for over a century alternately subject to the Graeco-Egyptian Ptolemies and the Graeco-Syrian Seleucidae, the " kings of the south" and "of the north," who in their frequent wars were often traversing the country with their armies. The Jews final ly revolted from Egypt, after persecution by Ptolemy Philopator, to Antiochus the Great of Syria, B. C. 203, who treated them kindly. But his youngest son, Antiochus Epiphanes, violated the temple and dedi cated it to Jupiter Olympius, and endea vored to force the Jews to worship heathen divinities. Of the Jews, one party, led by the renegade high-priests Jason and Mene- laus, favored the adoption of Greek cus toms, while the mass of the people clung to their ancient faith, and many suffered tor ture and death rather than apostatize from Jehovah. These were led by the Asmone- an and Maccabean priestly and princely family, and after a 30 years' struggle gained their independence, peace being made with the Syrian king Antiochus Sidetes by John Hyrcanus, B. C. 133. His son Aristobulus assumed the title of king B. C. 133. From that time till B. C. 63, when Jerusalem was taken by Pompey, the nation was engaged in external wars and in struggles between the rival parties of the Pharisees and Sad- ducees. The Idumaean Antipater, father of Herod, was made procurator of Judaea B. C. 47, and 10 years later Herod, on whom the Roman Senate conferred the crown of Judaea, took possession of his kingdom with the aid of the Roman army. See Herod. (6.) To the Destruction of Jerusalem. As the gospels relate, the Jewish nation re jected the Messiah, and thus by despising God's greatest offer of mercy brought ruin upon itself, Matt. 23:34-37. The Jews suf fered much from the cruel Roman govern ors after Pilate, and at length were pro voked to an insurrection, which resulted in the destruction of the temple and Jeru salem, A. D. 70. The Roman army under Titus attacked the city when the nation was gathered there to celebrate the Pass over. Fearful sufferings were endured, and multitudes perished, as the Saviour had foretold, Matt. 24:2; Luke 21:20-24. (7.) To Modern Times. On the fall of Jerusalem the Jews were scattered into all parts of the Roman empire, multitudes being sold as slaves. Many afterwards returned to the ruins of Jerusalem. The Jews were admitted to Roman citizenship by the emperor Claudius, but were treated with great severity by his successors. In Hadrian's reign, A. D. 135, multitudes flocked to the standard of the fanatical Bar-Cocheba, who proclaimed himself the Messiah; but the Romans speedily brought this insurrection to a bloody end, desola ting Judaea again, redestroying Jerusalem, and on its ruins planting a Roman colony, which they named JE.Ha Capitolina, and forbade the Jews to enter. An unsuccess ful attempt to rebuild the temple was made by the emperor Julian, A. D. 331-363, out of hostility to Christianity. Since the downfall of the Western Ro man empire, A. D. 476, the Jews have had a variety of masters and fortunes, and have endured much cruel persecution. Spread over all parts of the earth, and in most places exposed to contempt and oppres sion, they have yet remained a distinct people and everywhere maintained obser vances peculiar to themselves : such as circumcision, performed after the law of their fathers ; the great day of expiation ; also the observance of a sabbath or day of rest on Saturday, and notion the Christian Sabbath. They have generally retained the observance of the Passover in some form. They everywhere consider Judaea as their proper country, and Jerusalem as their metropolitan city. However com fortably they may be settled in any resi dence, they hope to see Zion and Jerusa lem revive from their ashes. Their con tinued existence as a distinct people is a standing proof of the truth of Scripture, and of the Christian as well as the Jewish . 221 HEB BIBLE DICTIONARY. HEB religion. It evinces God's providential care over them, and his intention yet to fulfil his gracious promises concerning them, Rom. 11:26. They are divided into various sects. Some of them, who may be regarded as successors of the ancient Pharisees, are extremely attached to the traditions of the rabbins, and to the multiplied observances enjoined in the Talmud. Others, as the Caraites, reject these, and adhere solely to Scripture. The Rabbinical Jews, who are the most numerous, are also called Ortho dox. Many Jews are deists or atheists. Between these extremes are the " Conser vative " and the " Reformed " or " liberal " Jews. The great Jewish theologian Moses Maimonides, A. D. 1 135-1204, drew up a confession of faith still used by the Ortho dox Jews. The modern epoch is marked by the name of Moses Mendelssohn, 1729* 1786, whose translation of the Pentateuch into German, with comments, was the groundwork of reform. Within the pres ent century nearly all the European States have admitted the Jews to political liberty and nominal equality, which they fully en joy in the United States also. The strictly Orthodox or Rabbinical Jews prevail in Russia, Poland, and the East ; the Conser vative in Great Britain, France, and Hol land; the Reformed in Germany and Amer ica. Of late years the Jews have been in creasing in Jerusalem, where they gather every Friday at the foundation of the tem ple wall and lament their forefathers' sins and Jerusalem's desolation. See Walls. The Jews have distinguished themselves in nearly all occupations, and many great statesmen, artists, and scholars have arisen among them. They have long been the bankers of the world. Their number is now estimated at 6,000,000, of whom 50,000 are in the city of New York. For the language of the Jews, see Lan guage. " Hebrew of the Hebrews," one of pure Hebrew descent on the side of both parents, Phil. 3:5. Hebrews, Epistle to the. The object of this epistle, which ranks among the most important of the New Testament books, was to prove to the Christian Hebrews from the Old Testament the divinity, hu manity, atonement, and intercession of Christ, particularly his preeminence over Moses and the angels of God ; to demon strate the superiority of the gospel to the law, and the real object and design of the 222 Mosaic institution ; to fortify the minds of the Hebrew converts against apostasy un der persecution, and to engage them to a deportment becoming their Christian pro fession. In this view, the epistle furnishes a key to the Old Testament Scriptures, and is invaluable as a clear elucidation and an inspired, unanswerable demonstration of the doctrine of the great atoning Sacrifice as set forth in Old Testament institutions. The name of the writer of this epistle is nowhere mentioned. Its authorship is dis puted, many ascribing it to the apostle Paul, others to Apollos, Luke, or Barnabas. It has been suggested that it may have been written by Paul in Hebrew, and transferred to Greek by Luke or some other ofthe great apostle's disciples. This would account for its difference in style and unity of sen timent as compared with the known wri tings of Paul. It is believed to have been written in Italy about A. D. 63. See Paul. HE'BRON , friendship, I., an ancient city of Canaan, and one of the most ancient in the world, built 7 years before Tanis, the capital of Lower Egypt, Num. 13:22. It was anciently called Kirjath-arba (see Ar- ba) and Mamre, and was a favorite resi dence of the patriarchs Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Here too they were buried, Gen. 13:18; 14:13; 23:2-19; 35:27. Under Joshua and Caleb the Israelites conquered it from the Canaanites, and it was assigned to the priests and made a Levitical city of refuge, Josh. 14:13-15; 15:13; 21:11, 13; Judg. 1 : 10, 20. It was David's seat of government during the 7 years when he reigned over Judah only, 2 Sam. 2:3; 5:5. Here Absalom raised the standard of re volt, 2 Sam. 15:9, 10. It was fortified by Rehoboam, 2 Chr. 11:10, and reoccupied after the Captivity, Neh. 11:25. It was re covered from Edom by Judas Maccabeus ; burned by the Romans, A. D. 69; taken by the Mohammedans in the 7th century, and by the Crusaders early in the 12th; it was the seat of a "bishopric*" till 1187, when it again fell into Moslem hands, and has so remained. It is one of the 4 holy cities of the Moslems, and a hot-bed of fanaticism. It is also one of the 4 holy cities of the Jews. At present Hebron is an unwalled city of about 10,000 inhabitants, of whom some 500 are Jews, and the remainder Turks and Arabs. It lies in a deep valley and on the adjacent hillside, in the ancient hill country of Judaea, about 20 miles south of Jerusalem, and 20 north of Beer-sheba, and 3,040 feet above the sea Its modern HEB BIBLE DICTIONARY. HEL HEBRON! THE GREAT MOSQUE AND PART OF THE TOWN. Arabic name, el-Khulil, "the friend," L in honor of Abraham, "the friend of God." In one quarter of the town is the Haram — a sacred inclosure surrounding a small mosque, which it is generally believed stands over the venerated cave of Machpe lah. The outer structure is built of mas sive stones, and is about 60 feet high, 150 feet wide, and 200 long. With the excep tion of its 2 minarets, it is evidently of very high antiquity — according to Tristram and Stanley, probably as early as David or Solomon. The mosque within was proba bly a Christian church in Justinian's time. The Moslems guard it jealously against the entrance of Jews or Christians, though the Prince of Wales, with Dean Stanley, was admitted in 1862, the Marquis of Bute in 1866, and the Crown-prince of Prussia in 1869. The real tomb is beneath the floor of the mosque. See Machpelah. Other rel ics of antiquity exist in 2 stone reservoirs, the larger 133 feet square and 21 feet deep). They are still in daily use; and one of them was probably the "pool in Hebron," above which David hung up the assassins of Ishbosheth, t Sam. 4:12. 'The city con tains 9 mosques and 2 synagogues. Its streets are narrow; the houses of stone, with flat roofs surmounted by small domes. Large quantities of glass lamps and col ored rings are here manufactured ; also leathern bottles, raisins, arid dibs, or grape- syrup. A brisk trade is carried on with the Bedouins, who exchange their wool and camels' hair for the commodities of the town. The environs of the city are very fertile, furnishing the finest vineyards in Palestine, numerous plantations of olive and other fruit trees, and excellent pas turage. See Eshcol, Mamre. Two miles west of Hebron is the tree venerated as "Abraham's oak." Its trunk measures 32 feet in circumference, and its crown of spreading branches 275 feet. Josephus speaks of a great oak or terebinth on this spot, and of the tradition that it was as old as the world. See Oak. II. A city of Asher, Josh. 19:28, perhaps the same as Abdon, Josh. 21:30. HE'BRONITES, descendants of Hebron, a son of Kohath, Num. 3:19, 27; 26:58. HEDGE. A close row of thorny shrubs still often surmounts in the East a wall of dried earth or of stone, Psa. 80:12, 13; Isa. 5:5; Mic. 7:4; a formidable barrier in the way of the slothful, Prov. 15:19. The nar row paths amid thorny hedges, Num. 22 : 24,, are contrasted with the highways in one of our Saviour's parables, Luke 14:23. HEIF'ER, a symbol of wanton wildness, especially when highly fed, Jer. 50:11 ; Hos. 4:16. A red heifer was sacrificed without the camp, Heb. 13: 12, as described in Num. 19, because all contact with death — the penalty of sin — was defiling; illustrating the superior cleansing power of the blood of Christ for polluted but penitent souls, Heb. 9:13, 14; 10:22. HEIR. See Inheritance. 223 HEL BIBLE DICTIONARY. HEL HEL'BON, fertile, Ezek. 27:18, noted for its wine, supplied to Tyre by Damas cus merchants. Not, as formerly thought, Aleppo (Arabic, Halebj, which is about 180 miles north of Damascus, and produces no wine of reputation, but a wild glen and village still called Helb6n, high up on the eastern slope of Anti-Lebanon, about 10 miles north of Damascus, and famous for its vineyards and wool. Many ancient ruins are to be seen here. HE'LEPH, exchange, Josh. 19:33, a place on the border of Naphtali. Perhaps Beit- lif, but not identified with certainty. PLAIN AND OBELISK OF HELIOPOI IF. HELIOP'OLIS, city of the sun, I., a cele brated city of Egypt, called in Coptic, He brew, and the English version, On, sun, light, Gen. 41:45. The 70 mention ex pressly, Exod. 1:11, that On is Heliopolis. Jeremiah, 43:13, calls this city Beth-she- mesh, that is, house or temple of the sun. In Ezekiel, 30:17, the name is pronounced Aven, which is the same as On. The Arabs called it 'Ain-Shems, fountain of the sun. All these names come from the circum stance that the city was the ancient seat of the Egyptian worship of the sun. It was in ruins in the time of Strabo, who men tions that 2 obelisks had already been car ried awav to Rome. At present its site, 6 miles north-northeast from Cairo, is marked only by extensive ranges of low mounds full of ruinous fragments, and a solitary obelisk formed of a single block of red granite, rising 66 feet above the sand, and covered on Its 4 sides with hieroglyphics. II. Another Heliopolis is alluded to in Scripture under the name of the " plain of A. ven," or field of the sun," Amos 1 =5. This 224 was the Heliopolis of Coele-Syria, now Ba albek. Its stupendous ruins have been the wonder of past centuries, and will continue to be the wonder of future generations, till barbarism and earthquakes shall have done their last work. The most notable remains are those of 3 temples, the largest of which, with its courts and portico, extended 1,000 feet from east to west. A magnificent por tico, 180 feet long, with 12 lofty and highly- wrought columns, led to a large hexagonal court, and this to a vast quadrangle, 440 feet by 370.- Fronting on this rose lo col umns of the peristyle which surrounded the inner temple. There were 19 columns on each side, or 54 in all, only 6 of which are now standing, and they were 7 feet in diameter, and 62 feet high, besides the en tablature of nearly 14 feet. This temple rested on an immense vaulted substruc ture, rising nearly 50 feet above the ground outside, and in this are 3 stones 63 feet long and 13 feet high, lying 20 feet above the ground. The temples are of Roman origin; and in vastness of plan, combined HEL BIBLE DICTIONARY. HEL RUINS OF BAALBEK. with elaborateness and delicacy of execu tion, they seem to surpass all others in the world. " They are like those of Athens for lightness, but far surpass them in vastness ; they are vast and massive, like those of Thebes, but far excel them in airiness and grace." (Robinson.) HEL'KATH-HAZ'ZURIM,^/rf of heroes, or of rocks, a place near Gibeon, so named from a fatal duel-like combat, preceding a battle between the armies of David and Ishbosheth, 2 Sam. 2:16. HELL. This word, from the Anglo-Saxon helan, " to cover," represents in the A. V. one Hebrew and two Greek words. I. The Hebrew is sheol, from a root meaning " to demand," or from another root, " to make hollow." It occurs in the Old Testament Hebrew 65 times, and is translated 31 times " hell," 31 times "grave," and 3 times " pit." In the Septuagint it is rendered "Hades," " the invisible," a name which the Greeks first applied to the king of the unseen world, and later to the place of disembodied spir its. This use of hades for sheol proves a general agreement in the ideas expressed by the two words. But while the Greeks pictured hades as ruled over by a god in dependent of the gods of heaven and earth, the Hebrew thought of sheol as a part of Jehovah's kingdom, Psa. 139:8; Prov. 15:11. The heathen looked for no deliv erance from hades, but the pious Hebrew, while he regarded sheol with dread, looked IS for a release from it and the resurrection of the body, Dan. 12:2; Acts 23:6-8, though until Christ brought " life and immortality to light" Hebrew ideas concerning the future state were necessarily indefinite. Sheol is spoken of as the common subter ranean home after death of all human spir its, godly and ungodly, Gen. 37:35; Num. 16:30,33; Psa.g:i7; 16:10; Isa. 14:4, 9-15; the receptacle for the body being expressed by a different word in Hebrew, Isa. 14:19, 20. It is a place of restraint, Job 17:16; Isa. 38:10, of gloom, 2 Sam. 22:6; Psa. 6:5; as a refuge from "earthly afflictions, Job 14:13, where earthly occupations cease, Eccl. 9:10; a place to be delivered from, Psa. 49:15; Hos. 13:14. It is implied that there were in it different abodes for the righteous and the wicked, Deut. 32:22; Psa. 86:13; Prov. 14:32; Isa. 57:2. Sheol is never spoken of as the abode of Satan or fallen angels. II. In the New Testament, A. V., "hell" is 10 times the translation of hades, the Greek word itself being retained in the R. V. In 1 Cor. 15:55 the true reading- In the Greek is now thought to be " death," as in the R. V. Like sheol, Job 11:8, hades is used as antithesis to the visible heaven, Matt. 11:23; Luke 10:15. From it Christ will deliver his church, Matt. 16:18. In hades the rich man, Luke 16:22-31, was "in anguish," R. V. ver. 25, while, appar ently injthe same realm though far off and 225 HEL BIBLE DICTIONARY. HEM above, Lazarus was " comforted." See Abraham's Bosom and Paradise. It is distinguished from the final place of tor ment in Rev. 20:13, M- The teaching of the New Testament in regard to the home after death of the dis embodied spirits of the redeemed differs widely from that of the Old Testament. They are repeatedly spoken of as depart ing to be with Christ: see John 14:2, 3; 17:24; Acts 7:55, 56; 2 Cor. 5:8; Phil. 1:23; Heb. 12:22-24; 1 Pet. 3:22; compare Acts 3:21. In explanation of this difference it has been held by some that Christ, on his descent into hades, Acts 2:27, 31, or "the lower parts of the earth," Eph. 4:9, there proclaimed the news of his completed atonement, 1 Pet. 3 : 18-20, and having pre pared a place in his Father's house, " led captive" thither "the captivity" of the saints then in hades; since which event hades remains the abode of the wicked only. III. Gehenna (Geenna), another New Testament Greek word represented by " hell " in both the A. V. and R. V., occurs 12 times. It was the Grecized term for " the valley of Hinnom," and was adopted by the Jews after the Captivity and by our Lord to designate the place of torment to which evil spirits and wicked men are to be consigned at the judgment day. It is referred to by our Lord in the most solemn and awful terms, Matt. 5:22, 29, 30; 10:28; 18:9; 23:15, 33; Mark 9:43-48; Luke 12:5; Jas. 3:6; compare Matt. 25:41, 46. The gehenna of the gospels and James seems synonymous with the " destruction " of the Old Testament, Job 26:6, the "furnace of fire" of Matt. 13:42, the "lake of fire" of Rev. 19:20; 20:10, 14, 15, and the "perdi tion" of Rev. 17:8, 11. "Cast down to hell," in 2 Pet. 2:4, is literally "consigned to Tartarus," the place of punishment in Greek mythology ; compare Jude 6. Under the government of an infinitely holy, just, wise, and loving God, bound by his own nature and regard for the well- being of his universe to express his abhor rence of sin and to put a check upon it, as a ruinous and hateful thing, the existence of a hell for the confinement and punish ment of his free, responsible, sinning, but unrepentant, creatures, who have abused the probation accorded and rejected the grace offered by him, is a reasonable ne cessity, Rom. 6:23; 2 Thess. 1:6-11; Rev. 20:11-15. The strong desire of God that men should be saved from hell, is mani- 226 fested in the all-sufficient atonement by the death of Christ, and the divine warnings and pleadings throughout the Bible. The misery of hell will consist in the privation of the vision and love of God, exclusion from every source of happiness, perpetual sin, remorse of conscience in view of the past, malevolent passions, the sense of the just anger of God, and all other sufferings of body and soul which are the natural results of sin, or which the law of God requires as penal inflictions, Matt. 7:21, 23; 22:13; 25:41; 2 Thess. 1:9. The degrees of anguish will be propor tioned to the degrees of guilt, Matt. 10:15; 23:14; Luke 12:47, 48. And these punish ments will be eternal, like the happiness of heaven. The wrath of God will never cease to abide upon the lost soul, and it will always be "the wrath to come." HEL'LENISTS. See GREECE. HEL'MET. See Armor. HELPS, only in 1 Cor. 12:28. This di vinely recognized form of work in the primitive church is believed by many to have included the ministrations ofthe dea cons and deaconesses in the care of the poor and sick. Other interpretations, how ever, have been given, and we cannot de termine with certainty the exact nature of the " aids " denoted by it. It suggests all the kindly ministries by which Christian charity alleviates human woe. They all come from Christ as their source, are in spired by him, and lead to him. In Acts 27:17 the "helps" were cables passed under and around the ship to strengthen it. HEM OF GAR'MENT. See GARMENTS. nE'MAN, faithful, I., a son of Zerah, of the tribe of Judah, noted for wisdom, 1 Kin. 4:31; 1 Chr. 2:6. II. A Kohathite Levite, son of Joel and grandson of Samuel, a chief musician for the temple in David's time, 1 Chr. 6:33; 15:17, 191 16:41, 42; 25:1, 4-6; 2 Chr.5:i2; 29:14; 35:15. Psalm 88 is attributed to him. Some explain " Ezrahite " as equiv alent to " son of Zerah," and thus identify the singer and seer with Heman I. — born a Levite, but connected with and reckoned to the tribe of Judah. HEM'LOCK, Hos. 10:4; Amos 6:12, ill Hebrew, rosh, usually translated gall or bitterness, Deut. 32:32, and mentioned in connection with wormwood, Deut. 29:18; Jer. 9:15; 23:15; Lam. 3:19. It indicates some wild, bitter, and noxious plant, which it is difficult to determine. According to HEN BIBLE DICTIONARY. HER some it is the poisonous hemlock, while others consider it to be the poppy, or the euphorbia with its acrid juices. HEN. The care of a hen to protect her brood from hawks, etc., illustrates the Sa viour's tender care of his people when exposed to the swoop of the Roman eagle, as in all similar perils, Matt. 23:37; 24:22. The common barn-door fowl is not often mentioned in Scripture, Mark 13:35; 14:30; Luke 22:34; but at the present day they and their eggs are more used in Syria than any other food not vegetable. HE'NA, supposed to have been a city of Mesopotamia afterwards called Ana, on the Euphrates, about 20 miles above Baby lon, 2 Kin. 18:34; 19:13; Isa. 37:13. HEPH'ZIBAH, my delight is in her, I., the wife of Hezekiah and mother of Ma nasseh, 2 Kin. 21:1. From her name and her son's character it might be inferred that she was chosen for her beauty rather than her piety. II. A name applied to restored Jerusa lem, Isa. 62:4; compare Isa. 1: 1. HER'ALD, one who makes official and public proclamations, e. g., in the name of a king, or of the rulers of the Grecian games, Dan. 3:4. The apostles, in preach ing the gospel, are the "heralds" ofthe King's message, 1 Tim. 2:7; 2 Tim. 1:11; 2 Pet. 2 : 5. HERBS, plants with a soft, not woody stem, dying entirely in the dry season, if annuals ; or down to the ground and revi ving after the fall rains, or In the spring, if not annuals, Gen. 2:5; 3:18; Psa. 72:16; 92:7; 102:4, il See Exod. 12:8; Num. 9:11. HERD, HERDS'MAN. Herds and flocks formed a chief part of the wealth of 'Abra ham and his near descendants, Gen. 13:2; 26:14; 32:5> and were among the most val ued possessions of the Hebrews all through their national life, Gen. 46:6; Exod. 9:4, 20; 12:38; 2 Chr. 26:10; 32:28, 29; 35:7-9; Eccl. 2:7. The herd supplied many young for sacrifices, Lev. 1:3; 4:3; Psa. 69:31; Isa. 66:3, besides furnishing milk, butter, cheese, flesh-meat, horns, and hides. See Ox. The grassy and wooded table-lands east of the Jordan afforded fine pasturage for cattle, Num. 32:1-4. West of the Jor dan the chief feeding-grounds were Shar on, 1 Chr. 27:29, and Carmel, 1 Sam. 25:2. In the hot season, when the grass was dried up, cattle were stalled, Hab. 3:17; Mai. 4:2, and fed on mixed grains and chopped straw, Gen. 24:25; Job 6:5; Isa. 11:7; 30:24; 65:25. In Solomon's time cattle - raising declined as commerce in creased, but was still pursued, Eccl. 2:7. Uzziah built towers in the "desert," uncul tivated lands, to protect the pasturing cat tle, 2 Chr. 26: 10. Josiah also seems to have had numerous herds. The early Israelites regarded the occupation of herdsmen as honorable. King Saul himself kept cattle, 1 Sam. 11:5, and Doeg the herdsman was a favorite, 1 Sam. 21:7. The superintend ents of David's herds were among his prominent officers, 1 Chr. 27:29; 28:1. The Egyptians, though possessing exten sive herds, Gen. 47:17; Exod. 9:3, held herdsmen in abomination, Gen. 46:34, and the monuments often represent them as bearded, dwarfish, or deformed. Pharaoh committed the oversight of his herds to Joseph's brethren, Gen. 47:6. The proph et Amos was a herdsman, Amos 1:1; 7:14. See Sheep. HE'RES, sun. Mount Heres, in Hebrew Cheres, Judg. 1:35, was probably a city identical with Beth-shemesh, or connected with it. The same word is found in some Hebrew texts of Isa. 19:18, which would change " city of destruction," A. V., to " city ofthe sun," perhaps Heliopolis. The passage is thought to refer to one of 5 cities in Egypt partly or wholly inhabited by Jews, who were very numerous in Egypt at the period of Greek dominion. The Jewish town Onion was destroyed by Titus. HER'ESY, choice. Applied to the adop tion of religious views and practices new and obnoxious. In the New Testament sometimes translated " sect," and not im plying any judgment as to its tenets, Acts 5:I7; r5:5; 26:5. Sometimes censure is implied, Acts 24:5; when those who call others heretics deserve the name them selves instead, Acts 24:14. In the Epistles "heresies" and schisms in the Christian church are strongly condemned, i Cor. 11:19; Gal. 5:20; Tit. 3:10; 2 Pet. 2:1, the word early coming to mean a departure from the fundamental truths of the gospel. HER'MAS, a Christian at Rome, Rom. 16: 14; supposed by some to have been the writer of the ancient work called "The Shepherd" — a singular mixture of truth and piety with folly and superstition. But this was written in the 2d century. HERMOG'ENES and PHY'GELUS de serted Paul during his 2d imprisonment at Rome, 2 Tim. 1:15. HER'MON, mountain-nose, or peak; call- 227 HER BIBLE DICTIONARY. HER ed also Sirion or Shenir, breastplate, Deut. 3:9; Ezek. 27 : 5, in allusion to its ice-capped top; also Sion, lofty, Deut. 4 : 48. It is the southern part of the Anti-Lebanon range, 40 miles north by east of the Sea of Galilee, and 30 west by south of Damascus. It is the highest mountain in Syria, and now bears the name Jebel esh-Sheikh, old man's mountain. It has 3 peaks, Psa. 42:6, form ing a triangle inclosing a small plateau, the northern and southern being each 9,053 feet above the sea level and 11,000 above the Jordan valley; the western peak, 600 yards off, being 100 feet lower. Hermon was the northern limit of Israel east of the Jordan, Deut. 3:8; 4:48; Josh. 11:3, 17; 12:1; 13:11; 1 Chr. 5:23. See also Psa. 89:12; Song 4:8. It appears to have been a sanctuary for Baal, and the ruins of an ancient temple are found on its southern peak. Hermon is crowned with snow or ice throughout the year. In November the fresh snow begins to cover it, and gradu ally extends 5,000 feet down its sides. Melting as summer advances, only a little is left in shaded spots by September, and the ice in the ravines around the summit glitters in silvery stripes under the rays of the sun, like the snowy locks of an .old man— esh-Sheikh. This majestic mountain can be seen from all the heights of Pales tine, and its summit commands an exten sive view over the Damascus plain on the east, the Mediterranean on the west, and the Holy Land on the south. Its copious dews, from the hot moist air rushing up through the Ghor and condensed on its cold sides, are referred to in Psa. 133:3 as an emblem of the spiritual dew of blessing vouchsafed on Mount Zion ; travellers speak of them as very heavy, their tents affording an insufficient protection. The mountain is frequented by bears, wolves, foxes, and various kinds of game; compare Song 4:8. At its base lay Caesarea-Philippi, now Ba- nias, Matt. 16:13, where Jesus was shortly before his transfiguration, which it is be lieved took place at some retired spot on the mountain, Matt. 17:1-8; Mark 9:1-8. The "Little Hermon" of travellers, not mentioned in Scripture, is a shapeless mass of hills north of the smaller valley of Jez reel; it is called Jebel ed-Duhy by the Arabs. HER'OD, hero-like, the name of several princes, Idumaeans by descent, who bore rule in Palestine under the Romans and are mentioned in the New Testament. 228 The Idumaeans had been subdued by John Hyrcanus B. C. 130, and constrained to adopt Judaism. I. Herod the Great, Matt. 2; Luke 1:5, king of Judaea, etc., B. C. 40. He was the second son of Antipater, an Idumaean made procurator of Judaea by Julius Caesar B. C. 47, Hyrcanus II. being then high- priest. Herod, then 25, was made by his father governor of Galilee; in B. C. 41 he and his brother Phasael were made joint tetrarchs of Judaea by Antony, and the next year he was made king of Judaea by the Roman Senate. In 3 years he established himself in his kingdom ; Jerusalem being taken, Antigonus, then high-priest, being captured and executed B. C. 37, and all the Sanhedrin but 2 put to death. Herod won the favor of Octavius, the conqueror and successor of Antony, and retained it by heavily taxing his subjects, thus losing their good-will. Though professedly a Jew, he used religion solely to advance his ambi tious designs. He rebuilt the temple at Je rusalem, but also constituted one on Mount Gerizim for the Samaritans, established heathen worship in Caesarea for the Gen tiles, a temple to Augustus at Paneas, and rebuilt that of Apollo at Rhodes. Among the cities he adorned with costly buildings were Caesarea and Sebaste, formerly Sa maria. At Jerusalem he built a theatre and instituted games, and sought to lessen the popular dissatisfaction by donating large sums in relief of a famine, by build ing the fortress Antonia, and rebuilding the temple, which see. His life was marked by many acts of cruelty. He put to death the brother (about B. C. 37) and the grand father 'Hyrcanus, B. C. 30 1 of his wife Ma- riamne, Mariamne herself (B. C. 29), her mother, and her 2 sons Alexander and Aristobulus (B. C. 7), and a few days before his death ordered the execution of his son Antipater, and also commanded that the chief men of Judaea, whom he had assem bled and confined al Jericho, should be slain as soon as he expired— to insure tears on that occasion. This order, however, was not fulfilled. It must have been short ly before his death that he caused the in fants of Bethlehem to be slain, in the hope of thus destroying Jesus. This event and the death of Antipater are recorded by the Latin author Macrobius, A. D. 420. He appointed Archelaus his successor " in the kingdom," subject to the emperor's ap proval, dividing his territories between him and his brothers Herod Antipas and Philip HER BIBLE DICTIONARY. HER He was a man of great shrewdness and strong will, but of violent passions and in satiable ambition, and devoid of scruples. His attempt on the life of the Messiah makes him preeminent among the foes of God and his church. II. Herod Philip, I., Matt. 14:3; Mark 6:17; called Herod by Josephus; the son of Herod the Great and his 2d Mariamne, daughter of Simon the high-priest. Dis inherited by his father for his mother's treachery, he seems to have lived a private life. He was the first husband of Hero- dias. See Herodias. III. Archela'us, son of Herod the Great and elder brother of Herod Antipas. See Archelaus. Josephus says that before going to Rome to obtain imperial confirma tion in his kingdom, he quelled an insur rection by slaughtering 3,000 men in the temple at the Passover. He was confirmed in spite of the protests of the people, but with the title of ethnarch instead of king. IV. Herod An'tipas, son of Herod the Great by Malthace his Samaritan wife, and full brother to Archelaus, along with whom he was educated at Rome. After the death of his father he was confirmed by Augus tus as tetrarch of Galilee and Peraea, that is, the southern part of the country east of the Jordan, Luke 3:1, whence also the gen eral appellation of king was given to him, Mark 6:14. He first married a daughter of Aretas, an Arabian king; but afterwards becoming enamored of Herodias, the wife of his brother Herod Philip I., and his own niece, he dismissed his former wife, and induced Herodias to leave her own hus band and connect herself with him. This sin was the source of misfortune, further sin, and shame to Herod. Aretas made war upon him, and severely chastised him. John the Baptist, reproving him, incurred the hate of Herodias, who influenced her husband to imprison and finally kill John, Matt. 14:1-12; Mark 6:14-29; Luke 3:13- 20. Self-indulgent, he chose to continue in sin and kill one whom he knew to be "just and holy" rather than break an improper oath. If a Sadducee, as might be inferred from comparing Matt. 16:6 with Mark 8:15, and from his " perplexity " at the view of Jesus as John risen from the dead, Luke 97-9, Herod's guilty fears seem to have overcome his disbelief in spirits and the resurrection, Matt. 14:2; Mark 6:14-16. His cunning is alluded to in Luke 13:32. Christ, as a Galilean, was under Herod's jurisdiction, and Pilate's acknowledgment of this when the two rulers were at Jerusa lem for the Passover made them friends, Luke 23:7-12. Christ, declining to satisfy Herod's curiosity, was mocked by him, the combination of the two against Christ hav ing been foretold, Psa. 2:2; Acts 4:25-27. Herod Antipas, like his father, spent much money in public works including the city Tiberias, which he built and named after Tiberius. In A. D. 38 he was induced, mainly by Herodias, to go to Rome and sue for the title of king, which Caligula had just conferred on Herod Agrippa I. ; but at the accusation of the latter he was banished to Lyons, and died in exile. V. Herod Philip II., son of Herod the Great by his 5th wife, Cleopatra, from B. C. 4 to A. D. 34 tetrarch of Ituraea, Gaulonitis, Auranitis, and Trachonitis, Luke 3:1. He married Salome, the dancing daughter of Herod Philip I. and Herodias. He enlarged Paneas and named it Caesarea- Philippi, and made Bethsaida a city, calling it Julias, after a daughter of Augustus. At Julias he died, without children. He was just and moderate in his life and government. VI. Herod Agrip'pa Major or I., Acts 12; 23:35, a grandson of Herod the Great and Mariamne I., and son of the Aristobu- lus who was put to death with his mother, by orders of his father. See Herod I. He was brought up at Rome with Drusus, son of Tiberius. On the accession of Caligula to the imperial throne* Agrippa was taken from prison, where he had been confined by Tiberius, and received from the em peror, A. D. 37, the title of king, together with the tetrarchies formerly of his uncle Philip and Lysanias. After the death of Herod Antipas, Caligula conferred Gali lee and Peraea on Agrippa, and in A. D. 41 gave him Judaea and Samaria, thus making his kingdom equal to his grand father's. He was a strict observer of the Jewish ceremonial, and dissuaded Caligu la from erecting a statue of himself in the temple at Jerusalem. In order to ingra tiate himself with the Jews, he commenced a persecution against the Christians; but seems to have proceeded no farther than to put to death James and to imprison Peter, since he soon after died suddenly and miserably at Caesarea, A. D. 44. He began to strengthen Jerusalem by the ad dition of a massive " third wait " around the new northern part, Bezetha, but desisted on account of the suspicions of Claudius. The wall was finished in an inferior man ner. 229 HER BIBLE DICTIONARY. HEZ VII. Herod Agrippa Minor or II., Acts 25; 26, was the son of Herod Agrippa I., and was educated at Rome under the care of the emperor Claudius. Being only 17 at his father's death, the emperor thought him too young to succeed to the kingdom, which was again madu a Roman province. After the death of Agr'ypa's uncle Herod, in A. D. 48, Claudius gave his small king dom of Chalcis to Agrippa, A. D. 50. In A. D. 52 he was transferred with the title of king to the tetrarchies of Philip and Lysanias first possessed by his father ; to which Nero added, in A. D. 55, Tiberias and Taricheae in Galilee, and Julias with circumjacent villages in Peraea. In A. D. 60 Agrippa and his sister Bernice heard the defence of Paul at Cesaraea, Acts 25:13 to ch. 26. In A. D. 66 he endeavored to dissuade the Jews from waging war with the Romans, and when they persisted he took sides with Rome. After the fall of Jerusalem he retired with Bernice to Rome, where he died, aged 70, in the 3d year of Trajan's reign, A. D. 100. HERO'DIANS, a Jewish political party, devoted to the Herods. As the Herodian princes were dependent on Rome, their partisans willingly submitted to the Ro man power, and maintained the propriety of paying tribute to the emperors, which the Pharisees denied. ' Yet both parties desired the continuance of the Jewish reli gion, and coalesced in opposing the spirit ual kingdom of the true Messiah, Matt. 22:16; Mark 3:6; 12:13; Luke 20:20. HERO'DIAS, a granddaughter of Herod the Great and Mariamne, daughter of Aris- tobulus, and sister of Herod Agrippa I. She was first married to her uncle Herod Philip I., but afterwards abandoned him for his brother Herod Antipas. It was by her artifice that Herod was persuaded to cause John the Baptist to be put to death, she being enraged at John on account of his bold denunciation of the incestuous and adulterous connection which subsisted be tween her and Herod. When Herod was banished to Lyons, she accompanied him, Matt. 14:3,6; Mark6:i7; Luke3:i9. See Herod IV. HER'ON. See next column. HESH'BON, intelligence, a city taken from the Moabites by Sihon, king of the Amorites, and made his capital ; conquered from him and occupied by Israel, Num. 21:25-30; Judg. 11:19, 26. It was as signed to Reuben, being on the boundary between Reuben and Gad, Josh. 13:17,26; 230 was rebuilt by Reuben, Num. 32:37, but reckoned to Gad when made a Levitical city, Josh. 21:39; 1 Chr. 6:81. In later times Heshbon was repossessed by Moab, and denounced by the prophets, Isa. 15:4; 16:8, 9; Jer. 48:2, 34, 45 ; 49:3. In the time of the Maccabees it again belonged to the Jews. Its ruins, now Hesban, are 15 miles east of the head of the Dead Sea, on a hill 200 feet high, covering a circuit of about a mile. East of the city a vast pool, etc., are still found, Song 7 : 4. golden plover : charadrius pluvialis. HER'ON, Lev. 11:19; Deut. 14:18. The reference of the Hebrew word has been much debated. According to Jerome it is the Golden Plover, found in Palestine and feeding along the water-side of rivers and lakes. According to Tristram, the long- billed and long-legged heron, also found in Palestine. HESH'MON, a town in the south of Ju dah, Josh. 15:27, identified by Conder with el-Meshash, between Beer-sheba and Mo- ladah. HETH, dread, a descendant of Canaan, and ancestor ofthe Hittites, Gen. 10:15; 23; 25:10; 27:46. See Hittites. HETH'LON, on the northern border of Palestine, Ezek. 47:15; 48:1, apparently adjoining the "entrance of Hamath." HEZEKI'AH, whom God strengthens, a pious king of Judah, who succeeded his father Ahaz about 726 B. C, and died about 698 B. C. His history is contained in 2 Kin. 18-20 ; 2 Chr. 29-32. Compare Isa. 36-38. His reign is memorable for his faithful efforts to restore the worship of Jehovah, removing " high places," and destroying the brazen serpent; contrast 2 Chr. 28:22- 25; for the final deportation of the Ten Tribes, 2 Kin. 17; 18:9-12; for his revolt against the Assyrians, compare 2 Kin. 16:7, 8 ; 2 Chr. 28: 16-21 ; for their 2 invasions of HEZ BIBLE DICTIONARY. HIG his land: the first marked by the capture of the fortified cities of Judah, an attack on Jerusalem, and Hezekiah's payment of tribute, 2 Kin. 18:13-16. Assyrian annals of Sennacherib discovered at Nineveh agree with this account. A 2d invasion seems to have followed in the course of 2 years, when Sennacherib, having been checked in an attempt upon Egypt, Hezekiah's ally, Isa. 30:1-7, returned and "dealt treacher ously" with Hezekiah in attacking La- chish, Isa. 30:1-7; 33:1. Then followed Sennacherib's threatening letters from La- chish and Libnah, the supernatural de struction of a great part of his army, and the retreat of the rest to Assyria, in answer to Hezekiah's prayer. Compare Isa. 31:8, 9; 37:33-37. The other notable events .in this king's reign were his sickness, humili ation, and prolongation of life 15 years in peace, miraculously assured to him; his vain conduct when visited by ambassadors of Merodach-baladan, and the prediction that Babylon, then feeble and friendly, would one day carry his descendants into captivity, Isa. 39; Mic. 4: 10. Hezekiah col lated the Proverbs of Solomon, Prov. 25:1. The prophecies of Hosea and Micah were delivered partly in his reign ; compare Jer. , 26: 17-19 ; and Nahum was perhaps his con temporary. Psalms 46 and 76 are believed to commemorate the overthrow of Sennach erib's host. Hezekiah was succeeded by the unworthy Manasseh. HEZ'RONITES, a family in Reuben, and another in Judah, Num. 26:6, 21. HID'DEKEL, rapid Tigris, Gen. 2:14; Dan. 10:4. The ancient Zend name was Teger, "stream;" in the Assyrian inscrip tions Tiggar; modern name Dijleh. This river has its sources, west and east, in the mountains of Armenia and of Kurdistan. The 2 branches unite at Tilleh, and the river rushes through a long and deep gorge down into the Assyrian plain. At Mosul it is 300 feet wide, but lower down it averages 600 feet. After flowing 1,146 miles it meets the Euphrates at Kurnah, and they form the Shat-el-Arab, which flows on about 120 miles to the Persian Gulf. The Tigris is navigable for vessels of light draft nearly 600 miles from the Persian Gulf. An active trade is carried on between Bassorah and ' Bagdad by fleets of boats, and rafts float down from Mosul. An ancient canal still connects the Tigris below Bagdad with the Euphrates. The banks of the river, once occupied by populous cities, are now cov ered with mounds and ruins, with few per manent settlements. The river rises in April with the melting of the mountain snows, and in November with the rains. See Nineveh. HI'EL, God liveth, a Bethelite, who re built Jericho in despite of the woe de nounced 500 years before, Josh. 6:26. The fulfilment of the curse by the death of his children proves the truth which his name signified, 1 Kin. 16:34. HIERAP'OLIS, sacred city, named either from its healing warm springs, carbonate of lime, or from being a chief seat of the worship of Astarte; a city of Phrygia, 5 miles from Laodicaea, and also near Co- lossae, beautifully situated above the junc tion of the rivers Lycus and Meander. It shared with its two neighbors the ministra tions of the faithful Epaphras, Col. 4 : 12, 13. On its desolate site are extensive ruins, among them the remains of 3 churches. The white front of the cliffs below it gave it its present name Pambouk-kalessi, or Cotton Castle. HIGGA'ION, in Psa. 9:16, is supposed to indicate a pause in the singing of the Psalm, for meditation. The word occurs also in Psa. 19:14, "meditation," and in Psa. 92:3, "solemn sound," and seems to have had both a general and a technical meaning. HIGH PLACES. From the idea of heav en as the divine abode arose the practice of worship upon mountains and hills, a custom observed by Trojans, Greeks, Per sians, and many other nations. The patri archs erected altars to Jehovah wherever they sojourned, Gen. 12:7, 8; 26:25; 28:18; sometimes on mountains, Gen. 22:2; 31:54. Moses did likewise, Exod. 17:10, 15; Num. 20:25-28, and the first altar of Israelites in Palestine was built at God's command on Mount Ebal. The Moabites, Num. 21:28; 22:41; Isa. 15:2; Jer. 48:35, and the Ca naanites, Num. 33:52; Deut. 12:2, wor shipped their idols on high places ; which the Israelites were commanded to destroy, and to repair for sacrifice and worship to the place which the Lord would choose, Deut. 12:2-14. But they did not fully obey this command, Judg. 2:2, and they even worshipped the deities ofthe heathen. Be fore the building of the temple, sacrifices were offered at various places away from the Tabernacle, with the sanction of the Divine Lawgiver himself, Judg. 6:25, 26; 1 Sam. 9:12, 13, 25; 10:8; 11:15; 16:2-5, a state of things apparently contemplated in Exod. 20:24, 25; Deut. 12:10, 11; 1 Kin. 231 HIG - BIBLE DICTIONARY. HIG 8 : 16-20. These Jehovistic high places probably were local centres of religion, 1 Kin. 3:2, 3, like the synagogues of a much later time. But after the temple was built the continued use of high places was reck oned a transgression, 2 Ch,\ 7:12-16; 8:12, 13. Yet God sanctioned Elijah's act on Mount Carmel, 1 Kin. 18:30-38. In the latter part of David's reign and at the ac cession of Solomon the " great high place " was at Gibeon, where the tabernacle and altar then were, 1 Chr. 21:29; 2 Chr. 1:3-6. Solomon wickedly revived the worship of heathen gods in high places, 1 Kin. 11:6-8. Jeroboam instituted an idolatrous system for the northern kingdom, and ordained priests for his high places at Dan and Beth el, 1 Kin. 12:26-33; and from that time in Israel high places were used chiefly for idol-worship, and Elijah complains that the altars of Jehovah were thrown down, 1 Kin. 19: 10, 14. In Judah also high places for false gods multiplied, r Kin. 14:22, 23. Even pious kings tolerated the high places, though doubtless only for the worship of Jehovah: Asa, Jehoshaphat, Joash, Amazi ah, Uzziah, and Jotham. The high places were denounced by the prophets, Hos. 10:8; Amos 7:9; Mic. 1:5; and Hezekiah set himself to remove them, 2 Kin. 18:4, 22, and after their renewal under Manasseh and Amon, Josiah completed their destruc tion, whether idolatrous or Jehovistic, 2 Kin. 22:8-13; 23; 2 Chr. 34:3, 33. After Josiah no mention is made ofthe worship of Jeho vah in high places, though their use for idol-worship lingered still, Jer. 17:3; 19:5; Ezek. 6:3, 6. The high places were either natural em inences or artificial mounds, with their own priests, altars, aud sacrifices, 1 Kin. 12:32; 13:33; 2 Kin. 17:32; 23:9, 15, 20; frequent ly with chapels or temples, " houses of the high places," 1 Kin. 12:31; 2 Kin. 23:19. HIGH-PRIEST, the head of the priest hood of Israel, Lev. 21.10, distinguished from the other priests by the mode of his consecration, by peculiar functions, and a peculiar dress. Aaron was chosen by God the first high-priest, of the tribe of Levi, Exod. 6:20; 28:1. The office descended to his 3d son Eleazar, Num. 3:32; 20:28; Deut. 10:6, in whose family it continued, Judg. 20:28, until it passed to Eli, a de scendant of Ithamar, Aaron's youngest son, 1 Sam. 1:9; 14:3; 21:1; 22:20; 23:6, 9; 1 Chr. 24:3, 6. Solomon retransferred it, from Abiathar, to Eleazar's family in the person of Zadok, 1 Kin. 2:35, because Abi- 232 athar was disloyal, 1 Kin. 1:7, 25; thus the prophecy concerning Eli's house was ful filled, 1 Sam. 2:27-36; 3:11-14. Previously Abiathar and Zadok would seem to have been colleagues in office, 2 Sam. 15:24-29; 1 Chr. 15:11. An incomplete list of the high-priests succeeding Zadok to the Cap tivity, in 1 Chr. 6:8-15, 's supplemented by notices in Kings and Chronicles of several who came between Amariah and Shallum, 2 Kin. 11; 12; 2 Chr. 22-24; 26:17; 2 Kin. 16:10; 2 Chr. 31:10, ending with Seraiah, 2 Kin. 25:18. His grandson Jeshua, Ezra 3:2, was high-priest after the Captivity; and his successors appear, Neh. 12:10, 11. According to Josephus, Jaddua in his priest ly robes won the reverence of Alexander the Great, B. C. 332. After the close ofthe Old Testament canon, in the time of the high-priest Simon the Just, B. C. 300-291, the high-priesthood often became a tool in the hands of civil rulers. Some of its in cumbents, in the days of the Syro-Greek kings, were unworthy men, unfaithful to their religion. It passed into the brilliant Asmonean or Maccabean family, of the course of Joiarib, 1 Chr. 24:7, B. C. 153, and was generally conjoined with the royal authority and title from B. C. 105 to 63, when Jerusalem was taken by Pompey; but the Asmoneans held princely and priestly power until Herod became king, B. C. 37. He murdered Aristobulus, B. C. 35, the last of that line, whom he had appointed; and alternately elevated and deposed 4 other priests. Under Arche laus and the Romans the office was degra ded by frequent changes, no less than 28 persons having filled it between Herod's accession, B. C. 37, and the destruction of Jerusalem, A. D. 70, several of these living at the same time. Compare John 11:51. The last high-priest was an ignorant rus tic, Phannias, whom the Zealots chose by lot, closing a series of 76, continuing through 14 centuries. In 2 Kin. 25:18 a "second priest " is men tioned, the sagan or deputy, often appoint ed to officiate when the true high-priest was disabled. -The consecration of the high-priest was distinguished by a peculiar anointing— by pouring the sacred oil upon his head, Exod. 29:7; 30:22-33; Lev. 8:12; 21:10, 12; Psa. 133:2 — in addition to the washing and the sprinkling with oil, etc., which he shared with all priests, Exod. 29:4, 20, 21: Lev. 8:6, 23, 24, 30. So Christ, our great High- Priest, was anointed with the Holy Spirit, HIG BIBLE DICTIONARY. HIN Dan. 9:24; Acts 10:38; John 3:34. Pecu liar garments were put upon the high- priest, Exod. 29:5, 6, 29, 30; Lev. 8:7-9, and sacrifices were offered 7 days, Exod. 29:1-37; Lev. 8:14-36. The high-priest's sacred garments, be sides the drawers, linen tunic, and girdle of other priests, were 4 in number, Exod. 28:4, 39-43; Lev. 8:7-9: the robe of the ephod, Exod. 28:31-35; the ephod, with its "curious girdle," Exod. 28:6-12; t\ie breast plate, with the Urim and Thummim, ver. ^-S0; ancl tne mitre, ver. 36, 39. See the respective titles. These garments were worn only when the high-priest was minis tering in the sanctuary, Ezek. 42 : 14 ; 44 : 17- 19; Acts 23:5. On the Day of Atonement his dress was of plain white linen, Lev. 16:4, 23, 24. The peculiar and most solemn function of the high-priest was to enter the Hoiy of Holies once a. year on the Day of Atone ment, to make expiation for the sins of the nation, Lev. 16. See Expiation. By the Urim and Thummim God disclosed to him secret and future things, Exod. 28:30; Num. 27:21; Deut. 33:8. Scripture says nothing, of this function after David's time, 1 Sam. 23:6-9; 30:7, 8; compare Ezra 2:63. The prophets superseded the high-priests as mediums of divine revelations, 2 Chr. 15:1-8; 18; 20:14-17; 2 Kin. 19:2; 22:12- 14; Jer. 21:1, 2. The high-priest had a pe culiar place in the law of the man-slayer, Num. 35:25, 28. At first, as chief of all the priests, he. was at the head of all religious affairs and of the administration of justice in Israel, Deut. 17:8-12; 19: 17; 21 -.5; 33 :8, 10; compare 2 Chr. 19:8-11; Ezek. 44:24. But after the establishment of the monar chy the kings generally led in great reli gious movements : as David, 1 Chr. 24 ; 25 ; Solomon, 2 Chr. 6; 7; Jehoshaphat, 2 Chr. 17:7-9; 19:4-11; Joash, 2 Chr. 24:4-6; Hez ekiah, ch. 29-31 ; Josiah, ch. 34. When the king undertook evil, the high-priest some times withstood : as Jehoiada queen Ath- aliah, 2 Chr. 22 : 10 to 23 : 20, and Azariah Uzziah, 2 Chr. 26:16-20; but sometimes he yielded, as Urijah to Ahaz, 2 Kin. 16:10-16. The high-priest was president of the San hedrin in our Lord's time, Matt. 26:62. The high-priest was to be without blem ish, was to marry a virgin of his own peo ple, and was not to mourn for the death of any relative; strict laws guarded him from ceremonial defilement, Lev. 21 : 10-24. He was supported from the tithes and offer ings. See Priests. Christ is our " merciful and faithful High- Priest;" of a better order than Aaron's, because his priesthood is intransmissible; holy, not needing to offer sacrifice for him self, but having once for all made propitia tion for our sins with his own blood, with which he passed through the heavens into the presence of God, where he ever liveth to make intercession for us; who blesses by turning his people from their iniquities, Num. 6:23-26; Acts 3:26; who has opened a way of access to God through himself, and will appear a second time, from the Holy of Holies, to the complete salvation, bodily as well as spiritual, of those who believe in him — welcoming them to the abode which as Forerunner he has pre pared and entered, 1 Thess. 4:13-18; He brews. That his work may avail for us, we need to accept, trust, and obey him, Heb. 10:19-39. HIGH'WAYS. Anciently Palestine must have had roads practicable for vehicles, since carts and chariots were used, Gen. 46:5; Josh. 17:16; Judg.4:i3; 2 Kin. 10:16; Acts 8:28. Traces of Roman roads still remain. But now even the most important routes are only narrow winding paths for the passage of beasts of burden, usually in single file. See Hedge. In Matt. 22:9, read, "the crossings of the highways." HILKI'AH, God is my portion, I. and II. 1 Chr. 6:45; 26:n.—III. 2 Kin. 18:18; Isa. 22:20; 36:3, 22. — IV. High-priest in Josi- ah's reign. He found " the book of the Law," the sacred copy of the Pentateuch, in the temple, and aided Josiah in his refor mation, 2 Kin. 22:8 to 23:25; 2 Chr. 34:14- 35. He was probably an ancester of Ezra, Ezra 7:1. — V. Jer. 1:1. — VI. Jer. 29:3. — VII. Neh. 12:7, 21.— VIII. Neh. 8:4. HILL, sometimes improperly used in A. V. for mountain — a height, range, or dis trict, Exod. 24:4, 12, 13, 18; Num. 13:29; 14:40, 44, 45; Josh. 15:9. In Deut. 1:7; Josh. 9:1, the mountain district of Southern Palestine; in Josh. 15:8 the Mount of Ol ives; in Psa. 3:4; 24:3, Mount Zion; in 2 Kin. 1:9; 4:27, Mount Carmel, 1 Kin. 18:19; 2 Kin. 4:25. In Luke 9:37 the R. V. has mountain as in ver. 28. HIN. See Measures. HIND. See next page. HIN'GES, pivots, often of one piece with the door, turning in sockets hollowed above and below in the door-frame, Prov. 26:14. The golden pivots in 1 Kin. 7:50 were sep arate and fitted to the corners of the doors. 233 HIN BIBLE DICTIONARY. HIT HIND, the hornless female of the hart; active, Gen. 49:21 ; compare Judg. 4:6-10; hind and fawn. 5:18; swift and sure-footed on rocky heights, 2 Sam. 22:34; Psa. 18:33; Hab. 3:19; affectionate, Prov. 5:18, 19; Jer. 14:5; easily agitated, Song 2:7; 3:5; timid, Psa. 29:9. See Thunder. HIN'NOM, a valley west and south of Jerusalem, called also the " valley of the son of Hinnom;" a deep ravine with rocky sides, passing south from the Jaffa gate and then east, between Mount Zion on the north and the " Hill of Evil Counsel " on the south, and joining the Kedron valley on the east. It was the boundary between Judah and Benjamin, Josh. 15:8; 18:16; Neh. 11:30. Its width varied from 50 to 100 yards, and near the wider part opening to the Kedron it was called Tophct, Jer. 7:31,32; 19:2-6; 2 Kin. 23: 1 o, where Solo mon built high places to Moloch, 1 Kin. 11:7, and Ahaz and Manasseh made their children " pass through the fire," 2 Kin. 16:3; 2 Chr. 28:3; 33:6; Jer. 32:35. To end these abominations Josiah defiled the spot with human bones and other corrup tions, 2 Kin. 23:10, 13, 14; 2 Chr. 34:4, 5, and it became a cesspool to receive the sewage of the city to be carried off into the Kedron. From the fires of Moloch and from the defilement of the valley (compare Isa. 30:33; 66:24), if not from the supposed ever-burning funeral fires (not well authen ticated), the later Jews applied the name of the valley, in the Septuagint Geenna, to the place of eternal suffering for lost angels and men; and in this sense it is used in the New Testament, Matt. 5:22, 29, 30; 10:28; Mark 9:43, 45, 47; Luke 12:5; Jas. 3:6. See Hell. An ancient aqueduct crosses it below the western gate and above " the 234 lower pool." The "upper pool'' is 700 yards west by north of the gate. No water now flows in the bed of the valley, which is cultivated in parts, and in Tophet are gardens watered from the pool of Siloam. The hill on the south of Hinnom is full of ruined tombs; and on the slope south of Tophet is the traditional site of " the pot ters' field " (see Aceldama), where a bed of clay is still worked by potters. The valley is now called Wady er-Rab&bi. Warren and Stanley have argued that Hinnom is identical with the Kedron val ley, but are not generally followed in this. HI'RAM, or Hu'RAM, high-born, I., a king of Tyre, a friend of David, : Kin. 5:1, whom he furnished with materials and workmen for his palace, 2 Sam. 5:11; 1 Chr. 14:1; and afterwards of Solomon, whom he, or perhaps his son, supplied with gold, timber, and men to build the temple, and probably Solomon's palace, 1 Kin. 5; 9:11; 10:11, 12; 2 Chr. 2:3-16; 9:10, 11. Solo mon in return sent yearly supplies of grain, wine, and oil to Tyre, and gave Hiram 20 cities in Galilee, i Kin. 9:11-13. See Ca- bul. Hiram assisted Solomon in com mercial enterprises by sea, 1 Kin. 9:26-28 ; 10:11,22; 2 Chr. 8:17, 18; 9:10. Josephus says he greatly improved Tyre, and reigned 34 years. II. A skilled artificer of Tyre, under whose direction the interior decorations and utensils of Solomon's temple were made, 1 Kin. 7:13-45; 2 Chr. 2:13, 14; 4:11-16. HIRE'LING, a laborer employed for a limited time, Job 14:6; to be paid prompt ly, Lev. 19:13; Jas. 5:4. " The years of a hireling " mean time measured with exact ness, Isa. 16:14; 21:16. In our Lord's time a laborer's " hire " was a penny, Matt. 20 :1~ 14. A hireling took less interest in his charge than the owner, John 10:12, 13. HIS, in A. V. often used for its, which is nowhere found, Gen. 1:11, 12; Lev. 11:22; Deut. 14:14, 15. HISS, an expression of contempt, Job 27:23; 1 Kin. 9:8; Jer. 19:8; Ezek. 27:36; Mic. 6:16. Also a mode of calling an at tendant, still common in the East, Isa. 5:26; 7:18; Zech. 10:8. HIT'TITES, descendants of Heth,' second son of Canaan, Gen. 10:15; 15:20. In Abra ham's time they were settled around He bron, and appear as a peaceable commer cial people in selling him the cave of Mach pelah, Gen. 23 ; 25 : 9. Esau married Hit tites, Gen. 26:34, 35- Later they are found HIV BIBLE DICTIONARY. HOL in the mountains, Num. 13:29; Josh. 11:3; united in a confederation against Israel, and were subdued, Josh. 9:1, 2; 11:1-9; 12:7, 8, as God had promised Abraham, Gen. 15:18, 20, and Moses, Exod. 3:8. For bidden intercourse with them helped to lead Israel into idolatry, Judg. 3:5-7. Uri ah was a Hittite, 2 Sam. 11:3; 23 : 39. Sol omon brought the remaining Hittites un der subjection, - Kin. 9:15-21; 2 Chr. 8:1- 8, and married among them, 1 Kin. 11:1. " The kings of the Hittites," an ancient and powerful kingdom north of Palestine, purchased some of the chariots Solomon imported from Egypt, : Kin. 10:29; 2 Chr. 1:17; compare 2 Kin. 7:6; Josh. 11:4. The Hittites were not lost as a people till after the Captivity, Ezra 9:1. The exact extent of their " land " is not known. Hittites are mentioned on Egyptian mon uments of the 19th and 20th dynasties, in cluding Joshua's time, as conquered ene mies of Egypt in the valley of the Orontes, and in Assyrian inscriptions of 2 or 3 cen turies later as in the same region. Ash toreth is named in the Egyptian records as one of their divinities. See Canaan ites. HI'VITES, descendants of Canaan, Gen. 10:17, at Shechem in Jacob's time, when they appear commercial and unwarlike, Gen. 33: 18 to 34:31. In Joshua's time they possessed Gibeon, etc., Josh. 9 : 3-27 ; 11:19; and though accounted powerful, Josh. 10: 1- 5, they secured terms from Israel by craft and not by force. See Gibeonites. They also had a home in Mount Lebanon, Josh. 11:3; Judg. 3:3, even till David's time, 2 Sam. 24:7; and these were defeated by Israel at the waters of Merom, Josh. 11 :3-8, 17, 19. Israel did not exterminate the Hi vites, but unlawfully mingled with them in marriage and idolatry, Judg. 3 : 5-7. They as well as the' Hittites furnished bond-ser vants to Solomon for his extensive con structions, 1 Kin. 9:15-21; 2 Chr. 8:1-8; •compare 1 Kin. 5:15. See Canaanites. HO'BAB, favored, a Midianite prince, son of Raguel or Reuel, Num. 10 : 29-32, and probably the brother-in-law of Moses. He is mentioned in the record of the 2d year after the Exodus. He finally acceded to Moses' request to cast in his lot with Israel, Judg. 1:16; 4:11. The word translated "father-in-law," and applied to Jethro as well as to Hobab, Exod. 3:1; 4:18; 18:1, may mean in Judg. 4:11 simply a connec tion by marriage — one whose house gave Moses a wife. See Jethro. HO'BAH, a place 2 or 3 miles north of Damascus, to which Abraham pursued his allied foes, Gen. 14:15. HOLD, Exod. 20:7; Job 9:28; 13:24; Prov. 16:5; 17:5; 19:5, margin; Zech. 11:5; Matt. 21:26, regard and treat. HO'LY, HO'LINESS. The primitive meaning of these words is a separation or setting apart to God and his service. True holiness characterizes outward acts, but still more the motive and intent of the heart. It is an inward principle ; not mere rectitude or benevolence, or any one moral excellence, but the harmonious and perfect blending of all, as all the colors of the prism duly blended form pure light. God is holy in a transcendent and infinitely perfect manner, Isa. 1:4; 6:3. The Mes siah is called "the Holy One," Psa. 16:10; Luke 4: 34; Acts 3:14; and Holy is the epi thet commonly given to the third person of the Trinity, the Holy Spirit. God is the fountain of holiness, innocence, and sancti fication. The angels who kept their purity are called holy, Matt. 25:31. Mankind lost all holiness in the fall ; but God makes his people gradually " partakers in his holi ness " here, and in heaven they will be found perfectly and for ever sanctified ; as an earnest of which, he looks upon them as already, in Christ, holy and beloved. The Bible applies the epithet holy to what ever pertains especially to God — to heaven, to his temple, its parts, utensils, and servi ces ; to his day, his ministers, priests, proph ets, and apostles. The children of Israel were called a holy nation, because they were separated unto God to be a religious and consecrated people, Exod. 19:6; Deut. 7:6; and Christians, as a body, are also called holy, because they are in like man ner separated unto Christ, 1 Pet. 2:9. But a "holy man," in the ordinary Christian sense, is one who exhibits in his conduct the inward purity, benevolence, and holy devotedness to the Saviour with which his heart overflows. The conception of God as the Holy One, perfectly free from and averse to sin, distinguishes the religion of the Bible from all ancient and modern heathen systems, which attribute to imag ined deities human passions and sins. HO'LY SPIR'IT, or HO'LY GHOST, both English words being the rendering of the same word in Greek, the 3d person in the blessed Trinity. He is said to proceed from the Father, and to be sent by the Father and the Son upon disciples, John 14 : 26 ; 15 : 26 ; to be the Spirit of the Father, 235 HOM BIBLE DICTIONARY. HOP Matt. 10:20; 1 Cor. 2:11; and the Spirit of Christ, Gal. 4:6; Phil. 1:19. That he is a real person, and not merely an attribute or emanation of God, is clear from the numerous passages in the Bible which describe him as exercising the acts, thoughts, emotions, and volitions of a dis tinct intelligent person. None other could be pleased, vexed, and grieved — could speak, console, and intercede, or divide his gifts severally to every one as he will. That he is a divine person, equally with the Father and the Son, is proved from his association with them in a great variety of acts purely divine ; as in the work of crea tion, Gen. 1:2; Psa. 33:6; 104:30. He is honored as they are in the baptismal for mula, Matt. 28:19, and m ine apostolic benediction, 2 Cor. 13:14; Rev. 1:4, 5. He receives the names of God: fehovah; com pare Acts 18:25 with Isa. 6; Heb. 3:7-9 with Exod. 17:2-7; Jer. 31:31-34 with Heb. 10:15, 16. — God; Acts 5:3, 4. — Lord; 2 Cor. 3:17, 18. He exercises the attri butes of God, 1 Cor. 2:10, 11; Isa. 40:13, 14; Psa. 139:7-10; Heb. 9:14; and blas phemy against him is unpardonable, Matt. 12:31, 32. See Blasphemy. The work of the Holy Spirit is divine. Of old he inspired the sacred writers and teachers, and imparted miraculous gifts. Under the Christian dispensation he ap plies the salvation of Christ to men's hearts, convicting them of sin, John i5:8, 9, show ing them "the things of Christ,'-' illumina ting and regenerating them, John 3:5; 1 Cor. 12:3-11. He is the Comforter of the church, John 14:16, 17, 26; calls laborers into the ministry and directs them, Acts 13:2, 4; 20:28; witnesses with believers, Rom. 8:15-17, aids them in prayer and in tercedes for them, ver. 26, 27, directs them in duty, ver. 14, and sanctifies them for heaven, Gal. 5:16-26; 1 Pet. 1:2. All are warned not to "quench," "vex," "resist," or "grieve" him, Isa. 63:10; 'Acts 7:51; Eph. 4:30; 1 Thess. 5:19, for without him we have no part in Christ, Rom. 8:9. HO'MER, or Cor, the largest dry meas ure of the Hebrews, equal to 10 baths or ephahs, and containing about 8 of our bush els, Ezek. 45:14. See Measures. HON'EST, HON'ESTY, HON'ESTLY, often used in the A. V. in the original sense of "honorable," etc., Rom. 12:17; 2 Cor. 13:7; Phil. 4:8; 1 Tim. 2:2; Heb. 13:18. HON'EY was formerly very plentiful in Palestine, a land flowing with milk and honey, Exod. 3:17; Lev. 20:24. Wild bee 236 honey was often found in hollow trees and clefts in the rocks, Deut. 32:13; Psa. 81:16. Jonathan refreshed himself with it, 1 Sam. 14:25-27^ and it was a part of John the Baptist's food, Matt. 3:4. The " vegetable honey" which some writers refer to, the exudation from twigs of the gharrab-tree in the Jordan valley, is found only in small globules, needing to be carefully collected and strained. Honey was highly prized, Psa. 19:10; Prov. 27:7, and inconstant use, 2 Sam. 17:29; Isa. 7:15. A mixture of honey with curdled milk or butter is still a Bedouin delicacy. Honey, like leaven, was not to be offered on the altar, Lev. 2:11. It symbolized flattery, Prov. 5:3, and pleasant and wholesome discourse, Song 4:11. The term "honey" also includes a 3d substance — a syrup prepared by boiling down the fresh juice of grapes or dates, 2 Chr. 31 : 5, margin. Grape honey, in Ara bic dibs, is much used by the Arabs as a condiment, and resembles thin molasses. It may have been this that Jacob sent to Egypt, Gen. 43:11, and the Tyrians pur chased from Palestine, Ezek. 27:17. Pales tine still abounds in honey ; bee-keeping is much practised, and swarms of wild bees are numerous. See Bee, Grapes. HOOD, Isa. 3:23, a turban. See Head dress. HOOK, used in A. V. for several Hebrew words of different senses. I. Fish-hook, Job 41:1; Amos 4:2. — II. Probably a ring for the noses of lions and other animals, to lead them with, 2 Kin. 19:28; Ezek. 19:4, 9, A. V. "in chains;" 29:4; 38:4. Captives were sometimes thus led, as Assyrian sculptures show, 2 Chr. 33:11, A. V. "in the thorns." Large fish were secured alive in the water, Job 41:2, A. V. "thorn," and attached by a cord, A. V. "hook," to a stake. — III. Hooks by which the curtains of the tabernacle hung, Exod. 26:32, 37. — IV. Pruning-hooks, curved knives, Isa. 2:4; 18:5. — V. Flesh-hooks, 1 Sam. 2:13, 14. — VI. Perhaps hooks on which carcases were hung up for flaying, Ezek. 40:43. HOPE, the desire and expectation of some good, 1 Cor. 9:10, especially the as sured expectation of salvation and all its blessings for this life and the life to come, through the merits of Christ. It is one of the 3 great elements of Christian char acter and life, 1 Cor. 13:13. Its earnest is the spiritual life already begun in believ ers, to be prolonged through eternity, Rom. 8:23-25; 1 Cor. 15:19; Gal. 5:5; 1 Thess. 5:8-10; 2 Tim. 4:8; Tit. 3:4-7. The Holy HOP BIBLE DICTIONARY. HOR Spirit inspires and maintains it, i Pet. I:3~5; Rom. 8:11; 15:13. Unbelievers are without hope because without God, Eph. 2:12; iThess.4:i3. Christ is the be lievers' "hope," because all their depend ence is on him, and because it is at his 2d coming that their hope of glory is to be realized, Col. 1:27; 1 Tim. 1:1; Tit. 2:13. Hope enables them to bear present trials, Rom. 8:25; 1 Thess. 1:3, and stimulates them to labor diligently and perseveringly, 1 Cor. 15:51-58, and to strive to grow into the likeness of Christ, Heb. 12:14; 1 John 3:2, 3. HOPH'NI, a boxer, and PHIN'EHAS, the wicked sons of Eli the high-priest, called " sons of Belial." They grossly and con tinuously abused the influence of their po sition and sacred office ; and their cupidity, violence, and impious profligacy, overbear ing the feeble remonstrances of their fa ther, brought disgrace and ruin on their family. Though prpfessedly the servants of God, they knew him not, 1 Sam. 2:12; compare Jer. 22:16; Matt. 7:21-23; Tit. 1 : 16. The ark, which they had carried to the camp, was taken, and they were slain in battle, 1 Sam. 2-4. See Eli. The ark of God protects only those who love and obey him. Compare Jer. 7:4. Men in all ages are prone to rely on a form of reli gion, while the heart and life are not right with God; and all who thus sin, like the sons of Eli, must perish likewise. MOUNT HOR, AND AARON'S TOMB. HOR, mountain, I., the mountain on which Aaron died, and Eleazar his son succeeded him as high-priest, Num. 20:22-29; 33:38, 39; Deut. 32:50. It was on the border of Edom, Num. 33:37, between Kadesh and Zalmonah, ver. 36, 41. Mosera lay at its foot, Deut. 10:6. It is the highest and most conspicuous peak in the sandstone range of Mount Seir, which extends along the eastern side of the Arabah from near the Dead Sea to the Gulf of Akaba, lying mid way in the range, about 50 miles from each end. It is now called Jebel Neby Harun, "mount of the prophet Aaron." It rises 4,800 feet above the Mediterranean, 4,000 above the Arabah, 6,000 above the Dead Sea, " marked far and near," says Stanley, "by its double top, which rises like a huge castellated building from a lower base." On the eastern peak is "Aaron's tomb," a small Mohammedan chapel, erected from the remains of an older building, over the supposed grave, to which pilgrimages are made. See Selah. Many scholars, however, now identify the Mount Hor where Aaron died with Je bel Madurah, 33 miles southwest of the Dead Sea, and on the west border of Edom, which the Hebrews were forbidden to enter, Num. 20:14-21, or possess, Deut. 2:5. Madurah is a lofty, isolated mountain- citadel, at a point where Canaan, Edom, and Zin meet. See Kadesh, Mosera. II. A mountain on the northern bound ary of the Promised Land, Num. 34:7, 8; according to some, the whole Lebanon 237 HOR BIBLE DICTIONARY. HOR range ; but perhaps the highest peak of that range, Dahar el-Kudib, about 25 miles from the northern end. See Lebanon. HO'REB. See Sinai. HOR'ITES, or Ho'rim, cave-dwellers, a race of early dwellers in Mount Seir, whence they were expelled by the Edom- ites, Gen. 14:6; Deut. 2:12, 22. They are supposed to have lived in caves, like the men referred to in Job 30:6, and to have been divided into several tribes, Gen. 36:20-30. HOR'MAH, destruction, Num. 21 : 1-3 ; also called Zephath ; a city in the extreme south of Canaan, near which the rebellious Hebrews were defeated, in the 2d year after leaving Egypt, Num. 14:45; it was afterwards laid waste, Judg. 1 : 16, 17. The Simeonites repeopled it, Josh. 19:4, and David sent them some of his spoils taken from the Amalekites, 1 Sam. 30:30. In some passages the name seems to be given by anticipation. Palmer and Drake place it at Sebaiteh ; Robinson at es-Sufa, 30 miles east. See Zephath. HOR'NET. This formidable insect was a means of expelling the Canaanites before Israel, Exod. 23: 28; Deut. 7:20; Josh. 24:12. Some scholars regard the term as figura tive, vividly denoting the consternation which God would send upon Israel's ene mies, Exod. 23:27; Deut. 1:44; 2:25; Josh. 2:11. But real hornets may well have done the work described. Swarms of these in sects are known to have rendered some places uninhabitable. They are numerous still in some parts of Palestine, and, Cap tain Warren says, "attack human beings in the most, furious manner. I can readily conceive the rout of an army being occa sioned by them." See Zoreah. HORNS were used as cups and vessels for liquids, 1 Sam. 16:1; 1 Kin. 1:39. See Keren-happuch. Also as trumpets, Josh. 6:5, though the words translated "trum pets of rams' horns," ver. 4, 6, 8, 13, should be rendered "trumpets of jubilees," and "rams' horn" in ver. 5 should be "horn of jubilee." Artificial instruments of like form are no doubt sometimes intended, and were used in the temple worship, 1 Chr. 25:5. The horns of the altar were eleva tions at its 4 corners, Exod. 27 : 2 ; 30 : 2. As the chief ornament and defence of many beasts are in their horns, these are often symbols of strength, honor, victory, and dominion, Deut. 33:17; 1 Sam. 2:1, 10; 1 Kin. 22:11; Psa. 75:10; Hab. 3:4; Rev. g:6. Horns often denote kings and king- 238 doms, Dan. 7:20-24; 8:3-9; Zech. 1:18-21; Rev. 17:7, 12. Assyrian kings in the Nin- evite sculptures wear conical one-horned caps, and coins of Alexander the Great rep resent him as horned. " A horn of salva tion," Luke 1 :69, is One " mighty to save," Isa. 63 : 1 . To abase or defile the horn sym bolizes humiliation, Job 16:15; to cut off the horn, to ruin, Jer. 48:25. The Indian chief who treated with William Penn asserted his authority by first putting on a crown with a horn upon it. Silver and even gold horns of great length were formerly worn by married Druse ladies on Mount Leba non, as in the cut; the other head is that of an Abyssinian chief. HORONA'IM, two caverns, a city of Moab, apparently on a height, Isa. 15:5; Jer. 48 : 3, 5, 34- HO'RONITE, the, Sanballat, Neh. 2 : 10, 19 ; 13:28, may have come from Hofonaim, or Beth-horon. HOR'SES, anciently used chiefly in war, Prov. 21:31; Jer. 8:16, not among Abra ham's acquisitions from Egypt, though 2 centuries later paid lo Joseph for corn, Gen. 12:16; 47:17. A force of war-chari ots, each with 2 horses and a "captain," besides the driver and perhaps a shield- bearer, accompanied Pharaoh in pursuit of' Israel, and was overwhelmed in the Red Sea, Exod. 14:6-9, 23-28; 15; here "horse men" and "riders," some Hebrew schol ars think, denote those who rode in chari ots ; and Egyptian monuments never rep resent Egyptian soldiers on horseback. The Arabians in old time seem to have had no horses, Num. 31 :28, 30, 32-34; Judg. 6:3-5; 1 Chr. 5:20-22. The Canaanites and Philistines had them, Josh. 11:4; 1 Sam. 13:5. Israel was forbidden tc fear the cav- HOR BIBLE DICTIONARY. HOS airy of enemies, to' preserve the horses of the conquered, or to multiply horses, Deut. 17 : 16 ; 20 : 1 ; Josh. 1 1 : 6, 9, but were to trust in God alone, Isa. 31 : 1-6. The formidable aspect, courage, and strength of the war- horse are grandly described in Job 39:19- 25. See Samuel's prediction as to the king the people so desired, 1 Sam. 8:11. David reserved horses of the defeated king of Zobah, 2 Sam. 8:4, and Solomon imported them, received them as tribute from other countries, and established a large chariot and cavalry force, 1 Kin. 4:26; 10:25-29; 2 Chr. 1:14, 16, 17; 9:24, 25, 28; and suc ceeding kings did the like, 1 Kin. 22:4; Isa. 2:7. Israel's cavalry dwindled under Jehoahaz, and Judah's still more under Hezekiah, 2 Kin. 13:7; 18:23. Zedekiah sought Egyptian cavalry to aid his revolt against Nebuchadnezzar, 2 Chr. 36 : 13 ; Ezek. 17:15. Idolatrous kings of Judah consecrated horses to the sun — either liv ing, to take part in processions in honor of Baal, or statues before his temples. Josiah removed them, 2 Kin. 23:11. The Jews brought back horses with them from Baby lon, Neh. 7:68. The Assyrian mounted troops were very formidable, Ezek. 23:6; Nah. 3:3; Hab. 1:8; they also used horses in hunting, etc. As they were then un shod, hard hoofs were highly valued, Isa. ' 5:28. Saddles are not spoken of or de picted, but bells were used, Zech. 14:20. The Hebrew distinguishes between horses of a heavy and of a light build. Tyre ob tained " chariot-horses and riding-horses " from Armenia, Ezek. 27:14. In Joel 2:4 read, "as riding-horses . . . they run.". In Isa. 21:7 read, "a cavalcade of horsemen riding in pairs," describing the orderly march of the Persian cavalry, ver. 2, " two by two," as Xenophon tells us. In 1 Kin. 4:26 read, "4,000 chariot-horses and 12,000 riding -horses," 40,000 being probably a copyist's error. Compare 2 Chr. 9:25. In 1 Kin. 10:28 probably "strings" of horses should be understood instead of " linen yarn." A swift horse is mentioned in 1 Kin. 4:28 as "a dromedary," Esth. 8:10, 14 as a " mule," in Mic. 1 : 13 as " a swift beast." In agricultural labor the horse appears in Isa. 28:28 — the threshing of wheat or barley by driving horses over it. Mention is made of the use of horses in locomotion, Isa. 66:20; Jer. 17:25; 22:4, ordinarily only by princes or great men, Eccl. 10:7. Horses symbol ize angelic powers, 2 Kin. 2:11; 6:15-17; and under different colors, different dis pensations of God, Zech. 1:8-11; 6:2-8; Rev. 6:2-8. A white horse indicated vic tory, Rev. 6:2; 19:11, 14. At present in Palestine horses are used in travelling, not in agriculture. HORSE'LEECH, the adherer, a well- known water-worm very common in Pal estine. It frequently enters the nostrils or mouth of animals when drinking, and clings until gorged with blood. It is an apt emblem of avarice and rapacity, Prov. 30: 15. Its " two daughters " are the words "Give! Give!" HOSAN'NA ! save now ! or save, we be seech! an acclamation, invoking the bless ing of God upon the Messiah, used by the multitudes who welcomed Christ's entry into Jerusalem, Matt. 21:9, 15. The 2 He brew words composing it begin ver. 25 of Psa. 118, and were shouted by the multi tudes in the temple at the joyous Feast of Tabernacles, as a response at intervals to the chanting of the Great Hallel, Psalms 113-118, by one of the priests. The early Christian church adopted the word in its worship. HOSE'A, deliverance, was probably the 4th of the prophets in chronological order, exercising his office about 60 years, B. C. 784-725, from the early part of Uzziah's long reign — which coincided with the last 14 years of Jeroboam II. of Israel, 2 Kin. 14:23; 15:1 — until some time in Hezekiah's reign. He was contemporary with Isaiah and Micah, and perhaps also with Joel and Amos. Though the opening verse loyally dates his activity mainly by the kings of Judah, Hosea was a prophet of the north ern kingdom, many of whose localities he specially mentions, though he incidentally warns and comforts Judah also, and pre dicts the union of the two "in the latter days," ch. 1:11; 3:5. The prophecy is di vided into 2 parts, ch. 1-3, and 4-14. It is disputed whether the actions described in the first part are real occurrences, or were presented to the prophet's mind in a vis ion ; in all probability the latter is the cor rect view, but in either case the relations of idolatrous Israel to her covenant God are illustrated, and the prophet is the bet ter qualified to speak with feeling and power of the guilt of Israel and the forbear ance and love of Jehovah. The 2d part is chiefly occupied with denunciations against Israel, and especially Samaria, for the wor ship of idols and accompanying immoral ity. The pictures of Israel's political and social life are drawn from the interregnum, B. C. 781-773, after the death of Jeroboam, 239 HOE BIBLE DICTIONARY. HOS and from the troubled reigns of the suc ceeding kings. Hosea predicts the death of Zechariah, Jeroboam's son, 4th and last of Jehu's line, ch. 1:4; 2 Kin. 15:12. At a later date, Hos. 10:14, he is thought to al- l.ide to Shalmaneser's first inroad against lioshea, 2 Kin. 17:1, 3; 18:9. G^d's judg ments upon Israel are represented by the names of Corner's children, Jezreel, Lo- ruhamah, and Lo-ammi ; and the depth of the divine mercy and love is shown in God's causing the penitent Israel to call him lshi instead of Baali. See these names. Ch. 3:4, 5 is a remarkable prophecy of Is rael's state for many centuries, and of its final restoration. Gomer's character, ch. 1:2; 3:1, represents the idolatry of the stock of the chosen people in Egypt and in Ur, Josh. 24: 14, as well as after the call out of both places. The " Egypt " of affliction, ch. 8:13; 9:3, is not literal Egypt, ch. 11:5. Hosea declares that Assyria, considered friendly, will destroy Israel, 011.5:13; 7:11; 8:9; 12:1; 14:3; 3:4; 10:6; 1 1 : 1 1 ; and that return to God is the only remedy for exist- 'ng and impending evils. As Hosea shows acquaintance with the already existing sacred writings of Moses and others, so succeeding prophets give evidence of familiarity with H .sea's proph ecy; compare Hos. 1:11 with Isa. 11:12, 13— Hos. 4:3 with Zeph. 1:3 — Hos. 4:6 with Isa. 5:13 — Hos. 7:10 with Isa. 9:12, 13 — Hos. 10:12 with Jer. 4:3. The New Testament references to Hosea are Matt. 9:13; 12:7 to Hos. 6:6 — Luke 23:30; Rev. 6:16 to Hos. 10:8 — Matt. 2:15 to Hos. 11: 1 — Rom. 9:25, 2&; 1 Pet. 2:10 to Hos. 1:10; 2:23 — 1 Cor. 15:4 to Hos. 6:2— Heb. 13:15 to Hos. 14:2. Paul's application of Hos. 1:10; 2:23 to the conversion of the Gentiles, Rom. 9:25, 26, seems to indicate that the descendants of the scattered 10 tribes, absorbed and lost in the heathendom around them, were among the Gentiles brought into the church of Christ. Hosea's warnings are mingled with ten der and pathetic expostulations. His style is abrupt and obscure,, and it is difficult now to fix the periods or the divisions of his various predictions. HO'SEN, old plural of hose, which for merly meant trousers as well as stockings. The Chaldee word so rendered in Dan. 3:21, A. V., means "tunics." HOSHE'A, I., Joshua, Deut. 32:44. II. The 19th, last, and least wicked king of Israel. He slew Pekah, B. C. 738, but 240 did not succeed him until B. C. 729, 2 Kin. '5:3°; 17: i, 2. When his land was inva ded by Shalmaneser, Hoshea became trib utary to Assyria, ver. 3; but afterwards formed a secret alliance with Egypt, on the discovery of which Shalmaneser rav aged Israel and besieged Samaria, and his successor Sargon, more than 2 years later, took the city, threw Hoshea into prison, and carried the Israelites into captivity in Assyria and Media, B. C. 721, in the 9th year of Hoshea and the 10th of Hezekiah, 2 Kin. 17:4-6; 18:9-12. Hosea predicted the fate of Samaria and its king, ch. 10:7; 13:16; compare Mic. 1:6. HOSPITAL'ITY, the free unremunerated supply of food and lodging to a friend or a traveller. This duty is continually set before us in God's kindness to men, who are pilgrims and sojourners here, Psa. 23:3 ; and in Christ's feeding the multitudes with bodily and spiritual food, and his gracious invitations to the heavenly feast without money or price, Luke 14:15-24: Rev. 19:9. This was a virtue of great necessity and much practised in the ancient world- owing to the state of society, the scattered population, limited travelling, and lack of public houses. It is beautifully illustrated in the histories of Abraham, Lot, Gen. 18 ; 19, Reuel, Exod. 2:20, Manoah, Judg. 13:15, and the Ephralmite of Gibeah, Judg. 19:17. See also Job 31:17. It was divinely com manded, Lev. 19:33, 34; Deut. 14:29, and the Benjamites who so grossly violated its claims suffered fearful punishment, Judg. 19:15, 22 to 20:48. National animosities and fanaticism sometimes interfered with its exercise, as in Judg. 19:12; Luke 9:53; John 4:9. Our Lord came unto his own, but they received him not. He bade his apostles accept the kindnesses offered them, Luke 10:4-8, and encouraged these acts especially when done from love to him, Matt. 10:40-42; 25:34-45; Markg:4i; while warning those who should not receive his disciples, as rejecting him also. Through his apostles he repeatedly urged the duty of hospitality, Rom. 12:13; : Tim- 3:2; 5:1°; Tit. 1:8; Heb. 13:2; 1 Pet.4:9; 3 John 5-8; and the early Christians regarded it as a chief duty, and so practised it as to win the admiration of the heathen. They wel comed especially all members of "the household of faith" from any quarter, and these were usually bearers of letters of commendation. It was accounted a dis grace for a Christian to lodge at an inn when any Christian lived near by. Many HOS BIBLE DICTIONARY. HOU travellers still find this virtue freely exer cised in the East. De la Roque mentions an incident at the house of a priest in a Maronite village who entertained him over night. He says, " He gave us a supper under the trees before his little dwelling. As we were at table there came by a stran ger, wearing a white turban, who, after having saluted the company, sat down to the table without ceremony, ate with us during some time, and then went away, repeating several times the name of God. They told us it was some traveller who no doubt stood in need of refreshment, and who had profited by the opportunity, ac cording to the custom of the East, which is to exercise hospitality at all times and to wards all persons." Says Niebuhr, "When the Arabs are at table, they invite those who happen to come, to eat with them, whether they be Christians or Mohammedans, gentle or sim ple. In the caravans, I have often seen with pleasure a mule-driver press those who passed to partake of his repast; and though the majority politely excused them selves, he gave, with an air of satisfaction, to those who would accept of it, a portion of his little meal of bread and dates; and I was not a little surprised when I saw in Turkey rich Turks withdraw themselves into corners to avoid inviting those who might otherwise have sat at table with them." We notice here also the obligations un derstood to be contracted by the intercourse ofthe table. Niebuhr says, " When a Bed ouin sheikh eats bread with strangers, they may trust his fidelity and depend on his protection. A traveller will always do well therefore to take an early opportunity of securing the friendship of his guide by a meal." This brings to recollection the complaint of the Psalmist, Psa. 41:9, pene trated with the deep ingratitude of one whom he describes as having been his own familiar friend, in whom he trusted, " who did eat of my bread, even he hath lifted up his heel against me." HOST, I., a hospitable entertainer, Rom. 16:23, or an inn-holder, Luke 10:35. II. An army. See War. The " host of heaven" is the sun, moon, and stars like an army in array, Gen. 2:1; Deut. 4:19. Compare Deborah's words in Judg. 5:20. The host of heaven was worshipped by most ofthe nations in the East, and by the Israelites in their days of apostasy, 2 Kin. 17:16; 21:3,5; 23:5; Jer. 19:13; Zeph. 1:5; 16 Acts 7:42. "Jehovah of hosts" is Lord of the starry heavens, the heaven of heavens, and all the legions they contain. HOUGH (pronounced hock), to disable by hamstringing, or cutting the cOrds of the hind legs, Josh. 11:6, 9; 2 Sam. 8:4. HOUR, sometimes a short indeterminate time, Dan. 3:6; 4:19, 33; Matt. 9:22; John 7:30; sometimes a determined season, Luke 22:53 ; John 2:4; 4:21, 23 ; and some times one of the 12 portions into which daily time was divided, Acts 5:7; 19:34. Though the Egyptians very early divided the day and the night each into 12 equal portions, the Hebrews did not: but em ployed 3 general divisions — " evening," "morning," and "noon" — Psa. 55:17, and further divided the day into unequal sec tions, as the Arabs now do. The Babylo nians divided the day into 12 equal parts or hours, and afterwards the Greeks, and the Jews at or before the Captivity. This was the custom in our Lord's time, John 11:9, reckoning the hours from sunrise to sunset — the 3d, 6th, and 9th hours answer ing nearly to our 9 o'clock A. M., noon, and 3 o'clock p. in. ; and these, according to Josephus, were the appointed "hours of prayer." See Acts 3:1; 10:9, 30. By the Romans the hours were reckoned from midnight to noon, and again from noon to midnight ; and this is thought by some com mentators to have been the method used by John in his gospel, 1:39; 4:6. This assumption would harmonize John 19:14, where Jesus is said to have been delivered to the Jews by Pilate at "about the 6th hour" — 6 a. m. — with the statements ofthe evangelists that the crucifixion took place at "the 3d hour" — by Jewish reckoning 9 A. M., and the darkening of the sun from the 6th to the 9th hour, 12 to 3 p. m., Matt. 27:45; Mark 15:33; Luke 23:44, time being allowed for delay in going to Calvary, and erecting and occupying the other crosses. — Scripture hours being counted from sun rise to sunset, of course varied in length in winter and summer. The astronomi :al hour, or 24th part of a civil day, did not come into general use till towards the end of the fourth century. " The eleventh hour," ending with sunset, became a pro verbial expression for lateness, Matt. 20: 1- 10. The night was divided into Watches. (See.) It is not known by what means the Jews determined the length of their hours, but some kind of a dial, with careful divis ions no doubt, for the hours of sunshine, existed in Ahaz's time, Isa. 38:8; and they 241 HOU BIBLE DICTIONARY. HOU probably had the clepsydra, or water time piece, and other contrivances known to Persians, Greeks, and Romans. HOUSE. The difference between tents and permanent dwellings appears very early, Gen. 4:17, 20, and a high degree of constructive skill had been attained before the time of theark and the tower of Babel, Gen. 6:14-16; 11:3-5. Abraham and his near descendants dwelt in tents, Heb. 11:9, but at the time of the Exodus the Hebrews occupied houses, Exod. 12:7, as did the Canaanites whom they dispossessed, Deut. 6: 10, 11, having long lived in cities, like the Assyrians and Egyptians, Gen. 10:10-12, 19. The mode of building in the East seems to have been much the same from the earliest ages, as the houses shown in Egyptian and Assyrian records accord nearly with those now in use. The ruins of ancient cities show only the more sub stantial public buildings. The rural poor live in huts of sun-burnt brick or mud, usually of one story and often with but one apartment — which in some cases holds the cattle as well as the family, t Sam. 28:24. The windows are small and high, and sometimes with wood en gratings ; the roofs, reached by a ladder outside, are flat, a thick plaster of mud and straw laid upon boughs, and booths of boughs or rushes are often erected on them for sleeping-places. In parts of Arabia and Syria stone is abundant, and is used for the houses of the poor. Their dwell ings in towns are similar, though some times they have more than one story, a bet ter roof, and a shaded platform in front. Such huts afford shelter for vermin and serpents, Amos 5:19, and may easily be "dug through," Job 24:16; Ezek. 12:5-7; Matt. 6:19, 20; under the wind and rain they soon melt away if deserted, Job 15:28, illustrating the frailty of human life, Job 4: 19, and of delusive teachings and ground less hopes, Ezek. 13:10-16; compare Matt. 7:24-27. See Inns. Houses of a better class, of which there are many grades, Jer. 22:14, are usually built in the form of a hollow square with INTERIOR OF AN ANCIENT HOUSE. an open " court " or yard " in the midst," 2 Sam. 4:6; Luke 5: 19. The materials used are brick and stone, sometimes marble, 2 Sam. 12:31 ; 1 Chr. 29:2; Jer. 43:9; Amos 5:11; Nah. 3:14, wood being used for floors, ceilings, and doors. Cramp-irons anciently held the great blocks of stone together, and tiles were united by mud or mortar. The outer or Street wall of an Eastern house looks gloomy and inhospitable, having only a door and a projecting window or two, 242 with closely-latticed casements opened only on public occasions, 2 Kin. 9:30-33. See Lattice. The door, usually locked and attended by a porter, Acts 12: 13, opens into a porch containing benches for the ser vants. Passing through the porch one en ters the court, which is commonly paved, sometimes with costly mosaic, and often contains a well or fountain, 2 Sam. 17:18, with vines or trees, Psa. 52:8; 92:13. In hot weather it may be covered with an HOU BIBLE DICTIONARY. HOU awning; compare the description of the heavens in Psa. 104:2. The wealthy spare no pains to render the court a delightful place of resort in summer. Here guests are received, and at a wedding, etc., Esth. 1:5, it. is furnished with carpets, rugs, di vans, flowers, etc. The appearance of a deserted court is described in Isa,. 34:13. Some of our Saviour's discourses were probably delivered in the courts of large houses. The stairs leading to the upper story, if there is one, and to the roof, open on a corner of the court, or on the porch. The court is surrounded by a colonnade or veranda several feet deep, over which, in houses of more than one story, is a -gallery ofthe same dimensions, bordered by a bal ustrade or lattice-work. Spacious cham bers communicate with the verandas, by open fronts, by arches, or by doors, in this case receiving light and air from the court by windows. These rooms do not com municate with each other, except by the veranda. On the ground floor facing the entrance into the court there is generally a "guest-chamber," Luke 22:11, where the master of the house receives his friends ; it often has a portion of its floor lower than the rest and paved with tiles, with fre quently a fountain in the centre. Around the 3 inner sides of the room is a raised platform with divans, which are seats by day and beds at night, there being usually no special bedrooms. The host retains a corner seat ofthe divan as a place of honor. The guests remove their sandals before stepping on the platform, Exod. 3:5; Josh. 5:15; Luke 7: 38. The ceiling is often richly wainscoted and painted, inlaid, or adorned with stucco, Jer. 22:14; Hag. 1:4, and the walls are similarly ornamented, sometimes with hangings. See Ivory. Some of the other rooms on the ground-floor are used as store-rooms, and others are for servants and guests. Many houses have more than one court, some in Damascus as many as 7. When there are 2, the master has his pri vate rooms opening on the inner court, on which also open the rooms of the women of the family, the "harem," secluded,. 1 Kin. 7:8; Esth. 2:3, which no man but the mas ter may enter— though in Israel the women enjoyed much greater freedom than mod ern Orientals. Much expense is lavished on these apartments, which are perhaps referred to under the name of "palaces," 1 Kin. 16:18; 2 Kin. 15:25; Isa. 34:13. In this inner court it is usual to have a foun tain and basin of water, 2 Sam. 11:2. If there is but one court, the females are lodged in a separate building, or in an up per story — where also in fine houses the rooms are spacious and furnished with mats, divans, and curtains, and considered more desirable than the lower rooms. There is often another "guest-chamber" on the upper floor. Some houses have 3 stories, Acts 20:9, or even more. The up per story often projects over the lower, and through the lattice of a window thus overhanging the street Ahaziah seems to have fallen, 2 Kin. 1:2. A structure called aliyyah is sometimes annexed to a house, often over the porch, communicating with the gallery of the main building by a door, or with the porch by private stairs, and containing but one or two rooms, devoted to the entertainment of visitors, or for re tirement, Matt. 6:6. Its roof was more secluded than the main roof. In such a structure may have been Eglon's summer- chamber, Judg. 3:20-23, David's retiring- place, 2 Sam. 18:33, Elijah's loft, 1 Kin. 17:19, Elisha's little chamber, 2 Kin. 4:10, and Ahaz's upper chamber, 2 Kin. 23:12. The roof, or housetop, is reached by out side stairs from the porch or the court, Matt. 24:17; 2 Kin. 9:13. The roof is usu ally flat, though modern houses sometimes have domes over upper rooms to enlarge them. A common mode of construction is to lay beams about 3 feet apart, lay across these shorter sticks or thorn-bushes, and cover the whole with a kind of cement. Stone rollers are kept on many roofs to pack them when they crack and leak, Prov. 27:15. Or the coating may be mainly of hardened earth, upon which grass grows in the spring rains, but soon withers in the sun, Psa. 129:6, 7; Isa. 37:27. In some places the roof-floor is of stone or brick. A wall or parapet guards the sides, often so low that a person can easily pass from house to house over a whole row. The wall overlooking the court is always breast- high, but is sometimes only a balustrade or lattice-work, though the Israelites were by law required to make their roofs safe, Deut 22:8. These were much frequented for va rious purposes — such as drying linen, corn, flax, figs, and raisins, Josh. 2:6; conver sing, 1 Sam. 9:25, and sleeping, ver. 26 — where Samuel " called to Saul upon the house-top." Roofs were used for idola trous worship, 2 Kin. 23:12; Jer. 19:13; 32:29; Zeph. 1:5, for lamentation in time of public calamity, Isa. 15:3; Jer. 48:38, for public proclamations, Matt. 10:27, for 243 HOU BIBLE DICTIONARY. HUM observation in time of danger, 2 Sam. 18:24; Isa. 22:1, and for prayer, Acts 10:9. booths were erected on them at the Feast of Tabernacles, Neh. 8:16. The doors of Eastern houses were hung in a peculiar way. See Hinge. A fire was sometin'es ancient apartment made with wood in the open court, Luke 22:55, or rooms were warmed by charcoal in a portable furnace, the "hearth " of Jer. 36:22. Chimneys were unknown, and the smoke escaped by holes in the wall, Hos. 13:3. The kitchen is in the inner court, if there are 2, and contains a raised platform, of brick, with holes in it for fire, like the "boiling-places" of Ezek. 46:23. There were sometimes special apartments in large houses for summer and winter, Jer. 36:22; Amos 3:15. In Jerusalem some houses have no less than 4 cisterns, cut in the limestone rock, 2 Kin. 18:31 ; into these the rain-water is conducted from the roof. Great care was, and still is, taken in pre paring the foundations of fine houses, 1 Kin. 5: 17, digging many feet to reach solid rock, whence arches are built up to the surface, Luke 6:48. A new house was dedicated by its owner, Deut. 20:5. " House " sometimes denotes a family, Gen. 12:17; Exod. 1:21; property, 1 Kin. 13:8; the earthly and the spiritual body, Eccl. 12; 2 Cor. 5:1; the grave, Job 30 : 23 ; Isa. 14:18; the tabernacle, Exod. 23:19; the church, 1 Tim. 3:15; and heaven, John 14:2. " House of the rolls " and " treasure- house," the depository of public archives, Ezra 6:1; 5:17. "House of God," in Judg. 20:18, 26, 27; 21:2, means Bethel, where the ark of God tarried for some time. See Bethel. HUK'KOK, incised, in the boundary of 244 WITH STONE CEILING. Naphtali, Josh. 19:34; now Yakuk, west of the Sea of Galilee, 7 miles south of Safed. HUL'DAH, weasel, wife of Shallum, a prophetess in the reign of Josiah, consult ed respecting the denunciations in the new found copy of the Book of the Law, 2 Kin. 22:14-20; 2 Chr. 34:22-28, B. C. 623. See College. HUMIL'ITY 'from the Latin humus, the ground , low-mindedness, a proper charac teristic of all created beings, and possessed by all the holy, whether unfallen or re deemed, Isa. 6:2,3; Rev- 4:8-11; 7:9-12. As a Christian grace it is wrought in the re newed heart by the Holy Spirit. It springs from a realization of one's personal weak ness, unworthiness, and sinfulness, and one's obligation to the grace of God for any good ; and results in not thinking of one's self more highly than he ought, Luke 17:10; Rom. 12:3; Phil. 2:3, 4, giving all glory to God, 1 Cor. 4:7; 2 Cor. 3:5, and submitting one's self to him. As a recognition of need it is indispensable to acceptance with him, and to growth in holiness. Hence it is re quired by God, Mic. 6:8, has the promise of his blessing, Isa. 57:15; 1 Pet- 5:5, is urged by Christ as indispensable to his followers, Matt. 18:4; Luke 18:14; Col. 3:12, and rec ommended by his example, John 13:4-17; Phil. 2:5-8. Punishment is threatened for its opposite, pride, which is an abomination to God, Isa. 2:11-17; Prov- l6:5- There is an affected and false humility, which is a veil for spiritual pride— a voluntary self- HUN BIBLE DICTIONARY. HUS subjection to things not commanded of God, accompanied by a depreciation and neglect of Christ. Against this we are warned, Col. 2:18-23. HUNT'ING. The Scripture account of primeval men exhibits them not as mere savages, subsisting by the chase, but as living an agricultural and pastoral life, dwelling in cities, and skilled in various arts, Gen. 2:15; 4:2, 17, 20-22; 5:29. It is not known that the use of animal food was customary before the flood, but Noah was permitted to make use of the beasts, both domestic and wild, for food, after draining off the blood, Gen. 9:2-4. Nimrod was " a mighty hunter," Gen. 10:9, also Esau, Gen. 25:27, 28; 27:3, 4; but in general the patri archs seem to have lived a quiet pastoral and agricultural life, Gen. 9:20; 13:2; 26:12-14; 37:2-7. In Egypt, as the monu ments show, hunting was pursued as a sport, hounds and the lasso being employed. When the Israelites conquered Canaan, the expulsion of the heathen was to be grad ual, to guard against an undue increase of wild beasts, Exod. 23:27-30. Afterwards hunting was practised, both of edible ani mals, Lev. 17:13; 25:7; Prov. 12:17, ar>d of wild beasts : we read of animals of the an telope and deer kinds, Deut. 12:15; 1 Kin. 4:23, and of lions and bears, Judg. 14:5; 1 Sam. 17:34; 2 Kin. 2:24, jackals, Judg. 15:4, and foxes, Song 2:15. — The methods of hunting were various : bows and arrows were used, Gen. 27:3, large animals, like the lion, were taken in a pit dug for the purpose, 2 Sam. 23:20; Ezek. 19:4-8; some being driven between nets inclosing a wide region, converging and ending in a capa cious pit. Traps of several kinds were used, some lying in the ground in the ani mals' run, and catching them by the foot, Job 18:9,10; Prov. 22:5. Birds were caught by a net stretched over a frame, or held open by a stick so placed as to give way at a touch, Amos 3:5; by a snare to entangle the leg, Job 18:10; Psa. 140:5; and by a trap containing a decoy bird, Jer. 5:26, 27. The Assyrian and Babylonian monuments show wild-bulls and lions hunted by kings on horseback and in chariots. War is spo ken of under the image of hunting, Jer. 16:16. HUR, a hole, a chief man among the He brews in the desert, associated with Aaron in upholding the hands of Moses at Rephi- dim, and in supplying his place while on the summit of Sinai, Exod. 17:10, 12; 24:14. Four other men of this name are men tioned, Exod. 31:2; Num. 31:8; 1 Kin. 4:8; Neh. 3:9. HU'RAM. See Hiram. HUS'BAND, a man betrothed, Matt. 1:16, 19, as well as one actually married, be trothal being held to be inviolable. HUS'BANDMAN, a cultivator of the ground, an ancient and honorable occupa tion, Gen. 2:15; 9:20. God is so styled, John 15:1; compare Isa. 5:1-7, a figure which well represents his assiduous care for his people— his vineyard, branches of his Vine, Christ — and his plot of tilled ground, his " husbandry," 1 Cor. 3:9. HU'SHAI, haste, the Archite, perhaps a citizen of Archi, Josh. 16:2. See 2 Sam. 15:32-37; 16:16-19; '7! l Kin. 4:16; 1 Chr. 27:33. He was David's friend or compan ion, and probably an aged man, since David suggested that he wduld be a " bur den " to him in fleeing from Absalom, com pare 2 Sam. 19:35, but might do him valu able service as an adviser of Absalom. God did not sanction the deceitful policy of David and Hushai, yet he allowed Absa lom's hypocrisy and treachery to be pun ished by like sins in Hushai. HUSKS, Luke 15:16, the fruit of the ca- rob-tree, Ceratonia Siliqua, a handsome evergreen common in the countries bor dering on the Mediterranean. It attains a height of from 20 to 30 feet, and has clus ters of dark red blossoms, which mature 245 HUZ BIBLE DICTIONARY. HYS into flat brown pods 6 to io inches long and an inch or more wide. They resem ble the pods of the American locust-tree, which is of the same family. From their curved shape came their Greek name kera- tia, "little horns." The pods contain a number of small flat seeds imbedded in a sweet nutritious pulp. In their native lands they are a chief food of cattle, and much used by the poor. From the erroneous idea that they were the " locusts " on which John the Baptist subsisted, they are often called St. John's bread. HUZ'ZAB, Nah. 2:7, A. V., often regard ed as a queen of Nineveh. But most mod ern scholars reject this opinion. Rawlin- son thinks the fertile " Zab country," on the river so called 12 centuries before Christ, may be intended, as a representa tive of all Assyria. Others interpret it as in the A. V. margin, "it is decreed," i. e., Nineveh's fall; or, connecting it with the preceding verse and a different Hebrew verb, "shall flow away," i. e., the palace, ver. 6. HYMEN^'US, pertaining lo marriage, a member of the church, probably at Ephe sus, who fell into great errors of principle and practice, 1 Tim. 1:20, and was "deliv ered unto Satan" by Paul. The expres sion probably denotes ecclesiastical excom munication, and the infliction,. through the permitted agency of Satan, of some bodily infirmity, intended for the sufferer's spirit ual profit; compare Job 1:6-12; Matt. 4:1; 1 Cor. 5:5; 2 Cor. 12:7. Hymenaeus is spo ken of later as still in error, denying the resurrection, and corrupting the faith of others, 2 Tim. 2:17, 18, having perhaps wrested Paul's teachings as to the raising of the spirit from the death of sin, Rom. 6:4; Eph. 2:6; Col. 2:12; 2 Pet. 3:16. HYMN, a religious canticle, song, or psalm, Eph. 5:19; Col. 3:16. Paul bids Christians edify one another with "psalms and hymns and spiritual songs." Matthew says that Christ and his disciples, having supped, sang a hymn — probably a part of the Psalms which the Jews used to sing during the Passover, which they called the Hallel; that is, the Hallelujah Psalms. These are Psalms 113-118, of which the first 2 are supposed to have been chanted before the Passover was eaten, and the others afterwards. Paul and Silas sang hymns in prison, Acts 16:25, K. V. Pliny relates that the early Christians sang hymns to Christ as God. HYP'OCRITE, one who, like a stage- 246 player, feigns to be what he is not. The epithet is generally applied to those who assume the appearance of virtue or piety, without possessing the reality. Our Sa viour accused the Pharisees of hypocrisy, Luke 12:1. Besides the self - deceived, writers distinguish 4 sorts of hypocrites: " worldly," professing religion for selfish purposes, Matt. 23:5; "legal," obeying the law to merit heaven, without a renewed heart, Rom. 10:3; " evangelical," rejoicing in the idea that Christ died for them, with out a life that proves a genuine faith, 2 Pet. 2:20; "enthusiastic," trusting in frames and feelings, without the fruits of the Spir it, 2 Cor. 11:13-15. THE CAPPARIS SPINOSA, OR CAPER-PLANT. HYS'SOP was used ill the 1st celebration ofthe Passover, Exod. 12:22, and in the ceremonial purifications of the Israelites, Lev. 14:4-7,49-52; Num. 19:6, 18, 19; Heb. 9: 19-21 ; compare Psa. 51 17. It sometimes grew on walls, 1 Kin. 4 : 33. It appears to have had a long stem, John 19:29, though sprigs of it may have been bound around the sponge, and both fastened to a reed or stick, Matt. 27:48. It was perhaps a spe cies of marjoram, Origanum maru, a plant with a strong straight stalk, small downy leaves, and a white blossom, with an aro matic odor and a pungent taste, abundant in Syria, and sometimes found on the walls of terraces. Others have thought that the caper-plant was intended, which is found in Palestine, grows on walls, has detergent qualities, and may furnish a stalk 3 or 4 feet long. IBL BIBLE DICTIONARY. IDO IB'LEAM, people-waster, a city of Ma nasseh, in the territory of Issachar or Ash er, Josh. 17:11; Judg. 1:27; 2 Kin. 9:27; 1 Chr. 6:70. Supposed to be Jelama, 2 miles north of Jenin. IB'ZAN, illustrious, the 10th "judge of Israel," born at Bethlehem in Zebulun. He held office 7 years, and was noted for his large and prosperous family, B. C. 1182, Judg. 12:8. ICH'ABOD, Where is the glory? a son of Phinehas, and grandson of Eli, both of whom, and his mother also, died on the day of his birth, 1 Sam. 4: 19-22; 14:3. ICO'NIUM, a large and opulent city of Asia Minor, generally assigned by ancient writers to Lycaonia, but by some to Phry gia or Pisidia. It was at the foot of the Taurus range, surrounded by mountains except on the east, where was a large and fertile plain. Lying on the great Roman highway that connected Ephesus with Tar sus, Antioch, and the East, and at the in tersection of several important roads, it was a favorable centre for the spread of the gospel, which was preached here by Paul and Barnabas, A. D. 45, on Paul's ist missionary journey, Acts 13:51. He made many converts, both Jews and Greeks, but the unbelievers not only expelled him, but pursued him to Lystra, Acts 14 : 1-6, 19 ; 2 Tim. 3:11. Paul, however, revisited the city later, Acts 14:21. On his 2d circuit, with Silas, A. D. 51, he seems to have been again at Iconium, Acts 16 : 1-3, and associ ated Timothy with him ; also again on his 3d circuit, Acts 18:23. The church thus planted flourished until extinguished by the persecutions ofthe Saracens, and later of the Seljukian Turks, whose sultans re sided at Iconium and surrounded it with strong walls, still standing, and 108 square towers. It is now called Konieh, and is the capital of Caramania, having a popula tion of 30,000, composed of Turks, Arme nians, Greeks, and Jews. ID'DO, timely, I., a prophet of Judah, who prophesied against Jeroboam, and wrote the histories of Rehoboam and Abijah, 2 Chr. 9:29; 12:15; 13:22; identified by Josephus and others with the prophet sent to Jerobo am at Bethel, and killed by a lion, 1 Kin. r3 ; but this is a mere conjecture. — II. Grand father of the prophet Zechariah, Zech. 1:1, 7; compare Ezra 5:1; 6:14. He returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel, Neh. 12:4, 16. — III. 1 Kin. 4- 14.— IV. A Levite.i Chr. 6:21.— V. Mishap, Ezra 8: 17-20. B. C.459.— VI. Lovely, 1 Chr. 27 : 21. B. C. 1014. Three different words in Hebrew are translated alike in English, meaning as above. 1'DLE, in Matt. 12:36, means empty and fruitless. The "idle word" which Christ condemns is a word morally useless and evil. I'DOL, IDOL'ATRY. The word idol sig nifies literally a representation or figure. It is always employed in Scripture in a bad sense, for representations of heathen dei ties of what nature soever. In many pas sages idols are called devils, Lev. 17:7; Deut. 32:17; 2 Chr. 11:15; Psa- Io6:37: 1 Cor. 10:20; Rev. 9:20. God forbids all sorts of idols, or figures and representa- THE IDOL JUGGERNAUT. tions of creatures, formed or set up with intention of paying superstitious worship to them, Exod. 20:3-5; 34:13; Deut. 4:16- 19; 7:25,26. He also forbids all attempts to represent him by any visible form, Exod. 32:4, 5; Deut. 4:15; Neh. 9:18. The heathen had idols of all sorts — paint ings, bas-reliefs, and all varieties of sculp ture — and these of many kinds of materi als, as gold, silver, brass, stone, wood, pot ter's earth, etc. Stars, spirits, men, ani mals, rivers, plants, and elements were the subjects of them. Scarcely an object or power in nature, scarcely a faculty of the soul, a. virtue, a vice, or a condition of human life, has not received idolatrous worship. See Stars. Some nations wor shipped a rough stone. Such is the black stone of the ancient Arabs, retained by Mohammed, and now kept in the Caaba at Mecca. It is impossible to ascertain the period at 247 IDO BIBLE DICTIONARY. IDO which the worship of false gods and idols was introduced. No mention is made of THE HINDOO IDOL PULLIAR. such worship before the deluge; though from the silence of Scripture we cannot argue that it did not exist. Josephus and many of the fathers were of opinion that soon after the deluge idolatry became prev alent; and certainly, wherever we turn our eyes after the time of Abraham, we see only a false worship. That patriarch's forefathers, and even he himself, were im plicated in it, as is evident from Josh. 24:2, 14. The Hebrews had no peculiar form of idolatry; they imitated the superstitions of others, but do not appear to have been the inventors of any. When they were in Egypt, many of them worshipped Egyptian deities, Ezek. 20:8; in the wilderness they worshipped those of the Canaanites, Egyp tians, Ammonites, and Moabites ; in con quered Canaan, those of the Phoenicians, Syrians, and other people around them, Num. 25 ; Judg. 10 : 6 ; Amos 5 : 26 ; Acts 7 : 43. Rachel, it may be, had adored idols at her father Laban's, since she carried off his teraphim, Gen. 31 : 19, 30. Jacob, after his return from Mesopotamia, required his peo ple to reject the strange gods from among them, and also the superstitious pendants worn by them in their ears, which he hid under a terebinth near Shechem, Gen. 35:2-4. He preserved his family in the worship of God while he lived. Under the government of the judges, " the children of Israel did evil in the sight 248 ofthe Lord, and served Baalim. They for sook the Lord God of their fathers, and fol lowed other gods— of the gods ofthe people that were round about them ; and they for sook the Lord, and served Baal and Ashta- roth," Judg. 2 : 1 1-13. Gideon, after he had been favored by God with a miraculous deliverance, made an ephod, which en snared the Israelites in unlawful worship, Judg. 8:27. Micah's teraphim also were the objects of idolatrous worship till the captivity of Israel under the Philistines, Judg. 17:5; 18:30,31; 1 Sam. 4. See Ter aphim. During the times of Samuel, 1 Sam. 7:3, 4, Saul, and David, the worship of God seems to have been preserved compara tively pure in Israel, though, judging from the presence of " teraphim " in the home of the daughter of Saul and wife of David, 1 Sam. 19:13, some veneration for these images then existed. Solomon, seduced by complaisance to his strange wives, caused temples to be erected in honor of Ashto reth goddess of the Phoenicians, Moloch god of the Ammonites, and Chemosh god ofthe Moabites. His son and successor in Judah, Rehoboam, continued the worship of heathen divinities, 1 Kin. 14:21-24; and Jeroboam, king of the northern tribes, set up golden calves at Dan and Bethel, and made Israel to sin, 1 Kin. 12:20, 26-33. The people, no longer restrained by royal au thority, worshipped not only these golden calves, but many other idols, particularly Baal and Ashtoreth. Under the reign of Ahab, idolatry reached its height. The impious Jezebel endeavored to extinguish the worship ofthe Lord, by persecuting his prophets (who, as a barrier, still retained some ofthe people in the true religion), till God, incensed at their idolatry, abandoned Israel to the kings of Assyria and Chal daea, who transplanted them beyond the Euphrates. Judah was almost equally cor rupted. The descriptions given by the prophets of their irregularities and idola tries, of their abominations and lascivious ness on the high places and in woods con secrated to idols, and of their human sac rifices, fill us with dismay, and unveil the awful corruption of the heart of man. See Moloch. The tendency to idolatry was not wholly eradicated by the severe disci pline of the Babylonish Captivity. Many of the Hebrews, even priests and Levites, after the return married heathen women and followed them in their abominations; yet they repented at the remonstrance of IDO BIBLE DICTIONARY. IDU Ezra, Ezra 9; 10. Later, at the time of Antiochus Epiphanes, B. C. 167, we find some of the Jews apostatizing to Greek idolatry, voluntarily or under compulsion, though many remained faithful to their God, 1 Mace. 1 ; 2. Even in the army of the noble Judas Maccabeus, men were found who engaged in idolatrous practi ces, 2 Mace. 12:39, 4°- The sufferings in- flic.ed on the Jews by heathen persecu tors, and the knowledge of the Scriptures gained by their perusal in the synagogues every Sabbath, Acts 15:21, at length ban ished all forms of heathen idolatry, and made them abhor the images adored by their Roman masters. As the maintenance of the worship of the only true God was one of the funda mental objects ofthe Mosaic polity, and as God was regarded as the king of the Isra- elitish nation, so we find idolatry, that is, the worship of other gods, occupying, in the Mosaic law, the first place in the list of crimes. The only living and true God was also the civil legislator and ruler of Is rael, and accepted by them as their king ; and hence idolatry was a crime against the state, and therefore just as deservedly punished with death as high treason is in modern times. By the Mosaic law an idolater was to be stoned to death, and an idolatrous city must be wholly destroyed, with all it contained, Deut. 13:12-18; 17:2- 5. Another aspect of the idolatry of Israel is that of adultery against Jehovah, who represents himself as the Husband of his chosen race, Isa. 54:5; Jer. 3; Ezek. 16. By the Mosaic law this crime also was pun ished with death. Of the 19 Hebrew words translated " idol " or " image " in A. V., many express in the original the foolishness of idolatry, the abhorrence against it which should ex ist, the shame connected with its rites and in which it involves its votaries, and the suffering consequent upon its practice. Its folly is graphically set forth in Isa. 40:18- 20; 44:9-20; Jer. 10:2-16; and its unrea sonableness and immorality by Paul in Rom. 1:18-32. John warns the Christians against every form of it, 1 John 5:21, and announces the terrible doom of idolaters, Rev. 21:8. At the present day idolatry prevails over a great portion of the earth, and is prac tised by about 800,000,000, or nearly two- thirds, of the human race. In some lands professedly Christian, it is to be feared that the adoration of crucifixes and paintings is nothing more nor less than idol-worship. But as idolatry consists not merely in the external worship of false gods, but in the preference of and devotion to something else than the Most High, many in Chris tian lands must fall under this charge. Whoever loves this world, or the pursuits of wealth or honor or ambition, or selfish ness in any form, and for these forgets or neglects God and Christ, such a one is an idolater as truly as the ancient Israelites, and cannot hope to escape an awful con demnation, 1 Sam. 15:23; Col. 3:5. IDUM.ffi'A, Isa. 34 : 5, 6, in Hebrew E'dom, and so usually rendered in the A. V. Idu- maea originally extended from the southern extremity of the Dead Sea to the Gulf of Akaba, and from the Arabah valley on the west to the Arabian desert on the east, 100 miles by 20. At a later period a portion of Southern Palestine and the adjacent region of Arabia Petraea was won by the Edom- ites, Ezek. 36:5; 1 Mace. 5:65; Mark 3:8. The original Edom is a rugged mountain district whose highest elevation, 3,000 feet, is a limestone range on the east, bordering the Arabian plateau, into which it gently sinks; limestone hills skirt the Arabah valley on the west, and the mid-chain is formed of porphyritic rocks surmounted by sandstone. Abrupt cliffs and deep ra vines abound, and the sandstone portion is gorgeously colored with yellow, pink, blue, purple, and brown, a deep crimson pre dominating — whence the name of Edom, red, was readily transferred to his land. In the valleys and on the broad heights grass, flowers, and trees grow luxuriantly, nourished by many springs and a fertile soil, Gen. 27:39; Num. 20:17; and crops of grain are raised by the fellahin or semi- Bedouin peasants. The chief cities were Bozrah, the ancient capital, Elath, Maon, Ezion-geber, and the later capital Sela. (See.) The country is now divided into 2 provinces, the northern called Jebal, per haps the ancient Gebal, the southern Esh- Sherah. The prophecies which foretold the destruction of Edom have been stri kingly fulfilled, as every traveller testifies. See Jer. 49:7-22; Ezek. 25:12-14; 35:3-15. The ruins of many cities are visible, and a few villages are inhabited by the fellahin who cultivate the soil ; and hordes of tur bulent Bedouins roam through the region. Dwelling " in the clefts ofthe rocks " here were first the Horites, Gen. 14:6, whose ancestor Seir gave it its name Mount Seir, rugged, Gen. 36 : 20-30. The Horites were 249 IDU BIBLE DICTIONARY. IMA probably cave-dwellers, and cave-dwellings abound in Southern Edom. They were dispossessed by Esau, Gen. 32:3; 36:1, 8, 9; Deut. 2:5, 12, 22. The "dukes" of Idu- maea were probably much the same as the Bedouin sheikhs of modern times, and also acknowledged the supremacy of an emir or king, Gen. 36:31-43; Exod. 15:15; Num. 20:14. The enmity of Jacob and Esau was perpetuated in their descendants. On Is rael's approach from the west, the Edom- ites refused a peaceful passage through their country, Num. 20:14-21, but after wards granted it, Deut. 2:28, 29. Israel was commanded to preserve friendly rela tions with them, Deut. 2:4-7; 23:7. Yet hostilities seemed inevitable. Saul warred with them, 1 Sam. 14:47; David subdued them, 2 Sam. 8:14; 1 Kin. 11:15; 1 Chr. 18:11-13, fulfilling Isaac's prophecy, Gen. 27:29. Under Hadad they revolted against Solomon, 1 Kin. 11:14-22, but helped Isra el and Judah against Moab, 2 Kin. 3. They joined other enemies of Judah against Je hoshaphat, 2 Chr. 20:1, 10, 11; Psa. 83:6. but were miraculously overthrown, 2 Chr 20:14-29, and subjected to Judah, 1 Kin 22:47. In the reign of Jehoram they as serted their independence, 2 Kin. 8:20-22 2 Chr. 21:8, 10, fulfilling Isaac's 2d proph ecy, Gen. 27:40. Amaziah chastised them and took Sela, 2 Kin. 14:7; 2 Chr. 25:10 12, but adopted their idolatry, ver. 14, 20 They were successful against Judah in'the days of Ahaz, 2 Chr. 28: 17, and encouraged Nebuchadnezzar against Jerusalem, Psa. ¦37:7- Punishment for their violence was ifren denounced against them, Joel 3:19; Amos 1:11 ; Jer. 49:17; Ezek. 25:12-14; 35; Obad. After the taking of Jerusalem, Neb uchadnezzar, according to Josephus, hum bled all the states around Judah, though he did not carry them captive, Jer. 27 : 1-1 1 ; Mai. 1:3, 4. Subsequently the Edomites seized the southern part of Judah, and were succeeded in their proper domain, Mount Seir, by the Nabatheans, descendants of Nebajoth,son of Ishmael, Gen. 25:13. Thus the country between the Arabah valley and the Mediterranean, and from Elath to Eleutheropolis northwest of Hebron, gained the name of Idumcza. In Edom proper the Nabatheans founded the king dom of Arabia Petraea, and were ruled by kings, some of whom have the name of Aretas, 2 Cor. 11 :32. The true Idumaeans, in the south of Judah, were defeated by Judas Maccabeus, and subjugated and for cibly proselyted by John Hyrcanus, B. C. 250 130. Antipater, governor of Judaea, B. C. 47, and his son Herod the Great, were Idu maeans. Twenty thousand Idumaeans were invited into Jerusalem previous to its siege by Titus, but instead of defending the city they gave themselves up to rapine and murder. After Edom was conquered by the Romans under Trajan, A. D. 105, its commerce and wealth increased, roads were made to enlarge its old trade be tween India and Persia and the Levant, and the wonderful temples, palaces, tombs, and stairways of the rock city Petra were carved out of the solid cliffs. Christianity was planted here, and Petra had its bishop. Before, but still more after, the Mohamme dan conquest of Idumaea, its prosperity declined and its cities became ruins, as had been predicted. The Crusaders pen etrated to Petra, whose site they called " the valley of Moses," a name which the Arabs retain, Wady Musa. The first mod ern traveller who traversed Idumaea was Burckhardt in 1812 ; he has since been fol lowed by many others, though the work of exploration is rendered difficult by the rival tribes of warlike Bedouins, who ex act the utmost possible from the traveller whom they allow to cross their borders. 1'IM, ruins, I., Num. 33:45, a shorter form of Ije-abarim. — II. Josh. 15:29,, a town in the south of Judah. I'JE-ABA'RIM, ruins of the Abarim, Num. 21:11; 33:44, a station in the border of Moab, near Aineh, at the southern end of the Abarim range. I'JON, ruins, a city of Naphtali, smitten by Ben-hadad, 1 Kin. 15:20; 2 Chr. 16:4, and by Tiglath-pileser, 2 Kin. 15:29. Its site is found in the ruin-covered hill Tell Dibbin, on the plain Merj Ayfln, not far from the river Leontes. ILLYR'ICUM, a country of Europe, lying east of the Adriatic Sea, north of Epirus, ' and west of Macedonia. It was anciently divided into Liburnia, now Croatia, on the north, and Dalmatia on the south, which still retains its name. See Dalmatia. The limits of Illyricum varied much at different times. It was reached by Paul, preaching the gospel of Christ, and probably trav ersed in part, A. D. 57, Rom. 15:19. IM'AGE, I., a pillar erected in honor of a false god, or a representation of a god, painted, graven, molten, etc., Dan. 3. All use of images as objects of religious wor ship was strictly prohibited, Exod. 20:4, 5; 23:24; Lev. 26:1; Deut. 16:22, and their original adoption is condemned as " with- IMA BIBLE DICTIONARY. IMM out excuse," Rom. i : 18-23. See Idol. The "image of jealousy," Ezek. 8:3, 5, is referred to Tammuz in verse 14. The "chambers of imagery," Ezek. 8:7-12, had their walls covered with idolatrous paint ings, such as are found on the ancient stone walls of Egyptian temples and in Assyrian ruins. See Nineveh. II. Likeness. The "image of God" in which man was created, Gen. 1 : 26, 27 ; 5:1; 9:6, was a spiritual, intellectual, and moral likeness to the Creator. The traces of this image which survive the fall should rebuke idolatry, and constrain men to mutual re spect and charity, Acts 17:28, 29; Jas. 3:9, 10; 1 Pet. 2:17. Adam's posterity are born in his fallen and sinful likeness, Gen. 5:3, needing to be regenerated by the Holy Spirit to the moral likeness of God, " in righteousness and true holiness," Eph. 4:24; Col. 3:10. As all men naturally bear the image of the sinful Adam, so all be lievers are moulded into the moral like ness of the 2d Adam, even their bodies being destined to bear the likeness of his glorified body, Rom. 8:29; 1 Cor. 15:47-49; 2 Cor. 3:18; Phil. 3:21. Christ is "the image of God," 2 Cor. 4:4; Col. 1:15, being the same in divine nature and attributes, and manifesting "the invisible God" as the perfect impress of a seal shows every trait of the seal itself, Heb. 1:3. Compare John 14:9. In Psa. 73:20, "thou shalt despise their image," is denoted the unreal and transi tory prosperity of the wicked, which God cuts short by death, ver. 3-19. Compare Psa. 39:6, where the same word is trans lated " vain show." Image-worship — of paintings and carv ings—was borrowed in Christian churches from the surrounding heathen customs and influence, about the close of the 2d century. The innovation was at first strenuously resisted by church synods, but so increased that it was authorized by the 2d Council of Nice, A. D. 787, and in spite of sundry pro tests and laws became general throughout the Roman Church after the 9th century. Images were rejected, more or less com pletely, by the Reformers of the 16th cen tury. In the Romish Church the Council of Trent, A. D. 1545-1563, decreed the re tention of them, and the paying of "due honor and veneration " to them, making a subtile distinction between this and the adoration of the divine or human persons thus represented — a distinction not appre ciated by the great mass of worshippers in that church, nor always even by its theolo gians. Images are now universally used by Papists, often in private worship as well as in churches ; by most in a gross breach of the 2d commandment, and by the best in opposition to both the letter and the spirit of the Bible, Exod. 20:4, 5; Deut. 4:15; John 4:24; Rev. 22:8, 9. On Gen. 31 : 19 see Teraphim. IMMAN'UEL, Matt. 1:23; in A. V. Em manuel, which see. IMMORTAL'ITY, undyingness, in God is underived and absolute, " who only hath immortality," 1 Tim. 6:i6. In creatures it is dependent on the Creator's will. The immortality of the human soul is argued from its boundless desires and capacities, its unlimited improvement, its desert of punishment or reward here unsatisfied, etc. The doctrine has been popularly held among almost all nations and tribes, and was taught more or less confidently by some of the wisest ancient philosophers. All arguments for it, however, are unsatis factory without the testimony of Scripture. It is sometimes alleged that the Old Testa ment contains no distinct intimations of it; but Christ refuted the Sadducees, who held that death put an end to man in every sense, Matt. 22:23; Acts 23:8, by showing from the Old Testament that the dead pa triarchs still lived, Exod. 3:6.. The ancient Hebrew belief in the continued existence of the soul after death is shown in the oft- recurring expression, used by God himself, " gathered to his people," which evidently does not apply to the body, whose burial is spoken of in other terms, Gen. 25:8, 9; 35:29; 49:29, 33; Num. 20:24-26; 27:12, 13; Deut. 32:50; 34:5, 6. Other declara tions evince the writers' assurance that the death of the body did not terminate the life of the soul, Psa. 17:15; 73:24-26; Dan. 12:2, 3. But it was reserved for Christ, by his clear and authoritative teachings, rais ing the dead and rising from the dead himself, to "bring life and incorruption to light," 2 Tim. 1 : 10. He assumed the soul's immortality in the parable of the rich man and Lazarus, Luke 16:19-31, and predict ed the everlasting woe of the wicked and the everlasting blessedness of the right eous, Matt. 25:46; John 5:28, 29. His apos tles, taught by the Holy Spirit, spoke posi tively in terms implying the immortality of the soul. and the resurrection of the body, Acts 7:55-60; 10:42; 1 Cor. 15; 2 Cor. 5:1- 8; Phil. 1:21-23; x Thess. 4:13-18. The immortal blessedness of the redeemed is 251 IMP BIBLE DICTIONARY. INH the gift of God through Christ, enjoyed by them through their union with him by faith, John 10:27, 28; 11:25; Rom. 6:23; 1 John 5:11-13. The terms rendered in the A. V. "immortal" and "immortality" are in other passages rightly translated "incorruptible" and " incorruption," as uniformly in the R. V. IMPLEAD', Acts 19:38, prosecute at law. IM'POTENT, strengthless, either through disease or natural malformation, John 5:3; Acts 4:9; 14:8. IMPRECA'TION. See Oath. IMPUTE', to count or reckon to one — to put to his account something that does or does not belong personally to him, Num. 18:27; Psa. 32:2; Phile. 18. Thus the righteousness of Christ is put to the ac count of the believer in him, Rom. 3:22; 4 (where the same verb is translated " im pute," "reckon," and "count"), the sin of the believer being put to the account of Christ and atoned for by his sacrifice, Isa. 53:5; Luke 22:37; Rom. 5; 10:4; 1 Cor. 1:30; 2 Cor. 5:19-21 ; 1 Pet. 2:24. IN'CENSE, the sacred perfume offered to God by burning, on the incense-altar. The gums which composed it are mentioned in Exod. 30:34-38, including salt, if the word "tempered" in ver. 35 should read "salt ed," as in the margin. See Frankincense, Stacte, Galbanum, Onycha. Incense was offered on the incense-altar in the holy place every morning and evening, by the priests, with fire taken from the altar of burnt - offering, Exod. 30:1, 6-8; Luke 1:9; and on the annual Day of Atonement the high-priest burned incense in the holy of holies, Lev. 16:12, 13. The offering of incense pertained to the priests, the sons of Aaron, alone; the Levite Korah, with the Reubenites Dathan and Abiram, and their followers, were killed, and king Uz- ziah was severely punished, for claiming this priestly prerogative, Num. 16:1-10, 39, 40; 2 Chr. 26:16-19. While the officiating priest was offering incense, the congrega tion prayed silently in the court without, Luke 1:10, their prayers ascending with the fragrance and smoke of the incense until the priest reappeared and gave them the blessing, Num. 6:22-27, after which the Levites burst into song. Incense is re garded by some as a symbol of prayer, Psa. 141:2;. Rev. 5:8; but still more aptly it represents that which accompanies every prayer of faith and makes it acceptable to God, namely, the merits of Christ, made effectual for the believer's acceptance by 252 His propitiatory death — symbolized by the burning of incense by fire from the altar of burnt-offering. So in Rev. 8:3, 4, "much incense " is said to be " added " to the "prayers of all the saints." Such prayer is to be offered in every place, Mai. 1:11. — , Israel and Judah were reproached by the prophets for offering incense to idols, Jer. 11:12-17; Ezek. 8:11; 16:18. The early Christians dropped the offer ing of incense, with the other superseded types of the Jewish ritual, and their de fenders claimed that they did not " burn incense " like pagans. Later on the prac tice seems to have been adopted under the plea of purifying the unwholesome air of the places in which persecuted Christians assembled for secresy and safety. With other superstitious usages derived from heathenism, incense-burning became es tablished in the Latin Church by the close of the 6th century, and is now universal. The gum clibanum is used, or some imita tion of it. IN'DIA, Esth. 1:1; 8:9, the eastern bound ary of the kingdom of Xerxes ; not the pen insula of Hindostan, but the Punjab or re gion around the Indus, perhaps including Scinde— north and west of modern India. The people and productions of this region must have been known to the Jews, for an active trade was often carried on between India and Western Asia. The imports of Solomon's navy were chiefly of Indian arti cles, 1 Kin. 10:11, 22. INDITE', Psa. 45: 1, Heb. to bubble up. INGATH'ERING, Feast of, Exod. 23:16; 34:22. See Tabernacles. INHERITANCE. The laws of inherit ance among the Hebrews were very sim ple. Land might be mortgaged, but could • not be alienated, Num. 36:6-9. See Jubi lee. The only permanent right to prop erty was by heritage, or lineal succession. The eldest son had a double portion, Deut. 21:15-17. Females had no territorial pos session; but if a man left no sons, his daughters inherited— on condition of their marrying into a family within the tribe to which their father belonged. If a man had no children, his land passed to distant rel atives, according to a law laid down in Num. 27 : 8-1 1 . The law of Moses rendered wills unnecessary; they were introduced, however, at a later period, Gal. 3:I5j ^eb- 9: 17. Property was sometimes distributed among children during the lifetime of the father : thus in the parable of the prodigal son, the father divided his property becween INI BIBLE DICTIONARY. INS the 2 sons, Luke 15:12. The inheritance of the believer in Christ is eternal salva tion, Heb. 1:14; 9:15, and "the kingdom of God," Luke 12:32; Jas. 2:5. As a child of God, he is an heir, and a joint-heir with Christ his elder Brother, Rom. 8: 17. INIQ'UITY, erring from the law of right and of God. To " bear iniquity," means to have guilt laid to one's charge, Lev. 5:17; 16:22; Num. 14:34. The priests were ap pointed thus to assume the guilt of the con gregation and " make atonement for them," Lev. 10:17, by the prescribed sacrifices. In this the priests were types of Christ, Isa. 53:6, 11 ; 1 Pet. 2:24; the completeness of their typical assumption of the people's sins being symbolized by their eating in some cases of the people's sin-offering, Lev. 6 : 25, 26, 30. The iniquity of the priests themselves, Num. 18: 1, was otherwise expi ated, Lev. 8:2, 14-17; 9:2,7; 16:3,6; Heb. 5:1-3; 9:7. The superiority of Christ's priesthood is apparent in that he, being sinless, needed no sacrifice for himself, Heb. 4:15; 7:26; 9:14. INK. See next page. INTERIOR OF VIZIR INN, sometimes merely a station where caravans used to halt for the night, at a convenient distance for a day's journey be tween two points, near water if possible, but not necessarily containing any buildings, Gen. 42:27; Exod. 4:24; Josh. 4:3. Atsuch points caravansaries or khans were some times built, Jer. 9:2. These were, and still are, large buildings, with rooms for travel lers and stalls for their beasts, around a square uncovered court, and a fountain if possible; but travellers must carry their own provisions. In such a stall perhaps our Saviour was born, if not in the tradi tional cave, Luke 2:7. Another kind of inn, mentioned in Luke 10:34, was in the charge of a host, ver. 35, probably paid for his attendance on travellers, as well as for such provisions and provender as he fur nished. INSPIRATION, that supernatural influ ence exerted on the minds of the sacred KHAN, AT ALEPPO. writers by the Spirit of God, in virtue of which they unerringly declared his will. Whether what they wrote was previously familiar to their own knowledge, or, as in many cases it must have been, an immedi ate revelation from heaven; whether his influence in any given case was dictation, suggestion, or superintendence; and how ever clearly we may trace in their writings the peculiar character, style, mental en dowments, and circumstances of each; yet the whole of the Bible was written under the unerring guidance of the Holy Ghost, 2 Tim. 3:16. Christ everywhere treats, the Old Testa ment Scriptures as infallibly true, and of divine authority — the word of God. To the New Testament writers inspiration was promised, Matt. 10:19, 29; John 14:26; 16:13; and they wrote and prophesied un der its direction, 1 Cor. 2:10-13; J4:37; Gal. 1:12; 2 Pet. 1:21; 3:15; Rev. 1:1, 10-19. 253 INK BIBLE DICTIONARY. ISA INK, Jer. 36: 18. The ink of the ancients was much thicker than ours. It was com posed of powdered charcoal, or lampblack, or ivory-black, mixed with gum and water, and sometimes an acid to make it perma nent. The black liquid contained in the cuttle-fish was also used. Often it could be washed off with water, Num. 5:23. The ink-horn (on the floor in the cut) was, and is, a small vessel attached to the long case for reed-pens, and when not in use was carried within the girdle or suspended from it, Ezek. 9:2. See Girdle and Writing. IN'STANT, IN'STANTLY, urgent, ear nestly, Luke 7:4; 23:23; Acts 26:7; Rom. 12:12 ; 2 Tim. 4:2. INTEND', Psa. 21:11, not only desire, but plot. INTERCESSION, pleading in behalf of others. As the antitypical High -priest, Christ intercedes with God for men : gen erally, Isa. 53:12 ; Luke 23:34; and special ly, as the Advocate of his believing people, Rom. 8:34; Heb. 7:25; 9:24; 1 John 2:1. His intercession, begun upon earth, John 17, is continued in heaven, where he pre sents before the Father his finished and accepted work of obedience and sacrifice, and obtains the bestowal of salvation, with all.it includes of present and eternal good, upon all those who come to God through him — the "one. Mediator between God and men," 1 Tim. 2:5. The Holy Spirit, called by Christ "the Advocate," John 14:16, 26, is also said to intercede for believers, Rom. 8:26, 27 — dwelling in their hearts, giving them desires and words they would other wise fail of, which are according to the will of God and acceptable to him through 254 Christ. It is also the privilege and duty of believers to intercede for others, Gen 18:23-33; * Tim. 2:1. IN'TEREST. See Usury. INTERPRETATION, revealing the true meaning of supernatural dreams, Gen. 41 ; Dan. 2; 4, or of unknown tongues, etc., 1 Cor. 12:10, 30; 14:5, 13. For the right interpretation ofthe Word of God, the chief requisites are, a renewed heart, supremely desirous to learn and do the will of God; the aid ofthe Holy Spirit, sought and gained ; a firm conviction that the Word of God should rule the erring rea son and heart of man ; a diligent compari son of its different parts, for the light they throw upon each other; all reliable infor mation as to the history and geography, the customs, laws, and languages, the pub lic, domestic, and inner life of Bible times. Thus to study the Bible for one's self is the privilege and duty of every one. IR'ON was early known and wrought, Gen. 4:22; Job 28:2. Moses compares the bondage in Egypt to a furnace for smelt ing iron, Deut. 4 : 20, and speaks of Canaan as containing iron ore, Deut. 8:9. It is now found abundant in Northern Palestine. Many different articles and tools were an ciently made of iron, Deut. 3:11; 27:5; 1 Sam. 17:7; 2 Sam. 12:31; war-chariots were plated with it, or armed with iron spikes and scythes, Josh. 17:16. See Char iots. Large quantities of iron were pro vided for the temple, 1 Chr. 29:2, 7. From its hardness and heaviness iron aptly illus trates drought, Lev. 26 : 19, slavery; Deut. 28:48, strength, Job 40:18; Dan. 2:33; Rev. 2:27, obstinacy, Isa. 48:4, fortitude, Jer. 1 : 18, and by the process of its manufacture, affliction, Ezek. 22:18, 20. As the Philis tines restricted the Hebrews in their use of iron to agricultural implements, 1 Sam. 13 : 19-22, so Porsena dealt with the con quered Romans. In Jer. 15:12 the "north ern iron" is supposed to denote iron of a superior quality, such as the Chalybes, on the coast of the Euxine Sea, were early noted for. Iron mines still exist there. The ancient mode of smelting iron may have been similar to the rude and simple but effective method still in use among the na tives of India. See Steel. I'RON. God-fearing, Josh. 19:38, a city in Naphtali, now probably Yarun. IR-SHE'MESH, Josh. 19:41. See Beth- shemesh and Heres. I'SAAC, laughter, Gen. 17:17; 18:12; 21:6, one of the patriarchal ancestors of ISA BIBLE DICTIONARY. ISA the Hebrew nation and of Christ, son of Abraham and Sarah, B. C. 1896-1716. His history is related in Gen. 21 ; 24-28; 35:27- 29. He is memorable for the circum stances attending his birth, as a child of prophecy and promise, in the old age of his parents. Even in childhood he was the object of dislike to his brother Ishmael, son of the bondwoman ; and in this a type of all children of the promise, Gal. 4:28, 29. Trained in the fear of God to early man hood, he showed a noble trust and obedi ence in his conduct during that remarkable trial of faith which established Abraham as the "father of the faithful," and in his meek submission to all the will of God prefigured the only-begotten Son of the Father. At the age of 40 he married his cousin Rebek ah of Mesopotamia. Most of his life was spent in the southern part of Canaan and its vicinity. At the burial of his father, he was joined by his outcast brother Ishmael. Two sons of Isaac are named in Scripture. The partiality of the mother for Jacob, and of the father for Esau, led to unhappy jeal ousies, discord, sin, and long separations between the brothers, though all were over ruled to accomplish the purposes of God. At the age of 137, Isaac blessed Jacob and sent him away into Mesopotamia. At the age of 180 he died, and was buried in the tomb of Abraham by his 2 sons. In his natural character Isaac was humble, tran quil, and meditative ; in his piety, devout, full of faith, and eminently submissive to the will of God. ISA'IAH, fehovah's salvation, the son of Amoz (not Amos), one of the most distin guished of the Hebrew prophets. He be gan to prophesy at Jerusalem towards the close ofthe reign of Uzziah, about the year 759 B. C, and exercised the prophetical office some 60 years, under the 3 following monarchs, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, Isa. 1:1. Compare 2 Kin. 15-20; 2 Chr. 26-32. The first 12 chapters of his prophecies re fer to the kingdom of Judah ; then follow chapters 13-23, directed against foreign nations, except chapter 22 against Jerusa lem. In chapters 24-35, which would seem to belong to the time of Hezekiah, the prophet appears to look forward in pro phetic vision to the times of the exile and ofthe Messiah. Chapters 36-39 give a his torical account of Sennacherib's invasion, and of the advice given by Isaiah to Heze kiah. This account is parallel to that in 2 Kin. 18:13, to 20:19; a"d indeed chapter 37 of Isaiah is almost word for word the same with 2 Kin. 19. The remainder of the book of Isaiah, chapters 40-66, contains a series of oracles referring to the future times of temporal exile and deliverance, and expanding into glorious views of the spiritual deliverance to be wrought by the Messiah. Isaiah seems to have lived and prophe sied wholly at Jerusalem, and disappears from history after the accounts contained in chapter 39. A tradition among the Tal- mudists and fathers relates that he was sawn asunder during the reign of Manas seh, Heb. 11:37; and this tradition is em bodied in an apocryphal book, called the " ascension of Isaiah;" but it seems to rest on no certain grounds. The traditional site of his martyrdom in the Kidron valley is marked by a mulberry-tree. Some commentators have proposed to divide the book of Isaiah chronologically into 3 parts, as if composed under the 3 kings, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah. But this is of very doubtful propriety, since several ofthe chapters are evidently trans posed and inserted out of their chronologi cal order. But a very obvious and striking division of the book into 2 parts exists : the ist part including the first 39 chapters, and the 2d, the remainder of the book, or chap ters 40-66. The ist part is made up of those prophe cies and historical accounts which Isaiah wrote during the period of his active exer tions, when he mingled in the public con cerns of the rulers and the people, and acted as the messenger of God to the na tion in reference to their internal and exter nal existing relations. These are single prophecies, published at different times and on different occasions ; afterwards, in deed, brought together into one collection, but still marked as distinct and single, either by the superscriptions, or in some other obvious and known method. The 2d part, on the contrary, is occu pied wholly with the future. It was appar ently written in the later years of the prophet, when, having left all active exer tions in the theocracy to his younger asso ciates in the prophetical office, he trans ferred his contemplations from the present to that which was to come. In this part, therefore, which was not, like the first, oc casioned by external circumstances, it is not so easy to distinguish in like manner between the different single prophecies. The whole is more like a single gush of prophecy. The prophet first consoles his 255 ISH BIBLE DICTIONARY. ISH people by announcing their deliverance from the approaching Babylonish exile, which he had himself predicted, ch. 39:6, 7; he names the monarch whom Jehovah will send to punish the insolence of their oppressors, and lead back the people to their home, ch. 44:28; 45:1-5, 13. But he does not stop at this inferior deliverance. With the prospect of freedom from the Babylonish exile he connects the prospect of deliverance from sin and error through the Messiah. Sometimes both objects seem closely interwoven with each other; some times one of them appears alone with par ticular clearness and prominence. Espe cially is the view of the prophet sometimes so exclusively directed upon the latter ob ject that, filled with the contemplation of the glory of the spiritual kingdom of God and of its exalted Founder, he loses sight for a time of the less distant future. In the description of this spiritual deliverance, also, the relations of time are not observed. Sometimes the prophet beholds the Author of this deliverance in his humiliation and sorrows; and again, the remotest ages of the Messiah's kingdom present themselves to his enraptured vision — when man, so long estranged from God, will have again returned to him; when everything opposed to God shall have been destroyed, and in ternal and external peace universally pre vail; and when all the evil introduced by sin into the world will be for ever done away. Elevated above all space and time, the prophet contemplates from the height on which the Holy Spirit has thus placed him the whole development of the Messi ah's kingdom, from its smallest beginnings to its glorious completion. Isaiah is appropriately named "the evan gelical prophet," and the fathers called his book " the Gospel according to St. Isaiah." In it the wonderful person and birth of " Emmanuel— God with us," his beneficent life, his atoning death, and his triumphant and everlasting kingdom, are minutely foretold, Isa. 7:14-16; 9:6,7; 11:1-10; 32; 42; 49; 52:13-15; 53; 60; 61:1-3. The sim plicity, purity, sweetness, and sublimity of Isaiah, and the fulness of his predictions respecting the Messiah, give him the pre eminence among the Hebrew prophets and poets. ISH'BAK, leaving behind, a son of Abra ham and Keturah, Gen. 25:2; 1 Chr. 1:32, progenitor of northern Arabians. ISH'BI-BE'NOB, dweller at Nob, a giant who was on the point of killing David in 256 battle, but was slain by Abishai, 2 Sam. 21:16, 17. ISH'BOSHETH, man of shame, son and successor of Saul. Abner, Saul's kinsman and general, so managed that Ishbosheth was acknowledged king at Mahanaim by the greater part of Israel, while David reigned at Hebron over Judah. He was 44 years of age when he began to reign, and he reigned 2 years peaceably; after which he was involved in a long and un successful war against David. Being aban doned by Abner, whom he had provoked, he became more and more feeble, and was at last assassinated, 2 Sam. 2:8-11; 3; 4. See Eshbaal. i'SHI, my husband, Hos. 2:16, the name which repentant and faithful Israel was encouraged to apply to Jehovah, in exclu sion of Baali, my lord, which was sugges tive of former Baal-worship, ver. 17. ISH'MAEL, I., Gen. 16-21, son of Abra ham and Hagar, B. C. 1911. His name signifies God hears, Gen. 16:11; 17:21; 21:17. Though ill-treated by Sarah, he was at first regarded as " the son of prom ise" by Abraham, notwithstanding the-' prediction, Gen. 16:12; but after the birth and weaning of Isaac he was driven from home, at the age of about 17, and took with his mother the way to Egypt, Hagar's na tive land. Overcome with heat and thirst, and then miraculously relieved, he re mained in the wilderness of Paran, adopt ed a hunter's life, took a wife from Egypt, and became the father of 12 sons, heads of Arab tribes, Gen. 25 : 13-16, and of a daugh ter afterwards married to Esau, Gen. 28:9. He joined with Isaac in the burial of their father, Gen. 25:9, and himself died at the age of 137, ver. 17. The Ishmaelites,his descendants, "dwelt from Havilah unto Shur, that is before Egypt," Gen. 25:18, i. e., probably in the north-middle part of Arabia, between the Red Sea and the head of the Persian Gulf. See Havilah, IV. Subsequently they, with the descendants of Joktan, the 4th from Shem, of Jokshan a son of Abraham by Keturah, 25:3, and perhaps also of some of the brethren of Joktan and Jokshan, besides Cushite tribes in the south, 10:7, occupied the whole Arabian peninsula. See Arabia. The Ishmaelites became very numerous and powerful, according to God's promise, 17:20. The prediction that Ish mael should be " a wild man," literally " a wild-ass man," 16:12 (compare Job 39:5-8)1 has been verified in the history of his de- ISH BIBLE DICTIONARY. ISR scendants. " Dwelling in the midst of their brethren," maintaining a distinct life in the midst of kindred peoples, their "hand against every man and every man's hand against" them, in perpetual feud even among themselves, they have always led a roving, wild, and predatory life. The roaming Bedouin tribes, who claim Ish mael as their chief progenitor, are to this day, though nominally subject to Ottoman rule, the untamed masters of the desert, against whose robbery and violence travel lers have to protect themselves by secu ring from them an escort and guard of their own blood. The term " Ishmaelites " was applied later to the Midianites, de scendants of Abraham by Keturah, Gen. 37:25, 28; Judg. 8:22, 24, the name of the greater tribe being extended, probably, as a general term, to neighboring nomads. II. A prince of Judah, who fled to the Ammonites when Jerusalem was destroyed by the Chaldaeans. Soon after, he returned and treacherously assassinated Gedaliah the governor and many others, Chaldaeans and Jews, including 70 pilgrims on theii way to the temple with offerings ; he made off with prisoners and spoil towards Am mon, but was overtaken by Johanan, de prived of his prey, and obliged to flee for his life, Jer. 40; 41. The fast of the 7th month, instituted in memory of the calam ities he brought upon Judah and Israel, Zech. 7:5; 8:19, is still observed by the Jews on the 3d of Tishri. ISH'-TOB, man of Tob, some small king dom of Aram or Syria. See Tob. Men of Tob, 12,000 in number, joined the Ammon ites in war with David, and were'defeated, 2 Sam. 10:6, 8. IS'LAND, ISLE. The Hebrew word means primarily habitable land, in oppo sition to seas and rivers, Isa. 42:15: land bordering on the sea, whether mainland coast, Isa. 20:6; 23:2, 6, or island, Esth. 10: i ; land separated from Palestine by sea, Gen. 10:5; Psa. 72:10; Isa. 24:15; 66:19; Jer- 25:22; Ezek. 27:3. "The isles ofthe Gentiles," Gen. 10:5, are supposed to denote the countries bordering on the Mediterranean, Black, and Caspian Seas; Ezek. 27:15, to the shores of the Persian Gulf. See Caphtorim, Chittim, Elishah. Many Scripture promises concerning "the isles," read in the light of the conquests of the gospel in Great Britain, Madagascar, Hawaii, Japan, etc., encourage efforts to extend its triumphs to all habitable lands, Psa. 97:1 ; Isa. 42:4, 10, 12; Zeph. 2:11. rS'RAEL, who prevails with God, a name given to Jacob after having wrestled with the Angel-Jehovah at Penuel, Gen. 32:1, 2, 28, 30; Hos. 12:3. See Jacob. By the name Israel is sometimes understood all the posterity of Israel, the seed of Jacob, 1 Cor. 10:18; sometimes all true believers, his spiritual seed, Rom. 9:6; and some times the kingdom of Israel, or the 10 tribes, as distinct from the kingdom of Ju dah. IS'RAEL, Kingdom of, at first a desig nation of the 12 tribes under one king, 1 Sam. 15:28; 24:20, including David's reign at Hebron over a portion of the tribes, 2 Sam. 2:8-11; 1 Chr. 12; but usu ally, after the division of the kingdom un der Rehoboam, 1 Kin. 12:20-24, the title of the northern section, 10 tribes or portions of tribes, as opposed to the smaller king dom of Judah. (See.) The division, a punishment for Solomon's idolatry, 1 Kin. 11:9-13, resulted naturally from Rehobo- am's folly, and the ambition of Ephraim, the leading tribe among the 10 — prominent in the blessings of Jacob and Moses, by its great leader Joshua, its central and fruit ful territory, and its long custody of the ark at Shiloh. Reduced to a secondary position by God's choice of Judah as the royal tribe and Jerusalem as the temple- city, Psa. 78:67, 68, Ephraim with the north ern tribes threw off the civil sway of Ju dah, chose Jeroboam as king, and rival idolatrous sanctuaries, feasts, and priests were established for the new kingdom, 1 Kin 12:25-33. See Kings. The area of the kingdom of Israel varied at different times, 2 Kin. 10 : 32 ; 13 : 25 ; 14:25. At the outset it has been estimated at about 9,000 square miles, nearly that of New Hampshire, with a population of 3,000,000. The duration of the kingdom was 254 years, B. C. 975-721, the Assyrians ending it 135 years before the Babylonians terminated the kingdom of Judah. The capitals were successively Shechem, 1 Kin. 12:25, Tirzah, 14:17, and Samaria, 16:24. Jezreel was also a favorite royal residence, 21:1. Without counting Tibni, Omri's rival, 19 kings, of 9 different houses, reigned over Israel. Of these, 7 usurped the throne by bloodshed. All were ungodly, following the first king, Jeroboam, who instituted the worship of the golden calves. Baal-wor ship was established by Ahab, the 7th king. The idolatry and corruption of Israel were rebuked by successive prophets, and chas- 257 ISR BIBLE DICTIONARY. ISS tised by sword, famine, anarchy, captivity, etc. Partial and temporary reformations were effected by Elijah, Elisha, and oth ers; but idolatry was never eradicated. — B. C. 975-929. Judah and Israel, whose re lations were at first hostile, : Kin. 15:6,, 16, became allies during the reign of the house of Omri over Israel, 1 Kin. 22:44, B. C. 929-884, Ahab's daughter Athaliah becom ing the wife of Jehoram king of Judah — a demoralizing alliance to Judah, 2 Kin. 8:18, 26, 27.— B. C. 884-772. Under Jehu, the slayer of Ahab's house at the divine com mand through Elisha, 2 Kin. 9 : 1-10, and the exterminator of Baal-worshippers, 10: 18-28, and under Jehu's son Jehoahaz, Syria, Isra el's enemy of old, greatly oppressed both Israel and Judah, 2 Kin. 10:32, 33; 13:3, but was repulsed by Jehu's grandson Je- hoash, ver. 25, who was also successful in a war against Judah, 14:8-14. Under Jeho- ash's son Jeroboam II., contemporary with the prophet Jonah, Israel — pitied by God and tested by his mercy — rose for a time to unparalleled prosperity, 14:23-28. From this height, however, it quickly sank under the last of Jehu's line Zachariah. — B. C. 772-721. The unsuccessful usurper Shal- lum was himself deposed by the cruel Menahem, who gathered from his people the tribute exacted by the ist Assyrian in vader, Pul, 2 Kin. 15: 13-20. Menahem's son Pekahiah was slain by the usurper Pekah. whose 20 years' reign was marked by the deportation of northern and trans-Jordanic Israel, and by the alliance of Pekah with the Syrian king R'ezin against Judah, which was relieved by Tiglath - pileser, 2 Kin. 15:23-29; 16:5-9. Hoshea, the next and last usurper ofthe throne of Israel, became tributary to Shalmaneser king of Assyria, conspired with Egypt against him, and was punished by imprisonment and the capture of his capital, Samaria, after a 3 years' siege. Then, in the final deportation, by Sargon, B. C. 721, of the remnant of the people of Israel to Assyria, was fulfilled Ahijah's prediction, 1 Kin. 14:15, and the threats of preceding and subsequent proph ets, Deut. 28:58, 63; Josh. 23:15; Hos. 1:4- 6; 9:16, 17; Amos 5:27; 7:11 ; Mic. 1:6. The land of Israel was next occupied by heathen from the Assyrian king's domin ions, who joined a partial recognition of Jehovah with their own idolatries, 2 Kin. 17:24-41 ; Ezra 4:1, 2, 9, 10, and who, with the Israelitish remnant, were the progeni tors of the Samaritans of our Saviour's day. 258 Israel never returned as a nation from captivity, and has long been accounted "lost." Not only the tribe of Levi, but many godly members of other tribes, early associated themselves with Judah and Ben jamin, 2 Chr. 11:13, :4, I6; and doubtless some descendants of Israelitish exiles re turned with Judah from captivity by per mission ofthe Persian monarchs, Jer. 50:1- 5, and at other times. The posterity of all these constituted "Israel" or "the Jews" of the post-exilian period and our Saviour's time, Ezra3:i; 5:1; Luke 2:36; Acts 26:7; Jas. 1:1. " Ephraim, " because of the prominence of the tribe, is often a synonym for the king- * dom of Israel, Isa. 11:13; Ezek. 37:16-22. There are prophecies pointing, many think, to the restoration of portions of both houses of Israel to Palestine — of Ephraim, preserved in their exile to be converted to Christ, increased to a " fulness of nations," and at length summoned from the north and the west, Gen. 48:19; Jer. 31:6-8; Hos. 11:9-11; Zech. 10:6-10; and of Judah, "the Jews," reunited to "Israel," Jer. 3:17, 18, and loyally serving their once rejected Mes siah, Isa. 11:11-13; Ezek. 37:15-27; Hos. 1:10, 11 ; Rom. 11. IS'SACHAR, recompense, I., so named by Leah his mother, Gen. 30 : 18, the 9th son of Jacob, born B. C. 1749. The character of his posterity was foretold by Jacob and by Moses, Gen. 49:14, 15; Deut. 33:18, 19. The tribe of Issachar, of 4 families named Tola, Phuvah, Job, and Shimron, Gen. 46:13, numbered 54,000 men in the desert, and on entering Canaan was the 3d in population, 64,300, Num. 1:28; 26:25: Their portion, Josh. 19:17-23, having the Jordan on the east, Manasseh on the west, Zebulun north, and Ephraim south, inclu ded a considerable part of the fine plain of Esdraelon, the most fertile in the country. They were industrious agriculturists, Gen. 49:14, 15, and are mentioned with honor for their brave and wise patriotism, Judg: 5:15; 1 Chr.7:i-5; 12:32. They stood with Judah on Mount Gerizim, when the bless ings and curses were announced, Deut. 27:12. Tola the Judge was of this tribe, Judg. 10: 1, and 2 of the kings of Israel, the usurper Baasha and his son Elah, 1 Kin. 15:27; 16:6. Members of this tribe attend ed Hezekiah's great passover, 2 Chr. 30: 18. II. A Korhite Levite, son of Obed-edom, 1 Chr. 26:5. IS'SUE OF BLOOD. Mark 5:25, a disease requiring special purifications under the ITA BIBLE DICTIONARY. JAA .Mosaic law, Lev. 15:19, 28-3J, and signifi cant of spiritual uncleanness. IT'ALY is not mentioned in the Old Tes tament, unless under general terms, as Chittim, Isles ofthe Sea. In the New Tes tament, Acts 18:2; 27:1, 6; Heb. 13:24, it is chiefly of interest on account of Rom:;, which see. The Italian baud, mentioned in Acts 10: 1, was probably a Roman cohort from Italy, stationed at Cxsarea ; so called to distinguish it from the other troops, which were drawn from Syria and the ad jacent regions. ITH'AMAR, palm-tree isle, the 4th and youngest son of Aaron, consecrated to the priesthood, Exod. 6:23; Num. 3:2, 3. His posterity took charge of the tabernacle in the wilderness, Exod. 3-5:21; Num. 4:28. After the death of Nad.ib and Abihu, Lev. 10:1, 2, without childre.i, Num. 3:4, Elea zar and Ithamar were appointed to take their places in the priesthood, 1 Chr. 24:2; and for a time members of the family of Ithamar — namely, Eli, Ahitub, Ahimelech, and Abiathar — held the office of high-priest; but under Solomon it reverted to the fam ily of Eleazar, 1 Kin. 2:27. See Abiathar, Zadok. ITH'RA. See Jethro. IT'TAI, near, I., a native of Gath, and so a "stranger" in Judah. A devoted friend of David, he could riot be dissuaded from following him when fleeing from Absalom, 2 Sam. 15:19-22; compare Ruth 1:15-18; and was put in command of one-third of the army, 2 Sam. 18:2, 5, 12. B. C. 1024. II. A Benjamite, one of 30 heroes of Da vid's guard, 2 Sam. 23:29; called Ithai in 1 Chr. 11 :3i. ITUR^'A, a region in the extreme north east of Palestine, perpetuating the name of Jetur a son of Ishmael. Gen. 25: 15, 16, and belonging to the half-tribe of Manasseh, 1 Chr. 1:31; 5:19. The name Jedur still remains there. In the time of Christ, Itu- raea was in the tetrarchy of Philip, Luke 3:1. It lay between the Sea of Galilee and Da mascus, having Hermon on the west, Tra chonitis on the east, and Auranitis on the south. About B. C. 20 it came under Ro man sway and was given to Herod. Its inhabitants are said to have been skilful archers and dexterous robbers. It is a rugged land, except the southern part, and contains about 30 poor and small villages. I'VAH, 2 Kin. 18:34; 19:13, supposed by Rawlinson to be Ava and Ahava, which see. I'VORY, Heb. tooth, i. e., tusk, is men tioned in the reign of Solomon, and referred to in Psa. 45 : 8, as used in decorating pala- ivory: from Egyptian ruins. ces. Solomon, who traded to India, brought thence ivory to Judaea, 1 Kin. 10:22; 2 Chr. 9:21. Solomon had a throne decorated with ivory and inlaid with gold, these beau tiful materials relieving the splendor and heightening the lustre of each other, 1 Kin. 10:18. " Ivory houses," 1 Kin. 22:39; Amos 3:15, may have had ornaments of ivory in such abundance as to be named from the arti cle of their decoration. We read also of "benches" of ivory, "beds," and all sorts of "vessels," Ezek. 27:6, 15; Amos 6:4; Rev. 18:12. JA'AKAN, wresler, in 1 Chr. 1:42, A. V., Jakan, ancestor of the tribe Bene-jaakan, whose name marks one of the stations of the Israelites' journey, Num. 33:31. There were wells there, Deut. 10:6, and it seems to have been twice visited. JA'ARE O'REGIM, or Jair, father of El- hanan, who slew Lahmi the brother of Goliath, 1 Chr. 20:5. Compare 1 Sam. 17:7; 2 Sam. 21:19. JAAZANI'AH, or Jezaniah, fehovah hears, I., a captain associated with Geda- liah and Johanan, 2 Kin. 25:23, and active in the pursuit of Ishmael, afterwards going to Egypt, Jer. 40:7-10, 13; 41:11, 16; 42:1; 43:5-7- II. A prominent Rechabite in Jeremiah's time, Jer. 35:3. III. One of the 70 elders of Israel who profaned the temple in Ezekiel's vision, Ezek. 8:11. Perhaps the son of Azur, against whom and his 24 companions woe was denounced, Ezek. 11 :i. JA'AZER and JA'ZER, helper, an Amor- ite city near Gilead, 1 Chr. 26:31, taken by 259 JAB BIBLE DICTIONARY. JAC Israel, between Heshbon and Bashan, Num. 21:32, occupied by Gad, Num. 32:1, 3, 35; Josh. 13:25; ? Sam. 24:5, and assigned to the Merari Levites, Josh. 21:39. Later it was denounced as a Moabite city, Isa. 16:8, 9; Jer. 48:32. See Sibmah. Its ruins are seen at Es-Szir, west of Ammon and 13 miles north of Hesban, on a small stream flowing into the Jordan. JA'BAL, a stream, son of Lamech and Adah, and a descendant of Cain. He is supposed to have been the first to adopt the nomadic mode of life — Abel being a stationary shepherd — and to have invented portable tents, perhaps of skins, Gen. 4 : 2, 20. JAB'BOK, pouring out, now the Zerka, a perennial stream, flowing into the Jordan at a point about two-thirds of the distance from the Sea of Galilee to the Dead Sea, after a westerly course of some 60 miles. It traverses at first an elevated and desert region, and receives small streams from the north and from the south. A southern branch separated the Ammonites from Is rael. The eastern part of the Jabbok is dry in summer. Towards the west it flows through a deep ravine. Penuel, where Ja cob wrestled with the Angel, was a ford- ing-place of the Jabbok, Gen. 32:22, now pointed out at Kalaat Zerka, on the great Damascus road through Gilead. This stream divided the territory of Og from that of Sihon, Josh. 12:2, 5, and traversed the region afterwards assigned to the tribe of Gad. JA'BESH, dry, I., father of Shallum, 15th king of Israel, 2 Kin. 15:10, 13, 14. II. 1 Sam. 11; 31:11-13; 1 Chr. 10:12, elsewhere Jabesh-gilead, the chief city in the half-tribe of Manasseh east of the Jor dan, situated within the territory commonly called Gilead. Eusebius places it 6 miles from Pella, towards Gerasa. It was sacked by the Israelites for refusing to aid in chas tising the Benjamites, Judg. 21:8-14. At a later day it was besieged by the Ammon ites, and relieved by Saul ; in gratitude for which service the men of Jabesh-gilead res cued the dead bodies of Saul and his sons from the insults of the Philistines, 2 Sam. 2:5. It ruins are on Wady Yabes, south east of Pella. JA'BEZ, sorrowful, I., a descendant of Judah, whose high distinction among his brethren seems to have been owing to his prevalence in prayer. His prayer is a model, asking and obtaining such mercies as God knew to be blessings " indeed," spiritual as well as temporal, 1 Chr. 4:9, 10, 260 II. A town in Judah, 1 Chr. 2:55. JA'BIN, intelligent, I., a powerful king in the time of Joshua, at Hazor in the north of Canaan. The league which he organ ized to crush Joshua only made his own ruin more complete, Josh. n. B. C. 1450. Josephus reckons his army at 300,000 foot men, 10,000 cavalry, and 20,000 chariots; see ver. 4. The war continued "a long time," ver. 18, and Joshua "turned back" against Hazor and burned it, ver. 10, 13. II. Another king of Hazor a century and a half later, who sorely oppressed Israel for 20 years, till Deborah and Barak were raised up as deliverers, Judg. 4; Psa. 83:9. JAB'NEEL, building of God, I., a city on the border of Judah, not far from the Med iterranean, Josh. 15:11, and much exposed to the Philistines. They were in posses sion of it in Uzziah's time, and were ex pelled by him and its fortifications destroy ed, 2 Chr. 26:6 — where it is called Jabneh. Its Greek name was Jamnia. In our Sa viour's day it was a large city; now a vil lage called Yebna, 12 miles south of Jaffa and 3 from the sea. II. A place in the boundary of Naphtali, Josh. 19:33; perhaps Jaauneh, southwest of Lake Merom. JA'CHIN, firm, I., the name of the right- hand, i. e., southern, bronze column in the porch or entrance of Solomon's temple, 1 Kin. 7:21; 2 Kin. 25:17; 2 Chr. 3:15-17; 4:12; Jer. 52:22. See Boaz, Temple. II. Simeon's 4th son, Gen. 46:10; Exod. 6:15; called Jarib in 1 Chr. 4:24. His de scendants are named in Num. 26:12. III. The head of a course of priests in David's reign. Some of the line returned from the Captivity, 1 Chr. 9:10; 24:17; Neh. 11:10. JA'CINTH, or Hy'acinth, a flower of deep purple or reddish blue color, Rev. 9:17; also a precious stone of similar colors in the foundation of the New Jerusalem, Rev. 21:20. JA'COB, heel-holder, supplanler, I., son of Isaac and Rebekah, born after his twin brother Esau, probably at Lahai-roi, Gen. 25: 11, 26, when Isaac was 56 and Abraham 159 years old, B. C. 1836. His character and life were foreshown both in the cir cumstances of his birth and name and in the previous divine prediction to his mo ther, the fulfilment of which they secured by unjustifiable means. Jacob, though far- sighted and energetic, was quiet and peace able, living a shepherd life at home. Esau was more turbulent and fierce, and passion- JAC BIBLE DICTIONARY. JAD ately fond of hunting. Isaac was partial to Esau, Rebekah to Jacob. Jacob first took advantage of his brother's heedlessness as to things future and of lasting importance, to purchase the birthright from him for a good meal when he was faint with hunger, afterwards, with his mother's help, profit ed by his brother's absence and his father's infirmity to obtain the blessing ofthe birth right, and was compelled to fly into Meso potamia to avoid the consequences of his brother's wrath, Gen. 27:28. He was then 77 years old. On his journey the Lord appeared to him in a dream, promised him His protection, and declared His purpose relative to his descendants' possessing the land of Canaan, and the descent of the Messiah through him, Gen. 28:10, etc. In consecrating himself afresh to God he says, ver. 21, 22, if Jehovah will thus continue a gracious God to me, then this spot shall be a temple to him. Compare Gen. 35:6, 7. His subsequent days, which he calls " few and evil," were clouded with many sor rows, yet amid them all he was sustained by the care and favor of God. On his sol itary journey of 600 miles into Mesopota mia, and during the toils and injuries of his 20 years' service with Laban, God still prospered him, and on his return to the land of promise inclined the hostile spirits of Laban and of Esau to peace. He had then 2 wives, Leah and Rachel, 2 half- wives, Bilhah and Zilpah, 11 sons and a daughter, and large possessions, chiefly in flocks and herds. On the border of Ca naan the angels of God met him, and the God of angels wrestled with him at Pen- uel, yielded him the blessing, and gave him the honored name of Israel. The bet ter traits of his character had developed under the providence and grace of God, and the " supplanter " had become a "prince," having "power with God." Yet further trials awaited him : his mother was no more; his sister-wives imbittered his life with their jealousies; his children Di nah, Simeon, Levi, and Reuben filled him with grief and shame ; his beloved Rachel and his father were removed by death; Joseph his. favorite son he had given up as slain by wild beasts ; and the loss of Ben jamin threatened to bring his gray hairs with sorrow to the grave. But the sunset of his life was majestically calm and bright. For 17 years he enjoyed in the land of Go shen a serene happiness : he gave a dying blessing in Jehovah's name to his assem bled sons; visions of their future prosper ity rose before his eyes, especially the long line ofthe royal race of Judah, culminating in the glorious kingdom of Shiloh. " He saw it, and was glad." Soon after, at the age of 147, he was gathered to his fathers, and his body was embalmed, and buried with all possible honors in the burial-plaoe of Abraham near Hebron, B. C. 1689. In the history of Jacob we observe that in repeated instances he used unjustifiable means to secure promised advantages, in stead of waiting, in faith and obedience, for the unfailing providence of God. We observe also the divine chastisement of his sins, and his steadfast growth in grace to the last. The record occupies a large por tion of the 2d half of the book of Genesis, ch. 25-50. See also Bethel, Ladder, La ban, Peniel, etc. His name is found in the New Testament, illustrating the sov ereignty of God and the power of faith, Rom. 9:13; Heb. 11:9, 21. II. The father of Joseph the husband of Mary, Matt. 1:15, 16. Jacob's Well, excavated by the patri arch when he set up his home-altar at Shechem, Gen. 33:18-20; John 4:5, 6, 12, to make sure of a water-supply near the field he there purchased, Josh. 24:32. Compare Gen. 21:25-30; 26:13-22. It is memorable as the authentic site of the interview of Christ with the Samaritan woman : in which he revealed his omniscience, and his power to convince, convict, convert, and save, an nounced himself as the promised Messiah, and showed that the time had come for abolishing the formal temple-service with its types and sacrifices, and for a more spiritual and world-wide worship. The well is at the southeast extremity of She chem, now Nablus, where it opens at the foot of Mount Gerizim into the large and fertile plain El Mukhna. It is a mile and a half from the present town, and is now 75, formerly more than 100, feet deep, 7% feet in diameter, lined with stone masonry, the mouth 4 feet in diameter in solid rock, surrounded by the ruins of a vaulted cham ber that once covered it, and within the fragments and traces of a large inclosure, probably a church ofthe 4th century. The spot is recognized as the true "Jacob's well " by Jews, Mohammedans, and Chris tians alike. See Shechem. JAD'DUA, knowing, I., one who sub scribed Nehemiah's covenant, Neh. 10:21. II. Son of Johanan, and the last Old Testament high-priest named in Neh. 12:11, 12. If he was the Jaddua of whom the leg- 261 JAE BIBLE DICTIONARY. JAM end of Josephus is that he went forth from Jerusalem at the head of the priests to meet Alexander the Great, and tender to him the submission of the city, his name must have been subsequently added to the list as made up by Ezra. J A' EL, a wild goal, wife of Heber the Kcnite, slew Sisera, general of the Canaan- ilish army, who had fled to her tent, which was then near Kedesh-naphtali. (See.) Jael took her opportunity, and while he was sleeping drove a large nail or tent-pin through his temples, Judg. 4:17-23, appar ently a most treacherous violation of the rights of hospitality. But the life of Sisera was undoubtedly forfeited to the Israelites by the usages of war and the prescription of Jehovah, and probably to society by his crimes. Besides this, the life or honor of Jael may have been in danger, or her feel ings of hospitality may have been over powered by a sudden impulse to avenge the oppressed Israelites, with whom she was allied by blood. The song of Deborah celebrates the act as one which Jewish pa triotism would honor, and as a divine judg ment which, as well as the defeat of Sise- ra's host, was the more disgraceful to him for being wrought by a woman, Judg. 5:1, 24-27,31. JAH or JAHU, ancient Hebrew for Jeho vah, Psa. 68:4. It is often found in Hebrew compound words, as in Adonijah, Hallelu jah, Isa-iah. It occurs usually in poetic passages, and is often translated Lord, like Jehovah, Psa. 104:35; 105:45; 111:1, and in the 2d clause of Psa. 89:8. In Isa. 12:2 we read, "Jah-Jehovah is my strength and song," and in Isa. 26:4, "in Jah-Jeho vah is the Rock of ages." JA'HAZ., JAHA'ZAH, JAH'ZAH, trodden down, a city on the southern border of Am mon, on the north of the Arnon and Moab, where Moses defeated Sihon king of the Amorites — from the west of the Jordan — who was then in possession, Num. 21 : 23, 26. It seems to have lain on the western bor der of Ammon, and was within the tribe of Reuben, and assigned to the Merarite Le vites, Josh. 21:36; 1 Chr. 6:78. The chil dren of Ammon asserted their claim to it in Jephthah's time, Judg. 1 1 : 13-20, but were defeated, ver. 32. In the period of Judah's decline we find it again in the hands of Moab, Isa. 15:4; Jer. 48:21, 34. JAHA'ZIEL, beheld by God, a Levite of the sons of Asaph, whose confident predic tion of Jehoshaphat's victory over the Mo- abite hosts is recorded in 2 Chr. 20:14-17. 262 Others of this name are briefly mentioned in 1 Chr. 12:4; 16:6; 23:19; Ezra 8:5. JA'IR, he will enlighten. I. The son of Segub, of the tribe of Judah, but reckoned to Manasseh. See Adoption. He took part in the conquest of the trans-Jordanic region, Gilead and Bashan, captured 23 towns in Argob which were called after his name, Num. 32: 41; Deut. 3:14; 1 Kin. 4:13; 1 Chr. 2:22. II. A Gileadite, of Manasseh, 8th judge of Israel, for 22 years. B. C. 1210-1188. He had 30 sons, rulers of 30 cities, Judg. 10:3-5, including probably the 23 con quered by the former Jair, supposed to have been his ancestor. A descendant is mentioned in 2 Sam. 20:26. See Havoth- jair. III. Father of Mordecai, a Benjamite, Esth. 2:5. IV. (A different word in Hebrew) awake, 1 Chr. 20:5. See Jaare-oregim. JAI'RUS, or Ja'ir, a ruler of the syna gogue at Capernaum, memorable for his faith in Christ. His deceased daughter, 12 years of age, was restored to life and health by the Saviour, Mark 5:22; Luke 8:41. Compare Matt. 9:18. ] A' KEH, pious, the father of Agur, Prov. 30:1. JAM'BRES. See Jannes. JAMES, rather Jacob, supplanter, I., sur- named the greater, or elder, to distinguish him from James the younger, was one of the 12 apostles, elder brother of John the evangelist, and son of Zebedee and Salome, Matt. 4:21; 27:56. Compare Mark 15:40. James was of Bethsaida in Galilee. His mother Salome was one of those women who occasionally attended our Saviour in his journeys, and one day desired that her 2 sons might be seated at his right and left hand in his kingdom, Matt. 20:20-23. See Salome. James and John were originally fisher men, with Zebedee their father, Mark 1 : 19. Like Andrew and Peter, they had accept ed Jesus as the Messiah before they were summoned to follow him as disciples, Matt. 4:18-22, with John 1:40-42. They seem to have been ardent and impetuous ; and when certain Samaritans refused to receive him, James and John wished for fire from heaven to consume them, Luke 9:54. For this rea son, or because of their zeal and energy as ministers of Christ, the name of Boanerges, or sons of thunder, was afterwirds given to them, Mark 3:17. Together with Peter they appear to have enjoyed special honor.1' JAM BIBLE DICTIONARY. JAP and privileges among the disciples : they alone were with Christ at his transfigura tion, Matt. 17:1; Mark 9:2; Luke 9:28, at the raising of Jairus' daughter, Mark 5:37- 42; Luke 8:51, and at the agony in the garden of Gethsemane, Matt. 26:37; Mark 14:33. These 3, with Andrew, witnessed the restoration of the mother of Peter's wife, Mark 1:29-31, and interviewed him as to the destruction of the temple, Mark 13:3. After the ascension of our Lord, at which James was present, he appears to have remained at Jerusalem, and was put to death by Herod, about A. D. 44, the first martyr among the apostles, Acts 12:1, 2. Compare Mark 10:39. Clement of Alexan dria, A. D. 195, relates that one of the offi cers at his execution was convinced and led to avow himself a Christian by his faithful testimony, and was beheaded with him. II. Another apostle, son of Alphaeus, or Clopas, Matt. 10:3; Mark3:i8; Luke 6:15. His mother's name was Mary (III.), and his brethren were Joses and Judas (III.), Matt. 27:56 ; Mark 15:40. He is here called the less, or the small, to distinguish him from James the son of Zebedee. He was 9th in the list of the apostles, at the head ofthe 3d quaternion, and is not mentioned after Acts 1 : 13, unless he is the same as "James the Just." III. "The Lord's brother," Gal. 1:19; either a brother of Christ, being a son of Joseph and Mary, or, as many think, a cousin of Christ, and identical with the James above, II. He resided at Jerusalem, seems to have been married, 1 Cor. 95, and was early » recognized leader in the church, Acts 12:17; 21:18; Gal. 2:9, 12. He appears to have seen Christ shortly before his ascension, 1 Cor. 15:7, and to have pre sided over the council held at Jerusalem, A. D. 49, Acts 15:13. In Gal. 1:19 he is apparently called or classed as an apostle, perhaps loosely, though this interpretation ofthe passage is not imperative. Compare John 17:12. He is called "the Just" by Josephus, and by Hegesippus of the 2d century, who says that he was celebrated for his integrity and zeal, and was slain by the Jewish rulers, A. D. 69. Josephus says he was stoned to death about A. D. 62. The Epistle of James is ascribed to him by those who distinguish him from James the Less. The question of his true relation ship to Christ is involved in much doubt. The gospels repeatedly mention James, Jo ses. Judas, and Simon as " brothers " of our Lord, and speak in the same connection of his " mother " and his " sisters," Matt. 12:46; 13:56; Mark3:3i; 6:3; Luke 8:19; moreover, the inspired writers expressly distinguish the brothers of Christ from the apostles, while they include among the apostles both James the Less and Judas, John 2:12; 7:3-10; Acts 1:13, 14, thus fur nishing strong reasons, as many believe, for the opinion that James the Just was literally a brother of our Lord. See Bro ther. The Epistle of James is generally sup posed to have been written at Jerusalem, about A. D. 61, by James the Just, shortly before his death. It is addressed particu larly to converted or professedly Christian Jews, but was intended for the benefit of Christians generally. It is therefore one of " the Catholic Epistles," so called, i. e., gen eral. It has often been regarded as teach ing a different doctrine in respect to faith and works from what Paul teaches in his epistle to the Romans. But the doctrine of the 2 apostles is at bottom the same, only that Paul dwells more on faith, the sole ori gin of good works ; and James dwells more on good works, which result from true faith. According to Paul, there can be no true faith which does not manifest itself in good works ; and according to James, there can be no truly good works which do not spring from true faith. His style is bold, rapid, terse, and figurative, with much fine im agery ; and the epistle is one of the highest in value. JAN'NES and JAM'BRES were 2 of the principal Egyptian magicians, who with stood Moses and Aaron by attempting to imitate the miracles which they exhibited. See Exod. 7:11, etc. These names are not found in the Old Testament, but are often mentioned in the rabbinical books, 2 Tim. 3:8,9. JANO'AH, rest, a town of Naphtali, be tween Abel and Kedesh, 2 Kin. 15:29. JANO'HAH, rest, Josh. 16:6,7, a town in the northeast border of Ephraim, now Ya- nun, about 8 miles southeast of Nablus. JA'PHETH, enlargement, the eldest of Noah's 3 sons, Gen. 9:24; 10:21, born 100 years before the flood, and preserved with his wife, 2 out of 8 persons, in the ark, Gen. 7:7:1 Pet. 3:20. He was perhaps the Iapetos whom Greek legends represent as the progenitor of the Greek race. His 7 sons, Gen. 10:2-5; : Chr. 1:5, occupied with their posterity the north of Asia and most of Europe. The probable location of 263 JAP BIBLE DICTIONARY. JEB each of the 7 is described in its place. In later years the Greeks and Romans sub dued large portions of Southern and West ern Asia, in accordance with the prediction of Noah, Gen. 9:27. The "enlargement" of Japheth now extends over America and Australia also. JAPHI'A, splendid, I., king of Lachish, one of the 5 Amorite princes who united under Adoni-zedek to attack Gibeon, but were defeated near Beth-horon by Joshua, with miraculous aid, and slain at the cave of Makkedah, Josh. 10:3. II. A son of David, born at Jerusalem, 2 Sam. 5:15; otherwise unknown. III. A border town of Zebulun on the south, between Daberath and Gath-he- pher, Josh. 19:12; now Yafa, a hamlet of 30 houses, a mile and a half southwest of Nazareth. JA'PHO, Josh. 19:46. See Joppa. JA'REB, avenger, Hos. 5:13; 10:6, not the name of a king, but " hostile " king, meaning Pul, whose aid Ephraim sought and found it a chastisement, 2 Kin. 15:19, 20; compare 2 Kin. 16:7, 8. JA'RED, in 1 Chr. 1:2 Je'red, descent, the 4th in the line of patriarchs after Seth, between Mahalaleel and Enoch, Gen. 5: 15- 20; Luke 3:37. JAR'HA, an Egyptian slave, made free by marrying Ahlai, the daughter of his master Sheshan, who had no sons, 1 Chr. 2:31-41. JAR'MUTH, height, I.,. a town in the low hills of Judah, Josh. 15:35. Piram its king was confederate with Adoni-zedek. See Japhia. It was repeopled after the Cap tivity, Neh. 11:29; now Yarmuk, 16 miles south of west from Jerusalem. II. A Levitical (Gershonite) city in Issa- char, Josh. 21:29, called Remeth and Ra- moth, Josh. 19:21; 1 Chr. 6:73; apparently on the eastern border of the plain of Jez reel. JASH'ER, the book of, the book of the upright, excellent and noble-minded. This work is mentioned in Josh. 10: 13 and 2 Sam. 1:18, and seems to have been a collection of national, historical, triumphal, and ele giac songs, still extant in the time of David, but nothing is known respecting it. The book published under this name in 1751 is a gross forgery. JASHO'BEAM, to whom the people turn, a Korhite, descendant of Hachmon, who enlisted with his followers under David at Ziklag, 1 Chr. 12:6; 27:2, famous for his great exploit in slaying 300 or 800 foes, per- 264 haps with the help of his companions. He is conjectured to be identical with Adino, 2 Sam. 23:8, and to have been one of the 3 brave men who broke through the Philis tine camp at Bethlehem to bring water for David, 1 Chr. 11: 11, 15-19. JA'SON, a healer, a Jewish convert, a " kinsman " and host of Paul, at Thessa- lonica. His person and goods were inter posed to shield the apostle from the rabble at his first visit there, A. D. 52, Acts 17:5-10. He seems also to have been with him at Corinth, 5 years afterwards, Rom. 16:21. JAS'PER, a precious stone of various col ors, as green, purple, etc., often clouded with white, and beautifully striped with red or yellow, the ist gem in the high-priest's breastplate, Exod. 28:20, and the ist foun dation-stone of the New Jerusalem, called " most precious " by John, Rev. 4:3; 21:11. See also Ezek. 28:13. JA'VAN, I., the 4th son of Japheth, Gen. 10:2, 4. This name is the same as the Greek I6n, whence comes Ionia, and it is understood that Javan was the ancestor of the Greeks. His sons were Elishah, Tarshish, Kittim, and Dodanim. Greece is meant in " king of Javan " (Heb.) in Dan. 8:21 ; and "sons of Javan" in Zech. 9:13. II. In Ezek. 27 : 19, a Greek city in South ern Arabia. JA'ZER. SeejAAZER. JEAL'OUSY. See Adultery. The idol of jealousy, Ezek. 8:3, 5, is the same with Tammuz in ver. 14. See Tammuz. JE'ARIM (forests), MOUNT, in the north ern boundary of Judah, Josh. 15:10; ap parently a ridge the northern shoulder of which was Chesalon, now Kesla, 7 miles west of Jerusalem. JEBERECHI'AH, whom the Lord will bless, Isa. 8:2, the father of a Zechariah in the reign of Ahaz, Isaiah's witness. JE'BUS, a trodden place, an old name of Jerusalem, Judg. 19:10, 11; 1 Chr. 11:4, 5; also called Jebusi, Josh. 15:8; 18:16, 28. " The Jebusite," always in the singular in Hebrew, the 3d son of Canaan, whose posterity dwelt in Canaan between the Hittites and the Amorites, Gen. 10:16; 1 Chr. 1:14. See Canaanites. Traces of them are found 40 years before the con quest, Num. 13:29, at the time of the con quest, Josh. 10 : 1 , 5, 26 ; 11:3, and later, they not having been thoroughly expelled by Judah and Benjamin, Josh. 15:8, 63; Judg. 1:21; 19:11. See Araunah. Jerusalem, then even a stronger and higher fortress than afterwards, was captured by David, JEC BIBLE DICTIONARY. JEH 2 Sam. 5:6-9; 1 Chr. 11:4-8. The Jebusites were bond-servants under Solomon, 1 Kin. 9:20, 21; 2 Chr. 8:7, 8; and some of them, '," Solomon's servants," returned from the Babylonish exile, Neh. 7:57. See also Ezra 9:1, 2; Zech. 9:7. JECONI'AH. See Jehoiachin. JEDI'DAH, beloved, wife of king Amon, daughter of Adaiah of Boscath, and mo ther of king Josiah, 2 Kin. 22:1, who did signal honor to her pious training. JEDIDI'AH, or Jedid'jah, beloved of the Lord, a name given to Solomon at his birth by Nathan the prophet — a special token of God's returning favor to his penitent ser vant David after the death of Bathsheba's ist son, 2 Sam. 12:24, 25- JEDU'THUN, who gives praise, a Merar- ite Levite, a director of the music of the tabernacle in David's time, with Heman the Kohathite, and Asaph the Gershonite, 1 Chr. 23:6; apparently the same as Ethan, 1 Chr. 15:17. See Ethan. His special ser vice was " to sound with cymbals of brass," ver. 19. The " sons of Jeduthun " " prophe sied with the harp," 1 Chr. 25:3, 9, etc., and officiated as musical leaders at the dedica tion of the temple, 2 Chr. 5:12, at Hezeki ah's purifying of the temple, 2 Chr. 29:14, at Josiah 's passover, 2 Chr. 35 : 15, and after the Captivity, Neh. 11:17. The name of one of them appears in the title of Psalms 39, 62, 77. See Asaph. JE'GAR-SAHADU'THA, heap of witness, a Chaldee name, equivalent to Galeed in Hebrew, both marking the scene of the covenant between Jacob and Laban, Ge^i. 31:47. See Mizpeh. JEHO'AHAZ, fehovah sustains, I., a son and successor of Jehu king of Israel, B. C. 856-840, reigned 17 years. In punishment for his sins and those of his people, Israel was invaded and reduced to great extrem ities by the Syrians under Hazael and Ben-hadad. The king humbled himself before God, and deliverance came by the hand of Joash his son, 2 Kin. 13:1-9, 24, 25. II. Also called Shallum, 1 Chr. 3:15, the 3d son and successor of Josiah king of Judah, B. C. 609, reigned about 3 months in Jerusalem, disappointing the popular hopes by his oppressive spirit, Ezek. 19:3. He was deposed by Pharaoh-necho, and died in Egypt, 2 Kin. 23:30-34; 2 Chr. 36:1-4. See also Jer. 22:10-13. See Shal lum. III. A name once given, 2 Chr. 21 : 17, to Ahaziah, which see. JEHO'ASH. See Joash. JEHOHA'NAN,/'iP THE PLAIN OF JERICHO returned from the Captivity, and helped to fortify Jerusalem, Ezra 2:34; Neh. 3:2; 7:36. Here also Christ healed two blind men, Matt. 20:29-34, and forgave Zacchae- us, Luke 19:1-10. The site of Jericho has usually been fixed at er-Riha, a. mean and foul Arab hamlet of some 200 inhabitants. Recent travel lers, however, show that the probable loca tion of Jericho was 2 miles west of er-Riha, at the mouth of Wady Kelt, and where the road from Jerusalem comes into the plain. The city destroyed by Joshua may have been near to the fountain of Elisha, sup posed to be the present Ain es-Sultan, 2 miles northwest of er-Riha. On the west and north of Jericho rise high limestone hills, one of which, the dreary Quarantana, 1,200 or 1,500 feet high, derives its name from the modern tradition that it was the scene of our Lord's " forty days' " fast and temptation. Between the hills and the Jordan lies "the plain of Jericho," Josh. 4:13, over against "the plains of Moab" east of the river. It was anciently well watered and amazingly fruitful, and might easily be made so again, but now lies neg lected, and the palm-trees, balsam, and honey, for which it was once famous, have disappeared. The road from Jericho to Jerusalem as cends through narrow and rocky passes amid ravines and precipices. It is a diffi cult and dangerous route, and is still in- 270 FROM THE HILLS ON THE WEST. fested by robbers, as in the time of the good Samaritan, Luke 10:30-34. JEROBO'AM, whose people are many, I., the first king of Israel after its separation from Judah. an Ephraimite, the son of Ne- bat and Zeruah, 1 Kin. 11:26. During the latter part of Solomon's reign, and while an officer under him, ver. 28, he plotted against him, and was obliged to flee into Egypt to Shishak, after a memorable in terview with Ahijah the prophet, foreshad owing the future, ver. 29-40. On the death of Solomon he was summoned by the 10 tribes to return and present their demands to Rehoboam ; and when these were re fused, he was chosen king of the revolted tribes, B. C. 975, 1 Kin. 12:1-3, 20. He thus executed the divine judgment ou Judah and Solomon, though himself moved by an unprincipled ambition, and pursuing the same ungodly course that had brought chastisement on Judah. He reigned 22 years. The only notable act of his reign marked him with infamy, as the man "who made Israel to sin." It was the idolatrous establishment of golden calves at Bethel and Dan, that the people might worship there and not at Jerusalem. He also su perseded the sons of Aaron by priests cho sen from " the lowest ofthe people." This God-defying but effective measure, in which he was followed by all the kings of Israel, was a confession of weakness as well as of depravity. Neither miracles nor warn- JER BIBLE DICTIONARY. JER ings, nor the premature death of Abijah his son, could dissuade him. Great disas ters befell him in his own lifetime; he was at war with Judah all his days, i Kin. 14:1-20, 30; 2 Chr. 13:1-20, and with the brief reign of Nadab his soil the doomed family became extinct, 1 Kin. 15:25, 28. II. Jeroboam Second, the 13th king of Israel, son and successor of Joash, B. C. 825. He was the 4th of the 5 kings of Je hu's dynasty, which was the 4th in the northern kingdom, and his reign was the most prosperous of all, and continued 41 years. He followed up his father's suc cesses over the Syrians, took Hamath and Damascus, and all the region east of the Jordan down to the Dead Sea, and ad vanced to its highest point the prosperity of that kingdom. Yet his long reign added heavily to the guilt of Israel, by increased luxury, oppression, and vice. After him, the kingdom rapidly declined, and his own dynasty perished within a year, fulfilling the prediction of Jonah, 2 Kin. 14:23-29; 15:8-12. See also the contemporary proph ets, particularly Amos and Hosea. JERUB'BAAL, contender with Baal, the name given by the men of Ophrah to Gid eon, whien he destroyed Baal's altar, Judg. 6:31, 32. See Gideon. JERUB'BESHETH, contender with the idol, another name of Jerubbaal, given to avoid mentioning Baal, 2 Sam. 11:21. JERU'EL, founded by God, a small desert place between the Dead Sea and Jerusalem, 2 Chr. 20:16, with a watch-tower, ver. 24. 11111 ««3P«? JERUSALEM FROM THE BETHANY ROAD, ON THE SOUTH PART OF MOUNT OLIVET. JERU'SALEM, foundation of peace, the chief city of the Holy Land, and to the Christian the most illustrious in the world. It is situated in 31° 46' 35" N. lat., and 35" 18' 30" E. long., on elevated ground south ofthe centre ofthe country, about 33 miles from the Mediterranean, and about 19 from the Jordan. Its site was early hallowed by God's trial of Abraham's faith, Gen. 22; 2 Chr. 3:1. It was on the border of the tribes of Benjamin and Judah, mostly with in the limits of the former, but reckoned as belonging to the latter, because conquered by it, Josh. 15:8; 18:16, 28; Judg. 1:1-8. The most ancient name of the city was Salem, Gen. 14:18; Psa. 76:2; Heb. 7:2; and it afterwards was called Jebus, as be longing to the Jebusites, Judg. 19:10, 11. Several other names were given it : Ariel, Isa. 29:1, 2, 7; the city of the Great King, Psa. 48:2; Matt. 5:35; the Holy City, Neh. 1 1 : 1 ; Matt. 4:5; 27:53; Rev. 11:2. Being a very strong position, it resisted the at tempts of the Israelites to become the sole masters of it, Josh. 15:63, the "lower city" being first captured, Judg.. 1:3-8, 21, until at length its fortress was stormed by Da vid, 2 Sam. 5:6-9; after which it received its present name, and was also called "the city of David." It now became the reli gious and political centre of the kingdom by divine appointment, 1 Kin. 11:36, and was greatly enlarged, adorned, and forti fied. But its chief glory was that in its 271 JER BIBLE DICTIONARY. JER magnificent temple the one living and true God dwelt and revealed himself. After the division of the tribes, it con tinued the capital ofthe kingdom of Judah, was several times taken and plundered, and at length was destroyed at the Baby lonian captivity, 2 Kin. 14:13; 2 Chr. 12:9; 21:16; 24:23; 25:23; 36:3, 10, 17-20. In all it has been 17 times captured and despoiled. After 70 years it was rebuilt by the Jews on their return from captivity about 536 B. C, who did much to restore it to its former splendor. About 332 B. C. the city yielded to Alexander of Macedon; and not long after his death, Ptolemy Soter of Egypt took it by an assault on the Sabbath, when it is said the Jews scrupled to fight, B. C. 320. In 170 B. C, Jerusalem fell under the tyranny of Antiochus Epiphanes, who razed its walls, set up an image of Jupiter in the temple, and used every means to force the people into idolatry. Under the Macca bees, however, the Jews, in 163 B. C, re covered their independence. Just a cen tury later it was conquered by the Romans under Pompey. It was plundered by Cras- sus, B. C. 54, but Herod the Great expend ed vast sums in its embellishment, his greatest work being the rebuilding of the temple, commenced B. C. 19 or 20. To the city and temple thus renovated the ever- blessed Messiah came, in the fulness of time, and made the place of his feet glori ous. By his rejection and crucifixion Jeru salem filled up the cup of her guilt; the Jewish nation perished from off the land of their fathers, and the city and temple were taken by Titus and totally destroyed, A. D. 70-71. Of all the structures of Jeru salem, only 3 towers and a part of the western wall were left standing. Still, as the Jews began to return thither, and mani fested a rebellious spirit, the emperor Adri an planted a Roman colony there in A. D. 135, and banished the Jews, prohibiting their return on pain of death. He changed the name of the city to yElia Capitolina, consecrated it to heathen deities, in order to defile it as much as possible, and did what he could to obliterate all traces both of Judaism and Christianity. From this period the name Mlia became so common that the name Jerusalem was preserved only among the Jews and better informed Christians. In the time of Constantine, however, it resumed its ancient name, which it has retained to the present day. Helena, the mother of Constantine, built 2 churches in Bethlehem and on Mount Oli- 272 vet, about A. D. 326; and Julian, who, after his father, succeeded to the empire of his uncle Constantine, endeavored to rebuild the temple ; but his design and that of the Jews, whom he patronized, was frustrated, as contemporary historians relate, by an earthquake, and by balls of fire bursting forth among the workmen, A. D. 363. The subsequent history of Jerusalem may be told in a few words. In 614 it was ta ken by Chosroes II. king of Persia, who slew, it is said, 90,000 men, and demolished, to the utmost of his power, whatever the Christians had venerated : in 627 Heraclius defeated Chosroes, and Jerusalem was re covered by the Greeks. Soon after com menced the long and wretched era of Mo hammedanism. About 637 the city was taken from the Christians by the caliph Omar, after a siege of 4 months, and con tinued under the caliphs of Bagdad till 868, when it was taken by Ahmed, a Turkish sovereign of Egypt. During the space of 220 years it was subject to several masters, Turkish and Saracenic, and in 1099 it was taken by the Crusaders under Godfrey Bouillon, who was elected king. He was succeeded by his brother Baldwin, who died in 11 18. In 1187, Saladin, sultan of the East, captured the city, assisted by the treachery of Raymond, count of Tripoli, who was found dead in his bed on the morning of the day in which he was to have delivered up the city. It was re stored, in 1242, to the Lathi princes, by Saleh Ismael, emir of Damascus ; they lost it in 1 291 to the sultans of Egypt, who held it till 1382. Selim, the Turkish sultan, re duced Egypt and Syria, including Jerusa lem, in 1517, and his son Solyman built or reconstructed the present walls in 1542. Since then it has remained under the do minion of Turkey, except when held for a short time, 1832-4, by Ibrahim Pasha, son of Mohammed AH of Egypt. At present, this city is included in the pashalic of Da mascus, though it has a resident Turkish governor. Jerusalem is situated on the central ta ble-land of Judaea, in the line of the long ridge which forms the watershed between the Mediterranean and the Jordan, the body of the city being 2,593 feet above the Med iterranean, and the Mount of Olives 2,683. The average temperature for 5 years was in January 490, Feb. 54°, Mar. 55", April 6i°, May 73°, June 75°, July 79P, Aug. 79°, Sept. 770, Oct. 74, Nov. 63°, Dec. 54°. It lies on ground which slopes gently down JER BIBLE DICTIONARY. JER towards the east, the slope being termina ted by an abrupt declivity, in some parts precipitous, and overhanging the valley of Jehoshaphat or of the Kidron. This slo ping ground is also terminated on the south by the deep and narrow valley of Hinnom, which constituted the ancient southern boundary of the city, and which also ascends on its west side, and comes out upon the high ground on the north west. See Gihon. But in the city itself there were also 2 ravines or smaller val leys, dividing the land covered by build ings into 3 principal parts or hills. Zion, the highest of these, was in the southwest quarter of the city, skirted on the south and west by the deep valley of Hinnom. On its north and east sides lay the smaller valley " of the cheesemongers," or Tyro- poeon, opening on the southeast into the valley of the Kidron. The Tyropreon also united, near the northeast foot of Zion, with a valley coming down from the north. Zion was also called The city of David ; and by Josephus, "the upper city." Sur rounded anciently by walls as well as deep valleys, it was the strongest part of the city, and contained the citadel and the king's palace. The Tyropoeon separated it from Acra on the north and Moriah on the northeast. Acra was less elevated than Zion, or than the ground to the north west beyond the walls. It is called by Jo sephus "the lower city." Moriah, the sacred hill, lay northeast of Zion, with which it was anciently connected at its nearest corner by a bridge over the Tyro poeon, some of the huge stones in its east ern arch having been identified by Dr. Robinson, projecting from the western wall of the sacred area 39 feet from its south west corner, and the buttress or pier which supported the western end of the bridge having been more recently disinterred at the depth of 60 feet, together with stones of the pavement of this causeway, worn it may be by the feet of our Lord and his dis ciples. The arch was 31% feet wide and over 300 feet long across the Tyropceon. Moriah was at first a small eminence, but its area was greatly enlarged to make room for the temple. It was but a part of the continuous ridge on the east side of the city, overlooking the deep valley of the Kidron ; rising on the north, after a slight depression, into the hill Bezetha, the " new city" of Josephus, and sinking away on the south into the hill Ophel. On the east of Jerusalem, and stretching from north to iS south, lies the Mount of Olives, divided from the city by the valley of the Kidron, and commanding a noble prospect of the city and surrounding country. Over against Moriah, or a little farther north, lies the garden of Gethsemane, with its olive-trees, at the foot of the Mount of Olives. Just below the city, on the east side of the val ley of the Kidron, lies the miserable village of Siloa; farther down, this valley unites with that of Hinnom, at a beautiful spot anciently "the king's garden," Neh. 3:15; still below, is the well of Nehemiah, an ciently En-rogel; and from this spot the united valley winds among mountains southward and eastward to the Dead Sea. In the mouth of the Tyropoeon, between Ophel and Zion, is the pool of Siloam. In the valley west and northwest of Zion are the 2 pools of Gihon, the lower being now broken and dry. In the rocks around Je rusalem, and chiefly in the sides of the val leys of the Kidron and Hinnom opposite the city, are many excavated tombs and caves, and here was always the burial- place of the city. See Jehoshaphat. Of the walls of ancient Jerusalem, the most ancient, that of David and Solomon, encircled the whole of Mount Zion, and was also continued around Moriah and Ophel. The depth of the valleys south and east of Jerusalem rendered it com paratively easy to fortify and defend it on these sides. This southern wall, in the period of the kings and of Christ, traversed the outmost verge of those hills, inclosing the pool of Siloam, Ophel, and portions apparently of the valleys of Hinnom and Kidron, 2 Chr. 33:14; Neh. 2:14; 3:15. A 2d wall, built by Jotham, Hezekiah, and Manasseh, made some changes on the southern line, and inclosed a large addi tional space on the north. It commenced somewhat east of the tower of Hippicus, on the northwest border of Zion, included Acra and part of Bezetha, and united with the old wall on the east. This wall was destroyed, as well as the first, at the Cap tivity, but both were afterwards reerected, it is believed, on nearly the same lines, and were substantially the same at the time of Christ. The precise course of the 2d wall may perhaps be ascertained by fu ture excavations, but is now more dispu ted than any other point of the topogra phy of Jerusalem. To ascertain the exact location of " the gate Gennath," where this wall began, and trace its course " in a cir cuit" to Antonia, would show whether the 273 JER BIBLE DICTIONARY. JER traditional site of Calvary, now far within the city limits, lay within or without the ancient wall. The arguments from topog raphy are strongly against the tradition; and it would seem that this whole region, if not actually within the wall, must have been at least occupied by the city suburbs at that time; for The 3d wall, commenced by Herod Agrippa only ioyears after the crucifixion of Christ, ran from the tower Hippicus Oearly half a mile northwest to the tower 274 of Psephinos, and sweeping round by the " tombs of the kings," passed down east of Bezetha, and joined the old eastern wall. The whole circumference of the city at that time was a little over 4 miles. Now it is only 2?i at the most ; and the large space on the north, which the wall of Agrippa in closed, is proved to have been built upon by the numerous cisterns which yet re main and the marble fragments which the plough often turns up. The city had in its various walls many JER BIBLE DICTIONARY. JER gates, 18 or 20 names being found, some of them no doubt belonging to the same gate ; among them are the gate of Ephraim, 2 Chr. 25:23, the fish-gate, 33: 14, the sheep- gate, Neh. 3:1. The preceding plan of ancient Jerusa lem exhibits the walls, gates, towers, and other prominent objects in and around the city, with as much accuracy as can be se cured, now that it has borne the ravages of so many centuries, been nearly a score of times captured, and often razed to the ground. Fuller descriptions of many of the localities referred to may be found un der their respective heads. Water seems to have always abounded in Jerusalem. In the various sieges it sus tained, however tormented with hunger the besieged may have been, they had all the water they needed, while the besiegers were in distress for want of it. See Cis terns and Pools. Modern Jerusalem, called by the Arabs El-Kuds, the holy, occupies unquestiona bly the site of the Jerusalem of the Bible. It is still " beautiful for situation," and DOME OF THE ROCK, stands forth on its well-defined hills " as a city that is compact together," Psa. 48:2, 12; 122:3,4; 125:1,2. The distant view of its stately walls and numerous domes and minarets is highly imposing. But its old glory has departed ; its thronging myriads are no more ; desolation covers the barren OR MOSQUE OF OMAR. mountains around it, and the tribes go up to the house of the Lord no longer. She that once sat as a queen among them, now sitteth solitary, " trodden down of the Gen tiles," " 'reft of her sons, and 'mid her foes forlorn." " Zion is ploughed as a field," and the soil is mixed with the rubbish of 275 JER BIBLE DICTIONARY. JER ages to the depth in some places of 40 feet. The modern wall, built in 1542, varies from 20 to 60 feet in height, and is about 2% miles in circuit. On the eastern and shortest side its course is nearly straight ; and it coincides, in the southern half on this side, with the wall of the sacred area now called El-Haram, the sacred, forming about one-eighth of the modern city. This area, 510 to 534 yards long from north to south, and 307 to 344 yards in breadth, is inclosed by high walls, the lower stones of which are in many parts very large, and much more ancient than the superstruc ture. It is occupied by the great octago nal mosque called Kubbet es-Sukhrah, or Dome of the Rock, and another mosque el-Aksa, at the southwest corner, 270 feet by 200, with their grounds. It covers the site of the ancient temple and of the great tower Antonia. See Temple. The Dome of the Rock, also called the Mosque of Omar, is only less revered among Moslems than that at Mecca, and probably covers the site of Solomon's temple. Its 8 sides are each 66 feet long, and its dome, rising to the height of 170 feet, is the most prom inent object in every view of Jerusalem. The sacred rock under the dome, 57 feet by 43, is said to mark the spot where the ark of the covenant once stood. At the southeast corner of the Haram area, where the wall is 77 feet high, the ground at its base is 150 feet above the dry bed of the Kidron. From this corner the wall runs irregularly west by south, crosses Mount Zion, leaving the greater part of it unin- 'closed on the south, and at its western verge turns north to the Jaffa gate, where the lower part of a very old and strong tower still remains. The upper part of this tower is less ancient and massive. It is known as "the Tower of David," and is generally thought to have been the Hippi- cus of Josephus. Thence the wall sweeps irregularly round to the northeast corner. It is flanked at unequal distances by square towers, and has battlements running all around on its summit, with loop-holes in them for arrows or muskets. There are now in use only 4 gates: the Jaffa or Beth lehem gate on the west, the Damascus gate On the north, St. Stephen's gate on the east, and Zion gate on the south. In the eastern wall of el-Haram is the Golden gate, long since blocked up, and in the city wall 2 smaller gates, more recently closed, name ly, Herod's gate on the northeast, and dung- 276 gate in the Tyropoeon on the south. See Kidron. Within the city walls are seen narrow and often covered streets, with no level ground, ungraded, ill-paved, and in some parts filthy, though less so than in most Oriental cities. The houses are of hewn stone, often built on ruins many feet deep, Jer. 30:18, with few windows towards the streets. Their flat roofs are strengthened and ornamented by many small domes. The most beautiful part of the city is the area of the great mosque — from which un til recently all Christians have been rigor ously excluded for 6 centuries — with its lawns and cypress-trees, and the noble dome rising high above the wall. On Mount Zion much of the space within the wall is occupied by the huge Armenian convent, with the Syrian convent and the church of St. James. See Zion. Beyond the wall and far to the south is a Mohammedan mosque, professedly over the tomb of Da vid. This is more jealously guarded against Christians than even the mosque of Omar. Near it is the small cemetery of the Amer ican missionaries. At the northwest cor ner of Zion rises the high square citadel above referred to, ancient and grand. Still farther north is the Latin (Franciscan) con vent, in the most westerly part of Jerusa lem ; and between it and the centre of the city stands the Church of the Holy Sepul chre, over the traditional scenes of the cru cifixion, burial, and resurrection of our Lord. See Calvary. In various parts of the city the minarets of n mosques arise, amid an assemblage of about 2,000 dwell ings, not a few of which are much dilapi dated. Under the city were large irregu lar excavations, to which one descends from a narrow 20-inch opening near the Damas cus gate ; they run southeast 600 feet, and are 200 feet wide, with many rock masses left untouched as supports. Here were quarried many of the stones used in build ing the city, and vast cisterns were formed for storing water. The present population of Jerusalem may be some 20,000 souls, of whom about two-fifths are Jews, and the remainder Mos lems and Christians in nearly equal num bers. There is also a considerable garri son, 800 to 1,000, stationed there; and in April of each year many thousands of pil grims from foreign lands make a flying visit to the sacred places. The spoken language in Jerusalem is the Arabic. The Moslems reside in the centre of the city, JER BIBLE DICTIONARY. JES and towards the north and east. The Jews' quarter is on the northeast side of Zion. The Greek, Latin, Armenian, Syrian, and Coptic Christians are located chiefly around their respective convents, and their burial- places are on Mount Zion, as well as that of the American Protestant mission. The Jews bury on Mount Olivet, and the Mo hammedans in several places, though pre ferring the eastern brow of Moriah. Jeru salem is but the melancholy shadow of its former self. The nominal Christians resi ding there are in a state of degraded and ignorant subjection to the Mohammedans, and their petty discords and superstitions are a reproach to the Christian name. The Jews, about 8,000 in number, are still more oppressed and abject. Most of them were born in other lands, and have come here to die, in a city no longer their own. Dis couraged by endless exactions, they subsist on the charities of their brethren abroad. It is only as a purchased privilege that they are allowed to approach the foundations of the sacred hill where their fathers wor shipped the only true God. Here, in a small area near some huge and ancient stones in the base of the western wall of Moriah at el-Aksa, they gather, on Fridays and other sacred days, to sit weeping and wailing on the ground, taking up the heart breaking lamentations of Jeremiah — living witnesses of the truth of God's word ful filled in them. See Wall. The New Jerusalem is a name given not to a place but to a community, the church of Christ, and signifying its firm foundations in the. love, choice, and cove nant of God in Christ, 1 Pet. 2:6; its strong bulwarks, living fountains, and beautiful palaces; its thronging thousands, its in dwelling God, and its consummated glory in heaven, Gal. 4:26; Heb. 12:22; Rev. 3:12, 21. JERU'SHA, possessed, wife of Uzziah and mother of Jotham, kings of Judah, 2 Kin. 15:33; 2 Chr. 27:1. JESHA'NAH, old, a city taken from Jero boam by Abijah, with Bethel and Ephraim, 2 Chr. 13:19. JESH'IMON, desert, found in the Hebrew in Deut. 32:10; Psa. 78:40; 106:14; io7;4: Isa. 43:19, 20. With the article prefixed it denotes apparently the waste strip of land on the northwest shore of the Dead Sea, perhaps with the adjacent heights, Num. 21:20; 23:28; 1 Sam. 23:19, 24; 26:1,3. JESH'UA, a later Hebrew form of Josh ua, whose salvation fehovah is, I., given in Neh. 8:17 to Joshua, son of Nun, which see. II. A priest in the 9th course in David's time, 1 Chr. 24:11; Ezra 2:36. III. A trusted Levite in the time of Hez ekiah, 2 Chr. 31:15. IV. The son of Josedech or Jozadak, high-priest of the Jews at their return from the Captiyity. He opposed the schemes of the Samaritans, and acted well his part in the restoration of the city, the temple, and the divine worship, Ezra 4:3; 5:2. His name occurs in the prophecies of the time, Hag. 1:1, 12; 2:2; Zech. 3; 6:11-15. V. Several others of this name are men tioned in Ezra 2:6, 40; 8:33; Neh. 3:19; 7:11,43; 8:7; 9:4,5; 10:9; 12:8, 24. VI. A town of Judah after the Captivity, Neh. 11:26, probably the modern Yeshu'a, near the spot between Beth-horon and So coh, so memorable in Joshua's history, Josh. 10: 11-14, 6 miles east of Ekron. JESH'URUN, a poetical name of Israel, probably derived from a root meaning to be upright, and applied to the people of God as the objects of his justifying love, which does not " behold iniquity in Jacob," Deut. 32:15; 33:5, 26; Isa. 44:2. JES'SE, living or manly, a Bethlehemite, of the tribe of Judah, son of Obed and fa ther of David. He was a grandson of Ruth the Moabitess, and in her native land he and his wife found an asylum while David was most in danger from the jealous pur suit of Saul, Ruth 4:17; 1 Sam. 16; 17:12; 22:3; Matt. 1:5. His wife, name unknown, we infer from Psa. 86:16; 116:16, was a pious woman, and trained David to wor ship and obey the God of his fathers. He had 8 sons, a large flock which they tended in turn, and ample means. His promi nence is implied in the frequency with which his name appears, David being often called "the son of Jesse," even as late as Isa. n: 1, 10, where he is mentioned as an ancestor of our Lord. JE'SUS CHRIST, the Son of God, the Messiah, and Saviour of the world, the first and principal object of the prophecies ; who was prefigured and promised in the Old Testament; was expected and desired by the patriarchs ; the hope and salvation of the Gentiles ; the glory, happiness, and con solation of Christians. The name JESUS, in Hebrew Jehoshuah or Joshua, signifies Saviour, or fehovah saves. No one ever bore this name with so much justice, nor so perfectly fulfilled the signification of it, as Jesus Christ, who saves from sin and 277 JES BIBLE DICTIONARY. JES hell, and has merited heaven for us by the price of his blood. It was given to him by divine appointment, Matt. 1:21, as the proper name for the Saviour so long de sired, and whom all the myriads of the redeemed in heaven will for ever adore as their only and all-glorious Redeemer. For Old Testament predictions of him see Prophets. Jesus was the comm_>n name of the Sa viour; while the name Christ, meaning The Anointed One, The Messiah, was his official name. Both names are used sep arately, in the gospels and also in the epis tles; but Jesus generally stands by itself in the gospels, which are narratives of his life; while in the epistles, which treat of his divine nature and of his redeeming work, he is called Christ, Christ Jesus, or The Lord Jesus Christ. See Christ and Titles of Christ. Here, under the Redeemer's human name, belong the facts relating to his hu man nature and the history of his life upon earth, which forms, with the truths flowing from it, the theme of the whole New Testament. His true and complete humanity, having the soul as well as the body of man, is everywhere seen in the gospel history. He who is " God over all, blessed for ever," was an Israelite as " con cerning the flesh," Rom. 9:5, and took upon him our whole nature, in order to be a per fect Saviour. His favorite title, " Son of man," used 81 times in the gospels in speak ing of himself, implies his thorough and hearty identification with the human family, as well as his headship of it for his purposes of redemption. As a man, Jesus was the King of men. No words can describe that Character in which such firmness and gen tleness, such dignity and humility, such enthusiasm and calmness, such wisdom and simplicity, such holiness and charity, such justice and mercy, such sympathy with heaven and with earth, such love to God and love to man, blended in perfect harmony. Nothing in it was redundant, and nothing was wanting. The world had never produced, nor even conceived of such a character, and its portraiture in the gospels is a proof of their divine origin which the infidel cannot gainsay. Could the whole human race, of all ages, kin dreds, and tongues, be assembled to see the crucified Redeemer as he is, and com pare earth's noblest benefactors with him, there would be but one voice among them. Every crown of glory and every meed of 278 praise would be given to Him who alone is worthy— for perfection of character, for love to mankind, for sacrifices endured, and for benefits bestowed. His glory wili for ever be celebrated as the Friend of man, the Lamb sacrificed for us. But his absolute and perfect divinity is as clearly and fully asserted and proved as his humanity— by his own manifold declarations, his countless and stupendous miracles, the testimony of all nature that on the instant obeyed his commands given in his own name, of men and demons that felt his power, of angels who ministered unto him, and of the Father himself. The visit of Jesus Christ to the earth has made it for ever glorious above less favored worlds, and forms the most signal event in its annals. The time of his birth is commemorated by the Christian era, the first year of which corresponds to about the year 754 from the building of Rome. It is generally conceded, however, that the Saviour was born 4 years before A. D. j, and 4,000 years after the creation of Adam. He was of the tribe of Judah, on the part of both Joseph and Mary, and of the royal line of David. His birth pre ceded the death of Herod only a few months. Joseph seems to have been in moderate circumstances, a carpenter, and Jesus himself followed the same trade. His public ministry commenced when he was 30 years of age, and continued, according to the received opinion, about 3M years. Respecting his ancestors and family, see Genealogy and Brother. Of his personal appearance he has'wisely chosen to give no description, and no reli able likeness has been preserved. From the gospel indications we infer that, like the sacrifices prescribed in the Mosaic rit ual as types of him, the great Antitype was without bodily defects, as he was pure from all sin. He is believed to have been not marked in his exterior, of vigorous health through his freedom from the sins which occasion most diseases, and able to endure the journeys and labors narrated of him ; and while veiling his divine glo ries, except by partial disclosures from time to time, yet something divine must always have appeared in his aspect of no bleness, wisdom, purity, and benignity. The life of the Redeemer must be stud ied in the 4 gospels, where it was recorded under the guidance of supreme wisdom. Many efforts have been made, with valua ble results, to arrange the narrations of JES BIBLE DICTIONARY. JES the evangelists in the true order of time. But as neither of the gospels follows the exact course of events, many incidents are very indeterminate, and are variously ar ranged by different harmonists. No one, however, has been more successful than Dr. Robinson ; and we borrow from his valuable "Harmony of the Gospels" the following elaborate table, presenting in a condensed form the various events of our Saviour's life, with the supposed place and period of their occurrence. PART I. EVENTS CONNECTED' WITH THE BIRTH AND CHILDHOOD OF OUR LORD. Time: About thirteen and a half years. An angel appears to Zacharias — yerusalem. An angel appears to Mary — Nazareth. Mary visits Elisabeth— Juttah. Birth of John the Baptist — Juttah. An angel appears to Joseph — Nazareth. The birth of Jesus — Bethlehem. An angel appears to the shepherds — Near Beth lehem. The circumcision of Jesus, and his presentation in the temple — Bethlehem ; yerusalem. The Magi — yerusalem; Bethlehem. The flight into Egypt. Herod's cruelty. The return — Bethlehem; Egypt; Nazareth. At twelve years of age Jesus goes to the Pass over — yerusalem. Return to his home*— Nazareth. PART II. ANNOUNCEMENT AND INTRODUCTION OF OUR LORD'S PUBLIC MINISTRY. Time: About one year. The ministry of John the Baptist — The Desert; The yordan. The baptism of Jesus — The yordan. The fasting and temptation — Desert of yudcza. Preface to John's gospel. Testimony of John the Baptist to Jesus — Bethany beyond yordan. Jesus gains disciples — The yordan; Galilee. The marriage at Cana of Galilee. PART III. OUR LORD'S FIRST PASSOVER, AND THE SUBSE QUENT TRANSACTIONS UNTIL THE SECOND. Time: One year. At the Passover Jesus drives the traders out of the temple — yerusalem. Our Lord's discourse with Nicodemus — yerusa lem. Jesus remains in Judsea and baptizes. Further testimony of John the Baptist. Jesus departs towards Galilee after John's impris onment. Our Lord's discourse with the Samaritan woman. Many of the Samaritans believe on him — She chem. Jesus teaches publicly in Galilee. Jesus again at Cana, where he heals the son of a nobleman lying ill at Capernaum — Cana of Gal ilee, Jesus at Nazareth; he is there rejected, and fixes his abode at Capernaum. The call of Simon Peter and Andrew, and of James and John, with the miraculous draught ' of fishes— Near Capernaum. The healing of a demoniac in the synagogue — Capernautn. The healing of Peter's wife's mother and many others — Capernaum. Jesus with his disciples goes from Capernaum throughout Galilee. The healing of a leper— Galilee. The healing of a paralytic— Capernaum. The call of Matthew — Capernaum. PART IV. OUR LORD'S SECOND PASSOVER, AND THE SUBSE QUENT TRANSACTIONS UNTIL THE THIRD. Time: One year. The pool of Bethesda; the healing of the infirm man; and our Lord's subsequent discourse — yerusalem. The disciples pluck ears of grain on the Sab bath — On the way to Galilee. The healing of the withered hand on the Sab bath — Galilee. Jesus arrives at the Sea of Tiberias, and is fol lowed by multitudes — Lake of Galilee. Jesus withdraws to a mountain, and chooses the twelve; the multitudes follow him — Near Ca pernaum. The sermon on the mount — Near Capernaum. The healing of the centurion's servant— Caper naum. The raising of the widow's son— Nain. John the Baptist in prison sends disciples to Je sus — Galilee; Capernaum? Reflections of Jesus on appealing to his mighty works — Capernaum ? While sitting at meat with a Pharisee, Jesus is anointed by a woman who had been a sinner — Capernaum f Jesus, with the twelve, makes a second circuit in Galilee. The healing of a demoniac. The scribes and Pharisees blaspheme — Galilee. The scribes and Pharisees seek a sign. Our Lord's reflections — Galilee. The true disciples of Christ his nearest relatives — Galilee. At a Pharisee's table Jesus denounces woes against the Pharisees and others — Galilee. • Jesus discourses to his disciples and the multi tude — Galilee. The slaughter of certain Galileans. Parable of the barren fig-tree — Galilee. Parable of the sower — Lake of Galilee; Near Capernaum ? Parable of the tares. Other parables — Near Ca pernaum f Jesus directs to cross the lake. Incidents. The tempest stilled — Lake of Galilee. The two demoniacs of Gadara — Southeast coast of the Lake of Galilee. Levi's feast — Capernaum. The raising of Jairus' daughter. The woman with a bloody flux — Capernaum. Two blind men healed, and a dumb spirit cast out — Capernaum f Jesus again at Nazareth, and again rejected, 279 JES BIBLE DICTIONARY. JES A third circuit in Galilee. The twelve instructed and sent forth — Galilee. Herod holds Jesus to be John the Baptist, whom he had just before beheaded— Galilee? Peresa. The twelve return, and Jesus retires with them across the lake. Five thousand are fed— Caper naum ; Northeast coast of the Lake of Galilee. Jesus walks upon the water — Lake of Galilee; Gennesaret. Our Lord's discourse to the multitude in the syn agogue — Capernaum. PART V. FROM OUR LORD'S THIRD PASSOVER UNTIL HIS FINAL DEPARTURE FROM GALILEE AT THE FES TIVAL OF TABERNACLES. Time: Six months. Our Lord justifies his disciples for eating with unwashed hands. Pharisaic traditions— Caper naum. The daughter of a Syrophcenician woman is healed — Region of Tyre and Sidon. A deaf and dumb man healed ; also many others. Four thousand are fed — The Decapolis. The Pharisees and Sadducees again require a sign — Near Magdala, on the west side of the lake. The disciples cautioned against the leaven of the Pharisees, etc. — Northeast coast of the Lake of Galilee. A blind man healed — Bethsaida (yulias). Peter and the rest again profess their faith in Christ— Region of Cezsarea Philippi. Our Lord foretells his own death and resurrec tion, and the trials of his followers— Region of Cezsarea Philippi. The transfiguration. Our Lord's subsequent dis course with the three disciples— Region of Cez- sarea Philippi. The healing of a demoniac whom the disciples could not heal— Reg ion of Cezsarea Philippi. Jesus again foretells his own death and resurrec tion— Galilee. The tribute-money miraculously provided — Ca pernaum. The disciples contend who should be greatest. Jesus exhorts to humility, forbearance, and bro therly love — Capernaum. The seventy instructed and sent out — Capernaum. Jesus goes up to the festival of Tabernacles. His final departure from Galilee. Incidents in Sa- fharia. Ten lepers cleansed— Sa maria. PART VI. THE FESTIVAL OF TABERNACLES, AND THE SUB SEQUENT TRANSACTIONS UNTIL OUR LORD'S ARRIVAL AT BETHANY, SIX DAYS BEFORE THE FOURTH PASSOVER. Time: Six months, less one week. Jesus at the festival of Tabernacles. His public teaching — yerusalem. The woman taken in adultery— yerusalem. Further public teaching of our Lord. He re proves the unbelieving Jews, and escapes from their hands— yerusalem. A lawyer instructed. Love to our neighbor de fined. Parable of the good Samaritan— Near yerusalem. 280 Jesus in the house of Martha and Mary — Bethany. The disciples again taught how to pray — Near yerusalem. The seventy return — yerusalem ? A man born blind is healed on the Sabbath. Our Lord's subsequent discourses — yerusalem. Jesus in Jerusalem at the festival of Dedication. He retires beyond Jordan — yerusalem; Betha ny beyond yordan. The raising of Lazarus — Bethany. The counsel of Caiaphas against Jesus. He re tires from Jerusalem— yerusalem; Ephraim. Jesus beyond Jordan is followed by multitudes. The healing of the infirm woman on the Sab bath — Valley of Jordan ; Pereza. Our Lord goes teaching and journeying towards Jerusalem. He is warned against Herod — Pe resa. Our Lord dines with a chief Pharisee on the Sab bath. Incidents— Peresa. What is required of true disciples — Pereza. Parable of the lost sheep, etc. Parable of the prodigal son— Pereza. Parable ofthe unjust steward — Pereza. The Pharisees reproved. Parable ofthe rich man and Lazarus — Peresa. Jesus inculcates forbearance, faith, humility— Pereza. Christ's coming will be sudden — Peresa. Parables : The importunate widow. The Phari see and publican — Peresa. Precepts respecting divorce — Peresa. Jesus receives and blesses little children — Pereza. The rich young man. Parable of the laborers in the vineyard — Peresa. Jesus a third time foretells his death and resur rection — Peresa. James and John prefer their ambitious request — Pereza. The healing of two blind men near yericho. The visit to Zacchasus. Parable of the ten minae — yericho. Jesus arrives at Bethany six days before the Pass over — Bethany. PART VII. OUR LORD'S PUBLIC ENTRY INTO JERUSALEM, AND THE SUBSEQUENT TRANSACTIONS BEFORE THE FOURTH PASSOVER. Time : Five days. Our Lord's public entry into Jerusalem— Beth- any ; yerusalem. The barren fig-tree. The cleansing of the tem ple — Bethany; yerusalem. The barren fig-tree withers away— Between Beth any and yerusalem. Christ's authority questioned. Parable of the two son s — yerusalem . Parable ofthe wicked husbandmen— yerusalem. Parable ofthe marriage of the king's son— yeru salem. Insidious question of the Pharisees : Tribute to Caesar — Jerusalem. Insidious question of the Sadducees: The resur rection — yerusalem. A lawyer questions Jesus. ' The two great com mandments — yerusalem. How is Christ the son of David ? — yerusalem. Warnings against the evil example of the scribes and Pharisees— yerusalem* JES BIBLE DICTIONARY. JET Woes against the scribes and Pharisees. Lamen tations over Jerusalem — yerusalem. The widow's mite — yerusalem. Certain Greeks desire to see Jesus— yerusalem. Reflections upon the unbelief of the Jews — yeru salem. Jesus, on taking leave of the temple, foretells its destruction and the persecution of his disci ples — yerusalem; Mount of Olives. The signs of Christ's coming to destroy Jerusalem and put an end to the Jewish state and dispen sation — Mount of Olives. Transition to Christ's final coming at the day of judgment. Exhortation to watchfulness. Par ables: The ten virgins. The five talents— Mount of Olives. Scenes of the judgment-day — Mount of Olives. The rulers conspire. The supper at Bethany. Treachery of Judas — yerusalem; Bethany. Preparation for the Passover — Bethany ; yerusa lem. PART VIII. THE FOURTH PASSOVER; OUR LORD'S PASSION, AND THE ACCOMPANYING EVENTS UNTIL THE END OF THE JEWISH SABBATH. Time: Two days. The Passover meal. Contention among the twelve — yerusalem. Jesus washes the feet of his diseiples — yerusalem. Jesus points out the traitor. Judas withdraws — yerusalem. Jesus foretells the fall of Peter and the dispersion ofthe twelve — yerusalem. The Lord's Supper — yerusalem. Jesus comforts his disciples. The Holy Spirit promised — yerusalem. Christ the true Vine. His disciples hated by the world — yerusalem. Persecution foretold. Further promise of the Holy Spirit. Prayer in the name of Christ— yerusalem. Christ's last prayer with his disciples — yerusalem. The agony in Gethsemane — Mount of Olives. Jesus betrayed and made • prisoner — Mount of Olives. Jesus before Caiaphas. Peter thrice denies him — yerusalem. Jesus before Caiaphas and the Sanhedrin. He declares himself to be the Christ; is condemned and mocked — yerusalem. The Sanhedrin lead Jesus away to Pilate — yeru salem. Jesus before Herod — yerusalem. Pilate seeks to release Jesus. The Jews demand Barabbas — yerusalem . Pilate delivers up Jesus to death. He is scourged and mocked — yerusalem. Pilate again seeks to release Jesus — yerusalem. Judas repents and hangs himself— yerusalem. Jesus is led away to be crucified— yerusalem. The crucifixion — yerusalem. The Jews mock at Jesus on the cross. He for gives the penitent thief. He commends his mother to John — yerusalem. Darkness prevails. Christ expires on the cross— yerusalem. The veil of the temple rent and graves opened. Judgment of the centurion. The women at the cross — yerusalem. The taking down from the cross. The burial—* yerusalem. The watch at the sepulchre — yerusalem. PART IX. OUR LORD'S RESURRECTION, HIS SUBSEQUENT APPEARANCES, AND HIS ASCENSION. Time : Forty days. The morning of the resurrection — yerusalem. Visit ofthe women to the sepulchre. Mary Mag dalene returns — yerusalem. Vision of angels in the sepulchre — yerusalem. The women return to the city. Jesus meets them— yerusalem. Peter and John run to the sepulchre — yerusalem. Our Lord is seen by Mary Magdalene at the sep ulchre — yerusalem. Report of the watch — yerusalem. Our Lord is seen of Peter. Then by two disciples on the way to Emmaus — yerusalem ; Emmaus. Jesus appears in the midst of the apostles, Thomas being absent— yerusalem. Jesus appears in the midst of the apostles, Thomas being present — yerusalem. The apostles go away into Galilee. Jesus shows himself to seven of them at the Sea of Tibe rias— Galilee. Jesus meets the apostles and above five hundred brethren on a mountain in Galilee — Galilee. Our Lord is seen of James ; then of all_the apos tles — yerusalem . The ascension — Near Bethany. Studying the gospels by the guidance of the above tables one may trace with a good degree of accuracy the radiant pathway of the Saviour from his birthplace to his tomb ; can follow him in thought through his jour neys on foot, associating with each spot the words of divine truth there spoken and the wonders of healing mercy there wrought. For further helps see Miracles and Par ables. The divine wisdom is conspicuous not only in what is taught us respecting the life of Jesus, but in what is withheld. Cu riosity, and the higher motives of warm affection, raise numerous questions to which the gospels give no reply ; and in propor tion as men resort to dubious traditions they lose the power of a pure and spiritual gospel. See further, concerning Christ, Messiah, Redeemer, etc. Jesus was not an uncommon name among the Jews. It was the name of the father of Elymas the sorcerer, Acts 13:6, and of Justus, a fellow-laborer and friend of Paul, Col. 4:11. It is the Greek form of the Hebrew name Joshua, or Jeshua, borne by the high-priest in Ezra's time, and by the well-known leader of the Jews into the promised land, Acts 7:45; Heb. 4:8. JE'THER, abundance^ I., son of Jada, 1 Chr. 2:32. 281 JET BIBLE DICTIONARY. JEZ II. Son of Ezra, tribe of Judah, i Chr. 4:17. III. Eldest son of Gideon, who shrank from executing the captured Midianite kings Zebah and Zalmunna, Judg. 8:20; afterwards slain by Abimelech with his 68 brothers, Judg. 9:5. IV. Father of David's general Amasa, and husband of David's sister Abigail, 1 Chr. 2: 17. He is here called an Ishmael- ite, perhaps from having lived in the land of Ishmael. In 2 Sam. 17:25 he is named " Ithra an Israelite." V. An Asherite, 1 Chr. 7:38; perhaps Ithran, ver 37. JETH'RO, excellence, a shepherd prince or priest of Midian, who hospitably wel comed Moses when a fugitive, gave him his flocks to tend and his daug*hter Zippo- rah in marriage, Exod. 2:16-22; 3:1; 4:18. He was also named Raguel, and was the father of Hobab, which see. .He became a worshipper of the true God, and offered sacrifices when he visited Moses in the wilderness of Sinai, restoring to him his wife and sons. He gave Moses judicious counsel as to the administration of jus tice, and returned to his home in peace, Exod. 18. JE'TUR, an inclosure, or camp, son of Ishmael, Gen. 25:15; 1 Chr. 1:31, father of the Ituraeans, 1 Chr. 5:19; Luke 3:1. JEU'EL, protected by God, 1 Chr. 9:6, son of Zerah. JEWELS in the A. V. is used for 4 He brew words, denoting (1) rings: noserings, as in Prov. 11:22; Isa. 3:21; Ezek. 16:12; earrings, as in Gen. 24:22, 30, 47; 35:4; Exod. 32:2, 3, etc. ; (2) necklaces or orna mental trinkets, Song 7:1; (3) vessels of silver, etc., as in Gen. 24:53; Exod. 3:22; 11:2; 1 Sam. 6:8, 15, or costly articles of dress, as in Isa. 61:10; Ezek. 16:7, 39; 23:26; and (4) treasure, as in Exod. 19:5; Mai. 3:17. JEWRY, Dan. 5:13; John 7:1, Judjea. JEWS, the people of Judah after the di vision of the kingdom, 2 Kin. 16:6; 25:25; Jer. 32:12*; 34:9; 38:19, etc. After the Cap tivity applied to all the Hebrews, espe cially those living in Palestine. It was a familiar name in Roman writings. In the New Testament the term is contrasted on the one hand with heathen and on the other with Christians, Rom. 1:16; 2:9; Col. 3:11. See Hebrews. JEZ'EBEL, untouched, daughter of Eth baal king of Tyre and Zidon, and wife of Ahab king of Israel, 1 Kin. 16:31. She 282 spent herself in efforts, with her husband's connivance, and then his active coopera tion, to establish idolatry in Samaria, and exterminate the worship of God and the lives of his servants. Obadiah saved 100 of them at the risk of his own life. Jezebel herself maintained 400 priests of Astarte. When Ahab's 450 prophets of Baal per ished at Carmel, at the word of Elijah, she sought to avenge herself on him. After wards she secured the vineyard of Naboth for her husband by perjuries and murder; and her tragical death at the order of Jehu, the fitting close of a bloody life, took place, according to the prediction of Elijah, near the scene of this crime, 1 Kin. 18; 19; 21; 2 Kin. 9. Her evil influence, through her daughter Athaliah, diffused the poison of idolatry in Judah and through her son Je horam in Israel. She survived Ahab 14 years. Her name has become a proverb, and is given by John, probably as a de scriptive epithet, to a person or party at Thyatira in his day holding a like bad pre eminence in station and profligacy, in mal ice, and in ruin, kev. 2:20. JEZ'REEL, sowing of God, I., a celebra ted city of Issachar, 10 miles south of Naz areth, Josh. 19:18, 11 miles northwest of Beth-shean, 2 Sam. 4:4. Ahab had here a palace, 1 Kin. 18:45; 22:39; and tri's c'ty became famous on account of his seizure of Naboth's vineyard, 1 Kin. 21, and the vengeance executed on Ahab, 2 Kin. 9:10, 14-37; 10:1-11. The palace seems to have formed part of the eastern wall overlook ing the open plat called the "portion" of Jezreel, and the site of the watch-tower, 2 Kin. 9:17, may be marked by a large tower now standing in Zerin. Jezreel was called Esdraela in the time of the Macca bees, and is now replaced by a small and ruinous Arab village, called Zerin, at the northwest point of Mount Gilboa. Its ele vated site gives one a fine view of the great plain of Esdraelon on the west, and the hills that border it; and towards the east it overhangs the wide aud fertile " valley of Jezreel," Josh. 17:16; Judg. 6:33; Hos. 1:5, which runs down east-southeast from the great plain to the Jordan, between Gil boa and Little Hermon. The "fountain" of Jezreel is a fine perennial spring flow ing from the rocky base of Gilboa 20 min utes' walk east of Zerin, and forming a large pool. Here Saul encamped before the battle at Gilboa, 1 Sam. 29:1; 31:1-10, and Gideon before the battle with the Mid- ianites, Judg. 7: 1, 4. See Harod. JEZ BIBLE DICTIONARY; JOA i;-.,,^._v„.~v. . ¦¦-,. sy_yyy ^^'^ ¦JSflP JEZREEL, NOW ZERIN, OVERLOOKING THE PLAIN OF ESDRAELON. II. The great plain lying between Jez reel and Acre, called from 2 cities on its border in one part, "the valley of Megid do," 2 Chr. 35:22, and in its western part or branch the " plain or valley of fezreel;" afterwards Esdraelon, Judith 1:8; now Merj Ibn 'Amir. The body of this beauti ful plain forms a triangle, rising gradually from the Mediterranean 400 feet, and being about 13 or 14 miles long on the north side, 17 on the east,, and 20 on the southwest. The western part is level ; on the east it is more undulating, and is at length broken by Mount Gilboa and " Little Hermon " into 3 valleys, 2 or 3 miles wide, which sink down into the valley of the Jordan. Of these, the middle valley, described above, is the proper " valley of Jezreel." The river Kishon traverses this plain to the northwest. It was formerly well watered and astonishingly fertile, but is now under the blight of tyranny and insecurity, com paratively uncultivated and deserted. The highways are unoccupied, the villages have ceased in Israel, Judg. 5:6. There are a few small hamlets, particularly on the higher grounds that border it; and the abundant crops which it yields, even with poor cultivation, show that it might again be made the granary of Syria. Across this plain, from Carmel to Jezreel, Elijah ran before the chariot of Ahab, 1 Kin. 18:46. It has been the chosen battle-ground of many armies, as of the Midianites and Amalekites, Judg. 6:33; 7:1, etc.; of the Philistines at Gilboa, 1 Sam. 29 ; 31 ; of the Syrians, 1 Kin. 20:26-30. Here the hosts of Sisera were swept away, Judg. 4; and here Josiah fell, fighting against Pharaoh- necho, 2 Kin. 23:29. Battles were fought here in the later periods of the Romans and of the Crusaders ; and in our own cen tury, near Mount Tabor, 1,500 French un der General Kleber sustained the assault of 25,000 Turks for half a day, and were succored by Napoleon. III. A town of Judah, southeast of He bron, perhaps now Zurtut, the birthplace of Ahinoam, David's wife, Josh. 15:56; 1 Sam. 25:43; 27:3. IV. A descendant of Judah, 1 Chr. 4 : 3, probably the founder of III. above. V. A name given by Hosea to his infant son, symbolizing the great slaughter he was predicting, the "blood of Jezreel" recalling the former battles on that plain, Hos. 1:4, 5. The significance of his name is evident in the promised sowing and fruit- fulness of God's people in later days, 2:21- 23. Compare Jer. 31:27; Ezek. 36:9, 10; Zech. 10:9. JIPH'THAH-EL, God opens , a valley on the north of Zebulun, separating it from Asher and Naphtali. The name appears in the modern Jefat, formerly Jotap'ata, 9 miles north of Nazareth, the famous height overlooking the valley, fortified and long defended against the Romans by Josephus. JO' 'AB, fehovah his father, I., son of Ze ruiah, David's sister, and brother of Abishai 283 JOA BIBLE DICTIONARY. JOB and Asahel, the commander of David's army during almost the whole of his reign, 2 Sam. 2:13, 28; 10:7; 1 Kin. 11:15; I Chr. 27:34. He was a valiant warrior, an able general, and a shrewd statesman, and his great influence on public affairs was often exerted for good, as in the rebellion of Ab salom and the numbering of Israel, 2 Sam. iS; 19; 24. But as a man he was imperi ous, revengeful, and unscrupulous: wit ness his treacherous assassination of his rival Abner, and of his cousin Amasa, 2 Sam. 3:27; 20:9, 10; his bearing towards David, 2 Sam. 3:39; 19:5, and connivance with him in the matter of Uriah ; his slay ing Absalom, and conspiring with Adoni jah against the divinely-appointed heir to the throne ; for all which he was at length put to death by order of Solomon, at the side ofthe altar, 1 Kin. 2. B. C. 1013. II. Son of Seraiah, whose descendants were craftsmen, Heb. charashim, in a val ley north of Jerusalem, t Chr. 4:14; Neh. 11:34. III. Head of a family returning after the Captivity, Ezra 2:6; 8:9; Neh. 7:11. JO' AH, fehovah his brother, I., Hezekiah's recorder, son of Asaph, one of 3 commis sioners to Rabshakeh, 2 Kin. 18:18, 26, 37; Isa. 36:3, 11, 12. B. C. 712. II. Third son of Obed-edom, a Korhite porter, 1 Chr. 26:4. III. Also called Ethan, 1 Chr. 6:21, 42, a Gershonite Levite, B. C. 726. See also 2 Chr. 29:12. IV. Son of Joahaz, recorder or chronicler for king Josiah, and a repairer of the tem ple, 2 Chr. 34:8. B. C. 623. JO'AHAZ, Jehoahaz abridged, 2 Chr. 34 : 8. JOAN'NA, gracious gift of God, I., an ancestor of our Lord, probably Hananiah, 1 Chr. 3:19; Luke 3:27, in R. V. Joanan. II. Wife of Chuza, probably a widow, one of the faithful women who ministered to Christ while living, and brought spices to his tomb. Her husband Chuza had been a steward of Herod Antipas, Luke 8:3; 24:1-10. JO'ASH, or Jeho'ash, fehovah bestowed, I., the father of Gideon, of the family of Abiezer, in Manasseh. For a long time he was a worshipper of Baal; but when his son boldly attacked idolatry, he also came out on the Lord's side, Judg. 6:11, 25-32. B. C. 1249. II. A descendant of Shelah, 1 Chr. 4:22, an early ruler in Moab. III. A brave Benjamite who joined Da vid at Ziklag, 1 Chr. 12:3. 284 IV. Son of Ahab, appointed as keeper of the prophet Micaiah during Ahab's dis astrous war with Syria, 1 Kin. 22:26; 2 Chr. 18. V. The 7th king of Judah, B. C. 878-838. He was the only son of Ahaziah who was not slain by the usurping Athaliah, his grandmother. Being rescued by Jehoshe- ba his aunt, and secluded 6 years in the temple, he was raised to the throne when 7 years of age through the faithful care of Jehoiada; and while this venerable man survived, 23 years, Joash served God and prospered. Idols were banished and the temple was repaired. But aftewards he followed less wholesome counsels ; idolatry revived; and when Zechariah the high- priest rebuked the guilty people, the un grateful king caused this servant of God, the son of his benefactor, to be stoned to death, Matt. 23:35. Misfortunes soon mul tiplied on his head; he was repeatedly humbled by the Syrians under Hazael, and gave them the temple treasures as a ransom; a loathsome disease imbittered his life, which was very soon cut short by a conspiracy of his servants, and he was not buried in the sepulchre of the kings, 2 Kin. 11:12; 2 Chr. 23; 24, on Mount Zion at Jerusalem. VI. The son and successor of Jehoahaz, king of Israel, B. C. 840-825. There was much in his conduct to commend. He had a great regard for the prophet Elisha, and visited him on his death-bed, where by a divine oracle he was assured of 3 victories over the Syrians. He was also victorious when forced to give battle to Amaziah king of Judah, when he broke down the north wall of Jerusalem and despoiled the tem ple. He died in the 15th year of Amazi- ah's reign, and was one of the best of the kings of Israel. The worship of the gold en calf, however, still continued during his reign, 2 Kin. 13:9-25; 14:1-8; 2 Chr. 25.. JO'ASH, a different word in Hebrew, lo whom God hastens, I., a leader of a Benja mite family in David's reign, 1 Chr. 7:8. II. An official of David, 1 Chr. 27:28. JOB, one afflicted, a patriarch distin guished for his integrity and piety, his wealth, honors, and domestic happiness, whom God permitted, for the trial of his faith, to be deprived of friends, property, and health, and at once plunged into deep affliction. He lived in the land of Uz, lying, it is generally thought, in Eastern Edom, probably not far from Bozrah. The book of Job has originated much JOB BIBLE DICTIONARY. JOB criticism, and on many points a considera ble diversity of opinion still exists. Skep tics have denied its inspiration, and called it a mere philosophical romance; but no one who respects revelation can entertain this notion, or doubt that Job was a real person. Inspired writers testify to both. See Ezek. 14:14, 16-20; Jas. 5:11; and compare 1 Cor. 3:19 with Job. 5:13. The book itself specifies persons, places, and circumstances in the manner of true his tory. Moreover, the name and history of Job are spread throughout the East; Ara bian writers mention him, and many Mo hammedan families perpetuate his name. Five different places claim the possession of his tomb. The precise period of his life cannot be ascertained, yet no doubt can exist as to its patriarchal antiquity. The book seems to allude to the flood, Job 22: 15-17, but not to the Israelites as a nation, to the destruction of Sodom, to the exodus from Egypt, or the giving of the law. No reference is made to any order of priesthood, Job him self being the priest of his household, like Noah and Abraham. There is allusion to the most ancient form of idolatry, star- worship, 31 : 26-28, and to the earliest mode of writing, 19:24. The longevity of Job also places him among the patriarchs. He survived his trial 140 years, and was prob ably 60 or 80 years old before his trial began, for his children were established each at the head of his own househoId,*Job 1:4; 42 : 16. He must have been 200 or 220 years old at death, whereas Abraham died at the age of 175, " an old man and full of years." The period of long lives had not wholly passed away, 15:10. Hales places the trial of Job before the birth of Abra ham, and Usher about 30 years before the exodus, B. C. 1521. As to the authorship of the book, many opinions have been held. It has all the freedom of an original composition, bear ing no marks of its being a translation; and if so it would appear that its author must have been a Hebrew, since it is writ ten in the purest Hebrew. It exhibits, moreover, the most intimate acquaintance with- both Egyptian and Arabian scenery, and is in the loftiest style of Oriental po etry. All these circumstances are consist ent with the views of those who regard it as having been written by Moses, in Mid ian. It has, however, been ascribed to Job himself and to various other persons. It presents a beautiful exhibition of patri archal religion. It teaches the being and perfections of God, his creation of all things, and his universal control ; the apos tasy and guilt of evil spirits and of man kind; the sovereignty of divine providence ; the mercy of God, on the basis of a sacri fice, and on condition of repentance and faith, 33:27-30; 42:6, 8; the immortality of the soul, and the resurrection of the body, 14 : 7-*5l *9 : 25-27- The book is an elaborate poem on a true historical basis. Its theme is the severe test of Job's piety : is it only a refined self ishness? and he is tried first by the loss of his vast property, his servants, and his sons; then by the loss of his health, by the censures of his wife and friends, and the apparent withdrawal of the friendship of God. He bitterly implores a refuge in the grave, and a vindication after the resurrec tion and judgment, ch. 14:13, 15; see espe cially after the 2d aggravated charges of his 3 friends, ch. 16:18, 19; 17:8, 9; 19:25- 27. The main problem discussed in the book is the justice of God in suffering the righteous to be afflicted, while the wicked prosper. It is settled by showing that, while the hand of a just God is manifest in his providential government of human affairs, it is his sovereign right to choose his own time and mode of retribution both to the evil and the good, and to subject the graces of his people to whatever trials he deems best. The solution of the problem by the retributions of the future life is but hinted at, immortality and the way of life being more clearly brought to light in the gospel. The conference of Job and his friends may be divided into 3 parts. In the first, Eliphaz addresses Job, and Job replies; then Bildad and Job, and Zophar and Job,, speak in turn. In the second part, the same order is observed ; and in the third also, except that after Job's reply to Bil dad, the 3 friends have no more to urge, and instead of Zophar, a 4th friend named Elihu takes up the word ; and the whole is concluded by the decision of Jehovah him self. The friends of Job argue that his re markable afflictions must have been sent in punishment of highly aggravated trans gressions, and urge him to confession and repentance. The pious patriarch, conscious of his own integrity and love to God, cast down and bewildered by his sore chastise ments, and pained by the suspicions of his friends, warmly vindicates his innocence, and shows that the best of men are some- 285 JOC BIBLE DICTIONARY. JOH times the most afflicted ; but forgets that his inward sins merit far heavier punish ment, and though he repels Satan's as sault, and still maintains faith in God, yet he charges Him foolishly. Afterwards he humbly confesses his wrong, and is cheered by the returning smile of God, while his uncharitable friends are reproved. The whole book is written in the highest style of Hebrew poetry, except the two introduc tory chapters and part of the last, which are prose. As a poem, it is full of sublime sentiments and bold and striking images. The disease of Job is generally sup posed to have been the elephantiasis, or black leprosy. The word rendered " boils " does not necessarily mean abscesses, but burning and inflammation; and no known disease better answers to the description given, Job 2:7, 8; 7:5, 13, 14; 19:17; 30:17, than the leprosy referred to above. See Leper. JOCH'EBED, whose glory is fehovah, wife of Amram, and mother of Moses, Aaron, and Miriam, Num. 26:59. She was a daugh ter of Levi, and her husband's aunt, Exod. 6:20, though such marriages were after wards prohibited, Lev. 18:12. JO'EL, fehovah is God, I., son of the prophet Samuel, made judge of Israel with his younger brother Abiah, by their father in his old age, but shamefully corrupt in office, 1 Sam. 8:2-5. Heman the singer was his son, 1 Chr. 6:33; 15:17. In 1 Chr. 6:28 he appears in A. V. as Vashni, which means second, and belongs to Abiah, the name of Joel having dropped out. II. One of the 12 minor prophets, of whom nothing is known beyond the few hints furnished in his brief but valuable prophecy. He lived in the kingdom of judah, 'and at a time when the temple and temple- worship still existed, Joel 1:14; 2:1, r5> 32! 3:I- Different authors assign to his prophecy different dates, but the pre vailing opinion is that he was the first of the canonical prophets' except Jonah, and prophesied in the reign of Uzziah, nearly 800 B. C. The book of Joel opens with a most graphic and powerful description of the devastation caused by swarms of divers locusts, accompanied by a terrible drought. The plag le of locusts, one of the most dreadful scourges of the East (see Lo custs), is highly suggestive of an invasion of hostile legions such as have often rav aged Judeea; and many have understood, by the locusts of Joel, the Assyrian and 286 other invaders from the north, ch. 1:6; 2:17, 20. The prophet, however, adheres to his figure, if it be one ; depicts the land as stripped of its verdure and parched with drought, summons the stricken people to fasting and penitence, and encourages them by promising the removal of the divine judgments and the return of fertility. While describing this returning plenty and pros perity, the prophet casts his view forward on a future still more remote, and predicts the outpouring of the Holy Spirit, and the signs and wonders and spiritual prosperity of the Messiah's reign, Joel 2:28. This passage is quoted by the apostle Peter, in Acts 2 : 16, where its fulfilment began, to be completed hereafter. The style of Joel is ^ exceedingly poetical and elegant; his de scriptions are vivid and sublime, and his prophecy ranks among the gems of He brew poetry. It is well fitted to cheer the church militant in all ages. Ten or 1 1 others of this name are men tioned in 1 Chr. 4:35, 41-43; 5:4, 8, 11, 12; 7:3, 4; 11:38; 15:7, 11; 23:8 and 26:22; 27:20; 2 Chr. 29:12, 15; Ezra 10:19, 43; Neh. 11 :3, 4, 9. JOG'BEHAH, lofty, a city of Gad, east of the Jordan, Num. 32:35, probably Jebaiha, 4 miles north of Amman. The Jogbehah through which Gideon pursued the defeat ed Midianites, Judg. 8:11, seems to have lain farther north, on the Damascus road, and in the territory of Manasseh, where a village called Tell Jabieh is now found. JOHA'NAN, or Jehoha'nan, God's favor, I., son of Azariah, of Zadok's line, high- priest probably in Rehoboam's reign, 1 Kin. 4:2; 1 Chr. 6:9, 10. II. Son of Kareah, a leading captain of the Jews, who took refuge beyond the Jor dan after Jerusalem was destroyed by the Chaldaeans, B. C. 588, and returning after their withdrawal, recognized the authority of Gedaliah, warned him in vain ofthe plot of Ishmael, and avenged his murder; but afterwards carried the remnant of the peo ple to Egypt against the remonstrances of Jeremiah, who, unable to check his rebel lious and idolatrous course, foretold divine judgments, which in due time were fulfilled, 2 Kin. 25:23-26: Jer. 40-44. Others of this name are mentioned in 1 Chr. 3: 15, 24; 12:4, 12 ; 2 Chr. 28:12; Ezra 8:12; Neh. 12:22, 23. JOHN, in Hebrew Jehohanan, in Greek 'lauvvric, God's gracious gift, I., the Bap tist, i. befriended,. 2 Sam. 9. III. David's nephew, son of Shimeah, 2 Siam. 21 :2i ; 1 Chr.- 20: 7. Perhaps Da vid's " uncle," i. e., relative, in 1 Chr. 27 : 32. IV. Son of Abiathar the high-pidest, a swift and faithful messenger, 2 Sam. 15 : 27, 36; 17:15-21 ; 1 Kin. 1:41-49. : V. Son and successor of Joiada the high- priest, Neh-. 12:11. ' Eight others are named in 2 Sam. 23:32 with 1 Chr. 1 r : 34 ; 1 -Ghr. 2 : 32, 33 ; Ezra 8:6; 10:15 ; Neh- I2 : r4. 35 ; Jer- 37 : '5. 20 ; 40 : 8. Compare 2 Kin. 25 : 23. i££|p!i| Ij | -,y - -si YAFA, THE MODEKN JOPPA, FROM THE NORTH. JOP'PA, Hebrew Japho, beauty, is one of the most ancient seaports in the world. It was a border town of the tribe of Dan, Josh. 1 9 : 46 ; Judg. 5 : 1 7, on the coast of the Mediterranean, 30 miles south of Caesarea, and about 35 northwest of Jerusalem. Its harbor is shoal and unprotected from the winds ; but on account of its convenience to Jerusalem, it became the principal port of Judaea, and is still the great landing- place of pilgrims. Here the materials for building both the ist and the 2d temple, sent from Lebanon and Tyre, were landed, 2 Chr. 2:16; Ezra 3 : 7. Here Jonah em barked for Tarshish. Here, too, Peter raised ' Dorcas from the dead, and in the house of Simon the tanner, by the seaside, was taught by a heavenly vision that salva- 290 tion was for Gentiles as well as Jews, Acts 9-1 1. Joppa was twice destroyed by the Romans, under Cestius and Vespasian, having become a den of pirates. It was the seat of a Christian church for some centuries after Constantine. During the Crusades it several times Changed hands; and in modern times, 1799, it was stormed and sacked by the French, and 1,200 Turk ish prisoners, said to have broken their parole, were put to death. The present town of Jaffa, or Yafa, is sit uated on a promontory jutting out into the sea, rising to the height of about 150 feet, crowned with a fortress, and offering on all sides picturesque and varied prospects; Towards the west is extended the open sea ; towards the south are spread the fer- JOR BIBLE DICTIONARY. JOR tile plains of Philistia, reaching as far as Gaza; towards the north, as far as Carmel, the flowery meads of Sharon present them selves ; and to the east the hills of Ephraim and Judah raise their towering heads. The town is walled round on the south and east, towards the land, and partially so on the north and west, towards the sea. Its environs, away from the sand-hills of the shore, are full of gardens and orchards. From the sea the town looks like a heap of .buildings crowded as closely as possible into a given space ; and from the steepness of its site they appear in some places to stand one on the other. The streets are very narrow, uneven, and dirty, and might rather be called alleys. The inhabitants are estimated at about 15,000, of whom more than half are Turks and Arabs. There are several mosques; and the Lat ins, Greeks, and Armenians have each a church, and a small convent for the recep tion of pilgrims. JO'RAM, or Jeho'ram, exalted by feho vah, I., son of Ahab king of Israel and Jezebel, succeeded his older brother Aha ziah in the throne, B. C. 896, and reigned 12 years. He discontinued the worship of Baal, but followed the " sin of Jeroboam," 2 Kin. 3:2,3. During his reign the Moab ites revolted. Joram secured the aid of Jehoshaphat king of Judah, and after re ceiving for his allies' sake a miraculous deliverance from drought, defeated the Mo abites with great slaughter,! 2 Kin. 3 : 4-27, though he retired without a permanent conquest. Not long after he was involved in war with Ben-hadad king of Syria, and Hazael his successor ; and in this time oc curred the miraculous deliverance of Sama ria from siege and famine, and also vari ous miracles of Elisha, including the heal ing of Naaman, 2 Kin. 4-8. Joram was wounded in a battle with Hazael, 2 Kin. 8 : 28, 29, and met his death, in the suburbs of Ramoth-gilead, by the hand of Jehu his general. His body was thrown into the field of Naboth at Jezreel, and with him perished the race of Ahab, 2 Kin. 9 : 14-26. Compare 1 Kin. 21 : 18-29. II. The son and successor of Jehosha phat king of Judah. He reigned with his father, from B. C. 889, 4 years, and 4 years alone ; in all 8 years. Unhappily he was married to Athaliah, daughter of Ahab and Jezebel, whose evil influence did much to render his reign a curse to the land. He slew his own brothers, 5 in number, and seized their possessions. He also intro duced Phcenician idols and their worship into Judah. The divine wrath, threatened by Elijah, was shown in leaving him un aided under a successful revolt of the Edomites, and repeated invasions of the Philistines and Arabians. His country, the city, and his own household were rav aged, his body was afflicted with a fright ful dysenteric illness, and after death a burial in the royal sepulchres was denied him, 2 Kin. 8 : 16-24; 2 Chr. 21. JOR'DAN, descender, always " the Jor dan "in Hebrew, except in Job 42 : 23 ; Psa. 42 : 6, the chief river of Palestine, running from north to south, and dividing the Holy Land into 2 parts, of which the larger and more important lay on the west. There are 2 small streams, each of which claims to be its source. One of these, near Bani- as, anciently Caesarea Philippi, issues from a large cave in a rocky mountain side, and flows several miles towards the southwest, where it is joined by the second and larger stream, which originates in a fountain at Tell-el-Kady, 3 miles west of Eanias. But besides these, there are several mountain brooks on the west, and especially a third and longer stream, the Hasbany, which rises beyond the northern limit of Pales tine, near Hasbeiya on the west side of Mount Hermon, 1,700 feet above the Med iterranean, flows 24 miles to the south, and unites with the other streams before they enter the " waters of Merom," now Lake Huleh. This marshy lake, when full, is about 7 miles long, and receives several other but smaller streams, chiefly from the west. See Merom. Issuing from Lake Huleh, the Jordan flows about 9 miles southward, falling 690 feet, to the Sea of Tiberias, through which its course may be traced 12 miles to the lower end. Hence it pursues its sinuous way to the south, 65 miles in a straight line, till its pure waters are lost in the bitter Sea of Sodom : a won derful transit within 140 miles in a straight line from the snows of Hermon to the val ley of Jericho, one of the hottest places on the globe, a descent of nearly 3,000 feet. Between these 2 seas, that of Tiberias and the Dead Sea, lies the great valley or plain of the Jordan, 2 Kin. 25:4; 2 Chr. 4:17, called by the Arabs el-Ghor, the hol low. Its average width is about 5 miles, but near Jericho it is 1 2 miles. It is termi nated on both sides, through almost its whole length, by hills, which rise abruptly on the western border 1,000 or 1,200 feet high, and more gradually on the east, but 291 JOR BIBLE DICTIONARY. JOR twice as high. This valley is excessively hot, and except where watered by fountains or rivulets, is sandy and destitute of foli age. It is covered in many parts with in numerable cone-like mounds, and some times contains a lower and narrow terrace of similar character, perhaps an eighth of a mile wide. Through this lower valley the river takes. its serpentine course in a channel from 1 5 to 50 feet below the gen eral level. Its immediate banks are thick ly covered with trees and shrubs, such as the willow, tamarisk, and oleander; and often recede, and leave a larger space for vegetation. In its upper part it is fertile and cultivated, while the lower Jordan is bordered by numerous canebrakes. The thickets adjoining the river were formerly the retreat of wild beasts, which of course would be driven out by a freshet ; hence the figure, " He shall come up like a lion from the swelling of Jordan," Jer. 49:19; 50 : 44. The channel of the river may be deeper sunk than of old, but even now nofr only the intervales within the banks are overflowed in spring, but in many places the banks themselves, 1 Chr. 12 : 15. Lieut. Lynch of the United States Navy, who traversed the Jordan in 1848, ascertained that, although the distance from the Sea of Galilee to the Dead Sea is but 65 miles in a straight line, it is 200 miles by the course of the river, which has innumerable curves. Its width varies at different points from 75 to 200 feet, and its depth from 3 to 12 feet. Its volume of water differs exceedingly at different seasons and from year to year. The current is usually swift and strong; and there are numerous rapids and falls, of which no less than 27 are specified by Lieut. Lynch as dangerous even to his metallic boats. The Sea of Tiberias lies 682 feet below the level of the Mediterra nean, and the Dead Sea 1,292 feet ; hence the fall of the Jordan between the 2 seas is 610 feet. The waters of the Jordan are cool anil soft, though turbid, and like the 292 Sea of Galilee, it abounds in fish. It is crossed by an ancient stone bridge below Lake Huleh, and the fragments of another, just south of the Sea of Tiberias, still re main. Several fords, available in ordinary seasons, are mentioned in. Scripture, Judg. 3 : 28 ; 12:5; 2 Sam. 17 : 22-24 : one was over against Jericho, another just above the mouth of the Jabbok, and another between Succoth and Jerash. Ferry-boats were also used, 2 Sam. 19 : 17, 18, 39. See Sea, IV. It was during the annual " swelling of the Jordan " that Joshua and the Israelites crossed it, Josh. 3:15. Yet the swift and swollen current was arrested in its course opposite to Jericho ; and while the waters below the city rolled on to the sea, those above it were miraculously stayed, and left in the river bed a wide passage for the hosts of Israel. Twice afterwards the Jor dan was miraculously crossed, by Elijah and Elisha, 2 Kin. 2:8, 14. In its waters the leprosy of Naaman was healed, and the JOR BIBLE DICTIONARY. JOS lost axe-head floated at the word of Elisha, '2 Kin. 5 : 14 ; 6 : 6. Here, too, our Saviour was baptized, Matt. 3:13; and this event is commemorated, in the middle of April of each year, by thousands of pilgrims of various sects of nominal Christians, who on a given day, and under the protection of a strong Turkish escort, visit the sacred river, drink and bathe in its waters, and after an hour or two return to Jerusalem. See Arabah. The principal branches of the Jordan are the Yermak, anciently Hieromax, a large stream, and the Jabbok, both on the east. There are several small rivulets and many mountain brooks, which dry up more or less early in the summer. The phrase, " beyond Jordan," usually indicates the east side of the river, but before the con quest of Joshua it meant the west side. At the present day the Jordan is lost in the Dead Sea ; but many have supposed that in very ancient times, before the de struction of the cities in the vale of Sodom, the Jordan passed through the Dead Sea and the vale of Siddim, and continued its course southward to the Elanitic Gulf of the Red Sea. The southern end of the Dead Sea is found to be connected with the Elanitic Gulf, or the Gulf of Akaba, by the great valley called el- Arabah, forming a prolongation of el-Ghor, the valley of the Jordan. See map in Exodus. The course of this valley is between south and south-southwest. Its length, from the Dead Sea to Akaba, is about 100 miles in a direct line. From the extremity of the Dead Sea a sandy plain extends southward between hills, and on a level with the sea, for the distance of 8 or 10 miles, where it is inter rupted by a chalky cliff, from 60 to 80 feet high, which runs nearly across the valley, but leaves at its western end the opening of a valley nearly half a mile wide, which runs up for many miles to the south within the broad and desert valley el-Arabah, upon which it at length emerges, and the water of which it conveys to the Dead Sea. The cliff above referred to, perhaps the Akrab- bim of the Bible, marks the termination of el-Ghor and the commencement of el-Ara bah, which is thence prolonged without interruption to Akaba. It is skirted on each side by a chain of mountains ; but the streams which descend from these are in summer lost in their gravelly beds before they reach the valley below ; so that this lower plain is in summer entirely without water, which alone can produce verdure in the Arabian deserts and render them habitable. There is not the slightest ap pearance of a road, or of any other work of human art, in any part of the valley. The opinion that the Jordan formerly trav ersed this great valley is rendered untena ble by the fact that the Dead Sea lies nearly 1,300 feet lower than the Gulf of Akaba, and that most of the intervening region now pours its streams north into the Dead Sea. Of course the Jordan must also have stopped there of old, as it does now, un less, according to the somewhat startling theory of Lieut. Lynch and others, the Dead Sea — and with it, though less deeply, the whole valley to the north and south — sank down from a higher level into its pres ent deep chasm, perhaps long before that appalling catastrophe from which Lot found refuge in "the mountain," Gen. 19 : 17-28, 30. See Sea, III. JOS'APHAT, Matt. 1 : 8, Jehoshaphat. JO'SE, Luke 3 : 29, Joses ; in R. V. Jesus, an ancestor of our Lord. JOS'EDECH, a high-priest, father of Jesh- ua, Hag. 1:1. See Jehozadak. JO'SEPH, removal and increase, both meanings being implied in Gen. 30 : 23,24 — the taking away of reproach, and the hope of another son, Gen. 35:17. He wasthe elder of Jacob's 2 sons by his beloved Ra chel, a sonof his old age, 37:3, andfor these reasons, as well as for his admirable dis position, especially beloved by his father — who perhaps intended, with the gift of the new robe, to endue him with the rights of primogeniture, as the son of his first wife, in lieu of Reuben who had forfeited them, Gen. 35 : 22 ; 1 Chr. 5:1. He was born in Mesopotamia, Gen. 30:22-24, B. C. 1747. He is memorable for the wonderful provi dence of God which raised him from a prison to be the grand-vizier of Egypt and made him the honored means of saving countless human lives. The story of his father's fondness, of his protest against sin among his brothers, of their j ealous hostil ity and his prophetic dreams, of his sale by his brethren to Midianites and by them to Potiphar in Egypt, of the divine favor on his pure and prudent life, his imprison ment for 3 to 12 years for virtue's sake, his wonderful exaltation to power and his wise use of it for the good of the nation, of his tender and reverent care of his father, his magnanimity to his brethren, and his faith in the future of God's chosen people, is one of the most pleasing and instructive in the Bible, and is related in language 293 JOS BIBLE DICTIONARY. JOS inimitably natural, simple, and touching. It is too beautiful for abridgment, and too familiar to need full rehearsal. It throws much light on the superintending provi dence of God, as embracing all things, great and small, in the perpetual unfolding of his STORING GRAIN IN GRANARIES. universal plan. No narrative in the Bible more strikingly illustrates the protective and elevating power of the fear of God, and its especial value for the young. To be hold his lovely image of filial piety and unwavering faith, of self-control in youth and patience in adversity, of discretion and fidelity in all stations of life, serenely walk ing with God through all, and at death in trusting soul and body alike into his hands, Heb. 11 : 12, may well lead the young read er to cry, Oh, that the God of Joseph were my God I Gen. 37 ; 39-50. There are sev eral points of striking resemblance in Jo seph s history to that of Christ : Joseph was specially beloved of his father, rejected by his brethren, and a servant for their good ; he was obedient to the law, endowed with heavenly wisdom,, tempted of the world, the flesh, and the devil, but victori ous ; he was imprisoned for a time, as Christ was in the tomb, and yet exalted to bring the bread of life and salvation to his people. He was about 17 years old when sold, 30 when he became the lord of Egypt, 39 when his father and brethren came to dwell in Goshen. He died, aged 1 10, B. C. 1637 ; and when the Israelites, a century and a half later, went up from Egypt, they took his bones, and at length buried them in Shechem, Exod. 13 : 19 ; Josh. 24 :32.- A Mohammedan sacred tomb covers the spot regarded generally, and it may be correctly, as the place of his burial. It is alow stone inclosure, and stands in quiet seclusion among high trees, at the eastern entrance of the valley of Shechem, at the right of 294 the traveller's path and nearer Mount Ebal than Mount Gerizim. The history of Joseph is strikingly con firmed by the Egyptian monuments, which have preserved for us very many traits of the national life in that early age just as they are incidentally mentioned in the Bi ble. Joseph married the princess Asenath, daughter of Potipherah, priest of On ; and his 2 sons, Manasseh and Ephraim, Gen: 41 : 50, whom Jacob adopted, 48 : 5, became the heads of two of the 12 tribes of Israel. II. The son of Heli ; the husband of Mary, Christ's mother. His genealogy is traced in Matt. 1 : 1-1 5, to David, Judah, and Abra ham, and he was recognized as of the line age of David, Mat. 1:20; Luke 2:4; John 1:45. See Genealogy. His residence was at Nazareth in Galilee, where he fol lowed the occupation of a carpenter, to which Christ also was trained, Mark 6 : 3. He was a pious and honorable man, as ap pears from his whole course towards Mary and her son, Matt. 1 : 18-25. He received 4 distinct intimations of God's will concern ing him, Matt. 1:20; 2:13, 19, 22, and promptly obeyed them all. Both he and Mary attended the Passover at Jerusalem, when Christ was 12 years old, Luke 2:41-51; and as no more is said of him in the sacred narrative, and as Christ committed Mary to the care of one of the disciples, he is generally supposed to have died before Christ began his public ministry. He seems to have been well known among the Jews, Mark 6:3; John 6 : 42. III. A native of Arimathaea, but at the JOS BIBLE DICTIONARY. JOS time of Christ's crucifixion a resident at Jerusalem. He was doubtless a believer in the Messiah, and " waited for the kingdom of God." He was a member of the Jew ish Sanhedrin, and opposed in vain their action in condemning the Saviour, Luke 23.51. When all was over, he "went in boldly unto Pilate, and craved the body of Jesus." It was now night, and the Jewish Sabbath was at hand. He therefore, with Nicodemus, wrapped the body in spices for the time, and laid it in his own tomb, Matt. 27 : 58-60; Luke 23 : 50-53; Mark 1 5 : 43-46; John 19:38-42. Compare Isa. 53:9. IV. Justus, a disciple of Christ, also named Barsabas. See Barsabas. Six others are mentioned in Num. 13:7; Ezra 10 142; Neh. 12 : 14; Luke 3 : 24, 26, 30. Joseph is also substituted for Joses in the R. V. in Matt. 13 : 55 and Acts 4 : 36. JO'SES, fehovah saves, I., in the R. V. Joseph, one of the brethren of our Lord, Matt. 13 : 35 ; Mark 6 : 3. Christ's brethren did not at first believe on him, but after his resurrection they are found among his disciples, John 2 : 12 ; 7 : 5 ; Acts 1 : 14. II. A son of Clopas and Mary, identified by some with the above, Matt. 27 : 56. See James, II. and III. III. In Acts 4 : 36, R. V., Joseph. See Barnabas. JOSH'UA, I., the son of Nun, a distin guished leader of the Hebrews, and the successor of Moses. His name at first was Oshea or Hoshea, he saves, Num. 13:8, and afterwards, ver. 16, Jehoshua, fehovah saves ; in the New Testament, A. V., he is called, as in Gr., Jesus, Acts 7 : 45 ; Heb. 4 : 8. See Jesus. Joshua was about 44 years old at the exodus, and was early welcomed as the special friend and attendant of Moses, and his destined successor. He first ap pears as the leader of the host in battle with the Amalekites at Rephidim, Exod. 17 : 8-16. He accompanied Moses into the fiery mount, was faithful in attendance on the tabernacle when Moses removed it, and was uncontaminated by the idolatry of the golden calf , Exod. 24:9, 13-15:32: 17; 33:11. By faithful service he learned how to com mand. He and Caleb alone of the 12 ex ploring princes urged the Hebrews to enter the promised land at once, Num. 14:6-10, 30, 38; 32 : n , 1 2 . Compare Josh. 1 4 : 6-9. Chosen of God for the service which Mo ses forfeited at Meribah, Num. 20: 11, 12 ; 27 : 15-23, he was solemnly inaugurated and charged by Moses, Deut. 34:9, 10, and also by Jehovah, Josh. 1 : 1-9. Joshua led the people over the Jordan, and in 6 years subjugated Canaan, from Kadesh-barnea and Gaza on the south to Zidon and Mount Lebanon on the north, though many sections here and there were still in the hands of the Canaanites. Yet having gone over the country as a con queror, he and Eleazar next apportioned it among the 12 tribes, giving to the Levites 48 cities, and designating 6 cities of refuge. At the passage over Jordan he was 84 years of age ; and after about 26 years employed in his appointed work, and then judging Israel at his possession at Timnath-serah, he died, B. C. 1426. During his life the He brews were preeminently the people of God, Josh. 11 115; 24:31. His last grand convo cation of all Israel, at Shechem, and his sol emn address to them, warning them against idols in the heart, and summoning them to a fresh covenant with God, form the wor thy close of a life on which in the sacred records no blot rests. He seems to have served the Lord with singular fidelity. No man witnessed more or greater miracles than he ; and in his life may be found many points of resemblance to that of the greater " Captain of the Lord's host," who estab lishes his people in the true promised land, Heb. 4 : 8. Moses, the lawgiver, led Israel to the border ; Joshua, the prototype of fesus, brought them over. The book of Joshua contains the narra tive of all these transactions, and was writ ten by Joshua himself, or under his direc tion, B. C. 1427. The first 12 chapters nar rate the conquest of Canaan ; the next 10 describe the apportionment of the land ; the last 2 give Joshua's farewell appeals. From ch. 24 : 27 on, was of course added by a later hand ; but all was done under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, 2 Tim. 3 : 16. Frequent allusions to its events are found, both in the Old Testament Scriptures, Psa. 44:2-4; 68:13-15; 78:54. 55; i*4:i-8; Hab. 3:8, 13, and in the New, Acts 7 :45 ; Heb. 4:8; 11: 30-32 ; Jas. 2:25. II. Son of Josedech. See Jeshua, IV. Two others of this name are mentioned in 1 Sam. 6:1452 Kin. 23 : 8. JOSI'AH, whom fehovah heals, I., son of the short-lived Amon and the pious Jedi- dah, and great-grandson of Hezekiah ; the 1 5th king of Judah after Solomon, and one of the noblest of the line. He began to reign B. C. 641, at the age of 8 years, and reigned 31 years, during which he accomplished great reforms in the temple worship and in the religious character of the nation in 295 JOS BIBLE DICTIONARY. JOU general. No king set himself more ear nestly to destroy every vestige of idolatry out of the land. He began this work when he was only 16 years old, 2 Chr. 34 : 3, and at 20 took the most resolute measures, ex tending his iconoclastic zeal even into the kingdom of Israel as far north as Naphtali, 2 Kin. 23:15-20; 2 Chr. 34:6, defiling the altars of the idols at Bethel by burning upon them the bones from the tombs of their deceased priests ; as had been fore told more than 3 centuries before, 1 Kin. 13:2. From this epoch Jeremiah dates some of his predictions, Jer. 25 : 3. In the 1 8th year of his reign, while they were cleansing and repairing the temple at his command, Hilkiah the high-priest found the temple copy of the 5 books of the law, perhaps the original copy from Moses' own hand, 2 Chr. 34: 14. The sacred book was too much neglected in those days of de clension ; and even the pious Josiah seems to have been impressed by the closing chapters of Deuteronomy as though he had never read them before. To avert the judgments there threatened, he humbled himself before God, and sought to bring the people to repentance. He assembled the people, read to them portions of the book of the law, caused them to renew their covenant with Jehovah, and celebra ted the Passover with a solemnity like that of its first institution. But the repentance of the people was superficial, and did not avert the divine judgments. Josiah, how ever, was taken away from the evil to come, according to the prediction of Hul dah, 2 Chr. 34:22-28. He met death in battle with Pharaoh-necho king of Egypt, whose passage across his territory to at tack the king of Assyria, Josiah felt obliged to resist, not consulting Jehovah, nor even the prudent counsel of Solomon, Prov. 17:14; 26 : 17. Pharaoh-necho came by sea to Accho, and warned him " from the mouth of God ;" yet Josiah met him on the great battle-field of Esdraelon, received a mortal wound near Megiddo, and died soon after on the way to Jerusalem. The death of this wise and pious king was deeply lamented by the prophet Jeremiah and all the people. Jeremiah composed an elegy for their use, 2 Chr. 35 : 25, and their mourning is mentioned in Zech. 12:10, 11, as a type of the mourning of penitent Israel for the Messiah. His history is nar rated in 2 Kin. 22; 23 ; 2 Chr. 34; 35, and probably Jer. 1-12. Its unhappy close may warn us against presumption and the pur- 296 suit of even good ends by carnal means. During his reign a horde of Scythians overran Western Asia, leaving their traces in the city Beth-shan, thence called Scyth- opolis. In the middle of his reign also Nineveh was destroyed and Assyria divi ded by the Babylonians and Medes. II. Son of Zephaniah, Zech. 6:9-15. In his house at Jerusalem Joshua the high- priest was crowned as a type of the Mes siah. JOT, a- word which comes from the name of the Greek letter i&ro. (1) and the Hebrew yod (¦)). It is the smallest letter of these alphabets, and is therefore put for the smallest thing or particle, Matt. 5 : 18. See Tittle. JOT'BAH, goodness, 2 Kin. 21:19, *ae home of king Anion's mother, probably et- Taiyibeh, in Benjamin, 4 miles east-north east of Bethel. JOT'BATHAH, goodness, " a land of win ter-brooks," Deut. 10:7, the 34th and 41st station of the Hebrews in the desert, Num. 33 : 33> 34- Probably the broad Wady el- Adhbeh, northwest of Elath. JO'THAM, fehovah is upright, I., the youngest son of Gideon, who escaped the massacre of his 69 brethren by Abimelech, and afterwards boldly and prophetically denounced the Shechemites from Mount Gerizim in the beautiful parable of the bramble and the other trees. He escaped to Beer, and probably lived to see his threatenings fulfilled, Judg. 9. See Abim elech, III. II. The son and successor of Uzziah, or Azariah, and the 10th king of Judah, B. C. 758. He appears to have been for some years regent before the death of Uzziah his leprous father, but ascended the throne at the age of 25 years, and reigned 16 years in the fear of God. The history of his wise and prosperous reign, his resubjuga- tion of the Ammonites, and his useful pub lic works, is found in 2 Kin. 15 : 5, 7, 32-38; 2 Chr. 26 : 2 1-23 ; 27 ; 1-9. III. Son of Jahdai, tribe of Judah, 1 Chr. 2:47. JOUR'NEY. A "sabbath-day's journey," among the Jews, seems to have been reck oned at about 7 furlongs, or nearly 1 mile, Matt. 24 : 20; Acts 1:12. An ordinary day's journey is 15 to 20 miles, with a rest in the middle of the day. Persons starting on a journey in the East usually make their first stage a short one, that they may the more easily send back for any forgotten article or supplies. This may perhaps ap- JOY BIBLE DICTIONARY. JUD ply to the " day's journey " of the parents of Jesus, mentioned in Luke 2 : 44. For the journeyings of the Israelites, see Exodus and Wanderings. JOY, a passing emotion or a permanent affection, more marked than peace, con tent, cheerfulness, or gladness, and differ ent from mirth or exultation. It may spring from natural or from religious sources, and may be ¦ right or wrong in its moral charac ter. True spiritual joy is a " fruit of the Spirit," Gal. 5 : 22, and is a delight in God and all his works and ways — -his word, his worship, and his service, Psa. 5:11; 43 : 4 ; Isa. 61 : 10, in Christ, Phil. 3:311 Pet. 1 : 8, and in all the graces, duties, promises, and hopes of the gospel ; so that the believer, pardoned and in union with Christ, ought always to possess and show it, Psa. 32:11; Isa. 35 : 10; Phil. 3 : 1 ; 4 : 4, even in tribula tion, Hab. 3 : 17, 18 ; Rom. 5 : 1-3. All other joy is superficial and short-lived, Job 20 : 5 ; Eccl. 7 : 6. Hence the chief thing on earth that gives joy to heaven is the turning of a soul from sin unto God, Luke 15:7, 10. JOZ'ABAD, God-given, contracted from Jehozabad. Eight of this name are men tioned: 1 Chr. 12:4; 12:20, two; 2 Chr. 3l^3' 35 :Q; Ezra 8:33; 10:22; 10:23 with Neh. 8:7. JOZ'ACHAR, remembered of God, a Mo- abite, one of the murderers of Joash, who was slain by foreign hands, as he had wor shipped foreign gods, 2 Kin. 12:21. JOZ'ADAK, Ezra 3:2, 8 ; 5:2; 10 : 18 ; Neh. 12 : 26. See Jehozadak. JU'BAL, music, son of Lamech and Adah, and a descendant of Cain. He invented the lyre and the shepherd's-pipe, stringed and wind instruments, Gen. 4 : 21. JU'BILEE, a Hebrew festival, celebrated in every 50th year, which apparently oc curred the year after 7 weeks of years, or 7 times 7 years, Lev. 25: 10. Its name Jubi lee, an impetuous sound or clangor, was significant of the joyful trumpet-peals that announced its arrival. During this year (i) no Hebrew sowed or reaped, but all were satisfied with what the earth and the trees produced spontaneously, Lev. 25 : 11, 12. (2) Each resumed possession of his inheritance, whether it were sold, mort gaged, or otherwise alienated, 25:13-34; 27 : 16-24. Houses in walled cities — not in open villages — were excepted: the seller might buy them back within a year from the sale, and if he did not they became the purchaser's own. Levites also could buy back their houses at any time, and claimed them without price at the year of Jubilee. If a man sanctified his land to Jehovah, he could redeem it before the year of Jubilee on fixed terms, otherwise it remained sanc tified for ever. And (3) Hebrew servants of every description were set free, with their wives and children, Lev. 25 : 39-54. This law seems to apply to Hebrew bond men who had not served out their regular period of 6 years, Exod. 21 : 1, 2, and had not declined manumission, ver. 5, 6. The first 9 days of the Jubilee year were spent in festivities, during which no one worked, and every one wore a crown on his head. On the 10th day, which was the day of sol emn expiation, the Sanhedrin ordered the trumpets to sound, and instantly the slaves were declared free, and the lands returned to their hereditary owners. This law was mercifully designed to prevent the rich from oppressing the poor, and getting pos session of all the lands by purchase, mort gage, or usurpation ; to cause that debts should not be multiplied too much, and that slaves should not continue, with their wives and children, in perpetual bondage. It served to maintain a degree of equality among the Hebrew families; to perpetuate the division of lands and households ac cording to the original tribes, Num. 36, and secure a careful registry of the genealogy of every family. It gave an opportunity for the land to rest, and to the people a special time for instructing the young, and for the reading of the law. They were also thus reminded that Jehovah was the great Proprietor and Disposer of all things, and they but his tenants. " The land is mine ; for ye are strangers and sojourners with me," Lev. 25 : 23. And this memento met them constantly and pointedly ; for every transfer of land was valuable in propor tion to the number of years remaining be fore the Jubilee. Though the Bible con tains no record of any regular observance of this Jubilee year, yet it was doubtless duly kept, 1 Kin. 21:3; Ezek. 46 : 17 (where it is called " the year of liberty"). See also allusions to it in 2 Chr. 36: 21 ; Neh. 5 : 3-13; Jer. 32 : 6-12 ; Ezek. 7:12, 13. The Jews affirm that it was kept until " the Cap tivity." Isaiah clearly refers to this pecu liar and important festival as foreshadow ing the glorious dispensation of gospel grace, Isa. 61 : 1, 2 ; Luke 4: 17-21. See also the notice of a similar institu tion under Sabbatical Year. JU'DA, I., Luke 3 126, in R. V. Joda, an ancestor of Christ, perhaps the same as 297 JUD BIBLE DICTIONARY. JUD Abiud, Matt. 1:13, and Obadiah, 1 Chr. 3 :2i. — II. Luke 3 : 30, in R. V. Judas, prob ably Adaiah, 2 Chr. 23 : 1. — III. Luke 1 : 39, in R. V. Judah, the tribe. JUD.ffi'A, or Jude'a, the land of the Jews, a name sometimes given to the southern part of the Holy Land, and sometimes, especially by foreigners, to the whole coun try. In the general division of Canaan among the tribes, the southern part fell to the lot of the tribe of Judah. The original territory of the tribe was an elevated plain, much broken by frequent hills, ravines, and valleys, and sinking into fine plains and pasture-grounds on the west and south, Zech. 7:7. It was a healthy, pleasant, and fruitful land. The valleys yielded large crops of grain ; and the hills were terraced, watered, covered with vines, Gen. 49:11, 12, and rich in olives, figs, and many other fruits. See Canaan. Its bounds are fully specified in Josh. 15: 21-63, extending at first from the mouth of the Jordan, by the road ascending from Jericho, traversing Jerusalem south of Mount Moriah, and by way of Kirjath-jearim and Bethshemesh to Jabneh on the Mediterranean ; and from the foot of the Dead Sea westward to el- Arish, "the river of Egypt." This lower portion, " the south country," was soon after assigned to the tribe of Simeon, Josh. 19:1-9. The larger and more important part of Judah, known as " the hill-country offudah" Luke 1 : 39, 65, lay south of Jeru salem, from the heights overlooking the Dead Sea westward to the Mediterranean, including Hebron, Bethlehem, and 36 other cities, Josh. 1 5 : 48-60. Indeed almost every hill-top now shows the remains of an an cient town. Towards the west this region fell off by a range of lower hills into the lowland or Shephelah, called in Josh. 1 5 : 33 "the valley" — extending to the Mediterra nean. It was the prolongation southerly of the fertile plain of Sharon, and was the granary of Judah. The 42 cities, with their villages, named in Josh. 15 : 33-47, included Philistia, which see. " The wilderness of fudaa," in which John began to preach, and where Christ was tempted, seems to have been in the eastern part of Judah, the slope adjacent to the Dead Sea, and stretch ing towards Jericho, 2 Sam. 15 : 28. It had only 6 towns, Josh. 1 5 : 6 1 , 62, and is still one of the most dreary and desolate regions of the whole country, Matt. 3 : 1 ; 4 : 1. " The plain " refers usually to the low ground near the Jordan, 2 Sam. 2 : 29 ; 2 Kin. 25 : 4, 5. The territory of the tribe may have averaged 45 miles from east to west and 25 from north to south. With the increasing ascendancy of that tribe the name of Ju dah covered a more extended territory, 2 Sam. 5:5; and after the secession of the 10 tribes, the kingdom of Judah included the territory of the tribes of Judah and Benjamin, with a part of that of Simeon and Dan. Judah thus occupied all the southern portion of Palestine, while the northern part was called Galilee, and the middle Samaria. The population of the kingdom of Judah in its palmy days must have been vast, judging from the size of its armies, I Chr. 21:5; 2 Chr. 13 : 3 ; 14 : 8; 17 : 14-19 ; and its wealth great, if we may judge from the amount expended upon the temple, and the spoils exacted by succes sive conquerors. Its area was some 4,000 square miles. The kingdom endured from the accession of Rehoboam, B. C. 975, to the Captivity, B. C. 588, 387 years. See Kings. After the Captivity, as most of those who returned were of the kingdom. of Judah, the name Judah, or Judaea, was applied generally to the whole of Pales tine, Hag. 1:1, 14 ; 2 : 2 ; and this use of the word has never wholly ceased. When the whole country fell into the power of the Romans, the former division into Gali lee, Samaria, and Judaea seems to have again become current, Luke 2:4; John 4 : 3, 4. Josephus describes Judaea in his day as bounded north by Samaria, east by the Jordan, west by the Mediterranean, and south by the territory of the Arabs. These boundaries seem to include a part of Idu maea. Judaea in this extent constituted part of the kingdom of Herod the Great, and afterwards belonged to his son Archelaus. When the latter was banished for his cruel ties, Judaea was reduced to the form of a Roman province, annexed to the procon sulate of Syria, and governed by procura tors, until it was at length given as part of his kingdom to Herod Agrippa II. During all this time the boundaries of the province were often varied by the addition or ab straction of different towns and cities. JU'DAH, celebrated, the same as Jude, Juda, or Judas, which see. I. The 4th son of Jacob and . Leah, Reuben, Simeon, and Levi being older than he, Issachar and Zebulun younger, Gen. 35 : 23, born in Mes opotamia, B. C. 1755, Gen. 29 : 35. His name appears honorably in the history of Jo seph, Gen. 37 : 26, 27 ; 43 : 3-10; 44 : 16-34 ; 46 : 28 ; but disgracefully in that of Tamai his daughter-in-law, Gen. 38. The dying JUD BIBLE DICTIONARY. JUD benediction of Jacob foretells the superior power and prosperity of the family of Ju dah, and their continuance as chief of the Jewish race until the time of Christ, Gen. 49:8-12. Five sons of Judah are men tioned, of whom Pharez and Zerah -were most prominent. Reuben having forfeited his' birthright, Judah soon came to be con sidered as the chief of Jacob's children, and his tribe was the most powerful and numerous, numbering 74,000 adult males at the exodus from Egypt, nearly 12,000 more than any other tribe. They took the lead in the conquest of Canaan, Judg. I : I, 2, 8-10, 17, 18. The southern part of Pal estine fell to their lot. See Judaea. On the northern border of their territory was Jerusalem, the seat of the Jewish worship ; and from Judah sprang David arid his royal race, from which descended the Sa viour of the world. After the return from the Captivity, this tribe in some sort united in itself the whole Hebrew nation, who from that time were known only as Judaei, Jews, descendants of Judah. Judah — when named in contra distinction to Israel, Ephraim, the kingdom of the 10 tribes, or Samaria — denotes the kingdom of Judah and of David's descend ants. See Hebrews and Kings. One of the principal distinctions of this tribe is that it preserved the true religion, and the public exercise of the priesthood, with the legal ceremonies in the temple at Jerusa lem; while the 10 tribes gave themselves up to idolatry and the worship of the gold en calves. II. Several other men named Judah are mentioned in Ezra 3:9; Neh. 11:9; 12:8, 34> 30- III. 2 Chr. 25 : 28, supposed to be the city of David, in Jerusalem. See Jerusalem. IV. A town in Naphtali, near Banias, Josh. 19:34. JU'DAS, I., Iscariot, or " son of Simon Iscariot," R. V., John 6:71, that is, man of Kerioth, a city of Judah, Josh. 15 : 25. Be ing one of the 12 apostles of our Lord, called by Him as a professed disciple, though with a knowledge of his real char acter, John 6 : 64, 70, Judas seems to have possessed the full confidence of his fellow- apostles, and was intrusted by them with all the presents which were made them and all their means of subsistence and charity; and when the 12 were sent out to preach and to work miracles; Judas ap pears to have been among them, and to have received the same powers. He was accustomed, however, even at this time, to appropriate part of their common stock to his own use, John 12:6; and at length sealed his infamy by betraying his Lord to the Jews for money. For the paltry sum of about {815 he engaged with the Jewish Sanhedrin to guide them to a place where they could seize him by night without dan ger of a tumult. But when he learned the result, a terrible remorse took possession of him ; not succeeding in undoing his fa tal work with the priests, he cast down before them the price of blood, crossed the gloomy valley of Hinnom, and hung him self, Matt. 27 : 3-10. Luke, in Acts 1:18, adds that he fell headlong and burst asun der, probably by the breaking of the rope or branch. The steep hill-side south of the valley of Hinnom might well be the scene of such a twofold death. See Aceldama. The gospel narratives seem to place his leaving the upper loom before the Lord's Supper; and otherwise the time for con summating his treachery would have been short. The prophecy as to the 30 pieces of sil-i ver, quoted, Matt. 27 :9, as from Jeremiah, is found in Zech. n : 12, 13 ; perhaps Jere miah was named as including all the proph ets, being placed at their head by the Jews ; or the passage in Zechariah is regarded as included in the earlier predictions by Jer emiah of the same general tenor. The remorseful confession of Judas was a sig nal testimony to the spotless innocence of Christ, Matt. 27 -.4 ; and his awful end is a solemn warning against . avarice, hypocrisy, and all unfaithfulness, Matt. 26:24; John 17 : 12; Acts 1 :25. II. Matt. 1 : 2, 3, the patriarch Judah, as in R. V. III.' One of the apostles, called also Jude> Lebbaeus, and Thaddaeus, Matt. 10:3; Mark 3:18; Judge 1, the son of Alphaeus and, Mary, and brother of James the Less. See James, II. and III. He was the author of ¦ the epistle which bears his name, Mark 6 : 3, R. Vj; Luke6: 16; John 14:22; Acts 1 113.. IV. The brother of our Lord, Matt. 27 : 56.. Supposed by many to have been only a cousin, and the same as Judas III., the apostle. But his " brethren " did not be lieve in him until near the close of his min istry. See James.HI. Hegesippus relates that 2 grandsons of Jude " the Lord's bro ther " were brought before the emperor Domitian and examined. They confessed themselves to be of David's posterity, but said that they lived plainly by working 299 JUD BIBLE DICTIONARY. JUD their 30 acres of land, and that Christ was not an earthly but a spiritual king, and the final Judge. They were dismissed in peace. V. A Christian teacher, or " prophet," called also Barsabas, sent from Jerusalem with Paul, Barnabas, and Silas, to convey the decision of the council to Antioch, where he faithfully performed his mission and then returned to Jerusalem, Acts 15:22, 27. 32> 34- VI. Surnamed " the Galilean," called also by Josephus the Gaulonite. He was born at Gamala, a city of Gaulonitis near the southeastern shore of the Lake of Ti berias. In company with one Sadoc, A. D. 6, he attempted to excite a revolt among the Jews, but was destroyed by Quirinus, or Cyrenius, at t hat time proconsul of Syria and Judaea, Acts 5 : 37. VII. A Jew at Damascus, with whom Paul lodged, Acts 9:11. See Damascus. JUDE. See Judas, III. The epistle of Jude, assigned conjec- turally to the year 66 A. D., is a fervid and vehement voice of warning against follow ing certain false teachers in their errors and corruptions, and so sharing their aw ful doom. It resembles the 2d Epistle of Peter. As to the quotation in ver. 14, 15, see Enoch, II. JUDE'A, See Jud^'a. JUDG'ES, in Hebrew Sho'phetim, were rulers, chiefs, or leaders of Israel during the Theocracy, from Joshua to Saul. They were very different from the ordinary ad ministrators of justice among the Hebrews, respecting whom see Justice. Their au thority resembled that of the Roman Dic tators, and was often military more than judicial, though Eli and Samuel were only civil rulers. The Carthaginians, a colony of the Tyrians, had likewise governors, whom they called Suffetes, or Sophetim, with authority almost equal to that of kings. The dignity of judge was for life ; but the succession was not constant. There were anarchies, or intervals, during which ¦ the commonwealth was without rulers. There were likewise long intervals of for eign servitude and oppression, under which the Hebrews groaned without deliverers. Although God called forth several of the judges, yet the people usually chose, under divine guidance, that individual who ap peared to them most proper to deliver them from oppression. There was in fact no central government : too generally " every man did what was right in his own eyes ; " and as it often happened that the oppres- 300 sions which occasioned recourse to the elec tion of a judge were not felt over all Israel, the power of such judge extended only over that province which he had delivered. Thus it was the land east of the Jordan that Ehud, Jephthah, Elon, and Jair deliv ered and governed ; Barak and Tola gov erned the northern tribes, Abdon the cen tral, and Ibzan and Samson the southern. The authority of judges was little inferior to that of kings : it extended to peace and war ; they decided causes with absolute authority ; were protectors of the laws, de fenders of religion, and avengers of crimes, particularly of idolatry. They were with out salary, pomp, or splendor ; and without guards, train, or equipage, other than that their own wealth afforded. The command of Jehovah to expel or destroy all the Canaanites was but imper fectly executed ; and those who were spared infected the Hebrews with the poison of their idolatry and vice. The affair of Mi cah and the Levite, and the crime at Gib eah which led to the ruinous war against the Benjamites, though recorded at the close of the book of Judges, ch. 17-21, oc curred not long after the death of Joshua, and show how soon Israel began to depart from God. To chastise them, he suffered the people of Mesopotamia and of Moab, the Canaanites, Midianites, Ammonites, and Philistines in turn to oppress by their ex actions a part of the tribes, and sometimes the whole nation. But erelong, in pity for their sufferings, he would raise up one of the military and civil dictators above described. Fifteen judges are named in the Bible, beginning with Othniel, some 20 years after Joshua, and continuing till the coronation of Saul. The recorded succes sion of the judges, and of the intervening periods of oppression, is the following : YEARS. Othniel, about B. C. 1405 40 " Under Eglon 18 Ehud, etc 80 Under the Philistines unknown Shamgar unknown Under Jabin 20 Deborah and liai-ak 40 Under Midian 7 Gideon. 40 Abimelech 3 Tola 23 Jair 22 Under the Ammonites 18 Jephthah 6 Ibzan 7 Elon 10 Abdon 8 Under the Philistines 40 JUD BIBLE DICTIONARY. JUD YEARS. Samson I 20 Eli I 40 Under the Philistines 20 Samuel, about 12 Saul, the Hist king, B. C. 1095. The time from Othniel to Saul, according to the above table, would be some 490 years, compare Acts 1 3 : 20 ; according to the received chronology it is about 310 years, of which only 1 1 1 were years of for eign oppression. It is supposed that some of the above periods overlap each other ; but chronologists are not agreed as to the mode of reconciling the accounts in Judges with other known dates, and with 1 Kin. 6 : 1 and Acts 13:20, though several practi cable methods are proposed, the examina tion of which would exceed the limits of this work. The book of Judges, the 7th in order of the Old Testament books, contains the an nals of the times in which Israel was ruled by judges, and is often referred to in the New Testament and other parts of the Bi ble. It has 3 parts : Ch. 1 to 3 : 6 introduc tory ; ch. 3 : 7 to 16 the main narrative, the story of 6 of the judges being full and the others brief; ch. 17-21 the appendix, con taining two separate narratives. The book shows the steps by which the people came to reject God as their ruler, and appears to have been written before David captured Zion, 1:21, and yet after a regal govern ment was introduced, 17 :6 ; 18 : 1 ; 21 : 25. Who was its author is unknown ; the ma jority of critics ascribe it to Samuel, B. C. 1403. It illustrates God's care over his * people, mingling his longsuffering with timely chastisements. On 4 memorable occasions the Angel-Jehovah appeared for their deliverance, Josh. 2:1-5; 6:11-21; 10:10-16; 13:3-23. The period of the judges was, on the whole, one of prosper ity ; and while the providence of God con firmed his word, " If ye refuse and rebel, ye shall be devoured by the sword," it no less faithfully assured them, " If ye be will ing and obedient, ye shall eat of the good of the land." JUDG'MENT is an act of the mind in dis cerning and forming an opinion as to the real nature of anything, or the true charac ter of any person or act, Psa. 1 19 : 66 ; Prov. 1 3 : 23 ; Isa. 56 : 1 . In this familiar use of the word we should remember that the •judgment God forms of us is unerringly true to the facts ; all disguises melt away beneath his eye, and each soul appears as it is, Gen. 18 : 25 ; Rom. 2 : 2, and we are warned to see ourselves as he sees us, lest we be condemned at the last, 1 Cor. 11 : 31, Judgment is often used in Scripture for God's vindication of his people, Psa. 37 :6; 76 : 9, and punishment of his foes, Rom. 1:32; 2:3, 5. His " judgments " are his laws, the declarations of his will, Deut. 7:12; Neh. 9:13; Psa. 119, or signal chas tisement of transgressors, Exod. 6:6; Prov. 19 129; Ezek. 25 : 11; Rev. 16 -.7. The word judgment is put in Matt. 5:21, 22, for a court of judgment, a tribunal, namely, the tribunal of 7 judges, which Josephus mentions as existing in every city, and which decided causes of minor importance. See under Synagogue. For the expression, " judgment -hall," see PRjETORIUM. The day of Judgment, for which the word " judgment " alone is sometimes used, is that great day, at the end of the world and of time, when Christ shall sit as judge over all the universe, Acts 17:31, and when every individual of the human race will be judged and recompensed according to his works, whether they be good or evil. It is a truth of revelation, powerfully confirmed by the forebodings of conscience and by a contemplation of the inequalities of retri bution in this life. Various books will be opened: the book of conscience, Rom. 2:15, of God's providence, Rom. 2 : 4, 5, of the Law and of the Gospel, John 12 : 48 ; Rrm. 2:12, 16, and the book of life, Luke 10 : 20; Rev. 3:5; 20 : 12, 15. The time of its com ing and its duration are known only to God. It will break upon the world, sud denly, and with a glorious but awful maj esty. It will witness the perfect vindica tion of all the ways of God. The revela tion of his justice, appalling but unstained, will fill the universe with approving won der ; but the revelation of his yet more amazing goodness will crown him with un utterable glory. The Redeemer especially will then receive his reward, ar.d be glori fied in his saints, who shall be raised from the dead in his likeness. He will divide all mankind into two classes : all the right eous will be in one, and all the wicked in the other; all that love God in the one, and all that hate him in the other ; all that pen itently believed in Christ while they lived in the one, and all that died impenitent and unbelieving in the other. And this judgment and separation will be eternal ; the former will rise in holiness and joy, and the latter sink in sin and woe for ever, 301 JUD BIBLE DICTIONARY. JUD Eccl. 11:9; Dan. 1 2 : 2 ; Matt. 1 o ; 1 5 ; 1 2 : 36 ; 25 : 31-46 ; 26 :64 ; John 5:22; Rom. 14:10 -12 ; 2 Thess. 1 : 7-10; 2 Pet. 2:9:3:7; 1 John 4 : 1 7 ; Rev. 20 : 1 2-1 5. JU'DITH, the praised one, Gen. 26:34, wife of Esau. See Aholibamah. JU'LIA, a Christian woman at Rome, to whom Paul sent salutations, Rom 16: 15. JU'LIUS, a centurion of the cohort of Augustus, to whom Festus, governor of Judaea, committed Paul to be conveyed from Caesarea to Rome. Julius had great regard for Paul. He suffered him to land at Sidon and visit his friends ; and at Mal ta opposed the violence of the soldiers, directed against the prisoners generally, in order to save the apostle, Acts 27. JU'NIAS, Rom. 16 : 7, A. V. Junia, one of Paul's " kinsmen " — perhaps only country men, Rom. 9 : 3 — at Rome, an earlier disci ple of Christ than he. GENISTA MONOSFERMA, OR RSTvEM. JU'NIPER, is found in the English Bible, 1 Kin. 19:4, 5 ; Job3o:4; Psa. 120:4. The Hebrew word, however, signifies the plant Genista, or Spanish broom, which is com mon in the desert regions of Arabia, and has snow-white blossoms, streaked with purple, and a bitter root. The Arabs call it the retem. It grows to the height of 8 or 10 feet, and is highly prized in the desert as food for sheep and goats, fuel, and shel ter from sun and wind. See Rithmah. JU'PITER, the supreme god of the heath en Greeks and Romans. He was called the son of Saturn and Ops, and was said 302 to have been born iri Crete. The charac ter attributed to him in pagan mythology was a compound of all that is wicked, ob scene, and beastly in the catalogue of hu man crime, though he was ever described as of noble and dignified appearance and bearing. Hence, after the miraculous cure of the impotent man at Lystra, the super stitious populace recognizing a superhu man power, called Barnabas Jupiter, and Paul Mercury, and sought to worship them, Acts 14: 11-13. The Ephesians imagined that their wooden image of Diana was sent down to them by Jupiter, Acts 19 : 35. An tiochus Epiphanes polluted the temple at Jerusalem by sacrificing swine on the altar, and changed it to a temple of Olympian Jupiter. This idol-altar and image were supposed by the Jews to be the " Abomi nation of Desolation" of Daniel. See Abomination. JUS'TICE, a principle of righteousness and equity, controlling our conduct, and securing a due regard to all the rights of others — their persons, property, character, and interests. It has to do, not with pecu niary transactions alone, but with all our intercourse with society. It is one of the 4 cardinal virtues, and requires not only that we abstain from doing others any wrong, even in thought, but that we recog nize the brotherhood of all men, and their consequent claim upon our good-will and kind offices. It is unjust not to love our neighbor as truly as ourselves. Justice forms a chief element of the character ap proved in God's Word; and a truly just man has but to " love mercy, and walk humbly with God," to fulfil all righteous ness, Luke 2 : 25. Justice in magistrates, rulers, and judges must be fearless and impartial, and all its decisions such as will bear revision before the court of heaven, Deut. 1:16, 17; 2 Sam. 23:3; 2 Chr. 19:6-10. Judgment is peculiarly the prerogative of God, and every earthly tribunal lies under the shadow of the " great white throne." A just judgment is the voice of God; and hence an unjust one is doubly hateful in his sight, Psa. 82. The word " just " is often used to denote, not the natural disposition, but the charac ter and condition acquired by grace, Heb. 1 2 : 23. " The just shall live by faith," Rom. 1:17; Gal. 3:11. See Justification. The Justice of God is that essential and infinite attribute which makes his na- j ture and his ways the perfect embodiment of equity, and constitutes him the model JUS BIBLE DICTIONARY. JUS and the guardian of equity throughout the universe, Deut. 32:4 ; Psa. 89 : 14 ; 97:2. The justice of God could not leave the world without laws, and cannot fail to vindicate them by executing their penalties ; and as all mankind perpetually break them, every human soul is under condemnation, and must perish, unless spared through the accepted ransom, the blood of Christ. The administration of justice among the Hebrews was characterized by simplicity and promptitude. In early times the partriarch of each family was its judge, Gen. 38 : 24. Afterwards, in the absence of more formal courts, the elders of a house hold, tribe, or city were its judges by natural right. In the wilderness, Moses organized • for the Jews a regular system of judges, some having jurisdiction over 10 families, others over 50, 100, or 1,000. These must be chosen " oi.t of all the people," and must be " able men, such as fear God, men of truth, hating covetousness," Exod. 18:21. Compare 2 Sam. 23:3; Prov. 21 : 15. The difficult cases were referred to Moses, and he often sought divine direction concern ing them, Exod. 18:13-26; Lev. 24:12. These judges were perhaps the "princes of the congregation," and the chiefs of the families and tribes of whom we afterwards read, Num. 27 : 3 ; 1 Chr. 4 : 38. They had their successors in Joshua's day, Josh. 24 : 1. In the land of Canaan, local magistrates were appointed for every city and village ; and these were instructed by and coopera ted with the priests, as being all together under the theocracy, the actual govern ment of Jehovah, the supreme Judge of Israel, Deut. 16: 18; 17:8-10; 19:17 ; 21:1-6. Their informal courts were held in the gate of the city, as the most public and conve nient place, Deut. 21 : 9 ; 22 : 15 ; 25 : 7 ; and in the same place contracts were ratified, Ruth 4 : 1, 9; Jer. 32 : 7-15. Deborah the prophetess judged Israel beneath a palm- tree, Judg. 4: 5. Samuel established virtu ally a circuit court, I Sam. 7 : 16 ; 8 : 1 ; and among the kings, Jehoshaphat made spe cial provision for the faithful administra tion of justice, 2 Chr. 19. The kings them selves were supreme judges, with almost unlimited powers, 1 Sam. 22:16; 2 Sam. 4:9, 10; 1 Kin. 22: 26. They were expect ed, however, to see that justice was every where done, arid to be accessible to all who were wronged. Frequent complaints are found of the maladministration of judges, of bribery and perjury, 1 Sam. 8:351 Kin. 21:8-14; Isa. 1 : 23 ; 10 : 1 ; Mic. 3 : 1 1 ; 7 : 3. There was no class among the Jews ex actly corresponding to our lawyers., The accuser and the accused stood side by side before the judge, with their witnesses, and pleaded their own cause. The accuser is named in several places Satan, that is, the adversary, Psa. 109:6; Zech. 3:1-3. No one could be condemned without the con curring testimony of at least 2 witnesses, Num. 36 : 30 ; and these failing, he was obliged to make oath of his innocence, Exod. 22:11; Heb. 6 : 16. The sentence of the judge was instantly executed ; and in certain cases the witnesses cast the first stone, Deut. 17 : 5, 7 ; 25:2; Josh. 7 : 24; 1 Sam. 22 : 18 ; 1 Kin. 2 : 24 ; Prov. 16 : 14. The same frightful celerity still marks the administration of justice in the East. The application of torture to extract evidence is only once mentioned, and that under the authority of Rome, Acts 22:24. See Sanhedrin and Synagogue. JUSTIFICA'TION, the being regarded and treated as if innocent ; or acquittal from the consequences of guilt before the tribu nal of God. It is the opposite of condem nation, and means acquittal ar.d vindica- t;on, Deut. 25:1; Psa. 143 : 2 ; Prov. 17:15. The term is so used 40 times in the Old Testament, and often in the New, as in Luke 18: 14. "Justification by faith" means that a person, on account of true ai d liv ing faith in Cirri.1 1 as manifested ty gcod works, will be delivered from cor.demra1- tion on account' of his sins ; that is, his sins will be forgiven, and he be regaided and treated as if innocent and holy. Thus, be sides the remission of sins and their pen alty, it includes the restoration and ever lasting enjoyment of the favor of God. We obtain justification by faith in Christ. Yet neither this nor any other act of ours, as a work, is any ground of our justifica tion. In acquitting us before his bar, God regards not our works, in whole or in part, but the atoning work and merits of Christ, Eph. 1:7; Col. 1 : 14 ; Rev. 5 : 9. He was treated as a sinner that we might be treated as righteous. " There is therefore now no condemnation to them which are in Christ Jesus," Rom. 8 : 1-4 ; the moment we be lieve, our justification is as perfect as the infinite worthiness of our Redeemer. Its validity does not depend on the measure of our assurance of hope, nor on spotless holiness of life. Sanctification, indeed, or progressive growth in holiness, commences simultaneously with justification, and must in the end reach the same perfectness. Yet 3<53 JUS BIBLE DICTIONARY. KAN it is important to distinguish between the two, and to observe that, could the believ er's holiness become as perfect as an an gel's, it could not share with the atoning merits of Christ in entitling him to admis sion to heaven. " The best obedience of my hands Dares not appear before thy throne ; But faith c:in answer thy demands, By pleading what my Lord hath done." True justification, by the gratuitous gift of the Saviour, furnishes the most power ful motive to a holy life. It is followed by adoption, peace of conscience, and the fruits of the Spirit in this life ; and by final sanctification, acquittal in the day of judg ment, and admittance to heaven, Rom. 3:20-31; 5; 10:4-10; Gal. 2:16-21; Eph. 2 14-10. JUS'TUS, just, I., a name of Joseph sur- named Barsabas, Acts 1 : 23. See Bar sabas. II. A Corinthian convert, in whose house Paul preached, Acts 18: 7. In the R. V. Titus Justus. III. A Jewish convert, also called Jesus, a fellow-laborer at Rome with Paul and Mark, Col. 4:11. JUT'TAH, inclined, a Levitical city in the mountains of Judah, Josh. 15 : 55 ; 21:16, the modern Yutta, 5 miles south of Hebron. This is conjectured to be the "city of Ju dah," Luke 1 : 39, where Mary visited Elis abeth, and John the Baptist was born. K KAB'ZEEL, gathered by God, a town of Simeon, towards Edom and the Dead Sea, Josh. 15:21, where Benaiah was born, 2 Sam. 23 : 20 ; after the Captivity, Jekabzeel, Neh. 1 1 : 25. Robinson found a site for it at a fountain in Wady el Kuseib, which runs north into the Arabah several miles south of the Dead Sea. KA'DESH, holy, or Ka'desh-bar'nea, called also En-mishpat, Gen, 14:7, and Mer- ibah-Kadesh, Ezek. 47 : 19, the name of a fountain, a city, and the desert around, Psa, 29 : 8, in the southern border of the promised land, Josh. 15:3, 23, It is said, in Num. 20 : 16, to lie in the" uttermost bor der of Edom," and is generally believed to have been situated near the great val ley el-Arabah, south of the Dead Sea. Dr. Robinson found a watering place, 'Ain el Weibeh, which he thought answers well to the indications in Scripture, on the western 3°4 border of el-Arabah, about 27 miles from the Dead Sea. Some later travellers, how ever, extend Edom westward, as including " the mount of the Amorites," Deut. 1 : 19, and find Kadesh at 'Ain el Kadeis, some 60 miles southwest of the Dead Sea and south east of the Mediterranean. It was on the border of the wilderness of Paran and that of Zin, Num. 13: 26 ; 32 : 8 ; Josh. 15 : 1-3. Scripture mentions two periods when Ka desh was visited by the Israelites in their wanderings ; once in the year soon after they left Mount Sinai, and again 37 years after. At the first visit the mission and return of the 12 spies took place, the rebel lion of the people, and their presumptuous effort to enter Canaan by the pass Zephath, immediately north of Kadesh, Num. 13, 14. It may have been their headquarters dur ing the 37 years in the desert. At their 2d visit occurred the death of Miriam, the murmuring of the people for water, the miraculous supply, the sin of Aaron and Moses in smiting the rock, and the fruitless request for a passage through Edom, Num. 20 : 1-22. The southern border of Judah reached to Kadesh-barnea, Josh. 12:22; T5'3- KAD'MIEL, before God, a Levite who re turned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel, and took part in the rebuilding, confession, and covenant, Ezra 2 : 40 ; 3:9; Neh. 7:43; 9 :4, 5 ; 10:9; 12 :8. KAD'MONITES, eastern, or ancient, Gen. 15 : 19, a tribe of Canaanites who inhabited the promised land east ofthe Jordan, about Mount Hermon. Some have fancied that Cadmus, the supposed inventor of the Greek alphabet, and who came from the East, was a Kadmonite, and the Greek letters are obviously derived from the Phoenician or ancient Hebrew letters. Among the Nnsai- riyeh north of Tripoli Thomson found this name preserved, and a tradition that their ancestors were expelled from Canaan by Joshua. He also found other fragments of this aboriginal people around Mount Her mon. KA'NAH, reedy, I., Josh. 16 :8 ; 17 :9, a brook which separated Ephraim on the south from Manasseh on the north. The modern Wady Kanah, a branch of the Nahr-el-Aujeh, seems too far south. Wady Falaik, or Khassal, reedy, is very small, and west of Shechem. North of this are Nahr Iskanderuneh and Nahr Mefjir, a branch of either of which, for part of its course, might suit the case. -II. A town in the northwest, boundary of KAR BIBLE DICTIONARY. KEN Asher, Josh. 19 : 24, 28. A village called Kana is still found 7 or 8 miles southeast of Tyre, with ancient ruins a mile north. KARE'AH, A. V. Careah in 2 Kin. 25 : 23, the father of Johanan and Jonathan, adherents of Gedaliah for a time, Jer. 40-43. KAR'KAA, or Kar'ka, a floor, a town centrally on the southernmost border of Judah, afterwards Simeon's, Josh. 15:3. KAR'KOR, foundation, a place beyond Jordan, where Zebah and Zalmunna took refuge from Gideon, but were again de feated and taken, Judg. 8 : 10. Apparently south of the Jabbok, and northeast of Rab- bath-ammon. KAR'TAH, a city, and KAT'TATH, small. Josh. 19: 15 ; 21 134, a city of Merarite Le vites in Zebulun; possibly el-Harteh, on the Kishon. KAR'TAN, double city,, a Levitical city of refuge in Naphtali, Josh. 21 : 32 ; also called Kirjathaim, 1 Chr. 6 : 76 ; perhaps el Kata- nah, north of Lake Tiberias. KAT'TATH, small. See KARTAH. KE'DAR, dark, the 2d son of Ishmael, Gen. 25 : 13, the father of the Kedarenians, or Cedrei, mentioned by Pliny, who dwelt in the neighborhood of the Nabatheans, in Arabia Deserta, east of the Red Sea. They were a numerous and powerful tribe, not of the best reputation, Psa. 120:5, and their name Kedar is sometimes put for the whole of Arabia Deserta and its wandering in habitants, Isa. 21 : 16, 17 ; 42 : 1 1 ; Jer. 2 : 10. They were rich in flocks and camels, in which they traded with Tyre, Isa. 60 : 7 ; Ezek. 27:21. They were despoiled by Nebuchadnezzar, Jer. 49 : 28, 29. Their black camel's-hair tents are a picturesque feature in a landscape, Song 1 : 5. KED'EMAH, eastward, youngest son of Ishmael, Gen. 25 : 15 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 31. KEDE'MOTH, beginnings, a Levitical city and pasture-ground, Deut. 2 : 26, in Reuben, Josh. 13:18; 21 : 37 ; 1 Chr. 6 : 79. It lay on the north of the Amon, in the border of Sihon king of Heshbon, to whom Moses sent an embassage of peace. KE'DESH, sanctuary, I., a city in the extreme south of Judah, or Simeon, Josh. 1 5 : 23 ; 19:9, probably Kadesh-barnea. II. A Levitical city in Issachar, 1 Chr. 6 : 72. • III. Kedesh-naphtali, a fortified and Le vitical city of refuge in Naphtali, Josh. 19.37; 21:32; iChr.6:76. Barak, judge of Israel, was born here, and assembled here his forces for a decisive battle with Sisera, Judg. 4 : 6, 10. It was ravaged by Tiglath- 20 pileser, 2 Kin. 15 : 29. It is to be found in the modern village Kades, 4 miles west by north of Lake el-Huleh, on a hill overlook ing the Jordan plain. But see Zaanaim. KE'DRON. See Kidron. KEHE'LATHAH, or Kehe'lah, assem bling, 2 1 st station of the Hebrews in the Wanderings, Num. 33 : 22, 23. KEI'LAH, citadel, I., a fortified city in the plains of Judah, towards the south, Josh. 15 :44 ; seeKEiLAH, II., which David once relieved from a siege by the Philistines, but a part of whose people, the Baalites, after wards sought to deliver him up to Saul, 1 Sam. 23 : 1-13. Compare Psa. 31 :6, 8, 21. Two of its rulers helped to rebuild Jeru salem, Neh. 3:17. It may be traced at Khubbet Kilah, 8 miles northwest of He bron. II. A descendant of Caleb, 1 Chr. 4 : 15,19. KELA'IAH, despised of the Lord, and KELI'TA, a dwarf, a Levite active in Ez ra's reform, Ezra 10 : 23 ; Neh. 8:7; 10:10. KEM'UEL, helper, or assembly of God, I., 3d son of Abraham's brother Nahor, and father of Bethuel, Gen. 22 : 21 ; 24 : 15. II. Num. 34:24. — III. 1 Chr. 27: 17. KEN'N AN, possessor, 1 Chr. 1 : 2. See Cai- NAN. KE'NATH, possession, a city of Gilead, captured and named by Nobah,Num. 32 : 42, and Jair, 1 Chr. 2 : 23 ; in the tribe of Ma nasseh. Now Kunawat, in the Hauran. KE'NAZ, hunter, I., son of Eliphaz and grandson of Esau, Gen. 36: 11, 15 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 36, the head of a tribe of Kenezites in Eastern Arabia, towards the Persian Gulf ; traced by some in the Anezeh, now a very large and powerful tribe of the Eastern Bedouins. II. An Edomitish prince, Gen. 36 : 42 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 53. See Josh. 14 : 14. III. Younger brother of Caleb, and father of Othniel, Josh. 15 : 17. IV. Grandson of Caleb, 1 Chr. 4: 15. KE'NITES, workers in iron, an aborigi nal people who dwelt west of the Dead Sea, and extended themselves far into Ara bia Petraea, Gen. 15 : 19, associated with the Amalekites, and Midianites, 1 Sam. 15:5. Jethro, aMidianite, Num. 10 : 29, was a Ke- nite, and his family accompanied the Israel ites, and settled with other Kenites in va rious parts of the Holy Land, Judg. 1:16; 4:11; 1 Sam. 30 : 29 ; 1 Chr. 2:55. Heber and the Rechabites were their descend ants, Judg. 5 : 24. See Jonadab and Midi an. The Kenites of whom we read appear to have known and served Jehovah, and the 3°5 KEN BIBLE DICTIONARY. KID w;hole tribe were friendly to the Hebrews. Saul spared them, when sent by Samuel to destroy the Amalekites among whom they dwelt, I Sam. 15:6; and David feigned an attack upon them, but shared with them his spoils, 1 Sam. 27 : 10 ; 30 : 29. The Ke nites denounced by Balaam, Num. 24 : 21, 22, and dispossessed by the Israelites, Gen. 15 : 19, appear to have been an older Arabi an tribe. KEN'IZZITES, hunters, an ancient peo ple of Canaan, whose land God promised to the descendants of Abraham, Gen. 15 : 19. They appear to have mingled with other Canaanites, and lost their distinctive name before the time of Joshua. KEPT, John 17 : 12, safely guarded. KER'CHIEF, a rich and coquettish veil for the head, Ezek. 13 : 18, 21. KE'REN-HAP'PUCH, h&rn for paint, i. e., cosmetics. Job's 3d daughter, Job 42 : 14. See Eye. KERI'OTH, cities, I., probably to be joined with Hazor, Kerioth-hazor, a double town in the south or Simeonite portion of Judah, Josh. 15 : 25 ; now Kureitein, 12 miles south of Hebron. See Judas, I. II. A strong city of Moab, north of Am man and southwest of Bozrah, taken by Babylon, Jer. 48 : 24, 41 ; Amos 2 : 2. KE'ROS, curved, among the Nethinim who returned after the Captivity, Ezra 2 : 44 ; Neh. 7 : 47. KETU'RAH, fragrance, the wife of Abra ham, after the death of Sarah, Gen. 25 : 1-6. Though she is called a " concubine," this may have been to distinguish her sons as well as Ishmael from Isaac the son of prom ise, Gen. 25 : 6 ; 1 Chr. 1:32; Gal. 4:22, 30. Her sons, named Zimran, Jokshan, Medan, Midian, Ishbak, and Shuah, were estab lished by Abraham in the east country out of Isaac's way, and became the ancestors of many Arabian tribes. KEY, Heb. opening, Gr. closing, Judg. 3 : 23-25. Ancient keys were simpler and clumsier than ours, many consisting of a straight piece of wood or metal, from half a foot to two feet long, curved at the end, and having several teeth or pegs by which the bars of the lock within were disengaged, Song 5 : 4, 5. Some — for the gates of a city, palace, or castle — were large and heavy, and their possession was a symbol of au thority, Isa. 22:22; Rev. 3:7; 9:1; 20 : 1 . The scribes had authority to teach reli gion, Luke 11:52. Christ, the head over all things for his church, gave Peter and the Bther apostles "the keys of the kingdom . 3°6 of heaven," Matt. 16:19; 18 : 18, by direct ing them to open the church to converted Gentiles, and by preaching to all men the forgiveness of sin through Christ's atone ment, and the establishment of his king dom, Matt. 19:28; 21:5; Rev'. II : 15. They could only preach the ministry of reconcili ation, 2 Cor. 5 : 18-20. Hence the professed " power of the keys," the authority of any nominally Christian church to grant abso lution, and thus perform a function belong ing to God only, Mark 2:7; Acts 5 : 31, is a usurpation of divine rights, and an intru sion between the sinner and his all-suffi cient Saviour. KEZI'A, cassia, the fragrant name of Job's 2d daughter, Job 42 : 14. KE'ZIZ, altrupt, valley OF, a city on the east border of Benjamin, Josh. 18:21, per haps in the valley called Kaazis, between Jericho and Bethany. KIB'ROTH-HATTA'AVAH, graves of the longing, the 14th of the encampments of Israel in the wilderness, where they desired of God flesh for their sustenance, declaring they were tired of manna, Num. 1 1 : 34, 35 ; 33 : 16. Quails were sent in miraculous quantities ; but while the meat was in their mouths, God smote so great a number of them that the place was called " the graves of those who lusted," Psa. 78 : 30, 31, amon- ument to warn mankind against the sin of discontent, Deut. 9:22; 1 Cor. 10:6. It was near Taberah, Num. 1 1 : 3, 4, northeast of Sinai, towards the eastern fork of the Red Sea, Num. 10: 33 ; 11:22,31. See Quails. KIBZA'IM, two heaps, a Kohathite Levit ical city of refuge in Ephraim, Josh. 21 : 22, near the Kishon and the boundary of Zeb- ulun ; compare 1 Chr. 6 : 68, where Jokme- am is substituted. KID, the young of the goat, Num. 15:11; 1 Kin. 20:27; Song 1 : 8, still a favorite food of the Arabs, as of old among the Jews, Luke 15 : 29, and used in sacrifices, Num. 7:16, etc.; Lev. 4:23, 28; 9:3; 16:5; 23 : 19, etc. See Goats. KID'RON, or Ce'dron, turbid, black, a winter torrent, and the valley in which it flowed, east of Jerusalem. This valley be gins a mile and a quarter northwest of the. city, passes easterly some 200 rods north of the present wall, f ulltjf excavated tombs, and turns to the south. Here it is wide and open, with olive and other fruit-trees ; but as it runs south between the city and Mount Olivet, it becomes narrow and deep. Opposite Mount Moriah it is a mere tor rent's bed, 100 feet below the city wall, 509 KID BIBLE DICTIONARY. KID JERUSALEM AND ITS VALLEYS, FROM THE SOUTH ; THE. KIDRON YALLEY OPENING ON THE RIGHT, AND HINNOM ON THE LEFT. feet lower than the summit of Mount Oli vet. It sinks still deeper as it passes Silo am, the valley of Hinnom, and the well of Nehemiah, and then winds southeast, in a narrow and precipitous gorge, through the horrid wilderness of St. Saba, to the Dead Sea. The Kidron is now a wady rather than a "brook," its bed being dry most of the year ; even in the rainy season it has no constant stream, though heavy and con tinued rains create an impetuous but short lived torrent. If its waters were those " running through the midst of the land," which Hezekiah stopped, sealing its source, " the upper spring of Gihon," and turning its waters into the city, 2 Chr. 32 : 4, 30, this would explain in part its present dry con dition. It is crossed by a causeway and a bridge of a single arch, between St. Ste phen's gate and the garden of Gethsem ane, where the valley, nearly level, is 400 feet wide. By this route probably David fled from Absalom, 2 Sam. 15 : 23, 30 ; and the Saviour often passed this way in go ing to Bethany, Mount Olivet, and Geth semane, Luke 22 : 39 ; John 18 : I, 2. A 2d bridge crosses the ravine 1,000 feet south, 150 feet below the city wall. The ravine runs on 500 yards more to the " fountain of the virgin " and the village Siloam ; then passes the valley of the Tyropoeon, sloping down from the right, and then the valley of Hinnom, 260 yards wide, below which is en-Rogel, now Bir Ayub, or Job's well. This region is now fertile and cultivated, anciently " the King's Garden," Neh. 3:15. The historical part of the Kidron is thus about 2 J miles long. Its sides are full, of tombs, ancient and modern, the Jews still coveting a burial on Mount Olivet, and the Moslems using the city side of the valley. In this valley and in that of Hinnom, at their confluence, kings Asa, Josiah, and Hezekiah destroyed the idols and abomi nations by which Jerusalem was defiled, 1 Kin. 15:13; 2 Kin. 23:4, 6, 12; 2 Chr. 29: 16; 30:14. See Hinnom and Jerusalem. Its whole length in a straight line would be 15 miles, and it falls into the Dead Sea south of Ras Feshkhah, through a gorge 600 feet high, having descended 3,792 feet. About 8 miles from Jerusalem stands the Greek convent Mar Saba, beyond which the ra vine is named Wady en-Nar, valley of fire. See Sea, III. A part of the waters of the ancient Kidron were derived from the tem ple itself, 'flowing down by several chan nels to the deep bed of the brook. The prophet Ezekiel makes use of this fact in a beautiful and cheering allegory, foretelling the river of divine grace that shall yet ren ovate the world. The stream he, describes issues from the temple, beside the altar of God; it flows with an ever-increasing vol ume ; it carries with it into the dreary wil derness verdure, fruitfulness, and melody; and even heals the bitter waters of the Dead Sea itself, Ezek. 47 : j-12. 307 KIN BIBLE DICTIONARY. KIN KI'NAH, an elegy, a town in the extreme south of Judah (Simeon) towards the Dead Sea, Josh. 15 : 22. KINE, the old English for cows, Gen. 32 : 15 ; 41 : 2-27. " Milch-kine " are milk ing cows, 1 Sam. 6 : 7-14. See Heifer. KING, KINGS. In Scripture the word king does not always imply either a high degree of power or great extent of terri tory. Many single towns, or towns with their adjacent villages, are said to have had kings; and many persons are called kings in Scripture whom we should rather de nominate chiefs or leaders. Moses is said to have been " king in Jeshurun," or Israel, Deut. 33:5; he was the chief, the leader, the guide of his people, though not king in the same sense as David or Solomon. So small a country as Canaan contained 31 kings who were conquered, Josh. 12 :9-24, besides many who no doubt escaped the arms of Joshua. Adoni-zedek, himself no very powerful king, mentions 70 " kings " whom he had subdued and mutilated. See also 1 Kin. 4:21. These kings, in many cases, were no doubt like the sheikhs of Arab tribes at the present day. In the New Testament also the title " king " is applied to Roman emperors and governors, 1 Pet. 2 : 1 3, 1 7 ; Rev. 17:10, 12; and to Herod An tipas, the tetrarch, Mark 6 : 22 ; Luke 3:19. The Israelites had no kings till Saul, hav ing been governed, first by elders, as in Egypt ; then by rulers of God's appoint ment, as Moses and Joshua ; then by judges, as Othniel, Ehud, Gideon, Samuel ; and lastly by kings, as Saul, David, Solomon. Being peculiarly the people of God, their form of government was essentially a the ocracy. God prescribed for them a code of laws ; he designated their rulers ; these laws and rulers the people were to obey " in the Lord ; " and in all cases of doubt, he, as the actual head of the government, was to be consulted, in the spirit of the words, " The Lord is our Judge, the Lord is our Lawgiver, the Lord is our King," Isa. 33: 22 ; 1 Tim. 1:17. Their demand for a king was offensive to him, as an unbeliev ing and rebellious departure from the more immediate headship of Jehovah, 1 Sam. 8:7. Yet even under the regal government they were still to regard him as their king. Idol atry was treason against the throne. Their code of laws was still his holy book. It was a prophet or high-priest of Jehovah who anointed the king, and placed the crown upon his head and the sceptre in his hand, Deut. 17: 15, 18-20; 1 Sam, 10; 1,25; 308 12 : 12-15 ! 2 Sam. 1 : 14, 21 ; 1 Kin. 1 139; 2 Kin. 9:1-6; 11:12; Psa. 21:3. By the in strumentality of his sacred ministers God gave such directions concerning public af fairs as were needed and sought for, 1 Sam. 30: 7 ; 2 Sam. 2:1; and these agents of God, with their instructions and warnings, per formed a most important part in the na tional history, 1 Kin. 20 : 22, 38 ; 2 Kin. 1:15. So far as people and kings looked to God as their Head they prospered ; and it was for lack of this that they were ruined. Of the 2 kingdoms, Judah and Israel, the latter most rapidly and fully threw off its alle giance, 2 Chr. 13 : 4-12 ; and therefore it was the first to perish, having continued 254 years from the death of Solomon, B. C. 975— 721, with 19 kings of 9 different dynasties. The kingdom of Judah continued 387 years after the separation, B. C. 975-588, having been held by 19 successive kings of the line of David. See Israel and Judah. The table on page 309 presents in one view the kings' of Judah and Israel as given in the Bible, with the year when each one began to reign, and the length of his reign. The chronology is that of Usher and Wi ner, who nearly coincide. The Hebrew kings were absolute mon archs, though restricted in many cases by regard to religion, laws, and customs, the desire of esteem, and the fear of revolution. They were held sacred, as " the Lord's an ointed," 2 Sam. 1:14; Lam. 4 : 20. They had numerous officials : recorders or chron iclers, 1 Kin. 4:3; scribes, 2 Sam. 8:17; stewards, Isa. 22:15; 3^ : 3 i " friends " and counsellors, 1 Kin. 4:551 Chr. 27:32; keep ers of the wardrobe, 2 Kin. 5 : 22 ; captains of the guard, 2 Sam. 20 : 23 ; 1 Kin. 2:25; various treasurers, 1 Chr. 27 : 25-31 ; and the chief of the army, 2 Sam. 1 1 : 1 ; 20 : 23. Their income was derived from the royal lands, flocks and herds, from tithes, taxes, and duties, sometimes from commerce, and largely from enforced " presents." They employed the various insignia of royalty, and had palaces, 1 Kin. 7 : 1-1 2, court oifi- cers, thrones, royal robes, and golden uten sils, 1 Kin. 10 : 18-21 ; 22 : 10, crowns and sceptres, 2 Sam. 1 : 10 ; 1 2 : 30 ; Psa 45 : 6, signet-rings, : Kin. 21 :8 ; Esth. 8:8, and obsequious service, 1 Sam. 24 : 8. The two books of Kings, in the original Hebrew one book, contain a history of the kings of Judah and Israel intermingled, commencing with Solomon and ending with Zedekiah ; unlike the books of Chronicles, which give an account only of the kings oi KIN BIBLE DICTIONARY. KIN KINGS OF JUDAH, KINGS OF ISRAEL, all of one dynasty. of nine dynasties. 6 'A NAME. G U H « c 5 wSo 9 s a i I to0V 1 %K 0 C name. c 'A c O CONTEMPORARY PROPHETS, KINDS, AND EVENTS. 1 iehoboam 17 975 | 975 22 Jeroboam, I I. Shishak, Egypt, 975-953- 23 Abijah,Asa, 3 41 958. , I 955 1 . 954953 2 24 Nadab,Baasha, 2 3 II. 11 7- Homer, 950. . 93°929 2 12 Elah, Zimri, - Omri, 4,5 6 11.111. IV. Lycurgus, 923-841. 4 [ehoshaphat, **5 914 r 1 • 9'8 22 Ahab, 7 IV. Ben-hadad, 914-885. • 5 6 7 Jehoram, Ahaziah,Athaliah, usurper Joash, 8 1 7 40 892 ¦ 1 88s L f 878 | ¦ 1 897 | 896 ' 883 2 12 28 Ahaziah, Jehoram, Jehu, 89 10 IV. IV. V. Hazael, 885-845. Carthage founded, 869. 1 \ ¦ 856 '7 Jehoahaz, II V Shalmaneser II., 860-824. 8 Amaziah, **9 838 1 1 1 840 16 Jehoash, 12 V. 1 1 1 825 41 Jeroboam II. 13 V. Jonah, 830-815. 9 Uzziah, 5' 810 ' Macedon founded, 815. Joel, 812-795. IOII Jotham,Ahaz, 1616 758 ¦ . 1 784772 1 77' 1 7°°758 1 738 1 729 12 6mo imo 10 2 20 89 Interregnum,Zachariah, Shallum, Menaliem,Pekahiah,Pekah, Interregnum,Hoshea, H15 16 ¦7 18 19 V. VI. VII. VII. VIU. IX. Amos, 800-784. Hosea, 7S6-736. Shalmaneser IH.,783-773. Pul invades Israel, 770. Isaiah, 766-698. Rome founded, 754. Micah, 750-098. Nabonassar, 747"73*. Tiglath-pileser, 745-727. 12 Hezekiah, 29 7^6 **f 1 721 Captivity, Nahum, 720-698. Numa Pompilius, 715-67J, n Manasseh, 55 697 '¦ Sennacherib, 705-681. *5 Amon, Josiah, 2 3* 642 640" Solon, 638-558. Zephaniah, 630-620. Jeremiah, 628-588. 16 1718 •9 Jehoahaz, 3 mos. Jehoiakim,Jehoiachin, 3 mos. Zedekiah,Captivity, 11 11 609 ¦ 598L 58S |[ Daniel, 606-538. Nebuchadnezzar, 605-562. Ezekiel, 594-576. 309 KIN BIBLE DICTIONARY. KIN Judah. In the Septuagint and Vulgate, our 2 books of Samuel are also called books of Kingdoms. The various histories compri sing the 2 books of Kings were evidently the work of a single inspired writer, and not a mere collection. They are believed to have been written before the books of Chronicles — which contain many Chaldee and Persian expressions — and Jewish tradi tion confirmed by internal evidence makes the prophet Jeremiah their author, B. C. 620. The writer probably drew a part of his materials from the records of each reign left by contemporary prophets and priests, 1 Kin. 11 : 41 ; 14: 29; 15 =7, 23 ; 22 : 45 ; 2 Kin. 8:23; 12:19. See Chronicles. They continue the history given in the 2 books of Samuel, and may be divided into 3 peri ods : I. 1 Kin. 1— II, Solomon's reign. — II. 1 Kin. 12 — 2 Kin. 10, from the division of the kingdom to the captivity of the 10 tribes. — III. 2 Kin. 1 1-25, to the captivity of Judah, and Jehoiachin's 37th year — where we find an earnest of a still future return of God's favor to the covenant people. The history is not a mere record of events, but an account of the relations of the nation to Jehovah its rightful King, and of his deal ings with it in his providence and by his priests, and especially his prophets, in ful filment of his wordin2 Sam. 7 : 12-17. AH these sacred annals are highly instructive. They show us the perfect fulfilment of the divine promises and warnings by Moses ; and every page confirms the inspired dec laration, " The fear of the Lord is the be ginning of wisdom." The book of Isaiah should be read in connection with the story of Ahaz and Hez ekiah, and Jeremiah with that of Jehoiakim and Zedekiah. The names of Omri, Mesha, Jehu, Mena- hem, Hoshea, and Hezekiah are found on the stone tablets of Assyria and Babylon, containing the annals of Tiglath-pileser, Sargon, Sennacherib, and Esar-haddon ; and Egyptian monuments confirm the Scripture records in 1 Kin. 11 : 19, 20, 40, and the story of Shishak's conquest of Ju dah, of Assyria's struggles with Egypt, and Babylon's ascendency over both under Nebuchadnezzar. New Testament allu sions to the narrative are found in Matt. 6: 29; 12 : 42 ; Mark 1:6; Luke 4: 25-27 ; 10 14 with 2 Kin. 4 129; Acts 7 147,48 ; Rom. 11 12-4; Heb. 1 1 : 35 ; Jas. 5 : 17, 18; Rev. ¦ 2:20; 11:6. See also Matt. 17 : 3-12. KING'DOM of Heaven, literally "of the heavens," is an expression used in the New 310 Testament, especially by Matthew, to sig nify the reign, dispensation, or administra tion of Jesus Christ, Matt. 3 : 2 ; 4 : 17 ; 13 : 31 -47 ; 2 Tim. 4:18. It is also called " the king dom of God," Matt. 6 : 33 ; Mark 1 : 14, 15 ; Luke 4 : 43 ; John 3 : 3, 5, and of Christ, Matt. 13 141 ; Eph. 5 15 ; Rev. I : 9. The an cient prophets, when describing the char acter of the Messiah, Dan. 2 : 44 ; 7 : 13, 14 ; Mic. 4 : 1-7, and even when speaking of his humiliation and sufferings, were wont to in tersperse hints of his power, his reign, and his divinity. The Jews, overlooking the spiritual import of this language, expected the Messiah to appear as a temporal king, exercising power over his enemies, resto ring the throne of David to all its splendor, subduing the nations, and rewarding his friends and faithful servants in proportion to their fidelity and services, Matt. 20 : 21 ; Luke 17: 20; 19: 11 ; Acts 1 :6. Hence the contests among his disciples, ere they had fully learned Christ, about precedency in his kingdom ; and hence probably the two sons of Zebedee desired the two chief pla ces in it, or those nearest to their endeared Master and Lord. They afterwards learned that his kingdom was not of this world, John 1 8 : 36, 37 ; that its origin, spirit, means, and ends were spiritual and heavenly, Rom. 14 : 17 ; 2 Cor. 10 : 3-5. It has indeed its outward form, the visible church, Matt. 13: 47, and bestows on the world the richest of temporal blessings ; but its true dominion is in the souls of men. It embraces all who by the Spirit of Christ are united to him as their divine Head and King, to love, serve, and enjoy him forever, Matt. 18:3; 19:14, and those only, Matt. 13 : 41, 47-50 ; 22 : 11 -14 ; Luke 13 : 28, 29; 1 Cor. 6:9, 10; Rev. 21 : 27. His work on earth was to establish it, Matt. 3 : 2. He introduced his disciples into it while on earth, and more fully after his resurrection and ascension, John 20 : 22 ; Acts 2 :, 32-36 ; is " head over all things," in order to make it triumphant and supreme even on earth, Daii. 7. : 27 ; Eph. 1 : 20-22 ; Rev. 11 : 15. It will be perfected in heaven, Matt. 8:11, and will never cease, Luke 1 : 33, even when the mediatorial reign of the Saviour is accomplished, 1 Cor. 15:28. See Old Testament predictions of the Messiah under Prophets. KINS'MAN often denotes mere relation ship, Lev. 1 8 : 1 2, 13, 1 7 ; Num. 27:11; Job 19 : 14 ; Psa. 38 : 1 1. But the Hebrew word Goel, redeemer, designates one's nearest male blood relative, to whom certain rights and duties appertained. See Redeemer. KIR BIBLE DICTIONARY. KIS KIR, a walled place, I., a strong city of Moab, with a fortress, 3,000 feet above the Dead Sea ; called also Kir-hareseth, Kir- : haresh, and Kir-heres, Isa. 15:1; 16 : 7, 1 1 ; Jer. 48 : 31, 36. It was once nearly destroyed by Joram king of Israel, 2 Kin. 3:25. It is now called Kerak, and is a town of 300 families, on a steep hill at the head of a ravine running up 15 miles into the moun tains of Moab. Three-fourths of its pres ent inhabitants are nominal Christians, greatly oppressed by the Mohammedan Arabs around them. See Mesha. II. A region subject to Assyria to which Tiglath-pileser transported the captive peo ple of Damascus, 2 Kin. 16 : 9. Assyrian in scriptions record that this region had been conquered by Esar-haddon. Compare 2 Kin. 19:37. It is mentioned with Elam, Isa. 22 : 6, and is believed to have been in the vicinity of the river Kur or Cyrus, on the northeast of Armenia. The Kur flows southeast, unites with the Araxes, and emp ties into the Caspian Sea. KIRJATHA'IM, two cities, I., the dual form of Kirjath, a city. It was an ancient city of Emim, east of the Jordan ; after wards inhabited by the Moabites, Amo rites, and Israelites in turn, Gen. 14 : 5 ; Deut. 2 : 9-1 1 ; Jer. 48 : 1, 23 ; Ezek. 25:9. It fell within the limits of the tribe of Reuben, Num. 32 : 37 ; Josh. 13:19. It is supposed to be the modern Kureyat, 1 1 miles south west of Medeba. II. A Levitical city of refuge in Naph tali, 1 Chr. 6: 76; called Kartan in Josh. 21 132. KIR'JATH-AR'BA, the city of Arba, the son of Anak, Gen. 23:2; Josh 14: 15 ; 15 : 13, 54 ; 20:7; 21 : 11 ; Judg. 1 : 10 ; Neh. 11 : 25. See Hebron. KIRJATH-A'RIM, city of forests, Ezra 2:25; called also Kirj ath-baal, Josh. 1 5 : 60 ; 18: 14, Kirjath, Josh. 18:28, and Baalah, Josh. 15:9. See Kirjath-jearlm. KIR'JATH-HU'ZOTH, city of streets, a town of Moab to which Balak led Balaam, Num. 22 : 39. Perhaps the same as Kir. KIR'JATH-JEA'RIM, city of forests. See Kirjath-arim. It was assigned to Judah, perhapsin part to Benjamin, being on the border-line of each, Josh. 15 : 9, 60 ; 18 : 14, 15, 28, and was one of the 4 Gibeonite cities that deceived Joshua, Josh. 9:3-17. See Ma- haneh-dan. Hither the ark was brought back from the Philistines, 1 Sam. 6 : 21 ; 7 : 1, 2, and remained in the house of Abinadab some 70 years, till David removed it to the house of Obed-edom and thence to Jerusa lem, 2 Sam. 6 : 2-12 ; 1 Chr. 13 ; 15 ; 2 Chr. 1:4. Compare Psa. 132:6, "the fields of Jearim." It was repeopled after the Cap tivity, Ezra 2:25; Neh. 7 : 29. Its site is probably found at Kuryet el Enab, 8 miles from Jerusalem on the way to Ramleh, where are well-preserved ruins of a Gothic • church of the Crusaders. KIR'JATH-SAN'NAH, city of palms, Josh. 15 : 49, and KIR'JATH-SE'PHER, city of books, Josh. 10:38,39; 12: 13; 15:15,49, also called Debir, which see. KISH, bow or trap, I., in A. V. Cis, Acts 13:21, the father of king Saul, 1 Sam. 9 : 1, 21; 14:51 ; 1 Chr. 8:33;9:39. II. A descendant of Benjamin, 1 Chr. 8 : 30 ; 9 : 36. — III. A Merarite Levite under Hezekiah, a cleanser of the temple, 2 Chr. 29 : 12. — IV. 1 Chr. 6 : 44 ; 15 : 17 ; 23 : 21, 22.— V. Esth. 2 : 5. KISH'ION, hardness, a Gershonite Levite town in Issachar, Josh. 19 : 20; 21 : 28, in A. V. Kishon. KI'SHON, winding, now the Nahr el-Mu- > katta, Josh. 19: 11, a brook which rises in the plain of Esdraelon, near the foot of« Mount Tabor. After passing through the great plain and receiving the waters of va rious smaller streams it flows northwest, along the foot of Mount Carmel, and dis charges itself into the Mediterranean, a short distance south of Acre. The supplies it receives from the Carmel ridge, see Car mel, IL, make it a perennial stream for - about 7 miles from its mouth. But all the eastern part of its channel, now that the great plain through which it flows is un- wooded, is dry throughout the summer season ; and yet in the winter, and after heavy rains, it swells to a. full and rapid torrent. The drowning of Sisera's host, Judg. 4:13:5: 21, is paralleled by a simi lar destruction of Arabs fleeing from the French after the battle of Mount Tabor, April 18, 1799. The Deburieh, an affluent of the Kishon from the northeast, is also dry in the summer, but speedily becomes a deep and strong current when swollen by the rains on the surrounding heights. See Megiddo. KISS. This salutation was customary in the East to express regard and reverence as well as affection, Gen. 29 : 13 ; Ruth 1 : 14; Song 1:2; Acts 20 : 37. Sometimes the beard was kissed, 2 Sam. 20:9 ; and, in token ' of humble affection, the feet, Luke 7 : 38, or even the ground beneath them, Isa. 49 : 23. Mention is made of tne practice between parents and children, Gen. 27 26 ; 31 : 28, .311 KIT BIBLE DICTIONARY. KOR 55 ; Luke 15 : 20, between bridegroom and bride, Song 8:1, between near male rela tives and friends, Gen. 33 : 4 ; 45 : 15 ; 1 Sam. 20: 41, or acquaintances of equal rank, 2 Sam. 20 : 9 ; Psa. 85 : 10 ; Luke 22 : 48 ; Acts 20 : 37, from condescending superiors, 2 Sam. 15:5; 19 : 39, and from inferiors, Luke 7 : 45. Images and the heavenly bodies were worshipped by kissing the hand towards them, 1 Kin. 19: 18; Job 31 : 27 ; Hos. 13 :2. The expression, " Kiss the Son," Psa. 2:12, may be illustrated by 1 Sam. 10 : I, where king Saul receives the kiss of allegiance from Samuel. This salutation being customary in those days between man and man, was used in the early church as a pledge of Christian peace and charity. Rom. 16:16; 1 Cor. 16:20; 2 Cor. 13:12; 1 Thess. 5:26; 1 Pet. 5:14; and this custom was kept up more or less for centuries between persons of the same sex only, and died out with the age of persecutions. KITE, Heb. clamorer, a bird of prey, un clean by the Mosaic law, Lev. 11 : 14 ; Deut. 14 : 13, remarkable for its swiftness, cour age, and long sight, Job 28 : 7, in the A. V. " vulture." The red kite, milvus regalis, is common in Palestine. KIT'TIM, son of Javan, and grandson of Noah, Gen. 10 : 4 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 7. See Chit- tim. KNEAD'ING was usually performed by women, Gen. 18:6; 1 Sam. 28 : 24 ; 2 Sam. 13:8; Jer. 7 :i8, but sometimes by male ba kers by trade, Hos. 7 : 4, as shown on Egyp tian monuments. See Bread. Each fam ily usually made its own bread. The kneading-troughs, Exod. 8:3; 1 2 : 34, trans lated " store " in Deut. 28 : 5, 1 7, were either small wooden bowls, or circular pieces of leather which might be drawn up like a bag by a cord encircling the edge. The Arabs of the present day use both. KNEE and KNEEL'ING. Strong knees betokened vigor and courage, and weak or trembling knees the opposite, Psa. 109 : 24 ; Isa. 35:3; Dan. 5 : 6 ; Heb. 1 2 : 1 2. Kneeling was a sign of subjection, Gen. 27 : 29; 42: 6, or of asking a favor, Matt. 17 : 14 ; Mark 1 :40; 10 : 17, and was customary in recei ving a personal benediction, the same He brew word signifying " to bless," Gen. 27 : 4, 7,10,19; Lev. 9 : 22,23; Num.24: 1, and "to thank," Deut. 8 : 10; Psa. 16:7. "To bow the knee " means " to worship," Exod. 20:5; 1 Kin. 19: 18; Psa. 95:6; Isa. 66:3; and this was the customary posture in prayer, 2 Chr. 6: 13; Ezra 9: 5; Dan. 6:10; Luke 22:41; Acts 7 : 60 ; 9 : 40 ; 20 : 36 ; 21 : 5 ; Eph. 3 : 14. 3T2 KNIFE is used to translate 4 different Hebrew words, and applied to all cutting instruments, of flint, Exod. 4:25; Josh. 5 : 2, 3, bone, bronze, and iron, and of various sizes, from those used in the slaughter and carving of sacrifices, Gen. 22 : 6, 10 ; Ezra 1:9; Prov. 30 : 14, or for pruning-hooks. Isa. 18 : 5, to those used as lancets, I Kin. 18 : 28, amd in sharpening reed-pens, Jer. 36 : 23. They were not generally used at table. KNOPS or KNOBS, ornamental balls like pomegranates, on the sacred candlestick, Exod. 25 : 31-36 ; 37 : 17-22. In Amos 9 : 1 — translated " lintel " — and Zeph. 2 : 14, in dicating the shape of the capital of a column. Another Heb. word describes the gourdlike ornaments of the temple walls and the bra zen sea, 1 Kin. 6 : 18 ; 7 : 24. KO'HATH, assembly, the 2d son of Levi, Gen. 46 : 1 1 , born in Canaan, dying in Egypt at the age of 133, Exod. 6 : 16, 18. The Ko- hathites his descendants were prominent among the 3 divisions of the Levites, and had the honorable service of bearing the ark, the altars, the table of show-bread, etc., during the journeys of the Israelites in the desert, Num. 3 131, these having been previously covered by the priests, Num. 4:4-15. See Uzzah. There were 4 fami lies of his sons, 1 Chr. 23 : 12, and at the exodus his male posterity numbered 8,600, of whom 2,750 were from 30 to 50 years old. Their station in camp was south of the tab ernacle, near that of Reuben, Num. 3:19, 20, 27-31 ; 4 : 35, 36. Their cities were in Manasseh, Ephraim, and Dan, Josh. 21:5, 20-26; 1 Chr. 6 : 61-70, and they furnished judges, treasurers, and singers, 1 Chr. 26 : 23-32 ; 2 Chr. 20 : 9. See PRIESTS. KO'RAH, ice, or baldness, I., 2d son of Esau and Aholibamah, a prince of Edom, Gen. 36:5, 14, 18. II. A son of Hebron, tribe of Judah, 1 Chr. 2 : 43. III. A Kohathite Levite, who rebelled against Moses and Aaron, and so against Jehovah. He was a cousin of Moses, for their fathers Izhar and Amram were bro thers, Exod. 6 : 16-21. He was jealous of the civil authority and priestly dignity con ferred by God upon Moses and Aaron, his cousins, while he was simply a Levite ; and to obtain a part at least of their power for himself, he stirred up a factious spirit in the people. Too milch, alas, of what may seem to be zeal for the honor of God has its true character displayed in the pride and ambition of this rebellious Levite. Korah and the 250 Levites whom he had KOR BIBLE DICTIONARY. LAM enticed to join him were destroyed by fire from the Lord ; while Dathan and Abiram were swallowed by the miraculous opening of the earth, Num. 1 6 ; Psa. 1 06 : 1 7 , 1 8 ; Jude II. But Korah's children escaped, Num. 26 : 1 1 ; and the Korahites, or " sons of Ko rah," were a celebrated family of door keepers, singers, and poets in the time of David, 1 Chr. 9 : 17-19 ; 26 : 1 ; 2 Chr. 20 : 19. To them are inscribed several Psalms, Psa. 42, 44-49, 84, 85, 87, 88. KO'RE, a partridge, I., 1 Chr. 9 : 19 ; 26 : 1. II. 2 Chr. 31 : 4. In I Chr. 26 : 19 it is put in A. V. for Korah. KOZ, and, with the article, HAKKOZ, a thorn, I Chr. 24 : 10, head of aline of priests in David's reign, Ezra 2 : 61 ; Neh. 3 : 4, 21 ; 7:63. L. LA'BAN, white, I., a rich herdsman of Mesopotamia, son of Bethuel, and grand son of Nahor, Abraham's brother, Gen. 24 : 28-31. His character is shown in the gladness with which he gave his sister Re bekah in marriage to the only son of his rich uncle Abraham, Gen. 24 : 30, 50, and in his deceitful and exacting treatment of Jacob his nephew and son-in-law, against which Jacob defended himself by cunning as well as fidelity. When the prosperity of the one family and the jealousy of the other rendered peace impossible, Jacob, at the command of God, secretly departed, to go to Canaan. Laban pursued him ; but being warned by God to do him no harm, returned home after making a treaty of peace. He seems to have known and wor shipped God, Gen. 24 : 50; 30 : 27 ; 31: 53 ; but the " gods " or teraphim which Rachel stole from her father, Gen. 31 : 30, 34, tend to sug gest that he was not without some taint of idolatry. II. Deut. 1 : 1. See Libnah, I. LACE, twisted, the blue cord or ribbon binding the high priest's breastplate to the ephod, Exod. 28 : 28, 37 ; 39 : 21, 31 ; Num. 1 5 : 38 ; also called " wire " in Exod. 39 : 3, "thread "in Judg. 16: 9, and "line "in Ezek. 40 : 3. LA'CHISH, impregnable, or smitten, a royal and strong city of Canaan, whose king Japhia united with neighboring kings against Joshua, but was defeated and ta ken, Josh. 10 : 1-33. It lay in the southwest part of Judah, Josh. 10 : 3, 5, 31 ; was forti fied by Rehoboam, 2 Chr. 11:9, and proved strong enough to resist for a time the whole army of Sennacherib, 2 Kin. 18 : 17 ; 19 : 8 ; 2 Chr. 32 : 1, 9, 21 ; Mic. 1 : 13. It was here that king Amaziah was slain, 2 Kin. 14 : 19; 2 Chr. 25 : 27. For a wonderful confirma tion of the truth of Scripture, see Sen nacherib. The site of Lachish is thought to be Um Lakis, 25 miles west of Hebron, in the Shephelah. LAD'DER, Gen. 28 : 1 2-1 7. The comfort ing vision of the heavenly ladder shown to the fugitive Jacob assured him of the omni present providence of God, and of his com munication of all needed good to his peo ple in the desert of this world, Heb. 1 : 14. It was also an assurance that there was a way open from earth to heaven, as well as from heaven to earth ; and we may see in it an illustration of the nature of Christ, in which heaven and earth meet ; and of his work, which brings man home to God, John 1:51. LA'ISH, a lion, I. See Dan, II. II. Isa. 10 : 30, a town near Anathoth on the north of Jerusalem, passed by the in vading Assyrians ; now Adasa. III. A native of Gallim, and father of Phaltiel, 1 Sam. 25 144 ; 2 Sam. 3:15. LAH'MAN, a town in the low land of Ju dah, Josh. 1 5 : 40, now Tell Hamam, 6 miles southeast of Eglon. LAH'MI, of Bethlehem, 1 Chr. 20 : 5, ap parently a brother of Goliath. But see 2 Sam. 21 : 19. Perhaps we should read that Elhanan the son of Jair, a Bethlehem- ite, slew a brother of Goliath. LAKE. See Merom and Sea. That most terrible description of hell, as a lake burn ing with fire and brimstone, Rev. 19:20; 21:8, recalls the fire and sea in which Sod om was consumed and swallowed up. LAMB, the young of the sheep, and also the kid of the goat, Exod. 1 2 : 3-5. Christ is the Lamb of God, John 1 : 29, 36, as being the accepted sacrifice for human sin, Acts 8 : 32 ; 1 Pet. 1:19. The sacrifices of the Old Testament were an ordained and per petual foreshadowing not only of his expi atory death, but of his spotless holiness and his unresisting meekness, Isa. 53 : 4-9. He is described in Rev. 5:6; 12:11 as wearing the form of a sacrificial lamb in heaven it self. See Passover and Sacrifices. In 1 Pet. 1 : 18, 19 there may be an allusion to the fact that ancient coins bore the figure of a lamb. LA'MECH, vigorous, I., son of Methusael, Gen. 4 : 18-24, a descendant of Cain, in the 5th generation, and ancestor of a numerous posterity distinguished for skill in agricul- 3r3 LAM BIBLE DICTIONARY. LAN ture, music, and several mechanic arts. He is the first polygamist on record. His address to his 2 wives is the oldest speci men of poetry extant, and is a good illus tration of Hebrew parallelism. " Adah and Zillah, hear my voice ; Ye wives of Lamech, hearken to my speech. I have slain a man to my wounding, Even a young man to my hurt. If Cain shall he avenged seven-fold, Truly Lamech seventy and seven fold." Many explanations of this abrupt fragment have been suggested. The most satisfac tory, perhaps, is that Lamech had acci dentally or in self-defence killed a man, and was exposed to the vengeance of " the avenger of blood ; " but quiets the fears of his wives by saying that as God had pro hibited the slaying of Cain under heavy penalties, Gen. 4: 15, much more would he guard the life of Lamech who was compar atively innocent. II. The son of Methuselah, and father of Noah; he lived 777 years, and died only 5 years before the flood, Gen. 5 : 25-3 1 ; 1 Chr. 1:3; Luke 3 : 36. LAMENTA'TIONS OF Jeremiah, an ele giac poem, composed by the prophet on occasion of the destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar. The first 2 chapters principally describe the calamities of the siege of Jerusalem ; the 3d deplores the persecutions which Jeremiah himself had suffered ; t,'he 4th adverts to the ruin and desolation of the city and temple and the misfortune of Zedekiah ; and the 5th is a kind of form of prayer for the Jews in their captivity. At the close, the prophet speaks of the cruelty of the Edomites, who had in sulted Jerusalem in her misery, and threat ens them with the wrath of God. B. C. 586. The first 4 chapters of the Lamentations are in the acrostic form, every verse be ginning with a letter of the Hebrew alpha bet in regular order. The 1st, 2d, and 4th chapters contain 22 verses each, ac cording to the letters of the alphabet ; the 3d chapter has 3 successive verses begin ning with the same letter, making 66 in all. Moreover, all the verses in each chapter are nearly of the same length. The 5th chapter is not acrostic. See Letters. The style of Jeremiah's Lamentations is lively, tender, pathetic, and affecting. It was the talent of this prophet to write melancholy and moving elegies, 2 Chr. 35:25; and nev er was a subject more worthy of tears, nor treated with more tender and affecting sentiments. One would think, as has often 3M been said, that every letter was written with a tear, and every word was the sob of a broken heart. Yet he does not forget that a covenant God still reigns. LAMP. The lamps of the ancients, some times called " candles " in our Bible, were cups and vessels of many convenient and graceful shapes, and might be carried in the hand or set upon a stand. See Can dlestick. The lamp was fed with vege table oils, chiefly olive, tallow, wax, etc., and was kept burning all night. Compare Matt. 8 : 12; 22 : 13, "the outer darkness." The poorest families, in some parts of the East,, still regard this as essential to health and comfort. A darkened house therefore forcibly told of the extinction of its former occupants, Job 18 : 5, 6 ; Prov. 13 : 9 ; 20 : 20 ; Jer. 25 : 10, 11; while a constant light was significant of prosperity and perpetuity, 2 Sam. 21 : 17 ; 1 Kin. 11 : 36 ; 15:4; Psa 132 : 17. Lampsto be carried in the streets, Judg. 7 : 16, 20; 15 : 4, presented a large sur face of wicking to the air, and needed to be frequently replenished from a vessel of oil borne in the other hand, Matt. 25:3,4,8. Torches and lanterns, John 18:3, were very necessary in ancient cities, the streets of which were never lighted. LAND'MARK. Fences and walls seem to have been little used in Judaea, Mark 2 : 23, though gardens were sometimes in closed. The ancient and permanent lim-' its, therefore, of individual property in the open field, Ruth 2 : 3 ; Job 24 : 2, were marked by trees or heaps of stones at the corners ; LAN BIBLE DICTIONARY. LAN and as it was easy, by removing these, to encroach on a neighbor's ground, a pecu liar form of dishonesty arose, requiring a severe punishment, Deut. 19:14; 27:17; Prov. 22 : 28 ; 23 : 10 ; Hos. 5 : 10. LAN' GUAGE, one of the distinguishing gifts of God to man, essential to all high enjoyment and improvement in social life, and to be prized and used in a manner worthy of its priceless value for the glory of God and the benefit of mankind. The original language was. not the growth of a mere faculty of speech in man, but a crea tion and gift of God. Adam and Eve when created knew how to converse with each other and with the Creator. For some 2,000 years " the whole earth was of one language arid of one speech," Gen. 11: 1. But about 100 years after the flood, accord ing to the common chronology, and later according to others, God miraculously " confounded the language " of the Cushite rebels at Babel ; and peopling the earth by these scattered families of diverse tongues, he frustrated their designs and promoted his own. There are now several hundreds of languages and dialects spoken on the earth, and infidels have hence taken occa sion to discredit the Bible doctrine of the unity of the human race. It is found, how ever, that these languages are distributed in several great classes, which have stri king affinities with each other ; and as com parative philology extends its researches, it finds increasing evidence of the substan tial oneness of the human race and of the truth of Scripture. The ancient inscrip tions on Babylonian bricks and Assyrian tablets, called cuneiform, or wedge-shaped, because the letters are formed by groups of small wedges in all positions — horizon tal, perpendicular, and oblique — are frag ments of the ancient sacred language of Assyria, Babylon, and Persia. , It has sev eral dialects, and is akin to the Shemitic languages, while it furnishes evidences of one still more ancient, called the Accadian, from which translations were made into the Assyrian. Not a few of its roots are found in the Sanscrit. The miracle performed at Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost was the reverse of that at Babel, Acts 2 : 1-18, and beautifully illus trated the tendency of the gospel to intro duce peace and harmony where sin has brought discord, and to reunite all the tribes of mankind in one great brotherhood. To the student of the Bible, one of the most important subjects is the character and history of the original languages in which that holy book was written. In re spect to the original Greek of the New Tes tament, see under the article Greece. The Greek version of the Old Testament, the Septuagint, is often quoted in the New Testament, sometimes when varying from the original Hebrew, though not always. It was the language fhost used by our Lord and his disciples, and no doubt their very words are in many cases thus preserved. The Hebrew language, in which the Old Testament was written, is but one of the cluster of cognate languages which an ciently prevailed in Western Asia, com monly called the Shemitic languages, as belonging particularly to the descendants of Shem. A proper knowledge of the He brew, therefore, implies also an acquaint ance with these other kindred dialects. The Shemitic languages may be divided into 3 principal dialects, namely, the Ara maean, the Hebrew, and the Arabic. 1 . The Aramaean, spoken in Syria, Mesopotamia, and Babylonia, is subdivided into the Syri ac and Chaldee dialects, sometimes called also the West and East Aramaean. 2. The Hebrew or Canaanitish dialect, Isa. 19 : 18, was spoken in Palestine, and probably with little variation in Phoenicia and the Phoeni cian colonies, as, for instance, at Carthage and other places. The remains of the Phoe nician and Punic dialects are too few and too much disfigured to enable us to judge with certainty how extensively these lan guages were the same as the dialect of Pal estine. 3. The Arabic, to which the Ethiop- ic bears a special resemblance, comprises in modern times a great variety of dialects as a spoken language, and is spread over a vast extent of country ; but so far as we are acquainted with its former state, it ap pears more anciently to have been limited principally to Arabia and Ethiopia. These languages are distinguished from European tongues by several marked pe culiarities ; they are all, except the Ethi- opic, written from right to left, and their books begin at what we should call the end ; the alphabet, with the exception of the Ethiopic, which is syllabic, consists of consonants only, above or below which the vowel-points are written ; they have sev eral guttural consonants very difficult of pronunciation to Europeans ; the roots of the language are in general verbs of 3 let ters, and pronounced, according to the va rious dialects, with one or more vowels'; the verbs have but 2 tenses, the past and 315 . LAN BIBLE DICTIONARY. LAO the future ; and the pronouns in the oblique cases are generally united in the same word with the noun or verb to which they have a relation. These various dialects form sub stantially one language, of which the origi nal home was Western Asia. That they have all diverged from one parent stock is manifest, but *o determine which of them has undergone the fewest changes would be a difficult question. The language of Noah and his son Shem was substantially that of Adam and all the antediluvians. Shem and Heber were contemporary with Abraham, and transmitted, as we have good reason to believe, their common tongue to the race of Israel ; for it is not to be as sumed that at the confusion of Babel no branch of the human family retained the primitive language. It does not appear that the descendants of Shem were among the builders of Babel, Gen. io :8-io. The oldest records that are known to exist are composed in the Hebrew language. In it Moses wrote down the divine communica tions and the history of Israel, Exod. 17:14; 24 : 4 ; 34:27 ; Num. 33 : 2. It flourished in its purest form in Palestine, among the Phoenicians and Hebrews, until the period of the Babylonish exile ; soon after which it declined, and at 450 B. C. was succeeded by a kind of Hebraeo-Aramaean dialect, such as was spoken in the time of our Sa viour among the Jews. The West Aramae an had flourished before this for along time in the east and north of Palestine ; but it now advanced farther west, and during the period that the Christian churches of Syria flourished it was widely extended. It is now almost a dead language. No translation of the Old Testament Hebrew Scriptures pre ceding the time of Christ is known to us. The Hebrew may now be regarded as hav- ihg been a dead language, except among a small circle of literati, for about the space of 2,000 years. Our knowledge of Arabic literature extends back very little beyond the time of Mohammed. But the followers of this pretended prophet have spread the dialect of the Koran over vast portions of the world. Arabic is now the vernacular language of Arabia, Syria, Egypt, and in a great measure of Palestine and all the north ern coast of Africa ; while it is read and un derstood wherever the Koran has gone, in Turkey, Persia, India, and Tartary. The remains of the ancient Hebrew tongue are contained in the Old Testament and in the few Phoenician and Punic words and inscriptions that have been here and 316 there discovered. The remains of the Ara maean are extant in a variety of books. In Chaldee we have a part 'of the books of Daniel and Ezra, Dan. 2 : 4 to 7 : 28 ; Ezra 4 : 8 to 6 : 18, and 7: 1 2-26, which are the most ancient of any specimens of this dialect. The Targum of Onkelos, that is, the trans lation of the Pentateuch into Chaldee, af fords the next and purest specimen of that language. In Syriac there is a considera ble number of books and manuscripts ex tant. The oldest specimen of this language that we have is contained in the Peshito, or Syriac version of the Old and New Testa ment, made perhaps within a century after the time of Christ. A multitude of writers in this dialect have flourished, many of whose writings are probably still extant, although but few have been printed in Eu rope. In Arabic there exists a great vari ety of manuscripts and books, historical, scientific, and literary. A familiar knowl edge of this and its kindred dialects throws much valuable light on the Old Testament Scriptures. LAODICE'A, justice of the people, a large and opulent city of Asia Minor, the me tropolis of Phrygia Pacatiana. It was sit uated on the river Lycus, not far above its junction with the Maeander, and in the vicinity of Colossae and Hierapolis. Its earlier name was Diospolis ; but after be ing enlarged by Antiochus II. it was called Laodicea, from his wife Laodice. About A. D. 65 or 66, this city, together with Hi erapolis and Colossae, was destroyed by an earthquake, but was quickly rebuilt by Marcus Aurelius. It is now in ruins, and the place is called Eski-hissar, or the old castle. A Christian church was early gath ered here. It was addressed by Paul in his letter to Colossae, and in another now lost, Col. 2 : 1 ; 4 : 13-16, though some think the " Epistle to the Ephesians " is the one alluded to. The church at Laodicea was probably visited by Paul A. D. 63, and is one of the 7 which received special mes sages from Christ after his ascension, Rev. 1 : 1 1 ; 3 : 14-22. It was wealthy and luke warm. We know little of its after-history, except that an important council was held there near the middle of the 4th century, and that some form of Christianity lin gered there until the time of the Turks. LAP'IDOTH, torches, husband of Debo rah, Judg. 4 : 4, 5. LAP'PING, a mode of drinking in which the water is taken in the hollow of the hand and thrown upon the tongue by quick mo- LAP BIBLE DICTIONARY. LAW tions, the head being held near the stream, Judg. 7 : 5, 6. LAP'WING, Heb. double-cresl, supposed to mean the hoopoe, a beautiful migratory bird, of filthy habits and a hooping voice ; pronounced unclean by Moses, Lev. n : 19. It is about the size of a thrush ; its beak is long, black, thin, and a little hooked, its legs gray and short. On its head is a tuft of feathers of different colors, which it raises or lowers as it pleases. Its neck and breast are somewhat reddish, and its wings and tail black, with white streaks. LAS^'A, a city near Fair-havens, mid way on the south side of Crete. Paul passed it on his voyage to Rome, Acts 27 : 8. LA'SHA, a chasm, Gen» 10 : 19, in the bor der of Canaan ; supposed to mean Callir- rhoe, with its hot springs, in the Zerka Main chasm, east of the Dead Sea ; but perhaps Laish, at the northeast corner of Canaan. LASHA'RON, a Canaanite city, Josh. 12 : 18, perhaps Sarura, 7 miles southwest of Tiberias. LATCH'ET, the thong by which the san dal was secured to the foot, Luke 3:16. LAT'TICE. See next column. LAUD, to extol, by words of praise or in song, Rom. 15: 11. LAUGHTER is expressive of joy, Psa. 126: 2, of mockery, Gen. 18 : 13, of proud security, Job 5:22, of God's sense of the folly and madness of sin, Psa. 2:4; 59 : 8 ; Prov. I : 26. LA'VER, a large circular vessel, cast from the polished brass mirrors contribu ted by the Hebrew women, and placed be tween the door of the tabernacle and the altar of burnt-offering, with water for the necessary sacred ablutions, Exod. 30 : 18- 21 ; 38:8; 40:7, 30-32. For the temple of Solomon, besides the vast brazen sea for the use of the priests (see Sea), io lavers were made for clean sing the sacrifices, 2 Chr. 4 : 6. Each laver contained about 300 gallons, and was sup ported above a highly elaborate and beau tiful base, 1 Kin. 7 : 27-39. They were sta tioned within the court of the priests, in front of the temple, 5 on each side. The laver was probably the reservoir, and its base the basin in which the hands and feet were washed. See Temple. LATTICE-WINDOW, CAIRO. LAT'TICE, Judg. 5:28, or casement, 2 Kin. 1:2; Prov. 7 : 6, a network or blind before a window. See House. LAW, in the Bible, signifies sometimes the whole word of God, Psa, 19 : 7-1 1 ; 1 19 ; Isa. 8 : 20 ; sometimes the Old Testament, John 10:34; 15:25, and sometimes the 5 books of Moses, which formed the first of the 3 divisions of the Hebrew Scriptures, Luke 24 : 44 ; Acts 13:15. The Pentateuch was probably " the law," a copy of which every king was to transcribe for himself and study, and which was to be made known to young and old, in public and in private, Deut. 6 : 7 ; 17:18,19531 : 9-19, 26. In many other places the Mosaic institu tions as a whole are intended by "the law," in distinction from the gospel — the old dispensation instead of the new, John 1:17; Acts 25 : 8 ; Heb. 10: 1-18. When the word refers to the law of Mo ses, careful attention to the context is some times requisite to judge whether the civil, the ceremonial, or the moral law is meant. The ceremonial or ritual laws, concerning th§ forms of worship, sacrifices, priests, 3'7 JOR BIBLE DICTIONARY. JOR purifications, etc., were designed to distin guish the Jewish nation from the heathen, and to foreshadow the gospel dispensation. As a code, they were annulled after Christ's ascension, Gal. 3 : 24 ; Eph. 2:15; Heb. 9 ; 10:1-22, though many of them, springing from sound sanitary and social principles, are still worthy of heed. The civil laws, Acts 23:3; 24 : 6, were for the government of the Jews as a nation, and included the 10 commandments. The whole code was adapted with consummate wisdom to the condition of the Jews, and has greatly in fluenced all wise legislation in later years. Its pious, humane, and just spirit should characterize every code of human laws. The moral law, Deut. 5: 22; Matt. 5 : 17, 18; Luke 10 : 26, 27, is more important than the others from its bearings on human salva tion. It was written by the Creator on the conscience of man, and sin has never fully erased it, Rom. 1 : 19 ; 2 : 12-15. It was more fully taught to the Hebrewsj especially at Mount Sinai, in the 10 commandments, and is summed up by Christ in loving God su premely and our neighbor as ourselves, Matt. 22: 37-40. It was the offspring of love to man, Roman. 7 : 10, 12 ; required perfect obedience, Gal. 3:10; Jas. 2:10; and is of universal and perpetual obligation. Christ confirmed and enforced it, Matt. 5 : 17-20, showing its demand of holiness in the heart, applying it to a variety of cases, and supplying new motives to obedience by re vealing heaven and hell more clearly, and the gracious guidance of the Holy Spirit. Some have argued from certain passages of Scripture that this law is no longer bind ing upon Christians ; that they " are not under the law, but under grace," Rom. 6 : 14, 15 ; 7 :4, 6 ; Gal. 3 : 13, 25 ; 5 : 18 ; and the perversion of these passages leads men to sin and perish because grace abounds. Rightly understood, they harmonize with the declarations of the Saviour, Matt. 5:17. To the soul that is in Christ, the law is no longer the arbiter of his doom ; yet it still comes to him as the divinely-appointed teacher of that will of God in which he now delights, Psa. 1 19 : 97 ; Matt. 5 : 48 ; 1 1 : 30. The word " law " sometimes means an inward guiding and controlling power. The "law in the mind" and the "law in the members " mean the holy impulses of a regenerated soul and the perverse inclina tions of the natural heart, Rom. 7 : 21-23. Compare also Rom. 8 : 2 ; 9 : 31 ; Jas. 1:25; 2:12. LAWYERS, men who devoted them- 3*8 selves to the study and explanation of the Jewish law, particularly of the traditionary or oral law, They belonged mostly to the sect of the Pharisees, and fell under the reproof of our Saviour for having taken from the people the key of knowledge. They were as the blind leading the blind, Matt. 22 :35; Luke 10: 25; 1 1 : 52 ; Tit. 2: 10. See Scribes. LAZ'ARUS, Heb. Eleazar, help of God, I., a friend and disciple of Christ, brother of Martha and Mary, with whom he resi ded at' Bethany near Jerusalem. Our Sa viour had a high regard for the family, and often visited them ; and when Lazarus was dangerously ill, word was sent to Christ, " Lord, behold, he whom thou lovest is sick." The Saviour reached Bethany after he had' lain 4 days in his grave, and re stored him to life by a word, " Lazarus, come forth." This public and stupendous miracle — of which Spinoza said that if he were satisfied of its truth he would tear to pieces his whole system and embrace Christianity — drew so many to Christ that his enemies sought to put both him and Lazarus to death, John 11 ; 12 : 1-11, thus showing the truth of what Christ said in connection with the other Lazarus, " Nei ther will they be persuaded though one rose from the dead," Luke 16:31. The narrative displays Christ as a tender and compassionate friend, weeping for and with those he loved, and at the same time as the Prince of life, beginning his triumph over death and the grave. Happy are they who, in view of their own death or that of friends, can know that they are safe in Him who says, "I am the resurrection and the life ; " and,, " because I live, ye shall live also." II. The helpless beggar who lay at the rich man's gate in one of Christ's most solemn and instructive parables. The one, though poor and sorely afflicted, was a child of God. The other, described as self- indulgent rather than vicious or criminal, was living without God in the enjoyment of every earthly luxury. Their state in this life was greatly in contrast with their real character before God, which was re vealed in the amazing changes of their condition at death, Luke 16:19-31. See Abraham's Bosom, and on ver. 31, Laza rus, I. Our Saviour plainly teaches us in this parable that both the friends and the foes of God know and begin to experience their doom immediately after death, and that it is in both cases unchangeable and LEA BIBLE DICTIONARY. LEB eternal. The name Lazarus has passed into many languages : the Italians have lazzarone, beggars, and lazaretto, hospital for the sick, especially lepers, for whose care in part the " Knights of St. Lazarus " were organized in 1119. In English we have " lazar-house." See Simon. LEAD. There are early allusions to this well-known metal in Scripture. The Egyptians " sank as lead " in the Red Sea, Exod. 15 : 10; Num. 31 : 22 ; Ezek. 27 : 12 ; Zech. 5 : 7, 8. Job refers to its use in pre serving a permanent record of events, by being melted and poured into letters deep ly cut in a rock, Job 19 : 24. Leaden tab lets also were used by the ancients for sim ilar records. This metal was employed, before the use of quicksilver was known, in purifying silver; and the process by which these metals are purged from their dross illustrates God's discipline of his people, Jer. 6 : 29, 30 ; Ezek. 22 : 17-22. Lead mines existed near Mount Sinai and in the mountains of Egypt. LEAF. The leaves of the olive, Gen. 8:11, the oak, Isa. 1 .'30; 6 : 13, and the fig, Gen. 3:7; Matt.- 24 : 32, are mentioned in the Bible, and many apt and beautiful allusions are made to leaves in general, as symbols of prosperity and grace, Psa. 1:3; Jer. 17 : 8, or of adversity and decay, Job 13 : 25 ; Isa. 64 : 6; Matt. 21 : 19. See also Lev. 26 : 36; Isa. 34 : 4 ; Dan. 4:12, 14, 21 ; Mark 13 : 28 ; Rev. 22 : 1, 2. In Jer. 36 : 23 " leaves " are folds or columns of a book- roll. LEAGUES with the powerful nations around the Hebrews were allowed them for securing peace and friendly ' dealings, but entangling alliances and familiar inti macy were forbidden, 2 Kin. 18: 20, 21 ; 20 : 12, 13 ; 2 Chr. 20: 35-37; 28: 20, 21 ; Isa. 30: 2-7; 31; 1-3 ; Hos. 5 : 13; 12 : 1. Withthe Canaanites, Exod. 23 : 32, 33, the Amale kites, Exod. 17 : 8, 14, and the Moabites, Deut. 2: 9-19, no league was ever to be made. See Alliance. ' LE'AH, weary, the elder daughter of La ban, and the ist wife of Jacob, though less beloved than her sister Rachel. She had through life the remembrance of the deceit by which her father had imposed her upon Jacob. She was the mother of 7 children, among whom were Reuben — Jacob's first born — and Judah, the ancestor of the lead ing tribe among the Jews, of the royal line and of our Lord, Gen. 29 : 16-35 * 3° : I_21- She is supposed to have died before the removal of the family into Egypt, and was buried in the family cemetery at Hebron, Gen. 32:22; 33:7 j 46:5-7; 49:31. LEAS'ING, falsehood, Psa. 4:2; 5:6. LEAVEN is sour dough which is kept over from one baking to another, in order to raise the new dough. Leaven was for bidden to the Hebrews during the 7 days of the' Passover, the "days of unleavened bread," Luke 22: 1, in memory of what their ancestors did when they went out of Egypt, they being then obliged to carry unleavened meal with them, and to make bread in haste, the Egyptians pressingthem to be gone, Exod. 12:8, 15-20,39; Josh. 5:11. They were very careful in cleansing their houses from it before this feast began, 1 Cor. 5 : 6. God forbade either leaven or honey to be burned before liim in his temple, Lev. 2:11. The pervading and transforming effect of leaven is used in illustration of the like influence on society exerted by the pu rifying principles of the gospel, or by false doctrines and corrupt men, Matt. 13 : 33; 16 :6-i2 ; Luke 12 : 1; 1 Cor. 5:6-8 ; Gal. 5:9. LEB'ANON, white, a chain of mountains on the north of Palestine, ico miles in ex treme length and 20 wide, so named from the whitish limestone of which they are composed, but still more from their snowy whiteness in winter, like Mont Blanc, the Himalayas, the White Hills, etc. It con sists of 2 main ridges, running northeast and southwest, nearly parallel with each other and with the coast of the Mediterra nean. See view in Sidon. The western ridge was called Libanus by the Greeks, and the eastern Anti-Libanus. Between them lies a long valley called Ccele- Syria, that is, Hollow Syria, and the " valley of Lebanon," Josh. 1 1 : 17, at present el-Bekaa, 3,000 feet above the sea level. It opens towards the north, but is exceedingly nar row towards the south, where the river Litany, anciently Leontes, issues from the valley and flows west to the sea, north of Tyre. The western ridge is generally high er than the eastern; its highest peak, Dhor el Kudib, north of the group of cedars, is said to be 10,051 feet high; the average height is about 6,000 feet. In the eastern range, now called Jebel esh-Shurky, Mount Hermon, now Jebel esh-Sheikh, rises into the region of perpetual ice. See Hermon. An Arab poet says of the 2d highest peak of Lebanon, "The Sannin bears winter on his head, spring upon his shoulders, and autumn in his bosom, while summer lies sleeping at. his feet." Lebanon formed the northern limit of the 3'9 LEB BIBLE DICTIONARY. LEE Holy Land, Deut. 1 : 7 ; 1 1 : 24, and though claimed by the Hebrews was not possessed, Josh. 13:1-6; Judg. 3:1-3. The Hebrew writers often allude to this sublime moun tain range, Isa. 10 : 34 ; 35 : 2, rising like a va6t barrier on their north, Isa. 37 : 24. They speak of its sea of foliage agitated by the gales, Psa. 72 : 16 ; of its noble cedars and other trees, Isa.-6o : 13 ; Jer. 22 : 23 ; of its innumerable herds, the whole of which, however, could not atone for one sin, Isa. 40 : 16 ; of its excellent wine, Hos. 14:7, its snow-cold streams, Jer. 18 : 14, and its bal samic perfume, Hos. 14 : 5. Its forests fur nished abundant materials for Solomon, 1 Kin. 5:9-11, and for the Assyrians, etc., Isa. 37 : 24 ; Ezek. 31:16. The fir-trees and cedars of Lebanon are represented as say ing to the king of Babylon, " Since thou art laid low no feller is come up against us," Isa. 14:8. An ancient inscription found at Babylon states that Nebuchadnezzar em ployed for the woodwork of the Chamber of Oracles the largest of the trees he brought from Mount Lebanon. And a. fresh con firmation of the fact implied by Isaiah was found in 1883, in a wild valley on the east slope of Lebanon — two inscriptions cut in the rocks on opposite sides of the valley, 5 yards long and z\ high, giving an account of the buildings Nebuchadnezzar was erect ing at Babylon. Moses longed to enter the Holy Land, that he might " see that goodly mountain and Lebanon," Deut. 3 : 24, 25; and Solomon says of the Beloved, the type of Christ, " his countenance is as Leba non," Song 5:15. " The tower of Lebanon which looketh towards Damascus," Song 7 : 4, is brought to recollection by the ac counts given by modern travellers of the 'ruins of ancient temples, built of stones of vast size. Many such ruinous temples have been discovered in different parts of Leba non, several of them on conspicuous points, high up in the mountains, where the labor of erecting them must have been stupen dous. At present Lebanon is inhabited by a hardy and turbulent race of mountaineers. Its vast wilderness of mountains forms al most a world by itself. Its western slopes particularly, rising by a succession of ter races from the plain of the coast, are cov* ered with vines, olives, mulberries, and figs ; and occupied, as well as the valleys among the mountains, by numberless vil lages. Anti-Lebanon is less populous and cultivated ; most of its occupants are Mo hammedans. The chief inhabitants of Leb- 320 anon are Druses and Maronites ; the for mer Mohammedan mystics, and the lat ter bigoted Romanists. Among them are interspersed many Greeks and Armeni ans. For "cedar of Lebanon," see Cedar. LEBA'OTH, lionesses, a city in the south west of Judah and Simeon, Josh. 15: 32; I9:6;in 1 Chr. 4: 31 called Beth-birei; now Kh. Beeyud, near Arad, 15 miles south of Hebron. LEBB^'US, hearty, Matt. 10:3, where the clause " Lebbaeus, whose surname was " is omitted in the R. V. See Judas, III. LEBO'NAH, frankincense, Judg. 21 : 19, a town of Ephraim, near Shiloh, between Bethel and Shechem. Its name and site are preserved in the present village of Lub- ban, 1 o miles south of Nablous. LEEK, a bulbous vegetable resembling a small onion. The Hebrews complained in the wilderness that manna grew insipid to them ; they longed for the leeks and onions of Egypt, Num. 11:5. Hasselquist.says the karrat, or leek, is surely one of those after which the Israelites pined ; for it has been cultivated in Egypt from time immemorial. The Hebrew word is usually translated " grass " in the English Bible. LEES, or dregs, the refuse and sediment of wine. Wines that have been allowed to stand a long time on the lees thereby ac quire a superior color and flavor ; hence such wines are used as a symbol of gospel blessings, Isa. 25 : 6 ; also of a nation or community that, from long quiet and pros perity, has become rich and luxurious, and has settled down in carnal security, Jer. 48 : 1 1 ; Zeph. 1:12. To drink the dregs of the cup of God's wrath, Psa. 75:8; Isa. 51 : 17, is to drink it to exhaustion; that is, to suffer God's wrath without mitigation 01 end. LEF BIBLE DICTIONARY. LEP LEFT HAND, the north, Gen. 14 : 15 ; Job 23 : 9. " Left-handed," Judg. 3 : 1 5 ; 20 : 16, able to use the left hand as effectively as the right. LEG, the lower limb from knee to foot, Lev. 4: II ; 8:21 ; 1 Sam. 17 : 6. The legs of the crucified were sometimes broken to hasten their death, John 19:31-33- LE'GION. The number in a Roman le gion varied at different periods from 3,000 to more than twice that number. In the time of Christ, a legion contained 6,000, besides the cavalry. There were 10 co horts in each legion, which were divided each into 3 maniples or bands, and these into 2 centuries containing 100 men each. In the Bible a legion means a. number in definitely large. The Saviour cured a de moniac who called himself " Legion," as if possessed by myriads of demons, Mark 5 : 9. The expression, " twelve legions of angels," Matt. 26 : 53, illustrates the immen sity of the heavenly host and their zealous devotion to Christ. leha'BIN. See Libya. LE'HI, jawbone, a place in Judah where Samson was enabled to slay 1,000 Philis tines with the jawbone of an ass, and where, in answer to his petition, a fountain sprang up to relieve his thirst, Judg. 15 :9-i9- Prob ably the Hebrew word Lehi in verse 19 should be left untranslated, as in the mar ginal reading: " God clave a hollow place that was in Lehi, and there came water thereout." This spring he called En-hak- kore, "the fountain of him that prayed." It continued to flow, and may even to this day be testifying that God hears the cry of his people, and can turn a dry land into springs of water for their use, Gen. 21 : 19 ; Num. 20:11. A site for Lehi has been found at Beit Likiyeh, 4 miles north of Bir es-Seba. LEM'UEL, devoted to God, the king to whom were addressed the counsels in Prov. 31:1-9. Some suppose it to be an enigmat ical name for Solomon. LEN'TILES, a species of pulse or small beans, ervum lens, still common in Syria and Egypt under the name 'adas, 2 Sam. 23:11. They were parched overthefireto be portable for travellers, and Barzillai fur nished them for David and his people when weary, 2 Sam. 17:28. They were some times an ingredient in bread, Ezek. 4 : 9. We find Esau longing for a mess of pottage made of lentiles, Gen. 25 : 34. In Barbary, Dr. Shaw says, " Lentiles are dressed in the same manner as beans, dissolving easi- 21 ly into a mass, and making a pottage of a chocolate color." LEOP'ARD, Heb. spotted, a fierce wild beast of the feline genus, beautifully spot ted with a diversity of colors ; it has small eyes, wide jaws, sharp teeth, round ears, a large tail, 5 claws on the fore-feet, and 4 on those behind. It is swift, crafty, and cruel, dangerous to all domestic cattle, and even to man, Jer. 5:6; 13 : 23 ; Hos. 13:7; Hab. 1 :8. Its name leo-pard, implies that it has something of the lion and of the panther in its nature. It seems from Scripture that the leopard could not be rare in Palestine. Its Hebrew name occurs significantly in several names of places ; as Beth-nimrah, the haunt of leopards, Num. 32 : 36. So in Nimrah, Nimrim, and perhaps Nimrod the mighty hunter. Isaiah, describing the hap py reign of the Messiah, says, ch. 11:6, 3fes«- " The leopard shall lie down with the kid, and the calf and the young lion and the fatling together." The spouse in the Can ticles speaks of the mountains of the leop ards, Song 4 : 8, such as Lebanon and Her mon, where they are still found. In Dan. 7 : 9 the leopard symbolizes the rapid pro gress of the Macedonian kingdom, its 4 heads denoting Alexander's 4 generals. In Rev. 13:2 the Roman Empire is described. LEP'ER, Heb. smitten, a person afflicted 321 LEP BIBLE DICTIONARY. LET with leprosy. As it how exists, leprosy is a scaly disease of the skin, occurring in several distinct forms and with many de grees of severity ; beginning with slight reddish eruptions, followed by scales of a grayish white color, sometimes in circles an inch or two in diameter, and at other times much larger ; in many cases attack ing only the knees and elbows, in others the whole body ; usually not affecting the general health, but considered impossible of cure. It is said not to be infectious, but is communicated from father to son for sev eral generations, gradually becoming less noticeable. It corresponds in the main with the disease the symptoms and treat ment of which are so fully described in Lev. 13 ; 14. There is little doubt, however, that the ancient leprosy, in its more aggravated form, is to be regarded as a plague or judg ment from God, Deut. 24 : 8. It was pecu liarly dreaded among the Jews as unclean and infectious, and also as being a special infliction from Jehovah, as we know it to have been in the cases of Miriam, Num. 12:10, Gehazi, 2 Kin. 5:27, and Uzziah, 2 Chr. 26 : 16-23. N° remedies were effec tual. The sufferer was commended to the priest, not to the physician, and was sep arated from many of the privileges of soci ety. We find that lepers associated chiefly with each other, 2 Kin. 7:8; Luke 17 : 12, 13. The term, "the plague of leprosy," is ap plied not only to this disease in men, but to a similar infection sometimes sent into houses and garments, Lev. 14. The exact nature of this latter Lcannot be ascertained, but it bears the mark$ of a special aggra vation, as a judgment from God, of some evil not unknown in that climate. It illus trates the awful result of moral corruption in society uncounteracted by the grace of God. The disease in all its forms is a live ly emblem of sin. This malady of the. soul is also all-pervading, unclean, contagious, and incurable ; it separates its victim from God and heaven ; it proves its existence by its increasing sway and its fatal termina tion. But the Saviour has shown his power to heal the worst maladies of the soul by curing the leprosy with a word, Luke 17 : 12- 19, and to admit the restored soul to all the privileges of the sons of God. Elephanti'asis, supposed by some to have been the disease of Job, and the " botch "or ulcer of Egypt, Deut. 28 : 27, 35, is a tuberculous malady somewhat akin to the leprosy, but more dreadful. Its name is derived from the dark, hard, and rough 322 appearance of the skin, and from the form of the feet, swollen and despoiled of the toes. This horrid malady infects the whole system ; ulcers and dark scales cover the body, and the hair, beard, fingers, and all the extremities drop off. It is still met with in tropical countries, and was introduced into Europe by the Crusaders; but after occasioning dreadful havoc and the build ing of thousands of " hospitals for lepers," it disappeared from Europe in general, though many cases occur in Norway, and some in the ports of Spain. LES'BOS. See Mitylene. LE'SHEM, a gem, Josh. 19 : 47. See Dan. LET, sometimes used in the old English sense, that is, to hinder, Exod. 5:4; Isa. 43 : 13 ; Rom. 1:13; 2 Thess. 2:7. ' LET'TER, Luke 23 :38 ; Gal. 6:11, "in how large a hand." The Hebrews have certain acrostic poems which begin with the letters of the alphabet ranged in order. The most considerable of these is Psalm 119, which contains 22 stanzas of 8 verses each, all acrostic ; that is, the first 8 begin with Aleph, the next 8 with Beth, and so on. Psalms 25, 34 have but 22 verses each, beginning with the 22 letters of the Hebrew alphabet. Others, as Psalms 111,112, have one-half of the verse beginning with one letter, and the other half with the next. Thus," Blessed is the man who feareth the Lord, Who deligliteth greatly in his commandments." The first half of the verse begins in the Hebrew with Aleph, the second with Beth. Psalms 37 and 145 are acrostic. The Lam entations of Jeremiah are also in acrostic verse, as well as the 31st chapter of Prov erbs, from the 8th verse to the end. In John 7:15, the word " letters " means learn ing ; the Jews said of Christ, Whence this man's qualifications to teach us the Scrip tures, since he has not learned of the doc tors of the law ? Paul speaks of " the letter " in distinc tion from " the spirit," Rom. 2 : 27, 29'; 7:6; 2 Cor. 3:6; contrasting the mere word of the law and its outward observance with its spiritual meaning and cordial obedi ence to it through the Spirit of Christ. LET'TERS. Epistolary correspondence seems to have been little practised among the ancient Hebrews. Some few letters are mentioned in the Old Testament, ? Sam. 11 : 14 ; Ezra 4 :8. Theywerecon- veyed to their destination by friends or travellers, Jer. 29 : 3 ; or by royal couriers, 2 Chr. 30 : 6 ; Esth. 8:10. The letter was LET BIBLE DICTIONARY. LEV usually in the form of a roll, the last fold being pasted down. They were sealed, i Kin. 21 : 8, and sometimes wrapped in an AN ANCIENT EPISTLE. envelope, or in a bag of costly materials, and highly ornamented. To send an open letter was expressive of contempt, Neh. 6:5. In the New Testament we have nu merous examples of letters from the pens of the apostles. LETU'SHIM, hammered, an Arabian tribe, descendants of Abraham and Ketu rah, Gen. 25 : 1-3. LEUM'MIM, peoples, kinsmen of the Le- tushim. LE'VI, entwined, I., the 3d son of Jacob and Leah, born in Mesopotamia ; father of 3 sons, Gershon, Kohath, and Merari, and of Jochebed the mother of Moses, Gen. 29 : 34 ; Exod. 6 : 16-20. For his share in the treacherous massacre of the Shechem- ites, Gen. 34, his father at death foreboded evil to his posterity, Gen. 4y : 5-7 ; but as they afterwards stood forth on the Lord's side, Moses was charged to bless them, Exod. 32: 26-29; Deut. 33:8-11. He joined his brethren in their ill-treatment of Joseph, Gen. 37, went down into Egypt with his family, Gen. 46 : 11, and lived to the age of 137 years. The tribe of Levi was, accord ing to Jacob's prediction, scattered over all Israel, having no share in the division of Canaan, but certain cities in the portions of other tribes, Josh. 21 : 1-40. It was not the worse provided for, however, since God chose this tribe for the service of the tem ple and priesthood, and bestowed on it many privileges above the other tribes. All the tithes, firstfruits, and offerings pre sented at the temple, as well as several parts of all the victims that were offered, belonged to the tribe of Levi. See Le vites. II. The apostle Matthew was also called Levi. See Matthew. III. and IV. Ancestors of the Saviour, Luke 3 : 24, 29. LEVI'ATHAN, a jointed monster, Psa. 74 : 14 ; 104 : 26, a huge reptile described in Job 41. Probably the animal denoted is the crocodile, the terror of the Nile, as Bfhemoth, in Job 40, is the hippopotamus of the same river. The crocodile is a native of th<3 Nile, and. other Asiatic and African rivers ; in some instances even 30 feet in length ; of enor mous voracity and strength, as well as fleetness in swimming ; attacks mankind and the largest animals with the most daring impetuosity ; when taken by means of a powerful net, will often overturn the boats that surround it; has proportionally the largest mouth of all monstere whatever: moves both its jaws alike, the upper of which has not less than 36, and the lower 30 sharp, but strong and massy teeth ; and is furnished with a coat of mail so scaly and callous as to resist the force of a mus ket-ball in every part except under the belly. In several passages in the Bible the king of Egypt appears to be addressed as leviathan, Isa. 27 : 1 ; Ezek. 29 : 3 ; 32 : 2. LE'VITES. All the descendants of Levi may be comprised under this name, Exod. 6 : 16, 25 ; Josh. 3 : 3 (see Levi), but chiefly those who were employed in the lower ser vices in the temple, by which they were distinguished from the priests, who were of the race of Levi by Aaron, and were employed in higher offices, Num. 3:6-10; 18:2-7; Ezek. 44 : 15. God chose the Le vites for the service of his tabernacle and temple instead of the first-born son of each family, to whom such duties naturally be longed, and who were already sacred to God in memory of the great deliverance in Egvpt,Exod. 13; Num.3: 12, 13, 39-S1- In the' wilderness the Levites took charge of the tabernacle and its contents, encamped around it as its proper guardians, Num. 3 : 23, 29, 35, and conveyed it from place to place, each of the 3 families having a sep arate portion, Num. 1 : 51 ; 4 ; I Chr. 15 : 2, 27. After the building of the temple they took charge of the gates, of the sacred ves sels, of the storehouses for cattle, flour, wine, oil, and spices, of the preparation of the show-bread and other offerings, and oi 323 LEV BIBLE DICTIONARY. LEV the singing and instrumental music, I Chr. 9 ; 23 ; 2 Chr. 29. They brought wood, wa ter, etc., for the priests ; aided them in pre paring the sacrifices, and in collecting and disbursing the contributions of the people, 2 Chr. 30: 16, 17 ; 35 : 1. See Nethinim. They were also the temple guards, Neh. 13 : 13, 22 ; and the salutation and response in Psalm 1 34 are thought by Bishop Lowth to have been their song in the night. But besides their services in the temple, they performed a very important part in teach ing the people, 2 Chr. 30:22; Neh. 8:7, among whom they were scattered, binding the tribes together, and promoting virtue and piety. They studied the law, and were the ordinary judges of the country, but sub ordinate to the priests, 2 Chr. 17 : 9 ; 19 : 8- 11. God provided for the subsistence of the Levites by giving to them the tithe of corn, fruit, and cattle, Num. 18 : 18-24 ; but they paid to the priests the 10th of their tithes, Neh. 10 : 37, 38 ; and as the Levites possessed no estates in land, the tithes which the priests received from them were considered as the firstfruits which they were to offer to the Lord, Num. 18:21- 32. The payment of tithes to the Levites appears not to have been enforced, but depended on the good-will of the people ; hence the special charges laid on their brethren not to forget them, Deut. 12 : 1 2, 18, 19 ; 14: 28 ; 26 : 12. God assigned for the habitation of the Levites 48 cities, with fields, pastures, and gardens, Num. 35. Of these, 13 were given to the priests, all in the tribes near Jerusa lem. Six of the Levitical cities were ap pointed as cities of refuge, Num. 35 : 1-8 ; Josh. 20 ; 21. While the Levites were ac tually employed in the temple they were supported out of the provisions kept in store there, and out of the daily offerings. The same privilege was granted to volun teers drawn to Jerusalem by the fervor of their love to God's service, Deut. 12 : 18, 19 ; 18:6-8. The consecration of Levites was without much ceremony. See Num. 8 : 5— 22 ; 2 Chr. 29 :34. The Levites wore no peculiar dress to distinguish them from other Israelites till the time of Agrippa. His innovation in this matter is mentioned by Josephus, who remarks that the ancient customs of the country were never forsaken with impu nity. The Levites were divided into different classes : the Gershonites, Kohathites, and Merarites, Num. 3: 17-20. They were still 324 further divided into courses, like tne priests, 1 Chr. 23-26. At first, assuming the lessei duties when 25 years old, they entered in full on their public duties at 30 years of age, Num. 4 : 3 ; 8 : 24, 25 ; but David fixed the age for commencing at 20 years ; and at 50 they were exempt, 1 Chr. 23:24-27. The different courses of porters, singers, guards, etc., were on duty in succession, one week at a time, coming up to Jerusa lem from their own cities for the purpose, 1 Chr. 23-26; 2 Chr. 23 -.4, 8 ; 31 :'I7 ; Ezra 3 : 8-12. After the revolt of the iofribes, a large portion of the Levites abandoned their cities in Israel and dwelt in Judah, 2 Chr. 11:12-14; 13:9-11- Afterthe Cap tivity numbers of them returned from be yond the Euphrates to Judaea, Ezra 2 : 36- 42 ; Neh. 11 : 15-19; 12 : 24-31. In the New Testament they are not often mentioned, Luke 10 : 32 ; John 1:19; Acts 4 : 36. The " scribes " and " doctors," however, are supposed to have belonged chiefly to this class. LEVIT'ICUS, the 3d book in the Pen tateuch ; called Leviticus because it con tains principally the laws and regulations relating to the Levites, priests, offerings, and sacrifices. The Hebrews call it " the priests' law." In the ist section, the vari ous bloody and unbloody sacrifices are minutely described : the burnt-offerings, the meat, sin, peace, ignorance, and tres pass offerings ; the sins for which and the mode in which they were to be offered. The fulness of these details not only signi fied the importance of God's worship, but forbade all human additions and changes that might lead to idolatry. The whole scheme was " a shadow of good things to come," typical of the Lamb "who through the eternal Spirit offered himself without spot unto God." Its best commentary is the Epistle to the Hebrews. A full account of the consecration of Aaron and his sons as priests is followed by the instructive narrative of Nadab and Abihu. Then are given the laws respect ing personal and ceremonial purifications, a perpetual memento of the defilement of sin and of the holiness of God. Next fol lows a description of the great day of Ex piation; after which the Jews are warned against the superstitions, idolatry, impu rity, etc., of the Canaanites ; and laws are given guarding their morals, health, and civil order. The observance of their dis tinguishing festivals is enjoined upon them ; and laws are given respecting the Sabbath LEV BIBLE DICTIONARY. LIF and the Jubilee, vows and tithes. The warnings and promises in the latter part of the book point their attention to the fu ture, and aim to unite the whole nation in serving their covenant God; it is a shadow, the substance of which is Christ and his kingdom. The book is generally held to be the work of Moses, though he was prob ably assisted by Aaron. Its date is B. C. 1490. It contains the history of the ist month of their 2d year after leaving Egypt. LEVY, a company of men pressed into service on public works, I Kin. 5: 13, 14; 9:15. This enforced labor has always been customary among Eastern tyrants, often at a great sacrifice of life. LEWD, in Acts 17 : 5, means "bad," and in Acts 18 : 14 lewdness means " mischief." Elsewhere the specific sense of licentious ness is intended. LIB'ERTINES, Acts 6 : 9, Latin libertinus, a freedman, that is, one who, having been a slave, either by birth or capture, has ob tained his freedom ; or the son of a parent who was a freedman. The " Synagogue of the Libertines " stands connected with those of the Cyrenians and Alexandrians, who were of African origin ; it is therefore supposed by some that the Libertines were of African origin also. It is, however, more probable that this word denotes Jews who had been taken captive by the Romans in war and carried to Italy, and having been there manumitted, were accustomed to visit Jerusalem in such numbers as to erect a synagogue for their particular use, as was the case with Jews from other cities men tioned in the context. They originated the persecution against Stephen which resulted in his martyrdom. See Synagogue. LIB'NAH. whiteness, I., the 5th station of the Israelites after leaving Sinai, Num. 33 : 20, 21, and after the repulse at Kadesh, Deut. 1 : 44-46 ; 2 : 1 ; probably the Laban of Deut. I : 1. Perhaps at Hajr el-Abyad, "the white stone" in the heart of the desert et- Tih, north of Sinai. II. A city in the Shephelah, or western lowland of Judah, probably southeast of Gaza. It was conquered by Joshua from the Canaanites, and assigned to the priests, Josh, 10: 29-32; 12: 15; 15:42; 21: 13; 1 Chr. 6 : 57. Hamutal, wife of king Josiah, was born there, 2 Kin. 23 :3i ; 24 : 18. Itsinhab- itants revolted against the idolatrous and cruel Jehoram, 2 Chr. 21 : 10. It was a strongly fortified place, and under its walls the Assyrian army was miraculously cut off, 2 Kin. 19 : 8, 9, 35 ; Isa. 37 : 8. LIB'YA, a country in the north of Africa, stretching along on the Mediterranean be tween Egypt and Carthage, and running back somewhat into the interior. The part adjoining Egypt was sometimes called Lib ya Marmarica; and that around Cyrene, Cyrenaica, from its chief city ; or Pentapo- litana, from its 5 cities, Cyrene, Apollonia, Berenice, Arsinoe, and Ptolemais. In these cities great numbers of Jews dwelt in the time of Christ ; and they, with their Libyan proselytes, resorted to Jerusalem to wor ship, Acts 2:10. Libya received its name from the Lehabim or Lubim, Gen. 10 : 13, a warlike people, who assisted Shishak king of Egypt, and Zerah the Ethiopian, in their wars against Judaea, 2 Chr. 12:3; 14:9; 16:8; Dan. 1 1 : 43. They were also allies of ancient Thebes, Nah. 3 : 9. Compare Jer. 46 : 9 ; Ezek. 30 : 5. See Phut. Libya fell at length under the power of Carthage, and subsequently of the Greeks, Romans, Sar acens, and Turks. LICE, the 3d plague of Egypt, Exod. 8 : 16 ; Psa. 105 : 31 ; peculiarly offensive to the priests, who were obliged to shave and wash their entire body every 3d day, lest they should carry any vermin into the tem ples. According to some interpreters they were the small stinging gnats which abound in Egypt, or, with greater probability, the sand-ticks. LIE, The essence of a falsehood is the intent to deceive, and its guilt may be ag gravated by the selfishness or malice of the design. Scripture condemns it in all its forms and degrees, and ascribes it to " the father of lies " Satan, and to his " children," Lev. 19: 11 ; John 8 : 44 ; Phil. 4:8; Col. 3:9 1 Tim. 1 : 9, 10 ; Rev. 21 : 27 ; 22 : 15. Satan beguiled our first parents by the greatest of falsehoods, " Ye shall not surely die ; " and every promise to their children of good to be derived from sin is alike false and fatal. Lies may be told by looks, gestures, etc., as well as by words or under oath. All untruthfulness is diametrically opposed to the nature of the " God of truth," and the many instances of falsehood recorded in Scripture do not imply his approval. LIEUTEN'ANTS, Ezra 8 : 36 ; Esth. 3:12; 8:9:9:3, translated " princes " in Dan. 3:2; 6 : 1 , the provincial satraps in«ancient Per sia. LIFE, in the Bible, is either natural, Gen. 3 : 17; spiritual, that of the renewed soul, Rom. 8 : 6 ; or eternal, a holy and blissful immortality, John 3 : 36 ; Rom. 6 : 23. Jeho vah is "the living God," both as distin- 325 LIG BIBLE DICTIONARY. LIN guished from idols and as the self-existent Creator of all things, Jer. io: io; John 5 : 26; Acts 14: 15 ; 1 Tim. 6 :i6. In the same sense Christ is" the life," John 1 -.4; 1 John 1 : 1, 2. Christ is the great Author of natural life, Col. 1:16; and also of spiritual and eternal life, John 14 : 6 ; 6 : 47. He has purchased these by laying down his own life; and gives them freelyto his people, John 10 : 11, 28. He is the spring of all their spiritual life on earth, Gal. 2 : 20 ; will raise them up at the last day, and make them partakers for ever of his own life, John 11 : 25 ; 14 : 19 ; 17 = 2, 3. LIGHT, one of the most wonderful, cheer ing, and useful of all the works of God ; called into being on the first of the 6 days of creation by his voice : " Let there be light ; " and there was light. No obj ect bet ter illustrates whatever is pure, glorious, spiritual, joyful, and beneficent. Hence the beauty and force of the expressions, " God is light," t John 1 : 5, and " the Fa ther of lights," Jas. 1:17: Christ is the " Sun of righteousness," Mai. 4 : 2, and " the light of the world," John 1 : 9 ; 8 : 12. So also the word of God is " a light," Psa. 119: 105; 2 Pet. 1:19; truth and Christians are lights, Matt. 5:14; John 3:19:12 : 36 ; prosperityis " light," Esth. 8:16; Isa. 58 : 8 ; and heaven is full of light, Rev. 21 : 23-25. The oppo site of all these is " darkness." LIGHT'NING. See Thunder. LIGN-ALOES. See Aloes. LICURE, probably the same with the jacinth, a stone in the high-priest's breast plate, Exod. 28 : 19 ; 39 : 12, said to have been of a deep and brilliant red color, with a tinge of yellow, and transparent ; perhaps the tourmaline. Ll'KING, Job 39 -.4; Dan. 1 : 10, condition. LIL'Y. Of this queenly plant several varieties are found among the wild flowers of Palestine, the profusion, beauty, and fra grance of which are the delight of travel lers. The lily is a spring flower, and ap pears early in all parts of the Holy Land. It was introduced in the ornamental work of the temple, 1 Kin. 7 : 19-26 ; 2 Chr. 4 : 5. In Canticles it is often employed as a sym bol of loveliness. More commonly it is applied to the bride and her various per fections : ch. 2 : 1, 2, where the bride speaks, ver. 1, the bridegroom answers, ver. 2, and the bride again responds, ver. 3. The bride groom's lips are compared to lilies in ch. 5:13, and he is described as feeding among the lilies, ch. 2:16; 6: 3; which typically represents Christ as delighting himself with 326 the graces of his people. From the lily our Saviour has also drawn one of his most striking figures : " Consider the lilies of the field, how they grow ; " " even Solomon in the scarlet martagon: lilium chalcedoni- CUM. all his glory was not arrayed like one of these," Matt. 6 : 28. The lily of the valleys, Song 2:1, means simply the lily growing in valleys, not our " lily of the valley," which is unknown in Palestine. LIME was well known in Bible times, Lev. 14: 42, 45, and its burning in a kiln with thorns to make plaster is mentioned in Isa. 33 : 12. The king of Moab so used the bones of the king of Edom, Amos 2 : \. Inscriptions made in plaster upon rock, Deut. 27 : 2-4, or upon rocks afterwards plastered and painted, are found in Egypt still clear and fresh after 3,000 years. LINE, often the cord or line used in meas uring land, etc., 1 Kin. 7 : 23 ; Psa. 78 : 55 ; Isa. 34 : 17 ; Amos 7:17; hence in Psa. 16 : 6 the lot or portion so measured. In Psa. 19:4 the " line " of the heavens may denote the stately movements of the heavenly bod ies which measure climates, months, and seasons on the earth. In Isa. 44 : 1 3 " line " means a stylus or graver. LIN'EN. Many different words in He LIN BIBLE DICTIONARY. LIV brew and Greek are translated in the A. V. " linen," " fine linen," " linen yarn," " flax," and " silk," in describing the garments of the priests, Exod. 28 : 39, 42 ; 39 : 28 ; Ezejt. 44 : 1 8, of princes, Gen. 41 :42 ; 2 Sam. 6: 14; 1 Chr. 15 127, and of the virtuous woman, Prov. 31 : 13, 22, 24, the tabernacle hang ings, the veil before the holy of holies, and its curtain, Exod. 26 : 1, 31, 36 ; 2 Chr. 3:14, the robes of angels,' Ezek. 9 : 2, 3, 1 1 ; Dan. 10:5; 12:6, the clothsin which Christ's body was wrapped, John 1 9 : 40. Some of these terms are used interchangeably, and it is not easy to define them precisely ; they may probably denote different qualities of linen as to fineness, color, and origin. Some Egyptian linens were of extraordinary fine ness and evenness of thread, one mummy bandage from Thebes being found to have 152 threads in the warp and 71 in the woof to each square inch. Fine linen of snowy whiteness was highly prized, and was a symbol of the purity of angels and of the redeemed church, Rev. 19:8. See Cotton, Flax, and Silk. In Rev. 15:6 the R. V. reads, " arrayed with precious stone pure and bright." LIN'TEL, or " upper door-post," the cross-piece crowning the 2 side-posts of a door, Exod. 12 : 7, 22, 23 ; 1 Kin. 6 : 31, or the projecting chapiter of a column, Amos 9:1; Zeph. 2 : 14. See Passover. LI'NUS, a Christian at Rome, whose sal utation Paul sent to Timothy, 2 Tim. 4:21. LI'ON, the well-known and noble king of beasts, frequently spoken of in Scrip ture, Jer. 25 : 38 ; Ezek. 19 : 4, 8, 9 ; Amos 3:12; Rev. 4:7; compare Ezek. 1 : 10. He often exceeds 8 feet in length and 4 feet in height ; and his majestic and dauntless as pect, his prodigious strength and agility, and his peculiar roar, make him the terror of the forests. Lions were common in Pal estine, Num. 23 : 24; 24 : 9 ; 2 Kin. 17 : 26 ; Song 4 : 8, the Hebrew name being found in the names of several places, as Laish, Le- baoth, etc. (see Jordan), and the Hebrews had many different names for them, to dis tinguish the different ages, etc. Five of these occur together in Job 4 : 10, 1 1. See also Nah. 2:11,12. There is also a variety of words describing their movements, roars, and growls. The Psalmist alludes to the stealthy creeping of the lion till he can spring upon his prey in Psa. 10:9, 10 ; and : Pet. 5 : 8 describes Satan, the merciless de stroyer, as a roaring lion. The Bible read er will remember the exploits of Samson, David, and Benaiah, Judg. 14 : 5, 6 ; 1 Sam. 17 : 34-36 ; 2 Sam. 23 : 20, the story of the disobedient prophet slain by a lion, 1 Kin. 13 : 28, and of the obedient Daniel, safe in the lions' den, Dan. 6 ; also the sublime image of Jehovah's care for his people, in Isa. 31:4. " The Lion of the tribe of Judah," Rev. 5 : 5, is Jesus Christ, who sprang from the tribe of Judah and the race of David, and overcame death, the world, and the devil. It is supposed that a lion was the device of the tribe of Judah ; hence this allusion, Gen. 49 : 9. LIP, often translated "language," or "tongue," and meaning a different dialect, Isa. 28 : 1 1 ; I Cor. 14:21. " The fruit of the lips," Heb. 13:15, is praise; "the calves of the lips," Hos. 14 :2,are thank-offerings. Covering the lips with a corner of one's garment, as if unclean, Isa. 6:5,7, was a sign of mourning or humiliation, Ezek. 24 : 17, 22 ; Mic. 3 -.7. LIST, please, like, or will, Matt. 17:12; Mark 9:13; John 3:8; Jas. 3 -.4. LIT'TER, a light, covered conveyance, resembling a sedan-chair, or a palanquin ; borne by men, but oftener at the present day in Syria between 2 mules or camels. Solomon's " chariot," Song 3 : 9, or bed as in the margin, is supposed to have been an elegant mule-litter. The Hebrew word used in Isa. 66 : 20, with another from a verb to roll, denotes covered wagonsin Num. 7 : 3. LIVER, Lev. 3:4, 10, 15 ; Prov. 7 : 23 -, 327 LIV BIBLE DICTIONARY. LOC Lam. 2:11. This organ in man was re garded by the ancients as the seat of the passions. Idolaters consulted the liver of the victim offered in sacrifice, for purposes of divination, Ezek. 21 : 21. LIVE'LY, living, vigorous, Exod. 1:19; Psa. 38 : 19 ; Acts 7 : 38 ; 1 Pet. 1:3; 2:5. LIVING CREA'TURES, Ezek. I; 3:13; 10 : 15-17, the cherubim, Ezek. 10. Trans lated " beasts " in A. V. in Rev. 4 : 6-9 ; 5 : 6-14; 6 : 1-7, etc. LIZ'ARD, a cold-blooded reptile, with much resemblance to the serpent, but hav ing 4 feet. Large numbers are found in Syria, varying greatly in size, appearance, and place of abode ; some dwelling partly in water, and others on the rocks of the desert, or among old ruins. Lizards were unclean by the Levitical law, Lev. 1 1 : 30. See Chameleon, Ferret. LOAF, Heb. a circle, Exod. 29:23; Judg. 8:5:1 Sam. 10 : 3, a round flat cake, the usual form of bread anciently, 1 Chr. 16:3; Matt. 14: 17. See Bread. LO-AM'MI, not my people, a name di vinely given to Hosea's 2d son, to signify God's rejection of Israel and subsequent restoration, Hos. 1 : 9, 10 ; 2 : 23. LOANS for commercial purposes are not mentioned in the early Biblical records, but only those in ai d of the poor, Neh. 5:1, 3, 13. Jehovah, as the sole proprietor of the land; occupied by the Jews, required them, as one condition of its use, to grant liberal loans to their poor brethren ; and every 7 years the outstanding loans were to be come gifts, and could not be reclaimed. If a pledge was taken on making a loan it must be done with mercy and under cer tain benevolent restrictions, Exod. 22 : 25, 27 ; Deut. 15 : 1-I I ; 23 : 19, 20; 24:6; 10-13, 17. The great truth so prominent in this and similar features of the Mosaic laws ought to be restored to its fundamental place in our theories of property ; and no one who believes in God should act as the owner, but only as the steward of what he 328 possesses, all of which he is to use as re quired by its great Owner. In the same spirit our Saviour enjoins the duty of loan ing freely, even to enemies, and without hope of reward, Luke 6 : 34, 35. See Usury. LOCK, Judg. 3 : 23, 25; Neh. 3:3, 6, 13- 15 ; Song 5 : 5. See Key. LO'CUST, a voracious winged insect, be longing to the order known among natu ralists as the Orthoptera, including various creeping and leaping insects, closely re sembling the grasshopper, and a great scourge in Oriental countries in both an cient and modern times. There are 10 different names in the Hebrew Bible for insects of this kind ; but some of these prob ably designate different forms or stages in life of the same species. The most destruc tive species of modern Syria and Arabia are the Oedipoda migratoria and the Acridium peregrinum. The Bible represents their countless swarms as directed in their flight and march by God, and used in the chas tisement of guilty nations, Deut. 28 : 38-42 ; 1 Kin. 8 : 37 ; 2 Chr. 6 : 28. A swarm of lo custs was among the plagues of Egypt ; they covered the whole land, so that the earth was darkened, and devoured every green herb of the earth, and the fruit of every tree which the hail had left, Exod. 10:4-19. But the most particular descrip tion of this insect, and of its destructive career, in the sacred writings, is in Joel 2 : 3-10. This is one of the most striking and animated descriptions to be met with in the whole compass of prophecy ; and the double destruction to be produced by locusts and the enemies of which they were the harbingers is' painted with the most expressive force and accuracy. We see the destroying army moving before us as we read, and see the desolation spreading. It should also be mentioned that the 4 in sects specified in Joel 1 : 4, the palmer worm, the locust, the canker worm, and the LOC BIBLE DICTIONARY. LOI caterpillar, are strictly, according to the Hebrew, only different forms of locusts, some perhaps without wings, as mentioned below. See also Lev. ii :2i, 22. Dr. Shaw remarks, " Those which I saw were much bigger than our common grass hoppers, and had brown spotted wings,. with legs and bodies of a bright yellow. Their first appearance was towards the end of March, the wind having been some time from the south. In the middle of April their numbers were so vastly in creased that in the heat of the day they formed themselves into large and numer ous swarms, flew in the air like a succession of clouds, and as the prophet Joel expresses it, they darkened the sun. When the wind blew briskly, so that these swarms were crowded by others, or thrown one upon an other, we had a lively idea of that compari son of the Psalmist, Psa. 109: 23, of being tossed up and down as the locust. In the month of May these swarms gradually re tired into the Metijiah and other adjacent plains, where they deposited their eggs. These were no sooner hatched in June than each of the broods collected itself into a compact body of a furlong or more square, and marching afterwards in a direct line towards the sea, they let nothing escape them, eating up everything that was green and juicy, not only the lesser kinds of veg etables, but the vine likewise, the fig-tree, the pomegranate, the palm, and the apple- tree, even all the trees of the field, Joel 1 : 12 ; in doing which they kept their ranks like men of war, climbing over, as they advanced, every tree or wall that was in their way ; nay, they entered into our very houses and bedchambers like thieves. The inhabitants, to stop their progress, made a variety of pits and trenches all over their fields and gardens, which they filled with waiter; or else they heaped up therein heath, stubble, and such like combustible matter, which were severally set on fire upon the approach of the locusts. But this was all to no purpose, for the trenches were quickly filled up and the fires extin guished by infinite swarms succeeding one another, while the front was regardless of danger and the rear pressed on so close that a retreat was altogether impossible. A day or two after one of these broods was in motion others were already hatched to march and glean after them, gnawing off the very bark and the young branches of such trees as had before escaped with the loss only of their fruit and foliage. So just ly have they been compared by the prophet to a great army , who further observes that the land is as the garden of Eden before them, and behind them a desolate wilder ness." The locust was a " clean " animal for the Jews, Lev. 11 : 22, and might be used for food. In Matt. 3 : 4 it is said of John the Baptist that "his meat was locusts and wild honey." They are still eaten in the East, and regarded by some as a delicacy, though usually left to the poorest of the people. Niebuhr remarks, " Locusts are brought to market on strings iii all the cities of Ara bia, from Babelmandel to Bassorah. On Mount Sumara I saw an Arab who had col lected a whole sackful of them. They are prepared in different ways. An Arab in Egypt threw them upon the glowing coals, and after he supposed they were roasted enough, he took them by the legs and head and devoured the remainder at one mouth ful. When the Arabs have them in quan tities, they roast or dry them in an oven, or boil them and eat them with salt. The Arabs in the kingdom of Morocco boil the locusts, and then dry them on the roofs of their houses. One sees there large baskets full of them in the markets." In Rev. 9 : 7-10 there is a terrific descrip tion of symbolical locusts, in which they are compared to war-horses, their hair to the hair of women, etc. Niebuhr heard an Arab of the desert, and another in Bagdad, make the same comparison. In like man ner the Italians still call locusts little hor ses, and the Germans hay-horses. LOD, 1 Chr. 8:12; Ezra 2 : 33. See Lydda. LO'-DEBAR, no pasture, a town east of the Jordan near Mahanaim in the north of Dan ; the home of Machir, who gave shelter to Mephibosheth, 2 Sam. 9 : 4, 5 ; 17 : 27. LODGE, to stay over night, 1 Kin. 19:9; 1 Chr. 9 : 27 ; Neh. 4 : 22 ; 13 : 20, 21 ; Job 31 : 32 ; Isa. 10 : 29. On Isa. 1 : 8 see Garden. LOG, Heb. «. hollow, the smallest meas ure of liquids among the Hebrews, contain ing 1— 1 2th of ahin, or about 5-6thsof a pint, Lev. 14 : 10, 12, 15, 21, 24. LOINS, the lower part of a man's back, Jer. 30: 6, and the organs within, Gen. 35 : 1 1 ; 1 Kin. 8:19; represented as the seat of strength, Deut. 33 : 1 1 ; Job 40 : 16 ; Psa. 69: 23; Isa 21: 3; girt with sackcloth in mourning, Gen. 37 : 34. See Girdle. LO'IS, a pious Jewess at Lystra, whose " unfeigned faith " Paul traces in her daugh ter Eunice and her grandson Timothy, 2 Tim. 1 : 5. 329 LOO BIBLE DICTIONARY. LOT LOOKED, Acts 28 : 6, expected, as in R. V. LOOK'ING-GLASS'ES, or rather, mirrors, were anciently made, not of glass, but of metal,chiefly copper, Exod- 38 :8: Job 37; 18, melted and cast in a circular form, highly polished, and attached to an ornamental handle. Similar mirrors have been found in the ruins of ancient Egypt. They were far inferior to modern mirrors, 1 Cor. 13 : 12, as is our present knowledge of divine things compared with our future direct and open vision. See also 2 Cor. 3 : 18; Jas. 1 : 23. LORD. This name belongs to God by preeminence, and in this sense ought never to be given to any creature. Jesus Christ, as the Messiah, the Son of God, and equal with the Father, is often called Lord in Scripture, especially in the writings of Paul. The word Lord, in the English Bible, when printed in small capitals, stands always for Jehovah in the Hebrew. See Jehovah. LORD'S-DAY. See Sabbath. LORD'S SUP'PER, called also "the breaking of bread," Acts 2 : 42 ; 20 : 7, and "the communion of the body and blood of Christ," 1 Cor. 10 : 16, is one ofthe 2 simple ordinances of the Christian church, institu ted by our Saviour in the most affecting circumstances on the Passover night in which he was betrayed, to be observed by his followers until his 2d coming. Bread and wine, the symbols of his hody broken and his blood shed for our redemption, are to be tasted by each communicant, to keep in mind that great sacrifice, the foundation of all our hopes and the strongest motive to a holy and devoted life, Exod. 24 : 5-8 ; Rom. 3: 25 ; 2 Cor. 5 : 14, 15. In the Lord's Supper the covenant is renewed between Christ and his people. It is also the visible 33° token of Christian fellowship ; and all true believers — having united themselves to his church and . leading consistent lives — and none but they, should claim to partake of it, 1 Cor. 5 : 6-8. In it Christians may ex pect and should seek to receive of the ful ness of Christ, grace for grace, 2 Cor. 1:21, 22 ; Eph. 4 : 15, 16 ; while those who partake heedlessly incur great guilt, and may look for chastisement. Some such abuses seem to have marred this service in Corinth, or rather the love-feasts or agapm that ac companied it, 1 Cor. 1 1 : 20-34. The dogma of the Romish Church, that the bread is changed into the very body and soul of Christ, which the priest offers anew in sac rifice, is contrary to the Scripture and to all the senses, as it is also to common sense. LO-RUHA'MAH, not obtaining mercy, the name divinely given to Hosea's ist daughter, a type of Israel's forfeiture of his favor during the Captivity, Hos. 1 : 6 ; 2 : 1, 23. See Hosea. LOT, covering, the son of Haran, brother of Milcah and Iscah, and nephew of Abra ham, followed his uncle from Ur, and after wards from Haran, to settle in Canaan. They went down into the south, the Negeb, and into Egypt during a famine, and return ing lived together near Bethel and Ai, Gen. 1 1 : 27-31 ; 12 :4-6; 13:1-4. Abraham had a great affection for him, and when they could not continue longer together in Canaan, be cause they both had large flocks and their shepherds sometimes quarrelled, Gen. 13:5- 7, he generously gave Lot the choice of his abode. Lot chose the plain of Sodom, which appears then to have been the most fertile part of the land. Here he continued to dwell till the destruction of Sodom and the adjacent cities. He was a righteous man even in Sodom, 2 Pet. 2 : 6-9, and " a judge," condemning their evil practices, Gen. 19:9; but the calamities consequent upon his phoice of this residence — his capture by Eastern marauders, Gen. 14, the molesta tion caused by his ungodly and vicious neighbors, the »loss of his property in the burning city, the destruction of his sons-in- law and of his wife — if they do not prove that he regarded ease and profit more than duty, show that the most beautiful and fruit ful land is not always the best ; the profli gacy of its citizens may sink it into the abyss of perdition, and endanger all who have any concern with it. Real estate in Sodom proved worthless, as it is in any similar place ; and no " durable riches," LOT BIBLE DICTIONARY. LUC worthy of being a man's chief good, can be found in any earthly property — it is all to be burned. Lot's wife, looking back with disobedient regrets, and .arrested by the threatened judgment midway in her flight to the mountain, struck dead and becoming incrusted with salt, is an awful warning to all who turn their faces Zion- ward but are unwilling to leave all for Christ, Gen. 19; Luke 17:28-32. Lot es caped with his 2 daughters to Zoar, and became the father of Moab and Ammon by tliem, they no doubt palliating their crime by the plea that they dared not marry any of the heathen among whom they dwelt. The Dead Sea is now called by the natives Bahr Lfit, the sea of Lot. See Sodom. LO'TAN, covering, eldest son of Seir, Gen. 36 : 20, 22, 29 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 38. LOTS were often cast by the Jews, as well as by other ancient nations, with the ex pectation, when God was appealed to, that he would so control them as to give a right direction in doubtful cases, Judg. 20 : 9 ; 1 Sam. 10:20, 21 ; I Chr. 26: 14; Psa. 22 : 18; Prov. 16:33; 18: 18. They were often used by the divine appointment. The portions of the 1 2 tribes were thus assigned to them ; and hence each tribe's portion was called "the lot of its inheritance," Num. 26:55, 56; Psa. 125:3; Acts 8 :2i. The scape-goat was to be selected and the order of the priests' service determined by lot, Lev. 16:8; I Chr. 24 : 5 ; 25 : 8. By the same means Achan, Jonathan, and Jonah were discovered, Josh. 7 : 14 ; 1 Sam. 14 141, 42 ; Jon. 1:7. By lot Christ's garments were divided, Matt. 27:35, and Matthias was des ignated by Christ to be an apostle in the place of Judas, Acts 1 : 26. A common mode pf casting lots was by the use of pebbles, one or more of them being marked, and all being shaken together in some fold of a garment, an urn, or a helmet, before draw ing, Prov. 16 : 33 ; John 19 : 24. As the use of lots by one who believes in the particu lar providence of God involves a solemn appeal to the Disposer of all events, they should never be used on trivial occasions ; and in this day a case can rarely occur when such an appeal would be warranted. See Purim. LOVE. God is love ; and he that dwelleth in love dwelleth in God, and God in him, i John 4:16. Love is a chief attribute of Jehovah, the length and breadth and height and depth of which are beyond comprehension, for they are infi nite, Eph. 3 : 18, 19. Between the 3 Persons of the Godhead love is unutterably full, perfect, and blissful ; towards holy angels and Christians God's love is an infinite fatherly complacency and affection ; to wards sinners it is immeasurable compas sion. It is shown in all his works and ways, and dictated his holy law, but is most signally displayed in the gospel, John 3 : 16. "Herein is love." See Law. Holy love in man would make the whole heart and soul supremely delight in and obey God, and cordially and practically love all beings according to their charac ter — the good with fellowship of soul, and the evil with a Christlike benevolence — abstaining from all that would harm them, and doing all that we can for their good, without reference to a return. Such a love would meet and fulfil all the ends of the law, Matt. 22: 37-40; Rom, 13:8-10. With out it none can enter heaven ; and as the affections of every unrenewed heart are all mixed with sin, being given to forbidden objects, or selfishly and unduly given to objects not forbidden, we must be "born again " in order to see God, John 3:3:1 John 4:7, 19; 5:4. LOVE-FEASTS, Jude 12; 2 Pet. 2:13. See Feasts. , LOVER, in Scripture any intimate friend, 1 Kin. 5:1; Psa. 38 : 1 1 . LOW COUNTRY, or Shephelah, 2 Chr. 26 : 10. See Judaea. LOWER PARTS OF THE EARTH, val leys, Isa. 44 : 23 ; also the abode of disem bodied spirits, secluded from view, Psa. 63 : 9 ; Eph. 4:9; hence, in Psa. 139 : 15, the womb. LU'BIM, thirsty. See Libya. LU'CAS, A. V. Phile. 24. See Luke. LU'CIFER, ligkt-bringer, the Latin name of the morning star, or " son of the morn ing." In the figurative language of Scrip ture, a brilliant star denoted an illustrious prince, Num. 24 : 17. Christ was given to men as the " bright and morning Star." Rev. 2 : 28 ; 22 : 16. The word Lucifer is used once only in the English Bible, and then of the king of Babylon, Isa. 14 : 12. It is now commonly, though inappropriately, given to the prince of darkness. LU'CIUS of Cyrene, Acts 13:1, compare Acts 2:10; 11 : 19, 20, one of the ministers and teachers of the Christian church at Antioch, and probably a kinsman of Paul, Rom. 16:21. He is' supposed by some to be the same with the evangelist Luke ; but for this there is no good reason. LU'CRE, gain. " Filthy lucre " is ill- 33 > LUD BIBLE DICTIONARY. LYD gotten and base gain, I Tim. 3 : 3, 8 ; Tit. 1:7,11. LUD, the 4th son of Shem, Gen. 10:22, and ancestor, it is thought, of the Lydians in Asia Minor, 1 Chr. 1:17. LU'DIM, descendants of Mizraim, Gen. 10: 13, dwelling in Africa, probably near Ethiopia ; they were famous bowmen, Isa. 66 : 19, and are mentioned as soldiers with the Ethiopians, Libyans, and Tyrians, Jer. 46 : 9 ; Ezek. 27 : I o ; 30 : 5. LU'HITH, the ascent of, a hill leading up to a Moabite sanctuary, Isa. 15:5; Jer. 48:5. LUKE, Lucas, Phile. 24, or Lucanus, the evangelist, probably the same person who is called by St. Paul " the beloved physi cian," and distinguished from them " of the circumcision," Col. 4:11,14. Luke was the writer of the gospel which bears his name, and of the Acts of the Apostles, hav ing been the friend and companion of Paul in most of the journeys recorded in the latter book. Thus, in Acts 16:11, he first uses the word "we," and shows that he was with Paul at Troas and in his first Macedonian tour. After they reach Phi lippi an interval of separation occurs ; but they are again at Philippi when Paul sails thence for Jerusalem, and from that time he continues with the apostle in his la bors, voyages, and sufferings to the close of his first imprisonment at Rome, Acts 17:1; 20:5,6, 13-16; 21-28; Phile. 24; 2 Tim. 4:11. His personal history before and after this period of his companionship with Paul is unknown, or rests on Uncertain traditions. His own narrative contains the least pos sible mention of himself; yet we cannot doubt that he was eminently useful to the early church, by his learning, judgment, fidelity, and even his medical skill, besides leaving to the world the invaluable legacy of his writings. See Acts and Gospel. LU'NATIC, formed from the Latin luna, the moon, and corresponding to the origi nal Greek word and to the English " moon struck ;" applied to a class of persons men tally and often corporally diseased, who were believed to suffer most when the moon was full. Insanity, epilepsy, and morbid melancholy were among the fre quent effects of demoniac possession, . yet this possession existed independently of these effects, and was a more dreadful ca lamity. Lunatics are expressly mentioned in distinction from men possessed by evil spirits, Matt.. 4 : 24 ; 17:15. See Devils and Mad. 332 LUST originally meant any longing de sire, however innocent, Deut. 1 2 : 15 ; 14 : 26. But, in tacit acknowledgment of the de pravity of man's passions, general usage soon attached the idea of guilt to the word ; and now it usually denotes carnal, lascivi ous desire, Matt. 5 : 28. In Gal. 5 : 1 6, 1 7, 24 we see that the aspirations of the heart re newed by the Holy Spirit oppose and will subdue the native evil desires, 1 Cor. 15:57; but in the unrenewed heart these reign uncontrolled, lead to greater and greater outward sins, and secure eternal death, Jas. i : 14, 15. Lusty in Judg. 3 : 29 means stout, vigorous. LUZ, bending or hazel, I., a spot north of Jerusalem visited while uninhabited by Abraham, Gen. 12:8; 13:3, and by Jacob, who named it Bethel, Gen. 28:19; 35:6; 48 : 3. A Canaanite town was afterwards built near by and called Luz, and after the conquest Bethel was built on or near the same site. See Bethel. The 2 are dis tinguished in Josh. 16:2. There is now a Khirbet el-Lozeh 3J miles west of Beitin. II. An unknown town in " the land of the Hittites," founded by a refugee from Luz who rendered an important service to the Hebrews, Judg. 1 : 26. LYCAO'NIA, a small province of Asia Minor, bounded north by Galatia, east by Cappadocia, south by Isauria and Cilicia, and west by Phrygia. It appears to have been within the limits of Phrygia Major, but was erected into a Roman province by Augustus. The country is level, but not fertile, though peculiarly adapted to sheep- pasturage. Of its cities, Iconium, Derbe, and Lystra are mentioned in the New Testament, Acts 14:6. See Lystra. Tne "speech of Lycaonia," ver. 11, is generally supposed to have been a dialect of Greek, corrupted by a large mixture of Syriac. On his ist journey Paul traversed it from west to east, Acts 14 : 1-2 1 ; 2 Tim. 3 : II ;on his 2d and 3d, from east to west — to Troas, Acts 16 : 1-8, and to Ephesus, 18:23; 19: '• Lycaonia now forms part of the Turkish province of Caramania. LY'CIA, a province in the southwest of Asia Minor, bounded west by Caria, east by Pamphylia, north by Phrygia and Pisi- dia, and south by the Mediterranean. The country is somewhat mountainous, though not barren. Of its cities, only Patara and Myra are mentioned in the New Testa ment, Acts 21 : 1, 2 ; 27 : 5. LYD'DA, in Hebrew Lud or Lod, in Ben jamin, 1 Chr. 8:12; Ezra 2 : 33, and by the LYD BIBLE DICTIONARY. MAC Greeks' called Diospolis was a city 9 miles east of Joppa, on the way to Jerusalem. Here Peter healed iEneas, Acts 9 : 33, 34. It was destroyed not long after Jerusalem, but was soon rebuilt, and became the seat of a famous Jewish school. A Christian church was here organized, and was in existence A. D. 518. Lydda is often men tioned in the history of the Crusades. It was situated in the midst of fine and exten sive plains, the soil of which is a rich black mould, that might be rendered exceeding ly fertile. It is at present only a miserable village called Ludd. The ruins of a stately church of the middle ages, called the Church of St. George, preserve the name of a saint and martyr said to have been born and buried here in the 3d century. The English Crusaders adopted him as the " patron " of England and many fabulous legends are told of his exploits. LYD'IA, I., a woman of Thyatira, resi ding at Philippi in Macedonia, and dealing in purple cloths. She was not a Jewess by birth, but had become a proselyte to Judaism and "worshipped God." She was led by the grace of God to receive the gos pel with joy, Paul's first European convert ; and having been baptized with her house hold, constrained Paul and his fellow-la borers to make her house their home while at Philippi, Acts 16: 14, 15, 40. Compare Phil. 4 : 3. See Philippi. II. In Ezek. 30:5, properly Ludim. LYSA'NIAS. See Abilene. LYS'IAS, or Claudius Lysias, commander of the Roman guard at Jerusalem during Paul's last visit there. In the honorable discharge of his duty he repeatedly saved Paul from the malice of the Jews, Acts 21 : 27-40; 22; 23. LVS'TRA, a city in the eastern part of Lycaonia, near Derbe and Iconium, and the native place of Timothy. Paul and Barnabas preached the gospel here, and having healed a cripple were almost wor shipped. Soon after, however, at the insti gation of persecuting Jews from Antioch and Iconium, Paul was stoned there, Acts 14:6, 19. Timothy seems to have witnessed or known of his sufferings, 2 Tim. 3 : 10, 1 1, and at Paul's 2d visit was ready to enter on the public service of Christ, Acts 16 : 1. Hamilton finds its site at Bin-bir-Kilisseh, at the foot of a mountain of volcanic origin named Karadagh, where are the ruins of a number of churches. The city appears to have claimed Jupiter as its special patron, Acts 14 : 13. M. MA'ACAH, or Maachah, oppression, I., a city and region of Syria or Aram, 1 Chr. 19:6, 7, somewhere near the foot of Mount Hermon and Geshur, apparently the rocky tract east of the Ledja. The portion of Manasseh beyond Jordan reached to this country, like that of Og king of Bashan, Deut. 3:13, 14; but it does not appear to have become subject to Israel, Josh. 12 :4-6; 13:13, except during the reign of David, Solomon, and Jeroboam II. The king of Maachah, with other Syrians, joined the Ammonites in a war with David, and they were defeated and made tributary, 2 Sam. 10: 6-8, 19. II. A wife of David, and the mother of Absalom. She was a daughter of Talmai, king of Geshur in Syria, 2 Sam. 3:3:1 Chr. 3:2. III. The wife of Rehoboam and mother of Abijah, kings of Judah. She is called the " daughter " of Abishalom or Absalom, 1 Kin. 15:2:2 Chr. 11 : 20-22. In 2 Chr. 13:2 she is called Michaiah, and is said to be the daughter of Uriel. She appears to have exerted a great influence over the members of the royal family, but was de graded from her high position by Asa her grandson, for promoting idolatry, 2 Chr. 15 : 16. Six others of the same name are men- tionedinGen. 22: 24; 1 Kin. 2:39; 1 Chr. 2 :48; 7 : 16; 8: 29; II : 43 ; 27 : 16. MA'ALEH-ADUM'MIM, A. V. the going up of Adummim, a rough pass near Gilgal, Josh. 15:7; 18 : 17. MA'ALEH-AKRAB'BIM, ascent of scor pions, Num. 34 : 4 ; Josh. 15:3; Judg. 1 : 36. See Akrabbim. Trumbull identifies it with the pass el-Yemen, 30 miles southwest of the Dead Sea, and 6 miles west of the pass es-Sufah. MA'ARATH, openness, a town in Judah, north of Hebron, Josh. 15 : 59. MAASE'IAH, the work of God, the name of many places mentioned in 1 Chr. 15 : 18, 20 ; 2 Chr. 23:1; 26:11:28:7; 34 : 8 ; Ezra 10: 18, 21,22,30; Neh. 3: 23 ; 8:4,7 ; 10: 25; 11:5,7:12:42; Jer. 21:1 ; 35:4:51:59. MACEDO'NIA, a large country lying north of Greece proper, bounded south by Thessaly and Epirus, east by Thrace and the yEgean Sea, west by the Adriatic Sea and Illyria, and north by Dardania and Mcesia. Its principal rivers were the Stry- mon and Axius, flowing through 2 great plains. Its most celebrated mountains were 333 MAC BIBLE DICTIONARY. MAG Olympus and Athos : the former renowned in heathen mythology as the residence of the gods, lying on the confines of Thessaly, and principally within that state ; the lat ter being at the extremity of a promontory which juts out into the JEgean Sea, and noted in modern times as the seat of sev eral monasteries, in which are many man uscripts supposed to be valuable. This region is believed to have been peopled by K'ittim, Gen. 10:4; but little is known of its early history. The Macedonian empire is traced back some 400 years before the famous Philip, under whom, and especial ly under his son Alexander the Great, it reached the summit of its power. Alexan der B. C. 336-323, at the head of Macedo nians and Greeks united, conquered a large part of Western and Southern Asia. This power was foretold by Daniel, 8 : 3-8, under the symbol of a goat with one horn ; and it is worthy of note that ancient Mace donian coins still exist bearing that na tional symbol. After the death of Alexan der the power of the Macedonians declined, and they were at length conquered by the Romans under Paulus vEmilius, B. C. 168, who divided their country into 4 districts. The Romans afterwards divided the whole of Greece and Macedonia into 2 great prov inces, which they called Macedonia and Achaia, B. C. 142, Rom. 15 : 26; 2 Cor. 9: 2. See Greece. In the New Testament the name is to be taken in this latter sense. Of the cities of Macedonia proper there are mentioned in the New Testament, Amphip- olis, Appollonia, Beroea, Neapolis, Philippi, and Thessalonica. This country early re ceived the gospel, A. D. 52, Paul having been summoned to labor there by a super natural vision, Acts 16 : 9to 17 : 15. He vis ited it 3 or 4 times, and established churches at Thessalonica, Philippi, etc. It is often mentioned, as in Acts 18 : 5 ; 19: 21 ; 20: 1-6; Rom. 15 : 26; 2 Cor. 1: 16; 9:2; 11:9. Its Christians are highly commended, Acts 17:11; Phil. 4: 10, 14-19; 1 Thess. 1 : 3-8 ; 2 : 8, 17-20 ; 3:10, and it was honored by its Christian women, Acts 16 : 13, 14 ; Phil. 4 : 2, 3. Its fertile soil is now languishing under the Turkish sway. MACHBAN'AI, cloaked, 1 Chr. 12:13. MACHBE'NAH, a cloak or a band, I Chr. 2 :48, 49 a town of Judah, colonized by de scendants of Maachah. MA'CHIR, sold, I., eldest son of the patri arch Manasseh, Gen. 50: 23 ; 1 Chr. 7 : 14. His son Gilead and his daughter Abiah, 1 Chr. 2: 21, 23, are mentioned, His pos- 334 terity were active in the conquest of Gil ead, Num. 32 : 39; Josh. 17 : 1, and in the war with Jabinand Sisera, Judg. 5:14. II. Son of Ammiel, a Gileadite chief who befriended Jonathan's son Mephibosheth, and afterwards sent supplies to David, flee- ingfrom Absalom, 2 Sam. 9 : 4, 5 ; 17 : 27-29. MACHPE'LAH, double, or a portion, a place near Hebron containing the field and cave purchased of Ephron by Abraham for a family tomb. Sarah was first buried there, Gen. 23, and afterwards Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, with Rebekah, Leah, etc., Gen. 25 : 9 ; 49 : 30 ; 50 : 13. See Hebron. MAD, and " beside thyself," in Acts 26 : 24, 25, are the same word in Greek. Harm less madmen or lunatics are still revered in the East as persons whose spirits are in converse with the other world, and they are ministered to and suffered lo do as theyplease. Compare 1 Sam. 21 : 10-15; 2 Cor. 11 : 19. MA'DAI, the 3d son of Japheth, and the Medes, etc., descended from him, Gen. 10 : 2. See Media. MA'DIAN, See Midian. MADMAN'NAH, dunghill, j. city first as signed to Judah, and afterwards to Simeon, Josh. 15:31;! Chr.'2 : 49. Compare Beth- marcaboth, Josh. 19:5. It is perhaps Min- yai, 15 miles from Gaza on the road to Egypt. MAD'MEN, dunghill, an unknown place in Moab, Jer. 48 : 2. MADME'NAH, dunghill, a town in Ben jamin not far from Jerusalem, site not known, Isa. 10:31. MA'DON, strife, a town in North Canaan whose king, Jobab, was defeated by Joshua, Josh. 11:1:12:19. MAG'DALA, a tower, in R. V., Matt. 1 5 : 39, Magadan, now a small Turkish vil lage called el-Mejdel. It lay near the shore of the Sea of Galilee, at its most westerly point, 3 miles northwest of Tiberias, in the southern part of a small plain on which stood also Capernaum at the other end, and Dalmanutha in its immediate vicinity, Matt. 1 5 : 39 ; Mark 8:10. Mary Magdalene was born or resided at Magdala ; and it was the seat of a Jewish school after Jeru salem was destroyed. MAG'DIEL, endowed by God, an Edom- ite chief, Gen. 36 : 43. MA'GI, or Wise Men, an appellation given among the Medes and Persians to a class of priests, wise men, philosophers, etc., who devoted themselves to the study of the moral and physical sciences, and MAG BIBLE DICTIONARY. MAH particularly cultivated astrology and medi cine. They alone performed the religious rites, and pretended to communicate to men secret things, future events, and the will of the gods. See Media. As they thus acquired great honor and influence, they were introduced into the courts of kings and consulted on all occasions. They also accompanied the army in warlike ex peditions; and so much importance was' attached to their advice and opinions that nothing was attempted without their ap probation. See Artaxerxes, I. and Rab- mag. A similar class of men existed in Babylon, Egypt, Arabia, etc. The book of Daniel shows in what high estimation they were held in Babylon. Daniel was appoint ed master of the wise men ; but their jeal ousy of his wisdom and their hatred of his religion, as well as the terms in which they are spoken of in Isa. 47 : 13, 14 ; Dan. 2 : 9, 27, show that as a class they were destitute of true wisdom. See Simon Magus. Not so those who came " from the East " to salute and adore the infant Jesus, Matt. 2 : 1-12. ~The captivity of the Jews beyond the Euphrates had dispersed through the East much knowledge of the true God ; and these philosophers and astronomers, in their search after wisdom, had found and believed the prophecies respecting the Mes siah — among others that of Balaam, who came from the East, Num. 23 : 7, and fore told Christ as the Star of Jacob, Num. 24 : 1 7; and of Daniel, " chief of the magi," Dan. 2:48; 5:11 ; 7: 13, 14, 21, 27 ;9: 25-27 — and were divinely guided to his presence at Bethlehem. See Star. In them the sci ence and philosophy of the heathen world laid their homage at the feet of Christ, fore tokening the opening of Christ's kingdom to the Gentiles and the time when all the world shall pay him tribute as the true King of men. Compare Psa. 72:10, 1 1 ; Isa. 60:1-3. MAG/IC means, in the Bible, all the super stitious ceremonies of magicians, sorcerers, enchanters, necromancers, spiritualists, ex orcists, astrologers, soothsayers, interpret ers of dreams, fortune-tellers, casters of nativities, etc., which are all forbidden by the law of God, whether practised to hurt or to benefit mankind. It was also forbid den to consult magicians on pain of death, Lev. 19 : 31 ; 20 : 6 ; Deut. 18 : 9-14. Magic arts and implements are mentioned in Gen. 3 1 : 19, 30, 32-35, Laban's teraphim; compare Judg. 18 : 5, 6, 14-20; Ezek. 21 : 19-22; Zech. ro : 2 ; in the story of the Exode, Exod. 7 and 8 ; of Balaam, Num. 22 : 5-7 ; 23 : 23 ; 24 : 1 ; of the witch of En-dor, 1 Sam. 28 ; and of the Ephesian books, Acts 19:19. See also Isa. 2:6; 8: 19; 19: 3; 29: 3, 4; Jer. 14:14; 23 : 25 to end ; 29 : 8, 9 ; Mic. 3:6, 7, 11; Acts 16 : 16-18. There is no evidence of supernatural power in any case. See En chantments, Sorcerers. MAGI'CIANS. See Magi and Magic. This Hebrew word means sacred scribes. The magicians of Egypt were probably priests. MAGISTRATES. Applied in Scripture to various civil and military rulers. In Acts 16 : 20, 22, 35, 38, the Roman Prae tors. MA'GOG, the 2d son of Japheth, Gen. 10:2; 1 Chr. 1 : 5. See Gog. In Ezek. 38 and 39 and Rev. 20 : 7-9 are denoted the violent assaults of the enemies of Christian ity and their defeat. The barbaric Scythi ans, from between the Black Sea and the Caspian, who overran much of Western Asia in the 7th century B. C, well answered to the description in Ezekiel. MA'GOR-MIS'SABIB, terror on every side, the significant name given by Jere miah to the persecuting Pashur, Jer. 20:3, 4. The same words are used in Psa. 31:13, but elsewhere only by Jeremiah, Jer. 6:25; 20 : 10 ; 46.: 5 ; 49 : 29 ; Lam. 2:22. MAHALAL'EEL, praise of God, I., the 4th from Adam in the line of Seth, Gen. 5 : 12-17 ; 1 Chr. 1:2; Luke 3 :37. II. A descendant of Judah and of Pharez, Neh. 11:4. MA'HALATH, harp, I., Esau's wife, and daughter of Ishmael. See Bashemath. II. A granddaughter of David, cousin and wife of Rehoboam, 2 Chr. 11 : 18. III. In the title of Psalms 53 and 88, con jectured to refer to the tune or the instru ment used in chanting these Psalms ; or as Hengstenberg and Alexander suggest, to the spiritual malady which they lament. MAHANA'IM, two hosts, a place so named because a host of angels here met the host of Jacob on his return from Padan-aram, Gen. 32 : 1, 2. It lay north of the Jabbok and near Penuel, and afterwards became a Levitical city in the tribe of Gad, Josh. 1 3 : 26 ; 2 1 : 38, 39. It was apparently a town of some strength, for Ishbosheth lived there during his short reign, and David took refuge there during Absalom's rebellion, 2 Sam. 2:8; 4:5; 17 : 24, 27. Solomon drew supplies thence, I Kin. 4 : 1 4. MA'HANEH-DAN, the camp of Dan, as translated in Judg. 13 : 25 ; compare 16:31 ; 335 MAH BIBLE, DICTIONARY. MAM the place where the Danites assembled and prepared to invade Laish, Judg. 1 8 : 1 1, 12. MA'HARAI, hasty, 1 Chr. 11 : 30 ; 27 : 13. MA'HER-SHA'LAL-HASH-BAZ, haste, spoil, speed to the prey, the name given by Isaiah to one of his sons for a prophetic intimation of the speedy victory of the As syrians over Syria and Israel, Judah's ene mies, Isa. 8 : 1-3. MAH'LAH, disease, I., in A. V. Maha- lah, 1 Chr. 7 : 18. II. First of Zelophehad's 5 daughters, who married their kinsmen to secure their inheritance in Manasseh, Num. 26 : 33 ; 27 : 1-1 1 ; 36 : 1 1 ; Josh. 17:3. MAH'LI, sick, I., son of Merari, and grandson of Levi, Exod. 6:19; Num. 3 : 20, 33 ; 1 Chr. 6 : 19 ; 23 : 21 ; 24 : 26, 28. II. A nephew of the preceding, 1 Chr. 23 = 23 ; 24 : 3°- MAH'LON, sick, a son of Elimelech and Naomi, and the first husband of Ruth the Moabitess, Ruth 1)4:9. MAKE, Luke 24 : 28, to act or appear ; so in 2 Sam. 13:6. MAKHE'LOTH, assemblies, 24th station of the wandering Israelites, Num. 33: 25. MAKKE'DAH, herdsman's place, a chief city of the Canaanites, near which 5 con federate kings were defeated, taken in the cave to which they had fled, and executed. It lay in the vicinity of Libnah, Azekah, and Lachish, southwest of Jerusalem, in the tribe of Judah, Josh. 10 : 10-28 ; 12:16; 15:41. MAK'TESH, a mortar, Zeph. 1 : 11, appa rently in or near Jerusalem, and occupied by merchants ; but we have no clew to its location. MAL'ACHI, messenger of fehovah, the last of the minor prophets and of all the Old Testament writers ; little known, Hag. 1 : 13 ; Mai. 3 : 1. Malachi most probably prophesied . about B. C. 416, in the latter part of the administration of Nehemiah, and after Haggai and Zechariah, at a time of great disorder among the priests and people of Judah, whom he reproves. He inveighs against the priests ; reproves the people for having taken strange wives, for inhumanity to their brethren, for divorcing their wives, and for neglect of paying tithes and firstfruits. He seems to allude to the covenant that Nehemiah renewed with the Lord, together with the priests and the chief of the nation. In the latter part he foretells the coming of John the Baptist in the spirit and power of Elijah, Mai. 3:1; 4 : 5, 6 ; Matt. 11 : 10, 14 ; 17 : 10-13 ; Luke 336 1:17. He also foretells the twofold coming of Christ, and the blessedness of those who fear and serve him. Thus the Old Testa ment closes with predictions of the Mes siah, and the New Testament opens with the record of their fulfilment. MAL'CHAM, their king, I. See MoLECH. II. Son of Shaharaim, 1 Chr. 8 : 9. , MALCHI'AH, or MALCHI'JAH, fehovah' s king, the name of 10 or more persons in the period of the Captivity. MAL'CHIEL, God's king, grandson of Asher, Gen. 46:17; Num. 26:45; 1 Chr. 7 = 3'- MAL'CHI-SHU'A, king of help, son of Saul and Ahinoam, slain at Gilboa, 1 Sam. 14 : 49; 31 :2; 1 Chr. 8:33; 9:39; 10:2. MAL'CHUS, rule r or counsellor, the bond servant of Caiaphas, whose right ear was cut off by Peter and miraculously restored by Christ in Gethsemane, Matt. 26 : 5 1. The seizure of the Saviour immediately after 2 manifestations of his divinity, Luke 22:51; John 18:6, evinces the blindness and obsti nacy of mankind in sin. Note that his name is given only by John, who was ac quainted with the family, while it is Luke only, a physician, who mentions the heal ing of the ear. " Suffer ye thus far," seems to mean, leave me free a moment for this purpose. The hands so often stretched out to heal were now to be bound and soon nailed to the cross. MAL'LOWS, Job 30 : 4, supposed by Bo- chart to signify the plant called.Orache, the Atriplex Halimus of Linnaeus. It grows in salt marshes 5 feet high, and its termi nal leaves are used in the East, either green or boiled, as food by the poor. MAL'LUCH, ruler or counsellor, the name of 6 men, chiefly of the era of the Captivity. MlAM'MON, a Chaldee word signifying riches. Our Saviour says we cannot serve God and mammon, Matt. 6 : 24. Wealth is as truly an idol to those who set their hearts on it as Jupiter or Diana ; and no idolater can enter heaven. He also charges us, from the example of the unjust steward, so to use worldly goods, which are generally sought and used sinfully — "the unright eous mammon " — as to have God the Judge our friend, and receive the true riches in heaven, Luke 16:9, 11, 13. MAM'RE, stoutness, I., an Amorite prince, brother of Eshcol and Aner. All 3 united their forces to aid Abraham in the rescue of Lot, Gen. 14. He gave his name to II. , the town where he dwelt, afterwards Hebron, Gen 35:27, in the suburbs of which MAN BIBLE DICTIONARY. MAN was a large terebinth-tree, or grove (see Oak), called in the A. V. "the plain of Mamre." Here Abraham and his descend ants often pitched their tents, Gen. 13:18; 18:1. The cave of Machpelah lay on the slope of the valley opposite to the grove of Mamre, Gen. 23:17, 19; 25:9; 49:30; and from the heights near by Abraham could see the smoking plain of Sodom, Gen. 19:27, 28. MAN OF SIN. See Antichrist. MAN'AEN, consoler, a converted Jew, a foster brother of Herod Antipas, but unlike him in character and end : Manaen was a minister of Christ at Antioch ; Herod was guilty of the blood of both Christ and his forerunner, Acts 13:1. "One shall be ta ken, and another left." MAN'AHATH, rest, I., of Mount Seir, a son of Shobal, driven out by the sons of Esau, Gen. 36:23; 1 Chr. 1:40. II. A place to which certain Benjamites removed, 1 Chr. 8:6, perhaps in the border of Judah, 1 Chr. 2:52-54. MANAS'SEH, in Matt. 1:10; Rev. 7:6, A. V. Manasses, causing lo forget, I., the eldest son of Joseph and Asenath, born in Egypt, Gen. 41:50, 51, and adopted by Ja cob as one of his own sons, and head of a tribe, as was his brother Ephraim, Gen. 48. In apportioning his benedictions Jacob was doubtless divinely guided. The tribe of Manasseh, with that of Ephraim and of Benjamin, all descendants of Rachel, formed "the camp of Ephraim," on the left of the tabernacle in the desert. In the division of the Holy Land, Manasseh received a double portion: one part east of the Upper Jordan and the' Sea of Galilee, the other west of the Jordan, between Ephraim and Issachar, to the Mediterra nean, Num. 32:33, 39-42; Josh. 16 and 17; yet Ephraim's portion was better, and its wealth and power far greater, according to the prediction of Jacob. In the early history of Manasseh, Machir "the father of (the land of) Gilead," and Jair his grandson, were famous, Deut. 3: 13- 15; 1 Chr. 2:21-23. The western half of the tribe were slow in expelling the Ca naanites, Josh. 17:1, 2; Judg. 1:27, 28; but the tribe took part in the war with Jabin, Judg. 5: 14, and furnished the judges Gide on, Jair, and perhaps Jephthah. They ac cepted Ishbosheth after the death of Saul, 2 Sam. 2:9, but were among those who crowned David at Hebron, 1 Chr. 12:19-21, 31, 37, and are honorably named as sharing in religious revivals, 2 Chr. 15:9; 30:1-18; 31 :\\ 34:6-9. They were chastised by Ha zael, 2 Kin. 10:32, 33, and carried captive by the Assyrians, 1 Chr. 5:25, 26. Their recovery is alluded to in 2 Chr. 15:9; 30:1- 18; 34:6,9; Ezek. 48:3-5. II. The son and impious successor of the good Hezekiah, king of Judah, and the pious Hephzibah. Compare Isa. 62:4. He began to reign at 12 years old, B. C. 698, and reigned 55 years. His sons suffered a fiery baptism to Moloch, 2 Chr. 33:6, or were even sacrificed, Ezek. 23:37, 39. The worship of Baal and Astarte was revived, Jer. 7:18, impure images erected in the temple itself, 2 Kin. 21:7; 23:17, with un authorized priests, Zeph. 1:4; the altars and the ark of Jehovah were removed, 2 Chr. 33:16; 35:3, the Sabbath disregard ed, Isa. 5$: 2; 58:13, and priests and proph ets cruelly slain, 2 Kin. 21:16; 24:4; Isa. 57:1-4; Jer. 2:30. Isaiah and Habakkuk prophesied at the beginning of his reign, Jeremiah and Zephaniah at its close. For his shocking idolatries, tyranny, and cru elties God suffered him to be carried as a prisoner to Babylon in the 22d year of his reign, probably by Esar-haddon kin.r; of Assyria. Here, however, he so humbled himself that God moved the Assyrians to restore him to his throne, as a tributary; and thenceforth he set himself to undo the evil he had done.. He abolished the idols he had worshipped and the diviners he had consulted; accomplished many re forms for the spiritual and material good of his kingdom ; repaired the defences of Jerusalem, inclosing with a wall new space on the west and Ophel on the southeast; and strengthened the walled cities of Judah. After a reign longer than that of any other king of Judah, he died in peace and was buried in Jerusalem, 2 Kin. 21 ; 2 Chr. 33. The "prayer of Manasseh," in the Apoc rypha, was not admitted to the canon even by the Council of Trent, and was probably the work of some inventive writer before the Christian era. III. A grandfather of Micah's renegade priest, Judg. 18:30, A. V. Many versions have Moses instead of Manasseh, and that is probably the true reading. Two men of this name repudiated their heathen wives in Ezra's day, Ezra 10:30, 33. MAN'DRAKES, Hebrew Dudaim, Gen. 30:14-16; Song 7:13, a plant to which was attributed superstitiously the power of ren dering barren women fruitful. It is the Atropa Mandragora of Linnaeus, a plant of the genus belladonna, with a root like a 337 MAN BIBLE DICTIONARY. MAN beet, white and reddish blossoms, and fra grant yellow apples, which ripen from May to July. The strong odor of the fruit, of the size of a small apple, made it prized in the East. MA'NEH, a portion, a. Hebrew weight of ioo shekels, t Kin. 10:17 with 2 Chr. 9:16; or, as usually reckoned, of 60 shekels, Ezek. 45:12. See Pound and Weights. MAN'GER, Greek, a crib or feeding- trough; in Luke 13:15 a "stall" — margin, "manger." See Inn. MAN'NA, the miraculous food given by God to the Israelites during their wander ings in the desert. It was like a small grain, white like hoar-frost, round, and of the size of coriander-seed, Exod. 16; Num. 11. It fell every morning with the dew about'the camp of the Israelites, and in so great quantities during the whole 40 years of their journey in the wilderness that it was sufficient to serve the entire multitude instead of bread, Exod. 16:35; Deut. 29:5, 6; Josh. 5:12. It is nowhere said that the Israelites had no other food. That nu merous flocks and herds accompanied the camp of Israel is clear from many passages. Certainly the daily sacrifices were offered, and no doubt other offerings, affording ani mal food on which the priests and Levites subsisted, according to their offices. When manna was first sent, the Israel ites said to each other, Man-hu? " What is it?" for they wist not what it was, and from the frequent repetition of this inquiry the name man or manna arose. In the valleys around Sinai a substance called manna is found, dropping from the sprigs of several trees, but principally from the tamarisk, in the month of June. It is collected by the Arabs, who make cakes of it, and call it honey of beyrouk. See Exod. 16:31. The 338 exudation of this manna is occasioned by an insect. Besides this substance and the manna of commerce — which is used as a laxative medicine, and is produced by the ash -trees of Southern Europe — several other vegetable products in Arabia, Persia, etc., of similar origin and qualities, are known by the same name. It is in vain, however, to seek to identify with any of these the manna of the Israelites, which was evidently a special provision for them, beginning and terminating with their need of it, Deut. 8:3, 16. It was found, not on trees and shrubs, but on " the face of the wilderness" wherever they went, and was different in its qualities from any now known by that name, being dry enough to grind and bake like grain, but breeding worms on the 2d day. It was miraculous in the amount that fell, for the supply of millions, and all the year round; in not falling on the'Sabbath; in falling in double quantities the previous day; and in re maining fresh during the Sabbath. By these last 3 peculiarities God miraculously attested the sanctity of the Sabbath as da ting from the creation and not from Mount Sinai. Moreover, a specimen of manna was laid up in a golden vase in the ark of the covenant, in memory of a substance which would otherwise have been wholly unknown to men, Heb. 9:4. In Psa. 78:24, 25, manna is called "an gels' food " and " corn of heaven," in token of its excellence, and that it came directly from the hand of God. This great boon of God to the Israelites also offers many striking analogies illustrative of " the true Bread " which came down from heaven to rebellious and perishing man. The " hid den manna," Exod. 16:33, 34> 's an emblem of the heavenly bread of eternal life, Rev. 2:17. Compare John 6:47-58. As a type of spiritual food, note that manna was gathered early, and day by day. Like the manna, Christ descends from above around the camp of his church in daily and abun dant supplies to meet the daily recurring wants of every man. The people gath ered on an average about 3 quarts for each man. They who gathered more than they needed shared it freely with others; it could not be hoarded up: and thus, as Paul teaches us, 2 Cor. 8:13-15, it furnishes for all men a lesson against hoarding the earthly and perishable gifts of God, and in favor of freely imparting to our brethren in need. It ceased to fall as soon as the Jews reached the plenty of Canaan, Josh. MAN BIBLE DICTIONARY. MAR 5:12. Even Omnipotence is not wasteful, John 6:12. MANO'AH, rest, a native of Zorah, in the tribe of Dan, and the father of Samson, Judg. 13. He opposed his son's marriage to a Philistine woman, but acquiesced and attended the wedding, Judg. 14:1-10. He seems to have died before his son, Judg. 16:31. In the prediction of his son's birth and achievements we see the Angel of the covenant, who appeared to Abraham, Gid eon, etc., and who never slumbers nor sleeps, caring for his oppressed people. So too he appeared to Jacob, and would not tell his mysterious name, Gen. 32:29; Judg. 13:18; Isa. 9:6; Luke 13:34. MAN'SIONS, John 14:2, rooms, places of abode : there is abundant provision for all Christ's servants in heaven. MAN'SLAYER. See Murder, Refuge. MAN'TLE. See Garments. In Judg. 4:18 a tent-shawl or coverlet. In 1 Kin. 19:13, 19; 2 Kin. 2:8, 13, 14, a large over garment of sheepskin, almost the sole rai ment of the prophet. Compare Zech. 13:4; Heb. 11:37. MA'ON, a dwelling, I., a town and adja cent pasture-ground in the edge of the hill- country of Judah, Josh. 15:55, near which Nabal lived and David took refuge from Saul, 1 Sam. 23:24, 25; 25:2. Dr. Robin son finds it in the ruinous place called Main, 8 miles south of Hebron. II. Founder of Beth-zur, 1 Chr. 2:45. MA'ONITES, called Mehunim in 2 Chr. 26:7, an Arabian tribe, in the Septuagint called Midian, named with the Amalekites and other foes of Israel, Judg. 10:12. Their abode may have been near the 'place now called Maan, nearly east of Petra, on the Haj route from Damascus to Mecca. Uz ziah defeated them. MAR, to injure or despoil, Ruth 4:6. MA'RAH, bitterness, I., a place in the wil derness of Shur, or Etham, Num. 33:8, the 5th station of the Israelites, near the Red Sea, 3 days' journey from the point where they crossed it. Its well was sweetened for the use of the distressed Hebrews by the miraculous efficacy imparted to the branches of* a certain tree which Moses threw in, Exod. 15:22-25. No plant is now known possessed of such a quality. The name Amarah now marks the dry bed of a wintry torrent, 43 miles southeast of the "wells of Moses," a little south of which is a well called Howarah, which answers well to the description. Its water, after remain ing 89> 142— and imports one that instructs or makes to understand. Some interpreters think it means an instrument of music, but it more probably signifies an instructive song, Psa. 47:7. MASH, a son of Aram, his posterity, and their home — generally thought to be near 343 MAS BIBLE DICTIONARY. MEA Mount Masius, a range on the north of Mesopotamia, Gen. 10:23. In 1 Chr. 1:17 called Meshech. MASRE'KAH, a vineyard, the birthplace of an Edomite king, Gen. 36:36; 1 Chr. 1:47. MAS'SA, a lifting, a son of Ishmael, founder of an Arabian tribe, probably to wards Babylonia, Gen. 25:14; 1 Chr. 1:30. MAS'SAH, trial. See Meribah. MAS'TER, Matt. 19:16; John 13:13, 14, means teacher, the converse of disciple or pupil. It is applied to Christ over 40 times in the Gospels. In Mai. 2:12 " master and scholar" mean "caller and answerer," or every one. In Acts 27: 11 the helmsman is meant. Scripture prescribes just aud humane principles to regulate the conduct of mas ters and employers towards those who serve them. A just and prompt recom pense is required, severity and exaction of undue service are forbidden, a genuine concern for their happiness, health, char acter, and morals is enjoined, due instruc tion and right examples of virtue and piety, Gen. 18:19; Josh. 24:15; Eph. 6:9, and a recognition of them as "neighbors," Luke 10:36, and perhaps "brethren," Phile. 16. See Servant. MAS'TERIES, STRIVE FOR THE, 2 Tim. 2:5," contend in the games." MAT'TAN, a gift, I., a priest of Baal, ju dicially slain before his altar, under Jehoi ada, 2 Kin. 11:18; 2 Chr. 23:17. — II. Jer. 38:1. MATTA'NAH, a gift, Gen. 25:6, the 50th station of the Israelites, Num. 21:18, 19, in the region of the Anion. ' MATTANI'AH, gift of fehovah, the origi nal name of the last king of Judah. See Zedekiah. Also 6 Levites mentioned in 1 Chr. 9:15, 16; 25:4; 2 Chr. 20:14; 29:13; Neh. 12:35; 13:13. Also 4 Israelites of the period of the Captivity, Ezra 10:26, 27, 3°. 37- MAT'THAN, Matt. 1:15, (?) MAT'THAT, Luke 3:24, the grandfather of Joseph. MAT'THEW, gift of fehovah, an apostle and evangelist, was son of Alphaeus, II., a Galilean by birth, a Jew by religion, and a publican by profession, Matt. 9:9; 10:3; Luke 6:15. The other evangelists call him only Levi, which was his Hebrew name, Mark 2:14; Luke 5:27; but he always calls himself Matthew, which was probably his name as a publican, or officer for gather ing taxes. He does not dissemble his for mer profession ; thus exalting the grace of 344 Christ which raised him to the apostleship. His ordinary abode was at Capernaum, and his office probably on the main road, near the Sea of Tiberias ; here, in the midst of his business, he was called by Jesus to follow Him, Matt. 9:9; Mark 2:14, which he did, after making a great feast in His honor, Luke 5:29, in referring to which he modestly omits his own name, Matt. 9:9-13. It is probable that he had a previous knowl edge of the miracles and doctrine of Christ. He was with Christ after the resurrection, and with the other apostles after Christ's ascension, Matt. 28:16; Acts 1:13. For the Gospel of Matthew, see Gos pel. MATTHI'AS, gift of God, a disciple who continued with our Saviour from his bap tism to his ascension, Acts 1:21-26, and was after the ascension chosen by lot to be associated with the 1 1 apostles. We know nothing further of him. MATTITH'IAH, gift of fehovah, 1 Chr. 9-31) 25:3, 2Ii Ezra 10:43; Neh. 8:4; Luke 3:25,26. ^, MAT'TOCK, Isa. 7:25, a single-headed pickaxe with a wide point. In 1 Sam. 13:20, 21 a ploughshare; in 2 Chr. 34:6 a spade. MAUL, Prov. 25:18, called in Jer. 51:20 a battle-axe, and in Ezek. 9:2 a slaughter weapon; properly, a heavy mace or war- club. MAW, a stomach of ruminating ani mals— tripe, Deut. 18:3. MAZ'ZAROTH, and MAZ'ZALOTH or "planets " in 2 Kin. 23:5, probably the signs of the zodiac, Job 38:32: " Dost thou lead forth the Signs in their season, and the Bear with her young, dost thou guide them?" (Conant.) MEAD'OW, Gen. 41:2, 18; in Job 8:11 "flag," properly herbage on the water brink. In Judg. 20:33 " open plains." ME'AH, one hundred, Neh. 3:1; 12:39, a tower on the east wall of Jerusalem, to wards the north. MEALS. See Eating. MEAN, Prov. 22:29; Isa. 2:9; Acts 21:39, in A. V. signifies only lowly, not base. MEA'RAH, a cave, a Zidonian town on the north border of Galilee, Josh. 13:4. MEAS'URE. Under this head we present an alphabetical list of Biblical terms de noting measures of weight, of capacity, dry and liquid, of length, and of money, with the equivalent Hebrew or Greek words, and the approximate equivalents in our language. MEA BIBLE DICTIONARY. MEA BIBLE NAME. HEB. OR GR. NAME. Bath (liquid). Bekah.Bushel.Cab (dry). Cor (liquid). Cubit.Cubit.Cubit. g lay's) Journey. ram, or Dane. Dram, or Daric. Ephah (dry). Ephah (liquid). Farthing.Farthing.Fathom.Finger, or Digit. Ffrkin. Furlong.Gerah. Half-homer.Half-shekel.Half-shekel.Handhreadth.Handful. Handful.Hin (liquid). Homer (dry). Log (liquid). Measure. Measuring-line.Mile (Roman). Mite.Omer.Pace.Penny. Piece of Money. Piece of Money. Piece of Money. Piece of Silver. Pot.Pound. Pound. Pound. Pound. Reed. Reed. Sab.-day (jour.) Shekel. Shekel.Shekel.Span.Talent. Tribute. Heb. bath. Heb. bekah. Gr. modios. Heb. qab. Heb. kor. Heb. ammah. Gr. pechus. Heb. gomed. Heb. derek. Heb. darkemon (gold). Heb. adarkon (gold). Heb. ephah. Heb. ephah. Gr. kodrantes. Gr. assarion. Gr. orguia. Heb. etsba. Gr. metretes. Gr. stadion. Heb. gerah. Heb. lethek. Heb. beqa. Heb. machatsith. Heb. tephach. Heb. kaph. Heb. qomets. Heb. hin. Heb. homer. Heb. log. Heb. ammah. Heb. middah. Heb. cor (dry). Gr. coros (dry). Heb. seah (dry). Gr. saton (dry). Heb. lethek (dry). Gr. choinix (dry). Heb. ephah (dry). Heb. bath (liquid). . Gr. batos (liquid). Heb. middah. Gr. milion. Gr. lepton. Heb. omer (dry). Heb. tsa'ad. Gr. denarion. Heb. qesitah (gold). Heb. qesitah (silver). Gr. stater (silver). Heb. keseph. Heb. qesitah. Heb. rats. Heb. agorah. Gr. argurion. Gr. argurion. Gr. drachme. Gr. xestes. Heb. maneh 'weight). Heb. maneh (silver). Gr. mna (weight). Gr. litra (silver). Heb. qaneh. Gr. calamos. Gr. sabbaton. Heb. sheqel (weight). Heb. sheqel (silver). Heb. sheqel (gold). Heb. zereth. Heb. kikkar (weight). Heb. kikkar (silver). Heb. keseph (silver). Heb. kikkar (gold).-1 Gr. talanton (weight). "Gr. talanton (silver). Gr. didrachmon. SCRIPTURE PASSAGES. I Kin. 7 : 26, 38 ; 2 Chr. 2 : 10 ; Isa. 5 : 10. Exod. 38 : 26. Matt. 5:15; Mark4:2i; Luke 11:33. 2 Kin. 6 : 25. Ezek. 45 : 14. Gen. 6 : 15, 16 ; Exod. 25-27 ; 36-38. Matt. 6 : 27 ; John 21:8. Judg. 3 : 16. Gen. 30:36; Num. 10:33; 1 Kin. 19:4. Ezra 2 : 69 ; Neh. 7 : 70-72. 1 Chr. 29 : 7 ; Ezra 8 : 27. Ezek. 45:11. Exod. 16:36; Lev. 19:36. Matt. 5 : 26 ; Mark 12 : 42. Matt. 10 : 29 ; Luke 12:6. Acts 27 : 28. Jer. 52:21. John 2 : 6. Luke 24 : 13; John 6 : 19 ; n : 18. Exod. 30 : 13 ; Num. 3 : 47 ; 18 : 16. Hos. 3:2. Gen. 24 : 22. Exod. 30 : 13, 15 ; }8 : 26. Exod. 25 : 25 ; 1 Kin. 7 : 26 : Psa. 39 : 5. Lev. 2:2; 9:17. Gen. 41 : 47 ; Lev. 6:15. Exod. 30 : 24 ; Lev. 19:36; Ezek. 46:5-14- Lev. 27:16; Num. 11:32; Isa. 5:10; Lev. 14 : 10-24. [Ezek. 45 : 11-14. Jer. 51 : 13. Ezek. 40 : 10-35 ; 48 : 30-33. [Ezra 7 : 22. 1 Kin. 4 : 22 ; 5:11; 2 Chr. 2 : 10 ; 27 : 5 ; Luke 16 : 7. Gen. 18:6; 1 Sam. 25:18; 1 Kin. 18:32. Matt. 13 : 33 ; Luke 13 : 21. Hos. 3 : 2. Rev. 6:6. Deut. 25 : 14, 15 ; Prov. 20 : 10 ; Mic. 6 : 10. 1 Kin. 7:26, 38; 2Chr. 2:10; Isa. 5:10. Luke 16 : 6. Jer. 31 : 39 ; Zech. 2 : 1. Matt. 5 : 41. Mark 12 : 42 ; Luke 12 : 59 ; 21 : 2. Exod. 16 : 16-36. 2 Sam. 6 : 13. Matt. 18:28; 20:2-13; John 6:7. 2 Kin. 5:5- Gen. 33: 19; Job 42:11. Matt. 17 : 27. [Zech. 11 : 12, 13. Gen. 20: 16; 37:28; 45: 22; Exod. 21:32; Josh. 24:32. Psa. 68:30. 1 Sam. 2 : 36. Matt. 26 : 15 ; 27 : 3-9. Acts 19 : 19. Luke 15:8,9. Mark 7 : 4, 8. 1 Kin. 10 : 17. Ezra 2: 69; Neh. 7:71, 72. John 12:3; 19 : 39. Luke 19 : 13-25. Ezek. 40:3-8; 41 :8; 42:16-19. Rev. 21 : 15, 16. Matt. 24 : 20 ; Acts 1:12. i Sam. 17:5, 7; Ezek. 4:10; 45:12. Gen. 23:15, 16; Exod. 21:32; 30:13. 1 Chr. 21 : 25 ; 2 Chr. 3: 9. Exod. 28 : 16 ; 1 Sam. 17:4; Ezek. 43 : 13. Exod. 38 : 27 ; 1 Kin. 16 : 24 ; 20 : 39. Ezra 7 : 22. Exod. 25:39; 37:24; 2 Sam. 12:30. Rev. 16:21. Matt. 18:24; 25:15-28. Matt. 17:24. EQUIVALENT. 7 gallons. (4% dwts.) 28 cents. About a peck. 1 )£ quarts. 70 gallons. 21 inches (18 to 23). 18 to 23 inches. 2\i feet. 15 to 20 miles. About $5. About $5. 3*4 pecks. 7 gallons. Nearly 4 mills. 1% cents. About 6 feet. 4-5 of an inch. About 8 gallons. Nearly yk of a mile. (11 grains) 2*4 cents. Nearly 4 bushels. 1/1, ounce. 25 or 30 cents. 3 or 4 inches. l/i pint. 1 gill- 2*4 quarts. About 8 bushels. Nearly a pint. See cubit. 145 feet? About 8 bushels. About 8 bushels. 1 peck. 1 peck. Nearly 4 bushels. 1% pints. S% pecks. 7 gallons. 7 gallons. Nearly Ytoii. mile. Over 9-10 of a mile. Nearly 2 mills. 2% quarts. About 30 inches. 15 cents. About $8 76. See shekel. 61 cents. See shekel. See penny. See penny. Nearly a pint. 2}$ lbs., or 3^- About $36. Nearly a pound. About $16. 9 or 10 feet. 9 or 10 feet. About % of a mile. About Yi ounce. 55 cents (50 to 60). $9 or $10. Over 9 inches. 114 lbs. 7 oz. About (1,600. About $1,600. About $26,280. About 115 lbs. About $1,000. About 30 cents. 345 MEA BIBLE DICTIONARY. MEA It must be borne in mind that critical authorities differ somewhat in their con clusions from the meagre and uncertain data in their hands, and that nearly all the preceding estimates should be regarded as probable and approximate, rather than as reliably exact. Certain common measures of weight, length, and value, like the pound, the cu bit, and the shekel, had, roughly speaking, their equivalents among all the nations around the Jews — the Chaldaeans, Egyp tians, Greeks, and Romans ; yet many mis takes would arise should one accept any of these as precise equivalents. These measures also varied within the bounds of each nation, from one period of its history to another, and in different prov inces at the same period. The " shekel of the sanctuary " may have been a standard, from which the common shekel fell off. The cubit — the measure from the elbow to the end of the middle finger — seems some times to have reached only to the wrist or to the knuckles; and it is reckoned by some authorities at 17 inches, by others as high as 23 inches ; so that we are not sure which is the true length in any given pas sage. Until the Return from the Babylonian Captivity it is not certain that the Jews had any regular coinage. Trade and com merce were largely carried on by barter"; and though the metals were in common use from the earliest ages as a medium of exchange, the requisite amount was ascer tained by weighing. Hence the different values of a given weight, e. g., a bekah, in silver and in gold. It should also be remembered that gold and silver have in time become so abun dant that their purchasing power is now far less than formerly. Thus in the time of Christ a " penny," 16 cents, was a day's wages, though indeed laborers in the East have always been poorly paid, and ill fed and clothed. See the general table of Weights, Meas ures, and Money of the Bible on the pre ceding page, also the particular names of each, as Shekel, Talent, Bath, Ephah, etc., and Tables at the end of this volume. MEATS. "Meat" in the English Bible usually signifies "food," and not "flesh," Gen. 1:29, 3o;QMatt. 15:37. So in Luke 24:41, "Have ye here any meat?" literally, anything to eat? So also in Rom. 14:20; 1 Cor. 8:13. In Psa. 111:5 by "meat" is meant "prey" or "spoil." The "meat- 346 offerings " of the Jews were made of flour, corn, and olive oil, etc., Lev. 2. See Of ferings and Sacrifices. As to the ani mal food used by the Jews, see Clean and Food. It does not appear that the ancient He brews were very particular about the sea soning and dressing of their food. We find among them roast meat, boiled meat, and ragouts, Gen. 27:9; Exod. 16:3; the flesh of lambs, Amos 6:4, calves, Gen. 18:7, kids, Gen. 27:9, oxen, Prov. 15:17; veni son and fowls, 1 Kin. 4:23. Moses for bade them to seethe a kid in its mother's milk, Exod. 23:19; 34:26 — a precept de signed to inculcate principles of humanity, and perhaps to prevent them from adopt ing an idolatrous custom of their heathen neighbors. The Jews were also forbidden to kill a cow and its calf in the same day ; or a sheep, or goat, and its young one, at the same time. They might not cut off a part of a living animal to eat it, either raw or dressed. If any lawful beast or bird should die of itself or be strangled, and the blood not drain away, they were not al lowed to taste of it. They ate of nothing dressed by any other than a Jew, nor did they ever dress their victuals with the kitchen implements of any but one of their own nation. The prohibition of eating blood, or ani mals that are strangled, Lev. 3:17; 7:26; 17: 10, has been always rigidly observed by the Jews. In the Christian Church the law was observed for a long time, being approved by the council held at Jerusalem, and recommended to the Gentile converts, Acts 15. At the first settling of the church there were many disputes concerning the use of meats offered to idols. Some newly con verted Christians, convinced that an idol was nothing, and that the distinction of clean and unclean creatures was abolished by our Saviour, ate indifferently of what ever was served up to them, even among pagans, without inquiring whether the meats had been offered to idols. They took the same liberty in buying meat sold in the market, not regarding whether it were pure or impure according to the Jews, or whether it had been offered to idols or not. But other Christians, weaker, more scrupulous, or less instructed, were offend ed at this liberty, and thought the eating of meat which had been offered to idols was a kind of partaking in that wicked and sacrilegious offering. This diversity of MED BIBLE DICTIONARY. MED opinion among the disciples called for the judgment of inspiration; and we find in several of Paul's epistles directions both for those who held such scruples and for those who were free from them. The for mer, while in obedience to their own con science they carefully abstained from the food in question, were charged to view with charity the conduct gf those who did not share their scruples. The latter might freely buy and eat without guilt, since meat is in no wise injured as an article of food by being offered to an idol ; yet when ever others would be scandalized, pained, or led into sin by this course, even they were required by the laws of Christian charity and prudence to abstain, Rom. 14:20-23; 1 Cor. 8; 10:19-33; Ti'- I:I5- This principle is of general application in similar cases; and many in our own day might well adopt the generous determina tion of the self-denying apostle to partake of no questionable indulgence while the world stands, if it may be the occasion of sin to others. ME'DAD, love. See Eldad. ME'DAN, strife, 3d son of Abraham and Keturah, Gen. 25:2. He is supposed to have settled in Arabia, near Midian his brother. ME'DEBA. Sept. Medaba, waters of quiet, a town and plain of Moab, east of the Jor dan, Num. 21:23-30; Deut. 2:34-36, con quered by the Ammonites under Sihon, and afterwards by the Israelites. It lay on the southern border of the tribe of Reuben, Josh. 13:9, 16. Near it the army of David gained a great victory over the Ammonites and their allies, 1 Chr. 19:7. Long after wards it fell again into the hands of the Moabites its ancient masters, Isa. 15:2. Its ruins, on a round hill 7 miles south by west from Hesban, still retain the name Madaba. MEDES. See Media. ME'DIA, called by the Hebrews Ma'dai, and supposed to have been peopled by the descendants of Madai the son of Japheth, Gen. 10:2, extended itself on the west and south of the Caspian Sea from Armenia and Assyria on the north and west to Far- sistan or Persia proper on the south, and includeU the districts now called Shirvan, Adzerbijan, Ghilan, and Irak Adjemi. It covered a territory larger than that of Spain, lying between 33° and 40° of north latitude, and was one of the most fertile and earliest cultivated among the king doms of Asia. It had 2 grand divisions, of which the northwestern was called Atro- patene, or Lesser Media, and the southern Greater Media. The former corresponds to the modern Adzerbijan, now, as for merly, a province of the Persian empire, an elevated region on the west of the Cas pian, surrounded by high mountains of the Tauritic range, except towards the east, where the river Km-, or Cyrus, discharges its waters into the Caspian. The Greater Media corresponds principally to the mod ern Irak Adjemi, or Persian Irak, together with Kurdistan, Luristan, and Ardelan. Media is one of the most ancient inde pendent kingdoms of which history makes mention. After several centuries of conflict and semi-subjugation under Assyria, men tioned on the disentombed Assyrian tab lets, which confirm 2 Kin. 17:6; Isa. 20:1, the Medes united and became powerful, cul tivated, and wealthy, Isa. 13:17, 18 ; 21 : 2, 3 ; under Cyaxares they conquered Assyria, and continued an independent kingdom until, under Cyrus, B. C. 588, Media be came united with Persia. In this way arose the Medo- Persian kingdom ; and the " laws of the Medes and Persians" and their " Chronicles " are mentioned by the sacred writers together, Esth. 1:19; 10:2; Dan. 6:8, 12, etc. Indeed, from this time onward the manners, customs, religion, and civili- eation ofthe Medes and Persians seem ever to have become more and more amalgama ted. And in general we may gather from the ancient Zend writings that the Medes, Persians, and Bactrians were originally the same people, having in common one lan guage, the Zend, and one religion, the wor ship of the elements and of Ormuzd, the highest being, under the symbol of fire. The priests of this religion, the Magi, were intrusted with the cultivation of the sci ences and the performance of the sacred rites. Among these, and as is supposed before the time of Cyrus, appeared Zer- dusht, or Zoroaster, as a reformer, or rath er as the restorer ofthe ancient but degen erated religion of light, whose disciples have maintained themselves even to the present day, in Persia and India under the name of Guebres. Media is first mentioned in the Bible as the part of Assyria to which the 10 tribes were transported: at first, those beyond the Jordan, by Tiglath-pileser, 1 Chr. 5:26; and afterwards, about 721 B. C, the remain der of Israel, by Sargon, 2 Kin. 17:6. The subsequent history of Media is involved in that of Persia. The united empire con- 347 MED BIBLE DICTIONARY. MEL quered Babylon, according to Isaiah's pre diction, Isa. 13:17; 21:2; Dan.5; 6; Ezra 1. Both countries were subdued by Alexander of Macedon, 330 B. C, and in the next cen tury became tributary to the Parthians on their east, in connection with whom they are mentioned in Acts 2:9. See Persia. MEPDIATOR, one who stands between 2 parties or persons as the organ of commu nication or the agent of reconciliation. So far as man is sensible of his own guilt and ofthe holiness and justice of God, he shrinks from any direct communication with a be ing he has so much reason to fear. Hence the disposition more or less prevalent in all ages and in all parts of the world to interpose between the soul and its Judge some person or thing most adapted to pro pitiate his favor — as a priestly order, an upright and devout daysman, or the smoke of sacrifices and the sweet savor of incense, Job 9:33. The Israelites evinced this feel ing at Mount Sinai, Deut. 3:23-31 ; and God was pleased to constitute Moses a media tor between Himself and them, to receive and transmit the law on the one hand, and their vows of obedience on the other. In this capacity he acted on various other oc casions, Exod. 32:30-32; Num. 14; Psa. 106:23; and was thus an agent and a type of Christ, Gal. 3:19, 20. The Messiah has been in all ages the only true Mediator be tween God and man ; and without Him God is inaccessible and a consuming fire, John 14:6; Acts 4:12. As the Angel ofthe Cove nant, Christ was the channel of all commu nications between heaven and earth in old Testament days ; and as the Mediator ofthe new covenant he does all that is needful to provide for a perfect reconciliation between God and man. He consults the honor of God by appearing as our Advocate with the blood of atonement ; and through his sympathizing love and the agency of the Holy Spirit he disposes and enables us to return to God. The believing penitent is "accepted in the Beloved" — his person, his praises, and his prayers ; and through the same Mediator alone he receives pardon, grace, and eternal life. In this high office Christ stands alone, because he alone is both God and man, and has made the necessary atoning sacrifice, 1 Tim. 2:5. To join Mary and the saints to him in his mediatorship, as the Church of Rome does, implies that he is unable to accomplish his own pecu liar work, Heb. 8:6; 9:15; 12:24. Com pare Col. 2:18. See Intercession. MED'ICINES. See Physicians. 348 MEEK'NESS, a peaceful and humble se renity of spirit, not easily stirred to anger by wrongs or by the anger of others, Prov. 16:32; Jas. 3:7, 8, 13. Such a spirit God dwells with and specially blesses, Isa. 57:15; 66:2; Matt. 5:5. Meekness is a Christian grace, 1 Tim. 6:11, acquired by many naturally fiery spirits, as Moses, Exod. 2:12; Num. 12:3, and Paul, Acts 26:10, 11; 1 Cof. 9:19, and must be gained by all who would be like Christ, Matt. 11 :28, 29. MEET, fit, suitable, or worthy, Gen. 2:18; Exod. 8:26; Matt. 3:8; Heb. 6:7. MEGID'DO, a town of Manasseh, though within the bounds of Issachar. It had been a royal city of the Canaanites, and they long retained a foothold in it, Josh. 12:21; 17:11 ; Judg. 1:27. It lay in the southwest border of the plain of Esdraelon, and south of the Kishon, which is probably intended by " the waters of Megiddo," mentioned in the song of Deborah and Barak as the scene of their victory, Judg. 5:19, 21. It commanded a pass from the plain on the north to the hill-country of Samaria, and in the reign of Solomon was of some impor tance and was fortified, 1 Kin. 4:12; 9:15. Here king Ahaziah died, and king Josiah was defeated, slain, and sorely lamented, 2 Kin. 9:27; 23:29; 2 Chr. 35:22-25; Zech. 12:11. Robinson identifies it with a vil lage now called Leijun, the Legio of the Romans. Perhaps it was on the ruined site el-Medineh, 2 miles northwest of Lei jun. MEHET'ABEL, less correctly Meheta- beel, blessed by God, I., wife of an Edom- ite king, Gen. 36:39; 1 Chr. 1:50. II. Father of Delaiah, Neh. 6:10. MEHl'O A, joining, a person or place as sociated with the Nethinim, Ezra 2 : 52 ; Neh. 7:54. MEHO'LATHITE, I Sam. 18:19; 2 Sam. 21:8. See Abel-meholah. MEHU'JAEL, smitten by God, Gen. 4:18. MEHU'NIM, plural of Maon, Ezra 2:50; Neh. 7:52. See Maonites. MEKO'NAH, a base, a town and its sub urbs in the far south of Judah after the Captivity, Neh. 11:28. MEL'CHI, my king, 2 ancestors of Christ, Luke 3:24, 28. • MELCHIZ'EDEK, king of righteousness, king of Salem, and also priest of the Most High God, in which capacity he blessed Abraham and received tithes at his hand, Gen. 14:18-20. Scripture tells us nothing of his father or mother, of his genealogy, MEL BIBLE DICTIONARY. MEL his birth, or his death; he stands alone, without predecessor or successor, a royal priest by the appointment of God; and thus he was a type of Jesus Christ, who is "a. priest for ever after the order of Mel- chizedek," and not after the order of Aaron, whose origin, consecration, life, and death are known, Psa. 110:4; Heb. 6:20; 7. See Genealogy. It has been matter of great inquiry among commentators who Melchizedek really was. He has been variously supposed to be the Holy Spirit, the Son of God, an angel, Enoch, and Shem. But the safest and most probable opinion is that which considers him as a righteous and peaceful king, a worshipper and priest of the Most High God in the land of Canaan ; a friend of Abraham, and as a priest elevated above him. This opinion, indeed, lies upon the very face of the sacred record in Gen. 14 and Heb. 7, and it is the only one which can be defended on any tolerable grounds of interpretation. See Salem. MEL'ITA, refuge, or honied. This name was anciently applied to 2 islands ; one in the Adriatic Sea, on the coast of Illyricum, now called Meleda ; the other in the Med iterranean, between Sicily and Africa, now called Malta. That the latter is the one on which Paul suffered shipwreck is evident from the direction of the wind which blew him thither (see Euroclydon), and from the fact that^e left the island in a ship of Alexandria, which had wintered there on her voyage to Italy, and after touching at Syracuse and Rhegium, landed at Puteoli, thus sailing on a direct course. The other Melita would be far out of the usual track from Alexandria to Italy; and in sailing from it to Rhegium, Syracuse also would be out of the direct course. The fact that the vessel was tossed all night before the ship wreck in the Adriatic Sea does not militate against this view, because the name Adria was applied to the whole Ionian Sea which lay between Sicily and Greece. See Adria. Acts 27:27; 28:1. Malta is a rocky island 62 miles south of Sicily, 17 miles long and 9 broad, and containing nearly 100 square miles and 100,000 inhabitants. At an early period it was seized by the Phoenicians ; these were dispossessed by the Greeks of Sicily, B. C. 736; they by the Carthaginians, 528; and they in turn, 242 B. C, by the Romans, who held it in the time of Paul. After numer ous changes it fell at length into the hands ST PAULS BAY, MALTA JEnqlisfv Mile of the English, who since 1814 have held undisputed possession of it. The name of "St. Paul's Bay" is now borne by a small inlet on the north side of the island, open ing towards the east, which answers well to the description in Acts 27. Here Paul was protected by the hand of God amid perils on shore as well as in the sea. He 349 MEL BIBLE DICTIONARY. MEP remained here 3 months, "honored with many honors," and wrought many miracles. n mlmm ^•H MEL'ONS are common in the East, but do not differ particularly from ours. Wa termelons and muskmelons grow luxuri antly in Egypt in a light and sandy soil. They are a delicious fruit in a hot climate, and were among the articles of food for which the Hebrews pined in the desert, Num. 11:5. They would have found them abundant in the Promised Land. MEL'ZAR, overseer, the official title of a steward or tutor at the court of Nebuchad nezzar, Dan. 1:11-16. MEMO'RIAL, Esth. 9:28; Psa. 9:6, re membrance. MEM'PHIS, Hos. 9:6. See Noph. MEMU'CAN, high in dignity, a politic councillor of Ahasuerus, Esth. 1:14, 16, 21. MEN'AHEM, comforter, the 16th king of Israel, previously general of the army of Zachariah. He was at Tirzah when he heard of his master's murder, and imme diately marching against the usurper Shal lum, who had shut himself up in Samaria, he captured and slew him, and then as cended the throne. He reigned in Sama ria 10 years, 771-760 B. C, and was a tyran nical and cruel idolater, as appears from the contemporaneous prophecies of Hosea and Amos. See Tiphsah. Pul, king of Assyria, having invaded Israel during the reign of Menahem, obliged him to pay a tribute of 1,000 talents, which Menahem raised by a tax on all his rich subjects of 50 shekels a head. He seems to have died a natural death ; but his son and successor Pekahiah reigned only 2 years, and was the last of that dynasty, 2 Kin. 15:13-22. The Assyrian tablets recently discovered mention the house of Omri, or Khumri, as 35° paying tribute to Pul, or Phallukha, togeth er with Tyre, Damascus, Idumaea, etc. ; and another tablet names Menahem as paying tribute to Tiglath-pileser. jgig^ ME'NAN, A. V. Luke 3:31, an an- '"Wfjjs cestor of Christ. In R. V. Menna. . ME'NE, he is numbered ; Te'kel, 3» he is weighed; Uphar'sin, and they Sk are dividing ; Chaldee words supers Y\ naturally traced on the wall at Bel- Lj| shazzar's impious feast, and signifi- H cant of his impending do:>m, Dan. 5. V-W\ The astrologers could not read them, sH!!! Pel"haps because they were written in y? antique Hebrew characters; still less could they explain, even if they had dared to do it, what was so portent ous. Daniel, however, received skill to understand and courage to declare their awful meaning; and the same night witnessed their fulfilment. Over how many proud heads, often found in scenes of ungodliness and revelling, the hand that has recorded their past history is even now preparing to record their doom. ME'NI, number, Isa. 65:11, margin; a Babylonian idol, perhaps Fortune, adored by some of the captive Israelites. MEO'NENIM, " observers oftimes," Deut. 18:10, 14; 2 Kin. 21:6; in Mic. 5:12 "sooth sayers." Elon-meonenim, " wizards' oak," was a famous tree near Shechem, Judg. 9:37; perhaps the tree mentioned in Gen. 12:6; 35:4; Josh. 24:26; Judg. 9:6. MEO'NOTHAI, my dwellings, a son of Othniel, 1 Chr. 4:14. MEPHA'ATH, splendor, a Levitical city of Reuben, Josh. 13:18; 21:37; 1 Chr. 6:79, having first belonged to the Amorites, Num. 21:26, and afterwards to Moab, Jer. 48:21. It lay north of the Arnon, towards the east. MEPHIB'OSHETH, exterminator of the shame, i. e., of Baal, son of Jonathan, and grandson, A. V. "son," of Saul, 2 Sam. 19:24; also called Meribbaal, 1 Chr. 8:34. See Eshbaal. Mephibosheth was very young when his father was killed in the battle of Gilboa, 2 Sam. 4:4, and his nurse was in such consternation at the news that she let the child fall, and from this acci dent he was lame all his days. His misfor tune clouded his life, though he was pa tient and resigned. He took refuge in the mountains of Gilead. See Machir. When David found himself in peaceable posses sion of the kingdom he sought for all that remained of the house of Saul , that he might show them kindness, in consideration of the friendship between him and Jonathan, MER BIBLE DICTIONARY. MER i Sam. 20:15, 42- He gave Mephibosheth the estate of his grandfather Saul. Of a part of this, however, he was 14 years afterwards deprived by the treachery of his steward Ziba, and the hasty injustice, as it appears, of David towards an unfortunate but noble and loyal prince, 2 Sam. 9; 16: 1- 4; 19:24-30. David subsequently took care to exempt him from the number of the descendants of Saul given up to the ven geance of the Gibeonites, 2 Sam. 21 : 1-14, enough another Mephibosheth, a son of Saul, was hanged, ver. 8. ME'RAB, increase, the eldest daughter of king Saul, was promised to David in marriage, in reward for his victory over Goliath; but was given to Adriel, son of Barzillai the Meholathite, 1 Sam. 14:49; 17:25; 18:2, 17, 19. Merab had 5 sons by him, who were delivered to the Gibeonites and hanged before the Lord, 2 Sam. 21:8, 9. The text intimates that the 5 men delivered to the Gibeonites were " sons " of Michal ; but see Adriel. MERA'RI, sorrowful, Num. 26:57, the youngest of Levi's 3 sons, born in Canaan, and head of a family of the Levites, Gen. 46:11; Exod. 6:16; Num. 3:17; 1 Chr. 6:1, 16, 19, 47. In the journey through the wil derness they were charged with the frame work of the tabernacle, to carry from one place of encampment to another and there set it up, Num. 4:29-33; 7:8. They had 4 wagons and 8 oxen. Twelve cities were assigned to them beyond Jordan out of Reuben, Gad, and Zebulun, Josh. 21:7, 34- 40; 1 Chr. 6:63, 77-81. They took part in bringing the ark up to Jerusalem, 1 Chr. 15:6, and in the sanctuary service at vari ous times, 1 Chr. 23:5, 6, 21-23; 26:10, 19; 2 Chr. 29:12, 15; Ezra 8: 18, 19. MERATHA'IM, two rebellions, a name of Babylon, referring either to its 2 subju gations of Israel, or to its own rebellions against God, Jer. 50:17, 21, 23. MER'CHANT, Gen. 23:16; 37:25, 28; Matt. 13:45. The commodities of different countries were usually exchanged by tra ders of various kinds, in caravans or " trav elling companies," Isa. 21:13, which had their regular seasons and routes for pass ing from one great mart to another. The Hebrew word denotes travellers, and these merchants prospered by wandering, as ours do by remaining stationary. The Hebrew law had rules respecting commerce, Lev. IQ:35> 3^; Deut. 25:13-16; Mic. 6:10, it. There is early evidence of its wide exten sion, Exod. 25:3-7; Num. 31:50; Josh. 7:21. Solomon engaged in it largely, 1 Kin. 10:11, 22-29; 2 Chr. 8:17, 18. and Jerusalem had its port Joppa, Isa. 2:6, 16; 3:21-23; Hos. 12:7; Jon. 1:3. The apostle James reminds them to lay their plans in view of the uncertainty of life and their need of divine guidance, Jas. 4:13. Some of the maritime nations, as Egypt, and still more the Phoenicians, carried on a large traffic by sea, Isa. 23:2; Ezek. 27:27, 28. MER'CURY, a fabulous god of the an cient heathen, the messenger of the celes tials, and the deity that presided over learn ing, eloquence, and traffic. The Greeks named him Hermes, interpreter of the will of the gods. Probably it was for.this rea son, and perhaps from recollecting the legend, which Ovid relates, of the visit of Jupiter and Hermes to their countrj'men Baucis and Philemon, that the people of Lystra, having heard Paul preach, and hav ing seen him heal a lame man, would have offered sacrifice to him as to their god Mer cury, and to Barnabas as Jupiter, because of his venerable aspect, Acts 14:11, 12. MER'CY, the divine goodness exercised towards the wretched and the guilty, in harmony with truth and justice, Psa. 85:10. It is known to us only by revelation. The plan by which God is enabled to show sa ving mercy to men, for Christ's sake, is the most consummate work of infinite wisdom and love, Exod. 20:6; 34:6, 7; Psa. 86:15, 16; 103:17; 2 Cor. 4:6. The soul that has truly experienced the mercy of God will be merciful like him, Luke 6:36, compassion ate to the wretched, Psa. 41:1, 2, and for giving towards all, Matt. 5:7; 18:33. MER'CY-SEAT, the cover of the Ark of the Covenant, which see. The Hebrew word means a cover, and contains an allu sion to the covering or forgiving of sins, Psa. 32:1. It was the essential part of the ark, and gave its name to the holy of holies itself, Lev. 16:2; 1 Chr. 28:11. Hence ap propriately it covered from view the 2 tables of the law, for whose violation it offered forgiveness. In the New Testament it is designated by a Greek word meaning "the propitiatory," or "expiatory," Heb. 9:4, 5. It was approached only by the high-priest, and not without the blood of atonement, to show that the divine mercy can be grant ed only through the blood of Christ, Rom. 3:25- ME'RED, rebellion, son of Ezra, a Judah- ite, notable for having married Bithiah, a daughter of Pharaoh, before the Exode, 1 Chr. 4:17, 18. 351 MER BIBLE DICTIONARY. MER MERE'MOTH, heights, I., son of the high- priest Urijah, trusted and active after the Captivity, Ezra 8:24-30, 33; Neh. 3:4, 21; 10:5. Perhaps the man named in Neh. 12:15. II. Ezra 10:36. ME'RES, worthy, Esth. 1 : 13, 14. MER'IBAH, chiding, strife, I., a place in Rephidim where the Israelites, missing the waters of Egypt, chided Moses and tempt ed Jehovah; whence it was also named Massah, temptation, Exod. 17:1-7; Deut. 6:16; 9:22; 33:8;. Psa. 81:7; Heb. 3:8. See Rephidim. In Psa. 95 : 8 the Hebrew reads, "as in Meribah, as in the day of Massah in the wilderness." II. A place near Kadesh-barnea, where 38 years later a like sin was committed, Num. 20:1-13, in which both Moses and Aaron were involved, Num. 20:24; 27:14: Deut. 32:51 ; whence also this Meribah was called En-mishpat,/o««/ of judgment. See Wanderings. MERIB'BAAL, contender with Baal. 1 Chr. 8:34; 9:40. See Mephibosheth. MERO'DACH, Jer. 50:2, an idol of Baby lon, identified with Bel ; their chief divin ity in the latter part of their history ; also of the Assyrians. See Babylon. MERO'DACH-BAL'ADAN, Belts his lord, a king of Babylon who sought a friendly alliance with Hezekiah, king of Judah, Isa. 39:1; 2 Chr. 32:31; called Berodach in 2 Kin. 20: 12. He is named in the Khorsa- bad inscriptions as having been twice de feated and exiled by Sennacherib. LAKE MEROM, FROM THE SOUTH, WITH MOUNT HERMON IN THE DISTANCE. ME'ROM, height. The " waters of Me rom," Josh. 11:5, or Lake of Semechon, is the most northern of the 3 lakes supplied by the river Jordan. It is situated in the southern part of a valley formed by the 2 branches of Mount Hermon. The lake is now called after the valley, the Lake of Huleh, and is 7 feet above the Mediterra nean. The lake proper is perhaps 4 miles long and 4 broad, tapering towards the south, where the Jordan finds an outlet through the clefts and flows down 10 miles to the Sea of Galilee. It is very shallow, and a large part of it is covered with aquat ic plants. Thousands of water-fowl sport on its surface, and its waters abound in fish. On the north lies the plain Ard el- 352 , Huleh, which is a dead level for a distance of 8 or 9 miles. Near the upper end of this the 3 streams which form the Jordan unite. On the west side of the Jordan above the lake a marsh extends up north as far as the junction of these streams, qr even farther; while on the eastern side the land is tilled almost down to the lake. It is a splendid plain, and extremely fertile. AU kinds of grain grow on it with very little labor, and it still merits the praise accorded to it by the Danite spies: "We have seen the land ; and behold, it is very good, ... a place where there is no want of anything that is in the earth," Judg. 18:9, 10. Its rich soil is formed by deposit, and it seems to be partially submerged iu the MER BIBLE DICTIONARY. MES spring. Thus the lake and valley el-Huleh form an immense reservoir, and unite with the snows of Hermon to maintain the sum mer supplies of the Jordan. Near this lake Joshua defeated the kings of Northern Ca naan, Josh, ii :i-8. ME'ROZ, asylum, an unknown place in Galilee, cursed in the song of Deborah and Barak for not joining with them against the foes of Israel, Judg. 5:23. Compare Judg. 21:8-10; 1 Sam. 11:7. Probably their vicinity to the scene of conflict, or the opportunity they had of rendering some special assistance, rendered their refusal peculiarly guilty. Jael, on the contrary, was blessed. Sins of omission may be as great and as ruinous as sins of commis sion. The site of Meroz may be the mod ern Murussus, 4]4 miles north by west of Beth-shean. MER'RY, in the Bible, denotes joy and happiness, not jollity, 2 Chr. 7:10; Prov. 17:22; Luke 15:32; Jas. 5:13. ME'SECH, Psa. 120:5, A. V. See Me- shech. ME'SHA, deliverance, I., son of Caleb, II., and founder of Ziph, in Judah, 1 Chr. 2:42. II. A king of Moab, rich in flocks, who paid an enormous tribute to Ahab, king of Israel — perhaps only on one occasion so excessive — but revolted at his death, 2 Kin. 1:1; 3:4-27. Joram the son of Ahab, with the aid of Judah and Edom, made war upon him, almost exterminated his army, laid waste his cities, and besieged him in his capital. Unable to force his way through the besieging host, king Mesha sought the aid of his gods by sacrificing his own son to Chemosh on the city wall ; and the be siegers, horror-struck at this atrocious act, withdrew in terror, lest some curse should fall on them, but despoiling the country as they went. In 1868 an ancient block of black basalt was-found at Dibon in Moab, 314 feet high, over 2 feet wide, and 2 feet thick, record ing in Phoenician letters the exploits of Mesha, which he ascribes to Chemosh his god. He mentions the war of Moab with Israel, and Moab's long oppression by Omri, king of Israel, and alludes to many familiar places beyond Jordan. III. A different word in Hebrew, Gen. 10 : 30, on the eastern frontier of Joktan in Arabia; probably a mountain range run ning southwest from the head of the Per sian Gulf. IV. A Benjamite, son of Shaharaim, 1 Chr.- 8:8, 9. 23 ME'SHACH, a name probably derived from some Chaldaean idol. See Abed< nego. ME'SHECH, or Me'sech, Psa. 120:5, drawing out, or possession, the 6th son of Japheth, Gen. 10:2, located near Tubal at the northeast corner of Asia Minor, in Ibe ria, and supposed by many to have been the father of the warlike Moschi or Musco vites. Meshech traded with Tyre in "the persons of men and in vessels of brass," Ezek. 27:13; 32:26; 38:2; 39:1. MESHUL'LAM, associate, the name of numerous men of God in the later Jewish history. MESHUL'LEMETH, friend, the wife of Manasseh, 2 Kin. 21:19. MESOPOTA'MIA, between the rivers, the Greek name ofthe country between the Eu phrates and the Tigris, Gen. 24:10; Deut. 23:4, called in Arabic el-Jezirah, the island, in the Bible "the plain of Aram," Gen. 25:20; 31:18; 33:18, and Aram-naharaim," Syria of two rivers, Psa. 60, title. See Aram, II. and Padan-aram. In its fullest sense, Mesopotamia extended from the Persian Gulf to Mount Taurus; but the name usu ally denotes only the tract above Babylo nia, now called Diarbekr, and celebrated for its exuberant fertility; while the part below, now Irak-Arabi, is sterile and with out water. Mesopotamia was included in the territories ofthe Assyrian, Babylonian, Persian, Macedonian, and Roman empires successively, and belongs now to that of the Turks. This region is associated with the earli est history of the human race both before and after the flood. Eden was not far off; Ararat was near to it on the north, and the land of Shinar on the south. The travel ler here reaches what is truly " the old world," and is surrounded by objects com pared with which the antiquities of Greece and Rome are modern novelties. This was the home of the patriarchs who prece ded Abraham — Terah, Heber, Peleg, etc., Gen. 11:26-29; Acts 7:2- Here Abraham and Sarah were born, and the wives of Isaac and Jacob, and most of the sons of Jacob, the heads ofthe 12 tribes, Gen. 25:20; 28:2; 35:23-26. Mesopotamia is also men tioned in Scripture as the abode of Balaam, and of Chushan-rishathaim the first op pressor of Israel in the time of the Judges, Judg. 3:8-10; in the history of the wars of David, 2 Sam. 10:16; and as furnishing a del egation of Jews, and perhaps proselytes, to attend the Passover at Jerusalem, Acts 2:9. 353 MES BIBLE DICTIONARY, MIC MESS, Gen. 43:34; 2 Sam. 11:8, a dish of meat. MES'SENGERS. See Footmen and Posts. In Mai. 3:1 "angel," as in Gen. 22:15, 17, 18. See Angel of the Cove nant. MESSI'AH, or Messi'as, anointed. The Jews were accustomed to anoint their kings, high-priests, and sometimes prophets, when they were set apart to their office, Lev. 4:3, 5,16; 1 Sam. 2: 10, 35; and hence the phrase, " to anoint " for an employment, sometimes signifies merely a particular designation or choice for such an employment. Cyrus, who founded the empire of the Persians, and who set the Jews at liberty, is called, Isa. 45:1, "the anointed ofthe Lord;" and in Ezek. 28:14, the epithet "anointed" is given to the king of Tyre. The term is used many times in the Old Testament, and is always translated in the Septuagint Christos, anointed. See Anointing. But Messiah is the designation given by the Hebrews, eminently, to that Saviour and Deliverer whom they expected, and who was promised to them by all the proph ets, and more and more distinctly foreshad owed to the last. As the holy unction was given to kings, priests, and prophets, by describing the promised Saviour of the world under the name of Christ, Anointed, or Messiah, it was sufficiently evidenced that the qualities of king, prophet, and high-priest would eminently centre in him, Psa. 45:7; and it was foretold that he should exercise them not only over the Jews, but over all mankind, and particularly over those who should receive him as their Sa viour. The Jews faithfully preserved the prophecies, many of which foretold a suf fering and dying Redeemer, but are still slow to understand how wonderfully the different classes of predictions have been fulfilled in Jesus. See Christ. That Jesus Christ was the true Messiah of the Old Testament, the " Shiloh " of Ja cob, the " Redeemer " of Job, the " Angel ofthe Covenant," is abundantly clear, Psa. 2:2; Luke 4: 16-21; Acts 9: 22; 17:2,3; 18:5, 28. He is named by the Hebrew word in John 1:45; 4:25; but usually by its Greek equivalent, the Christ. The time of his appearance was predicted in Gen. 49:10; Dan. 9:20, 25: Hag. 2:7; Mai. 3:1. At the time when the Saviour actually came, and then only, could these predictions meet: then the 70 weeks of years were ended; and soon after the sceptre was torn for ever from the hands of Judah, the only tribe 354 that could then claim the headship of the Jews; and the temple in which the Mes siah was to appear was annihilated. Then also the genealogical lists were extant which proved the descent of Christ from the line predicted. Numerous and clear detached predictions respecting the line age, birth, character, life, sufferings, and death of Christ, his resurrection, ascension, and kingdom, were all in him perfectly ful filled. For predictions of the Messiah in the Old Testament see Prophecy. MET'ALS were found in Palestine, Deut. 8:9, and were wrought for some uses at a very early period, Job 2:8. We find men tion of gold, Gen. 2:11, 12; of copper and iron, Gen. 4:22, of silver, Gen. 13:2; 1 Chr, 22:14; 29:4, of tin, Num. 31:22, of lead, Exod. 15:10, of steel, Jer. 15:12, of bronze and fine brass, Rev. 1:15. Solomon em ployed Phoenicians in the metal-work of the temple, 1 Kin. 7:13. Smelting, casting, hammering, soldering, polishing, overlay ing, and the requisite tools for these pro cesses, are mentioned. See Gold, Sil ver, Iron, Brass, etc. METE, to measure, Exod. 16:18; Psa. 60:6; Matt. 7:2. METE'YARD, Lev. 19:35, a measure. ME'THEGAM'MAH, bridle of the mo ther, i. e., the mother-city, Gath, 2 Sam. 8:1; 1 Chr. 18:1. See Gath. METHU'SAEL, man from God, father of the Cainite Lamech, Gen. 4:18. METHU'SELAH, man of sending forth, Luke 3:37, son of Enoch, and father of Lamech. He lived 969 years, a longer life than any other on record, and died within the year before the deluge, Gen. 5:21, 22, 25-27; 1 Chr. 1:3. MEU'NIM, Neh. 7:52. See Maonites. ME'ZAHAB, waters of gold, an Edomite king, Gen. 36:39; 1 Chr. 1:50. MIB'HAR, choice, 1 Chr. 11 :38. Compare 2 Sam. 23:36. WlB'SAUl, fragrance, I., a son of Ishmael, and the tribe descended from him, Gen. 25:13; 1 Chr. 1:29. II. 1 Chr. 4:25. MIB'ZAR, a fortress, an early Edomite chief, Gen. 36 : 42 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 53 ; or if a place, possibly Petra, Psa. 60:9; 108:10: Jer.49:i6. MI'CAH, who is like fehovah f The same as Micha, Michah, Micaiah, and Micha- iah, A. V. I. An Ephraimite in the time of the . Judges, soon after Joshua, who stole 1,100 shekels of silver from his mother, but restored them, and with her consent em- MIC BIBLE DICTIONARY. MIC ployed them in establishing a private sanc tuary, with 2 images to be used in the wor ship of Jehovah, and with a stray Levite for his priest, thus violating the explicit commands of God forbidding the use of images in his worship, and prescribing one place for his altar and one line for his priests. Providence frowned on his idol atrous service, and a troop of Danites robbed him of his priest and of all his im plements of worship, Judg. 17; 18. It was a time of much confusion and lack of unity and system in public affairs. The account is supposed to have been written after the monarchy began, and while the tabernacle was at Shiloh, Judg. 18:1, 31 ; 19:1. II. Son of Mephibosheth, 1 Chr. 8:34, 35; 9:40, 41 ; called Micha in 2 Sam. 9:12, A. V. III. A Kohathite priest in David's time, 1 Chr. 23:20; less correctly called Mich ah in 1 Chr. 24:24, 25, A. V. IV. A Reubenite, 1 Chr. 5:5. V. The Morasthite, i. e., of Moresheth- gath, a village near Eleutheropolis, in the west of Judah ; the 6th in order of the lesser prophets. He prophesied under Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of Judah, for about 50 years, if with some we reckon from near the beginning of the reign of Jotham to the last year of Hezekiah, B. C. 750-698. He was nearly contemporary with Isaiah, and has some expressions in com mon with him — compare Isa. 2:2 with Mic. 4: 1, and Isa. 41 : 15 with Mic. 4: 13 — also with Hosea and Amos in part. His bold fidel ity served as a shield to the prophet Jere miah a century afterwards, Jer. 26:18, 19; Mic. 3:12. He wrote in an elevated and vehement style, with frequent transitions. His figures are drawn from agricultural rather than pastoral life. His prophecy may be divided into 3 sections, each com mencing with the call " Hear ye," ch. 1:2; 3:1; 6:1. It relates to the sins and judg ments of Israel and Judah, their rulers and false prophets, to the destruction of Sama ria and Jerusalem, the return of the Jews from captivity, and the punishment of their enemies. He proclaims the coming of the Messiah, "whose goings forth have been from of old, from everlasting," as the foun dation of all hope for the glorious and blessed future .he describes, and specifies Bethlehem in Judah as the place where He should be born of woman, Mic. 5 : 2, 3. The prediction was thus understood by the Jews, Matt. 2:5; John 7:41, 42. Compare also Mic. 4:5 and 5:5 with John 10:35, 36 and Eph. 2:14. VI. The father of Abdon, 2 Chr. 34:20; called Michaiah, father of Achbor in 2 Kin. 22:12. VII. A Levite of the house of Asaph, 1 Chr. 9: 15, A. V. ; rather Micha, as in Neh. 11 :i7, 22. MICA' I AH, who is like fehovah ? the son of Imlah, a faithful and fearless prophet of Samaria consulted by king Ahab at the demand of Jehoshaphat as to the issue of their proposed campaign against the Syrians. He was imprisoned to abide the event, which coincided with his predictions and probably secured his release, 1 Kin. 22:8-38. The 400 prophets first consulted were unprincipled adherents of Ahab, ver. 22, 23, worshipping his calf-symbols of Je hovah, as Jehoshaphat well understood. Josephus states that Micaiah was the proph et who foretold the slaying of another by a lion, 1 Kin. 20:35-43, and who rebulced Ahab for not putting Ben-hadad to death, and that he had been already imprisoned by the offended king. It appears from this narrative as from many others, that God enabled honest inquirers to discern be tween true prophets and "lying spirits," who furnish to wicked men such oracles as they want. Ahab's conduct in this matter displays the amazing folly of sins against light. 2 Chr. 18:6-27. MI'CHA, who is like fehovah? I., son of Mephibosheth. See Micah, II. II. A Levite. See Micah, VII. III. A Levite, Neh. 10:11. MI'CHAEL, who is like God? I. See Archangel. Nine men of this name are slightly mentioned in Scripture. MI'CHAH, 1 Chr. 24:24. See Micah, III. MICHA'IAH, who is like fehovah? I., king Abijah's queen-mother, 2 Chr. 13:2; called Maachah in 2 Chr. 11:20. II. A prince of Judah who seconded the efforts of Jehoshaphat to instruct and re form the people of Judah, 2 Chr. 17:7-9. III. See Micah, VI. IV. Grandson of Shaphan king Josiah's scribe, a young prince at the court of Je hoiakim, who communicated to the king's counsellors the solemn warnings of Jere miah, and who in vain implored king Zed ekiah not to burn the prophetic roll, Jer. 36:11-14. V. A Levite of the line of Asaph, Neh. 12:35- VI. A priest at the rebuilding of Jerusa lem, Neh. 12:41. MI'CHAL, who is like God? the younger daughter of Saul and Ahinoam, in love 355 MIC BIBLE DICTIONARY. MIG with David, and reluctantly given to him in marriage by Saul, after breaking his prom ise to give him Merab the elder, i Sam. :4:49> 5°; 18:20-29. She saved her hus band's life from assassins sent by her ty rannical and unscrupulous father, by a stratagem which gave him time to escape, 1 Sam. 19: 14, 15. Her father then gave her in marriage to Phalti, 1 Sam. 25:44, from whom David some 14 years after recovered her, 2 Sam. 3:12-21. When David brought the ark of God to Jerusalem, she conceived and expressed great disgust at his pious joy, and the affections of the king remained alienated from her till her death, 2 Sam. 6 : 16-25. Her hatred of unfashionable zeal in religion was stronger than her love of her husband and her God. She left no children. See Merab, which is perhaps the true reading for Michal in 2 Sam. 21:8. MICH'MASH, or MICH'MAS, hidden, a town of Benjamin, 7 miles north by east of Jerusalem and 4 miles southeast of Bethel, Ezra 2:27; Neh. 7:31; 11:31. It was a strong position, and lay on the north side of a deep valley, Wady el-Suweinit; for which reasons perhaps Sennacherib, on his way to Jerusalem, left his heavy equipage there, Isa. 10:28, 29. In this valley, a little west of the town, are 2 steep hills, sup posed to be the ones referred to in the ac count of Jonathan's achievement at "the passage of Michmash," 1 Sam. 13:23; 14:4- 23. Dr. Robinson found here a village called Mukhmas, which appeared to be the remnant of a town of some size and im portance. MICH'METHAH, hiding-place, a town on the northern border of Ephraim, on the east of Shechem, perhaps in the plain el- Mukhna, Josh. 16:6; 17:7. MICH'TAM, prefixed to Psalms 16, 56-60, and meaning golden, or secret, as in Psa. 25: 14, or as some think, a writing or song, as in Isa. 38:9. MID'DLE WALL, Eph. 2:14, the sacred barrier between the Court of the Gentiles and the inner parts of the temple. MID'IAN, strife, the 4th son of Abraham and Keturah, Gen. 25:2; 1 Chr. 1:33. MID'IANITES, descendants of Midian, a nomade race in Arabia, numerous, and rich in flocks, herds, and camels, Isa. 60:6, and also active and successful in commerce, Num. 31:22, 50, 52; Judg. 8:21-26. The original and appropriate district of the Midianites seems to have been on the east side of the Elanitic branch of the Red Sea, 35° where the Arabian geographers place the city Madian . Acts 7 : 29. But they appear to have spread themselves northward, proba bly along the desert east of Mount Seir, to the vicinity of the Moabites, Gen. 36:35; and on the west side also they covered a territory extending to the neighborhood of Mount Sinai, where the fugitive Moses found refuge 40 years, Exod. 2:15; 3:1; 18:1; Num. 10:29. In Gen. 25:2, 4, com pared with ver. 12-18, they are distinguish ed from the descendants of Ishmael, though elsewhere we find the two very intimately associated, so that they are called now by one name and now by the other. See Gen. 37:25, compared with ver. 36; Judg. 7:12; 8 : 22, 24. Both terms may perhaps be used as meaning simply Arabian merchants. Their capital city was called Midian, and its remains were to be seen in the time of Jerome and Eusebius. It was situated on the Arnon, south of the city Ar, or Are- opolis. The Midianites were idolaters, and often led Israel astray to worship their gods. They sought, with the aid of Moab, to de stroy the Hebrews by Balaam's sorceries, by enticing them into idolatry and heaven- defying lusts, and by open war, Num. 22:4, 7 ; 25 : 1-6, 16-18 ; 31 : 1-16. They also not unfrequently rendered the Hebrews tribu tary, and oppressed them. Often when the Israelites had sown, and their harvest was nearly ready to be gathered in, the Midian ites and Amalekites, children of the east ern desert, came down like locusts in count less swarms, with their cattle and tents and camels, to devour and carry off the fruits of the ground, and not only rob but destroy their owners. And often did the Jews, lack ing the strength or the faith or the leader ship necessary for effectual resistance, seek refuge in mountain-dens and caverns till the invaders retired. Gideon was their de liverer in one such period of oppression, Judg. 6:7. Compare Psa. 83:10-12; Isa. 9:4; 10:6. The modern Ishmaelites still follow the ancient practice, and their vio lent incursions, robberies, and murders might be described in the same terms that were used with reference to their fathers by the historians of old. MID'NIGHT. See HOUR. MID'WIVES, Gen. 35:17; 38:28- The 2 specially named in Exod. 1:15-21 seem to have become heads of families among the Hebrews. MIG'DAL-EL, tower of God, a stronghold of Naphtali, Josh. 19:38, now found at Mej- MIG BIBLE DICTIONARY. MIL del Islim, 12 miles northwest of Lake Me rom. MIG'DAL-GAD, tower of fortune, a town in the plain of Judah, supposed to be el- Mejdel, 2 miles east of Askelon. MIG'DOL, u lower, a frontier town in Northern Egypt, Jer. 44:1; 46:14; transla ted in Ezek. 29: 10; 30:6, which should read "from Migdol to Syene" — the northern and southern limits of Egypt. The He brews on leaving Egypt encamped "be tween Migdol and the sea," Exod. 14:2; Num. 33:7. This may be a different place, either Jebal Ataka, southwest of Suez, Bir Suweis, 2 miles west of Suez, or Muktala, 17 miles northwest. MIG'RON, precipice, a place in Benjamin in the vicinity of Ai and Gibeah, north of Michmash, now traced in cliffs 2 miles northwest of Michmash, separating Wady Suweinit from Deir Diwan, 1 Sam. 14:2; Isa. 10:28. MIL'CAH, queen, ot advice, I., daughter of Haran, wife of Nahor, and mother of Bethuel and 7 older sons, Gen. 1 1 : 29 ; 22 : 20, 23; 24:15, 24, 47- II. One of the 5 daughters of Zelophe- had. See. MIL'COM, their king, 1 Kin. 11:5. See Moloch. MIL'DEW, Heb. greenness, alluding to the pale tinge of blasted and fungus-eaten leaves, Deut. 28:22; 1 Kin. 8:37; 2 Chr. 6:28; Amos 4:9; Hag. 2:17. MILE. The word mile, in Matt. 5:41, is spoken of the Roman milliare, or mile, which contained 8 stadia, 1,000 paces, that is, about 1,618 yards, while the English mile contains 1,760 yards. MILE'TUS, not Miletum as in 2 Tim. 4:20, A. V., an ancient city, formerly the metropolis of all Ionia, situated on the western coast of Asia Minor, south of Eph esus, on the confines of Caria, just south of the mouth of the river Maeander. It was the parent of many colonies, and was cele brated for a temple and oracle of Apollo Didymaeus, and as the birthplace of Thales, Anaximander, Democritus, and other fa mous men. The apostle Paul, on his voy age from Macedonia towards Jerusalem, spent a day or two here, and held an affect ing interview with the Christian elders of Ephesus, who at his summons came nearly 30 miles from the north to meet him, Acts 20:15-38. He also revisited Miletus after his first imprisonment at Rome, 2 Tim. 4:20. There were Christians and bishops there from the 5th to the 8th century; but the city has long been in ruins, and its ex act site can hardly be determined, so much is the coast altered around the mouth of the Maeander, the sea having receded 10 miles ; but it is covered in part by the place called Palatia, with ruins of a large theatre and a church. MILK, the natural food of childhood, is contrasted with the food of robust men, 1 Cor. 3:2; Heb. 5:12, and is often alluded to in the Bible as a symbol of pure, simple, and wholesome truth, Heb. 5:12, 13; 1 Pet. 2:2; and in connection with honey, to de note fertility and plenty, Gen. 49: 12; Exod. 3:8; 13:5; Num. 16:13; Josh. 5:6. The Jews and their neighbors used not only the milk of cows, Dut that of camels, sheep, and goats, Gen. 32:15; Deut. 32:14; Prov. 27:27. See Butter and Cheese. Boiling a kid in its mother's milk was prohibited, proba bly as an idolatrous or magical rite, Exod. 23:19; 34:26; Deut. 14:21. MILL. See Corn. In Matt. 18:6; Mark 9:42 the Greek denotes a millstone turned by an ass; R. V. " a great millstone," such as Samson was humiliated to turn, Judg. 16:21. MILLEN'NIUM, a thousand years, Rev. 20:1-7, a period preceding the judgment- day and the full retributions of eternity. According to some, this period will be ush ered in, perhaps very soon, by the visible coming of Christ, to raise the martyrs and saints from the dead and reign personally on the earth. But in the general belief of Christians it denotes an era of the univer sal prevalence of the gospel in the earth, preceding the general resurrection and judgment. Without entering on the discussion of this subject we may suggest that it is ap parently the design of Providence that prophecy shall be interpreted only by its fulfilment; that the attempt to pry into the future to the neglect of present duties is fraught with evil, and that we may well rest in the assurance given us throughout the Scriptures that the work of the world's Redeemer and rightful King will not be left incomplete. MIL'LET, a. kind of grain, of which there are several species cultivated in Italy, Syr ia, Egypt, and India. It is used partly green as fodder, and partly in the ripe grain for bread, etc. Ezekiel, 4:9, received an order from the Lord to make himself bread with a mixture of wheat, barley, beans, lentiles, and millet. The variety called Panicum miliaceum is probably 357 MIL BIBLE DICTIONARY. MIN meant, .and also the Sorghum vulgare, or dourrha of the Arabs — a maize-like plant 5 feet high, with heads of small grains — of which Niebuhr says, " It is a kind of mil- SORGHUM VULGARE, OR DOURRHA. let, made into bread with camel's milk, oil, butter, etc., and is almost the only food eaten by the common people of Arabia Felix. I found it so disagreeable that I would willingly have preferred plain bar ley bread." MIL'LO, fulness, I., probably a bastion of the citadel of Zion, at Jerusalem, men tioned in the history of David and Solo mon, 2 Sam. 5:9; 1 Kin. 9:15, 24; 2 Kin. 12:20; 1 Chr. 11:8; 2 Chr. 32:5. II. The name of a family or of a fortress at Shechem ; in the latter case, the " house of Millo " would mean the garrison of that fortress, Judg. 9:6, 20, 46, 49. MIN'CING, Isa. 3:16, a coquettish man ner of walking with short steps and a swaying motion. MIN'GLED PEO'PLE, a miscellaneous foreign population, sometimes hired sol diers, Exod. 12:38; 1 Kin. 10:15, A. V., Arabia; Neh. 13:3; Ezek. 30:5. MI'NING, Job 28 : 1-17. See Metals. MIN'ISH, Exod. 5:19; Psa. 107:39, A. V. to lessen. MIN'ISTER, from minor, " less," the op posite of master or magister, from magis, " greater ;" one who acts in subordination to another, as a religious or a civil official. The word is applied to the priests and Le vites, Isa. 61:6; Luke 1:23; Heb. 10:11; in 358 Luke 4:20 to the synagogue attendant or sexton ; often to the sub-officials of kings, 1 Kin. 10:5; Psa. 103:21. God makes the flaming fire his minister, Psa. 104:4, and in general the word denotes any one who attends or waits on another, Matt. 20:26, 28. Elisha was the "minister" of Elijah, 1 Kin. 19:21; 1 Kin. 3:11, and Joshua the "minister" of Moses, Exod. 24:13; 33:11. These persons did not feel themselves de graded- by their stations, and in due time they succeeded to the office of their mas ters. In like manner John Mark was min ister to Paul and Barnabas, Acts 13:5. An gels are ministers of God and of his people, Dan. 7:10; Heb. 1:14. The term is ap plied to magistrates, Rom. 13:4, 6; to gos pel teachers, Rom. 15:16; 1 Cor. 3:5; 4:1; and to teachers of error, 2 Cor. 11:15. Christ came to minister, not to be minis tered unto, and is called a minister "ofthe circumcision," Rom. 15:8, and of the heav enly sanctuary, Heb. 8:2. The distribu tion of the alms of Christians was a minis tration, Acts 6:1; 2. Cor. 9:13. The law is a " ministration of death " to those who do not keep it, and the gospel is a ministra tion of the Spirit, giving life to those who accept it, 2 Cor. 3:7-9. Ministers of the gospel, like Paul, Apol los, and Timothy, 1 Cor. 3:5; 1 Thess. 3:2, are so called as servants of Christ, Phil. 1:1, and of his people for his sake, 2 Cor. 4:5. They should be qualified' to defend the truth by sound and Scriptural reason ing, to solve questions of conscience and spiritual experience, to sympathize with their flocks, to counsel, instruct, inspire, restrain, and discipline them, to lead men to Christ, and to edify them in him. Hence they should be eminently " men of God," "full of faith and the Holy Ghost," "living epistles," and "ensamples to the flock." They need to excel in the right knowledge of God's Word, in spiritual wisdom, in meekness, humility, patience, self-control, purity, benevolence, self-denial, and all forms of likeness to Christ; to be diligent in study and in watchful care over each soul for which they must give account to God. MIN'NI, a kingdom summoned to a war against Babylon, with Ararat and Ashke- naz, Jer. 51:27; supposed to denote the district Minyas in Armenia, on the north branch ofthe Euphrates, and west of Mount Ararat. MIN'NITH, distribution, a town of the Ammonites in the time of Jephthah, Judg. MIN BIBLE DICTIONARY. MIR 11:33, 4 or 5 miles northeast of Heshbon. It furnished fine wheat for the market of Tyre, Ezek. 27:17. MIN'STREL, in 1 Sam. 16:16; 18:10; 19:9; Isa. 23:16, a player on the harp. In 2 Chr. 35:25; Eccl. 12:5; Jer. 9:17-20; Matt. 9:23, flute-players and professional mourn ers. See Music. MINT : MENTHA SILVKSTRIS. MINT, a garden herb of the order Labi- atae, used anciently as now ; possibly the " bitter-herb " sauce for the Passover, Exod. 12:8. The Pharisees, desiring to distin guish themselves by a most scrupulous and literal observation of the law, Deut. 14:22, gave tithes of mint, anise, and cummin, Matt. 23:23. Our Saviour does not cen sure this exactness, but that while they were so precise in these lesser matters, they neglected the essential command ments of the law — making their punctili ousness about easy and external duties an excuse for disregarding their obligations to love God supremely, to be regenerated in heart, andjust and beneficent in life. MIPH'KAD, appointed, or number, a gate in the wall of Zion, Neh. 3:31. MIR'ACLE, also called a sign, wonder, or mighty work, Acts 2:22; 2 Cor. 12:2; 2 Thess. 2:9; these names signifying its design to certify a divine revelation in ful filment of prophecy, the wonder it excites in beholders, and the divine power exer cised in it. It is a work so superseding by a higher agency the established laws of na ture as to evince the special interposition of God. A miracle is to be distinguished from wonders wrought by designing men through artful deceptions, occult sciences, or laws of nature unknown except to adepts. The miracles wrought by Christ, for example, were such as God only could perform; were wrought in public before numerous witnesses, both friends and foes ; were open to the most perfect scrutiny; had an end in view worthy of divine sanc tion ; were attested by witnesses whose character and conduct establish their claim to our belief; and are further confirmed by institutions still existing, intended to commemorate them, and dating from the period of the miracles. Christ appealed to his mighty works as essential and undeni able proofs of his divinity and Messiah- ship, Matt. 9:6; 11:4, 5, 23, 24; John 10:24- 27; 15:24; 20:29, 31. The deceptions of the magicians in Egypt, and of false proph ets in ancient and in modern times, Deut. 13:1; Matt. 24:24; 2 Thess. 2:9; Rev. 13:13, 14, would not bear the above tests. By employing the agency of any man to work a miracle God gave the highest attestation to the truth he should teach and the mes sage he should bring, 1 Kin. 18:38, 39; this is God's own seal, not to be affixed to false hoods; and though the lying wonders of Satan and his agents were so plausible as to "deceive if possible the very elect," no one who truly sought to know and do the will of God could be deluded by them. The chief object of miracles having been to authenticate the revelation God has made of his will, these mighty works ceased when the Scripture canon was completed and settled and Christianity was fairly es tablished. Since the close of the 2 centu ries from the ascension of Christ few or no undoubted miracles have been wrought. The so-called miracles narrated in early ecclesiastical writings are ill-authenticated, and often trivial and unworthy, and wheth er a sufficient occasion for new miracles will ever arise is known only to God. The following list comprises most of the miracles on record in the Bible, not inclu ding the supernatural visions and revela tions of himself which God vouchsafed to his ancient servants, nor those numerous wonders of his providence which manifest his hand almost as indisputably as mira cles themselves. See also Prophecy. The Old Testament miracles are often those of power: New Testament miracles those of healing mercy. OLD TESTAMENT MIRACLES. The creation of all things, Gen. 1. The deluge, comprising many miracles, Gen. 6-8. The destruction of Sodom, etc., Gen. 19. The healing of Abimelech, Gen. 20 : 17, 18. 359 MIR BIBLE DICTIONARY. MIR The burning bush, Exod. 3 : 2-4. Moses' rod made a serpent, and restored, Exod. 4:3,4; 7:16. Moses' hand made leprous, and healed, Exod. 4 : 6, 7. Water turned into blood, Exod. 4:9, 30. The Nile turned into blood, Exod. 7 : 20. Frogs brought and removed, Exod. 8 : 6, 13. Lice brought, Exod. 8 : 17. Flies brought and removed, Exod. 8 : 21T31. Murrain of beasts, Exod. 9:3-6. Boils and blains brought, Exod. 9: io, 11. Hail brought and removed, Exod. 9: 23, 33. Locusts brought and removed, Exod. 10:13, 19. Darkness brought, Exod. 10:22. Firstborn destroyed, Exod. 12:29. The Red Sea divided, Exod. 14 : 21, 22. Egyptians overwhelmed, Exod. 14:26-28. Waters of Marah sweetened , Exod. 15:25. Quails and manna sunt, Exod. 16. Water from the rock in Horeb, Exod. 17 :6. Amalek vanquished, Exod. 17 : 11-13. Pillar of cloud and fire, Num. 9: 15-23. Leprosy of Miriam, Num. 12: 10. Destruction of Korah, etc., Num. 16:28-35, 46-50- Aaron's rod budding, Num. 17 : 8. Water from the rock in Kadesh, Num. 20:11. Healing by the brazen serpent, Num. 21 : 8, 9, Moses' view of all Canaan, Deut. 34 : 1-3. Balaam's ass speaks, Num. 22 : 28. Plague in the desert, Num. 25: 1, 9. Waters of Jordan divided, Josh. 3: 10-17. Jordan restored to its course, Josh. 4: 18. Jericho taken, Josh. 6 : 6-20. Achan discovered, Josh. 7 : 14-21. Sun and moon stand still, Josh. 10: 12-14. Gideon's fleece wet, Judg. 6 : 36-40. Midianites destroyed, Judg. 7 : 16-22. Exploits of Samson, Judg. 14-16. House of Dagon destroyed, Judg. 16:30. Dagon falls before the ark, etc., 1 Sam. 5. Return of the ark, 1 Sam. 6: 12. Thunder and rain in harvest, 1 Sam. 12:18. Jeroboam's hand withered, etc., 1 Kin. 13:4, 6. The altar rent, 1 Kin. 13:5. Drought caused, 1 Kin. 17:6. Elijah fed by ravens, 1 Kin. 17:7. Meal and oil supplied, 1 Kin. 17: 14-16. Child restored to life, 1 Kin. 17:22, 23. Sacrifice consumed by fire, 1 Kin. 18:36, 38, Rain brought, 1 Kin. 18:41-45. Men destroyed by fire, 2 Kin. 1 : 10-12. Waters of Jordan divided, 2 Kin. 2 : 14. Noxious waters healed, 2 Kin. 2 : 21, 22. Children torn by bears, 2 Kin. 2: 24. Waters brought, 2 Kin. 3 : 16-20. Oil supplied, 2 Kin. 4: 1-7. Child restored to life, 2 Kin. 4:32-35. Naaman healed, 2 Kin. 5:10, 14. Gehazi's leprosy, 2 Kin. 5:27. Iron caused to swim, 2 Kin. 6:6. Syrians smitten blind, etc., 2 Kin. 6: 18, 20. A man restored to life, 2 Kin. 13 : 21. Assyrians destroyed, 2 Kin. 19 :3s. Hezekiah healed, 2 Kin. 20:7. Shadow put back, 2 Kin. 20: 11. Pestilence in Israel, 1 Chr. 21 114. Jonah preserved by a fish, Jon. 1 : 17 ; 2 : 10. 360 NEW TESTAMENT MIRACLES. The conception ofthe Virgin Mary, Matt. 1 : 18. The star in the east, Matt. 2 : 2. The Spirit like a dove, Matt. 3 : 16. Christ's fast and temptations, Matt. 4: 1-11. Many miracles of Christ, Matt. 4:23, 24; 8: 16; 14:14,36; 15:30; Mark 1:34; Luke 6: 17-19. Lepers cleansed, Matt. 8: 3, 4; Luke 17: 14. Centurion's servant healed, Matt. 8 : 5-13. Peter's wife's mother healed/Matt. 8: 14. Tempests stilled, Matt. 8:23-26; 14:32. Devils cast out, Matt. 8 : 28-32 ; 9 : 32, 33 ; 15 : 22- 28; 17: 14-18. Paralytics healed, Matt. 9:2-6; Mark 2:3-12. Issue of blood healed, Matt. 9: 20-22. Jairus' daughter raised to life, Matt. 9: 18, 25. Sight given to the blind, Matt. 9:27-30; 20:34; Mark S : 22-25 i John 9 : 1-7. The dumb restored, Matt. 9 : 32, 33 ; 12 : 22 ; Mark 7 : 33-35- Miracles by the disciples, Matt. 10 : 1, 8. Multitudes fed, Matt. 14: 15-21 ; 15:35-38. Christ walking on the sea, Matt. 14:25-27. Peter walking on the sea, Matt. 14:29. Christ's transfiguration, etc., Matt. 17 : 1-8. Tribute from a fish's mouth, Matt. 17:27. The fig-tree withered, Matt. 21 : 19. Miracles at the crucifixion, Matt. 27:51-53. The resurrection of Christ, and wonders attend ing it, Matt. 28 : 1-7 ; Luke 24 : 6. Draught of fishes, Luke 5:4-6; John 21 : 6. Widow's son raised to life, Luke 7: 14, 15. Miracles before John's messengers, Luke 7:2-1,' 22. Miracles by the seventy, Luke 10: 9, 17. Woman healed of infirmity, Luke 13 : 11-13. Dropsy cured, Luke 14 : 2-4. Malchus' ear restored, Luke 22 : 50, 51. Water turned into wine, John 2:6-10. Nobleman's son healed, John 4:46-53. Impotent man healed, John 5:5-9. Sudden crossing of the sea, John 6: 21. Lazarus raised from the dead, John 11 :43, 44. Christ's coming to his disciples, John 20: 19, 26. Christ's ascension, Acts 1:9. Wonders at Pentecost, Acts 2 : 1-11. Miracles by the apostles, Acts 2:43; 5: 12. Lame man cured, Acts 3 : 7. Death of Ananias and Sapphira, Acts 5:5, 10. Many sick healed, Acts 5: 15, 16. Apostles delivered from prison, Acts 5 : 19. Miracles by Stephen, Acts 6 : 8. Miracles by Philip, Acts 8 : 6, 7, 13. ^¦Eneas made whole, Acts 9:34. Dorcas restored to life, Acts 9:40. Peter delivered from prison, Acts 12:6-10. Elymas struck blind, Acts 15: 11. Miracles by Paul and Barnabas, Acts 14:3. Lame man cured, Acts 14:10. Paul's recovery after being stoned, Acts 14 ; 20, Unclean spirit cast out, Acts 16: 18. Paul and Silas delivered, Acts 16:25, 26. Special miracles, Acts 19: n, 12. Eutychus restored to life, Acts 20: 10-12. Viper's bite made harmless, Acts 28:5. Father of Publius, etc., healed, Acts 28:8, 9. MIR'IAM, their rebellion, I., daughter of Amram and Jochebed, ofthe tribe of Levi, the sister of Moses and Aaron, probably MIR BIBLE DICTIONARY. MIZ the one who, about 12 years old, watched over Moses in the ark of bulrushes, Exod. 2:4,5; Num. 26:59. As a prophetess, Mic. 6:4, she led the women of Israel in their song of worship and thanksgiving to God on the drowning of the Egyptians, Exod. 15:20, 21. Her jealous murmurs against Moses and his Cushite wife were punished by a temporary leprosy, Num. 12; Deut. 24:9, as were the sins of Gehazi and Uzziah against God's special servants. But she was forgiven and restored, and near the close of the wanderings of Israel died at Kadesh-barnea, Num. 20:1. II. Son of Mered and grandson of Pha raoh, 1 Chr. 4:17. MIR'ROR. See LOOKING-GLASS. MIS'CHIEF, Ezek. 7:26; Acts 13:10, im plies some serious harm accomplished. MIS'GAB, height, a place in the highlands of Moab, on the route of the invading Bab ylonians, Jer. 48: 1. Supposed to be meant in Isa. 25:12, A. V., "high fort." MISH'AEL, who is like God? I., son of Uzziel and cousin of Aaron, Exod. 6:22. He aided in the burial of Nadab and Abi hu, Lev. 10:4, 5. Compare Num. 9:6. II. Me'shach, a fellow-captive with Dan iel in Babylon. See Abednego. III. A supporter of Ezra, Neh. 8:4. MI'SHAL, entreaty, a Levitical city in Asher, Josh. 21 :3c, called Misheal in Josh. 19:26, A. V., and Mashal in 1 Chr. 6:74. Identified in Kh. Muslih, 6 miles north by east of Acre. MISH'MA, hearing, I., 5th son of Ish mael, and his posterity, a tribe northeast of Medina; the Bene-misma, Gen. 25:14; 1 Chr. 1:30. — II. 1 Chr. 4:25, 26. MIS'REPHOTH-MAIM, burnings of wa ters, a place in North Canaan to which Joshua pursued the host of Jabin, Josh. 11:8; 13:6. THE ROMAN AS. MITE, Gr. "lepton," a thin copper Ro man coin, in value less than 2 mills, Luke 12:59; 21:2. See Measures and Appen dix Tables. None are too poor to do some thing for Christ, but mites from a miser are not an acceptable offering. MITH'CAH, sweetness, 27th station of the Israelites from Goshen, Num. 33:28, 29, perhaps Ain Ghamr, near Jebel Jer&feh. MITH'REDATH, given by Mithras the sun-god, I., treasurer of king Cyrus, who restored the temple utensils, Ezra 1:8. II. A Persian officer in Samaria, who in terfered with the rebuilding of Jerusalem, Ezra 4 : 7. MI'TRE, the sacred turban or bonnet of the Jewish high-priest, made of a piece of fine linen many yards long, wound about the head, and having in front, secured with blue lace, a plate of pure gold on which was inscribed, " Holiness unto the Lord," Exod. 28:4, 36-38; 39:28-31. MITYLE'NE, the ancient capital of the island of Lesbos, in the jEgean Sea; a " free " city and a seaport, on the east side of the island, 7 miles distant from Asia Minor. Paul touched there on his way from Greece to Jerusalem, Acts 20: 14. The island is now called by the Turks Midilli, and the ruins of the city still exist. MIXED MUL'TITUDE, Exod. 12:38; Num. 11:4; Neh. 13:1-3, 30, a crowd of peopje not purely Hebrews, followers of the camp of Israel. MI'ZAR, little, if a proper name, appar ently a southern spur of Mount Hermon, which David in exile contrasts with Mount Zion, Psa. 42:6. Compare Psa. 68:15, 16; 114:4-6; Isa. 2:2. MIZ'PAH, or Miz'peh, a watchtower, I., a place in Gilead, Hos. 5:1; so named from the stone-heap cast up by Jacob and Laban, Gen. 31:48-52, whence it was also named Galeed and Jegar-sahadutha, heap of wit ness. It appears to have lain north of Ma- hanaim. II. Another place in Gilead farther south, where Jephthah resided and assembled his army, Judg. 10:17; 11: 11, 29, 34. See also Josh. 13:26. III. A valley near Mount Hermon, Josh. 3°l MIZ BIBLE DICTIONARY. MOA 11:3, 8, perhaps Mutulleh, in the Ard-el- Huleh, on the west of Jebel Heish, or far ther north in el-Buka'a. IV. A city of Benjamin, a central gath ering-place of the tribes in the period of the Judges, Josh. 18:26; Judg. 20:1, 3; 21:1, 5, 8. It is thought by some to have been the Mizpah of Jephthah, who, though a Gileadite, was judge over Israel west ofthe Jordan also. Here Samuel sacrificed and judged and Israel repented, and here Saul was designated as king, 1 Sam. 7:5-16; 10: 17-25. It was fortified by Asa as a de fence against Israel, 1 Kin. 15:22; 2 Chr. 16:6, was the residence of the governor, under Nebuchadnezzar, 2 Kin. 25:23, 25; Jer. 40:6, and was reoccupied after the Captivity, Neh. 3:19. Its name indicates that it occupied an elevated site, and it was near Ramah; hence Dr. Robinson identi fies it with the modern place called Neby Samwil, 5 miles northwest of Jerusalem — a prominent height 2,935 feet above the sea, commanding extended views in every direction. Some, however, prefer Scopus, the prolongation of Mount Olivet "over against Jerusalem " on the north. V. A town in the plain of Judah, Josh. 15:38; supposed to be el-Hesy, 3 miles southeast of Lachish, and 16 east of Gaza. VI. A chief town in Moab, where David found a refuge for his parents, 1 Sam. 22:3; possibly Kir-Moab the capital. Some high point in the wilderness of Ju dah may also have been named Mizpah, translated " watchtower" in 2 Chr. 20:24. MIZ'PAR, rather MIS'PAR, number, a Jew who returned from Babylon, Ezra 2:2; called Mispereth in Neh. 7:7. MIZ'RAIM, or MIZRA'lM, a son of Ham, and father of various African races, Gen. 10:6, 13, but particularly of the Egyptians, to whom his name was given. Mizraim, the double Egypt, is also the Hebrew word for Egypt in the Bible, Gen. 45:20; 46:34; 47:6, 13; Psa. 78:51; 105:23, 38, and this country is still called Misr in Arabic. See Egypt. MNA'SON, remembering, a Christian from Cyprus, the home of Barnabas, Acts 4:36; 13:2-5, "an old disciple," perhaps of Christ in person, with whom Paul lodged at Jerusalem on his last visit, Acts 21:16; an elder "given to hospitality," 1 Tim. 3:2- MOAB, from the father, the son of Lot, born near Zoar, Gen. 19:30-38; also the race descended from him, and the country they occupied, Num. 22:3, 4; 24:17. The 362 Moabites were thus kinsmen of Israel, Gen. 11:31. The "country," "land," or "field" of Moab lay east and southeast of the Dead Sea, and chiefly south ofthe river Arnon — a high plateau 3,000 feet above the Mediter ranean, 50 miles long and 15 wide, broken by gorges running down to the Dead Sea. At one period, however, it extended north as far as the Jabbok, and for a long time the region beyond the Jordan opposite Jer icho retained the name of "the plains of Moab," Num. 22:1; Deut. 1:5; 29:1; 34:6; Josh. 13:32. The Moabites had dispos sessed a race of giants called Emim, Deut. 2:11, and had themselves been expelled by the Amorites from the territory north of the Arnon, Num. 21:13, 26; Judg. 11:13-18, which was again conquered by Moses, and assigned to the tribe of Reuben. On the approach of Israel from Egypt the Moab ites refused them a peaceful passage, and combined with the Midianites and Balaam against them, Num. 22-24; Deut. 2:8, 9; and though God spared them from con quest, he excluded them and their seed even to the 10th generation from the pecu liar privileges of his people, Deut. 23:3-6. They were gross idolaters, worshipping Chemosh and Baal-peor with obscene rites, Num. 25, and sometimes with human sac rifices, 2 Kin. 3:27. See Moloch. At times, as in the days of Ruth, there was peace be tween them and Israel ; but a state of hos tility was far more common, as in the time of Eglon, Judg. 3:12-30; of Saul, 1 Sam. 14:47; of David, 2 Sam. 8:2, 12; of Joram and Jeroboam, 2 Kin. 3; 13:20; 14:25. See Mesha. Moabitish women tempted Solo mon to sin, : Kin. n :i, 7, 33. They aided Nebuchadnezzar against the Jews, 2 Kin. 24:2; Ezek. 25:6-11 ; and after these began to be carried captive, appear to have re gained their old possessions north of the Arnon, Isa. .15; 16. The Jewish prophets recorded many threatenings against these hereditary enemies of God and his people, Num. 24:17; Psa. 60:8; 83^:6; Isa. 15; 16; 25; 26; Jer. 25:9-21; 48; Amos 2:1-3; and all travellers concur in attesting the fulfil ment of these predictions. Desolation and gloom brood over the mountains of Moab, and its fruitful valleys are for the most part unfilled. Kerak, or the Belka, is under Turkish government, and is infested by migratory Arabs, Zeph. 2:8, 9. Travellers describe it as abounding in ruins, such as shattered tombs, cisterns, walls, temples, etc., proving that it was once densely pop ulated. See " Keith on Prophecy." MOD BIBLE DICTIONARY. MON MODERA'TION, Phil. 4:5, conciliatory spirit. In R. V. forbearance or gentle ness. MOLA'DAH, birth, a town in the south or Simeonite portion of Judah, Josh. 15:26; 19:2; 1 Chr. 4:28, reoccupied after the Cap tivity, Neh. 11:25, 26. It lay in the region where Abraham long sojourned, 8 miles southwest of Arad, and 13 east of Beer- sheba. It is now Kh. el-Milh. MOLE. In Lev. 11:30 probably a spe cies of lizard or chameleon is meant. In ver. 29 the "weasel," and in Isa. 2:20 the "moles," may denote the sphalax typhlus. or rat-mole, a large rodent, without exter nal eyes or tail, abundant in Palestine. MO'LECH. or MO'LOCH, a king, called Milcom in 1 Kin. 11:5, 33; 2 Kin. 23:13, and Malcham, or "their king," in 2 Sam. 12:30; Jer. 49:1, 3; Zeph. 1:5. See also Isa. 30:33; 57:9; Amos 1:15; 7:13. It is the name of a heathen deity worshipped by the Ammonites. The Israelites also introduced the worship of this idol, if not during their wanderings in the desert, yet after their settlement in Palestine, 2 Kin. 23:10; Ezek. 20:26, 31; Amos 5:25, 26. Among the sacrifices to Moloch were hu man victims, namely, children, who were cast alive into the red-hot arms of his hol low, brazen, calf-headed statue. See Hin nom. Compare Lev. 18:21; 20:2; Deut. 12:31; Psa. 106:37, 38; Jer. 7:31; 19:2-6; 32:35. According to some of these passa ges Moloch would seem to be closely associ ated with the Moabitish Chemosh, and with Baal, 2 Kin. 3:27; 23:10, 13; and we find that the Phoenicians, whose chief god was Baal, and the Carthaginians their colonists, worshipped his image with similar horrid sacrifices, as the Romans did their god Saturn, 2 Kin. 17:16, 17; 21:5,6. MON'EY. See Measures, and Tables in Appendix. In early ages and among un civilized races bartering, or the simple ex change of one commodity for another, pre ceded the use of any medium of exchange ; afterwards cattle have been used as money, also corn, salt, tobacco, sea-shells, etc. When gold, silver, and copper were first used they were not coined but weighed, Gen. 13:2; 20:16; Josh. 7:21; Isa. 46:6, and the amount agreed upon was paid over by weight, Gen. 23:16; 43:21; Exod. 30:24. Lastly they gave this metal, by public au thority, a certain mark, a certain weight, and a certain degree of allov, to fix its value, and to save buyers and sellers the trouble of weighing and examining the coins. Greek coin were probably in use in the 8th century B. C. Persian coins came later, and the golden daric, the " Sa gittarius," was the first coin known to have been used by the Jews, Ezra 2:69; 8:27; Neh. 7:70-72. The first regular coinage among the Jews is supposed to have been in the time of Simon Maccabaeus, less than a century and a half before Christ. The 3^3 MON BIBLE DICTIONARY. MON coins were the shekel, and a half, a third, and a quarter of a shekel. The Jewish COIN OF ABGARUS, FROM UR. coins bore an almond-rod and a vase of manna, but no image of any man was allowed. Compare Matt. 22:16-22. Many Greek and Roman coins circulated in Ju daea in New Testament times. See Tables at the end ofthe volume; also Measures, Mite, Penny, Shekel. Volney says, " The practice of weighing money is general in Syria, Egypt, and all Turkey. No piece, however effaced, is refused there : the merchant draws out his scales and weighs it, as in the days of Abraham, when he purchased his sepul chre. In considerable payments an agent of exchange is sent for, who counts paras by thousands, rejects pieces of false money, and weighs all the sequins, either sepa rately or together." This may serve to illustrate the phrase, " current money with the merchant," Gen. 23:16; and the refer ences to " divers weights " — a large one to weigh the money received, and a small one for that paid out; and to "wicked bal ances," Deut. 25:13; Amos 8:5; Mic. 6:11. Our Saviour alludes to a class of " exchan gers," who appear to have taken money on deposit, and so used it that the owner might afterwards receive his own with interest, Matt. 25:27. There were also money-bro kers who had stands in the outer court of the temple, probably to exchange foreign for Jewish coins, and to accommodate those who wished to pay the yearly half-shekel tax, Exod. 30:13-15, or to present an offer ing. They were expelled by the Lord of the temple, not only for obtruding a secular business within the house of prayer, but also for pursuing it dishonestly, Matt. 21:12, 13; Mark 11:15-17. In 1 Tim. 6:10 Paul speaks of the "love of money " as a root of all evils ; censu ring not money itself, but the love of it — a prevailing form of human selfishness and covetousness. This fatal passion may in fest the heart of a poor man as well as that of the rich, for the one may have as much of "the love of money" as the other. 364 MONTH. See below. MON'UMENTS, Isa. 65:4, perhaps caves to which priests retired for necromantic dreams. In the R. V., " secret places." MOON, Heb. pale yellow, or white, "the lesser light " appointed " for times and sea sons," Gen. 1:14-16; Psa. 104:19. This beautiful and stately ruler of the night, Gen. 1 : 16, is one of the chief witnesses to mankind of the goodness, wisdom, and power of the Creator, Deut. 33:14; Psa. 8:3; and as receiving all its light from the sun, and reflecting it on all around, it is a striking image of the church of Christ, which is illuminated by him and reflects his glory, Rom. 13:12; 2 Cor. 3:18. In the clear sky of the East the moon shines with peculiar brilliancy ; it was especially use ful to the early races of men from- their lack of artificial light, and their open-air pasto ral life; Song 6:10; and it was worshipped by most nations of antiquity, either di rectly, Job 31: 26, 27, with cakes of honey, Jer. 7:18; 44:17-25, or. as an idol-goddess under the name of Ashtoreth, Artemis, Di ana, Hecate, Meni, Mylitta, Maja, etc. The Hebrews were specially cautioned against this form of idolatry, Deut. 4:19; 17:3, and yet fell into it, 2 Kin. 21:3; Isa. 65:11; Jer. 8:2; 19:13. The withdrawal of the moon's light, by an eclipse or by total extinguish ment, symbolized divine judgments, Isa. 13:10; Matt. 24:29; Rev. 8:12. See Luna tic and New Moon. MONTH. The Hebrew months were lu nar months, that is, from one new moon to another. Tfiese lunar months were each reckoned at 29^ days ; or rather, one was of 30 days, the following of 29, and so on alternately: that which had 30 days was called a full or complete month ; that which had but 29 days was called incomplete. The new moon was always the beginning of the month, and this day they called new- moon day, or new month. The new moon may be detected about 40 hours after con junction with the sun, and observers were stationed to watch for its appearance, and authoritatively announce it, Num. 10:10; Psa. 81:3. The Hebrews usually designa ted the months only as ist, 2d, etc. ; and the names by which they are now known — some of them of Persian origin — seem to have been adopted by the Jews during the Captivity. At the exodus from Egypt, which occurred in April, God ordained that that month— the 7th of the civil year— should be the ist of the sacred year, according to which the religious festivals were to be MOR BIBLE DICTIONARY. MOS reckoned; and from that time both these modes of numbering the months continued to be employed. As the Jewish months were governed by the moon, while ours entirely disregard it, the two systems cannot wholly coincide. It is generally agreed, however, that their month Nisan answers most nearly to our April, Iyar to our May, etc., as in the fol lowing table, but often including a part of the preceding month, Abib in some years coming partly in our March : Hebrew Months. Nearly corre sponding with our Months of the Sacred Year. Months or the Civil s Year. Sea- ons. Abib, or Nisan, Exod. 12:2, 18. " 13:4- Esth. 3:7. April. ISt. 7th. r>HH MSO Iyar or Zif, 1 Kin. 6:1. May. 2d. 8th. d< Sivan, Esth. 8:9. June. 3d. 9th. Tammuz, Ezek. 8 : 14. July. 4th. 10th. > WO z Ab. August. 5th. nth. Elul, Neh. 6:15. September. 6th. 12th. Ethanim, or Tishri, 1 Kin. 8:2. October. 7th. ist. > r <> ¦ < M> w0 z Marcheshvan, or Bui, 1 Kin. 6:38. November. 8th. 2d. Chisleu, Zech. 7:1. December. 9th. 3d. Tebeth, Esth. 2 : 16. January. 10th. 4th. Shebat, Zech. 1:7. February. nth. 5th. Adar, Esth. 3 : 7. March. 12th. 6th. « Twelve lunar months making but 354 days and 8 4-5 hours, the Jewish year was short of the solar nearly 11 days. To re cover the equinoctial point, from which this difference of the solar and lunar year would separate the new moon of the ist month, the Jews 7 times in 19 years inter calated a 13th month, called Ve-adar, the 2d Adar. By this means their lunar year nearly equalled the solar. See Year. MOR'DECAI, little man, or worshipper of Mars, I., son of Jair, and great-grandson of a Benjamite named Kish, who was carried captive to Babylon with Jehoiachin, B. C. 599, Esth. 2:5, 6. He was the cousin and guardiau of Hadassah, whose wonderful history is related in the book of Esther, of which he was probably the author. See Esther, Haman. II. A man of note among those who re turned to Judjea with Zerubbabel, Ezra 2:2 ; Neh. 7:7. MO'REH, teacher, I., the name of an " oak," or grove of oaks — called " the plain " or "plains" in the A. V. — near Shechem, where Abraham on entering Canaan had a vision of God, Gen. 12:6, 7. Compare Gen. 35:4; Deut. 11:30; Josh. 24:26. II. A height on the north of the valley of Jezreel, a southern spur of Jebel ed-Duhy, facing Mount Gilboa on the southeast with the wide valley between. MO'RESHETH-GATH, possessionof Gath, a town in the lowland of Judah, the home of Micah the prophet, Jer. 26:18; Mic. 1:1, 13-15, probably near Mareshah and Eleu- theropolis. MORI'AH, shown by fehovah, the hill on which the temple of Jerusalem was built, 2 Chr. 3:1. See Jerusalem. It seems to have been the same place where Abraham was about to offer up Isaac, Gen. 22:1, 2, 14, and where David interceded for his people at the threshing-floor of Araunah, 2 Sam. 24:16-25; 1 Chr. 21:15-26. MOR'TAR, for cementing bricks and stones and plastering walls, Exod. 1:14; Lev. 14:41, 42; Ezek. 13:10, was usually made of clay and straw chopped fine and well worked; sometimes of sand, ashes, and lime. Bitumen was also used, as is now seen in the ruins of Babylon. MOR'TARS and pestles for separating grain from" its husks, and for pounding grain, spices, etc., were often made of wood as well as of metal. They were employed by the Hebrews in preparing manna for use, Num. 11:8. Large iron mortars for pounding grain have been used by the Turks in the execution of criminals; but it is not known that the Jews ever practised this mode of punishment. To this day a favorite article of food in Syria is prepared by pounding meat for hours in an iron mor tar, and adding grain and spice while the process of "braying" goes on, Prov. 27:22. MOR'TIFY, put to death, Rom. 8:13; Col. 3:5- MOSE'RA, band, and MOSE'ROTH, bands, 37th and 29th station of the Israelites in the desert, Num. 33:30, 37, 38. Compare Deut. 365 MOS BIBLE DICTIONARY. MOS 10:6. It is found perhaps at et-Taiyibeh, on the west of the traditional Mount Hor ; but according to many in Wady Murrah, 32 miles southwest of the Dead Sea, at the foot of Jebel Maderah, which they regard as the true Mount Hor. MO'SES, the illustrious prophet and leg islator of the Hebrews, who led them from Egypt to the promised land. Having been originally imposed by a native Egyptian princess, the name is no doubt Egyptian in its origin, and Josephus gives its deriva tion — from the 2 Egyptian words, mo, wa ter, and use, saved. With this accords the Septuagint form, Mouses. The Hebrews by a slight change accommodated it to their own language, as they did also in the case of some other foreign words ; calling it Mo- she, from the verb masha, to draw. Se? Exod. 2:10. Moses was born about 1571 B. C, the son of Amram and Jochebed, of the Kohathite branch of the tribe of Levi, and was the younger brother of Miriam and Aaron. His history is too extensive to per mit insertion here, and in general too well known to need it. It is enough simply to re mark that it is divided into 3 periods, each of 40 years, Acts 7:23, 30, 36. The first ex tended from his infancy, when by the faith of his pious "fathers," Heb. 11:23, he was exposed in the Nile, and found and adopted by the daughter of Pharaoh, to his flight to Midian. During this time he lived at the Egyptian court, and " was learned in all the , wisdom of the Egyptians, and was mighty in words and in deeds," Acts 7:22. This is no unmeaning praise; the "wis dom", of the Egyptians, and especially of their priests, was then the profoundest in the world. The 2d period was from his flight till his return to Egypt, Acts 7:30, during the whole of which interval he ap pears to have lived in Midian, it may be much after the manner of the Bedouin sheikhs of the present day. Here he mar ried Zipporah (see), daughter of the wise and pious Jethro, and became familiar with life in the desert. What a contrast between the former period, spent amid the splendor and learning of a court, and this lonely no madic life. Still it was in this way that the Angel-Jehovah, who appeared to him in the burning bush, prepared him to be the instrument of deliverance to His people during the 3d period of his life, which ex tends from the exodus out of Egypt to his death on Mount Nebo. In this interval how much did he accomplish as the imme diate agent of the Most High. 366 The life and institutions of the great law giver and leader of Israel present one of the finest subjects for the pen of a Chris tian historian, who is at the same time a competent Biblical antiquary. His insti tutions breathe a spirit of freedom, purity, intelligence, justice, and humanity else where unknown ; and above all, of supreme love, honor, and obedience to God. They moulded the character of the Hebrews, and transformed them from a nation of shepherds into a people of fixed residence and agricultural habits. Through that peo ple, and through the Bible, the influence of these institutions has been extended over the world; and often where the letter has not been observed, the spirit of them has been adopted. Thus it was in the laws established by the pilgrim fathers of New England ; and no small part of what is of most value in the institutions which they founded is to be ascribed to the influence of the Hebrew legislator. The name of this servant of God is per petuated in numerous places in the wilder ness of Sinai, and a recently discovered Egyptian papyrus speaks of a Mesu who had great influence with the " foreign peo ple " of Egypt. It occurs repeatedly in Greek and Latin writings, and still more frequently in those of the Arabs and the rabbinical Jews. Many of their statements, however, are mere legends without foun dation, or else distortions of the Scripture narrative. By the Jews he has always been especially honored as the most illustrious personage in all their annals, and as the founder of their'whole system of laws and institutions. Numerous passages both in the Old and New Testaments show how exalted a position they gave him,. Psa. 103:7; 105:26; 106:16; Isa. 63:12; Jer. 15:1; Dan. 9:11; Matt. 8:4; John 5:45; 7:22; 9:28; Acts 7:20-38; Rom. 10:5, 19; 2 Tim. 3:8, 9; Heb. 3; 11:23-28; Jude 9. In all that he wrought and taught he was but the agent of the Most High ; and yet in all his own character stands honor ably revealed. He is extolled as "the man of God," and eminently "the servant of God." He " chose " the service of God deliberately against strong temptations to a worldly career. He early regarded him self as the goel or redeemer of his people, and his judicial slaying of the Egyptian is so explained by Stephen, Acts 7:25. His despondency when called at the age of 80 to a task which he had believed hopeless when 40 years old, God forgave. Though MOT BIBLE DICTIONARY. MOU naturally liable to anger and impatience, he so'far subdued himself as to be termed the meekest of men, Num. 12:3; and his faith, humility, and forbearance, the wis dom and vigor of his administration, his unfailing zeal and faith in God, and his disinterested patriotism are worthy of all imitation, Exod. 32: 1 1-14; Num. 11:29. He did not place his sons in positions of power and profit. Many features of his character and life furnish admirable illustrations of the work of Christ — as the deliverer, ruler, and guide of his people, rejected by them, but bearing them on his heart, interceding for them as a mediator, rescuing, teaching, and nourishing them even to the promised land. All the religious institutions of Mo ses pointed to Christ; and he himself, on the Mount of Transfiguration, 2,000 years after his death, paid his homage to the Prophet he had foretold, Deut. 18:15-19, beheld " that goodly mountain and Leba non," Deut. 3:25, and was admitted to com mune with the Saviour on the most glori ous of themes, the death He should accom plish at Jerusalem, Luke 9:31. He reached the border of the promised land when 120 years old, gave his fare well counsels to the 12 tribes in the plains of Moab, Deut. 1:3, 5, and died in Mount Pisgah, Deut. 34:5-8. His last word and act, like Christ's, were a benediction, Deut. 33:29; Luke 24:51. Moses was the author of the Pentateuch, as it is called, or the first 5 books of the Bible. In the composition of them he was probably assisted by Aaron, who kept a register of public transactions, Exod. 17:14; 24:4, 7; 34:27; Num. 33:1, 2; Deut. 31:24, etc. Some things were added by a later inspired hand; as, for example, the last chapter of. Deuteronomy. The 90th Psalm also is ascribed to Moses; and its noble and devout sentiments acquire a new sig nificance if received as from his pen near the close of his pilgrimage. By many he is regarded as the author of the book of Job. His triumphal songs in Exod. 15; Deut. 32 and 33 anticipate the final and eternal song of Moses and the Lamb, Rev. 15:3. His writings show the familiarity of an eyewitness and participant with all that he relates, and are confirmed in even mi nute details by the extant monuments of Egypt. MOTE, a small, dry particle, Matt. 7:3-5. MOTH. The common moth is an insect destructive to woollen cloths. The egg is laid by a small white miller, and produces a small soft, shining worm, which houses Uself in a cylinder open at both ends, wrought from the cloth, upon which it then feeds destructively; after this, by another transformation, it becomes a miller. Allu sions to the moth, as devouring clothes, the wealth of Eastern homes, Jas. 5:2, and as a frail and feeble insect, are frequent in Scripture, Job 4:19; 13:28; 27:18; Psa. 39:11; Isa. 50:9; Hos. 5:12; Matt. 6:19, 20. See Garments. The insects called in general moths, of which the above is only one species, are exceedingly numerous. The main genus, Lepidoptera, contains more than 1,500 spe cies. Moths fly abroad only in the evening and night, differing in this respect from the tribe of butterflies, which fly only by day. Their larvae, or the worms from which they spring, are active and quick in motion, mostly smooth, and prey voraciously on the food adapted to them; the common tinea on cloths, others on furs, the leaves of plants, etc. MOTH'ER. The Hebrew words AM and ab, mother and father, are simple and easy sounds for infant lips, like mamma and papa in English. See Abba. " Before the child shall have knowledge to cry, My fa ther, and My mother," Isa. 8:4. In addi tion to the usual meaning of " mother," am sometimes signifies in the Bible grandmo ther, 1 Kin. 15:10, or some remote female ancestor, Gen. 3:20. It is put for a chief city, 2 Sam. 20: 19; for a benefactress, Judg. 5:7; for a nation, as in the expressive Eng lish phrase, " the mother country," Isa. 3:12; 49:23. The fond affection of a mo ther is often referred to in Scripture; and God has employed it to illustrate his tender love for his people, Isa. 49: 15. Mothers are endowed with an all-powerful control over their offspring; and most men of eminence in the world have acknowledged their great indebtedness to maternal influence. When Buonaparte asked Madame Campan what the French nation most needed, she replied in one word, "Mothers." The divinity of the Hebrew religion appears in the favora; ble position of woman compared with that of the heathen women around them, Lev. 19:3; Deut. 5:16; 1 Kin. 2:19; Prov. 15:2.0. The Christian church already owes much, and will owe infinitely more, to the love, patience, zeal, and self-devotion of mothers in training their children for Christ.. MO'TIONS, Rom. 7:5, A. V., impulses. MOUL'DY, Josh, 9:5, 12, crumbled; mi nute pieces. 367 -MOU BIBLE DICTIONARY. MOU MOUNT, Jer. 6:6; 32:24; 33:4, a mound or embankment thrown up in besieging a city. MOUN'TAIN, or MOUNT, is often meant where the A. V. has "hill," denoting some times a single peak, but frequently a ridge, as "Mount Ephraim," full of towns, 2 Chr. 15:8, and Mount Lebanon. Mountains are among the most sublime and impressive of the Creator's works on earth, and form the noblest and most enduring monuments of great events. Most of the mountains of Scripture thus stand as witnesses for God — every view of their lofty summits, and ev ery recurrence to them in thought, remind ing us of the sacred facts and truths con nected with them. Thus Mount Ararat is a standing memorial of the deluge — of man's sin, God's justice, and God's mercy. Mount Sinai asserts the terrors of the di vine law. Mount Carmel summons us, like the prophet Elijah of old, not to " halt be tween two opinions;" but if Jehovah is God, to love and serve him. The Mount of the Transfiguration still shines with the glory ofthe truths there taught, and Mounts Ebal and Gerizim still echo the curses and the blessings once so solemnly pronounced from them. So Mount Hor, Nebo, Leba non, and Gilboa have been signalized by striking events ; Mount Zion, Moriah, and Olivet are covered with precious memo ries; and the mountains about Jerusalem and all other " everlasting hills " are sacred witnesses of the eternal power and faithful ness of God. Judaea was eminently a hilly country; and the sacred poets and prophets drew from the mountains around them many beautiful and sublime illustrations of di vine truth. Thus a kingdom is termed a mountain, Psa. 30:7, especially the king dom of Christ, Isa. 2:2; 11:9; Dan. 2:35. Thus also difficulty is a "great mountain," Zech. 4:7. A revolution is the "carrying of mountains into the midst of the sea," Psa. 46:3. God easily and speedily re moves every obstacle — " hills melt like wax at the presence of the Lord," Psa. 97:5. The integrity of the divine nature is sure and lasting — " Thy righteousness is like the great mountains," Psa. 36:6. The eter nity of God's love is pictured out by this comparison : " For the mountains shall de part, and the hills be removed; but my kindness shall not depart from thee, nei ther shall the covenant of my peace be re moved, saith the Lord that hath mercy on thee," Isa. 54:10. When David wishes to 368 express the stability of his kingdom, he says, " Lord, by thy favor thou hast made my mountain to stand strong," Psa. 30:7. The security and protection afforded by God to his people are thus beautifully de lineated : '" As the mountains are round about Jerusalem, so the Lord is round about his people from henceforth, even for ever," Psa. 125:2. When the prophet would express his faith in God, how pure it was, and what confidence it inspired, far above any assurance which could arise from earthly blessing or defence, he sings, "Tru ly in vain is salvation hoped for from the hills, and from the multitude of mountains : truly in the Lord our God is the salvation of Israel," Jer. 3:23. The head of a mountain is referred to in the Hebrew in Gen. 8:5; its ears in Josh. 19:34; its shoulder in Deut. 33:12; its side in 1 Sam. 23:26; its flanks in Josh. 19:12; its rib in 2 Sam. 16:13; its thigh in Judg. 19:1, 18; its back in the word Shechem, on the slope of Gerizim. The hills of Judaea were anciently culti vated to the top, with scores of terraces, and covered with vines, olives, figs, etc. Hence the expression, alluding to the vine of God's planting, "The hills were cov ered with the shadow of it," Psa. 80:10; and others of the same kind. Travellers say it is a rare thing to pass a mountain, even in the wild parts of Judaea, which does not show that it was formerly ter raced and made to flow with oil and wine, though it may now be desolate and bare. Says Paxton, "There are many districts that are sadly encumbered with rock, yet the soil among these rocks is of a very su perior kind ; and were the rock somewhat broken up, the large pieces piled, and the small mixed with the soil, it might be made very productive. There is very striking proof of this in some districts, as that about Hebron, which abounds with rock, and yet is covered with the most productive vine yards. As to such a rocky country being so spoken of in the days of the patriarchs, I suppose that it was in truth, at that time, the finest of lands; that the rock which now lies bare in so many places was then all covered with earth of the richest kind." MOUNT OF THE AM'ALEKITES, Judg. 12:15, a ridge running northeast in Mount Ephraim, near Pirathon. MOUNT OF THE CONGREGA'TION, or assembly, Isa. 14:13, a sacred height north of Persia, probably el-Burj. MOUNT OF THE VAL'LEY, Josh. 13:19, MOU BIBLE DICTIONARY. MOU the high ground of Reuben, east of the north end of the Dead Sea. MOUN'TAIN OF THE AM'ORITES, Deut. i : 19, 20, a ridge running north of east front the desert et-Tlh in the Sinaitic peninsula, to Jebel el-Mukrah. MOURN'ING. The Orientals, at the death of their friends and relations, made striking demonstrations of grief and mourning. They wept, tore their clothes, smote their breasts, threw dust upon their heads, Josh. 7:6, and lay upon the ground, went barefooted, Isa. 20:2, pulled their hair and beards, or cut them, Ezra 9:3; .Isa. 15:2, even made incisions on their breasts, or tore them with their nails, a practice forbidden by the Mosaic law, Lev. ¦19:28; 21:5; Deut. 14:1; Jer. 16:6, 7; 41:5; 48:37. The time of mourning was common- . ly 7 days, 1 Sam. 31 : 11-13; Jcb 1 :20, 21 ; 2:13; but it was lengthened or shortened according to circumstances, Zech. 12:10. ' That for Moses and Aaron was prolonged to 30 days, Num. 20:29; Deut. 34:8; and that for Jacob to 70 days, Gen. 50:3-10. Other mentions of mourning for the dead are in the cases of Sarah, Gen. 23:2, Jo seph, Gen. 37:34, 35, the Egyptians, Exod. 12:30, Samuel, 1 Sam. 25:1, Saul, 1 Sam. 31:13, Abner, 2 Sam. 3:31, 39, Lazarus, John 11, and Stephen, Acts 8:2. During the time of their mourning the near relations of the deceased continued sitting in their houses, and fasted, 2 Sam. 12:16, or ate on the ground. The food they took was thought unclean, and even themselves were judged impure. "Their sacrifices shall be unto them as the bread of mourners ; all that eat thereof shall be polluted," Hos. 9:4. Their faces were cov ered, and in all that time they could not 24 apply themselves to any occupation, nor read the book of the law, nor offer their usual prayers. They did not dress them selves, nor make their beds, nor uncover their heads, nor shave themselves, nor cut their nails, nor go into the bathj nor salute anybody. Nobody spoke to them unless they spoke first, Job 2:11-13. Their friends commonly went to visit and comfort them, John 11:19, 39, bringing them food, 2 Sam. 3:3*-35; Jer- 16:7. They also went up to the roof, or upon the platform of their houses, to bewail their misfortune: "They shall gird themselves with sackcloth; on the tops of their houses, and in their streets, every one shall howl, weeping abundant ly," Isa. 15:3; Jer. 48:38. The high-priests and also the Nazarites were exempted from the customary mourning, as being exclu sively dewjted to God and his service, Lev. 10:2-6; 21:10, 11; Num. 6:7; Ezek. 24:16- 18; and so were the ordinary priests, ex cept on the death of their nearest relatives, Lev. 21 : 1-4. The mourning dress among the Hebrews was not fixed either by law or custom. We only find in Scripture that they used to tear their garments, a custom still observed ; but now they tear a small part merely, and for form's sake, 2 Sam. 13:19; 2 Chr. 34:27; Ezra 9:3; Job 2:12; Joel 2:13. Anciently, in times of mourn ing, they clothed themselves in sackcloth, or hair-cloth, that is, in clothes of coarse brown or black stuff, 2 Sam. 3:31; 1 Kin. 21:27; Esth. 4:1; Psa. 35:13; 69:11. 369 'MOU BIBLE DICTIONARY. MOU They hired women to weep aud wail, and also persons to play on instruments, at the funerals of the rich or distinguished, Jer. 9:17. In Matt. 9:23 we observe a com pany of minstrels or players on the flute at the funeral of a girl of 12 years of age. All that met a funeral procession were accus tomed to join them for a .time, to accom pany them on their way, sometimes relie ving the bearers of the bier, and mingling their tears with 'th'one of the mourners, Rom. 12:15. mourning at a grave. The custom of hiring women to weep , and wail has come down to modern times. ' For example, the governor of Nablus had died the very morning of Dr. Jowett's ar rival, and a numerous bodv of " cunning women" were filling the whole city with their cries, "taking up a wailing," with the design, as of old, to make the eyes of all the inhabitants " run down with tears, and their eyelids gush out with waters," Jer. 9:17, 18. For this good service they would the next morning wait upon the govern ment and the principal persons to receive some trifling fee. Some of the Jewish forms of mourning are the appropriate and universal, language of grief; others, to our modern and occi dental taste, savor of extravagance. None of these were enjoined by their religion, which rather restricted than encouraged •370 them, Lev. 10:6; 19:27; 21:1-11; Num. 6:7; Deut. 14:1. They were the estab lished customs of the times. Sorrow finds some relief in reversing all the usages of ordinary life. Christianity, however, mod erates and assuages our grief, shows us a Father's hand holding the rod, and the dark valley itself penetrated by the heav enly light into which it emerges, 1 Cor. 15:53-55; 1 Thess. 4:14-18; Rev. 7:13-17; 14:13. Instances of mourning over calamities, private or public, are frequent: such as those of Job, ch. 1 and 2 ; Israel, Exod. 33:4; Judg. 20:26; and the Ninevites, Jon. 3:5. Penitential mourning is also often referred to, accompanied with fasting, Matt. 9:15. See 1 Sam. 7:6; Lev. 23:27; Joel 2: 12-17; Zech. 12:10, 11; Acts 27:9. See Wall. MOUSE. See below. MOUTH is sometimes used in Scrip ture for speaker, Exod. 4:16; Jer. 15:19. God spoke with Moses "mouth to _ mouth," Num. 12:8, that is, condescend- = ingly and clearly. The law was to be "in the mouth " of the Hebrews, Exod. 13:9, often rehearsed and talked of. "The rod of his mouth," Isa 11:4, and the sharp sword, Rev. 1 : 16, denote the power of Christ's word to convict, con trol, and judge; compare Isa. 49:2; Heb. 4:12. The Hebrew word for mouth is often translated "command," Gen. 45:21; Job 39:27; Eccl. 8:2; and the unclean spirits out of the mouth of the dragon, Rev. 16:14, are the ready executors of his commands. MOWING, rather reaping with a sickle, as the gathering and storing of a hay-crop seems not to have been a Hebrew custom, owing to the climate, Psa. 72:6; 106:20; 129:6, 7; Prov. 27:25; Isa. 15:6; Amos 7:1. MO'ZAH, spring-head, Josh. i8:26,atown in the border of Benjamin, 454 miles north east of Jerusalem. MUF'FLER, Isa. 3:19, a flowing out-door veil. MOUSE, in the Scriptures, is used chiefly of the field mouse, but probably includes various species of these animals, many va rieties of which are now found in Palestine. Moses, Lev. 19:29, declared it to be un clean, yet it was sometimes eaten ; and Isa iah, 66:17, reproaches the Jews with this practice. The hamster and the dormouse, as well as the jerboa, are sometimes used for food by the modern Arabs. Mice made MUL BIBLE DICTIONARY. MUR great havoc in the fields of the Philistines, after that people had taken the ark of the Lord, which induced them to send it back with mice and emerods of gold, i Sam. 5:6, long-tailed field-mouse: mus sylvaticus. 9, 11; 6:4, 5. The field-mice are equally prevalent in those regions at the present day, and the grain crops of Hamath are at times nearly destroyed by them. MUL'BERRY-TREE. The Hebrew word signifies weeping, and indicates some tree which distils balsam or gum. The partic ular species is not known, though some think the poplar, or aspen, is intended, 2 Sam. 5:23, 24; 1 Chr. 14:14, 15. MULE, a mixed animal, the offspring of a horse and an ass. A mule is smaller than a horse, and has long ears, though not so long as those of an ass. It is a remarka bly hardy, patient, obstinate, sure-footed animal, lives twice as long as a horse, and is much more easily and cheaply fed. Mules are much used in Spain and South Amer ica for transporting goods across the moun tains. So also in the Alps they are used by travellers among the mountains, where a horse would hardly be able to pass with safety. There is no probability that the Jews bred mules, because it was forbidden to couple creatures of different species, Lev. 19:19. But they were not forbidden to obtain them from abroad and use them, I Kin. 10:25; 2 Chr. 9:23, 24; Neh. 7:68; Ezek. 27:14. Thus we may observe, espe cially after David's time, that mules, male and female, were common among the He brews ; formerly they used only male and female asses, 2 Sam. 13:29; 18:9; 1 Kin. I:33. 38. 44; 10:25; 18:5; Esth. 8:10, 14. In Gen. 36:24 Anah is said to have found "mules" in the desert; but the He brew word means hot springs. See Anah. Another Hebrew word translated " mule " in Esth. 8:10, 14, A. V., is rendered "drom edary" in 1 Kin. 4:28, and "swift beast" in Mic. 1 : 13, probably meaning swift horses. MUNITIONS, fortifications, Isa. 33:16, a rocky fortress or acropolis; the strong tower of the righteous is impregnable and inaccessible to their foes. Strongholds were often on elevated ground, and at all ac cessible points were defended by one or two walls, 2 Chr. 32:5; Jer. 51:58, with battlements and towers, 2 Chr. 14:7; 26:15; Zeph. 1:16, and very strong gates, with watchtowers, 2 Sam. 13:34; 18:24, 33; Isa. 45:2. See War. MUP'PIM, flights or darkness, Gen. 46:21, a descendant of Benjamin, called also Shupham, Shuppim, and Shephupham, Num. 26 : 39 ; 1 Chr. 7:7, 12; 8:5. MUR'DER, the designed and malevolent taking of human life, was by the original appointment of God a crime to be punished by death. Cain, the first murderer, ac knowledged it as such, Gen. 4:14. The ground for the death-penalty for murder is the eminent dignity and sacredness of man as a child of God, Gen. 9:5, 6. Even an ox that gored a man was to be put to death, and his owner also if negligent, Exod. 21 : 28-31. Like the Sabbath and marriage, it is a pri meval and universal institution for man kind, and all nations have so recognized it, Acts 28:4. The Mosaic code reenacted it, Lev. 24: 17 ; and while providing for the un intentional homicide a safe retreat, declares that deliberate murder, proved by at least 2 witnesses, Num. 35:19-30; Deut. 19:15, must be punished by death, from which neither the city of refuge nor the altar of God could shield the criminal, Exod. 21:12- 14; Num. 35:9-34; Deut. 19:1-13; 1 Kin. 2:5,6, 28-34. Tne killing of a burglar in the act was not a crime if it occurred in the night, Exod. 22:2, 3. See Blood-aven ger, Refuge. Death was usually inflict ed by stoning, and Icings themselves often saw to the execution of the death-penalty, 2 Sam. 1:15, 16; 13:39; 14:7-11; 1 Kin. 2:31, 34. If a corpse were found in the open fields and the murderer could not be discovered, the town nearest to the spot was obliged to purge itself by a solemn ceremony, lest it should become liable to the judgments of God, Deut. 21 : 1-9. In various ways God is represented as spe cially abhorring this crime and securing 371 MUR BIBLE DICTIONARY. MUS its punishment, .Deut. 32:43; 2 Sam. 21:1; Psa. 9:12; 55:23; Hos. 1:4; Rev. 22:15. Our Saviour instructs us that one may be guilty in the sight of God of murder in the heart without any overt act, Matt. 5:21, 22; 1 John 3:15. Nothing is said specially in the law respecting self-murder, and only the cases of Saul, Ahithophel, and Judas are described in the Bible, 1 Sam. 31:4; 2 Sam. 17:23; Acts 1:18. Of all murders, that of the soul is incomparably the most awful, John 8:44, and many even draw others with them into the second death. MUR'RAIN, a special mortality wrought by miraculous agency among the cattle of the Egyptians, while those of the He brews in the same region were unharmed, Exod. 9:3-6. The same word is translated "plagues" in Hos. 13:14. MU'SHI, withdrawn, the 2d son of Me rari, Exod. 6:19; Num. 3:20, 33; 26:58; 1 Chr. 23:21, 23; 24:26, 30. SACKBUT: ASSYRIAN BAS-RELIEF. MU'SIC. The ancient Hebrews had a great fondness for music, which they used in their religious services, in their public and private rejoicings, at their weddings and feasts. Isa. 5:12; Amos6:5; Luke 15:25, and even in their mournings, Exod. 32:17, 18; 2 Chr. 35:25; Lam. 2:7. We have in Scripture canticles of joy, of thanksgiving, of praise, of mourning; also mournful ele gies or songs, as those of David on the death of Saul and Abner, and the lamenta tions of Jeremiah on the destruction of Je rusalem; so, too, songs of victory, triumph, and gratulation, as that which Moses sang after passing the Red Sea, that of Deborah and Barak, and others. The people of God went up to Jerusalem thrice a year, cheered on their way with songs of joy, Psalms 84; 122 ; Isa. 30:29. The book of Psalms com prises a wonderful variety of inspired pie ces for music, and is an inexhaustible treas ure for the devout in all ages. 372'. Music is perhaps the most ancient of the fine arts, Job 21:12. Jubal, who lived be fore the deluge, was the " father " of those who played on the harp and the organ, Gen. 4:21. Laban complains that his son- in-law Jacob had left him without giving him an opportunity of sending his family away "with mirth and with songs, with tabret and with harp," Gen. 31 :26, 27. Mo ses, having passed through the Red Sea, composed a song, and sang it with the Is raelitish men, while Miriam, his sister, sang it responsively, with dancing and playing on instruments, at the head of the women, Exod. 15:20, 21. He caused silver trum pets to be made, to be sounded at solemn sacrifices and on religious festivals. Da vid, who had great skill in music, soothed the perturbed spirit of Saul by playing on the harp, 1 Sam. 16:16, 23; and when he was himself established on the throne — seeing that the Levites were not employed as formerly in carrying the boards, veils, and vessels of the tabernacle, its abode being fixed at Jerusalem — appointed a great part of them to sing and to play on instruments in the temple, 1 Chr. 25. Da vid brought the ark to Jerusalem with triumphant and joyful music, 1 Chr. 13:8; 15:16-28; and in the same manner Solo mon was proclaimed king, 1 Kin. 1:39, 40. Both David and he had singing men and singing women, 2 Sam. 19:35; Eccl. 2:8; and Solomon's songs were 1,005, > Kin. 4:32. The Old Testament prophets also sought the soothing aid of music in their services, 1 Sam. 10:5, 10; 2 Kin. 3:15; 1 Chr. 25:1, 3, 5. Asaph, Heman, and Jeduthun were chiefs of the music of the tabernacle under Da vid, and of the temple under Solomon. Asaph had 4 sons, Jeduthun 6, and Heman 14. These 24 Levites, sons of the 3 great masters of the temple music, were at the head of 24 bands of musicians, which served in the temple by turns. Their number there was always great, but especially at the chief solemnities, 1 Chr. 23:5. They were ranged in order about the altar of burnt sacrifices. As the whole business of their lives was to learn and to practise music, it must be supposed that they un derstood it well, whether it were vocal or instrumental, 2 Chr. 29:25. In the temple service female musicians were employed as well as male ; they gen erally were daughters of the Levites. Ez ra, in his enumeration of those whom he brought back with him from the Captivity, MU3 BIBLE DICTIONARY. MUS reckons 200 singing men and singing wo men, 2 Sam. 6:5; 19:35; Ezra 2:65; Neh. 7:67. As to the nature of their music we can judge of it only by conjecture, because it has been long lost. Probably it was a unison of several voices, of which all sang together the same melody, each according to his strength and skill, without musical counterpoint, or those different parts and combinations which constitute harmony in our music. Probably, also, the voices were generally accompanied by instrumental music. If we may draw any conclusions in favor of their music from its effects, its magnificence, its majesty, and the lofty sen timents contained in their songs, we must allow it great excellence. It is supposed that the temple musicians were sometimes divided into 2 or more separate choirs, which, with a general chorus, sang in turn responsive to each other, each a small por tion of the Psalm. The structure of the Hebrew Psalms is eminently adapted to this mode of singing, and very delightful and solemn effects might thus be produced. Compare Psalms 24, 136, 148, 150. Numerous musical instruments are men tioned in Scripture, but it has been found impossible to affix their names with cer tainty to specific instruments now in use. By a comparison, however, of the instru ments probably held in common by the Jews with the Greeks, Romans, "and Egyp tians, a degree of probability as to most of them has been secured. They were of 3 kinds : I. Stringed instruments — neginoth : 1. Kinn6r, " the harp," Gen. 4:21 ; 31 :27. Frequently mentioned in Scripture, and probably a kind of lyre. *. Nebel, "the psaltery," 1 Sam. 10:5. It appears to have been the name of vari ous large instruments of the harp kind. 3. Asor, signifying 10-stringed. In Psa. 92:3 it apparently denotes an instrument distinct from the nebel: but elsewhere it seems to be simply a description of the nebel as 10-stringed. See Psa. 33:2; 144:9. 4. Gittith. It occurs in the titles of Psalms 8, 81, 84, etc. From the name it is supposed that David brought it from Gath. Others conclude that it is a general name for a stringed instrument. 5. Minnim, strings, Psa. 150:4. Proba bly a general name for stringed instru ments. In Psa. 45:8, for " whereby," etc., read, " the stringed instruments made thee glad." 6. Sabbeca, "sackbut," Dan. 3:5, 7, 10, 15. A kind of lyre, of 4 or more strings. 7. Pesanterin, " psaltery," occurs Dan. 3:7, and is supposed to represent the ne bel. 8. Machalath. Found in the titles of Psalms 53 and 88 ; supposed to be a lute or guitar. Machol, translated " dance " in the A. V., was probably a kind of pipe, Exod. 15:20; Psa. 150:3-5. See also illustrations in Harp. II. Wind instruments : 9. Keren, "horn," or cornet, Josh. 6:5; 1 Chr. 25:5; Psa. 150:4. 10. Shophar, "trumpet," Num. 10:10. Used in summoning the host, etc., Exod. 19:13; Num. 10:10; Judg. 3: 27; 7:8; 2 Sam. 6:15, synonymously with Keren. 373 MUS BIBLE DICTIONARY. MYR n. Chatzozerah, the straight trumpet, Num. 10:1-10; Psa. 98:6. 12. Jobel, or Keren Jobel, horn of ju bilee, or signal trumpet, Josh. 6:4. Proba bly the same with 9 and 10. 13. Chalil, "pipe" or "flute." The word means bored through, 1 Sam. 10:5; 1 Kin. 1:40; Isa. 5:12; 30:29; Jer. 48:36, 14. Mashrokitha, Dan. 3:5, etc. Prob ably the Chaldaean name for the flute with 2 reeds. 15. Ugab, "organ" in our version, Gen. 4:21; Job 21:12; 30:31; Psa. 150:4. It means a double or manifold pipe ; proba bly the same as the syrinx or Pan's pipe; or perhaps resembling the bagpipe, num bered 16 in the cut. See Dulcimer. III. Instruments which gave out sound on being struck. 17. Toph, Gen. 31:27, the tambourine and all instruments of the drum kind, Exod. 15:20; Job 21:12; Psa. 68:25; Isa- 24:8. 18. Paamon, " bells," Exod. 28:33; 39:25. Attached to the hem of the high-priest's garment. 19. Tzeltzelim, " cymbals," 2 Sam. 6:5; 1 Chr. 16:5; Psa. 150:5. A word fre quently occurring. There were proba bly 2 kinds, hand cymbal- and finger-cym bals. 20. Shalishim, 1 Sam. 18:6. In our ver sion " instrument, of music." Margin, "thre -stringed instruments." Most wri ters identify it with the triangle. 21. Menaaneim, "cymbals," 2 Sam. 6:5, A. V. " cornets." Probably the sistrum. The Hebrew word means to shake. The sistrum was generally about 16 or 18 inches long, occasionally inlaid with silver, and 374 being held upright, was shaken, the bars moving to and fro in the frame. Further particulars concerning some of these may be found under the names they severally bear in our English Bible. In Dan. 6:18, for "instruments of music" we should perhaps read " concubines." MUS'TARD. A species of this annual shrub, Sinapis nigra, is found in Palestine, growing to the height of 7 to 9 feet, and with a stem more than an inch thick. Prof. Hacket, while examining a field of these plants, saw a bird of the air come and lodge in the branches before h.m, Matt. 13:31,32; Mark 4:31,32. "A grain of mustard" was used proverbially to deno anything ex tremely small, Matt. 17:20. MUTH-LAB'BEN, in the title of Psalm 9, is of unknown signification. MUZ'ZLE. See Threshing. MY'RA, balsams, a town of Lycia, where Paul embarked, on his way from Caesarea to Rome, on board a ship of Alexandria, Acts 27 : 5. It is now called by the Turks Dembra. myrrh: balsamodendron myrrha. MYRRH, bitter, a precious gum yielded by a tree common in Abyssinia and Ara- MYR BIBLE DICTIONARY. MYS bia, which is about 8 or 9 feet high, its wood hard and its trunk thorny. It was of several kinds, and of various degrees of excellence. The best was an ingredient in the holy ointment, Exod. 30:23. It was also employed in perfumes, Esth. 2:12; Psa. 45:8; Song 4:6; 5:5, 13; and in em balming, to preserve the body from cor ruption, John 19:39. The magi who came from the East to worship Christ offered him myrrh, Matt. 2:11. In Mark 15:23 is mentioned "wine min gled with myrrh," which was offered to Jesus previous to his crucifixion, and in tended to deaden the anguish of his suffer ings. It was a custom among the Hebrews to give such stupefying liquors to persons who were about to be capitally punished, Prov. 31:6. Some have thought that the myrrhed wine of Mark is not the same as the " vinegar mingled with gall " of Matt. 27:34. They suppose the myrrhed wine was given to our Lord from a sentiment of sympathy, to prevent him from feeling too sensibly the pain of his sufferings ; while the potation mingled with gall, of which he would- not drink, was given from cruelty. But the other explanation is the more prob able. See Gall. Another word so translated in Gen. 37:25 ; 43 : 11, is thought to be the ladanum of com merce, a resinous, aromatic, and narcotic gum, from a low tree called the "rock- rose," or Cistus creticus. myrtle : myrtus communis. MYR'TLE, a beautiful and delightfully fragrant evergreen-tree, growing wild throughout the southern parts of Europe, the north of Africa, and the temperate parts of Asia, principally on the seacoast. The leaves are of a rich and polished green, the flowers white, with sometimes a tinge of red externally, and the berries are of the size of a small pea, violet or whi tish, sweetish, and with the aromatic fla vor which distinguishes the whole plant. These are used for spices in the Levant. It furnishes a useful tonic medicine, and was among the Jews an emblem of justice. It is mentioned in Neh. 8:15; Isa. 41:19; 55:13; Zech. 1:8, 10, 11. MYS'IA, a province in the northwest cor ner of Asia Minor, bounded north by the Propontis, west by the ^Egean Sea, south . by Lydia, and east by Bithynia. Paul traversed this country on his first journey to Europe, Acts 16:7, 8. MYS'TERY means strictly a secret, and is so used when spoken of the heathen "mysteries" or secret rites, which were full of abominations. In the Scriptures the word often denotes those revealed truths of religion which, without a revelation from God, would have remained unknown to man, Matt. 13: 11. Our Saviour says to his disciples that they are peculiarly happy, because God has revealed to them "the mysteries of the kingdom of heaven," Matt. 16:17; II:25; Luke 10:21-24. Paul ex plains the word in Eph. 3:1-6; and often speaks of the mystery of the gospel, of the mystery of the cross of Christ, of the mys tery of Christ which was unknown to for mer ages, of the mystery of the incarna tion, the resurrection, etc., Rom. 11:25; 1 Cor. 2:7-10; 4:1-3; 13:2; 15:51; Eph. 3:4-6; Col. 2:2; 1 Tim. 3:9, 16. The union of Christ and his church, illustrated by mar riage, is a mystery, Eph. 5:31, 32. These are in one sense mysteries, not only be cause they included some things which stretch beyond all human thought, and oth ers which would never have been known if the Son of God and his Holy Spirit had not revealed them, but also because they were not opened indifferently to every one, according to the advice of Christ to his apostles, " Give not that which is holy unto the dogs, neither cast ye your pearls before swinej" 1 Cor. 2:14. In one place mystery seems to denote the whole cycle of God's secret plan in the administration of the gospel, gradually unfolded even to the end, Rev. 10:7; 11:15. Mystery signifies also an allegory, that is, a mode of information under which par tial instruction is given, a partial discovery is made, but there is still a cover of some kind, which the person who desires to know the whole must endeavor to remove. So the mystery ofthe 7 stars, Rev. 1:20, 375 NAA BIBLE DICTIONARY. NAB is an allegory representing the 7 Asiatic churches under the symbol of 7 burning lamps. So the mystery, " Babylon the Great," is an allegorical representation of the spiritual Babylon, idolatry, spiritual fornication, etc., "I will tell thee the mys tery of the woman," that is, I will explain to thee the allegory of this figure, Rev. J7:5, 7- The "mystery of iniquity" in 2 Thess. 2:7,8, is the wicked principle af terwards developed in Antichrist. Christianity is a revelation, a " manifes tation of the truth," 2 Cor. 4:2, and has no " mysteries " for a priestly few, no secret doctrines to be withheld from public teach ing. And while it is impossible for the finite ever to comprehend the infinite, yet much spiritual truth is revealed only to those who live nearest to God and study his Word most devoutly. N. NA'AM, pleasantness, a son of Caleb, 1 Chr. 4:15. NA'AMAH, pleasant, I., a descendant of Cain, Gen. 4:22. II. An Ammonite wife of Solomon, mo ther of Rehoboam, 1 Kin. 14:21, 31; 2 Chr. 12:13. Compare 1 Kin. 11 .1. III. A town of Western Judah, Josh. 15:41; probably Naaneh, 8 miles east of Yebna. IV. Some unknown region of Arabia, the home of Zophar, Job 2:11; 11 : 1 ; 20: 1. NA'AMAN, pleasantness, I., a grandson of Benjamin, Gen. 46:21; Num. 26:40; ap parently called Uzzi in 1 Chr. 7:7. II. The valiant and highly-esteemed gen eral of Ben-hadad II., king of Damascene Syria in the time of Joram king of Israel. He was afflicted with the leprosy ; but was miraculously cured on washing 7 times in the Jordan, Lev. 14:7, according to the di rection of Elisha, 2 Kin. 5. He had found all his honor and power valueless, and all physicians of no avail for his cure ; was led to renounce his pride and avail himself of the simple remedy prescribed, and being cured, was grateful not only to the prophet, but to the prophet's God. He frankly yielded to the evidence which proved that Jehovah was the living and true God ; and took home with him 2 mule loads of earth for an altar to the Lord, Exod. 20 : 24. With respect to his attending Ben-hadad while in the temple of Rimmon, the prophet gave him no crecise rule, but dismissed him in 376 peace, discerning, we may suppose, a grow ing fear and love of God which would pre serve him from all even outward homage to the idol. See Gehazi. It is an unde signed confirmation of the authenticity of Scripture that Luke, "the physician," is the only evangelist who refers to this mir acle of healing, Luke 4:23-27. A hospital for lepers occupies the professed site of Naaman's house at Damascus. NA'ARAH, a girl, wife of Ashur, of the tribe of Judah, 1 Chr. 4:5, 6. NA'ARAI, youthful, an officer high in David's army, 1 Chr. 11:37; called Paarai, 2 Sam. 23:35. N A' ARAN, juvenile, in Josh. 16:7, Na'- arath, a town of Ephraim, towards the east border, 1 Chr. 7:28. Probably Kh. el- Aujah, 6 miles north of Jericho, overlook ing the Jordan valley. NA'ASHON, Exod. 6:23, in the A. V. Na- as'son, Matt. 1:4; Luke 3:32. See Nah- shon. NA'BAL, foolish, a descendant of Caleb, owner of a large property in lands and flocks, at Maon and Carmel in the south of Judah. He was under great obligations to David for protecting him from the rob bers of the desert ; and yet in the very hour most suggestive of a grateful gener osity he churlishly refused David's modest request, quite in harmony with the unwrit ten law of the times, of provisions for his needy troop. Indignant at this ingratitude. and inhospitality, David was soon on his way to put him and his men to the sword. Happily, the discreet intervention of Abi gail convinced David that vengeance did not belong to him, and averted this catas trophe. Ten days after the Lord smote him, and he died, 1 Sam. 25. See Abigail. The story is one of those that give us a glimpse of Hebrew private life. tl A'BOTH, fruits or eminence, an Israel ite at Jezreel, who declined selling his an cestral vineyard to Ahab, the idolatrous king of Israel, Lev. 25:23, 24; and was in consequence murdered, on a false charge of blasphemy contrived by Jezebel the queen. Ahab took immediate possession of the coveted vineyard — perhaps as being legally forfeited to the government, con struing blasphemy as treason; or it may be that the heirs, his children having per ished with him, were deterred from assert ing their claim by a dread ofthe unscrupu lous arts of Jezebel. Elijah, however, did not fear to denounce against the king and queen the vengeance of One " higher than NAC BIBLE DICTIONARY. NAH they," i Kin. 21; 2 Kin. 9:24-26, 36; Eccl. 5:8. NA'CHON, prepared, a threshing-floor of Chidon, adjoining the home of Obed-edom, near which Uzzah was slain — a place hence called Perez-uzzah, 2 Sam. 6:6; 1 Chr. 13:9. NA'CHOR. See Nahor. NA'DAB, liberal, I., the eldest son of Aaron and Elisheba, Exod. 6 : 23 ; Num. 3 : 2, anjinted to the priesthood, Exod. 28: 1. He was chosen to await the descent of Moses from his long interview with Jehovah on Sinai, Exod. 24:1. He and Abihu used un- consecrated and forbidden fire in burning incense, Lev. 6:12; 10:1, 2; Num. 3:4; 26:61, and were slain for their presump tion. Nadab left no children, 1 Chr. 24:2. See Abihu. II. Son of Jeroboam I. king 01 Israel. He succeeded his father, B. C. 954, and reigned less than 2 years, being assassina ted while besieging Gibbethon, then in the hands of the Philistines, by Baasha, of the tribe of Issachar, who usurped his king dom. Nadab did evil in the sight of the Lord ; and with him perished his children and the race of Jeroboam, as God had fore told by Ahijah, 1 Kin. 14:5-11; 15:25-30. Compare 1 Kin. 16:9-15 as to retribution on Baasha's posterity at the same place. III. Son of Shammai, tribe of Judah, 1 Chr. 2:28, 30. IV. Son of Jehiel, a Benjamite, founder of Gibeon, 1 Chr. 8:30; 9:36. NAG'GE, in R. V. NAG'GAI, brightness, a son of David, and an ancestor of Jesus, Luke 3:25; possibly the man called Nea- riah in 1 Chr. 3:22, 23. NA'HALAL, and NA'HALOL, pasture, a Levitical town of Zebulun, Josh. 19:15; 21:35, from which the Canaanites were not at once wholly excluded, Judg. 1 : 30 ; traced at Malul, S'A miles west of Mount Tabor. NAHA'LIEL, torrent of God, 51st station of the Israelites, Num. 21:19, a wady join ing the Arnon from the north. NA'HARI, or NAHARA'I, snoring, 2 Sam. 23:37; 1 Chr. 11:39, Joab's armor-bearer. NA'HASH, seYpent, I., a powerful and brutal king of the Ammonites, who be sieged Jabesh-gilead and offered its citi zens barbarous terms of capitulation, but was defeated by Saul, who came to their relief, 1 Sam. 11; 12:12. He, or his son of the same name, befriended David, as did Shobi son of Nahash, 2 Sam. 10:2; 17:27- 29. See Hanun. II. Apparently the husband of a woman who bore him Abigail and Zeruiah, and was afterwards the wife of Jesse, 2 Sam. 17:25 ; 1 Chr. 2:16. NA'HATH, rest, I., an Edomite prince, Gen. 36:13, 17. II. A Levite, ancestor of Samuel, 1 Chr. 6:26; called Tohu and Toah in 1 Sam. 1:1 ; 1 Chr. 6:34. III. A Levite under Hezekiah, 2 Chr. 3T:*3- NA'HOR, Heb. NA'CHOR, snorting, I., son of Serug, and father of Terah, Gen. 11:22-25; Luke 3:34. He lived 148 years. II. Son of Terah, and brother of Abra ham and Haran. He married Milcah his niece in Ur ofthe Chaldees, Gen. 11:26, 29, but transferred his residence to Haran, Gen. 24:10; 27:43. He had 12 sons, 8 by his wife, and 4 by his secondary wife Reu- mah, and among them Bethuel, the father of Rebekah, Gen. 22:20-24. He seems to have been a worshipper of the true God, Gen. 24:3,4; 27:2; 31:53. NAH'SHON, sorcerer. See Naashon. He was the son of Amminadab and one of our Lord's ancestors, Matt. 1:4; Luke 3:32; chief of the tribe of Judah in the desert, Num. 1:7; 2:3; 7:12; 10:14; and brother- in-law of Aaron, Exod. 6:23; Ruth 4:18-20; 1 Chr. 2:10-12. He died in the wilderness, Num. 26:64, 65. His son Salmon married Rahab. NA'HUM, consolation, the 7th of the 12 minor prophets. The circumstances of Nahum's life are unknown, except that he was a native of Elkosh, which probably was a village in Galilee. His prophecy consists of 3 chapters, which form one dis course, in which he foretells the destruc tion of Nineveh in so powerful and vivid a manner that he might seem to have been on the very spot. The native elegance, fire, and sublimity of his style are univer sally admired. Opinions are divided as to the time in which Nahum prophesied. The best inter preters adopt Jerome's opinion, that he prophesied in the time of Hezekiah, after the war of Sennacherib in Egypt, men tioned by'Berosus. Compare Isa. 20:6 and Nah. 3:8. Nahum speaks of the taking of No-amon, of the haughtiness of Rabsha- keh, and of the defeat of Sennacherib as things that were past. He implies that the tribe of Judah were still in their own coun- ' try, and that they there celebrated their festivals. He notices also the captivity and dispersion ofthe 10 tribes. Isaiah and Micah were his contemporaries. Nineveh perished about 100 years later, 606 B. C, 377 NAI BIBLE. DICTIONARY. NAO and its exhumed remains well accord with his description of it. NAILS or spikes were used by the Ro man soldiers to secure the Saviour to the cross, John 20:25; Col. 2:14. The "nail" with which Jael killed Sisera was rather a tent-pin, such as is driven into the ground in order to fasten the cords of the tent, Exod. 27:19; Judg. 4:21, 22. Sometimes the Hebrew word is used for the wooden pins or iron spikes firmly inwrought into the walls of a building, Ezra 9:8; Ezek. 15:3. The word implies fixedness, Isa. 22:23, 25, and a firm support, Zech. 10:4. Another Hebrew word describes the gold en and ornamental nails of the temple, etc., 2 Chr. 3:9; Eccl. 12:11; Isa. 41 '.7; Jer. 10:4. NA'IN, green pastures, where Christ per formed one of his chief miracles, in raising to life a widow's only son, Luke 7:11-17, was a small village in Gajilee beautifully situated on the northwest slope, of Jebel el- Duhy, "the hill Moreh," 4 miles west by south of Mount Tabor, and looking west over the plain of Esdraelon. It is now a petty hamlet of some 20 poor dwellings, amid extensive ruins, and is called Nein, The tombs are still found in the suburbs, and the traveller may trace with some probability the path by which Christ ap proached it. NAI'OTH, dwellings, the abode of Sam uel and his pupils in a " school of the proph ets," 1 Sam. 19:18-24; 23:1. It appears to have been a suburb of Ramah ; and David, having sought refuge there with Samuel, was pursued by Saul. NA'KED, in the literal sense, Gen. 2:25; Job 1:21; Eccl. 5:15; so Hades and all se cret things are wholly uncovered before God, Job 26:6; Heb. 4:13. It often means no more than " not fully dressed." So in John 21:7 Peter had on only his inner gar ment or tunic. See Garments. So prob ably in 1 Sam. 19:24; Isa. 20:2; Mic. 1:8; Acts 19:16. Sometimes poorness and in sufficiency of clothing are meant, as in Jas. 2:15. So in Isa. 58:7; 2 Cor. 11:27. A nation is said to be " naked " when- stripped of its defences, wealth, etc., Gen. 42:9; Exod. 32:25; 2 Chr. 28:19; Jer. 49:10. "Nakedness" in the Bible denotes not only shameful exposure, but all sin, espe cially idolatry, Exod. 32:25; Ezek. 16:36. To "uncover the nakedness" denotes an unlawful or incestuous union, Lev. 20:19. NAMES among the Hebrews were fre quently significant, Gen. 2:19 — sometimes of a personal or family trait, and some- 378 times of circumstances attending the birth of a child ; and were given by one or both the parents, either at birth .or at circumcis ion, sometimes with the counsel of friends, Ruth 4: 17; Luke 1:59. In many cases they were divinely suggested, with a prophetic meaning, Isa. 7:14; 8:3; Hos. 1:4, 6, 9; Matt. 1:21; Luke 1:13, 60, 63; or changed later in life for a like cause, as were Abram, Sarai, Jacob, and many others ; often, too, they were assumed afterwards to commem orate some striking occurrence in one's history. Compare the cases of Ishmael, Esau and Jacob, Moses, Ichabod, etc., Gen. 16:11; 17:5; 25:25, 26; Exod. 2:10; 1 Sam. 4:21. Compound names were frequent; and often a part of the name of God, J ah, el, jeho, etc, was employed, as in Elie zer, Exod. 18:4, Samuel, Josiah, Adonijah. Sometimes a whole phrase was formed into a name, as Elioenai, to fehovah are mine eyes, 1 Chr. 4:36. Names of idols were often made part of a child's name, as that of Baal ; or children took the parent's name, with the prefix of Ben or Bar, for son, or Bath, meaning daughter. The New Tes tament names are chiefly ancient and fam ily names perpetuated, Luke 1:61. The men of the East change their names for slight causes ; and hence many persons oc cur in the Bible bearing 2 or more names, Ruth 1:20; 2 Sam. 23:8; John' 1:42; Acts 4:36. Kings often changed the names of those to whom they gave offices, Dan . 1 : 6, 7 ; hence the honor and privilege implied in a "new name," Rev. 2:17; 3:12. Many slight inflections of the same Hebrew name give it a very different appearance to an Eng lish eye, as Geshem and Gashmu, Neh. 6:1, 6. A Hebrew name was sometimes transferred to the Greek with but little change: thus Elijah became Elias. But sometimesit was exchanged for the Greek word of the same meaning, though very different in form; Thomas became Didy- mus, and Tabitha, Dorcas. The "name " of God is put for God him self, or for his perfections, Exod. 34:6; Psa. 8:1; 20 : 1 ; John 17 : 26. See Jehovah. The apostles wrought miracles by Christ's power, Acts 3:6; 4:10; and they baptized into the name of the Trinity, into a living union with the Father, the Son, and the Spirit, Matt. 28:19. To "raise up the, name of the dead " is explained in Ruth 4 ; while to "put out" one's name means to extinguish his family, Psa. 9:5. NAO'MI, my delight— contrasted with Mara, bitter, Ruth 1 :2o, 21 — wife of Elime- NAP BIBLE DICTIONARY. NAT lech, of Bethlehem, where she was highly esteemed, ver. 19. The family removed to Moab in a time of famine, where her hus band and her 2 sons, Mahlon and Chilion, died, leaving with her their young Moabite widows, Orpah and Ruth. On returning to Judah she put to the test her 2 daugh ters-in-law, and though both loved her, only Ruth loved God and chose the better part. See Ruth. NA'PHISH, or NE'PHISH, refreshed, nth son of Ishmael, Gen. 25:15; 1 Chr. 1:31; 5 : 19-23. His posterity were a pastoral people, somewhere on the southeast of Hermon. NAPH'TALI, my wrestling , the 6th son of Jacob, and the 2d by Bilhah, Rachel's handmaid, the name implying Rachel's earnest prayer for him, Gen. 30:7, 8. We know but few particulars of the life of Naphtali. His sons were 4, Gen. 46:24; Exod. 1:4; 1 Chr. 7:13. The patriarch Jacob, when he gave his blessing, said, "Naphtali is a hind let loose; he giveth goodly words," graceful and eloquent, Gen. 49:21. See Hind. The tribe of Naphtali, called Nephthalim in Matt. 4:15, A. V., were very numerous at the exodus, standing midway in numbers and in position in the camp with Dan and Asher, Num. 1 : 43 ; 2 : 25-31 . Their territory in the Holy Land, called " the west and the south," A. V., literally " the sea and the circuit," Deut. 33:23; Josh. 19:32-39, was in a rich and fertile portion of Northern Pal estine, having Asher on the west, the Upper Jordan and a large part of the Sea of Tibe rias on the east, and running north into the Lebanon range, some lower offshoots of which prolonged to the south formed the "mountains of Naphtali," Josh. 19:32-39; 20:7. They were the first to^suffer from hostile approach through the Lebanon val ley. They attended in force at the corona tion of David, 1 Chr. 12:34, and are men tioned with honor in the wars of the Judges, Judg. 1:331.5:18; 6:35; 7:23, as much re duced by the Syrians, 1 Kin. 15:20, and as among the first captives to Assyria, 2 Kin. 15:29; Isa. 9:1. Barak was their most no table leader, Judg 4:6-16. Our Saviour spent much time in the southern part of this region, Matt. 4:13-15; Mark 2:1-12, partially fulfilling Isa. 9:1, 2. NAPHTU'HIM, Gen. 10:13; r Chr. 1:11; possibly to be traced in the ancient Mem- phites, who had a divinity named Phtah, see Noph ; or in Naphata, at the great bend of the Nile in Meroe, now Soudan. NAP'KIN, probably a linen band used either as a turban or a girdle, Luke 19:20; John 11:44; 20:7; translated "handker chief" in Acts 19: 12. NARCIS'SUS, daffodil, a Roman, many of whose household Paul salutes as Chris tians, Rom. 16:11. NA'THAN, given, I., a Hebrew prophet, a friend and counsellor of David. He as sisted the king in organizing public wor ship and the temple service, 2 Chr. 29:25, and approved his purpose of building a temple to the Lord, but by divine direction transferred its accomplishment to Solo mon, 2 Sam. 7:1-17. By a fine parable, pointedly applied, he convicted David of his guilt in respect to Uriah and Bathshe ba, 2 Sam. 12; Psa. 51 ; and his bold fidel ity here seems to have been appreciated by David (see Nathan, II.), and is worthy of everlasting remembrance. Solomon was probably educated under his care, 2 Sam. 12:25, and was effectually aided by him in his peaceful succession to the throne, 1 Kin. 1. He wrote some memorials, long since lost, of both David and Solomon, 1 Chr. 29:29. From 2 Chr. 9:29 he seems to have lived through a large part of Solo mon's reign, and if so must have been much younger than David. Two of his sons were high officers at Solomon's court, ¦1 Kin. 4:5. II. A son of David, said to be by Bath sheba, 1 Chr. 3:5; 14:4; Zech. 12:12; an ancestor of Christ, Luke 3:31. See Gene alogy. III. A Syrian of Zobah, 2 Sam. 23:36. IV. A descendant of Judah, 1 Chr. 2:36. V. A friend of Ezra, sent for Levites and Nethinim for the restored temple, Ezra 8: 16. Perhaps not the son of Bani, who had mar ried a foreign wife, Ezra 10:39. NATHAN'AEL, the gift of God, a disci ple of Christ, probably the same as Bar tholomew, which see. He was a native of Cana in Galilee, John 21:2, and was one of the first to recognize the Messiah, who at their first interview manifested his per fect acquaintance with Nathanael 's secret heart and Messianic hopes, John 1:45-51. He was introduced by Philip to Jesus, who on seeing him pronounced that remarka ble eulogy which has rendered his name almost another word for sincerity: " Behold an Israelite indeed, in whom is no guile." He saw Christ at the Sea of Tiberias after his resurrection, John 21:2, witnessed the ascension, and returned with the other apostles to Jerusalem, Acts 1:4, 12, 13. 379 NAT BIBLE DICTIONARY. NAZ NA'TION, used in the Bible in its ordi nary sense, but in some passages implying not only foreigners as distinct from the Jews, but heathen, as in Psa. 9:17, 20; Isa. 9:1; 36:18; 37:12. The term nation some times denotes the inhabitants of a country, Deut. 4:34, the country itself, Exod. 34:10, one's fellow-countrymen, Acts 26:4, or the founder of a people, Gen. 25:23. In Phil.. 2: 15 read "generation," as in R. V. NA'TURE and NAT'URAL point to the origin, birth, and native character of a per son or thing, Rom. 2:27; Gal. 2:15; 4:8; sometimes as merely animal, Rom. 1:26, 27; 1 Cor. 11:14; 2 Pet. 2:12; Jude 10; and sometimes as distinguished from spiritual and regenerate, 1 Cor. 2:14; 15:44, 46; Eph. 2:3. NAUGHT, worthless, 2 Kin. 2:19; Prov. 20 : 14 ; Jer. 24 : 2. Naugh'ty, wicked, Prov. 6:12. Naugh'tiness, wickedness, 1 Sam. 17:28; Jas. 1:21. NA'UM, Luke 3:25, A. V. See Nahum. NA'VEL, Job 40:16; Ezek. 16:4; used figuratively in Prov. 3:8. In Song 7:2 per haps a bodice or similar vestment. NAZARENE', Matt. 2:23; Acts 24:5, and OF NAZ'ARETH, elsewhere, as in Matt. 21:11; Mark 1:24; 14:67; 16:6; Luke4:34; Acts 2:22. The prophets foretold, Psa. 22:7. 8 ; Isa. 53 : 2, that the Messiah should be de spised and rejected of men ; and this epi thet, which was at first simply a designation of his residence, but afterwards came to be used as a term of reproach, showed the truth of these predictions, John 19:19; Acts 22:28. He is called Ngtser, the Heb. root of Nazareth, in Isa. 11 :i. Nazareth was a small city in the north part of Palestine. See Galilee and Nazareth. rtBlPf K *&m$ ,,.**»-..'.--.,,-.. , ¦-- - ---^TiHiri T r iTii"ii"" ' IwlIiinHinMlrr"' ' yr'™ f. modern nazareth, seen from the south. NAZ'ARETH, from the Heb. Netser, a sprout, the early home of the Saviour, com pare Isa. n: 1, a city of Lower Galilee, about 65 miles north of Jerusalem, in the territory of the tribe of Zebulun. It was situated on the side of a hill overlooking from the northwest a rich and beautiful valley, surrounded by hills, with a narrow outlet towards the south, opening on the plain of Esdraelon. At the mouth of this ravine the monks profess to show the place where the men of the city were about to cast Jesus from the precipice, Luke 4:29. 380 Nazareth is nearly 6 miles west-northwest of Mount Tabor, and nearly half way from the Jordan to the Mediterranean. It is called " the city of Jesus," because it was his residence during the first 30 years of his life, Matt. 2:23; Luke 1:26'; 2:39, 51; 4:t6. He visited it during his public min istry, but did not perform many miracles there because of the unbelief of the people, Matt. 13:54-58; Luke 4:16. It is not even named in the Old Testament, nor by Jose phus, and appears to have been a small city of no very high repute, John 1:46. NAZ BIBLE DICTIONARY. NAZ The modern town, en-Nasirah, is a seclu ded village of 5,000 inhabitants, Greek and Latin Christians and Mohammedans. It lies 1,144 feet above the level of the sea, and is one of the pleasantest towns in Syria. Its houses are of stone, 2 stories high, with flat roofs. It contains a mosque, an old synagogue of the 6th century, a large Fran ciscan monastery on the site of a church of the Crusaders, a Maronite church, a Greek church, an English church, a hospital, and an orphanage. East of the town is a per ennial fountain where our Lord must often have slaked his thirst. See Wells. The house of Joseph, a bull of Leo X. affirms, was transported through the air to Loretto in the 13th century; but he failed to ex plain the change of the material from the light limestone of Nazareth to the dark red stone of the Loretto house. The tradition ary " Mount ofthe Precipitation " is nearly 2 miles from the town, too remote to have answered the purpose of the enraged Naz- arenes, while there were several precipi tous spots close at hand where the fall is still from 30 to 50 feet. From the summit of the hill on the east ern slope of which Nazareth lies is a truly magnificent prospect!. Towards the north the eye glances over the countless hills of Galilee, and reposes on the majestic and snow-crowned Hermon. On the east the Jordan valley may be traced, and beyond it the dim heights of ancient Bashan. To wards the south spreads the broad and beautiful plain of Esdraelon, with the bold outline of Mount Tabor and parts of Little Hermon and Gilboa visible on its eastern border, and the hills of Samaria on the south, while Carmel rises on the west of the plain and dips his feet in the blue wa ters of the Mediterranean. Says. Dr. Rob inson in his " Biblical Researches in Pales tine," " I remained for some hours upon this spot lost in the contemplation of the wide prospect and of the events connected with the scenes around. In the village be low the Saviour of the world had passed his childhood ; and although we have few particulars of his life during those early years, yet there are certain features of na ture which meet our eyes now just as they once met his. He must often have visited the fountain near which we had pitched our tent, his feet must frequently have wan dered over the adjacent hills, and his eyes have doubtless gazed upon the splendid prospect from this very spot. Here the Prince of peace Jppked down upon the great plain where the din of battles so oft had rolled and the garments of the war rior been dyed in blood; and he looked out, too, upon that sea over which the swift ships were to bear the tidings of his salva tion to nations and to continents then un known. How has the moral aspect of things been changed ! , Battles and blood shed have indeed not ceased to desolate this unhappy country, and gross darkness now covers the people; but from this re gion a light went forth which has enlight ened the world and unveiled new climes; and now the rays of that light begin to be reflected back from distant isles and con tinents to illuminate anew the darkened land where it first sprang up." NAZ'ARITE, rather NAZ'IRITE, separa ted, i. e., unto God, compare Gen. 49:26; Lev. 22:2; Deut. 33:16; or crowned, Num. 6:5, 7; 1 Sam. 1:11; Judg. 13:4-14; Lam. 4:7; under the ancient Hebrew law a man or woman engaged by a vow to abstain from all intoxicating liquors, and from the fruit of the vine in any form; to let the hair grow; not to enter any house polluted by having a dead body in it, nor to be present at any funeral. If by accident any one died in their presence they recom menced the whole of their consecration and Nazariteship. This vow generally lasted 8 days, sometimes a month, and sometimes during their whole lives. When the time of Nazariteship expired the person brought a number of sacrifices and offerings to the temple — the burnt-offering, sin-offer ing, and peace-offering, 20 cakes anointed with oil, the customary meat and drink offering, Num. 28, and a free-will offering; the priest then cut off his hair and burned it, after which he was free from his vow, Num.6; Amos 2:11, 12. Perpetual Naza- rites were consecrated as such by their parents from their birth, as was proposed by the mother of Samuel, 1 Sam. 1: 11, and continued all their lives in this state, nei ther drinking wine nor cutting their hair. Such were Samson and John the Baptist, Judg. 13:4, 5; Luke 1:15; 7:33. Nazarite ship was a symbolical recognition of the obligation to keep soul and body holy unto the Lord, Rom. 12:1. As the cost of the offerings required at the expiration of the term of Nazariteship was very considerable for the poor, they ¦ were often relieved by persons not Naza- rites, who assumed these charges for them for the sake of performing an act of piety and charity. Paul availed himself of this 38l NEA BIBLE DICTIONARY. NEB custom to disarm the jealousy of those who represented him as hostile to the faith of their fathers. He took 4 Christian Jews whose vow of Nazariteship was accom plished, assumed the expense of their offer ings, and with them went through the cus tomary services and purifications at the temple, Acts 21:20-26. There is also in Acts 18: 18 an unexplained allusion to some similar vow made by Paul himself, or per haps by Aquila, probably in view of some danger escaped or some blessing received. NE'AH, descent, a town in Zebulun, Josh. 19:13; now Kh. Nejeimiyeh, 11 or 12 miles north of Mount Tabor. NEAP'OLIS, new city, a maritime city of Macedonia, near the borders of Thrace, whither Paul came from the isle of Samo- thracia on his ist visit to Europe, Acts 16:11. From Neapolis he went to Philippi. He also touched it twice on his 2d visit, Acts 20:1, 6. It is now the Turkish Ka- valla, on a promontory, with Mount Sym- bolum in the rear. NEARI'AH, servant of fehovah, I., 1 Chr. 4:41-43.-11. 1 Chr. 3:22, 23. TXE'BAl, fruitful, Neh. 10:19. NEBA'IOTH, and NEBA'JOTH, heights, the firstborn son of Ishmael, Gen. 25:13, whose posterity occupied the pasture- grounds of Arabia Deserta, Isa. 60:7, and ultimately possessed themsel-ves of Edom. They are thought to have been the Naba theans of profane history. See Idumaea. NEBAL'LAT, secret folly, Nell. 11:34, a town on the border of Benjamin and Dan ; now Beit Nebala, 3 miles northeast of Lydda. NE'BAT, aspect, father of king Jeroboam, of the tribe of Ephraim, living at Zereda, 1 Kin. 11:26; 2 Chr. 9:29. NE'BO, prophet, I., a town in the vicinity of Bethel and Ai, Ezra 2:29; 10:43; Neh. 7:33- II. A city of Reuben, Num. 32:38, taken by the Moabites, who held it in the time of Jeremiah, Isa. 15:2; Jer. 48:1, 22. III. A mountain of Moab, whence Moses had a view of the promised land, and where he died. It is a summit of the range Aba rim, " over against Jericho," Deut. 32 :49 ; 34. Jebel Nebbah, 3 miles southwest of Hesh- bon, and 7 or 8 miles east of the mouth of the Jordan, best answers the Scriptural demands, though not a prominent height. It has several rounded summits, about 2,700 feet above the sea. Israel encamped " be fore," i. e., on the east of Nebo, before cross ing the Jordan, 382 IV. An idol of the Babylonians, Isa. 46: 1. In the astrological mythology of the Baby lonians this idol probably represented the NEBO : ASSYRIAN ; BRITISH MUSEUM. god and planet Mercury. It was also wor shipped by the ancient Arabians. The ex tensive prevalence of this worship among the Chaldaeans and Assyrians is evident from the many compound proper names occurring in the Scriptures of which this word forms part ; as Nebuchadnezzar, Ne- buzar-adan, Nebushasban, Jer. 39:9, 13; 48:1, and also in the classics,- as Naboned, Nabonassar, Nabopolassar, etc.. , NEBUCHADNEZ'ZAR, or rather, as in Jeremiah and Ezekiel, NEBUCHADREZ'- ZAR, Nebo his protector, the son and suc cessor of Nabopolassar, who was the first who reigned over Chaldaea after the down fall of Assyria. The son succeeded to the kingdom of Chaldaea about 604 B. C. He had been some time before associated in the kingdom, and was sent to recover Car- chemish, which had been wrested from the empire by Necho king of Egypt. Having been successful, he marched against the governor of Phoenicia, and Jehoiakim king pf Judah, tributary to Nr cho king of Egypt. NEB BIBLE DICTIONARY. NEB He took Jehoiakim and put him in chains to carry him captive to Babylon ; but after wards he left him in Judaea, on condition of his paying a large annual tribute. He took away several persons from Jerusalem ; among others, Daniel, Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah, all of the royal family, whom the king of Babylon caused to be carefully educated in the language and learning of the Chaldaeans, that they might be em ployed at court, 2 Kin. 24:1; 2 Chr. 36:6; Dan. 1: 1. Nabopolassar dying; Nebuchadnezzar, who was then either in Egypt or Judaea, hastened to Babylon, leaving to his gener als the care of bringing to Chaldaea the captives taken in Syria, Judaea, Phoenicia, and Egypt; for, according to Berosiis, he had subdued all these countries. He dis tributed these captives into several colo nies, and in the temple of Belus he depos ited the sacred vessels of the temple of Jerusalem, and other rich spoils. Jehoia kim king of Judah continued 3 years in fealty to Nebuchadnezzar, and then revolt ed ; but after 3 or 4 years he was besieged and taken in Jerusalem, put to death, and his body thrown to the birds of the air, according to the predictions of Jeremiah, ch. 22. His successor, Jehoiachin, or Jeconiah, king of Judah, having revolted against Nebuchadnezzar, was besieged in Jerusa-' lem, forced to surrender, and taken, with his chief officers, captive to Babylon ; also his mother, his wives, and the best work men of Jerusalem, to the number of 10,000 men. Among the captives were Kish, the an cestor of Mordecai, and Ezekiel, the proph-; et, Esth. 2:6. Nebuchadnezzar also took all the vessels of gold which Solomon made for the temple and the king's treasury, and set up Mattaniah, Jeconiah's uncle by the father's side, whom he named Zedekiah. Zedekiah continued faithful to Nebuchad nezzar 9 years, at the end of which time he rebelled, and confederated with the neigh boring princes. The king of Babylon came into Judaea, reduced the chief places of the country, and besieged Jerusalem ; but Pha- raoh-hophra coming out of Egypt to assist Zedekiah, Nebuchadnezzar went to meet him, and forced him to retire to his own country, Jer. 37:5, 8; Ezek. 17:15. This done, he resumed the siege of Jerusalem, which continued more than a year. In the nth year of Zedekiah, B. C. 588, the city was taken, and Zedekiah, being seized, . Jer. 39:5, was brought to Nebuchadnezzar, who was then at Riblah in Hamath. The king of Babylon condemned him to die, caused his children to be put to death in his presence, and then bored out his eyes, loaded him with chains, and sent him to Babylon, 2 Kin. 24; 25; 2 Chr. 36. During the reign of Nebuchadnezzar the city of Babylon and the kingdom of Baby lonia attained their highest pitch of splen dor. He conquered Phoenicia, bringing to a close a long siege of Tyre, and ravaged Egypt, Jer. 46:1-26; Ezek. 29:2-20; 30:6. He constructed great reservoirs, canals, and palaces, and fortified Babylon with triple walls. The bricks now found in scores of places through that region all bear his name. . He took great pains in adorning Babylon; and this was one great object of his pride. " Is not this," said he, "great Babylon, that I have built for the house of my kingdom, by the might of my power, and for the honor of my majesty?" But God vanquished his pride, afflicting him with that strange form of madness called zoanthropy, under which a man' thinks himself changed to some beast, and acts accordingly. For 7 years, apparently, Dan. 4:16, he thus suffered, till he learned wisdom and was restored, according to the predictions of Daniel. See Dan. 1-4. An inscription found among the ruins on the Tigris, and now in the East India House at London, gives an account of the various works of Nebuchadnezzar at Babylon and Borsippa. Abruptly breaking off, the rec ord says the king's heart was hardened against the Chaldee astrologers. " He would grant no benefactions for religious purposes. He intermitted the worship of Merodach, and put an end to the sacrifice of victims. He labored under the effects 'of enchantment." Nebuchadnezzar is sup posed to have died B. C. 562, after a reign of about 43 years. He was a devoted wor shipper of Bel-Merodach, whose gilded im age in the plain of Dura was 60 cubits high, with its pedestal. Many things show the cruelty and violence of his nature. • His 2d queen, Nitocris, mentioned by Herodo tus, was an Egyptian woman. One of the famous structures ascribed to Nebuchadnezzar, and in which no doubt he took much pride, was the famous "hang ing gardens," which he is said to have erected to gratify the longing of his first queen Amuhia for elevated groves such as she was accustomed to in her native Me dia. This could only be done, in a coun try so level as Babylonia, by constructing 383 NEB BIBLE DICTIONARY. . NEC an artificial mountain; and accordingly the king caused one to be made, 400 feet square and over 75 feet high. The succes sive terraces were supported on ranges of regular piers, covered by large stones, on which were placed thick layers of matting and of bitumen and 2 courses of stones, which were again covered with a solid coating of lead. On such a platform an other similar, but smaller, was built, etc. The various terraces were then covered with earth, and furnished with trees, shrub bery, and flowers. The whole was watered from the Euphrates, which flowed at its base, by machinery within the mound. These gardens occupied but a small por tion of the prodigious area of the palace, the wall inclosing the whole being 6 miles in circumference. Within this were 2 other walls and a great tower, besides the palace buildings, courts, gardens, etc. All the gates were of brass, which agrees with the language used by Isaiah in predicting the capture of Babylon by Cyrus, Isa. 45:12. The ruins of the hanging gardens are be lieved to be found amid the vast irregular mound called- Kasr, on the east side of the Euphrates, 800 yards by 600 at its base. The bricks taken from this mound are of fine quality, and are all stamped with the name of Nebuchadnezzar. Another labor of this monarch was that, the ruins of which are now called Birs- Nimrud, about 8 miles southwest of the above structure. See Babel. The re searches of Sir Henry Rawlinson have shown that this was built by Nebuchad nezzar on the platform of a ruinous edifice of more ancient days. It had 7 terraces. On the top was the sanctum and observa tory of the temple, now a vitrified mass. Each story was dedicated to a different planet, and stained with the color appro priated to that planet in their astrological system. The lowest, in honor of Saturn, was black; that of Jupiter was orange, that of Mars red, that of the Sun yellow, that of Venus green, and that of Mercury blue. The temple was white, probably for the moon. In the corners of this long-ruined edifice, recently explored, were found cyl inders with arrow-headed inscriptions, in the name of Nebuchadnezzar, which inform us that the building was named " The Sta ges of the Seven Spheres of Borsippa," that it had been in a dilapidated condition, and that, moved by Merodach his god, he had reconstructed it with bricks enriched with lapis lazuli, " without changing its site 384 or destroying its foundation platform." This restoration is also stated to have ta ken place 504 years after its first erection in that form by Tiglath-pileser I., 1100 B. C. If not actually on the site of the tower of Babel mentioned in the Bible, and the tem ple of Belus described by Herodotus, this building would seem to have been erected on the same general plan. Every brick yet taken from it bears the impress of Neb uchadnezzar. Borsippa appears to have been a suburb of ancient Babylon. NEBUSHAS'BAN, adorer of Nebo, the Rab-saris or chief chamberlain of the kiny of Babylon, like Ashpenaz, Dan. 1:3; hn sent officials to release Jeremiah from pris on, Jer. 39:3, 13. Compare 2 Kin. 18:17. NEBUZAR'-ADAN, " chief of the execu tioners " under king Nebuchadnezzar, and his agent in the sacking and destruction of Jerusalem, 2 Kin. 25:8-21; Jer. 39:8-10. He greatly befriended Jeremiah by the king's direction, Jer. .wn; 40:1-5. Sev eral years later he carried away 745 addi tional captives, Jer. 52:12-30. NE'CHO, or Pharaoh-necho, an Egyp tian king, mentioned not only in Scripture, but by Herodotus, who says that he was son of Psammetichus, king of Egypt, and that, having succeeded him in the king dom, he raised great armies, and sent out great fleets, as well on the Mediterranean as the Red Sea; that he expended a vast sum and many thousand lives in a fruitless effort to unite the Nile and the Red Sea by a canal ; and that he was the first to send a ship wholly around Africa. Josiah king of Judah being tributary to the king of Baby lon, opposed Necho on his ist expedition against Nebuchadnezzar, and gave him battle at Megiddo, where he received the wound of which he died, and Necho pressed forward without making any long stay in Palestine. On his return from the Euphra tes, where he had taken and garrisoned the city of Carchemish, B. C. 610, he halted in Riblah in Syria, and sending for Jehoahaz, king of the Jews, he deposed him, loaded him with chains, and sent him into Egypt. Then coming to Jerusalem, he set up Elia kim, or Jehoiakim, Josiah's firstborn, in his place, and exacted the payment of 100 tal ents of silver and 1 talent of gold. The accompanying cut, from the great " Tomb of the Kings" in Egypt, explored by Bel- zoni, is believed to represent 4 Jewish hos tages or captives of distinction presented before Pharaoh-necho. One of them may be meant for Jehoahaz. They were colored NEC BIBLE DICTIONARY. NEK white; and with them were 4 red, 4 black, and 4 others white, supposed to represent Babylonians, Ethiopians, etc. They were letl before the king, seated on his throne, by one of the hawk-headed figures so fre quent on Egyptian monuments. Jeremiah, 40:.2, tells us that Carchemish was retaken by the army of the king of Babylon, in the 4th year of Jehoiakim king of Judah; so that Necho did not retain his conquests in Syria more than 4 years, 2 Kin. 23:29 to 24:7; 2 Chr. 35-: 20 to 36:6. NECK. The phrases to " harden the neck," Prov. 29:1, and to be "stiff-necked," like a headstrong brute, illustrate the wil ful obstinacy of sinners against the instruc tions and commands of God. The yoke of sin is of iron, Deut. 28 : 48, but that of Christ is, easy. Matt. 11:29. "To lay down the neck" is to hazard one's life, Rom. 16:4. Conquerors of ancient days sometimes put their feet on the prostrate necks of princes in token of their subjugation, trampling them in the dust. This is often shown in Egyptian and Assyrian monuments. Their mischief sometimes returned upon their own heads, Josh. 10:24; Psa- 18:40. NECROMANCER, one who pretended to discover unknown and future events by summoning and interrogating the dead, Deut. 18: 10, n ; 2 Kin. 21 :6; 2 Chr. 33:6, a crime punishable by stoning to death, Lev. 19:31; 20:27. See Sorcerer. No good reason can-be given for believing that such pretended communications with departed spirits are iess offensive to God now than in the time of Moses, Isa. 8:19; 29:4. 25 NEE'DLE, Matt. 19:24. See Camel. "Needlework" in Judg. 5:30 denotes em broidery. NEES'ING, translated sneezing in 2 Kin. 4 : 35 ; used in Job 41 : 18 to describe the vio lent breathing of the enraged leviathan, or crocodile. NEGI'NAH, or NEGI'NATH, in title of Psa. 61, and NEGI'NOTH, Hab. 3:19, a gen eral name of stringed instruments used by the Hebrews, or the music or song for them, 1 Sam. 18:6; Ps'a. 68:25, translated "song" in Job 30:9; Psa. 77:6; Lam. 3:14. Psalms 4, 6, 54, 55, 67, and 76 are addressed to the chief musician with Neginoth. See Music. NEHEMI'AH, consoled by fehovah, I., the son of Hachaliah, brother of Hanani, of the tribe of Judah, Neh. 1:1, 2; 2:3; 3:7, pos sibly of the royal family. He was born at Babylon during the captivity, and sustained the office of cup-bearer to the Persian king Artaxerxes Longimanus, at Susa. Touched by the calamitous state of the colony of Jews which had formerly returned to Jeru salem, he laid their case before God in penitent and importunate prayer, and at length besought the king of Persia to per mit him to go to Jerusalem and aid in re building it. He was accordingly sent thither as governor in the 20th year of Ar taxerxes, about 444 B. C. He directed his attention chiefly to the great but essential task of rebuilding the walls of the city. The enmity of the Samaritans, under which the colony had formerly suffered, was now increased; and under Sanballat, the gov- 385 NEH BIBLE DICTIONARY. NEP ernor of the country, they cast all possible hindrances, By artifice and slander, in the way of the Jews. They even went so far as to attack the laborers at their work, so that Nehemiah had to cause them to labor with arms in their hands ; yet in one year their task was completed. In this great work, and in his whole administration, his pious zeal and disinterestedness, courage, and liberality, his love for the people and city of God, and his prayerful reliance on divine aid were crowned with success. He had the cooperation of faithful friends, es pecially of Ezra, Neh, 8: 1, 9, 13; 12:36, and instituted many excellent civil improve ments. About 432 B. C, though perhaps not for the first time, he returned to his post at the court of Babylon, Neh. 2:6: 5:14; 13:6; but after a few years was re called to Jerusalem to reform certain grow ing irregularities — neglect of the temple service, breaches of the Sabbath, marria ges with the heathen, etc. He required of those Jews who had married heathen wives that they should either abandon them or else themselves quit the country. This voluntary exile of a number of discontent ed priests may have given occasion to the building of the temple on Mount Gerizim and the establishment of the Samaritan worship. See Sanballat. The repaired temple and walls were solemnly rededica- ted, and he suppressed usury and exaction from the poor, fed the destitute, provided for the temple service, and was in all things a model for rulers. The book of Nehemiah contains the history of all these transactions, written by himself near the close of his long life, B. C. 400.? It is a sort of a continuation of the book of Ezra, and was called by some of the fathers the Second book of Ezra. Some portions of it, as ch. 8 and 9 and 12 : 1-26, appear to be compilations from public reg isters, etc. The mention of Jaddua as high-priest and of some late names of the line of David, ch. 12:10-22, may perhaps have been made by some subsequent in spired writer. The book contains much information as to the topography of Jeru salem, the genealogy of prominent He brews, and the trades and customs of the people. With it the historical books of the Old Testament close. II. One who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel, Ezra 2:2; Neh. 7:7. III. Son of Azbuk, a Judahite, who helped to rebuild Jerusalem, Neh. 3: 16. NEHI'LOTH, perforated, supposed to 386 mean flutes or wind instruments; found only in tlie title of the 5th Psalm, which was perhaps to be sung with this accom paniment only. NE'HUM, consoled, Neh. 7:7; rather Re- hum, which see, as in Ezra 2:2. NEHUSH'TA, copper, wife of Jehoiakim and mother of the young king Jeconiah, with whom she was probably associated in the government, as she is in the reproaches of Jeremiah, 2 Kin. 24:8; Jer. 13:18; 29:2. NEHUSH'TAN, brazen, or of copper, a name given in contempt to the brazen ser pent that Moses had set up in the wilder ness, Num. 21:8, and which had been pre served by the Israelites to that time. The superstitious people having made an idol of this serpent, Hezekiah caused it to be broken— a mere piece of brass, 2 Kin. 18:4. Memorials, relics, and other outward aids to devotion which men rely upon often have the opposite effect; the visible emblem hides the Saviour it ought to reveal, John 3:14-16. NEI'EL, abode of God, Josh. 19:27, a town of Asher towards the mouth of ths Kishon ; traced at Tell en-Nahl, 4 mile's, east of Haifa. NEIGH'BOR. At the time of our Saviour the Pharisees had restrained the meaning of the word " neighbor " to those of their own nation, or to their own friends, hold ing that to hate their enemy was not for bidden by the law, Matt. 5:43. But our Saviour informed them that the whole world were neighbors, that they ought not to do to another what they would not have done to themselves, and that this charity extended even to enemies. See the beau tiful parable of the good Samaritan, the real neignbor to the distressed, Luke 10:29-37. NE'KEB, the cavern, a town in Naphtali ; now Kh. Seiyadeh, 4 miles south by west from Tiberias. NEKO'D A, famous, I., the head of a fam ily that returned from Babylon, Ezra 2 : 48 ; Neh. 7:50. II. Ezra 2:60; Neh. 7:62. NEMU'EL, day of God, I., son of Sime on, Num. 26:12; 1 Chr. 4:24; called Jem- uei. in Gen. 46:10; Exod. 6:15. II. A Reubenite, brother of Dathan and Abiram. Num. 26:9. NE'PHEG, sprout, I., son of Izhar, Exod. 6:21. — II. A son of David, 2 Sam. 5:14, 15; 1 Chr. 3:7 ; 14:6. NEPH'EWS, Judg. 12:14; J°t> 18:19; Isa- 14:22; 1 Tim. 5:4, A. V., means grandchil dren. NEP BIBLE DICTIONARY. NET NE'PHISH, I Chr. 1:31; 5:19. See Na- phish. NEPH'THALIM, A. V., Matt. 4:13, 15; Rev. 7:6. See Naphtali. NEPHTO'AH, opening, a flowing spring near the border of Judah and Benjamin, Josh. 15:8, 9; 18:14-16; probably Lifta, a village and fountain 2% miles northwest of Jerusalem. NER, light, son of Jehiel, 1 Chr. 8:29, 30, compared with 9:35, 36, father of Kish, ver. 39, and grandfather of Saul, 1 Chr. 8:33; 9:39. He also had a brother named Kish, 1 Chr. 9:36. Jehiel seems to have been the founder of Gibeon. NE'REUS, a Christian at Rome, Rom. 16:15. NER'GAL, great hero, a prominent idol of the Babylonians and Assyrians, wor shipped by the Cuthite heathen who were transplanted into Palestine, 2 Kin. 17:30. This idol probably represented the planet Mars, which was ever the emblem of blood shed. Mars is named by the Zabians and Arabians ill-luck, misfortune. He was rep resented as holding in one hand a drawn sword, and in the other, by the hair, a hu man head just cut off; his garments were blood-red, as the light of the planet is also reddish. NER'GAL -SHARE'ZER, Nergal prince of fire, I., a chief officer under Nebuchad nezzar, Jer. 39:3. II. The rab-mag or chief of the magi cians, supposed to be Neriglissar men tioned by Berosus, who killed his brother- in-law Evil-merodach, king of Babylon, B. C. 559, and was succeeded 'by his son Laborosoarchod, B. C. 556. NE'RI, an ancestor of Christ, Luke 3 : 27, 28. See Neriah. NERI'AH, fehovah my lamp, the father of Seraiah and Baruch, Jer. 32:12; 36:8, 14, 32; 43:6; 45:1; 51:59. ' NE'RO, the infamous Roman Caesar be fore whom Paul appeared, Acts 25 : 1 1 ; 28: 16, and under whom he became a mar tyr. He is not mentioned by name except in the note appended to 2 Timothy, but is referred to in Phil. 1:12, 13; 4:22. During his reign Rome was almost destroyed by a fire which continued more than a week and consumed many public buildings, tem ples, monuments, libraries, works of art, and human lives; and such was his char acter that the charge that he caused the fire for the sake of rebuilding the city in finer style is generally believed. Nero himself charged the crime upon the Christians, and instituted a merciless persecution against them, A. D. 64. Some were sewed up in the skins of animals and thrown into the arena to be torn in pieces by dogs ; others were wrapped in cloths dipped in pitch, fastened to stakes, and set on fire as night- torches. He perished by his own hand, A. D. 68. NEST, a symbol of security and comfort, Job 29:18. Scripture writers notice the adaptation of the thick foliage of the cedar for birds' nests, Ezek. 31:3-6; ofthe flat branches of the fir-tree for storks, Psa. 104: 17, and the hollows in the rocks for the blue rock-dove, still found around the Dead Sea, Jer. 48:28; also the fondness of the swallow and sparrow for human habita tions, Psa. 84:3. The eagle's nest on lofty cliffs, Job 39:27, 28; Obad. 4, pointed a a reproof of pride and ambition, Jer. 49 : 16 ; Hab. 2:9. The Kenite's nest was "in a rock," Num. 24:21, 22. See Sela. The prohibition of taking a. mother-bird with her young, Maimonides says, was designed to save the whole nest, since the eggs and newly-fledged birds could not lawfully be eaten. NETHAN'EEL, given by God, the name of 9 or 10 men mentioned in Num. 1:8; 1 Chr. 2: 14; 15:24; 24:6; 26:4; 2 Chr. 17:7; 35:9; Ezra 10:22 ; Neh. 12:21, 36. NETHAW AH, given by fehovah, I., 1 Chr. 25:2, 12. — II. 2 Chr. 17:8. — III. Jer. 36: 14. — IV. Jer. 41. NETH'ER, lower; as the lower stone of a handmill, Deut. 24:6; the foot of Sinai, Exod. 19:17; the regions ofthe dead, Ezek. 32:18. NETH'INIM, or NETHI'NIM, given or consecrated, a term first applied to the Le vites, who were "given " to the priests, to serve them in holy things, Num. 3:9 ; 8: 19; but after the settlement in Canaan to ser vants dedicated to the service of the tab ernacle and temple, to perform the most laborious offices, as carrying of wood and water, Num. 31:47. The Gibeonites were destined to this station, Josh. 9:21-27; after wards other Canaanites who surrendered themselves and whose lives were spared. Many of them appear to have been first assigned to David, Solomon, and other princes, and by them transferred to the temple service, 1 Kin. 9:20, 21; Ezra 2:58, 70; 8:20; Neh. 11:3. It is probable that they became proselytes, Exod. 12 :48 ; Deut. 29:11; Neh. 10:28, and that many of them could cordially unite with David in saying, " I had rather be a doorkeeper in the house 387 NET BIBLE DICTIONARY. NIC of my God than to dwell in the tents of wickedness," Psa. 84:10. The Nethinim were carried into captivity with the tribe of Judah, and great numbers were placed not far from the Caspian Sea, whence Ezra brought 220 of them into Judaea, Ezra 8:17. They probably lodged within the precincts of the temple, and helped to fortify Ophel on its south side, Neh. 3:26, 31; 11:21. NETO'PHAH, dropping, a town of Judah, the home of many Levites, singers, 1 Chr. 9:16; 27:13,15; Ezra2:22; Neh. 7:26; 12:28. The Netophathites are called " sons " of Salma, who was probably the founder of the town, 1 Chr. 2:54. See 2 Sam. 23:28, 29; 2 Kin. 25:23; Jer. 40:8. NETS are often referred to in Scripture, Prov. 1:17; Eccl. 7:26; Isa. 19:8, 9; Hab. 1 : 15, 16, particularly in connection with the first disciples of Christ, Matt. 13:47-50; Luke 5:1-10. Before the invention of fire arms nets were much used in hunting and fowling, and possibly in catching men, as robbers, etc., Job 19:6; Psa. 140:5; Mic. 7:2. Among the ancient Romans there was a gladiatorial game in which one man was armed with sword and shield, and his antagonist with a net, by casting which he strove to entangle the other so that he might easily despatch him with his dagger. Drag-nets were used in fishing, Isa. 19:8; Hab. 1:14-17; John 21:6-11. The apostles were to be fishers of men, Matt. 4:18-22. In Luke 5:6 read, " their nets were break ing," as in R. V. NET'TLE, a well-known stinging plant, growing in neglected grounds, Isa. 34:13; Hos. 9:6. A different Hebrew word in Job 30:7; Prov. 24:31 ; Zeph. 2:9, seems to indicate a larger species, or perhaps the charlock or wild mustard. NEW MOON. The new moon was the commencement of each of the Hebrew months. See Month. The Hebrews had a particular veneration for the first day of every month, for which Moses appointed peculiar sacrifices, Num. 28:11-15; but he gave no orders that it should be kept as a holy day, nor can it be proved that the an cients observed it as such; it was a festi val of merely voluntary devotion. It ap pears that at the time of Saul they made on this day a sort of family entertainment ; since David ought then to have been at the king's table, and Saul took his absence amiss, 1 Sam. 20:5, 18. Moses implies that, besides the national sacrifices then regu larly offered, every private person had his particular sacrifices of devotion, Num, 388 10:10. The beginning of the month was proclaimed by sound of trumpet, Psa. 81 : 3, and the offering of solemn sacrifices. But the most celebrated new moon was that at the beginning of the civil year, or the first day ofthe month Tishri, Lev. 23:24. This was a sacred festival, on which no servile labor was perfcrmed, Amos 8 : 5. See Trum pet. In the kingdom of the 10 tribes it seems to have been a custom of the people to visit the prophets at the new moons for the purpose of carrying them presents and hearing their instructions, 2 Kin. 4 : 23. Eze kiel says, 45 : 17 (see also 1 Chr. 23 : 31 ; 2 Chr. 8:13), that the burnt-offerings offered on the day of the new moon were to be provided at the king's expense. The observance of this festival was discontinued soon after the establishment of Christianity, Gal. 4:9, 10; Col. 2:16, though the Jews take some notice of the day even now. NEW YEAR. See TRUMPET. NEZI'AH, illustrious, Ezra 2:54; Neh. 7:56; the father of Nethinim who returned from Babylon. NE'ZIB, a garrison, Josh. 15:43, a city of Judah, in the lower hill region; now Beit Nusib, SlA miles northwest of Hebron. NIB'HAZ, barker, according to the Rab bins a dog-shaped or dog-headed divinity of Babylon, brought into Samaria by the Avites, 2 Kin. 17:31. NIB'SHAN, furnace, Josh. 15:62, a town in Judah towards En-gedi, from Bethlehem. NICA'NOR, victor, one of the first 7 dea cons who were chosen and appointed at Jerusalem soon after the pentecostal de scent of the Holy Ghost, Acts 6:1-6. NICODE'MUS, conqueror of the people, a member of the Jewish Sanhedrin, at first a Pharisee, and afterwards a disciple of Je sus. He was early convinced that Christ came from God, but was not ready at once to rank himself among His followers. In John 3 : 1-20 he first appears as a timid in quirer after the truth, learning the great doctrines of regeneration and atonement. In John 7:45-52 we see him cautiously de fending the Saviour before the Sanhedrin. At last, in the trying scene of the crucifix ion, he avowed himself a believer, and came with Joseph of Arimathaea to pay the last duties to the body of Christ, which they took down from the cross, embalmed, and laid in the sepulchre, John 19:39. He is named only by John, who knew the high- priest. As a "teacher " he belonged to the learned class. His coming to Christ at night may have suggested our Lord's words NIC BIBLE DICTIONARY. NIL in John 3:19-21. Many are deterred by the fear of man from coming to the Saviour at all. NICOLA'ITANS, heretical persons or teachers, mentioned in Rev. 2:6, 15. Com pare 2 Pet. 2:12, 19; Jude 4, 7, 8, 11, 12. Some suppose them to have been followers of Nicolas the deacon, but there is no good evidence that he ever became a heretic. NICOLAS, conqueror of the people, a proselyte of Antioch, that is, one converted from- paganism to the religion of the Jews. He afterwards embraced Christianity, and was among the most zealous of the first Christians, so that he was chosen one of the first 7 deacons of the church at Jerusa lem, Acts 6:5. NICOP'OLIS, city of victory, a city where Paul spent probably the last winter of his life, having previously written to Titus in Crete to meet him there, Tit. 3:12. He is supposed to refer to the Nicopolis in Epi- rus, which stood near the mouth of the Ambracian Gulf, opposite to Actium, and which was built by Augustus in honor of his decisive victory over Antony, B. C. 31. Its extensive ruins, amid wide desolation, attest its former magnificence. NI'GER, black, Acts 13:1, the surname of Symeon, a teacher in the church at Anti och. NIGHT. The ancient Hebrews began their artificial day at sunset, and ended it the next sunset, so that the night preceded the day. This usage may probably be traced to the terms employed in describing the creation, Gen. 1:5, 8, 13, etc., "The evening and the morning were the first day." The Hebrews allowed 12 hours to the night and 12 to the day; but these hours were not equal, except at the equi nox. At other times, when the hours of the night were long, those of the day were short, as in winter ; and when the hours of night were short, as at midsummer, the hours of day were long in proportion. See Hour. The nights are sometimes extremely cold in Syria when the days are very hot ; and travellers in the deserts and among the mountains near Palestine refer to their own sufferings from these opposite extremes, in illustration of Jacob's words in Gen. 31:40, " In the day the drought consumed me, and the frost by night ; and my sleep departed irom mine eyes." The twilight in tropical regions is very short, Gen. 15:17; Job 24:15; Ezek. 12:6, 7, 12. Night is a time of danger, Judg. 7:19; Job 24: 14; Psa. 91 :5, and a symbol of igno rance, Mic. 3:6, adversity, Isa. 21:12, and death, John 9:4. In heaven there are none of these evils, Rev. 22:5. They who work deeds of darkness are children of night, Prov. 7:9; 1 Thess. 5:5-7. The life of the Christian on earth is but a night before the endless day, Rom. 13:12. THE SCREECH OWL: STRIX FLAMMEA, NIGHT-HAWK, an unclean bird, Lev. 11:16; Deut. -14:15. Its name seems to in dicate voracity, and is therefore thought by many to point out the white Syrian owl, the Strix flammea, a more powerful bird than the night-hawk, and exceedingly vo racious ; it sometimes attacks sleeping chil dren. NILE, blue, the celebrated river of Egypt. It takes this name only after the junction of the 2 great streams of which it is com posed, the Bahr el-Abiad, or White River, which flows from the Lake Victoria Nyan- za 30 south of the equator, Lake Albert Nyanza 100 miles west, and Lake Tangan yika, still farther south, and runs northeast till it is joined by the other branch, the Bahr el-Azrek, or Blue River, which rises in Abyssinia, and after a large circuit to the southeast and southwest, in which it passes through the Lake of Dembea, flows northwards to join the White River. This Abyssinian branch, the chief source of the alluvial soil that enriches Egypt, has in modern times been regarded as the real Nile, although the White River is much the larger and longer, and was in ancient times considered as the true Nile. The junction takes place at Khartoum, the capital of Soudan, about lat. 160 north. From this point the Nile flows always in a northerly direction, with the exception of one large 389 NIL BIBLE DICTIONARY. NIL bend to the west. About 1,300 miles from the sea it receives its last branch, the At- bara, or Tacazze, a large stream from Abys sinia, and having passed through Nubia, it enters Egypt at the cataracts near Syene, or Essuan, which are formed by a chain of rock stretching east and west. There are here 3 falls ; after which the river pursues its course in still and silent majesty through the whole length of the land of Egypt, 500 miles. Its average breadth is about 700 yards. In Lower Egypt it divides into several branches and forms the celebrated Delta; for which see under Egypt. See also a view of the river in Amon. Its en tire length is at least 2,500 miles in a straight line. In the Bible the Nile is called the Shihor in Hebrew, and named as the extreme western boundary of the promised land, Josh. 13 : 3 ; 1 Chr. 13:5; Jer. 2:18; also " the river" and its branches, Psa. 78:44; Isa. 7:18; 19:6; Ezek. 29:3; 30:12; the "river of Egypt," Gen. 15:18, and "of Ethiopia," Heb. Cush, Isa. 18:1. As rain very seldom falls, even in win ter, in Southern Egypt, Zech. 14: 17, 18, and usually only slight and infrequent showers in Lower Egypt, the whole physical and political existence of Egypt may be said to depend on the Nile; since without this riv er, and even without its regular annual in undations, the whole land would be but a desert. These inundations, so mysterious in the view of ancient ignorance and su perstition, are caused by the regular peri odical rains in the countries farther south, around the sources of the Nile, in March and later. The river begins to rise in Egypt about the middle of June, and con tinues to increase through the month of July. In August it overflows its banks, and reaches its highest point September 20th ; and the country is then mostly cov ered with its waters, Jer. 46 : 7, 8 ; Amos 8:8; 9:5; Nah. 3:8. In the beginning of Octo ber the inundation still continues ; and it is only towards the end of this month that the stream returns within its banks. From the middle of August till towards the end of October the whole land of Egypt resem bles a great lake or sea, in which the towns and cities appear as islands connected by dykes. The cause of the fertility which the Nile imparts lies not only in its thus watering the land, but also in the thick slimy mud which its waters bring down and deposit on the soil Of Egypt. It is like a coat of 39° rich manure; and the seed being immedi ately sown upon it, without digging or ploughing, springs up rapidly, grows with luxuriance, and ripens into abundance. See Egypt. It must not, however, be supposed that the Nile spreads itself over every spot of land, and waters it sufficiently without arti ficial aid. Niebuhr justly remarks, " Some descriptions of Egypt would lead us to think that the Nile when it swells lays the whole province under water. The lands .immediately adjoining to the banks of the 'river are indeed laid under water, but the natural inequality ofthe ground hinders it from overflowing the interior country. A great part of the lands would therefore remain barren were not canals and reser voirs formed to receive water from the river when at its greatest height, which is thus conveyed everywhere through the fields, and reserved for watering them when occa sion requires." In order to raise the water to grounds which lie higher, machines have been used in Egypt from time immemorial. These are chiefly wheels to which buckets are attached. One kind is turned by oxen ; another smaller kind by men seated and pushing the lower spokes from them with their feet, while they pull the upper spokes towards them with their hands, Deut. 11:10-12. As the inundations of the Nile are of so much importance to the whole land, struc tures have been erected on which the be ginning and progress of its rise might be observed. These are called Nilometers, that is, " Nile measures." At present there is one 1,000 years old and half in ruins on the little island opposite Cairo ; it is under the care of the government, and according to it the beginning and subsequent pro gress of the rise ofthe Nile were carefully observed and proclaimed by authority. If the inundation reached the height of 22 Paris feet, a rich harvest was expected, be cause then all the fields had received the requisite irrigation. If it fell short of this height, and in proportion as it thus fell short, the land was threatened with want and famine, of which some horrible exam ples occur in Egyptian history. Should the rise of the water exceed 28 Paris feet a famine was in like manner feared. The annual rise of the river also varies exceed ingly in different parts of its course, being 20 feet greater where the river is narrow than in Lower Egypt. The channel is thought to be gradually filling up, and NIM BIBLE DICTIONARY. NIN many of the ancient outlets at the Delta are dry in summer and almost obliterated. The drying up of the waters of Egypt would involve its destruction as a habita ble land to the same extent ; and this fact is recognized in the prophetic denuncia tions of this remarkable country, Isa. 11:15; 19:1-10; Ezek. 29:10; 30:12. , The water of the Nile, although during a great part of the year turbid, from the effects of the rains above, yet furnishes, when purified by settling, the softest and sweetest water for drinking. Its excel lence is acknowledged by all travellers. The Egyptians are full of its praises, and even worshipped the river as a god. The Hebrews sometimes gave both to the Euphrates and the Nile the name of "sea," Isa. 19:5; Nah. 3:8. In this they are borne out by Arabfc writers, and also by the common people of Egypt, who to this day commonly speak of the Nile as "the sea.1' It was formerly celebrated,for its fish. Compare Num. 11:5; Isa. 19:8. In its waters were likewise found the croc-' odile or leviathan, and the hippopotamus or behemoth. See Egypt and Sihor. In excavating in the Nile valley a piece of glazed pottery was found at such a depth that Bunsen declared it must have been dropped there 11,000 or 13,000 years B. C. ; but such estimates have been proved utter ly unreliable. Champollion concedes that no Egyptian monument is older than 2,200 B.C. The. Nile is rendered famous by the his tory of Joseph, of the 7 years of plenty and 7 years of famine, Gen. 41, the story of the infant Moses, Exod. 2, of 2 of the 10 plagues of Egypt, Exod. 7:17, 18; 8:1-3, and the predictions in Isa. 11:11-15; 19:4-8. Our Saviour in his infancy may have looked on its waters at Heliopolis. NIM'RAH, Num. 32:3, plural MIM'RIM, sweet waters, now Nimrin, 3 miles east of the Jordan, above Jericho. See Beth- nimrah. There is also a Nimrim on the southeast shore of the Dead Sea, referred to, some think, in Jer. 48:34. NIM'RIM. See Beth-nimrah. NIM'ROD, rebellion, impiety, a son of Cush and grandson of Ham, proverbial from the earliest times as a mighty hunter and warrior, Gen. 10:8-10; 1 Chr. 1:10. He seems to have feared neither God nor man, to have gathered around him' a host of adventurers, and extended his conquests from Ethiopia into the land of Shinar, where he founded or fortified 3abel, Erech, Ac- cad, and Calneh. The R. V. and many authorities render Gen. 10: 11, " out of that land Shinar) he went to Assyria, and build ed Nineveh, Rehoboth, Calah, and Resen;" he also founded Nineveh and the Assyrian empire, though this is usually understood to have been done by Asshur when ex pelled by Nimrod from the land of Shinar, mimrod: from the palace of khorsabad. Mic. 5:6. Nimrod is supposed to have be gun the tower of Babel; and his name is still preserved by a vast ruinous mound on the site of ancient Babylon. See Babel. NIM'SHI, saved, the grandfather of Jehu, 2 Kin. 9:2, 14, often called his father, being perhaps more known than Jehoshaphat, ver. 20; 1 Kin. 19:16; 2 Chr. 22:7. NIN'EVEH, dwelling- of Ni'nus, the me tropolis of ancient Assyria, called by the Greeks and Romans "the great Ninus;" situated on the east bank ofthe Tigris, op posite the modern Mosul. Its origin is traced to the times near the flood. See Nimrod. For nearly 15 centuries after wards it is not mentioned, though Assyria is named prophetically in Num. 24:22-24; Psa. 83:8. In the books of Jonah and Na hum it is described as an immense city, 3 days' journey in circuit, containing more 391 NIN BIBLE DICTIONARY. NIN WINGED AND HUMAN-HEAD LION than 120,000 young children, possibly inclu ding others equally untaught, indicating a population of half a million or more. It contained "much cattle" and numerous parks, gardens, groves, etc. Its inhabi tants were wealthy, warlike, and far ad vanced in civilization. It had numerous strongholds with gates and bars, and had multiplied its merchants above the stars; its crowned princes were as locusts, and its captains as grasshoppers. With this description agrees that of the historian Diodorus Siculus, who says Nineveh was 21 miles long, 9 broad, and 54 miles in cir cumference ; he adds, perhaps with some exaggeration, that its walls were 100 feet high, and so broad that 3 chariots could drive upon them abreast; and that it had 1,500 towers, each 200 feet high. Nineveh had long been the mistress of the East; but for her great luxury and wickedness the prophet Jonah was sent, more than 800 years before Christ, to warn the Ninevites of her speedy destruction. See also Isa. 14:24, 25. Their timely re pentance delayed for a time the fall of the city; but about 753 B. C, the period of the foundation of Rome, it was taken by the Medes under Arbaces ; and nearly a cen tury and a half later, according to the pre dictions of Nahum, ch. 1-3, and Zephani ah 2:13, it was a 2d time taken by Cyax- ares the Mede and Nabopolassar of Baby lon, after which writers mention it but sel- 392 FROM THE RUINS OF NINEVEH. dom, and as an unimportant place. It was probably destroyed between the days of Zephaniah and Ezekiel, about 606 B. C, partly by fire, as secular history relates, confirming both the prediction of Nahum and the testimony of modern explorers, Nah. 3:13, 15. The last mention of it as an inhabited city is in Zeph. 2:13. So com plete was its destruction that for ages its site has been well nigh lost, and infidels have even denied that the Nineveh of the Bible ever existed. The mounds which were the "grave" of its ruins, Nah. 1:14, were so covered with soil as to seem like natural hills. But since 1843 Layard, Bot- ta, George Smith, and others have been exploring its remains, so long undisturbed. The mounds chiefly explored lie at 3 cor ners of a trapezium about 18 miles long and 12 miles wide, and nearly 60 in circumfer ence, thus confirming the ancient accounts of its vast extent. Directly opposite Mosul is a continuous line of earthworks, 8 miles in circuit and 40 feet high, marking the course of an ancient wall with occasional elevations on the site of towers or gates, and with two large and notable mounds, Koyunjik and Nebi Yunus. Koyunjik is 1,300 yards long and 500 yards wide where widest, and 95 feet high where highest. Nebi Yunus, near by on the south, is smaller; Khorsabad is 13 miles northeast of Koyunjik, Nimrud 18 miles south, and Kerarnles 15 miles southeast. The recent NIN BIBLE DICTIONARY. NIN •-.v$F' ¦ "' ' ii ii ffm " I flWY' i-ftiif ,';;' ,/;,;{/ f:^g|| excavations disclose temples and palaces guarded by huge winged bulls and lions with human heads. The apartments , of these buildings are lined with slabs of stone covered with sculptures in bas-relief, and inscriptions in arrow-headed char acters which have been in part de ciphered; compare Ezek. 4:1; and these scupltured memorials of the history and customs of the Assyri ans, together with the various arti cles made of glass, wood, ivory, and metals, now brought to light after a burial of 24 centuries, furnish inval uable aid in the interpretation of Scripture, and most signally confirm its truth. Our surprise is equal to our gratification when we behold the actual Assyrian account of events recorded in Kings and Chronicles. Not only do we find mention made of Jehu, Menahem, Hezekiah, Omri, Hazael, etc., and of various cities in Judaea and Syria, but we discover Sennacherib's own account of his invasion of Palestine, and of the amount of tribute which king Heze kiah was forced to pay him; also pictures representing his capture of Lachish, 2 Kin. 18:14, and his offi cers, perhaps the railing Rab-shakeh himself, presenting Jewish captives to the king, etc. (See cut and details in Sennacherib.) These mural tab lets alsoTurnish a graphic comment on the language of the prophet Eze kiel ; and as he was a captive in the region of Nineveh, he had no doubt heard of and had .probably seen these very "chambers of imagery," as well as the objects they repre sent. We there find reproduced to our view the men and scenes he de scribes in chap. 23; 26:7-12: "cap tains and rulers clothed most gor geously," "portrayed with vermil ion," "girded with girdles upon their loins," " in dyed attire." The " ver milion " or red color is quite preva lent among the various brilliant col ors with which these tablets were painted, Ezek. 23:14, 15; Nah. 2:3. Here are " horsemen riding upon horses," "princes to look to" in re spect to warlike vigor and courage; and their horses of high spirit, noble form and attitudes, and decked with showy trappings. (See the accom- 393 NIN BIBLE DICTIONARY, NIS WARRIOR AND HORSES, FROM THE MOUND OF KHORSABAD, NlNEVEH. panying cut.) Here, in fine, are the idols, kings, and warriors of Nineveh in various scenes of worship, hunting, and war ; for tresses attacked and taken ; heaps of heads of the slain, 2 Kin. 10:8; prisoners led in triumph, impaled, flayed, aud otherwise tortured, and sometimes actually held by cords attached to hooks which pierce the nose or the lips, * Kin. 19:28; Isa. 37:29, and having their eyes put out by the point of a spear, 2 Kin. 25:7. For other cuts see Nisroch, Sennacherib, Shalmaneser, and War. The Christian world is under great obli gations to Layard, Botta, and Smith for their enterprising explorations, and to Rawlinson and Hincks for their literary investigations of these remains. To the student of the Bible especially these bur ied treasures are of the highest value, and we may well rejoice not only in this new accumulation of evidence to the truth of the history and prophecies of Scripture, but in the additional light thus thrown on its meaning. How impressive too the warning which these newly-found memo rials of a city once so vast and powerful bring to us in these latter days and in 394 lands then unknown, to beware of the lux ury, pride, and .ungodliness that caused her ruin. WSAH, flowety, a Hebrew month, near ly answering to our, .April,, but varying somewhat from year to year, according to NIS BIBLE DICTIONARY. NOA the course of the moon. It was the 7th month of the civil year, but was made the ist month of the sacred year at the coming out of Egypt, Exod. 12:2. By Moses it is called Abib, Exod. 13:4. The name Nisan is found only after the time of Ezra and the return from the captivity of Babylon, Neh. 2:1; Esth. 3:7. See Month. NIS'ROCH, a god of the Assyrians, in whose temple and in the very act of idola try Sennacherib was slain by his own sons, 2 Kin. 19:37. According to the etymology the name would signify "the great eagle;" and the earlier Assyrian sculptures recent ly exhumed at Nineveh have many repre sentations of an idol in human form, but with the head of an eagle, as shown above. Among the ancient Arabs also the eagle occurs as an idol. According to some, the true reading for Nisroch is Assarach, which would identify him with Asshur. The ac companying cut, representing a winged figure in a circle, armed with a bow, is fre quently met on the walls of ancient Nine veh in scenes of worship, and is believed to be an emblem of Asshur, the supreme divinity of the Assyrians. NI'TRE, not the substance used in ma king gunpowder, but natron, a mineral alkali composed of an impure carbonate of soda. It effervesces with vinegar, Prov. 25:20, and is still used in washing, Jer. 2:22. Combined with oil it makes a hard soap. It is found deposited in or floating upon certain lakes west of the Delta of Egypt, and on the shore of the Dead Sea. NO, or NO -AMON. See Amon and Egypt. NOADI'AH, met by fehovah, I., a Levite, Ezra 8:33. II. A prophetess who tried to put Nehe miah in fear, Neh. 6:14. Compare Ezek. I3:T7- NO'AH, rest, comfort, the name of the celebrated patriarch, the 10th" from Adam, who was preserved by Jehovah with his family, by means of the ark, through the deluge, and thus became the 2d founder of the human race. The history of Noah and the deluge is contained in Genesis, ch. 5-9. He was the son of Lamech, and grandson of Methuselah; was born A. M. 1056, and lived .600 years before the deluge and 350 after, dying 2 years before Abram was born, in all 950 years, only 126 years less than the entire period from Adam to Abram. His name may have been given to him by his parents in the hope that he would be the promised " seed of the wo man " that should " bruise the serpent's head." He was in the line of the patri archs who feared God, and was himself a just man, Ezek. 14:14, 20, and a "preacher of righteousness," 1 Pet. 3:19, 20; 2 Pet. 2:5. His efforts to reform the degenerate world, continued as some suppose for 120 years, produced little effect, Matt. 24:37; the flood did not " find faith upon the earth." Noah, however, was an example of real faith : he believed the warning of God, was moved by fear, and pursued the necessary course of action, Heb. 11:7. His first care on coming out from the ark was to worship the Lord with sacrifices of all the fitting animals, and God covenanted anew with him and with mankind, in con nection with the rainbow, and gave him His blessing. Little more is recorded of him except his falling into intoxication, a. sad instance of the shame and misfortune into which wine is apt to lead. The chil dren of his three sons peopled the whole world — the posterity of Japheth chiefly oc cupying Europe, those of Shem Asia, and those of Ham Africa. 395 NOA BIBLE DICTIONARY. NOP Numerous traces of traditions respecting Noah have been found all over the world. Among the most accurate is that embodied in the legend of the Greeks respecting Deucalion and Pyrrha. We may also men tion the medals struck at Apamea in Phry gia, in the time of the Roman emperor Pertinax, and bearing the name NOE, an ark, a man and a woman, a raven, and a dove with an olive-branch in its mouth. COIN OF APAMEA, IN PHRYGIA. The cut represents another Apamean me morial of the deluge. See Ark. Legends respecting the deluge have been found also among the Hindoos, Persians, Chinese, Polynesians, Mexicans, from none of which the Bible history could be derived, while they all may have originated from the true history in Genesis. Christ sets his seal to its truth, Matt. 24:37; Luke 17:26. See also 2 Pet. 3:3-13. NO'AH, commotion, a daughter of Ze- lophehad, Num. 26:33; Josh. 17:3. NOB, an elevation, a city of priests, in Benjamin, on a hill near Jerusalem ; its in habitants, including 85 priests, were once put to the sword by command of Saul, for their hospitality to David, 1 Sam. 21:1; 22:9-23. The tabernacle and ark, with the showbread, seem to have been there at that time. It was reinhabited after the Captivity, Neh. 11:31-35. It lay south of Gibeah, perhaps on the height es-Sumah, from which Mount Zion can be seen, Isa. 10:28-32. NO'BAH, a barking, I., Num. 32:42, an Israelite chief of the tribe of Manasseh, who led in the conquest of Kenath and its villages, east of the Jordan. II. Judg. 8:11, Kenath, the abode of No- bah I., probably traced in Kunawat, a town in the Ledjah. NO'BLEMAN, John 4:46-53, A. V., one belonging to a royal court, in this case that of Herod Antipas. NOD, flight, or wandering, the region 396 east of Eden to which Cain was exiled. Gen. 4:16. NO'DAB, nobility, 'a large pastoral Arab tribe, defeated by the Reubenites, 1 Chr. 5:19-22. NO'E, in the A. V., Matt. 24:37, 38; Luke 3:36; 17:26,27. See Noah. NO'GAH, a flash, a son of David, 1 Chr. 3:7; H:6. NO'HAH, rest, a son of Benjamin, and head of a family, 1 Chr. 8:2. NOI'SOME, Psa. 91:3; Ezek 14:15, 21, hurtful. NON, 1 Chr. 7:27, A. V. See Nun. NOON, Gen. 43:16; an emblem of pros perity, Amos 8:9; Zeph. 2:4. NOPH, sometimes called also in Hebrew Moph, Hos. 9:6, the ancient city of Mem phis in Egypt. It was situated on the west side of the Nile, just within the val ley of Upper Egypt, and near the apex of the Delta where Lower Egypt begins to widen, an admirable site for a capital. A few scanty remains of it have recently been exhumed some 10 miles south of Old Cairo. It is said to have been founded by Menes, the Mizraim of Gen. 10:6, some 2,200 B. C, and its structures were second to those of Thebes alone. Its principal temple was that of Phthah, the Egyptian Vulcan. Memphis was the residence of the an cient kings of Egypt till the times of the Ptolemies, who commonly resided at Alex andria. Here, it is believed, Joseph was a prisoner and a ruler, and here Moses stood before Pharaoh. The prophets foretell the miseries Memphis was to suffer from the kings of Chaldaea and Persia; and threaten the Israelites who should retire into Egypt, or should have recourse to the Egyptians, that they should perish in that country, Isa. 19:13; Jer. 2:16; 44:1; 46:14, 19; Ezek. 30:13, 16. In this city they fed and wor shipped the sacred bull Apis, the embodi ment of their false god Osiris ; and Ezekiel says that the Lord will destroy the idols of Memphis. Ezek. 30:13, 16. The city be came tributary to the Babylonians, then the Persians, Macedonians, Romans, etc. It retained much of its splendor till it was conquered by the Arabians in the 18th or 19th year of the Hegira, A. D. 641 ; after which it was superseded as the metropolis of Egypt by Fostat, now Old Cairo, in the construction of which its materials were employed. Some 5 miles away stand the Sphinx and the pyramids at Ghizeh, still over 30 in number, " which kings built for themselves," and which Ewald thinks are NOP BIBLE DICTIONARY. NUR meant by "desolate places" in Job 3:14; but the magnificent city that stretched along for many miles between them and the river has almost wholly disappeared. NO'PHAH, height, Num. 21:30, a town of Moab, near Heshbon and Medeba. NORTH, Job 37:9; Prov. 25:23, or "the left hand," Gen. 14:15; Job 23:9. See East. The Babylonians and Assyrians invaded Israel by a northern route, in or der to avoid the desert, Jer. 1:14; 46 : 6, 24 ; Zeph. 2:13. "Fair weather," says Job, or golden weather, " cometh out of the north," Job 37:22. This is as true in Syria and Arabia now as it was 3,000 years ago. NOSE. Several expressions in Scrip ture grew out of the fact that anger often shows itself by distended nostrils,, hard breathing, and in animals by snorting, 2 Sam. 22:9; Job 39:20; Psa. 18:8; Jer. 8:16. Gold rings hung in the cartilage of the nose or the left nostril were favorite ornaments of Eastern women, Gen. 24:22, 47; Prov. 11:22; Isa. 3:21; Ezek. 16:12, as they still are. Rings were inserted in the noses of animals to guide and control them ; and according to the recently-discovered tablets at Nineveh captives among the As syrians were sometimes treated in the same way, 2 Kin. 19:28; Job 41:2; Ezek. 38:4. See Nineveh. NOVICE, or neophite, one recently con verted and received to the Christian Church, 1 Tim. 3:6. NUM'BER, Isa. 6,5:11. See Gad, III. NUM'BERS were designated by the He brews by the letters of the alphabet, some of which were much alike, and thus mis takes often occurred. Compare 2 Kin. 24:8 with 2 Chr. 36:9, and 1 Kin. 4:26 with 2 Chr. 9:25; also 2 Sam. 24:13 with 1 Chr. 21:12; 2 Kin. 8:26 with 2 Chr. 22:2; 2 Sam. 24:9 with 1 Chr. 21:5. To a certain extent a special significance belonged to some of the numbers. Thus seven, the "symbol of perfection, very often occurs — as in the 7 days of the week, the 7 altars of Balak, the 7 times of Nebuchad nezzar; the 7-fold candlestick and offer ings, Exod. 25:37; Lev. 13; the 7 beati tudes, Matt. 5; Psa. 119:164; the Magda lene's 7 devils, Luke 8:2; compare Matt. 12:45; the 7-headed dragon, Rev. 12:3; the 7 last plagues, Rev. 15:1; the 7 deacons, Acts 6; and the 7 spirits before the throne. Three is a symbol of the Trinity, Rev. 1:4; 4:8. It appears in Isaiah's thrice holy, ch. 6:3; in the customary division of an army, Judg. 7:16, 20; 9:43; 1 Sam. 11: 11; the 3 great feasts, Exod. 23:14-17; Deut. 16:16; and the triple blessing, Num. 6:23- 26; 2 Cor. 13:14. Ten, the basis of the decimal system, suggested by the 10 fingers, appears in the 10 commandments, the measures of the tabernacle, Exod. 26:27; 1 Kin. 6; 7, and the ritual service, Exod. 12:3; Lev. 16:29; in the tithes, Gen. 14:20, the 10 plagues of Egypt. Twelve appears in the number of the tribes and of the apostles, the 12 breast plate-jewels, and the 12 gates of the New Jerusalem. Forty also frequently occurs, as in the 40 days' rain of the deluge, the Israelites' 40 years in the desert, Moses' 40 years in Midian, and 40 days in Mount Sinai, the 40 stripes, Deut. 25:3, and the predictions in Ezek. 4:6; 29:11 ; Jonah 3:4. NUM'BERS, THE BOOK of, is so called because the first 3 chapters contain the numbering of the Hebrews and Levites, which was performed separately, after the erection and consecration of the taberna cle. See also ch. 26. The rest of the book contains an account of the breaking up of the Israelites from Sinai, and their subse quent wanderings in the desert, until their arrival on the borders of Moab. It was written by Moses, B. C. 1451, and is the 4th book of the Pentateuch. See Exodus and Wanderings. NUN, a fish, 1 Chr. 7:27, in A. V., Non; a descendant of Ephraim, and father of Joshua, Num. 11:28; 14:6. NURSE, in Hebrew both masculine and feminine, Exod. 2:7; Num. 11:12; Ruth 4: 16. The Bible contains various allusions to the tender and confidential relation an ciently subsisting between a nurse and the children she had brought up, Isa. 49:22, 23; 60:4; 1 Thess. 2:7, 8. See also the story of Rebekah, attended through life by her faithful and honored Deborah, the oak under which she was buried being called "The oak of weeping," Gen. 24:59; 35:8. The custom still prevails in the better fam ilies of Syria and India. Says Roberts in his Oriental Illustrations, "How often have scenes like this led "my mind to the patri archal age. The daughter is about for the first time to leave the paternal roof; the servants are all in confusion; each refers to things long gone by, each wishes to do something to attract the attention of his young mistress. One says, 'Ah, do not .forget him who nursed you when an in fant;' another, ' How often did I bring you. 397 NUT BIBLE DICTIONARY. OAT the beautiful lotus from the distant tank. Did I not always conceal your faults ?' As Rebekah had her nurse to accompany her, so at this day the aya who has from infancy brought up the bride goes with her to the new scene. She is her adviser, her assist ant, and friend, and to her will she tell all her hopes and all her fears." NUT, in Gen. 43:11, the pistachio-nut, fruit of the Pistacia vera, a tree 20 or 30 feet high, the nut not unlike an almond. In Song 6:11 the English walnut, fruit of a lofty, wide-spreading tree. NYM'PHAS, a prominent Christian at Laodicea, whom Paul salutes, together with the company of believers wont to wor ship at his house, Col. 4:15; in the R. V. "their house." o. OAK. Six different Hebrew words are translated oak in the A. V., all from a root, signifying strength; none of them deno ting the Quercus robur of our own forests. A true oak is supposed to be intended in Gen. 35:8; Josh. 24:26; Isa. 1:29; 2:13; 6:13; 44:14; Ezek. 27:6; Hos. 4:13; Amos 2:9; Zech. 11:2. In some passages any strong flourishing tree, Isa. 6:13; 61:3; Ezek. 31:14; Dan. 4:10-26. In others the terebinth, Gen. 35:4; Judg. 6:11; 2 Sam. 18:9; 1 Kin. 13:14; 1 Chr. 10:12; Isa. 1:30; Ezek. 6:13. "Abraham's oak," so called for centuries after Christ, near Hebron, was of this kind, the Quercus pseudo-coc- cifera, a deciduous tree, though resembling wsmm* ABRAHAM'S OAK, NEAR HEBRON. an evergreen in foliage. The tree now called "Abraham's oak" is a true acorn- bearing oak, now very old, and 22^ feet in circumference. The terebinth or tu.- pentine-tree, called butm by the Arabs, is translated "elm" in Hos. 4:13, and "teil- tree" in Isa. 6:13, in which passages the true oak is also mentioned. In some pas sages where "plain" or "plains" occurs, we should probably understand "oak," or "oak grove," Gen. 12:6; 13:18; 14:13; 18:1; Deut. 11:30; Judg. 4:11; 9:6, 37. Three species of oaks are now found in Bible lands, and in Lebanon some are of 398 large size, as they formerly must have been in Palestine. Dr. Robinson saw the crests and heights of the region east of the Jordan clothed as in ancient times with grand oaks, Zech. 11:2. The oak is a long- lived tree, and many single trees or groves were notable and historical landmarks, 1 Sam. 10:3. See Moreh. Under the welcome shade of oaks and other large trees many public affairs were transacted ; sacrifices were offered, courts were held, and kings were crowned, Josh. 24 : 26 ; Judg. 6:11,10; 9.6. . See Grove. OATH, a solemn affirmation or promise OAT BIBLE DICTIONARY. OBA accompanied by an appeal to the Supreme Being to punish the swearer if his state ments are not true or his promises not kept, Gen. 26:28; 2 Sam. 21:7; Neh. 10:29, 30. An oath was often taken when im portant declarations were made, 1 Kin. 18:10, a vow assumed, Lev. 5:4, a solemn promise given, Gen. 14:22; 24:2-4; 50:25, or a covenant made, Gen. 31:53; 1 Chr. 16:15-17. God has prohibited all false oaths and all useless and customary swear ing in ordinary discourse ; but when the necessity or importance of a matter re quires an oath, he allows men to swear by his name, Exod. 22 : 1 1 ; Lev. 5:1. To swear by a false god was an act of idolatry, Jer. 5:7; 12:16. Among the Hebrews an oath was admin istered judicially, not Only to witnesses, but to an accused person whose guilt could not be proved, that upon his solemn denial he might beset free, Exod. 22:10, 11; Lev. 5:1; 6:2-5; Num. 5:19-22; 1 Kin. 8:31. The judge stood up and adjured the per son to be sworn in the name of God, also mentioning one or more of His infinite at tributes. In this manner our Lord was adjured by Caiaphas, Matt. 26:63. Jesus had remained silent under long examina tion, when the high-priest, rising up, know ing he had a sure mode of obtaining an answer, said, " I adjure thee by the living God, that thou tell us whether thou be the Christ." To this oath, thus solemnly ad ministered, Jesus replied that he was indeed the Messiah. An oath is a solemn appeal to God, as to an all-seeing witness that what we say is true, and an almighty avenger if what we say be false, Heb. 6: 16. Its force depends upon our conviction of the infinite justice of God ; that he will not hold those guilt less who take his name in vain; and that the loss of his favor immeasurably out weighs all that could be gained by false witness. It is an act of religious worship ; on which account God requires it to be taken in his name, Deut. 10:20, and points out the manner in which it ought, to be ad ministered, and the duty of the person who swears, Exod. 22:11; Deut. 6:13; Psa. 15:4; 24:4, Hence atheists, who profess to be lieve that there is no God, and persons who do not believe in a future state of reward and punishment, cannot consistently take an oath. In their mouths an oath can be only profane mockery. God himself is represented as confirm ing his promise by oath, and thus conform ing to what is practised among men, Gen. 26:3; Psa. 95:11; Acts 2:30; Heb. 6:13, 16, 17. The oaths forbidden in Matt. 5:34, 35; 23:16-22; Jas. 5:12, must refer to the un thinking, hasty, and frivolous practices of the Jews, not to reverent appeals to God on proper occasion ; otherwise Paul must have acted against the command of Christ, Rom. 1:9; Gal. 1 :2o; 2 Cor. 1:23. That person is obliged to take an oath whose duty requires him to declare the truth in the most solemn and judicial manner; though undoubtedly oaths are too often administered unneces sarily and irreverently, and taken with but slight consciousness of the responsibility thus assumed. As we are bound to mani fest every possible degree of reverence to wards God, the greatest care is to be taken that we swear neither rashly nor negli gently in making promises. To neglect performance is perjury, unless the promise be contrary to the law of nature and of God; in which case no oath is binding; the sin is in taking it. See Corban and Vows. A customary formula of taking an oath, accompanied perhaps by some significant gesture, was, " The Lord do so to me, and more also," that is, the Lord slay me, as the victim sacrificed on many such occa sions was slain, Gen. 15:10, 17; Jer. 34:18, and punish me even more than this, if I speak not the truth, Ruth 1 : 17 ;h 1 Sam. 3:17. Similar phrases are these: "As the Lord liveth," Judg. 8:19; " Before God I lie not," Rom. 9:1; "I say the truth in Christ," 1 Tim. 2:7; "God is my record," Phil. 1:8. Several acts are alluded to as accompaniments of an oath ; as putting the hand under the thigh, Gen. 24:2; 47:29; and raising the hand towards heaven, Gen. 14:22, 23; Deut. 32:40; Rev. 10:5. Hence to "lift up the hand" often means to take an oath, Exod. 6:8; Deut. 32:40; Psa. 106:26; Ezek. 20:5-42. Perjury or false swearing, and all pro fane mention of God's names or attributes, are grievous sins and worthy of severe pun ishment, Exod. 20:7; Lev. 19:12; 24:10-16; Deut. 19 : 16-19 1 Hos- 4:2,3- In some cases, less of heedlessness than of wilful defiance of the Almighty, it has been followed by sudden death. OBADI'AH, Heb. OBAD'YAH, servant oj fehovah, I., the chief officer of king Ahab's household, who preserved the lives of 100 prophets from the persecuting Jezebel, by concealing them in 2 caves and furnishing them with food, 1 Kin. 18:4. He was trust- 399 OBA BIBLE DICTIONARY. OFF ed by Ahab, and in time of famine shared with the king in a survey of the land for water supplies — not for the people, but for the tyrant's beasts — during which he met the prophet Elijah, and was sent to an nounce his coming to Ahab, i Kin. 18:3-16. True piety can live in very unfavorable circumstances, 1 Cor. 10:13. II. The 4th of the minor prophets, sup posed to have prophesied about 587 B. C. It cannot indeed be decided with certainty when he lived, but it is probable that he was contemporary with Jeremiah and Eze kiel, who denounced the same dreadful judgments on the Edomites, as the punish ment of their pride, violence, and cruel in- sultings over the Jews after the destruction of their city, and foretold the ultimate tri umph of Zion, ver. 17-21. The prophecy, according to Josephus, received its initial fulfilment about 5 years after the destruc tion of Jerusalem. Ten others of this name are mentioned in 1 Chr. 3:21; 7:3; 8:38; 9:16, 44; 12:9; 27:19; 2 Chr. 17:7; 34:12; Ezra 8:9; Neh. 10:5. O'BAL, bare, Gen. 10:28, son of Joktan and head of an Arabian tribe ; called Ebal in 1 Chr. 1:22, and probably residing near the strait Bab el-Mandeb. O'BED, servant, son of Boaz and Ruth, and grandfather of David, Ruth 4:17; iChr. 2:12. See also the genealogies of Christ, Matt. 1:5; Luke 3:32. Four others are named in 1 Chr. 2:37, 38; 11:47; 26:7; 2 Chr. 23:1. O'BED-E'DOM, servant of Edom, I., a Levite — called a Gittite, from Gath-rim- mon, Josh. 21 :25 — whose special prosperity while keeper of the ark after the dreadful death of Uzzah encouraged David to carry it up to Jerusalem. The Kohathites bore the ark on their shoulders, as the law di rected, not on a cart. Obed-edom and his sons were made doorkeepers of the taber nacle at Jerusalem, 2 Sam. 6:10-12; 1 Chr. 15:18-24; 16:38; 26:4-8, 15. Happy the family that reveres and cherishes the ark of God, though it brought woe to the Philis tines. The house of Obed-edom is sup posed to have stood on a level plateau of 4 acres on a ridge 6 miles west by south of Jerusalem ; it is named Kuryet es-Saideh, " abode of the blessed one." II. Others of this name are mentioned in 1 Chr. 16:38; 2 Chr. 25:23, 24. OBE'DIENCE to God is the supreme duty of men, Acts 4:17; 5:29, as his creatures, Psa. 95:6, dependent on his bounty, Psa. 400 145; Acts 14: 17, subject to his law, Psa. 119, and redeemed by his grace, 1 Cor. 6:20. It should be from the heart, 1 John 5:2-5, in all things and at all times, Rom. 2:7; Gal. 6:9. Obedience is due from children to parents, Exod. 20:12; Eph. 6:1; Col. 3:20; from servants to their employers, Eph. 6:5; Col. 3:22 ; 1 Pet. 2: 18 ; and from citizens to government, Rom. 13:1-5; Tit. 3:1. OBEI'SANCE. See Salutation, Wor ship. O'BIL, camel-keeper, the name or title of an Arab in charge of David's camels, 1 Chr. 27:30. OBLA'TION. See Offering, First- fruits. O'BOTH, water-skins, or passes, the 43d station of the Israelites, near Moab, south east of the Dead Sea, Num. 21:10, 11; 33:43,44- OBSERVE', Mark 6:20, treat with re spect. OBSER'VERS OF TIMES, Lev. 19:26; Deut. 18:10, 14; 2 Kin. 21:6; 2 Chr. 33:6; Gal. 4:10, men who had a superstitious re gard for supposed lucky or unlucky days as determined by astrology. They are condemned in Scripture. See Divination. In our own day many have a similar weak ness in dreading Friday, the day of our Lord's death, although he then took away man's chief occasion for fear. OCCUPY, in Exod. 38:24; Judg. 16:11, to use; in Ezek. 27:16, 19, 21, 22, to trade; in Ezek. 27:9, 27, to trade with; in Luke 19:13,. employ in business. OC'RAN, afflicted, of the tribe of Asher, Num. 1:13; 2:27; 7:72. O'DED, erecting, I., father of Azariah the prophet, in the reign of Asa, 2 Chr. 15:1-8. II. A prophet of the Lord, who, being at Samaria when the Israelites under king Pekah returned from the war against Ju dah and brought 200,000 captives, went to meet them and remonstrated with them ; so that the principal men in Samaria took care of the prisoners, gave them clothes, food, and other assistance, and carried the feeble on asses. Thus they conducted them back to Jericho, 2 Chr. 28:9, etc. OF, often used in A. V. for by, Luke 14:8; Acts 23:27; for on, Ruth 2:16; and for for, Psa. 69:9; John 2:17. OFFENCE'. This word is used in the ordinary sense of a sin, or a wrong or dis pleasure, as in Eccl. 10:4; Rom. 4:25; 5:15- 20; 2 Cor. 11:7; Jas. 2:10; 3:2, and in the sense of a stumbling-block or cause of sin to others, 2 Cor. 6:3, or whatever is per- OFF BIBLE DICTIONARY. OIL verted into an occasion or excuse for sin. Sj with the verb "to offend," or cause to fall, Psa. 119:165; Matt. 5:29, 30; 18:6, 8, 9. To be " offended " is to be led to fall away, Matt. 13:21; 24:10. Christians are required to give no just occasion for the stumbling of others, even denying themselves some things otherwise lawful, Rom. 14:13-21; 1 Cor. 8:9-13; 10:32; 2 Cor. 6:3. The doc trine of the cross was fatally offensive to many Jews, as it still is to human pride, Rom. 9:33; Gal. 5:11; 1 Pet. 2:8; and this was foretold, Isa. 8:14, and should not sur prise us. OF'FERING, or OBLA'TION, anything prescribed by the law to be presented to God to propitiate him, imploring his favor, or expressing gratitude, Gen. 4:3-8; 8:20. In the Hebrew, an offering, minchah, is dis tinguished from a sacrifice, zebah, as being bloodless. In our version, however, the word offering is often used for a sacrifice, as in the case of peace-offerings, sin-offer ings, etc. Of the proper offerings, that is, the unbloody offerings, some accompanied the sacrifices, as flour, wine, salt ; others were not connected with any sacrifices. Like the sacrifices, some, as the firstfruits and tenths, were obligatory; others were voluntary offerings of devotion. Various sorts of offerings are enumerated in the books of Moses. Among these are, 1. Fine flour or meal ; 2. Cakes baked in an oven ; 3. Cakes baked on a plate or shallow pan ; 4. Cakes cooked in a deep vessel by frying in oil (English version " frying-pan," though some understand here a gridiron, or a plate with holes' ; 5. Firstfruits of the new corn, either in the simple state, or prepared by parching or roasting in the ear or out of the ear. The cakes were kneaded with olive oil, or fried in a pan, or only dipped in oil after they were baked. The bread offered for the, altar was without leaven ; for leaven was never offered on the altar, nor with the sacrifices, Lev. 2:11, 12. But they might make presents of common bread to the priests and ministers of the temple. Honey was never offered with the sacrifi ces, but it might be presented alone, as firstfruits, Lev. 2:11, 12. 6. Clean animals were also offered. Lev. 22 : 18-23. Those who offered living victims were not ex cused from giving meal, wine, and salt, to gether with the greater sacrifices. Those who offered only oblations of bread or of meal offered also oil, incense, salt, and wine, which were in a manner their sea soning. The priest in waiting received the 26 offerings from the hand of him who brought them, laid a part on the altar, and reserved the rest for his own subsistence as a minis ter ofthe Lord. Nothing was wholly burned up but the incense, of which the priest re tained none. See Lev. 2:2, 13, etc.; Num. I5H. 5- In some cases the law required only offerings of corn or bread, as when they offered the firstfruits of harvest, whether offered solemnly by the nation, or as the devotion of private persons. The u.nbloody offerings signified in general not so much expiation, which was the peculiar meaning of the sacrifices, as the consecration of the offerer and all that he had to Jehovah. Only in the case of the poor man, who could not afford the expense of sacrificing au an imal, was an unbloody sacrifice accepted in its stead, Lev. 5:11. See Sacrifices. It is easier to make costly offerings than to forsake beloved sins, and God many times sternly reproved the Hebrews for relying on their offerings, without the wor ship ofthe heart and life, Isa. 1:11-17; Jer. 6:20; 7:21-23; Hos. 6:6; Amos 5:22-24; Mic. 6:6-8. See also Psa. 50:8-23; Rom. 2:28, 29; Heb. 10:1-14; I3:I5, '6. OF'TEN, 1 Tim. 5:23, frequent; an ad jective in old English. OG, long-necked, an Amoritish king of Bashan east of the Jordan, defeated and slain by the Israelites under Moses at Ed- rei. Compare Josh. 24:12. He was a giant in stature, one of the last of the Rephaim who had possessed that region ; and his iron bedstead, 14 feet long, was preserved after his death as a relic. Ashtaroth-car- naim and Edrei were his chief cities ; but there were many other walled town^, and the land was rich in flocks and herds. It was assigned by Moses to the half-tribe of Manasseh, Num. 21:33; 32:33; Deut. 1:4; 3:1-13:4:47; 31:4; Josh. 2:10; 12:4; 13:30. His fame long continued, Psa. 135:11; 136:20. OIL, a symbol of gladness, Psa. 45:7; Isa. 61:3; Joel 2:19, was employed from the earliest periods in the East, not only for the consecration of priests and kings, Lev. 8:12; 1 Sam. 10:1; 16 : 1 , but to anoint the head, the beard, and the whole person in daily life. Gen. 28:18; Deut. 28:40; Ruth 3:3; Psa. 92:10. See Anointing. It was employed by physicians, Isa. 1:6; Mark 6:13; Luke 10:34; Jas. 5:14; was almost the only artificial light, Exod. 25:6; 27:20, 21; 35:8; Lev. 24:2; 1 Sam. 3:3; and was universally used as food, 1 Kin. 5: 11 ; 2 Chr. 401 OIL BIBLE DICTIONARY. OLI 2:10, 15; Ezek. 16:13, 19. Fresh and sweet olive oil was greatly preferred to butter and animal fat as a seasoning for food, and to this day in Syria almost every kind of food is cooked with oil. It had a place also among the meat-offerings in the temple, being usually mixed with the meal of the oblation, Lev. 5:11; 6:21. For lamps also pure olive oil was regarded as the best, and was used in illuminating the taberna cle, Exod. 35:14; 39:37; Num. 4:16. These many uses fUr oil made the culture of the olive-tree an extensive and lucrative busi ness, 1 Chr. 27:28; Ezek. 27:17; Hos. 12:1. Oil was tithed by the Mosaic law, Num. 18:12; Deut. 12:17; Neh. 13:12, and was as much an article of storage and of traffic as corn and wine, 1 Chr. 27:28; 2 Chr.32:28; Ezra 3:7. The best oil was obtained from the fruit while yet green, in No vember, by a slight beating or press ing, Exod. 27:20; 29:40, and laying it in sloping trays, that the first juice might flow off into receptacles. The ripe fruit, from December to Febru ary, yielded more abundantly but a less valuable oil. The berries were crushed under stone rollers, or by subjecting them to pressure in the oil-mill, Hebrew gath-shemen. The olive-berries are not now trodden with the feet. This, however, seems to have been practised among the Hebrews, at least to some extent, when the berries had become soft by keeping, Mic. 6:15. Gethsemane, that is, oil-press, probably took its name originally from some oil-press in its vicinity. See Olive. OIL'-TREE, Isa. 41:19; in I Kin. 6:23 called "olive-tree:" in Neh. 8:15 "pine-branches;" supposed to be the Pinus pinea, a tall and beau tiful cultivated tree. OINTMENTS, of various ingredi ents boiled together, Job 41 :3i, were much used by the ancient Hebrews, not chiefly for medical purposes as among us, but as a luxury, Ruth 3:3; Psa. 104:15; Song 1:3; Matt. 6:17; Luke 7:46. They were also used at funerals, Matt. 26:12; John 12:3, 7; 19:40. Their perfumery was usually prepared in olive oil, and not in volatile extracts and essences. The sacred ointment is de scribed in Exod. 30:22-33. It was used in anointing the tabernacle, the table, ves sels, candlestick, altar of incense, altar of burnt-offerings and its vessels, the laver, 402 and the priests, Exod. 29:7; 37:29; 4°:9> 15; Psa- 133:2. The ointments of the rich were made of very costly ingredients, and their fragrance was highly extolled, Isa, 39:2; Amos 6:6; Matt. 26:7-9; John 12:5. See Anointing. OLD AGE. Aged people were to be treated with reverence and all needful care, Job 12:12; 15:10, the young rising at their approach, Lev. 19:32, and any lack of respect was strongly condemned, Deut. 28:50; Lam. 5:12. Corresponding duties were owed by them to the young. The wisdom taught by experience is invalua ble; compare 1 Kin. 12:1-16; Job 32:7; and the responsibilities of church and state, both in Old Testament and New Testament times, were intrusted to "elders." OLIVE: OLEA EUROP^EA. OL'IVE, Heb. pleasant or shining. This is one of the earliest trees mentioned in Scripture, and has furnished, perhaps ever since the deluge, the most universal em blem of peace, Gen. 8:11. It is always classed among the most valuable trees of Palestine, which is described as a land of oil olive and honey, Deut. 6:11; 8:8; Hab. 3:17. No tree is more frequently men- OLI BIBLE DICTIONARY. OLI tioned in the Greek and Roman classics. By the Greeks it was dedicated to Minerva, and employed in crowning Jove, Apollo, and Hercules. The olive is never a very large or beautiful tree, and seldom exceeds 30 feet in height ; its leaves are dark green on the upper surface and of a silvery hue on the under, and generally grow in pairs. Its wood is hard, like that of box, and very close in the grain. It was used in Solo mon's temple, 1 Kin. 6:23-33. The branch es were employed in making booths for the Feast of Tabernacles, Neh. 8:15. It blos soms very profusely, and bears fruit every other year. The flower is at first yellow, but as it expands it becomes whiter, leav ing a. yellow centre. The blossoms are very abundant, but many drop off at the lightest breeze, Job 15:33. The fruit re sembles a plum in shape and in color, being first green, then pale, and when ripe almost black. It is gathered by shaking the boughs and by beating them with poles, Deut. 24:20; Isa. 17:6; 24:13, and is some times plucked in an unripe state, put into some preserving liquid, and exported. It is principally valuable for the oil it pro duces, which is an important article of commerce in the East. A full-sized tree in full bearing vigor is said to produce 50 pounds of oil, Judg. 9:8, 9; 2 Chr. 2:10. The olive delights in a stony soil, and will thrive even on the sides and tops of rocky hills where there is scarcely any earth; hence the expression, " oil out of the flinty rock," etc., Deut. 32:13; Job 29:6. Yet it will grow in a wet soil. It is an evergreen tree, and very long-lived, an emblem of a fresh and enduring piety, Psa. 52:8; Jer. n:r6; Hos. 14:6. Around an old trunk young plants shoot up from the same root, to adorn the parent stock when living and succeed it when dead; hence the allusion in describing the family of the just, Psa. 128:3. It- is slow of growth, and no less slow to decay. The ancient trees now in Gethsemane are believed by many to have sprung from the roots of those which wit nessed the agony of our Lord. Dr. Martin and Bove think they may be even 2,000 years old. The largest is 6 yards in circumfer ence, and 9 or 10 yards high. The " wild olive-tree " is -smaller than the cultivated, and inferior in all its parts and products. A graft on it from a good tree bears good fruit; while a graft from a "wild" olive upon a good tree remains "wild" as be fore. Yet, "contrary to nature," the sin ner engrafted on Christ partakes of His nature and bears good fruit, Rom. 11:13- 26. An " olive-yard," or grove of olive-trees, was as common in Palestine as vineyards or grain fields, Exod. 23:11; Josh. 24:13; 1 Sam. 8:14; 2 Kin. 5:26; 1 Chr. 27:28; Neh. 5:11 ; 9:25. OL'IVES, MOUNT OF, Zech. 14:4; Ezek. 11:23, called simply " the mount " in Neh. 8:15, also "Olivet" in 2 Sam. 15:30; Acts 1:12; now Jebel et-Tur, a ridge 2 miles long running north and south on the east side of Jerusalem, its summit not half a mile from the city wall, and separated from it by the valley of the Kidron. It rises 2,665 feet above the Mediterranean, and the Jordan valley 14 miles off lies 3,500 feet be low. The Church of the Ascension, on the central height, is due east from the Mosque of Omar % of a mile, 224 feet higher than Moriah and 355 above the bed of the Kid ron. It is composed of a chalky limestone, the rocks everywhere showing themselves. The olive-trees that formerly covered it and gave it its name are now represented by a few trees and clumps of trees which ages of desolation have not eradicated. There are 3 prominent summits on the ridge ; of these the southernmost, which is 250 feet lower than the other two, is now known as the "Mount of Offence," origi nally the " Mount of Corruption," because Solomon defiled it by idolatrous worship, 1 Kin. 11:5-7; 2 Kin. 23:13, 14. Over this ridge, between the northern and the cen tral summit, passes the road to Bethany, the most frequented road to Jericho and the Jordan. The sides of the Mount of Ol ives towards the west contain many tombs cut in the rocks. The central summit, di rectly east of the temple area, rises 200 feet or more above Jerusalem, and presents a fine view of the city, and indeed of the whole region, including the mountains of Ephraim on the north, the valley of the Jordan on the east, « part of the Dead Sea on the southeast, and beyond it Kerak in the mountains of Moab. Perhaps no spot on earth unites so fine a view with so many memorials of the most solemn and impor tant events. David climbed it sadly, flee ing from Absalom, 2 Sam. 15:23-32. Over this hill the Saviour often passed in his journeys to and from the holy city. Geth semane lay at its foot on the west, and Bethany on its eastern slope, nearly a mile from the summit, Matt. 21:1; 24:3; 26:30; Markn:i; 13:3; John 8:1. It was proba bly near Bethany, and not as tradition says 4°3 OLY BIBLE DICTIONARY. ONE on the middle summit, that our Lord as cended to heaven, Luke 24:50; Acts 1:12, though superstition has built the "Church of the Ascension " on the pretended spot, and shows the print of his feet on the rock whence he ascended! From the summit, 3 days before his death, he beheld Jerusa lem, and wept over it, recalling the long ages of his more than parental care, and grieving over its approaching ruin. Scarce ly anything in the gospels moves the heart more than this natural and touching scene. No one can doubt that it was God who there spoke; his retrospect, his prediction, and his compassion alike proved it. See Luke 19:37-44, in connection with Matt. 23:35-38, spoken the next day. The same spot is associated with the predictions of his future judgments in the earth, Zech. 14:4. See view ofthe central summit in Gethsemane ; also Sepulchres. OLYJVI'PAS, a Christian at Rome, Rom. 16:15. O'MAR, eloquent, 2d son of Eliphaz, Gen. 36:11, 15; 1 Chr. 1:36. O'MEGA, the great 0, or long O, the last letter ofthe Greek alphabet as Alpha is the first. See A. Rev. 1:8, 11; 21:6; 22:13. Compare Isa. 41:4; 44:6. Christ performs what he begins, Phil. 1:6; Heb. 13:8. O'MER, a sheaf, Exod. 16:16-36, a He brew measure of capacity, the 10th part of an ephah. See Measures and Appendix Tables. OMNIP'OTENT, Rev. 19:6, in the He brew Shaddai, the Almighty, a name of God signifying his infinite power, an attri bute only partially comprehended by us through his amazing works in the creation, preservation, and government of the uni verse, Gen. 17:1; Exod. 15:11, 12; Deut. 3:24; Psa. 62:11; 65:5-13; Matt. 19:26; Eph. 3:20. It is the name given to God throughout the book of Job, and he himself assumes it for the comfort of his people and the dismay of his enemies, Gen. 35 : 1 1 ; Exod. 6:3; Psa. 91:1; 2 Cor. 6:18; Rev. I9:*5- OMNIPRES'ENCE, an infinite attribute of Jehovah alone, signifying that he is ev erywhere present, at all times, and in the perfection of all his other attributes. His nature is undivided and wholly distinct from all created things. The thought of his presence should enter into all our life, to restrain from sin, and to strengthen, cheer, and inspire us, Gen. 16:13; 28:16, 17; Psa. 139; Acts 17:27, 28; Heb. 1:3. OMNIS'CIENCE, all infinite attribute of 404 God, in virtue of which he perfectly knows all things and beings, actual and possible, past, present, and future. Like all God's attributes, it is beyond all finite compre hension, Job 11:7; Isa. 46:9, 10; 1 John 3:20. OM'RI, servant of fehovah, I., a grand son of Benjamin, 1 Chr. 7:8. II. The son of Imri, tribe of Judah, 1 Chr. 9:4. III. A captain under David, 1 Chr. 27:18. IV. Founder of the 3d dynasty of Israel, and previously general of the army of Elah king of Israel; but being at the siege of Gibbethon, and hearing that his master Elah was assassinated by Zimri, who had usurped his kingdom, he raised the siege, and being elected king by his army, marched against Zimri, attacked him at Tirzah, and forced him to burn himself and all his family in the palace in which he had shut himself up. After his death half of Israel acknowledged Omri for king, the other half adhered .to Tibni, son of Ginath, which division continued 4 years. When Tibni was dead the people united in acknowledging Omri as king of all Is rael, who reigned 12 years, 6 years at Tir zah and 6 years at Samaria, 1 Kin. 16:8- 28. His wickedness exceeded that of his predecessors. Compare 2 Chr. 22:2-4; Mic. 6: 16. He lpst some of his cities to the Syrians under Ben-hadad I., 1 Kin. 20:34; 22:3. His son and successor was Ahab. Tirzah had previously been the chief residence of the kings of Israel ; but when Omri purchased the hill of Shomeron, 1 Kin. 16:24, he built there a new city, which he called Samaria, from the name of the previous possessor, Shemeror Shomer, and there fixed his royal seat. From this time Samaria was the capital of the king dom of the 10 tribes. It appears under the name of Beth-khumri, founded by Omri, on the stone tablets exhumed by Layard from the ruins of Nineveh. ON, force, I., a Reubenite, son of Peleth, engaged at first in the mutiny of Korah, Num. 16:1. It is conjectured that he with drew and escaped ruin. II. See Heliopolis. O'NAN, strong, 2d son of Judah, who refused to raise up children by the widow of his deceased brother, as the law required, Deut. 25:5-10; Mark 12:19, and was pun ished by death, Gen. 38:4-9; 46:12. ONES.'IMUS, profitable, a slave to Phi lemon of Colossae in Phrygia, who ran away from him and fled to Rome; but be- ONE BIBLE DICTIONARY. OPH ing converted to Christianity through the preaching of Paul, he was the occasion of Paul's writing the Epistle to Philemon, which see. He ministered tenderly to the apostle in his imprisonment, and was re ceived by his former master as " a brother beloved," Col. 4:9. ONESIPH'ORUS, profit-bearing, a Chris tian friend of Paul at Ephesus, who came to Rome while the apostle was imprisoned there for the faith, and at a. time when al most every one had forsaken him. This is supposed to have occurred during Paul's last imprisonment, not long before his death. Having found Paul in bonds, after long seeking him, he assisted him to the utmost of his power, and without regard to danger; for which the apostle implored the highest benedictions on him and his fam ily, 2 Tim. 1 : 16-18; 4:19. ON'ION, the Allium cepa, one ofthe veg etables of Egypt for which the Hebrews murmured in the desert, Num. 11:5. Has- selquist says that the onions of Egypt are remarkably sweet, mild, and nutritious. Juvenal, Pliny, and Lucian satirize the superstitious regard of the Egyptians for this bulb. ON'LY-BEGOT'TEN, or only son, Luke 7: 12, a Scriptural title of Christ, suggesting a mysterious relation between him and the Father which no human words can fully express and no finite mind comprehend, John 1:14. O'NO, strong, a town of Dan, afterwards of Benjamin, near Lydda, 1 Chr. 8:12; Ezra 2:33 ; probably traced in Kefr 'Ana, 5 miles north by west of Lydda. The " plain of Ono " denotes a portion of the plain of Sharon near Ono, Neh. 6:2; 7:37; 11:35. ON'YCHA, an ingredient of the sacred incense, whose fragrance perfumed the sanctuary alone, Exod. 30:34. It is conjec tured to mean the Blatta Byzantina of the shops, which consists of the cover or lid of a species of muscle, and when burned emits a musky odor. The best onycha is found in the Red Sea, and is white and large. ON'YX, a nail, the nth stone in the high- priest's breastplate, Exod. 28 : 9-12, 20. The modern onyx has some resemblance to the agate, and the color of the body of the stone is like that of the human nail ; hence its name. The Hebrew word so translated is not known with certainty to signify the onyx, but denoted some valuable stone, Exod. 25:7; 35:9; 39'6. 131 J°D 28:16. They were found in Havilah, Gen. 2:12, and used by the king of Tyre, Ezek. 28 : 13. The onyx is often of a milk-white color, with brown strata, and is set in rings, seals, and cameos. A species of marble resem bling the onyx was known to the Greeks, and may have been the "onyx-stones" stored up by David for the temple, 1 Chr. 29:2. O'PHEL, the knoll, I., a quarter of Jeru salem adjacent to the temple, and therefore occupied by the Nethinim, Neh. 3:26, 27; 11:21. It appears to have been inclosed by a wall and fortified by a strong tower, 2 Chr. 27:3; 33:14, and is thought to be meant by the Hebrew ophel, translated " stronghold " in Mic, 4:8. It is often men tioned by Josephus as Ophla. There can be no doubt that the name belongs to the lower ridge into which Mount Moriah sinks south of the area of the mosque. It is 290 feet wide, and extends 1 ,550 feet to the south. terminating in a bluff 40 or 50 feet high above the pool of Siloam. It is separated from Mount Zion on the west by the valley called Tyropoeon, and was anciently cov ered with houses, but is now devoted to the culture of olives, figs, and other fruit. Portions of the ancient wall on the east have been found by recent excavations 70 feet high, connecting it with the temple area. See Jerusalem. II. In the A. V. "the tower," a place on a height near Samaria, in a house of which Gehazi hid his spoils received from Naa- man, 2 Kin. 5:24. O'PHIR, fruitful or red, I., one of the sons of Joktan, who settled in Southern Arabia, Gen. 10:26-29. II. A country to which the ships of Solo- mon traded, and which had for a long time been celebrated for the purity and abun dance of its gold, Job 22 : 24 ; 28 : 16. " Golc*. of Ophir " was proverbially the best gold, Psa. 45:9; Isa. 13:12. The only passages which give us any information as to the location of Ophir are 1 Kin. 9:26-28; 10:11, 22; 22:48, with the parallel passages in 2 Chr. 8:18; 9:10, 21; 20:36, 37; from which it appears that the so-called "ships of Tarshish " went to Ophir ; that these ships sailed from Ezion-geber, a port of the Red Sea ; that a voyage was made once in 3 years ; that the fleet returned freighted with gold, peacocks, apes, spices, ivory. algum-wood, and ebony. Upon these data interpreters have undertaken to determine the situation of Ophir ; but they have ar rived at different conclusions. Josephus places it in the peninsula of Malacca. Oth ers have placed it at Sofala, in South Afri 4°5 OPH BIBLE DICTIONARY. ORG ca, where mines of gold and silver have been found, which appear to have been anciently and extensively worked. Others still suppose it to have been Southern Ara bia. General opinion now inclines to the first location, and in Southern India alone all Solomon's articles of commerce are found together. See Uphaz. OPH' HI, famine, a town in the northeast of Benjamin, Josh. 18:24, tne Gophna of Josephus, now Jufna, a poor village 2)/s miles northeast of Bethel. OPH'RAH, a fawn, I., a town ofthe Ben- jamites, located by Eusebius 5 miles east of Bethel, near which site, towards the north, now stands et-Taiyibeh on a conical hill, with an old tower commanding a splendid view of the Jordan valley, the Dead Sea, and the mountains beyond, Josh. 18:23; 1 Sam. 13:17. Probably the place to which Christ went after the resurrection of Laza rus, John 1 1 : 54. See Ephraim. II. " Of the Abiezrites " (see Abiezer), a town of Manasseh where Gideon resided, and where after his death his ephod, made or adorned from the spoils of Zebah and Zalmunna, was superstitiously adored, Judg. 6:11-24; 8:27,32; 9:5. It overlooked the plain of Esdraelon from the southwest. III. Son of Meonothai, of the tribe of Ju dah; or a place founded by him, 1 Chr. 4:14. OR, sometimes in A. V. means ere, be- fore, Psa. 90 : 2 ; Prov. 8:23; Song6:i2; Dan. 6:24; Acts 23:15. OR'ACLE, the secret room of the temple, the Holy of Holies, where the ark of the covenant was placed, where God was spe cially present between the cherubim, and delivered his messages, 2 Sam. 16:23; ' Kin. 6:5, 16, 19; 7:49; 8:6, 8; 2 Chr. 3:16; 4:20; 5:719; Psa. 28:2. See Mercy-seat. The established mode of " inquiring at the mouth of the Lord " was through the high- priest, by means of the Urim and Thum mim, 1 Sam. 23:9; 30:7, 8. In the New Testament "oracles" means the divine utterances, the entire word of God, Acts 7:38; Rom. 3:2; Heb. 5:12; 1 Pet. 4:11. Strikingly unlike the true and living ora cles of God were the famous counterfeit oracles of numerous heathen temples, often condemned in Scripture, Judg. 17:1, 5; 2 Kin. 1:2; Hos. 4:12; Hab. 2:19. Among the Greeks the most famous were that of Jupiter under the oak at Dodona, and that of Apollo at Delphi — where the priestess sat on a tripod over a fissure in a rock, from which issued an intoxicating vapor, 406 and her ravings were interpreted by the priests. The priests who pretended to convey to applicants the responses of their gods often gave a reply capable of two opposite interpretations, when neither pri vate information nor their own experience or sagacity gave them the clew to a safe an swer. Thus Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, was encouraged to a war with Rome, by an ora cle which was found after his defeat to foretell defeat as much as victory : Aio te, Aeacida, Romanos vincere posse. OR'ATOR, the eloquent, in Isa. 3:3, A. V., rather " skilful of speech," that is, of incantation or pretended magic. Com pare Psa. 58:5. In Acts 24:1 the Roman advocate who appeared on behalf of the Jews against Paul in the court at Rome. OR'DER, implying system, regularity, and decorum, whether in the public affairs of church and state, or in the household and individual life, is both beautiful and essential to success. It is commended by the example of God, Gen. 18:19; Josh. 24:15; Psa. 90:12; 119:133; Eccl. 3:1, n; 1 Cor. 14:26-40; Phil. 1:27. OR'DINANCE, a decree, charge, or law, Exod. 12:24; I5:25; Lev. 18:30; 2 Chr. 33:8; Rom. 13:1; Heb. 9:1, 10. The gos pel enjoins obedience to all rightful au thority, 1 Pet. 2:13, especially that of God, 1 Cor. 11:2. Church ordinances, so called as resting on Scriptural authority, are such as baptism, the Lord's Supper, public wor ship — with reading and expounding God's Word, preaching the gospel, praise, prayer, and thanksgiving. O'REB and ZE'EB, raven and wolf, 2 Midianite chiefs, captured after the victory of Gideon, and slain by the men of Ephraim at the spots whither they had fled, and which were afterwards called, in memory of them, " the rock of Oreb " and the wine press or cellar of Zeeb, Judg. 7:25; 8:3. Their punishment foretells that of all God's enemies, Psa. 83; Isa. 10:26. Oreb is placed by some at Ash el-Ghurab, 3 miles north by east of Jericho; and the wine-press of Zeeb, a little farther north. O'REN, ash-tree, 1 Chr. 2:25, son of Je- rahmeel. OR'GAN, Psa. 150:4, a wind instrument apparently composed of several pipes. It cannot, however, mean the modern organ, which was unknown to the ancients, but refers probably to the ancient syrinx, or pipes, similar to the Pandean pipes, a se ries of 7 or more tubes of unequal length and size, closed at one end, and blown into ORI BIBLE DICTIONARY. OST with the mouth at the other, Gen. 4:21 ; Job 21:12; 30:31. See Music ORI'ON, languid, Job 9:9, Heb. chestl, "Linos 5:8; in Isa. 13:10 translated "con stellations;" according to the best inter preters and the ancient versions the con stellation Orion, which, on account of its supposed connection with storms, Virgil calls "nimbosus Orion." It lies south of the ecliptic, and its belt of 3 bright stars is crossed by the equator. In Job 38:31 fetters are ascribed to him ; and this coin cides with the Greek fable of the giant Orion, bound in the heavens.for an unsuc cessful war against the gods. The Arabs call it " the giant," meaning Nimrod. Some interpreters identify chest! with the star Canopus, in Arabic sohail. OR'NAMENTS. The Hebrews and other Eastern people were very fond of these. The men wore seal-rings, gold chains, and costly attire, Gen. 41 :42 ; the women richly- embroidered garments, with rings for the 'fingers, ears, and nose, bracelets, anklets, and hair-ornaments, Gen. 24:22, 53; 35:4, often in profusion, Exod. 3:22; 11:2; 33:4; fudg. 8:26 — see Prov. 1:8,9; Isa. 3:16-24 — and especially by brides, Song i : 10, n; ler. 2:32. They were laid aside in mourn ing, Exod. 33 : 4-6 ; 2 Sam. 1 : 24 ; Ezek. 16:11; 24:17, 22. Paul and Peter exhort Christian women to adorn themselves chiefly with womanly virtues, 1 Tim. 2:9, 10; 1 Pet. 3:4. Compare Prov. 30:10-31. OR'NAN. See Araunah. OR'PAH, gazelle, a Moabitess, wife of Chilion and Naomi's daughter-in-law, who remained with her people and gods when Ruth followed Naomi and the Lord, Ruth 1:4-14. The one was taken and the other' left. Orpah's name disappears, but Ruth was the ancestor of a long line of kings and of our Lord himself. Momentous and everlasting results often depend on the de cision of a single hour. OR'PHANS were specially provided for by the Hebrew law, Deut. 14:29; 24:17; Jas. 1:27. In John 14:18 rendered "com fortless," in R. V. " desolate," one left without a protector. The same Greek word, as a participle is used in 1 Thess. 2:17, "bereaved of you." OSE'E, Rom. 9:25, Hosea, as in R. V. OSHE'A, he saves, or HOSHE'A, Deut. 32:44, the name of Moses' successor, changed to Joshua, fehovah saves, in honor of his faith, Num. 13:8, 16. OS'PREY, Heb. powerful, a bird of the eagle kind, unfit for food, Lev. 11:13. It is thought to be the sea-eagle, or the black eagle of Egypt. See Birds. OS'SIFRAGE, bone-breaker ; in Hebrew Peres, from paras, lo break; an unclean bird of the eagle family, Lev. 11:13; Deut. 14: 12. Some interpreters think the beard ed vulture is intended; others a mountain bird like the lammergeyer of the Alps, which breaks the bones of wild goats by hunting them over precipices. It is 4 or 5 feet in length and 8 or 9 in the stretch of its wings. THE OSTRICH : STRUTHIO CAMELUS. OS'TRICH, the largest of birds, and a sort of connecting link between fowls and quadrupeds, termed by the Persians, Arabs, and Greeks the "tcamel-bird." It is a na tive of the dry and torrid regions of Africa and Western Asia. The gray ostrich is 7 feet high, and its neck 3 feet long ; it weighs nearly 80 pounds, and is strong enough to carry 2 men. The other species, with glossy black wings and white tail, is some times 10 feet high. The beautiful plumes so highly valued are found on the wings, about 20 on each, those of the tail being usually broken and worn. There are no feathers on the thighs or under the wings, and the neck is but scantily clothed with thin whitish hairs. The weight of the body and the size and structure of the wings show that the animal is formed for running and not for flying. The ostrich is described in Job 39:13-18, and in various places where our A. V. calls it the "owl," Job 30:29; Jer. 50:39, or 407 OST BIBLE DICTIONARY. OWL "daughter ofthe owl," Isa. 13:21; 34:13; 43:20; Mic. 1:8. In these and other pas sages it figures as a bird of the desert. Shy and timorous, it is occasionally driven by hunger to visit and ravage cultivated fields, but is usually found only in the heart of the desert, in troops or small groups, or mingling familiarly with the herds of wild asses, gnus, and quaggas. It was unclean by the Mosaic law, Lev. 11:16; Deut. 14:15. Its food is often scarce and poor, plants of the desert " withered before they are grown up;" also snails, insects, and various rep tiles; for it has a voracious and indiscri ur inating appetite, swallowing the vilest and the hardest substances. Job speaks par ticularly of the speed of the ostrich, " She scorneth the horse and his rider." So Xenophon, the biographer of Cyrus, says of the ostriches of Arabia that none could overtake them, the baffled horsemen soon returning from the chase. The mother-bird scoops out a circular nest in the sand, and lays a large number of eggs, some of which are placed without the nest, as though intend ed for the nourishment of the young * brood. Afterwards, with the help ___^ of the sun in the tropics and of her .jijM mate in the cool nights, she per- _| forms the process of incubation ; but her timidity is such that she flies from her nest at the approach of danger, and as Dr. Shaw remarks, " forsakes her eggs or her young ones, to which perhaps she never returns, or if she does, it may be too late either to restore life to the one or to preserve the lives of the oth ers. The Arabs meet, sometimes with whole nests of these eggs un disturbed, some of them sweet and good, others addle and corrupted. They often find a few of the little ones no bigger than well-grown pullets, half starved, straggling and moaning about like so many distressed orphans for their mother. In this manner the ostrich may be said to be ' hardened against her young ones, as though they were not hers ; her labor,' in hatching and attending them so far, ' being vain, without fear ' of what becomes of them afterwards. This want of affection is also recorded in Lam. 4:3, ' The daughter of my people is become cruel, like the ostriches in the wilder ness ;' that is, apparently by deserting her own children and receiving others in re turn." 408 When the ostrich is provoked, she some times makes- a fierce, angry, and hissing noise, with her throat inflated and her mouth open ; at other times she h sa moan ing and plaintive cry ; and in the night the male repels prowling enemies by a short roar which is sometimes taken for that of a lion, Mic. 1:8. OTH'NI, my lion, 1 Chr. 26:7. OTH'NIEL, lion of God, son of Kenaz and ist judge of the Israelites, delivering them from the tyranny of the king of Meso potamia, and ruling them in peace 40 years. His wife Ach€ah, daughter of his uncle Ca leb, was the reward of his valor in taking the city of Debir, Josh. 15:17; Judg. 1:13; 3:9, 10. During his administration the Hebrews were faithful to God, and pros pered, Josh. 15:16-19; Judg. 1:11-15; 3:8- 11 ; 1 Chr. 4:13. OUCH'ES, sockets in which precious stones were set, Exod. 28:11, 14, 25; 39:6, *3, *6- OV'EN. See Bread. SACRED IBIS: IBIS RELIGIOSA. OWL, a night bird of prey, unfit for food. Several species are found in Palestine and in all Western Asia. The horned owl, Otus ascalaphus, is probably meant in the A. V. by "little owl " in Lev. 11:17; Deut. 14:16, and "owl" in Psa. 102:6; and the Strix flammea by "screech owl" in Isa. 34:14. Another Hebrew word," bath- haya'anah, translated owl in A. V., Lev. 11:16; Deut. 14: 15, etc., means the ostrich (which see). Still another word, yanshuph, translated "great owl" in Lev. 11:17; Deut. 14:16: and "owl"' in Isa. 34:11, A. V., means either ox BIBLE DICTIONARY. OZN THE NIGHI-HEROH 1 ARDKA NYCT1CORAX. the sacred ibis, or more probably the night- heron. OX, or bull, the male of the beeve kind when grown. But the word ox is some times used in a general sense like "herd," and is often rendered " kine." The ox tribe were clean animals by the Levitical law, Deut. 14:4, and were much used for food, 1 Kin. 1:9; 4:23; 19:21, though in the des ert wanderings those only were eaten which had been first offered in sacrifice, Lev. 17:1-6. They supplied milk, butter, and "cheese," Deut. 32:14; 2 Sam. 17:29; Isa. 7:22; were employed as beasts of bur den, 1 Chr. 12:40, and of draught, Num. 7:3; 1 Sam. 6:7; 2 Sam. 6:6; in ploughing, Deut. 22:10; 1 Sam. 14:14; 1 Kin. 19:19, and in treading out grain, etc., Deut. 25:4; Psa. THE BULL OF SYRIA. 144:14; Hos. 10: 11, during which they were not to be muzzled, 1 Cor. 9:9, but well fed, Isa. 30:24; and the Sabbath rest was to be giventhem, Exod. 23:12; Deut. 5:14. They were sometimes fattened in stalls, 1 Kin. .¦1:23; Prov. 15:17; Luke 15:27, and barley was the grain generally given them. They constituted no small part of the wealth of the Hebrews in their pastoral life, Gen. 24:35; Exod. 12:32, 38; 2 Sam. 12:2; 1 Chr. 27:29; Job 1:14; 42:12. Hundreds of them were offered in sacrifice every year, Exod. 20:24; and these were to be the best of their kind, Mai. 1 : 14. The region east of the Jordan was a famous grazing country, and boasted of the strongest bullocks and the finest herds. Those roaming at large were often dangerous, and were wont to gather ominously around any object that excited their suspicions, as is the habit of half-wild cattle in our own day, Psa. 22:12. See Bashan, Butter, Milk. Oxen were driven with goads, Judg. 3:31 ; ActS9:5. A man that stole an ox was obliged to give 5 oxen in return, or 2 in some cases; and a stray ox was to be carefully returned to Its owner, Exod. 22:1, 4; 23:4. Unruly cattle were to be safely kept, or their owner was accountable for all damage, Exod. 21:28- 36— one Of the many precepts of the Jew ish law of universal equity and very wide application in our own time. The testing of a new yoke of oxen is still a business of great importance in the East, as of old, Luke 14:19. A passage in Campbell's trav els in South Africa well illustrates the pro verbial expression, " as a bullock unaccus tomed to the yoke," Jer. 31 : 18 : " When the selection fell on an ox I had received as a present from some African king, of course one completely unaccustomed to the yoke, such generally made a strenuous struggle for liberty, repeatedly breaking the yoke and attempting to make its es cape. At other times such bullocks lay down upon their sides or back, and re mained so in defiance of the Hottentots, though 2 or 3 of them would be lashing them with their ponderous whips. Some times, from pity to the animal, I would interfere, and beg them to be less cruel. ' Cruel,' they would say, ' it is mercy ; for if we do not conquer him now he will re quire to be so beaten all his life.' " The buffalo is not uncommon in modern Palestine, and is used with the neat cattle around Lake Huleh, though an ugly, sul len animal. See Bulls of Bashan and Unicorn. The " wild ox," or bull, mentioned in Deut. 14:5; Isa. 51:20, is supposed to have been the oryx, a species of stag or ante lope, large and powerful. OX-GOAD. See Goad. O'ZEM, power, I., a son of Jesse. II. Son of Jerahmeel, 1 Chr. 2:25. OZI'AS, Matt. 1:8, 9, A. V. See Uz ziah. OZ'NI, Num. 26:16, of the tribe of Gad; called also Ez'bon, Gen. 46:16. 409 PAD BIBLE DICTIONARY. PAL P. PA'DAN-A'RAM, the plains of Aram or Syria, Gen. 25:20; 28:2; 31:18, or simply Padan, Gen. 48 17, the plain, in distinction from the " mountains " of Aram, Num. 23 : 7. See Mesopotamia and Syria. PAIN'FUL, laborious, Psa. 73:16; 2 Cor. 11:27. PAINT, PAINT'ING. Among the He brews the walls and beams of- houses were often painted, Jer. 22:14; images of idols, or drawings of them on temple walls, were also thus adorned by the heathen, Ezek. 23:14. The Assyrian ruins and Egyptian monuments show painted figures and orna mental devices. See Nineveh. Cosmetic painting was common among Egyptian and Assyrian women, and to some extent among the Hebrews. See Eye. PAL' ACE in the Old Testament denotes sometimes all the buildings, courts, and gardens inclosed by the outer wall of a royal residence, Dan. 1:4; 4:4; 1 Kin. 7:1- 12; sometimes the fortress or citadel, 1 Kin. 16:18; 2 Kin. 15 : 25. In the New Testament the word is applied to the residence of a man of wealth or high position, Matt. 26:3, 69; Mark 14:66; Luke 11:21, or, as in the R. V., its "court," around which the house stood. For its meaning in Phil. 1 : 13, A. V., see Pr^torium. PA't-AL., judge, Neh. 3:25. PAL'ESTINE denotes, in the Old Testa ment, the country of the Philistines, " Phi- listia," as the Hebrew word is elsewhere translated. It was that part of the Land of Promise extending along the Mediterra nean Sea on the varying western border of Simeon, Judah, and Dan, Exod. 15:14; Isa. 14:29, 31; Joel 3:4. Palestine, taken in later usage in a more general sense, signifies the whole country of Canaan, as well' beyond as on this side of the Jordan, though frequently it is restricted to the country on this side that river ; so that in later times the words Judaea and Palestine were synonymous. We find also the name of Syria-Palestina given to the Land of Promise, and even sometimes this province is comprehended in Ccele-Syria, or the Lower Syria. Herodotus is the most an cient writer known who speaks of Syria- Palestina. He places it between Phoenicia and Egypt. See Canaan. PALM'ER-WORM. This old English term, meaning pilgrim-worm, is used in Joel 1:4; 2:25; Amos 4:9, like "canker- worm" and "caterpillar," for some de- .410 structive insect, perhaps a species of the locust; but in this case probably a large palmer-worm and caterpillar: plusia GAMMA. moth, some varieties of which are very de structive even before they reach the winged state. See Locust. PALM-TREE, Exod. 15:27. This tree is called in Hebrew lamar, from its straight, upright, branchless growth, Jer. 10:5, for which it seems more remarkable than any other tree. It grows in hot, dry climates and in sandy soil, sending its roots down to subterranean waters, but flourishes best near streams and springs. Its graceful form was reproduced in the columns of costly houses and on the doors of the tem ple, 1 Kin. 6:32; 2 Chr. 3:5; compare Ezek. 41 : 18-20. See Tamar. The palm is one of the most beautiful trees ofthe vegetable kingdom. The trunk, of nearly uniform size throughout, is full of rugged knots, which render it compara tively easy to climb to the top for the fruit, Song 7:7, 8. These projections are the vestiges of the decayed leaves; for the trunk, like that of all endogenous trees, has its centre filled with pith, round which is a tough bark, full of strong fibres when young, which, as the tree grows old, hard ens and becomes ligneous. To this bark the leaves are closely joined, which in the centre ,,se erect, but after they are ad vanced above the sheath that surrounds them, they expand very wide on every side the stem, and as the older leaves decay, the stalk advances in height. It becomes 30 or 40 feet high, and in some instances 60 to 100 feet; and with its ever-verdant and graceful crown continually aspiring towards heaven, and its precious fruit, it is an apt image of the soul growing in grace, Psa. 92:12, 14. The leaves, when the tree has grown to a size for bearing fruit, are 6 PAL BIBLE DICTIONARY. PAM to 8 feet long, are very broad when spread out, and are used for covering the tops of houses, for fans, and similar purposes. the date-palm: phcenix dactylifera. The fruit, from which one sort of palm is often called the date-tree, grows below the leaves in a dozen or more clusters, some times weighing over 15 pounds, and is of a sweet and agreeable taste. The palm be gins to bear when about 10 years old, lives 200 years or more, and yields most abun dantly from the 30th to the 80th year. The ripe dates are gathered by hand or shaken into a net, and spread out in the open air for a few days ; some are eaten fresh, others stored for future use, or yield a rich syrup from their expressed juice, or a pleasant drink by maceration in hot water. Such are the date-wines of the East. The dili gent natives, says Mr. Gibbon, celebrate, either in verse or prose, the 360 uses to which the trunk, the branches or long leaf stalks, the leaves, fibres, and fruit of the palm are skilfully applied. A considera ble part of the inhabitants of Egypt, of Ara bia, anrl Persia subsist almost entirely on its fruit. They boast also of its medicinal virtues. Their camels feed upon the ground date-stone. From the leaves they make couches, baskets, bags, cordage, mats, and brushes; from the branches or stalks, ca ges for their poultry and fences for theil gardens; from the fibres of the trunk, thread, ropes, and rigging; from the sap is prepared a spirituous liquor ; and the body of the tree furnishes fuel: it is even said that from one variety of the palm-tree, the phcenix farinif era, meal has been extract ed, which is found among the fibres of the trunk, and has been used for food. Several parts of the Holy Land, no less than of Idumaea that lay contiguous to it, are described by the ancients to have abounded with date-trees, /udaea is typi fied in several coins of Vespasian by a dis consolate woman sitting under a palm- tree, with the inscription, Judaea Capta. See Captivity. The Hebrews carried the leaves at the Feast of Tabernacles, Neh. 8:15. Palms flourished in Elim and Elath, in Baal - tamar and Hazezon - tamar, in Bethany, "house of dates," and Phoenicia, "land of palms." In Deut. 34:3, Jericho is called the " city of palm-trees ;" and one of these trees is still found in that vicin ity; but in general they are now rare in Palestine. Palm - wreaths, and branches waved in the air or strewn on the road, are associated as a symbol of victory, not only with the honors paid to ancient conquerors in the Grecian games and in war, but with the triumphant entry of the King of Zion into Jerusalem, John 12:13, and with his more glorious triumph with his people in heaven, Rev. 7:9. PAL'SY, or paralysis, strikes sometimes one side or portion of the body, and some times the whole, affecting the power of motion or the power of sensation, or both, 1 Kin. 13 .-4-6. The affected part sometimes becomes withered, the muscles contract ing, Mark 3:1-5. In some violent forms, prevalent in the East, the limbs remain fixed as at the beginning of the attack, and the suffering is intense, death ensuing in a few days, Matt. 8:5-13. Palsy is one Ofthe least curable of diseases ; but the Saviour healed it with a word, Matt. 4:24; 9:2-7; 12:10; Mark 2:3-12; Acts 8:7; 9:33, 34. There is also a palsy of the soul, which the Great Physician can heal, and he alone. • PAL'TI, whom fehovah delivers, one of the 12 spies, a leader in Benjamin, Num. 13:9- PAMPHVL'IA", a province of Asia Minor, 411 PAN BIBLE DICTIONARY. PAR having Cilicia east, Lycia west, Pisidia north, and the Mediterranean south — a crescent-shaped plain sweeping around the seacoast, Acts 27 : 5, and extending north to the Taurus Mountains, being about 80 miles long and 30 wide. The river Cestrus was formerly navigable 7 miles to Perga, the capital. Attalia was the chief seaport, Acts 14:25, 26. Strangers from Pamphylia were at Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost, Acts 2:10; and Paul twice visited it on his first missionary tour, and parted with John Mark here, Acts 13:13; 14:24,25; 15:38. PAN'NAG, in Ezek. 27:17, is the Hebrew word for some unknown product of Pales tine, which the Jews sold to the Tyrians. It is variously understood to mean millet, sweetmeats, a confection or delicate spice, etc. PA'PER, PAPY'RUS. See BOOK. PA'PHOS, a city in the western end of Cyprus, whose Roman governor was con verted at the visit of Paul and Barnabas, Acts 13:6-13. Old Paphos, now Kuklia, said to have been founded about B. C. 1 184, was 2 miles from the shore, and was the site of a famous temple of Venus, often called "the Paphian goddess," because she was fabled to have risen from the sea here. New Paphos, now Baffa, was on the coast, about 10 miles northwest of theolder town ; it had a tolerable harbor, now nearly filled up, and was the seat of a Roman procon sul. See Elymas and Sergius Paulus. PAR'ABLE, Gr. Parabole, a compari son, as in Mark 4:30, A. V., Heb. mashal, si militude, translated "parable " in Job 27: 1, A. V., and "proverb" in Prov. 1:1; in its wider sense any form of teaching by anal ogy or figure : including metaphors, Ezek. 12:22; Matt. 24:32, proverbs or maxims, 1 Sam. 10:12; 24:13; 2 Chr. 7:20; Luke 4:23, obscure prophetic utterances, Num. 23:18; Ezek. 20:49, typical or symbolical signs, Heb. 9:9. In its narrower sense, as in many of Christ's teachings, it is a short narrative of some actual or possible occur rence, enforcing some important spiritual truth. It differs from the fable, which em ploys reasoning animals or plants to illus trate a wise policy, Judg. 9:8-15; and from the allegory, Psa. 80:8-16; John 15:1-8, in having its meaning less plainly on the sur face, and requiring a careful consideration of the personality and circumstances of speaker and hearers. Parabolical and enigmatical language was much used by Eastern sages, Psa. 49:4; 78:2; and nothing was more insup- 412 portable than to hear a fool utter parables, Prov. 26:7. A parable was employed by Nathan in reproving David, 2 Sam. 12: 1-4; by another prophet in rebuking Ahab, 1 Kin. 20:39, 40; by Isaiah, 5:1-7. This form of discourse was frequent with later Hebrew writers and teachers, and has ever been much admired by Oriental people. Our Saviour frequently addressed the peo ple in parables, thereby verifyi ng the proph ecy of Isaiah, 6:9, that the rebellious peo ple should see without knowing, and heal without understanding, in the midst of in structions, Matt. 13:10-15; Mark 4:2, 10-13, 33, 34. This result, however, only proved how inveterate were their hardness of heart and blindness of mind ; for in no other way could he have offered them instruction more invitingly, clearly, or forcibly than by this beautiful and familiar mode; and to all who really desired to know the truth he readily gave the needed explanations. In interpreting a parable, its primary truth and main scope are to be chiefly con sidered. The details, though often signifi cant, must not be unduly pressed; and the special aspect of divine truth which it pre sents is not to be insisted on to the exclu sion of other aspects presented in other parables or in the more direct teaching of Scripture. Compare Christ's own expla nations of the parables of The Sower and The Wheat and Tares. Matthew and Luke record most of his parables, while Mark dwells more on his acts and John on his longer discourses. The following parables of our Lord are recorded by the evangelists : Wise and foolish builders, Matt. 7:24-27. Children of the bride-chamber, Matt. 9: 15. New cloth and old garment, Matt. 9: 16. New wine and old bottles, Matt. 9: 17. Unclean spirit, Matt. 12:43-45. Sower, Matt. 13 : 3, 18 ; Luke 8 : 5, 11. Tares, Matt. 13 : 24-30, 36-43. Mustard-seed, Matt. 13:31.32; Luke 13:19. Leaven, Matt. 13:33. Treasure hid in a field, Matt. 13:44. Pearl of great price, Matt. 13 : 45, 46. Net cast into the sea, Matt. 13:47-50. Meats defiling not, Matt. 15:10-20. Unmerciful servant, Matt. 18:23-35. Laborers hired, Matt. 20: 1-16. Two sons, Matt. 21 : 28-32. Wicked husbandmen, Matt. 21 : 33-45. Marriage-feast, Matt. 22 : 2-14. Fig-tree leafing, Matt. 24:32-34. Man of the house watching, Matt. 24 : 43. Faithful and evil servants, Matt. 24:45-51. Ten virgins, Matt. 25 : 1-13. Talents, Matt. 25 : 14-30. Kingdom divided against itself, Mark 3 : 24. PAR BIBLE DICTIONARY. PAR House divided against itself, Mark 3 : 25. ¦ Strong man armed, Mark 3 : 27 ; Luke 11 : 21. Seed growing secretly, Mark 4 : 26-29. Lighted candle, Mark 4:21; Luke 11 :33-36. Man taking a far journey, Mark 13:34-37. Blind leading the blind, Luke 6:39. Beam and mote, Luke 6 : 41 , 42. Tree and its fruit, Luke 6 : 43-45, Creditor and debtors, Luke 7 : 41-47. Good Samaritan, Luke 10 : 30-37. Importunate friend, Luke 11:5-9. Rich fool, Luke 12 : 16-21. Cloud and wind, Luke 12 : 54-57. Barren fig-tree, Luke 13 : 6-9. Men bidden to a feast, Luke 14 : 7-11. The great supper, Luke 14 : 15-24- Builder of a tower, Luke 14 : 28-30, 33. King going to war, Luke 14 : 31-33. Savor of salt, Luke 14 : 34, 35. Lost sheep, Luke 15:3-7. Lost piece of silver, Luke 15 : 8-ro. Prodigal sou, Luke 15 : 11-32. . Unjust steward, Luke 16 : 1-8. Rich man and Lazarus, Luke 16 : 19-31. Importunate widow, Luke 18: 1-8. Pharisee and publican, Luke 18:9-14. Pounds, Luke 19 : 12-27. Good shepherd, John 10: 1-6. Vine and branches, John 15 : 1-5. PAR'ADISE, Gr. paradeisos, a word of Persian origin answering to the Heb. gan, and denoting a beautiful park, garden, or orchard, Neh. 2:8; Eccl. 2:5; Song 4:13. In the' Septuagint the term is applied to the garden of Eden, Gen. 2:15, commonly known as "the terrestrial Paradise." In Jewish theology it designates the abode of the righteous in the unseen world, the home of repose and joy beyond the grave. In its use our Saviour promised happiness to the penitent thief, Luke 23:43. Paul in a vision was caught up into paradise, 2 Cor. 12:4. And in Rev. 2:7; 22:14, the natural features of the scene where innocence and bliss were lost are used to depict the world where these are restored perfectly and for ever. PA'RAH, the mouse, Josh. 18:23, a town of Benjamin, possibly at the ruins now called Farah, on the point made by wadies Fdran and Suweinit, 6 miles northeast of Jerusalem. PA'RAN, beauty, a large tract of desert country south of Canaan, a high limestone plateau nearly surrounded by mountains — the short ranges on its east side running down to the Arabah valley and part of the Gulf of Akaba, those on the south be longing to the great Sinai group, those on the west separating it from the desert of Etham and Shur. On the north it merged in the Negeb or "south country" of the Israelites, and included the deserts of Ka desh and Zin,"Num. 13:21, 26; 33:36. It is described as a dreary expanse of chalky soil, covered with coarse gravel, black flint, and drifting sand, with scanty vegetation. Some cities and cultivated grounds, how ever, and patches of pasture lands were formerly found here. Its water-courses are now dry except in the rainy season. Bedouin tribes roam over it with their flocks. The roads from Egypt and Mount Sinai to Canaan cross it. In this region the Israelities dwelt for 38 years, from which fact it derives its modern name, " Badiet et-Tih," desert of the wandering. The first mention of Paran, " El-paran," the oak of Paran, is as the western limit of Chedorlaomer's pursuit ofthe Horites, Gen. 14:6. It became the home of Hagar and Ishmael, Gen. 21:21; was entered by the Israelites soon after leaving Sinai, Num. 10:12, 33; 11:3, 34, 35; 12:16; and from it the spies were sent, Num. 13:3, 26. Isra el's stations in it are mentioned, Num. 33:18-36; David retired to it, 1 Sam. 25:1, and Hadad went through it to Egypt, 1 Kin. 11:17, 18. "Mount Paran," Deut. 33:2; Hab. 3:3, was probably the modern Jebel Magra'h, a conspicuous range running east to the Ara bah heights, midway between the Dead Sea and the Gulf of Akaba. PAR'BAR, 1 Chr. 26:16, 18, a portico or out-building on the west side of the tem ple, with chambers for storage. PARCHED GROUND, in Isa. 35:7, A. V., translated by Lowth "the glowing sand," by Henderson " the vapory illusion," and in German sand-meer and wasserschein, "sand-sea" and "water-show," refers to the mirage, an optical illusion described by almost all travellers in tropical deserts. It is produced by an unequal refraction of the rays of the sun in the lower strata of the atmosphere over the hot sand. The inexperienced wanderer sees at a distance what he thinks is a beautiful sheet of wa ter, and imagination clothes the further shore with fresh herbage and shrubbery, stately palms waving in the breeze, build ings, etc. ; but on hasting towards it he finds the delightful vision recede and at length disappear, and nothing remains but the hot, dry sands. Instead of the decep tive and vanishing hopes of earth, our Sa viour bestows the true waters of eternal life. PARCH'MENTS, 2 Tim. 4:13. Skins, rudely prepared, were early used for wri ting. Sheepskins were thus used- by the 413 PAR BIBLE DICTIONARY PAS Ionians 5 centuries B. C. Under Eume- nes, a king of Pergamos, about 2 centuries B. C., a better mode of dressing them was discovered, and they were called in Latin " charta pergamena," whence our word parchment. See Book. PAR'DON, Psa. 25:11, God's withholding "he punishment due to us for our sins, aud treating us as though we had not offended. God alone can grant pardon, Exod. 34:6, ; •. Mark 2:7, 10-12, out of his free love and g.ace, Isa. 43:25; Rom. 5:8; Eph. 1:6, 7, on account of the atonement and media tion of Christ, Rom. 3:23-26; Heb. 9:9-28, who himself bore the punishment due to sinners, Isa. 53:4-12; Gal. 3:10, 13. Re pentance and faith in Christ are necessary to secure it, Isa. 55:7; John 3:16, 18; Acts 10:43; 13:38, 39; 1 John 1:6-9. Men are commissioned to deliver God's message promising pardon to repenting and belie ving sinners, but no man has power. t» pardon sin, Luke 24:47. The Scriptures show the completeness of God's pardon by speaking of it as the covering of sin, not imputing it, Psa. 32:1, 2, taking it away, Psa. 103:12; Mic. 7:19, blotting it out and not remembering it, Psa. 51:1,9; Heb. 8:12. PAR'LOR, in 1 Chr. 28:11, an inclosed inner room, often translated " chamber." In 1 Sam. 9:22 a bedroom or "chamber" at the corner of a court-yard. In Judg. 3:20-25 a cool and private upper chamber, to which the owner repaired for his noon siesta or for purer air and a better view. PAR'MENAS, abiding, Acts 6:5, one of the first 7 deacons. PA'ROSH, or Pha'rosh, a flea, Ezra 2:3; 8:3; Neh. 3:25; 7:8; 10:14, a Jew whose family, in number 2,712, returned to Jeru salem with Zerubbabel, besides others with Ezra. PARSHANDA'THA, given by prayer, a son of Haman, Esth. 9:7. PAR'THIA, originally a province of Me dia, southeast of the Caspian Sea, appears to have been conquered by Cyrus B. C. 550, and was subject to the Persian mon archs and to the Seleucidae. Under Arsa- ces, B. C. 256, it established its independ ence, and in apostolic times the empire extended from India to the Tigris. Seleu- cia and Ctesiphon were chief cities, and Ecbatana a royal summer residence. Par- thia retained its power nearly 500 years, and was not subjugated even by the Ro mans. But in A. D. 226 the Persians con quered the last of the Arsacidae and re established the Persian Empire. The Par- 414 thians were a rude people, of Scythian ori gin. They were expert horsemen, armed chiefly with bows, and discharging their arrows with wonderful skill while riding at full speed and in flight, like Indians or Cossacks. Parthia proper, now called Atak, is included in modern Khorassan. Jews from Parthia, and perhaps Parthian prose lytes to Judaism, were at Jerusalem at Pentecost, speaking the Persian language, Acts 2:9. PARTI'TION, The middle wall of, Eph. 2 : 14, the wall separating the court of the Gentiles from the inner courts of the temple, denoting whatever distinguished the favored people of God from the heath en. This distinction, as well as its cere monial tokens, God abolished in the ful ness of time, John 4:21-24; Acts 11:1-18; 14:27; 15:1-29. See Temple. greek partridge: caccabis saxatilis. PAR'TRIDGE. The Greek partridge is common in Palestine, and at least one other variety; and both frequent rocky hillsides, and when disturbed seek safety by running rather than by flight ; and the peasants now as anciently, 1 Sam. 26:20, chase it until it is weary and knock it over with a stick or stone. Its numerous eggs also are much prized for food, and it is often driven off and its nest robbed, Jer. 17:11. PARU'AH, blooming, 1 Kin. 4:17. PARVA'IM, 2 Chr. 3:6, a region where fine gold was found ; the word is translated by Gesenius " eastern regions." The loca tion is not known. PAS-DAM'MIM, boundary of flowings, 1 Chr. 11:13, called Ephes-dammim (see) in 1 Sam. 17: 1. It was near Socoh, 16 miles southwest of Jerusalem. PAS BIBLE DICTIONARY. PAS PASE'AH, lame, I., a descendant of Ju dah, I Chr. 4:12. II. Head of a family of Nethinim in Ze- rubbabel's time, Ezra 2:49; Neh. 3:6; 7:51. PASH'UR, prosperity, I., son of Immer, a priest and a chief officer in the temple. In Jehoiakim's reign he persecuted Jere miah for prophesying evil to Jerusalem, and incurred a fearful punishment, Jer. 20:1-6. II. A priest, son of Malchiah, sent by king Zedekiah to ask of Jeremiah the issue of Nebuchadnezzar's -preparations against Jerusalem, Jer. 21. Afterwards, when the Babylonians retired from the city, Jer. 37 : 5, 11, he demanded the prophet's death as a traitor, Jer. 38: 1-13. Many descendants of this Pashur, priests, returned from captiv ity at Babylon, 1 Chr. 9:12; Ezra 2:38; Neh. 11:12. PAS'SAGES, Jer. 22:20. See Abarim. PAS'SION, Acts 1:3, suffering; the last sufferings and death of Christ. See Cross. In Acts 14:15, Jas. 5:17, "like passions" is nearly equivalent to " the same human na ture." PASS'OVER, Heb. Pesach, Gr. Pascha, the name given, 1, to the victim sacrificed to insure the safety of the firstborn of the Israelites in Egypt, when tHe Lord slew the firstborn in every Egyptian family, but passed over the Israelites to protect them, Isa. 31 : 5, where the blood of the lamb was sprinkled on the doorway; and 2, to the festival established to commemorate that event and Israel's release from bondage, Exod. 12; 13:3-10. This feast, marked by the sacrifice of the passover, was one of the 3 chief festivals of the Hebrews, and was like a sacrament — reminding them of God's grace to them in the past, and bind ing them still to obey and trust him, and so secure its continuance.. It was called also " the feast of unleavened bread," Exod. 23:14-18; Deut. 16:2,6, 16; 2 Chr. 30:1, 13, 15; Ezra 6:22; Luke 22:1, 7; 1 Cor. 5:7. The month of the Exodus, named Abib, and at a later period Nisan, was made the first month of the sacred year, Exod. 12:2 ; 13 : 4. At the institution of the festival it was commanded that the lamb or kid should be selected on the 10th day of Nisan. It was to be a male of the first year. Each family was to take a lamb, or if a family was too small, one or two others might join it. On the 14th day all leaven was scru pulously removed from the dwelling, as is the custom of the Jews to this day. At evening (see) the passover was to be killed, and some of its blood was to be put on the door-posts and lintel. It was to be roasted entire, and eaten the same night ; no bone must be broken, and any residue must be burned before morning. Unleav ened bread and bitter herbs were to be eat en with it, and no leaven was to be used till after the 21st day of the month. The equipments and posture of travellers in haste were to be assumed. At every new observance of the festival a declaration of its meaning was to be made by the father to his children. The first full day of the festival, the 15th of Nisan, was to be ob served as a holy day of rest, a "sabbath," and of convocation, as was also the last day, Nisan 21st, Lev. 23:5-8; and special sacrifices were appointed for each day, Num. 28:16-25. On the 2d day, the 16th of Abib, the firstfruits of barley were to be offered to the Lord, Lev. 23:10, 11, and; from this 50 days were reckoned to " the feast of weeks," ver. 15-21. See Pente. cost. One prevented from keeping the feast at the due time was to observe it in the 2d month ; wilful neglect of it was pun ished with death, Num. 9:6-14; foreigners who had entered into covenant relation with God were admitted to it, Exod. 12:43- 48. The prescribed place for the slaying of the passover was at the sanctuary of God, Deut. 16:16; Josh. 18:1; the temple at Jerusalem when built, 2 Chr. 30:5, 8. The slayer was the head of the family, or else a priest or Levite. The blood was sprinkled on the altar, where also the in ward fat was burned, ver. 15-17. Besides the passover and the required national sacrifices for the ensuing days, voluntary peace-offerings, Heb. chagigah, v/ere given and partaken of by many families, Lev. 3 ; 2 Chr. 30:21, 22; 35:13. An offering of money was prescribed, Exod. 23:15; Deut. 16: 16, 17. Women were permitted, though not commanded, to join in the, celebration, 1 Sam. 1:3, 7; Luke 2:41. The chief notices of the observance of the feast of the passover are, that in Egypt, Exod. 12:28; in the wilderness of Sinai, Num. 9:1-5; the first in Canaan, Josh. 5:10, 11 ; those by Solomon, 2 Chr. 8: 13 ; that of Hezekiah, the reformer, in the 2d month, 2 Chr. 30:1-22; that by Josiah, 2 Kin. 23:21-23; and one after the Captivity, Ezra 6:19-22. Jewish writers state that, the family or families having performed the required purifications, John 11 :5s, and being assem bled at the table, the master of the feast 415 PAS BIBLE DICTIONARY. PAT took a cup of wine mixed with water and blessed God for the fruit of the vine, of which all then drank. After a washing of hands the passover was brought in, with unleavened cakes, bitter herbs, and a vin egar or fruit sauce, into which morsels of the food were to be dipped, Matt. 26:23; John 13:26. The father then blessed God for the fruits of the earth, and made the prescribed explanations, Exod. 12:26, 27. After a 2d cup and washing of hands, an unleavened cake was broken and distrib uted, and a blessing was pronounced upon the Giver of bread. When all had eaten of the passover a 3d cup, of thanksgiving for deliverance from Egypt and the gift of the law, was blessed and partaken of, Matt. 26:27; 1 Cor. 10:16; it was called " the cup of blessing." The repast was usually closed by a 4th cup and psalms of praise ; Psalms 115-118 were sung here and Psalms 113 and 114 earlier in the feast. See Hymn. The whole week of the feast was one of rejoi cing, Deut. 27:7. Mention is made of several pasSovers at tended by Jesus, Luke 2:42, 43; John 2:13. He partook for the last time and instituted the Christian memorial feast of his own sacrifice, typified by every passover, on the evening commencing the day of his cru cifixion, Matt. 26:17-30; Mark 14:12-26; Luke 22:7-23; John 13. In comparing the 4 accounts it is to be remembered that the term "passover" denotes sometimes the special sacrifice on the 14th of Nisan, and sometimes the whole festival and its offer ings, John 18:28. Astronomical calcula tions show that the 14th of Nisan fell on a Thursday in A. D. 30, the year of our Lord's crucifixion; the 15th day, Friday, begin ning at 6 p. m., when the 14th closed, was accordingly "the preparation " (see) for the weekly Sabbath — " a high day " both as oc curring in the Passover week and as pre ceding the presentation of the first-fruits of barley, Mark 15:42; Luke 23:54; John 19:14,31,42. The Jews still observe the Passover, though only as a feast of unleavened bread, all their sacrifices having ceased with the destruction of the temple, A. D. 70, a year when their last full celebration ofthe feast called multitudes to Jerusalem. The few Samaritans at Nablus, however, still slay and eat the passover on Mount Gerizim. The continued observance of this festival is a living proof of the actual occurrence of the great events it commemorates. The deliverance from death and bondage 416 thus commemorated was a type of the infi nitely greater salvation from eternal death and the bondage of sin, through the sac rifice of "the Lamb of God," "Christ our Passover," 1 Cor. 5:7; compare John 1:29; 19:36. Faith in him is essential to place us under the shelter of his blood and ad mit us to the liberty of his service ; and it must needs be evinced by the cleansing of our hearts and lives from "the old lea\en" of " malice and wickedness," and by obe dience to his commands in " sincerity and truth," 1 Cor. 5:8. See Lord's Supper. PAS'TOK, feeder, shepherd, Jer.2:8; 3:15; 10:21, one whose office it is to feed and guard the flock of Christ, Eph. 4:11; 1 Pet. 5:2. See Shepherd. PAS'TURAGE. See Shepherd. PAT'ARA, a maritime city on the south west coast of Lycia, 7 miles east of the mouth ofthe Xanthus and opposite Rhodes. It was celebrated for an oracle of Apollo, the reputed father of its founder Patarus. Its harbor was much frequented. Pam reembarked here for Phoenicia on his last visit to Jerusalem, Acts 21:1, 2. A Chris tian church was early established here, and was represented at the Council of Nice. Ruins of considerable extent mark the site and retain the name of Patara, but the har bor is now filled with sand. PATE, Psa. 7:16, A. V., the crown of the head, not with the idea of contempt, as " pate " is now used. PATH'ROS, Isa. n:nj Jer. 44:1, 15; Ezek. 29:14; 30:14, Upper or Southern Egypt, one of the 2 main divisions of the land ; or as some suppose, the Pathyrite district, in which Thebes lay, and which probably derived its name from the town Ha-hathor, " the abode of Hathor " the Egyptian Venus. This region was origi nally independent of Egypt and had its own kings. It was probably identical with the Thebaid of the Greeks and the Said of the Arabs. Its early inhabitants, the Path- rusim, were descendants of Mizraim, Gen. 10:14. See Egypt. PA'TIENCE, as an attribute of God, de notes his long-suffering forbearance from wrath and continuance of mercy under great and manifold provocations from man, Exod. 34:6, 7; Rom. 2:4; 2 Pet. 3:9. As a Christian grace it denotes sometimes tran quil and trustful endurance of evil and perseverance in faith and duty, Luke 8:15; Rom. 5:3; Jas. 1:3, 12; 2 Pet. 1:6; and sometimes forbearance towards fellow men, Matt. 16:26, 29; i Thess. 5:14; 2 Tim. PAT BIBLE DICTIONARY. PAU 2:24. God is the source of this as of all grace, Rom. 15:5; and the Christian is to seek it from him in the study of the Scrip tures, and of Christ, who perfectly exempli fied it, Rom. 15: 1-5; Gal. 5:22; Heb. 6:12, 15; 12:1, 2; Jas. 5:10, 11; 1 Pet. 2:18-23. patmos: harbor of la scala. PAT'MOS, a rocky and barren island in the jEgean Sea, used by the Romans as a place of exile for criminals, and to which the apostle John was banished by Domi- tian, A. D. 95, Rev. 1:9. It lies 20 miles south of Samos, and 24 from the coast of Asia Minor ; it is about 25 miles in circum ference and has a bold and deeply-indent ed shore. The port and town La Scala are on the eastern side. Crowning the high hill on which the town lies is the old monastery of St. John. Half way up the hill is the grotto which tradition assigns as the place where John saw and recorded his prophetic visions. Patmos was called Pal- mosa in the middle ages, but is now called Patino. It is one of the Sporades, and pays a small tribute to the Turks. PA'TRIARCH, paternal ruler of a family or tribe, applied in the New Testament to Abraham, Heb. 7:4, Jacob's sons, Acts 7:8, 9, and David, Acts 2:29. In the Septuagint it is sometimes used to translate the He brew word for "head" or "prince" of a tribe, 1 Chr. 27:22. In common usage it denotes especially the men whom Scrip ture mentions as living before Moses. The form of government indicated by the word prevailed in the early history of the He brews. The father of a family exercised authority over his descendants as long as he lived ; at his death this dignity devolved on one of his sons — usually, but not always, 27 the eldest, by birthright (see) — Gen. 27:29; 49:8 : 1 Chr. 5:1, 2. From the heads or pa triarchs of the families composing a tribe a prince was selected, Num. 1:4-16. See Elders. After the destruction of Jerusa lem the Jews termed the 2 heads of the Sanhedrin patriarchs ; and the word has come into use in some branches of the Christian church to designate dignitaries superior to archbishops. PAT'ROBAS, a Christian at Rome salu ted by Paul, Rom. 16:14. The imperial household had one or more men of this name. Compare Phil. 1:13: 4:22. PAT'TERN, 1 Tim. 1:16, an example, as in the R. V. In Heb. 9:23, copies, as in the R. V., of the models mentioned in Heb. 8:5. PA'U, or PA'I, capital of Hadar king of Edom, Gen. 36:39; 1 Chr. 1:50. PAUL, little, the distinguished "apostle ofthe Gentiles," Rom. 11:13; a's0 called Saul, asked for, a Hebrew name. He is first called Paul in Acts 13:9, and, as some think, assumed this Roman name accord ing to a common custom of Jews in foreign lands or in honor of Sergius Paulus, ver. 7, his friend and an early convert. Both names, however, may have belonged to him in childhood. He was born at Tarsus in Cilicia, and inherited from his father the privileges of a Roman citizen. His parents belonged to the tribe of Benjamin, ; and 417 PAU BIBLE DICTIONARY, PAU brought up their son as "a Hebrew of the Hebrews," Phil. 3:5. Tarsus was highly distinguished for learning and culture, and the opportunities for improvement it af forded were no doubt diligently improved by Paul. At a suitable age he was sent to Jerusalem to complete his education in the school of Gamaliel, the most distinguished Rabbi of that age. It does not appear that he was in Jerusalem during the minis try of Christ ; and it was perhaps after his return to Tarsus that he learned the art of tent-making, in accordance with a general practice among the Jews and their maxim, " He that does not teach his son a useful handicraft teaches him to steal," Acts 18:3; 20:34; 2 Thess. 3:8. We next find him at Jerusalem, appar ently about 30 years of age, high in the confidence of the leading men of the na tion. He had profited by the instructions of Gamaliel, and became learned in the law ; yielding himself to the strictest disci pline of the sect of the Pharisees, he had become a fierce defender of Judaism and a bitter enemy of Christianity, Acts 8:3; 26:9-11. After his miraculous conversion, of which we have 3 accounts, Acts 9; 22; 26, Christ was all in all to him. It was Christ who revealed himself to his soul at Damascus, Acts 26:15; 1 Cor. 15:8; to Christ he gave his whole heart and soul, mind, might, and strength; and thence forth, living or dying, he was " the ser vant of Jesus Christ." He devoted all the powers of his ardent and energetic mind to the defence and propagation of the gospel of Christ, more particularly among the Gentiles. His views of the pure and lofty spirit of Christianity, in its worship and in its practical influence, appear to have been peculiarly clear and strong; and the opposition which he was thus led to make to the rites and ceremonies of the Jewish worship exposed him everywhere to the hatred and malice of his country men. On their accusation he was at length put in confinement by the Roman officers, and after being detained for 2 years or more at Caesarea, he was sent to Rome for trial, having himself appealed to the em peror. There is less certainty in respect to the accounts which are given of Paul afterwards by the early ecclesiastical wri ters. Still it was a very generally-received opinion in the earlier centuries that the apostle was acquitted and discharged from his imprisonment at the end of 2 years, and that he afterwards returned to Rome, 418 where he was again imprisoned and put to death by Nero. Paul appears to have possessed all the learning which was then current among the Jews, and also to have been acquainted with Greek literature, as appears from his mastery of the Greek language, his frequent discussions with their philosophers, and his quotations from their poets — Aratus, Acts 17:28; Menander, 1 Cor. 15:33; and Epimenides, Tit. 1 : 12. Probably, however, a learned Greek education cannot with propriety be ascribed to him. But the most striking trait in his character is his enlarged view ofthe universal design and the spirit ual nature of the religion of Christ, and of its purifying and ennobling influence upon the heart and character of those who sin cerely profess it. From the Saviour him self he had caught the flame of universal love and the idea of salvation for all man kind, Gal. 1:12. Most of the other apostles and teachers appear to have clung to Juda ism, to the rites, ceremonies, and dogmas of the religion in which they had been educated, and to have regarded Christian ity as intended to be engrafted upon the ancient stock, which was yet to remain as the trunk to support the new branches. Paul seems to have been among the first to rise above this narrow view and to regard Christianity in its true light, as a universal religion. While others were for Judaizing all those who embraced the new religion by imposing on them the yoke of Mosaic observances, it was Paul's endeavor to break down the middle wall of separation between Jews and Gentiles, and show them that they were all " one in Christ." To this end all his labors tended; and, ardent in the pursuit of this great object, he did not hesitate to censure the time-serving Peter and to expose his own life in resist ing the prejudices of his countrymen. In deed his 5 years' imprisonment at Jerusa lem, Caesarea, and Rome arose chiefly from this cause. The following chronological table of the principal events in Paul's life may be of use in directing and assisting inquiries into this most interesting portion of history. The different chronologies of Hug, Lard- ner, and Conybeare and Howson are here presented side by side ; and thus the table, while it shows the general agreement of chronologists as to the order of events, shows also that it has thus far been found impossible to arrive at entire certainty re specting their dates. PAU BJBLE DICTIONARY. PAU Paul's conversion, Acts 9. In the k 5 0 twenty-first year of Tiberius 36 36 36 He goes to Arabia, and returns to Da mascus, Gal. 1:17; and in the third year escapes from Damascus and vis its Jerusalem, Acts 9 : 23-26, in the year - - 39 39 38 From Jerusalem he goes to Tarsus, Acts 9 : 30 ; and alter several years of labor in Cilicia and Syria, Gal. 1 :ai, during which it is supposed most of the sufferings occurred which are mentioned in 2 Cor. n : 24-26, he went with Barnabas to Antioch in Syria, Acts 11 : 25, 26, where they la bored during the year - 44 43 44 From Antioch he is sent with Barna- " bas to Jerusalem, his second visit, to carry relief for the famine, and re turns to Antioch, Acts 11 '30--- 45 44 45 First great missionary tour, with Bar nabas, from Antioch to Cyprus, Anti och in Pisidia, Iconium, Lystra, and Derbe, and returning through the same places and Attalia to Antioch, Acts 13; 14, about two years, com mencing -- — 45 48 Third visit to Jerusalem, with Barna bas, to consult respecting circumcis ion, etc., and return to Antioch, Acts 15:2-3° - 53 5° 5" Second missionary tour, from Antioch, through Cilicia, Derbe, Lystra, Phry gia, Galatia, Troas, Neapolis, Philip pi, Thessalonica, Bercea, Athens, and Corinth, Acts 15:35 to 18:1, where he finds Aquila ---54 51 52 After eighteen months at Corinth he makes his fourth visit to Jerusalem, by Cenchrea, Ephesus, and Caesarea, and returns to Antioch, Acts 18: 11- 22, in 56 — 54 Third missionary tour, through Gala tia and Phrygia, arriving at Ephe sus, Acts 19: 1, in 57 53 54 And after two years at Ephesus, going through Troas and Macedonia to Corinth, Acts 20 : 1 59 56 57 Fifth visit to Jerusalem, from Corinth, by Philippi, Trdas, Miletus, Tyre, Ptolemais, and Caesarea, Acts 20:3 to2i:i5 60 58 58 After two years' imprisonment at Jeru salem and Caesarea, he sails from Si- don, by Myra, Fair Havens, etc., to Malta, where he is shipwrecked ; in the spring he proceeds to Rome, Acts 21 : 17 to 28 : 16 63 61 61 Two years' imprisonment in Rome, and release, Acts 28 : 30 65 63 63 After laboring, as some think, in Spain, Rom. 15 : 24, 28, also in Ephesus, Macedonia, 1 Tim. 1 : 3, Crete, Tit. 1:5, Asia Minor, 2 Tim. 1:15, and Nicopolis, Tit. 3:12, he is again a prisoner at Rome, joyfully awaiting martyrdom, though almost alone, 2 Tim. 2:9; 4:6-18 — 65 68 These various journeys of St. Paul, many of them made on foot, should be studied through ou a map, in connection with the inspired narrative in Acts and with his own pathetic description of his labors, 2 Cor. 11:23-29, wherein nevertheless the half is not told. When we review the many regions he traversed and evangel ized, the converts he gathered, and the churches he founded, the toils, perils, and trials he endured, the miracles he wrought, and the revelations he received, the dis courses, orations, and letters in which he so ably defends and unfolds Christianity, the immeasurable good which God by him accomplished, his heroic life, and his mar tyr death, he appears to us the most ex traordinary of men. The character of Paul is most fully por trayed in his epistles, by which, as Chrys ostom says, he "still lives in the mouths of men throughout the whole world. By them, not only his own converts, but all the faithful even unto this day, yea, and all the saints who are yet to be born until Christ's coming again, both have been and shall be blessed." In them we observe the trans forming and elevating power of grace in one originally turbulent and passionate — making him a model of manly and Chris tian excellence; fearless and firm, yet con siderate, courteous, and gentle; magnani mous, patriotic, and self-sacrificing; rich in all noble sentiments and affections. Epistles of Paul. — There are 14 epis tles in the New Testament usually ascribed to Paul, beginning with that to the Romans, and ending with that to the Hebrews. Of these the first 13 have never been contest ed ; as to the latter, many good men have doubted whether Paul was the author, al though the current of criticism is in favor of this opinion. These epistles, in which the principles of Christianity are devel oped for all periods, characters, and cir cumstances, are among the most important of the primitive documents of the Christian religion, even apart from their inspired character ; and although they seem to have been written without special premedita tion, and have reference mostly to tran sient circumstances and temporary rela tions, yet they everywhere bear the stamp of the great and original mind of the apos tle, as purified, elevated, and sustained by the influences of the Holy Spirit. The following is Lardner's arrangement of the epistles of Paul, with the places where they were written and the dates: 419 PAV BIBLE DICTIONARY. PEA EFISTLKS. I Thessalonians- 2 Thessalonians- Galatians I Corinthians -- i Timothy Titus 2 Corinthians -- Romans Ephesians 2 Timothy Philippians Colossians Philemon Hebrews PLACKS. A. D. -Corinth 52 " -- 52 Corinth or 1 end of 52 , Ephesus J or beginning of 53 ¦Ephesus beginning of 56 Macedonia 56 " ornear it.nearend 56 " about Oct., 57 Corinth " Feb., 58 Rome-- --- " April, 61 " " May, 61 " before end qf 62 ' --- " " 62 " " " 62 Italy spring, 63 The arrangement of Hug is somewhat different; and most critics now place He brews and the pastoral epistles to Timothy and Titus latest in the list, while those who find evidence that Paul was released from his first imprisonment and lived until the spring of A. D. 68, assign them to the last years of his life. See Timothy. PAVE'MENT, Exod. 24:10; 2 Kin. 16:17; Esth. 1:6. See Gabbatha. PAVIL'ION, a tent, as for kings or gen erals in time of war, 1 Kin. 20: 12, 16. Da vid poetically describes the Lord as dis comfiting his servant's enemies from the midst of a pavilion of dark waters and thick clouds of the skies, Psa. 18:6-14; compare Josh. 10:10, 11. He is a secure shelter to those who trust in him, Psa. 31:20; 83:3. PEACE. The 2 or 3 Hebrew words thus translated are very comprehensive, deno ting primarily wholeness, i. e., health, wel fare, or good of all kinds, Gen. 29:6, mar gin; Exod. 4:18; Num. 6:26; peace as op posed to war, Eccl. 3:8 ; concord or friend ship, Psa. 41:9, margin. The Greek word in the New Testament has much the same breadth of meaning, Luke 1:79; 2:14; 7:50; 12:51; 14:32. "Peace be unto you," the common salutation in the East, Christ re alized for his disciples in the highest sense, John 14:27; 20:19, 2I> 20> 'n tne reconcilia tion made through his death between God and man, and in all the blessings which flow from it, Col. 1 : 19-23 ; compare Psa. 85:5; Isa. 9:6; 53:5. The Christian grace of peace is that tranquillity of conscience, mind, and heart which God confers in assuring the believer of his pardon, Rom. 5:1; 15:13. It may be enjoyed amid great outward adversity, John 16:33. While the preaching of the gospel naturally awakens opposition of thought, aim, and effort between believers and re jecters of Christ, Matt. 10:34, a kindly dis- 420 position towards others is an essential fruit of the Spirit in all who are Christ's, Gal. 5:22; Col. 3:15; and its active manifesta tion is blessed by Christ, Matt. 5:9, and enjoined by him and his apostles, Mark 9:50; 2 Cor. 13:11 ; Heb. 12:14; 1 Pet. 3:11. The old English idiom, "to hold one's peace," means simply to be silent, Psa. 39:12; Mark 3:4. a. • Ut*, 5 R- V.; 21:2 — so called by the Greeks, either from an ancient abundance of palm-trees, or 435 PHCE BIBLE DICTIONARY. PHCE from Phcenix the brother of Cadmus — was a narrow strip of country between the Leb anon Mountains and the Mediterranean Sea. Phoenicia proper extended from "the Ladder of Tyre," a promontory south of Tyre, to the river Bostrenus, Nahr el-Awali, 2 miles north of Sidon. The length of this undulating plain was about 30 miles ; its width 2 miles near Sidon, and 5 near Tyre. But its boundaries varied at different times : from the 8th century B. C. it extended 90 miles farther north to the island city of Arvad or Aradus, Ezek. 27:8, 11, the ut most width of this northern strip being 20 miles. In its largest sense the name Phoe nicia was applied, by one or two Greek writers about the commencement of the Christian era, to almost the entire length of the eastern Mediterranean coast. Back from the sandy seashore strip Phoenicia, being well watered by the Leontes, Bostre nus, Eleutherus, Lycus, and other streams, was generally fertile, and the slopes of Lebanon afforded good pasture and an abundance of fine timber. The coast was indented by several harbors, as at Tyre and Sidon, though that at Beirut is now the best. The principal cities were Zidon, Tyre, Arvad, Tripolis, and Berytus, now Beirut. The native name of the country was Chna or Canaan, i. e., lowland. The Greek name is not found in the Old Testa ment, but there are many references to Tyre and Zidon. Phoenicia was included in the territory promised to the Israelites, and allotted to Asher, but from lack of faith, etc., was not conquered by them, Josh. 13:4-6; 19:24- 29; Judg. 1:31, 32. It afforded refuge to Elijah, 1 Kin. 17:8-24; Luke 4:26; sent fol lowers to Jesus, Mark 3:8; Luke 6:17; and was visited by him, Matt. 15:21 ; Mark 7:26, and by Paul, Acts 21:2-7; 27:3- At the dawn of history the Phoenicians appear as a rich, cultivated, and powerful commercial people. In race they were Ca naanites, Gen. 10:15, J9- Their language belonged to the Semitic group, and was nearly allied to the Hebrew, by means of which the few remnants of Phoenician, names of persons and places, and inscrip tions on coins and monuments, may still be understood. Their religion was a base and corrupting nature-worship. Baal and Ashtoreth, their chief divinities, were wor shipped with cruel and impure rites. The Phoenicians imparted their own civiliza tion to other nations : from them the Greeks received the letters ofthe alphabet, the use 436 of astronomy in navigation, of glass, pur ple, etc. Besides the towns that crowded their own coast, the Phoenicians had com mercial stations on the Red Sea and all along the Mediterranean. Carthage, the early rival of Rome, and Cadiz and Tar- shish in Spain, were Phoenician colonies. They reached the Atlantic coast as far as Britain, and the productions of all known lands were exchanged in their markets, Ezek. 27. Each great city, with the adja cent territory, was governed by its own king, and in time of danger they formed a confederation under the leadership of the most powerful. The Phoenicians suffered from the attacks of the kings of Assyria and Babylon, and were successively sub ject to the Persians, Greeks, and Romans. The land was taken by the Saracens in the 7th century, and held by the Crusaders in the nth and 12th centuries, since which time it has been subject to the Turks. The Phoenicians were among the oppres sors of Israel in the period of the Judges, Judg. 3:3; 10:12. Friendly relations seem to have existed afterwards, and alliances were formed between the Tyrian king and David, and afterwards Solomon, 2 Sam. 5:11 ; 1 Kin. 5. Palestine was the granary of Phoenicia, 1 Kin. 5:11; 2 Chr. 2:10, 15; compare Acts 12 : 20, and Phoenicia the commercial agent of Palestine, Ezek. 27:17, the Jews having no good ports. In ex change for agricultural products the Phoe nicians aided Solomon with materials and workmen in the building of the temple. They also joined him in establishing a har bor at Ezion-geber on the Red Sea, and in fitting out and navigating trading ves sels, 1 Kin. 9:26-28; 10:11, 12. After the division of the kingdom they sided with Israel, and broke the covenant with Judah, even selling Jews to the Edomites as slaves, Joel 3:4-8; Amos 1:9, 10; Isa. 23; Ezek. 28. Phoenician idolatry early ensnared the Israelites, Judg. 2:13; 10:6, was encour aged by Solomon, 1 Kin. n :i, 4, 5, 8, 33, and prevailed more or less under the kings of Judah. It flourished in Israel under Ahab, whose queen was a Zidonian, re ceived a temporary check from Elijah, 1 Kin. 16:31-33; 18:4, 18-40; 2 Kin. 3:2, and afterwards from Jehu, 2 Kin. 10:18-28, but continued to be an offence to God un til the final captivity of Israel, B. C. 721, 2 Kin. 17:16-18. The Phoenician coast, from the " Ladder of Tyre " northward, is now strewn with ruins. Porter speaks- pf the "mournful PHR BIBLE DICTIONARY. PHY and solitary silence " reigning there, and Stanley Was equally impressed with its desolateness and the complete destruction of the Phoenician power denounced by the prophets. Within the bounds of ancient Phoenicia, however, is situated the most civilized, prosperous, and promising city of Syria, if not of all Turkey — Beirut, whose flourishing Protestant missions, col lege, schools, and printing-offices make it a centre of Christianizing influences for the East. PHRY'GIA, parched, a central district of Asia Minor, whose boundaries varied great ly at different times ; so that when it inclu ded Galatia it is said to have touched every other province. It was very early settled; the ancients believed its inhabitants to have migrated from Macedonia before the Tro jan war. It was afterwards divided into Phrygia Major on the south, and Phrygia Minor on the west, reaching to the Helles pont. The Romans, into whose hands it fell, B. C. 133, divided it into 3 districts. In apostolic times most of it belonged to the province of Asia, and part of it to Cilicia. The country was a high table-land, fruitful in corn and wine, but including some bare mountain and salt-marsh tracts. Of its cities, Laodicaea, Hierapolis, Colossae, and Antioch of Pisidia are mentioned in the New Testament. It probably contained many Jews, Acts 2:10. Antiochus the Great, B. C. 223-187, transported to Lydia and Phrygia 2,000 Jewish families from Mesopotamia. The apostle Paul twice passed through it, preaching and "strengthening the disci ples," Acts 16:6; 18:23. Its churches were represented in the Councils of Nice and Constantinople, A. D. 325 and 381. PHU'RAH, a bough, Gideon's servant, Judg. 7:10, n. PHUT, or PUT, afflicted, or a bow, Gen. 10:6; 1 Chr. 1 : 8, a son of Ham; elsewhere his descendants and the country of their abode. In Nah. 3:9; Jer. 46 : 9, margin, and Ezek. 30:5, margin, they are mentioned'as allies of Egypt; in Ezek. 27:10 as allies of Tyre; and in Ezek. 38:5, margin, as allies of Gog. In the A. V. the word is some times translated "Libya," or "the Liby ans." Josephus and many modern schol ars identify Put with Libya, west of Egypt, the region now occupied by the Moors ; see Libya ; others with modern Nubia, the re gion between Egypt and Ethiopia, called in Egyptian monuments To-pet, " the re gion of the bow." PHU'VAH, mouth, PU'A, and PU'AH, a son of Issachar, Gen. 46:13; Num. 26:23; 1 Chr. 7:1. PHYGEL'LUS, or PHY'GELUS, fugitive, a Christian from Asia who forsook Paul at Rome, 2 Tim. 1:15; 4:16. PHYLACTERIES were little rolls of parchment, in which were written certain words of the law, and which were worn by male Jews from the age of 13 upon their foreheads and upon the left arm. The cus tom was founded on a literal interpretation of Exod. 13:9, 16, "And it shall be for a token upon thy hand, and for frontlets be tween thine eyes." Leo of Modena informs us particularly about these rolls. Those worn upon the forehead have been described under the article Frontlets, which see. Those that were to be fastened to the arm were 2 rolls of parchment written in square letters, with an ink made on purpose, and with much care. They were rolled up to a point, and inclosed in a sort of case of black calfskin. They were then put upon a square bit of the same leather, whence hung a thong of the same, of about a finger's breadth, and about 2 feet long. These rolls were placed at the bending of the left arm, and after the thong had made a little knot in the form of the letter Yodh ( ) ), it was wound about the arm in a spiral line, which ended at the top of the middle finger. They were called the Tephila of the hand. The phylactery, from a Greek word sig nifying preservative, was regarded not only as a remembrancer of God's law, but as a protection against demons. It was proba bly introduced at a late period in the Old Testament history, and is still continued. Our Saviour reproaches the pride and hy pocrisy of the Pharisees, shown in making their phylacteries broad as a sign of their superior wisdom and piety, Matt. 23:5. David, on the other hand, says, " Thy word have I hid in my heart, that I might not sin against thee," Psa. 119:11. PHYSI'CIANS. The medical skill of the Egyptians was widely celebrated ; Pha raoh had many physicians, and among them professional embalmers, Gen. 50:2. They also had midwives, Exod. 1:15, as well as the Hebrews. The latter also had 437 PIB BIBLE DICTIONARY. • PIL professional physicians, Exod. 21 : 19; Prov. 17:22; Matt. 9:12; Luke 4:23; 8:43. See Luke. They had little anatomical skill, partly on account of the ceremonial defile ment caused by touching a corpse. They gave their attention to external rather than to internal injuries and diseases, Isa. 1:6; Ezek. 30:21; though they also prescribed for internal and mental disorders, 1 Sam. 16:16; 2 Chr. 16:12. They made use of salves, balms, and poultices, hyssop, oil baths, mineral baths, and river bathing, with many other remedies, Jer. 46:11; Ezek. 47:12; Rev. 22:2. Many wickedly had recourse to superstitious practices and to amulets and enchantments. See Dis eases. PI-BE'SETH, an important city of Lower Egypt, on the eastern or Pelusiac branch of the Nile, about 40 miles northeast of Memphis. The city and the goddess after whom it was named were called by the Greeks Bubastis. The hieroglyphic name of the city is Pe-Bast, " the house of Bast," the beneficent goddess of fire, depicted with the head of a lioness or a cat, and to whom the cat was sacred. Herodotus de scribed her temple of red granite at Bu bastis as the most beautiful he had seen. Pharaoh-necho's canal to the Red Sea be gan here. Manetho speaks of a destructive earthquake here during the 2d dynasty, and of the 22d dynasty of Pharaohs as reigning here. Ezekiel, 30: 17, predicts the ruin of the city. It was taken by the Per sians and its walls destroyed B. C. 352 ; but it survived and was a place of some note under the Romans. Its site, marked by extensive mounds and broken pottery, is called Tel Basta. PICTURES, Num. 33:52, idolatrous rep resentations, either separate images, or stones "portrayed," i. ¦?., cut in low relief, or engraved, and colored ; compare Ezek. 23:14. "Pictures of silver," Prov. 25:11, are supposed to have been wall-surfaces or cornices with carving; compare 1 Kin. 6:32, 35. Movable paintings in the mod ern sense were doubtless unknown to the Hebrews. See Paint. In Isa. 2:16 the word translated "pictures" may be ren dered "objects," or perhaps "flags" of a ship; compare Ezek. 27:7. PIECE OF GOLD, or OF SILVER, a shek el by weight, 1 Sam. 2:36; Psa. 68:30. In many Old Testament passages the Hebrew text would read, e. g., as in Gen. 20:16, " 1,000 of silver," and in 2 Kin. 5:5, "6,000 of gold." The A. V. translators dften sup- 438 plied the word pieces, and sometimes shek els, the usual Hebrew weight for precious metals — coined money being unknown in Palestine till a late period, Gen. 45:22; Judg. 17:2-4, 10. Ik Luke 15:8, 9, "piece of silver" is the translation of " drachma," a Greek coin answering to the Roman "denarius." The same coin is probaby meant in Acts 19:19. See Penny. In Matt. 26:15; 27:3,5,6,9, a term is used denoting the material of the coin rather than its value ; probably, how ever, as in Matt. 17:27, staters or shekels are meant; compare Zech. 11:12, 13; Exod. 21 :32. See Money and Measures. PI'ETY, 1 Tim. 5:4, filial affection and reverence. PIG'EONS. See DOVES. PI-HAHI'ROTH, mouth of caverns, or of deliverance, the place of the 3d and last encampment of the Israelites before cross ing the Red Sea, Exod. 14:2, 9; Num. 33:7, 8. Robinson and Lepsius place it at Adjrud, now a watering-place for camels 12 miles northwest of Suez ; other high authorities at Jebel Ataka, a curving ridge ending in a promontory, Ras Ataka, which projects into the sea some 8 miles south of Suez. See Exodus. PI'LATE, Pon'tius, under whom our Lord taught, Luke 3:1, suffered, and died, Matt. 27; Mark 15; Luke 23; John 18:28 to 19:42, was the 5th Roman procurator in the province of Judaea after the banishment of Archelaus, A. D. 6. He was appointed A. D. 26, and continued 10 years. He be came odious both to the Jews and to the Samaritans for the arbitrary offensiveness and cruelty of his administration. One of his first acts was to transfer the soldiers' headquarters from Caesarea to Jerusalem, where the presence of the military stand ards bearing images of the emperor, ob jects of idolatrous worship to the army, so enraged the Jews that they thronged to Pilate at Caesarea demanding their remo val. Wearied with their importunity, he caused his soldiers to surround them, and threatened them with instant death if they did not disperse ; but when they declared their readiness to dierather than submit to the defilement of the Holy City, he became frightened and yielded. The slaughter of the Galileans, Luke 13:1, must have oc curred at some feast, in the outer court of the temple. His official residence was at Caesarea, but during the great festivals he stayed at Jerusalem to preserve order, probably occupying the palace built by PIL BIBLE DICTIONARY. PIN Herod the Great. Though the revenues were the chief concern of such a ruler, the procurator of Judsea, which was subordi nate to the province of Syria, was at the head of the entire local administration, military and judicial. When therefore Je sus had been condemned by the high-priest and the Sanhedrin, he was brought before Pilate the governor, without whose consent he could not be executed. Pilate saw in Jesus an innocent victim of Jewish malice, and desired to save him. Though dull and ignorant as to religious truth, he had some dim sense of the superiority of Christ's character, and feared to wrong him. All that he saw of Christ deepened this feel ing, and he tried every method to soften the obduracy of the Jews. But he had not the firmness of character, the deep-rooted principle of justice, and the consciousness of rectitude necessary to carry him through ; and after repeated efforts, Luke 23:7, 14- 22; John 18:31-39; 19:4-6, 9-12, 15, he at length gave way, and sacrificed a righteous man rather than to provoke complaints against his administration and an investi gation by the emperor. His washing of his hands and his inscription upon the cross only condemned himself. He would un doubtedly, as law and custom required, send a detailed report of his procedures to Tiberius ; and the early defenders of Chris tianity, Justin and Tertullian, publicly re fer the Roman authorities to these docu ments, and quote from them as existing in their own time. The " Acts of Pilate," however, now in existence, are a subse quent fabrication. The Roman historian Tacitus, speaking of Christians, says, " The author of this name was Christ, who was capitally punished in the reign of Tiberius, by Pontius Pilate." In A. D. 36 the Samaritans, whose turbu lence-Pilate had quelled with bloody meas ures, accused him before Vitellius, gov ernor of Syria, by whom Pilate was sent to Rome to answer before the emperor. Be fore his arrival Tiberius died; and Pilate is said to have been banished by Caligula to Vienna on the Rhone, in Gaul, and there to have killed himself; another wild legend links his name to the mountain now called Pilatus on the south of Lake Lucerne. PIL'DASH, aflame, a son of Nahor and Milcah, Gen. 22:22. The place of his set tlement is unknown. PIL'GRIM, a sojourner in a foreign land ; metaphorically, the believer while absent from his heavenly home, Gen. 47:9; Psa. 119:54; Heb. 11:13; l Pet. 2:11. Some times rendered "stranger," Gen. 17:8; 1 Ptt. 1:1. PILLAR sometimes means a monument al column, Gen. 35:20; 2 Sam. 18:18; or a column of cloud or smoke, Exod. 13:21; Judg. 20:40. The stately column which adorns and supports the front of a temple, Judg. 16:25-30; Job 9:6; 26:11, illustrates the position of prophets, Jer. 1 : 18, apos tles, Gal. 2:9, believers, Rev. 3:12, and the church itself, respecting the truth, 1 Tim. 3:i5- The "plain of the pillar," Judg. 9:6, is properly " the oak of the pillar," as in the margin, A. V. PIL'LAR OF SALT. See Salt. PILLED, peeled, as a tree of its bark, Gen. 30:37. PIL'LOW, I., 1 Sam. 19:13, 16, probably a goat's hair mat or mattress rolled up. Pillow in Mark 4:38 is rendered "cush ion " in the R. V. The ancient Egyptians used a low wooden frame to support the head in sleep, as do the Japanese. Com pare Gen. 28:11, 18. II. The " pillows " which the lying proph etesses of peace to Jerusalem sewed to their own elbows and to, those of the per sons who consulted them, Ezek. 13:17-20, were appliances of physical ease and em blems ofthe false security produced by pre dictions of prosperity ; or, as some think, amulets or charms worn on the arm; a similar practice prevails among the mod ern Egyptians and Nubians. PINE, Isa. 41:19; 60:13. It is uncertain what tree of Lebanon is here meant; the Hebrew word, however, indicating dura tion or curvature, is thought to exclude the pine. The elm, also found on Mount Leb anon, the oak, etc., have been suggested. Thomson thinks the "fir" of the A. V., Hebrew berosh, means the " stone-pine " which abounds on Lebanon. In Neh. 8:15 " pine-branches " stands for another He brew term, elsewhere properly rendered " oil-tree," which see. PIN'NACLE, Matt. 4:5; Luke 4:9, liter ally the wing of the temple, the last word including the whole of the sacred inclo-' sure and buildings. The place indicated may have been the roof, accessible by stairs, of the eastern colonnade, " Solo mon's porch," which overlooked the deep valley of the Kidron at a height, according to Josephus, of 600 feet, or the southeast corner of the lofty southern colonnade, Herod's " royal portico," of which Josephus 439 PIP BIBLE DICTIONARY. PIT says that if one "looked down from the top of the battlements " into the Kidron valley he would become dizzy and unable to see to the bottom. PIPE, the principal musical wind instru ment of the Hebrews, consisting of a tube with holes, like a flute or clarionet. It was made of reed, copper, or bronze, and was used on all occasions, in religious worship, processions, feasts, and mourning, i Sam. 10:5; 1 Kin. 1:40; Psa. 87:7; Isa. 5:12; 30:29; Jer. 48:36; Matt. 9:23; Luke 7:32. Pipes, both single and double, were as much used in Egyptian social life as among the Hebrews. The double pipe had 2 tubes, sometimes uniting in the mouth piece; the tube played with the left hand had few holes, emitted a few deep sounds, and served as a bass. The right-hand pipe had more holes and sharper tones. The Scotch Deputation of Inquiry speak of overtaking among the hills of Judaea "an Arab playing with all his might upon a shepherd's pipe made of 2 reeds. This was the first time we had seen any marks of joy in the land, for certainly ' all joy is darkened, the mirth of the land is gone,' " Isa. 24:11. See Music. PIR'ATHON, princely, in Ephraim, the home and burial-place of Abdon the judge, Judg. 12:15; a'so of one of David's mighty men, 2 Sam. 23:30; ,1 Chr. 11:31; 27:14. Robinson and others identify it with the village Fer'ata, on an eminence among low hills, 6 miles west-southwest of N&blus. PIS'GAH, fragment, the summit from which Moses viewed the Promised Land, Deut. 34:1-4. It was east of the mouth of the Jordan, a part of the Abarim range, associated with Nebo, and within the lim its of Reuben, Num. 21:20; 27:12; Deut. 3:27; 4:49; 32:49. There were level spa ces upon it, as " the field of Zophim," Num. 23:14. It commanded a view of the Israelitish camp on the east bank of the Jordan and of the heights of the entire Holy Land. Until recently the precise position of Pisgah and Nebo was unknown. Robin son and De Saulcy heard of a Jebel Nebs'. in the neighborhood indicated in the Bible. In 1864 Tristram visited, and described, 1865, the height which lay about 3 miles southwest of Hesban, and i\i miles due west of Main, and which he took for Pis gah. There was a long ridge command ing a magnificent view of Mount Hor and the Dead Sea and Jordan valley, Jerusa lem, Gerizim, Carmel, Tabor, Gilboa, and 440 snowy Hermon. Prof. Paine, of the Amer ican Palestine Exploration Society, in 1873, claims to have identified the range which includes both Nebo and Pisgah as rising in a promontory overtopping all the near hills, about 5 miles southwest of Hesban — running westward in a series of flat sum mits, and suddenly falling away into the valley. The eastern and highest portion of the range is called Jebel Neba, Mount Nebo. Its western end is composed of 3 summits in a cluster, of which one, lying to the southwest and called Jebel Siaghah, he identifies with the Pisgah of Moses. It is 2,360 feet above the sea-level, and com mands an extensive view of Palestine east ward and northward, and westward and southward, as described Deut. 34:1. The Due de Luynes, in a visit to the spot in 1864, arrived independently at the same identification of Nebo and Pisgah. Prof. Porter of Belfast concurs in this opinion, and comparing the prospect from the moun tain with the description of Moses' view, was impressed with its faithfulness in every particular. PIS'GAH, SPRINGS OF, Deut. 4:49, the same as ASH'DOTH-PIS'GAH, Deut. 3:17; Josh. 12:3; 13:20, a valley or town at the base of Pisgah, in the territory of Sihon, assigned to Reuben, near the portion of Gad. PISID'IA, a district of Asia Minor, sep arated from the Mediterranean by Pam- phylia, lying on Mount Taurus and the high table-land north of it, and running up between Phrygia and Lycaonia as far as Antioch its chief city. The Pisidians, like most of the inhabitants of the Taurus range, were an unsubdued and lawless race; through the deep defiles of their mountains swift torrents poured; and Paul, in his 2 journeys through Pisidia, Acts 13:14; 14 : 24> may have been in peril by " waters" (R. V. "rivers") as well as by "robbers," 2 Cor. 11:26. He refers to the persecution en dured at Antioch, Acts 13:44-50, in a letter to Timothy, 2 Tim. 3:11. Churches con tinued to exist here for 7 or 8 centuries. PI'SON, streaming, one of the 4 rivers that watered Paradise, Gen. 2:11, 12, and which ran through all the land of Havilah, where excellent gold was found. It has, of course, been placed as variously as the garden of Eden, to which article and Eu phrates the reader is referred. PIT, a cistern for rain-water. Dry pits were sometimes used as dungeons, Gen. 37:20; Jer. 38:6; or being slightly covered PIT BIBLE DICTIONARY. PLO and baited, they served as traps to catch wild beasts, a device which illustrates the plots of designing men and women, Psa. 119:85; Prov. 22:14; 26:27; Ezek. 19:4. In Isa. 51:1, "pit" seems to mean the quarry or cavern whence huge stone columns and blocks are cut; like that under Jerusalem, from which some of the beautiful temple stones were quarried. The word pit is also used to denote Hades, the under-world of spirits, Psa. 28:1 ; 30:3, 9, and hell, the pris on of wicked spirits, Rev. 20:1; compare Luke 8:31, where the same word is trans lated "deep." PITCH, Gen. 6:14; Exod. 2:3, translated "slime" in Gen. 11:3; 14:10, is properly bitumen or asphaltum, anciently found on and near the Dead Sea, which was hence called the Lake Asphaltites. It abounded in the vicinity of Babylon, and was used as fuel. The ark of Noah and that of Mo ses were rendered waterproof by it; and the bricks of the tower of Babel were ce mented with it. It is commonly found in a solid state, of a shining black, and brit tle ; but being liquefied by heat and used as a mortar, it becomes as hard as the rocks it cements together. It is still thrown up by earthquakes from the bottom of the Dead Sea, and floats to the shore some times in large masses. See Sea, III. PI'THOM, house of Turn (the sun-god of On), a "treasure-city," or provision-depot, built by the Israelites for Pharaoh in Go shen, Exod. 1:11. It has been regarded as the Pathumos mentioned by Herodotus as near Pi-beseth, on the canal between the Nile and the Red Sea. Recent exca vations in a mound at Tel el-Maschuta, in Wady et-Tumeilat, between Ismailia and Tel el-Kebir, have revealed the site of what seems to have been a store city, contain ing a small temple dedicated by Rameses II. to Turn, and a large crude-brick build ing, 650 feet square, with walls 8 feet thick and many rooms without doors, apparent ly used as a granary. This site, which local inscriptions call both Pithom and Succoth, Brugsch and Poole identify with Pithom, and with Succoth, the Israelites' first camping-place, Exod. 12:37. PITIFUL, Lam. 4:10; Jas. 5:11; 1 Pet. 3:8, not pitiable, but compassionate. PLACE, 1 Sam. 15:12, monument or pil lar. PLAGUE. See Exodus, Pestilence. PLAIN, any level tract of land, as in 1 Kin. 20:23; 2 Chr. 26:10. With the arti cle in Heb., the high level plateau of Moab, Deut. 3:10; 4:43; Josh. 13:9, 16; 20:8; Jer. 48:8, 21. The "plains of Moab" were on the east bank of the Jordan, opposite Jeri cho, Num. 22:1; 26:63; Josh. 13:32. For other uses of the word plain see Arabah, Canaan, Mo,reh, Oak, Shephelah. PLAITING the hair, 1 Pet. 3:3. Jewish writers mention elaborate hair-dressing as a special art practised by women ; compare Isa. 3:18-22. Arab ladies of the present day in Palestine often spend a whole day in arranging their hair in minute braids, 70 or 80 iu number, which hang around their shoulders and are frequently ornamented with gold and jewels. PLAN'ETS, 2 King, 23:5. The Hebrew word means inns or lodgings, and is used with reference to the sun, denoting the 12 constellations of the zodiac, the houses of the sun in its annual apparent course round the heavens. These constellations are here spoken of as objects of idolatrous worship in Judah. See Mazzaroth. PLAS'TER was used by the Hebrews on the walls of houses, Lev. 14:42, 48; and as a coating of stones on which inscriptions had been or were afterwards to be made, Deut. 27:2, 4; Josh. 8:32. The tiles of an cient Babylon were coated or enamelled with stucco. PLEDGE. The Mosaic law protected the poor who were obliged to give security for a loan or the fulfilment of a contract. If a man pawned his robe, the usual covering for the cool nights, it must be returned on the same day, Exod. 22:26, 27. The cred itor could not enter a house and take what he pleased; and the hand-mill, being a necessary of life, could not be taken, Deut. 24:6, 10, 11. Compare Job 22:6; 24:3, 7. These prohibitions were sometimes disre garded, Amos 2 : 6-8. See Loans. Pledges are necessary from the heedless and vi cious, who cannot be trusted, Prov. 20:16. PLE'IADES, a cluster of 7 stars in the neck of Taurus, or the Bull, one of the 12 signs of the zodiac. The sun now enters the constellation Taurus about the middle of May, anciently much earlier; and the appearance of the Pleiades marked the re turn of spring, Job 9:9; 38 : 31 ; Amos 5 : 8. PLOUGH, a slight and inefficient instru ment in the East, but used from the earli est times, Gen. 45 : 6 ; Deut. 22 : 10 ; Job 1 : 14. See cut in Merom. The plough now gen erally used in Syria consists substantially of but 3 parts: the beam or pole fastened to the yoke, the ploughshare, and the han dle. The 2 latter parts, and even all 3, are .441 POE BIBLE DICTIONARY. POE ancient plough, yokes, shares, and goad. sometimes formed of a single branch of a tree with 2 limbs projecting in opposite directions. The ploughshare is sometimes defended by a strip or point of iron, Isa. 2:4; Joel 3:10. As the handle was single, and with attention was easily managed by one hand, Luke 9:62, the ploughman bran dished in the other a formidable goad, 6 or 8 feet long, armed at the point with a pike, and at the heavy end, which was 2 inches thick, with a small iron spade for clearing the share from clay, Judg. 3:31; 1 Sam. 13:21; Acts 9:5. Ploughs were drawn by oxen, asses, and heifers, Deut. 22:10; Judg. 14: 18; at this day camels and cows are also PLOUGHING AND SOWING: FROM AN ANCIENT EGYPTIAN PAINTING. used in Palestine. Ploughing commenced soon after the autumnal rains set in, to wards the last of October. The Arabs of Palestine often plough in somewhat large companies, as of old, 1 Kin. 19:19. PO'ETRY of the Hebrews. Poetry combined with music was an attendant upon many of the scenes of Hebrew life as pictured in the Bible. Moses and Deborah celebrated victory with songs, Exod. 15:1- 21; Judg. 5; death was lamented in like manner, 2 Sam. 1 : 17-27 ; feasts were accom panied by music and singing, Amos 6:5; and the chanting of sacred songs formed an important part of the temple worship. Under the inspiration of the Almighty the Hebrews carried religious poetry to the highest degree of perfection. The poetry .of this people was almost wholly lyric; whether didactic, elegiac, pastoral, or pro phetic, it was still lyric. The essence of lyric poetry is the vivid expression of inter nal emotions. It is therefore subjective, in opposition to epic poetry, which treats of external objects, and is therefore objec tive. The chief subject of Hebrew poetry was religion, and then patriotism, which, under the theocracy, was very nearly allied to religion. The most obvious and stri king characteristic of the poetry ofthe He- 442 brews is sublimity. The present prevail ing views of the nature of Hebrew poetry were first developed in the last century by Bishop Lowth in his Lectures on the Poe try of the Hebrews. Hebrew poetry differs from Hebrew prose in 3 respects : 1. In the peculiar po etical nature of the contents, of which the characteristics are sublimity, boldness, ab ruptness, lofty metaphors, personifications, etc. 2. In the peculiarities of the poetic dialect or diction, which, however, are not so striking as among the Greeks and Ro mans. 3. In rhythm, which differs from metre — the latter importing n measure of syllables or feet, the former a harmonious arrangement of words and members. It is the opinion of those best acquainted with the subject that the Hebrews had no pros ody, that is, no measure of syllables into poetic feet, as dactyles, trochees, and spon dees. It is believed that the Hebrew poe try, much of which was designed to be sung or chanted, was characterized by a certain melodious" flow and cadence which is now irrecoverably lost, together with the true pronunciation of the language. But aside from this, the rhythm of He brew poetry consists in what is called its parallelism, of which the fundamental POE BIBLE DICTIONARY. POE principle is that every verse must consist of at least two corresponding parts or members. The parallelism of Hebrew poetry occurs either in the thought, or solely in the form. Ofthe former there are 3 kinds: namely, 1. Synonymous ; where the 2 members express the same idea in different, but closely, and often literally, corresponding words: as for example, What is man, that thou art mindful of him ? And the son of man, that thou dost visit him? Psa. 8 : 4. Why do the heathen rage ? And the people imagine a vain thing? Psa. 2 : 1. He that sitteth in the heavens shall laugh ; The Lord shall have them in derision. Psa. 2 : 4. Doth the wild ass bray when he hath grass? Or loweth the ox over his fodder? Job 6: 5. So also the song of Lamech, Gen. 4:23, and Job 7:1, etc. 2. Antithetical; where an antithesis of thought is expressed . by corresponding members : as for example, The house ofthe wicked shall be overthrown, But the tabernacle of the upright shall flourish. Prov. 14: 11. A soft answer turneth away wrath ; But grievous words stir up anger. Prov. 15 : 1. 3. Synthetic ; which is a mere juxtaposi tion ; or rather, the thought is carried for ward in the 2d member with some addition, the correspondence of words and construc tion being as before : as for example, The law of the Lord is perfect, converting the soul: The testimony of the Lord is sure, making wise the simple. The statutes of the Lord are right, rejoicing the heart : The commandment of the Lord is pure, enlight ening the eyes. The fear of the Lord is clean, enduring for ever : The judgments of the Lord are true and right eous altogether. Psa. 19 : 7, 8, 9. Mere rhythmical parallelism is that in which no similarity or correspondence of thought exists, but the verse is divided by the ccesura, as it were, into corresponding numbers. This is the most imperfect spe cies of parallelism, and may be compared with the hexameter, divided by the caesura : as for example, Yet have I set my king Upon my holy hill of Zion. Psa. 2 : 6. Many there be which say of my soul, There is no help for him in God. Psa. 3 : 2. This is most common in the book of Lam entations, where there is hardly any other species of parallelism. Thus far we have had regard to the sim plest and most perfect parallelisms of 2 members, such as are more usually found in the Psalms, Job, etc. But in the proph ets and a few of the Psalms we find a less regular and sometimes compound paral lelism. Thus the parallelism is irregular when one member is shorter than the other, as Hosea 4:17: Ephraim is joined to idols ; Let him alone. Of compound parallelisms there are vari ous kinds, as when the verse has 3 mem bers either parallel with each other, as in Job 3 : 4, or 2 of them standing opposed to the 3d: as for example, For the ways of the Lord are right, And the just shall walk in them, But the transgressors shall fall therein. Hos. 14:9. Or when the verse has 4 members, either compounded of 2 simple parallels, or the ist line answering to the 3d and the 2d to the 4th, or all 4 nearly parallel to each other: as for example, The ox knoweth his owner, And the ass his master's crib ; But Israel doth not know, My people doth not consider. Isa. 1:3. As the heaven is high above the earth, So great is his mercy towards them that fear him ; As far as the east is from the west, So far hath he removed our transgressions from us. Psa. 103 : n, 12. They have mouths, but they speak not ; Eyes have they, but they see not ; They have ears, but they hear not ; Neither is there any breath in their mouths. Psa. 135 : 16, 17. We may name Psalms 2 and 15 as afford ing examples of most of the species of po etic parallelism. In the common manuscripts and editions of the Hebrew Bible the members of the parallelisms in the poetical parts are not written or printed separately, but the ac cents serve to divide them. In other edi tions, however, the members are printed separately. It is matter of regret that this mode was not adopted in our English version, since in many cases the common 443 POL BIBLE DICTIONARY. POO reader has now no means of distinguishing whether what he reads is poetry or prose in Hebrew. The preceding principles refer solely to the rhythm of Hebrew poetry. Besides this, there are other peculiarities; as, for example, the strophe, as in Psa. 107 and in Psa. 42, 43, where ver. 5, 11, and 5 are a burden or refrain, repeated at the end of each strophe. So also the alphabetic Psalms and poems ;see Letter), and the Psalms of degrees, in which the chief words of each verse are taken up and repeated at the be ginning of the next verse. See Degrees. More than a third of the Old Testament is poetry in Hebrew, including most of Job, the Psalms, Solomon's books, and the greater part of the prophets ; technically, however, in the usage of the Jews, the 3 poetic books of the Old Testament are Job, Psalms, and Proverbs, which have a sys tem of accentuation peculiar to themselves. Poetic fragments are also found here and there in the historical books, as in Gen. 4:23, 24; Exod. 32:18; Num. 21:14, 15, T8, 27-30; 23:7, 18; 24:3, 15. In the New Tes tament also many passages occur in which this Hebrew style seems to be transferred to the Greek, Matt. 8 : 20 ; Luke 1 : 46, 47 ; Rom. 11:33-35; Rev. 18; 19:1-3. POLL, the head, Num. 1:2, 18; 3:47. To poll the head is to cut off the hair, 2 Sam. 14:26; Ezek. 44:20; Mic. 1:16. POL'LUX. See Castor. '«# POMEGRAN'ATE, from the Latin Po- mum granatum, grained apple, the fruit containing many seeds. The tree or bush belongs to the myrtle family, and is the Punica granatum of Linnaeus. It is rarely over 10 feet high, has a straight stem, red dish bark, many spreading branches, small, lance-shaped, glossy leaves, which remain green through the winter, and large, bril liant scarlet or orange blossoms. The 444 fruit, which ripens in August or Septem ber, is of the size of an orange, with a red dish-brown, hard, astringent rind, used in making morocco leather. Within is a very juicy and beautiful pink pulp, Song 4:3; 6:7, containing an abundance of seeds, each with its own coating of pulp. This pulp has a very agreeable flavor in the cultivated tree, some specimens of which bear sweet fruit and some acid. The juice was made into wine or sherbet, Song 8:2. The fruit of the wild pomegranate is small, very sour, and worthless. The tree grows wild in Persia and Syria, the south of Eu rope, and the north of Africa. It was early cultivated in Egypt, Num. 20 : 5, and abound ed in Palestine, Num. 13:23; Deut. 8:8; Joel 1:12; Hag. 2:19, where "Rimmon," the Hebrew term for pomegranate, was the name of several places. The value of the fruit and the beauty of the flower made the tree welcome in gardens, Song 4:13; 6:11. Artificial pomegranates were used as ornaments on the robe of the high priest, Exod. 28:33, and as an architectural orna ment in Solomon's temple, 1 Kin. 7:18, 20, 41, 42. Carved pomegranates may often be seen on broken columns in Oriental temple ruins. See Rimmon. POM'MELS, or "bowls," as in 1 Kin. 7:41, globular ornaments affixed to the capitals of columns, 2 Chr. 4:12, 13. PON'TUS, the sea, the northeastern prov ince of Asia Minor, bounded north by the Euxine Sea, west by Galatia and Paphla- gonia, south by Cappadocia and part of Armenia, and east by Colchis. It was orig inally governed by kings, and was in its most flourishing state under Mithridates the Great, who waged a long and celebra ted war with the Romans, but was at length subdued by Pompey, B. C. 66 ; after which Pontus became a province of the Roman Empire. The geographer Strabo was born in Amasia, its capital ; and one of its prin cipal towns, Trapezus, still flourishes un der the name of Trebizond. Many Jews resided there, and from time to time " went up to Jerusalem unto the feast," Acts 2:9. The devoted Aquila was a native of Pon tus, Acts 18:2; and the gospel was planted there at an early period, 1 Pet. 1:1. It was conquered by the Turks, its present mas ters, A. D. 1461. POOLS, large reservoirs for spring or rain water, for the public benefit, while cis terns were for private use. See Cisterns. The failure of the water supply in the pools was an irreparable calamity, Jer. 14:3. POO BIBLE DICTIONARY. POS There were numerous pools in and around Jerusalem, the most noted being these: (i) The "Upper Pool of Gihon," 2 Kin. 18:17; Isa. 7:3; 36:2, on the west side of the city, south ofthe Jaffa road and more than H of a mile from the Jaffa gate. It is now the " Birket Mamilla," lies at the head of the Gihon valley, and is connected by conduits with (2) " Hezekiah's Pool," 2 Kin. 20:20; 2 Chr. 32:30, now " Birket el Hammam," not far within the Jaffa gate. 3) The "Lower Pool of Gihon," Isa. 22:9, lay down in the valley, west of Zion, and is now called " Birket es-Sultan." (4) The "Pool of Siloah," Neh. 3:15; John 9:7, now Birket Silwan, near the opening of the Ty ropoeon; and (5) the " Old Pool," Isa. 22: 11, a smaller pool, south of the other and re ceiving water from it. (6) The " King's Pool," Neh. 2: 14, now the " Fountain of the Virgin," on the east side of Ophel, identi fied by some with " Solomon's pools " and with " Bethesda," (7) though the " Pool of Bethesda," John 5:2, has usually been sup posed to mean Birket es-Serain or Israel, within the western wall of the city, and north of the temple area. Under this area also were vast reservoirs cut in stone. See Solomon's Pools. POOR, Psa. 12:5; 41 : 1-3, especially cared for in the Old Testament dispensation, Exod. 23:6; Psa. 112:9; Prov. 14:31, and even more so under the gospel, Matt. 25:42-45; Jas. 2:5. The slight offerings required of them by the law were as ac ceptable as the hecatombs ofthe rich, Lev. 5:7-13; Mark 12:41-44. The gleanings of the fields, the olive-trees, and the vines were to be left for them, Lev. 19:9, 10; Deut. 24:19, 21; Ruth 2:2. Every 7th year the spontaneous products of the ground were free to all, Lev. 25:6; and in the Ju bilee their alienated inheritance returned to their possession. Compare also Lev. 25 ; Deut. 24. Beggars ought to have been rare under Hebrew institutions; yet they increased as the State decayed, and in Christ's day stationed themselves in public places, Mark 10:46; Luke 16:20; Acts 3:2. Neglect and oppression of the poor were severely reproved by the prophets, Isa. 10:2; Jer. 5:28; Amos 2:6. Judges were not to favor them unjustly on account' of their poverty, Lev. 19:15; but charity to the poor was an eminent virtue among primitive Christians, Matt. 6:2-4; Luke IO:33-35; 19:8; Acts 9:36-39; 10:2; 11:29, 30, and an essential evidence of piety, 1 John 3:17. The word " poor " is spiritu ally used in Matt. 5:3; Rev. 3:17. See Tithes. POP'LAR, Gen. 30:37; Hos. 4:13, proba bly the white poplar, so called from the whiteness of the under side of the leaves. It is a beautiful and shady tree, common in Palestine and its vicinity. According to some the storax - tree is intended ; this, however, being only a shrub from 9 to 12 feet high, does not so well suit the passage in Hosea. See Stacte. PORCH. See House and Temple. POR'TERS kept the gates of private houses and of cities, 2. Sam. 18:26; 2 Kin. 7:10; Mark 13:34; John 10:3.. The word as used in the Bible is from port, a. gate, Neh. 2 : 13, A. V., not from " porto," to carry. The porters of the temple were Levites, at one period 4,000 in number, divided into courses, 1 Chr. 16:42; 23:5. They stood on guard at every gate, while on duty with in the temple in their regular courses, with leaders, 1 Chr. 26 : 1-19 ; 2 Chr. 8:14; 31 : 14 ; 35-: 15. By night also they cheered the lonely hours with songs of praise, Psa. 134. We read in 2 Chr. 23:2-19 of the faithful service they rendered in protecting Joash and slaying Athaliah, and in 1 Chr. 9: 17-27 of their reorganization after the Captivity; compare Ezra 2:42; Neh. 7:45; 12:44-47. POSSESSED'. See Devil, II. POSTS, I., in Heb. runners, special mes sengers charged to bear important tidings swiftly; such were early employed in the East, Job 9:25. A body of runners were in attendance on Saul. See Footmen and Guard. Swift couriers were employed to carry messages in David's time, 2 Sam. 18 : 22-27. Such may have been the " posts " of Hezekiah, 2 Chr. 30:6, 10, and of Baby lon, Jer. 51:31. Experienced runners will tire and outrun a horse in long journeys. The Persian kings appointed sentinels at proper distances to transmit public tidings by shouting one to another. Cyrus, how ever, established a system of "posts " that rode on horses, camels, etc., night and day to convey important despatches, fresh relays of men and animals being stationed at convenient distances, Esth. 3:13, 15; 8:10, 14. The Persians and Romans im pressed men and beasts into this public service, a custom hated by the Jews; see Matt. 5:41. The Roman posts were noted for swiftness and regularity. II. The "door-post" or "side -post," Heb. Mezuzah, on which the door hinged and turned, Exod. 12:7, 22, 23; 21:6; Judg. 16:3; Prov. 8:34, was peculiarly sacred 445 POT BIBLE DICTIONARY. POU among the Hebrews, not only because the blood of the passover was sprinkled upon it, but because the name of God and some word from him were inscribed on it, Deut. 6:4-9; 11:18-21. In time the name mezu- zah was applied to the sacred words them selves; and the pious Jew on going out or in would touch the divine name with his finger, which he would then kiss, and re peat Psa. 121:8. The Moslems also do not regard a new gate, fountain, bridge, or house as complete without inscribing on it a passage from the Koran or one of their best poets. POT'IPHAR, devoted lo Phar, a high offi cer of Pharaoh, who purchased Joseph of the Midianites, and made him overseer of his house, but afterwards imprisoned him on a false charge, Gen. 37:36; 39. Accord ing to Prof. Ebers, Egyptian monuments show that a " captain of the guard " was commander of a regiment of 2,000 men serving as the king's body-guard ; and dur ing his regiment's term of service its cap tain was chief inspector of State prisoners and chief executioner of corporal and cap ital punishment. The " captain of the guard" mentioned Gen. 40:3 may have been a successor of Potiphar. POTI-PHE'RAH, belonging to the sun, the priest of On, city of the sun, whose daugh ter Asenath was the wife of Joseph, Gen. 41 :45. The name is found in various forms on ancient Egyptian monuments. POTS, Job 41 : 20, applied in Scripture to a great variety of domestic vessels, of earth enware, iron, brass, and gold, used for cooking and serving-food, etc., Judg. 6: 19; 2 Kin. 4:40; Psa. 58:9; Eccl. 7:6; Heb. 9:4. Large stone water-pots, of 20 to 27 gallons, were seen by Clark at Cana. Similar pots for wine, amphorae, are fre quently found in Pompeii. In Psa. 68:13, "though ye have lain among the pots," the Hebrew word means originally cattle-folds, almost the same Hebrew word being trans lated "sheep-folds" in Judg. 5:16, and " hooks " in Ezek. 40 : 43, A. V., where movable inclosures for sacrificial lambs, in the outer court of the temple, seem to be meant; and in Psa. 81:6, "his hands were delivered from the pots," the baskets used by the Hebrews in the hard service exact ed of them in Egypt, Exod. 1:14. POTSHERDS, broken pieces of earthen ware, Job 2:8; Isa. 30:14, fit types of the worthlessness and fragility of man, Psa. 22:15; Prov. 26:23; Isa. 45:9. The ruins of many of the most ancient cities of the 446 world show little but such fragments of pottery covering the ground; it is usually coarse in grain, but well glazed. Such fragments are used by the poor in various ways, if not utterly broken into bits, Isa. 30:14. At this day it is common to find pieces of broken jars at Eastern wells and pools to drink from, and to see hot embers and coals carried in them from one spot to another. POTTAGE. See Edom and Food. POT'TER, a maker of earthenware, Gen. 24:14, 15; Judg. 7:16, 19; Psa. 2:9. Ancient Egyptian paintings represent the potter turning and shaping, on his small and sim ple wheel made to revolve rapidly by the foot, the lump of clay which he had previ ously kneaded with his feet. A pan oi water stands by his side, with which he kept the clay moist. After the body of the vessel was worked into shape and beauty, the handle was affixed to it, devices traced upon it, and after being coated with glaze it was taken to the oven and baked. The potter's control over the clay illustrates the sovereignty of God, who made us of clay, and forms and disposes of us as he deems good, Jer. 18:1-6; Rom. 9:20, 21. The ease with which earthen vessels are broken furnishes striking illustrations of God's power, Isa. 30:14; Rev. 2:27. POT'TER'S FIELD. See ACELDAMA. POUND, a weight and a sum of money, put in the Old Testament, 1 Kin. 10:17; Ezra 2:69; Neh. 7:71, for the Hebrew ma neh, which see; and in the New Testa ment, Luke 19:12-27, for the Attic mina, which was equivalent to 100 drachmae, or about $16. See Measures. POW BIBLE DICTIONARY. PRA POWER, 2 Chr. 32:9, force or army. For the use of this word in 1 Cor. 1 1 : 10, see Veil. PR.ETO'rium, the headquarters of a Roman military commander or governor. Three are mentioned in Scripture: 1. Mark 15:16, the residence of the Roman governor of Judaea when in Jerusalem ; in the R. V. " palace ;" in the A. V. called the " common hall," Matt. 27 : 27, or "judgment-hall," John 18:28, 33; 19:9. This was probably the magnificent palace erected by Herod the Great on the western hill of Jerusalem, and communicating with the temple on the eastern hill by a causeway across the Ty ropoeon valley. The extensive rectangu lar space occupied by this palace contained barracks for soldiers. A military force also garrisoned the fortress Antonia, " the castle" of Acts 21:34, 37> etc, north of the temple ; and some regard this as the prae- torium of Pilate. — 2. The official residence at Caesarea of the governor Felix, where Paul was imprisoned 2 years, Acts 23:35. This palace also was built and formerly occupied by Herod the Great. — 3. At Rome, Phil. 1:13, in the R. V. "praetorian guard." Some interpret this of the palace of the Caesars on the Palatine hill, garrisoned by the emperor's guard, called Praetorians ; others refer it to the general camp of the Praetorian guard, which was established by Tiberius just outside of the city walls, on the northeast of Rome. PRAYER is the offering of the emotions and desires of the soul to God, in the name and through the mediation of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ, John 16:23-27. It is the communion of the heart with God through the aid of the Holy Spirit, Rom. 8:26, 27, and is to the Christian the very life of the soul. Without this filial spirit no one can be a Christian, Job 21:15; Psa. 10:4. In all ages God has delighted in the prayers of his saints. In the Mosaic law the duty of prayer is taken for granted, as an adjunct of sacrifice, rather than directly enjoined, except where it is prescribed in the offering of the first-fruits, Deut. 26:12- 15. But at the first, as in later ages, public prayer by the priests and Levites doubt less accompanied public sacrifice, 1 Chr. 23:30; Neh. 9:5-38; 11:17; Luke 1:10. Compare also 1 Kin. 8 : 22-61, and the Psalms of David for temple worship. Pray er formed a part ofthe synagogue services in Jerusalem and elsewhere ; and in places where a synagogue was not maintained a place of prayer, sometimes a slight struc ture, and often roofless, was resorted to by- resident Jews, Acts 16:13. Pious men were accustomed to pray thrice in the day, at fixed hours, Psa. 55: 17; Dan. 6:10. See Hour. Social, family, and secret prayer were all habitual with Bible saints, as well as brief ejaculations in the midst of their ordinary business, Neh. 2:4; 5:19. No uniform posture in prayer is enjoined in the Bible; standing with the hands outspread, 1 Kin. 8:22; bowing the head, Gen. 24:26; sitting on the ground, 2 Sam. 7:18; 1 Chr. 17:16; kneel ing, Luke 22:41; and prostration on the ground, Matt. 26:39, were all practised. Prayer should be offered with submission to God's will, fervently, perse veringly, and with a confiding reliance on God in Christ; it should be accompanied by humble con fession and hearty thanksgiving, and with supplications for all living men, as well as for our friends and those nearest to us. Habitual prayer to God is a duty enjoined upon us by sound reason and by right affections; and he who lives without it thereby reveals the atheism of his heart. God requires all men thus to worship him, Ezek. 36:37; Matt. 7:7-11; Phil. 4:6; 1 Tim. 2:1-3; Jas. 1:5; and for neglecting this duty there can be no sufficient excuse. It is often said that prayer cannot alter the unchangeable purposes of God; but the great scheme of his providence embraces every prayer that shall be offered as well as the answer it shall receive. It is object ed that prayer cannot increase his knowl edge of our wants, nor his readiness to supply them ; and that in any case he will do what is for the best. But he deems it best to grant many blessings in answer to prayer which otherwise he would with hold : " He will be very gracious unto thee at the voice of thy cry; when he shall hear it he will answer thee." The words of David will be those of every truly praying man: " This poor man cried, and the Lord heard him, and saved him out of all his troubles," Psa. 34:6. The whole tenor of the Bible certifies that God always hears the prayers offered in the right spirit, and many specific prom ises taken literally seem to assure us that every such request shall be granted, Matt. 17:20; 21:21, 22; John 14:13, 14; 16:23. But Christian experience as well as com mon sense show that God cannot thus place omnipotence in the hand of any crea ture. It would be a curse to the suppliant 447 PRE BIBLE DICTIONARY. PRE and to the universe. Nothing better can , be conceived than to know, when we pour out our hearts to God, that infinite wisdom, love, and power direct the answer. The true design of these passages is to encour age the most undoubting assurance that God hears every true prayer, and will grant it if it is best. If not, we ought not to wish it granted ; so that every right pe tition has in it, " Not my will, but thine, be done." Yet God undoubtedly has power to awaken in a believer's heart the desire for a specific favor which He designs to bestow, and to give him an assurance of His purpose. It was so in the miracles wrought by ancient prophets and apostles, and is so now no doubt in occasional cases, though the need of miracles is past. We may well rejoice when He thus testifies anew that he is the hearer of prayer, but must beware of mistaking our enthusiasms for the witness of his Spirit. False and formal religion makes a merit of its prayers, as though " much speaking " and "vain repetitions" could atone for heartlessness. Hypocrites also are wont to pray chiefly that they may have praise of men. These sins Christ reproves in Matt. 6:5-15, and gives to his disciples the form of the Lord's Prayer as a beautiful model. In Eph. 6:18; 1 Thess. 5:17; 1 Tim. 2:8, Paul directs that believers should pray in all places and at all times, lifting up pure hands towards heaven, and blessing God for all things, whether in eating, drink ing, or whatever they do ; and that every thing be done to the glory of God, 1 Cor. 10:31. In a word, our Saviour has recom mended to us to pray without ceasing, Luke 18:1; 21:36; and he has set us the exam ple, Mark 1:35; Luke 3:21; 6:12; 9:29; 11: 1 ; 22:44; see especially his wonderful intercessory prayer, John 17. PREACH'ING, the public and oral incul cation of the truths of religion, especially of the gospel of Christ, Isa. 61:1; Acts 8:4; 2 Cor. 5:20; Eph. 3:8. Public instruction in religion was no doubt given in the ear liest ages. Enoch prophesied, Jude 14, 15 ; and Noah was a preacher of righteousness, 2 Pet. 2 : 5. Frequent instances of religious addresses occur in the history of Moses, the Judges, and the prophets ; and these were to some extent in connection with the Jewish ritual, Neh. 8. The Psalms sung in the temple conveyed instruction to the peo ple. After the Captivity numerous syna- 'gogues were erected, in which the Word of God was read and expounded from Sab- 448 bath to Sabbath. Under the gospel dis pensation, the preaching of Christ crucified by those whom he calls to be his ambassa dors is an established ordinance of prime importance — God's chief instrumentality for the conversion ofthe world, Mark 16 : 15 ; 1 Cor. 1:21 ; 2 Tim. 2:2; 4:2. PREPARA'TION, a term applied to the 6th day ofthe week, because on it prepara tion of meals, etc., was made for the ensu ing Sabbath, which commenced at sunset, Matt. 27:62; Mark 15:42; Luke 23:54; John 19:14, 31, 42. The day on which Christ was crucified, Friday, the 15th of Nisan, is called " the Preparation of the Passover," John 19:14, because it prece ded the Sabbath that occurred in Passover week. PRES'BYTERY, I Tim. 4: 14, .a body of elders, translated " elders " in Luke 22 : 66 ; Acts 22:5. See Elders. PRES'ENTLY, immediately, Prov. 12:16; Matt. 21:19; Phil. 2:23. See Straight way. press, wine -press, wine -fat, PRESS-FAT, or VAT, Prov. 3:10; Isa. 5:2; 63:2; Hag. 2:16. Wine-presses were often constructed on a hillside, and with 2 parts : the upper trough, into which the grapes were thrown, and trodden by the bare feet of men, and the lower trough, into which the expressed juice flowed. Both are re ferred to in Joel 3:13. These vats were sometimes excavated in the rock, or in the ground and lined with masonry, Matt. 21:33. Robinson describes one which he saw in Palestine, the upper vat being 8 feet square and 15 inches deep, and the smaller vat, 2 feet below, 4 feet square and 3 feet deep. The treaders shouted and sang, Isa. 16:10; Jer. 25:30, and their garments and skin became stained, Isa. 63 : 1-3 ; Rev. 19:I3_I5- I"1 such presses travellers in PRE BIBLE DICTIONARY. PRI Syria often see one man, or a company of 2 to 5 men, treading grapes in the season. A similar press was used for olives, Mic. 6:15. The Hebrew word for wine-press, gath, appears in several names of places. An ancient Egyptian mode of expressing grape juice was by placing the grapes in a bag, set horizontally in a frame, and twisted by several men, the juice being caught in a large vessel below. See Wine. PRESSED in spirit, Acts 18:5, engrossed or " constrained by the word," R. V. PREVENT, in the A. V. means, not to hinder, but to precede, Psa. 59: 10; 1 Thess. 4:15; to anticipate, Psa. 119:147, 148; Matt. 17 : 25 : or to seize, 2 Sam. 22 : 6 ; Job 30 : 27. PRICKS, the points with which ox-goads were armed, by kicking against which a refractory bullock only hurt itself the more. Hence a proverb, found in Greek and Lat in as well as in Hebrew, applied to those who resist lawful authority or the power of God, Acts 9:5, A. V.; 26:14. Compare Job 15:25, 26. See Goad, Plough. PRIDE, Psa. 31:20, in the R. V. plottings. PRIEST, from presbyter, elder, one who officiated in the public worship of God, es pecially in making expiation for sin, being " ordained for men in things pertaining to God, to offer both gifts and sacrifices for sins." The priesthood was not annexed to a certain family till after the promulga tion of the law by Moses. Before that time the firstborn of each family, the fathers, the princes, the kings, were priests in their own cities and in their own dwellings. Cain and Abel, Noah, Abraham, and Job, Abimelech and Laban, Isaac and Jacob, offered personally their own sacrifices. In the solemnity ofthe covenant made by the Lord with his people at the foot of Mount Sinai, Moses performed the office of medi ator, and young men were chosen from among Israel to perform the office of priests, Exod. 24:5. But after the Lord had cho sen the tribe of Levi to serve him in his tabernacle, and the priesthood was an nexed to the family of Aaron, the right of offering sacrifices and oblations to God was reserved to the priests of this family, Num. 16:40. The punishment of Uzziah king of Judah is well known: having pre sumed to offer incense to the" Lord, he was suddenly smitten with leprosy, 2 Chr. 26: 19. See also the case of Saul, 1 Sam. 13:7-14. However, it seems that on certain occa sions the Hebrew prophets offered sacri fice to the Lord, especially before a con stant place of worship was fixed at Jerusa- 29 lem. See t Sam. 7:9, where Samuel, who was not a priest, offered a lamb for a burnt- sacrifice to the Lord. See also 1 Sam. 9:13; 16:5; 1 Kin. 18:31, 33. The Lord having reserved to himself the firstborn of Israel because he had pre served them from the hand of the destroy ing angel in Egypt, by way of exchange and compensation he accepted the tribe of Levi for the service of his tabernacle, Num. 3:41. Thus the whole tribe of Levi was appointed to the sacred ministry, but not all in the same manner ; for of the 3 sons of Levi, Gershom, Kohath, and Merari, the heads ofthe 3 great families, the Lord chose the family of Kohath, and out of this fam ily the house of Aaron, to exercise the func tions of the priesthood. All the rest of the family of Kohath, even the children of Mo ses and their descendants, remained among the Levites. The high-priest, who inherited his office as the eldest son, was at the head of all re ligious affairs, and was the ordinary judge of all difficulties that belonged thereto, and even of the general justice and judgment ofthe Hebrew nation, as being at the head of all the priests by whom this was admin istered, Deut. 17:8-12; 19:17; 21:5; 33:8, . 10; Ezek. 44:24. He alone had the privi lege of entering the sanctuary once a year, on the day of solemn expiation, to make atonement for the sins of the whole people, Lev. 16:2, etc. He was to be exempt from corporal defect. In general, no priest who had any such defect could offer sacrifice or enter the holy place to present the show- bread. But such were to be maintained by the sacrifices offered at the tabernacle, Lev. 21 : 17-22. The priests also received a tithe from the, Levites, Num. 18:28. God appropriated to the high-priest the oracle of his truth, so that when he was habited in the proper garments of his office, and with the Urim and Thummim, God answered questions proposed to him, and disclosed to him secret and future things. He was to marry only a virgin of his own people, Lev. 21:13, 14, not even the widow of a priest. He was forbidden to mourn for the death of any of his rela tions, even for his father or mother, or to enter into any place where a dead body lay, that he might not contract or hazard the contraction of uncleanness, Lev. 21 : 10- 12. Less stringent rules regulated the mourning of the priests. The priests served immediately at the altar. They slew and dressed the public 449 PRI BIBLE DICTIONARY. PR] sacrifices, or at least it was done by the Levites under their direction. Private of ferers slew their own victims, except in the case of turtle-doves or young pigeons, Lev. i. But all offerings upon the altar, the sprinkling of blood included, were made by the priests alone. They kept up a perpetual fire on the altar of burnt sacri fices, and in the golden lamps in the sanc tuary; they kneaded the loaves of show- bread, baked them, offered them on the golden table in the holy place, and changed them every Sabbath day. Compare Exod. 28; 29; Lev. 8. They were forbidden to drink wine while on duty, Lev. 10:9. In the time of David a division of the priests was made .into 24 courses, which served in turn a week at a time, 1 Chr. 24:1-19; 2 Chr. 23:18. During the Captivity this arrangement seems to have been somewhat disordered, Ezra 2:36-39; Neh. 7:39-42. Every day, night and morning, a priest, appointed by casting of lots at the begin ning of the week, brought into the sanc tuary a smoking censer of incense, and set it on the golden altar, otherwise called the altar of incense, Luke 1:9. The sacred dress of the priests consist ed of the following articles: short linen drawers ; a close-fitting tunic of fine linen, woven in square or diamond-shaped fig ures — " broidered " — reaching to the feet, and furnished with sleeves; a girdle of fine linen, interwoven with blue, purple, and scarlet, Exod. 28; 39. Plain linen ephods are also ascribed to them, t Sam. 22:18; and a bonnet or turban, also of fine linen, in many folds. The priests always officiated with uncovered feet. The high- 450 priest wore nearly the same dress with the priests, and 4 articles in addition: an outei ANCIENT EGYPTIAN PRIEST, WITH INCENSE. tunic, called the robe of the ephod, woven entire, blue, with an ornamented border around the neck, and a fringe at the bot tom made up of pomegranates and golden bells: an ephod of blue and purple and scarlet and fine linen, with golden threads interwoven, covering the body from the neck to the thighs; having shoulder-pieces joined on the shoulders by clasps of gold in which were set onyx-stones graven with the names of the 12 tribes of Israel; and also a girdle of fine linen, woven with blue, purple, scarlet, and gold : a breastplate, attached at its 4 corners to the ephod, and likewise bearing the names ofthe 12 tribes on 12 precious stones: and the mitre, a high and ornamented turban, having on the front a gold plate with the inscription, " Holiness to the Lord." Neither he nor the priests wore their sacred dresses out of the temple, as we infer from Ezek. 42:14; 44:17-19; Acts 23:5. The Lord had given no lands of inher itance to the tribe of Levi in the Land of Promise. He intended that they Should be supported by the tithes, Num. 18:26-28; Deut. 14:28 ; 26: 12, the first-fruits, the offer ings made in the sanctuary, and by their share of the sin-offerings and thanksgiv- . PRI BIBLE DICTIONARY. PRO ing-offerings sacrificed in the sanctuary, of which certain parts were appropriated to them. In the peace-offerings they had the shoulder and the breast, Lev. 7:33, 34, in the sin-offering they burned on the altar the fat that covers the bowels, the liver, and the kidneys ; the rest belonged to themselves, Lev. 7:6, 10. The skin or fleece of every sacrifice also belonged to them. When an Israelite sacrificed any animal for his own use, he was to give the priest the shoulder, the stomach, and the jaws, Deut. 18:3. The priest had also a share of the wool when sheep were shorn, Deut. 18:4. Thus, though the descendants of Levi had no lands Or inheritances, their temporal wants were moderately supplied. God provided them houses and accommo dations by appointing 48 cities for their residence, Num. 35:1-8. In the precincts of these cities they possessed 1,000 cubits beyond the walls. Of these 48 cities, 6 were appointed as cities of refuge for those who had committed casual and involuntary manslaughter. The priests had 13 of these cities ; the others belonged to the Levites, Josh. 21:10-19. A principal employment of the priests, next to attending on the sacrifices and the temple service, was the instruction of the people and the deciding of controversies, distinguishing the several sorts of leprosy, divorce causes, the waters of jealousy, vows, causes relating to the law, and un cleanness, etc. They publicly blessed the people in the name of the Lord. In time of war their duty was to carry the ark of the covenant, to consult the Lord, to sound the holy trumpets, and to encourage the army, Num. 10:8, 9; Deut. 20:2; 2 Chr. 13:10-12, 14. After the division of the kingdom under Rehoboam, B. C. 975, the true Aaronic priests, and the Levites, left the dominions of Jeroboam — who established an idola trous priesthood — and settled in the king dom of Judah, 1 Kin. 12:26-32; 13:33; 2 Chr. 11:13-15; 13:9. The " chief priests " of the Gospels and Acts were heads of the courses and ex- high-priests, the high-priesthood at that time being no longer held for life, but ob tained by appointment and subject to fre quent changes. The priesthood of Christ is the substance and truth, of which that of the Israelites was but a shadow and figure. Christ, the everlasting priest according to the order of Melchizedek, abides for ever, as Paul ob serves ; whereas the priests according to the order of Aaron were mortal, and there fore could not continue long, Heb. 7. The Lord, to express to the Hebrews what great favors he would confer on them, said he would make them kings and priests, Exod. 19:6; and Peter repeats this prom ise to Christians, or rather, he tells them that they are in truth what Moses prom ised to Israel, 1 Pet. 2:5, 9. See also Rev. 1:6. In an important sense every Chris tian offers himself a spiritual sacrifice, " ac ceptable to God through Jesus Christ;" but in the Christian church there is no priest to make expiation for sin by a sacrifice but Christ alone, Heb. 9:11-26. PRINCE, Prov. 19 : 6, a liberal man. " Prince of the host," Dan. 8:11, Jehovah; in ver. 25 "the Prince of princes" seems to denote Christ, Josh. 5:14; Rev. 1:5. In Dan. 11:8, for "princes," read "molten images." PRINT'ED, Job 19:23, inscribed. PRIS'CA, ancient, Rom. 16:3, R. V.; 2 Tim. 4:19, and its diminutive PRISCIL'LA, Acts 18:2, 18; 1 Cor. 16:19, the name of Aquila's wife, whose hospitality and Biblical teach ing to Apollos and wise counsels to the young pastor Timothy show how useful a mother in Israel may be. PRIS'ON. The Egyptians had prisons in charge of military officers, Gen. 39:20; 40:3. Dry wells or pits were sometimes used as places of confinement, Gen. 37:24; Jer. 38:6-11. Two persons were put "in ward " during the wilderness journeys of the Israelites, Lev. 24:12; Num. 15:34. But imprisonment as a punishment was not prescribed by the Mosaic law. In the times of the kings, however, a prison was connected with the palace, 1 Kin. 22:27; Jer. 32:2; 37:21 ; compare Neh. 3:25. This was the case with the Herods also, Matt. 14:3-11; Acts 12:4. By the Romans the fortress Antonia was so used, and the prae- torium at Caesarea, Acts 23:10, 35. The sacerdotal authorities also had a prison in Jerusalem, Acts 5:18-23; 26:10. PROBA'TION. See Prove. PROCH'ORUS, leader of the choir, one of the 7 original deacons, Acts 6:5, of whom nothing more is known. PROGNOS'TICATORS, Isa. 47:13, Chal daeans who pretended to foretell future events by the varying aspects of the moon, or month by month. PROM'ISE, used by Paul to denote the spiritual gifts of God, chiefly the Messiah, the Holy Spirit, and the fulness of gospel 451 PRO BIBLE DICTIONARY. PRO blessings, of which an assurance was given to Abraham and other saints in behalf of themselves and of believers who should come after them, Rom. 4:13, 14; Gal. 3:14- 29. The " children of the promise " are either the posterity of Isaac and Jacob, as distinguished from Ishmael and Esau, Rom. 9:8-13, Jews converted to Christian ity, or all true believers who by faith lay hold on the promise of salvation in Christ. In Heb. 11:39, "promise" means the thing promised, Acts 1:4. The " exceeding great and precious promises " of God include all good things for this life and the future, which are infallibly secured to his people in Christ, 2 Cor. 1:20; 1 Tim. 4:8; 2 Pet. 1:4. On the ground of the infinite merits of their Redeemer, infinite love, unbounded wisdom, and almighty power are pledged for their benefit; and having given them his only Son, God will with him freely give them every inferior blessing he sees to be desirable for them, Rom. 8:32. PROP'ER, Heb. 11:23, goodly or hand some. In 1 Chr. 29:3; Acts 1:19; 1 Cor. 7:7, it means one's own. PROPH'ET. The Hebrew term thus ren dered seems to mean «. pourer forth, i. e., of communications received from God. Two other Hebrew terms meaning seer are often applied to men thus commissioned, 1 Chr. 29:29. The general meaning of the English word prophet, which is transferred from the Greek, is a speaker for another, especially an utterer of the will of God. Thus Abraham is called a prophet, Gen. 20:7, and Aaron the prophet of Moses, Exod. 7:1. The special but more frequent meaning of the word is a foreteller of fu ture events, which the expounders of God's will were often empowered by him to re veal. Prophecy in this sense, the fore telling of future events by inspiration from God, is very different from a sagacious and happy conjecture as to futurity, and from a vague and equivocal oracle, without any certain meaning. A true prophecy can come only from God, and is the highest proof of the divine origin of the message of which it is a part, Isa. 41:21-23; 45:21; 46:9, 10. A true prophecy may be known by these marks : being announced at a suitable time before the event it foretells; having a particular and exact agreement with that event ; being such as no human sagacity or foresight could produce; and being delivered by one claiming to be un der the inspiration, of the Almighty. Many of the prophecies of Scripture foretold 45? events ages before they occurred— events of which there was then no apparent prob ability, and the occurrence of which depend ed on innumerable contingencies, invol ving the history of things and the volitions of persons not then in existence ; and yet these predictions were fulfilled at the time and place and in the manner prophesied. Such were the predictions respecting the coming and crucifixion of the Messiah, the dispersion and preservation of the Jews, etc. The Scripture prophecies are a scheme of vast extent, the very earliest predictions reaching down to the end of the world's history — a scheme gradually and harmoni ously developed from age to age, and by many different persons, some of them not fully apprehending, and " searching dili gently what the Spirit of Christ which was in them did signify," 1 Pet. 1:11, the whole manifestly the work of Jehovah, and mar vellous in our eyes. A degree of obscurity rests on the prophetic writings, which pa tient and prayerful studv alone can dispel, while those which are yet unfulfilled must await the coming of the events which will make all at length clear. Many predic tions relating primarily to events and de liverances near at hand were also designed of God as sure prophecies of yet more illus trious events in the future ; and events re mote from each other in time are by the prophet beheld and described as side by side, as are near and remote objects in a landscape painting. Thus in Isaiah 10 and 11 the deliverance of Judah from the As syrians is connected with the deliverance wrought by the Messiah; in Zechariah 9 the triumphs of Alexander the Great are connected with the Messiah's coming; in Joel 2:28-31 the Pentecostal effusion ofthe Spirit is connected with the last day, as also by Peter, Acts 2 ; and in Matthew 24 events connected with the destruction of Jerusalem and distinctive features of the end of the world are blended in the gen eral view of the coming of Christ. Re specting the New Testament phrase, "This was done that it might be fulfilled," see Fulfilled. The Old Testament prophets, of whom Moses was a noble example, Deut. 18:15, 18, were special agents of Jehovah, raised up and sent as occasion required, to incite to duty, convict of sin, call to repentance and reformation, instruct kings, and de nounce against nations the judgments of God, 2 Kin. 17:13% During the period of the Judges, the priests and Levites had ap- PRO BIBLE DICTIONARY. PRO parently become degenerate and corrupt. A reformation was needed. To effect this Samuel was raised up, i Sam. 3:20, and from his time the prophets appear as a reg ular and important order in the Hebrew theocracy. Saul, David, and Solomon, though partakers of the prophetic gift, were admonished by them; compare Acts 2:29- 31. After the division of the kingdom they were active in Israel, from which the true priests ofthe Lord withdrew, 2 Chr. 11:13, and where the prophets preserved to some extent the pure worship of Jehovah, 1 Kin. 18; 19:10, 14, 18; 2 Kin. 4:9, 23, 42; 2 Chr. 28 :8-i5. The most illustrious of the proph ets of Israel were Elijah and Elisha, Jonah, Amos, and Hosea. In Judah a series of prophets declared the will of God to suc cessive kings, and to the priests and peo ple. Some prophets were also historians, 2 Chr. 9:29; 26:22; 32:32. Most of the prophets whose writings have been pre served belonged to the southern kingdom. There were false and idolatrous prophets, Jer. 23 ; 28, and some who, though true in terpreters of the will of God, were disobe dient in life, Num. 22-24 i hut most of the genuine prophets of God were humble, faithful, self-denying, fearless men, 2 Kin. 1:8; 5:15, 16, often persecuted and slain, Acts 7:52; Heb. 11:32-38; Jas. 5:10, but exerting a powe.ful influence as witnesses for God, and forming a link between the Mosaic and Christian dispensation. Fervid and vehement utterance some times burst from persons under the influ ence of the Spirit of God ; speech similar in mode, though widely different in matter, might be called prophesying when it came from persons filled with an evil spirit, as Saul, 1 Sam. 18:10. " Schools ofthe prophets " are first men tioned in Samuel's time, and may have been founded by him. One was then es tablished at Ramah, 1 Sam. 19:19, 20; later we find them at Gilgal, Bethel, Jericho, and elsewhere, 2 Kin. 2:1, 3, 5; 4:38; 6:1, 2. Under the superintendence of an elderly prophet, styled "father" or "master," 1 Sam. 10:12; 2 Kin. 2:3, young men were instructed in the Law and its interpreta tion, and in music and sacred poetry, both of which were always associated with prophecy, Exod. 15:20, 21 ; Judg. 4:4; 5:1 ; 1 Sam. 10:5; 1 Chr. 25:1-6; 2 Kin. 3: 14, 15. Though this training might fit men to be come the instruments of God, the prophetic gift of inspiration was something outside and independent of it, having been con ferred, e. g., on Amos, who had received no prophetic education, Amos 7:14, 15. The prophets received their messages from God, sometimes in visions, trances, and dreams. Compare Num. 24:2-16; Isa. 6; Joel 2:28; Acts 10:11, 12; Rev. 1:10-20. These revelations were at times attended with overpowering manifestations of the Godhead, and at other times were simply breathed into the mind by the Spirit of God. Their messages were delivered to the kings, princes, and priests whom they most concerned, or to the people at large, in writing, or by word of mouth and in public places, often with miracles, or with symbolic actions designed to explain and enforce them, Isa. 20; Jer. 7:2; 19; Ezek. 3:10. Besides scattered prophetic utterances, the Old Testament contains the inspired writings of 16 of the Hebrew prophets, 4 of whom, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel, are called the greater prophets, and the other 12 the minor prophets. See each name in its place for further particu lars. The canonical prophets cover about 430 years, from B. C. 850 to 420. See Table in the Appendix. Some time after the close of the Old Testament canon the Jews grouped their Scriptures into 3 grand divisions, the 2d being styled "the Prophets," Luke 24:44. Prophets are represented as extinct in 1 Mace. 4:46; 9:27; 14:41, and Ecclus. 36: 15. Prophetic inspiration was conferred on Zacharias and Simeon, Luke 1:67-79; 2:25-32. The prophetic order was again signally represented by John the Baptist, Matt. 11:7-18; Mark 1:2-8; Luke 3:2. Christ, of whom all the prophets bore wit ness, Luke 24:27, 44; Acts 10:43; ' ^ei- 1:10, 11, is eminently the Prophet of his church in all ages, Deut. 18:15-19; Acts 3:22-24, revealing to them, by his inspired servants, by himself, and by his Spirit, all we know of God and immortality. His apostles exercised a prophetic activity as inspired teachers for God, bearing " the testimony of Jesus," Rev. 19:10, and fore telling future events. They were peculiar ly privileged above all the Old Testament prophets in having seen the Messiah, Matt. 13:16, 17. The writer of the Revelation is the counterpart of the Old Testament prophets to whom visions of the future were revealed. In the apostolic church the " prophets " were a class of men supernat- urally endowed, and standing next to the 453 PRO BIBLE DICTIONARY. PRO apostles, i Cor. 12:28; Eph. 4:11. They seem to have spoken from immediate inspi ration, whether in reference to the future, as Agabus, Acts 11:28; 21:10., 11, or to cur rent time, as in the mission of Paul and Barnabas, Acts 13:1-3, or in publicly ex pounding the mind of the Spirit or the oracles of God already given as to doctrine and practice, Acts 15:27, 28, 32; compare I Cor. 11:4, 5; 12:10, 11; 14:1,3-6, 22-26, 29-33; Eph. 3:5. The Greeks gave to their poets the name of "prophets " or interpreters " of the mu ses;" and in this sense Paul applies the term to the poet Aratus, Tit. 1:12. PROPH'ETESS, the wife of a prophet, Isa. 8:3, or -a woman who has the gift of prophecy, as in the Old Testament Miriam, Exod. 15:20, Deborah, Judg. 4:4, Huldah, 2 Kin. 22 : 14, and apparently Hannah, 1 Sam. 2:1; in the New Testament Anna, Luke 2:36-38, Elisabeth and Mary for a time, Luke 1:41-55. The 4 daughters of Philip the evangelist " did prophesy," Acts 21:9; compare Acts 2:17, 18; 1 Cor. 11:5. Noadiah was a false prophetess, Neh. 6:14. PROPITIA'TION, the offering which ap peases the wrath of one against whom an offence has been committed. Christ is " the propitiation for our sins," Rom. 3:25, inasmuch as his sacrifice alone removes the obstacles which prevented the mercy of God from saving sinners, and appeases the just wrath ofthe law, 1 John 2:2; 4:10. The same Greek word is used in the Sep tuagint to denote an "atonement," Num. 5:8; a "sin-offering," Ezek. 44:27; and the covering of the ark of the covenant, Lev. 16:14; Heb. 9:5.. See Mercy-seat. PROS'ELYTE, a new comer ; among the Jews a convert from heathenism to Juda ism. The Mosaic law, and afterwards the prophets, enjoined kind treatment of the "stranger" — Septuagint, proselutos — i. e., one not born an Israelite but dwelling in Israel, Lev. 19:33, 34; Deut. 10:18, 19; Jer. 22:3; Zech. 7:10. He was required to keep the Sabbath, Exod. 20:10, and to ab stain from idolatry and blasphemy, Lev. 20:2; 24:16; was entitled to protection in the cities of refuge, Num. 35:15, and might celebrate the day of atonement, Lev. 16:29, the feast of weeks and of tabernacles, Deut. 16:11, 14, but could not keep the passover without submitting to circumcision, Exod. 12:48; Num. 9:14 — thus completely joining himself to the congregation of Israel and engaging to observe their law in all its particulars. The dispersion of the Jews 454 through many lands in the period between the Captivity and the rise of ChristianitV made their faith known among the heathen , many of whom, especially women, were won to a more or less complete adoption of it, Acts 2:10; 16:13; compare Esth. 8:7. The Jews in their zeal to make proselytes sometimes employed objectionable means. Thus in the time of the Maccabees John Hyrcanus forcibly proselyted the Idumae ans, B. C. 130. And our Saviour rebukes the Pharisees for their blind zeal in making proselytes to ceremonial Judaism without caring for the circumcision of the heart, Matt. 23:15; Rom. 2:28, 29. The later rab bins, 2d century A. D. and onward, classify proselytes as, 1. "proselytes of the gate," Exod. 20:10, who, without being circum cised or adopting the full Jewish ritual, embraced the monotheism and the Mes sianic hopes of the Jews, and observed what the rabbins called "the 7 precepts of Noah " — against idolatry, blasphemy, hom icide, incest, robbery, resistance to magis trates, and eating blood— or animals with out shedding their blood. To this class probably belonged the centurion of Luke 7, the Greeks of John 12:20, Cornelius, Acts 10, and possibly other non-Jewish per sons mentioned as "devout" and "fearing God." 2. " Proselytes of righteousness," i. e., complete proselytes, who bound them selves to a full observance of the Mosaic law, and by circumcision, baptism, and an offering obtained all the rights of Jews by birth, whom they often exceeded in fanat icism, Matt. 23:15; compare Acts 13:50. Many proselytes became converts to Chris tianity, Acts 6 : 5 ; 13:43; 16:14; :7:4; l8:7- PROVE has 2 meanings : to verify or de monstrate, Acts 9:22; 25:7; and to test or make trial of, Exod. 16:4; 20:20; Luke 14:19. Our word probation usually has this 2d meaning. Adam was placed on probation, and fell, Gen. 2:15-17; 3:1-6; and every child of Adam is on trial, Psa. 7:9; 11:4, with the opportunity of turning to God and being saved, Job 33:14-30; Prov. 28 : 13 ; : John 1:9. Probation implies a sense of right and wrong, of the obliga tion to obey conscience, and of the desert of punishment for disobedience; a period of temptation and of divine aids to holi ness, and the final acceptance or continued rejection of the divine warnings against sin and the divine calls to turn from sin and live. Scripture gives no sanction, but decided contradiction, to the idea that pro bation in any case continues beyond this PRO BIBLE DICTIONARY. PRU life, Prov. 1:24-31; Matt. 25:10; Rom. 2:12- 16; Rev. 22:11; compare Eccl. 11:3. A distinct knowledge of the way of salvation is not necessary before one can exercise that godly sorrow for sin and that cast ing one's self on the mercy of God which insure salvation ; for he imparted these saving graces to multitudes in Old Testa ment times who had no clear knowledge of Christ, and to many, we may trust, in heathen lands, Acts 10:35; Rom. 2:12, 13. PROVERBS of Solomon, one of the poetical books of the Old Testament ; a collection of pointed and sententious moral maxims, the fruit of human sagacity and experience, but above all, of the inspira tion of God; Solomon, who uttered 3,000 proverbs, 1 Kin. 4:32; Eccl. 12:9, is the chief author, about B. C. 1000 ; but the book, which may have been compiled in its pres ent form in Hezekiah's reign, Prov. 25:1, contains proverbs of later date and other authorship than Solomon. There is no book of the Old Testament whose canoni cal authority is better attested, and the New Testament often quotes or alludes to it; see Rom. 12:20; 1 Thess. 5:15; Heb. 12:5, 6; Jas. 4:6; 1 Pet. 4:8; 2 Pet. 2:22. Its " winged words " are a rich storehouse of heavenly wisdom, and few questions can arise in actual life on which they do not shed light. A missionary in India says that no book in the Bible is -so popular among the natives as this, being wonder fully adapted to the customs and needs of Oriental people. Its principal parts are as follows: 1 Ch. 1 to 9. A connected series of prov erbs commending and describing true wis dom, which comes from above and begins in the fear of God ; with warnings against folly. 2. Ch. 10 to 22:17. A collection of sep arate ethical and practical maxims, with frequent reference to the Lord as the wit ness and recompenser of human conduct. 3. Ch. 22:18 to 24:22. A connected se ries commending justice and prudence. 4'. Ch. 24:23-34. Unconnected sayings of several sages. 5. Ch. 25 to 29. Another collection of proverbs by Solomon, copied out by the men of Hezekiah. 6. Ch. 30. " The words of Agur the son of Jakeh," affording examples of the enig matic proverbs so popular in the East. 7. Ch. 31:1-9. " King Lemuel's " exhor tations to temperance and justice. 8. Ch. 31:10-31. An alphabetic acrostic poem, setting forth the qualities and praise of a virtuous woman. PROVIDENCE, Acts 24:2, a superintend ing and forecasting care. The providence of God upholds and governs every created thing. Its operation is coextensive with the universe, and as unceasing as the flow of time. All his attributes are engaged in it. He provideth for the raven his food, and satisfieth the desire of every living thing. The Bible shows us all nature look ing up to him and depending upon him, Job 38:41; Psa. 104; 145:15, 16; 147:8, 9; and uniformly declares that every occur rence, as well as every being, is perfectly controlled by him. There is no such thing as chance in the universe; "the lot is cast into the lap, but the whole disposing there of is of the Lord," Prov. 16:33. Not a sparrow, nor a hair of the head, falls to the ground without his knowledge, Isa. 14:26, 27; Matt. 10:29, 30; Acts 17:24-29. Noth ing that was not too minute for God to cre ate is too minute for him to preserve and control. The history of each man, the rise and fall of nations, and the progress of the church of Christ reveal at every step the hand of Him who " worketh all things after the counsel of his own will." PROVINCE, 1, is probably used in the sense of "tribe" in 1 Kin. 20:14-19. 2. Elsewhere it denotes the divisions of the Chaldaean Empire, Dan. 2:49, and of the Persian Empire, Ezra 2:1; Esth. 1:1, 3, 22, these latter being smaller sections of the satrapies, each having its own govern or. 3. Acts 23:34; 25:1. After the battle of Actium, B. C. 27, Augustus divided the Roman provinces into senatorial and im perial provinces, assigning to the Senate those that were easily governed, and re taining the turbulent for himself. Over a senatorial province a proconsul, A. V. "deputy," with purely civil powers, was yearly appointed by the Senate. An im perial province was ruled by a legate or president, or in some cases by a procura tor, A. V. " governor," appointed by the emperor. Among the imperial provinces was Syria, of which Judaea was a sub-prov ince governed by a procurator, who was assisted in his judicial functions by a " council," Acts 25: 1, 12. It was a Roman citizen's right to appeal from a provincial governor to the emperor, ver. 11. PROVOKE', in 2 Cor. 9:2; Heb. 10:24, challenge or stimulate. PRU'DENT, skilful, Isa. 10:13; Matt. 11:25; Luke 10:21. 455 PSA BIBLE DICTIONARY. PSA PSALMS, the book of. The Hebrew name for this book is tehillim, praises, though a part of the book is really ele giac. Many of the psalms have the su perscription mizmbr, a poem, song. This word is rendered in the Septuagint by psalmos, that is, a song sung to music, a lyric poem. The Greek psalterion means a stringed instrument; hence by a meta phor the book of Psalms is called Psalter. For the poetical characteristics of the Psalms see Poetry. Classification. — Some writers have classified the psalms according to their po etic character, into odes, elegies, etc. A preferable method is to divide them ac cording to their contents. In this way they have been arranged in 7 classes. I. Hymns in praise of Jehovah ; tehillim in the proper sense. These are directed to Jehovah as the God of all nature and the Creator of the universe, Psa. 8, 104; as the protector and patron of Israel, Psa. 20, 29, 33. °r of individuals, with thanksgiving for deliverance from evils, Psa. 18, 30, 46, 47; or they refer to the more special attri butes of Jehovah, Psa. 90, 139. These Psalms express thoughts of the highest sublimity in respect to God, providence, redemption, etc. II. Temple hymns; sung at the conse cration of the temple, the entrance of the ark, etc., or intended for the temple ser vice, Psa. 24, 132. So also " pilgrim songs," sung by those who came up to worship in the temple, etc; as, for example, the "songs of degrees," Psa. 120-134. See Degrees. III. Religious and moral songs of a gen eral character, containing the poetical ex pression of emotions and feelings, and therefore subjective ; as, for example, con fidence in God, Psa. 23, 62, 125; devoted- neas to God, Psa. 16; longing for the wor ship of the temple, Psa. 42, 43 ; prayers for the forgiveness of sin, etc. To this class belong the penitential Psalms, Psa. 6, 25, 32, 38, 51, 130, 143. Also didactic songs; the poetical expression of some truth, max im, etc., Psa. 1, 34, 128; Psa. 15, 32, 50, etc. This is a numerous class. IV. Elegiac Psalms, that is, lamentations, psalms of complaint, generally united with prayer for help. V. Messianic Psalms, as 2, 8, 16, 22, 40, 45,69.72,97. 1 10, 1*8- VI. Historical Psalms, in which the an cient history of the Israelites is repeated in a hortatory manner, Psa. 78, 105, 106, 114. 456 VII. Imprecatory Psalms, exhibiting the justice of God as pledged to punish impen itent opposers of his kingdom, Psa. 35, 52 58, 59, 69, 109, 137. But it is impossible to form any perfect arrangement, because some Psalms belong in part to 2 or more different classes. Be sides the proper Messianic Psalms, predic tions of the Messiah are widely scattered through this book, and the attention of the devout reader is continually attracted by passages foretelling His character and His works. Not a few of these are alluded to in the New Testament ; and it is unques tionable that the language and structure of many others not quoted were intended to bear witness to the Son of God. David himself was an eminent type of the Saviour, and many events of his life shadowed forth his Son and Lord. The mention of these in the inspired writings is not undesigned; the recorded trials and victories of David find in their reference to the Messiah their highest claim to a place in the sacred writings. Lord Bacon has remarked that many prophetic passages in the Old Testa ment are " of the nature of their Author, to whom a thousand years are as one day; and therefore they are not fulfilled punctu ally at once, but have springing and germ- inant accomplishment through many ages, though the height or fulness of them may refer to some one age." Inscriptions. — With the exception of 24 Psalms, called in the Talmud orphan Psalms, all the rest have inscriptions of various kinds. They refer to the author, the occasion, different kinds of song, the melody or rhythm, the instrumental accom paniment, the choir who shall perform, etc. These are mostly very obscure, because the music and musical instruments of the Hebrews are almost unknown to us. They are of very high antiquity, if not as old as the Psalms themselves, and in the Hebrew are not detached from the Psalms, as in modern translations. They appear with numerous variations in the ancient Greek and Syriac versions. Many words in these inscriptions remain untranslated, and can only be conjecturally interpreted. See Higgaion, Maschil, etc. Authors and age of the Psalms. — To David are assigned 73 Psalms in the Hebrew, and in the Septuagint 11 more. Psalm 90 is ascribed to Moses. As to the authorship of the other Psalms much di versity of opinion has prevailed among Biblical critics. PSA BIBLE DICTIONARY. PTO In the Hebrew Bible the Psalms were divided into 5 books, each of which closes with a doxology. Book I. comprises Psalms 1-41 " II. " " 42-72. " III. " " 73-89. " IV. " " 90-106. "V. " " 107-150. One Psalm occurs twice, Psa. 14 ; compare Psa. 53. Some occur as parts of other Psalms ; as for example, Psa. 70 forms also a part of Psa. 40. So also some Psalms are repeated from other books of Scripture ; thus Psa. 18 is the same with 2 Sam. 22. Books IV. and V. contain some Psalms which evidently were composed after the Captivity. The final compilation of the whole collection is generally referred to Ezra, about 450 B. C. These invaluable sacred songs exhibit the sublimest conceptions of God as the Creator, Preserver, and Governor of the universe, to say nothing of the prophetical character of many of them, and their rela tion to the Messiah and the great plan of man's redemption. They present us with the most perfect models of childlike res ignation and devotedness, of unwavering faith and confidence in God. They are an inspired epitome of the Bible for purposes of devotion, and are peculiarly dear to the people of God as expressing every phase of religious experience. Luther, in his preface to the Psalter, has the following beautiful language : " Where canst thou find nobler words of joy than in the Psalms of praise and thanksgiving? There thou mayest look into the hearts of all good men as into beautiful and pleasant gardens, yea, as into heaven itself. How do grate ful and fine and charming blossoms spring up there from every kind of pleasing and rejoicing thoughts towards God and his goodness ! Again, where canst thou find more deep or mournful words of sorrow than in the Psalms of lamentation and woe? There thou mayest look again into the hearts all good men as upon death, yea, as ifinto hell. How dark and gloomy is it there from anxious and troubled views of the wrath of God! I hold, however, that no better or finer book of models, or legends of saints and martyrs, has existed, or can exist on earth, than the Psalter. For we find here not alone what one or two saints have done, but what the Head of all saints has done, and what all holy men still do, in what attitude they stand to wards God and towards their friends and enemies, and how they conduct themselves in all dangers and sufferings. And besides this, all sorts of divine doctrines and pre cepts are contained in it. Hence it is that the Psalter is the book of all good men; and every one, whatever his circumstan ces may be, finds in it psalms and words suited to his circumstances, and which are to him just as if they had been put there on his very account, and in such a way that he himself could not have made or found or wished for better." In Luke 24:44, the word "psalms" de notes one of the 3 divisions of the Hebrew Bible, the Hagiographa or devotional wri tings. See Bible. Of the 804 quotations or allusions to the Old Testament in the New Testament, 104 are to passages in the Psalms. With regard to alphabetical Psalms and Psalms of degrees, see De grees and Letter. PSAL'TERY. See Harp and Music. PTOLEMA'IS. See Accho. PTOL'EMY, or PTOLEM^'US, the dy nastic name of the Greek kings of Egypt. I. Ptolemy, I., So'ter, B. C. 323-285, the founder of the dynasty, probably a son of Philip of Macedon, was one of the generals of Alexander the Great. After the con queror's death Ptolemy seized Egypt, B. C. 323, and held it against Perdiccas, 321, De metrius, 312, and Antigonus, 301 B. C. In an expedition against Syria, probably B. C. 320, he took Jerusalem on a Sabbath day, and carried captive many Jews into Egypt, where, however, he treated them kindly, founding a flourishing Jewish colony. He is supposed to be referred to in Dan. 11:5 as " the king of the south." II. Ptolemy II., Philadel'phus, B. C. 285- 247, son of the preceding. He was a lover of learning, founded the library and muse um at Alexandria, and is said to have oc casioned the Septuagint translation of the Old Testament. He sought to find a com mon ground on which the Hebrew religion and Greek philosophy could stand togeth er. In a war with Antiochus II. of Syria he secured peace, B. C. 350, by marrying his daughter Berenice to the king of Syria. See Dan. 11:6. III. Ptolemy III., Euer'getes, B. C. 247- 222, son of the former, invaded Syria about B. C. 246, to avenge the repudiation and murder of his sister Berenice. He extend ed his conquests to Antioch and Babylon, offered sacrifices in the temple at Jerusalem, and carried back to Egypt Egyptian idols taken toBabylon by Cambyses, Dan. 11:7-9. 457 PUB BIBLE DICTIONARY. PUL IV. Ptolemy IV., Philop'ator, B. C. 222- 205, son of the preceding. After the inva sion of Egypt by Antiochus the Great, Ptol emy gained a great victory over the Syrian king at Raphia, near Gaza, B. C. 215, Dan. 11:10-12; and having offered sacrifices of thanksgiving in the temple at Jerusalem, he attempted to enter the sanctuary, but was suddenly paralyzed. V. Ptolemy V., Epiph'anes, B. C. 205- 181, was only 5 years old at the death of his father, Ptolemy IV. During his mi nority Antiochus the Great captured Ccele- Syria, Phoenicia, and Judaea, where there was a strong Syrian faction among the Jews; and many of the Jews who favored the Ptolemaean dynasty took refuge in Egypt. By the mediation of Rome and the marriage of Antiochus' daughter Cleopa tra to Ptolemy, B. C. 193, Egypt and Syria were reconciled, but the power of Egypt was rapidly declining, Dan. 11:13-17. Ptol emy was poisoned while prep'aring an ex pedition against Seleucus, the son of Anti ochus the Great. VI. Ptolemy VI., Philome'tor, B. C. 181- 146, was 6 years old when his father died. Under the regency of his mother Egypt enjoyed peace with Syria; but after her death, B. C. 173, Antiochus Epiphanes in vaded Egypt, B. C. 171, and took Ptolemy prisoner. His throne was then occupied by his younger brother, Ptolemy Physcon, with whom, after his release, he shared the kingdom. Another invasion of Egypt by Antiochus, -B. C. 168, was checked by the Romans, Dan. 11:25-30. During his reign the high -priest Onias sought refuge in Egypt from the disorders at Jerusalem, and the Jewish temple at Leontopolis was built, affording a religious centre to the Jews in Egypt. PUB'LICAN, an officer of the revenue employed in collecting taxes. Among the Romans there were 2 sorts of tax-gather ers : some were general receivers, who in each province had deputies ; they collected the revenues of the empire, and accounted to the emperor. These men were of great consideration in the government ; and Cic ero says that among these were the flower of the Roman knights, the ornaments of the city, and the strength of the common wealth. But the deputies, the under-col- lectors, the publicans of the lower order, were looked upon as so many thieves and pickpockets. Theocritus being asked which was the most cruel of all beasts, an swered, " Among the beasts of the wilder- 458 ness, the bear and the lion ; among the beasts of the city, the publican and the parasite." Among the Jews the name and profession of a publican were especially odious. They could not, without the ut most reluctance, see publicans exacting tributes and impositions laid on them by foreigners, the Romans. The Galileans, or Herodians, especially, submitted to this with the greatest impatience, and thought it even unlawful, Deut. 17:15. Those of their own nation who undertook this office they looked upon as heathen, Matt. 18:17. It is even said that they would not allow them to enter the temple or the synagogues, to engage in the public prayers or offices of judicature, or to give testimony in a court of justice. There were many publicans in Judaea in the time of our Saviour ; Zacchaeus, proba bly, was one of the principal receivers, since he is called " chief among the publi cans," Luke 19:2; but Matthew was only an inferior publican, Luke 5:27. The Jews reproached Jesus with being a "friend of publicans and sinners, and eating with them," Luke 7:34; but he, knowing the self-righteousness, unbelief, and hypocrisy of his accusers, replied, "The publicans and harlots go into the kingdom of God before you," Matt. 21:31. Compare' also the beautiful demeanor of the penitent publican in the temple and the self-justify ing spirit of the Pharisee, Luke 18:10-14. PUB'LIUS, the governor of Melita when Paul was shipwrecked on that island A. D. 60, Acts 28:7-9. PUL, I., an Assyrian king, about 765 B. C, when Assyria is first mentioned in Scripture after the time of Nimrod. He invaded Israel during the reign of Mena hem, but was induced to retire by a pres ent of 1,000 talents of silver, equivalent to at least $1,500,000, 2 Kin. 15:19, 20; 1 Chr. 5:26. He is identified with Phul-lukh of the Nineveh tablets, where he is said to have invaded Syria and received tribute from Samaria. See Tiglath-Pilesbr. II. A name given in Isa. 66:19 to a re gion associated with Tarshish and Lud. Bochart and others suppose it to be the island Philae in the Nile near Ethiopia, with the surrounding country ; others place it in some remote region of Africa ; by the Septuagint it is identified with Phut, named with Lud in Egypt, in Ezek. 27:10; 30:5, margin. See Phut. PULSE, a general name for peas, beans, and other podded seeds, occurs only in PUN BIBLE DICTIONARY. PUR Dan. 1:12, 16, as the translation of 2 He brew words meaning seeds ; the reference is probably to vegetable food in general, In 2 Sam. 17:28, where "pulse" is sup plied, probably parched peas, still a favor ite food in the East, are denoted. PUN'ISHMENTS. The penalties inflict ed in ancient times for various crimes and offences varied in different nations and at different times. Capital punishment for murder was permanently instituted at the origin of the human race ; and Cain was only saved from it by a special interposi tion of God, Gen. 4: 14, 15. It was reenact- ed, with reasons, after the deluge, Gen. 9:5, 6, and in the wilderness, Num. 35:9- 34, and was early and widely recognized among mankind. Other offences for which the Mosaic law prescribed the death - penalty were blas phemy, Lev. 24:14-16, 23; idolatry, Lev. 20:2; Deut. 13:5-15; dishonoring a parent, Exod. 21:15, 17 ; Deut. 21 : 18-21 ; adultery, Lev. 20:10; Deut. 22:22, 25; man-stealing, Exod. 21:16; false witness in capital cases, Deut. 19:16, 19. Modes of capital punish ment prescribed in the Mosaic law were rstoning, Exod. 19:13; Deut. 13:10; John 8:5, 7, 59; Acts 7:58, 59; spearing or sword- thrust, Exod. 19:13; 32:27; Num. 25:7, 8; 1 Kin. 2 : 25 ; hanging, Num. 25:4; Deut. 21:22; 2 Sam. 21:6-9; burning, Lev. 20:14; 21:9; .compare Gen. 38:24. Some main tain that hanging and burning were sel dom used by the Jews until after death had been otherwise inflicted, as in Achan's case, Josh. 7:24, 25. According to the Mo saic law, accusation must be substantiated by more than one witness, and in capital cases the witnesses must themselves begin to execute the death-sentence, Deut. 13:9; 17:6, 7; 19:15; John 8:7; Acts 7:58. Vari ous other modes of inflicting death were practised by the Hebrews, or became known to them by intercourse with other nations: as decapitation, 2 Kin. 10:6-8; Matt. 14:8-12; precipitation, 2 Chr. 25:12; Luke 4 : 29 ; cutting asunder, Dan. 2:5; 3:29; Heb. 11:37; beating on awheel-like frame, Heb. 11 :35; exposure to wild beasts, Dan. 6; 1 Cor. 15:32; drowning, Matt. 18:6; and crucifixion, John 19:18. The Egyp tians practised hanging, Gen. 40:19, 22, and apparently stoning, Exod. 8 : 26. Hang ing was in use among the Persians, Esth. 2:23; 7:10; and burning among the Baby lonians, Jer. 29:21, 22; Dan. 3. Secondary punishments prescribed in the Law were retaliation in kind for in jury, Exod. 21:23-25; Deut. 19:19; see also Judg. 1:7; Jer. 52:11; Ezek. 23:25; com pensation for loss of time, power, property, or honor, Exod. 21:18-36; Lev. 24:18-21; Deut. 19:21, double to 5-fold restitution being required for theft, Exod. 22; scour ging, Lev. 19:20; Deut. 22:18, the limit being 40 stripes, Deut. 25:3; 2 Cor. 11:24. Sentences being executed immediately, the Mosaic law did not prescribe imprison ment, but it was in use under the kings, 2 Chr. 18:26; Jer. 37:15, and later, Ezra 7:26; Matt. 4:12. Stocks were in use among the Hebrews, Jer. 20:2, and the Romans, Acts 16:24. Banishment among the Hebrews in some cases consisted of confinement to a prescribed locality, or exclusion from the king, 2 Sam. 14:24; 1 Kin. 2:36. It was practised by the Ro mans, Rev. 1:9. The exact meaning of the punishment described as " cutting off from the congre gation" or "the people," etc., is disputed; it seems, however, to have been a sentence of death, which was sometimes executed, sometimes remitted or commuted. On future punishment, see Retribu tion. PU'NON, darkness, a station near the end of the wilderness wanderings, between Zalmonah and Oboth, Num. 33:42, 43. Je rome identified it with the Idumaean Phae- no, between Petra and Zoar, where were copper-mines worked by convicts. Palmer thinks it may be represented by the station now called 'Anezeh, on the pilgrim road from Damascus to Mecca. PUR'CHASE, 1 Tim. 3:13, A. V., gain or acquire, not buy. PURIFICATIONS, in the legal and cere monial sense, were prescribed by the Mo saic law for a variety of occasions, and were effected by the use of water applied by bathing or sprinkling, combined, in the graver cases of ceremonial defilement, with sacrifices offered at the Lord's house, Lev. i2toi5; Num.19; Luke2:22-24. Thespir- itual truth thus emphasized was man's need of cleansing from sin, and the requisite- ness of an expiatory sacrifice to effect this, Isa. 1:16; Ezek. 36:25; Zech. 13:1; Heb. 9:10, 13, 14, 19-23; 10:22. After the return ofthe Jews from the Captivity purifications were multiplied beyond the requirements ofthe Law, especially by the Pharisees, and were performed as constituting in them selves a saving ritual, their spiritual mean ing being disregarded, Mark 7:1-8, 18-23. PU'RIM, lots, a festival instituted about 459 PUR BIBLE DICTIONARY. PUR B. C. 474 by Esther and Mordecai, in the reign of Ahasuerus or Xerxes, king of Per sia, to commemorate the Jews' providen tial deliverance from the massacre devised by Haman, Esth. 9:20-32. The festival derived its name from the casting of lots, in Haman's presence, for an auspicious day for destroying the Jews, Esth. 3:7. The day thus indicated being distant 11 months from that of promulgating the roy al decrees, ver. 8-15, a sufficient interval was providentially afforded to Mordecai for devising and executing measures for the preservation of his people, Esth. 4:1-8, 14; 9:1-19; thus Haman's superstition was instrumental in procuring his own destruc tion; compare Prov. 16:33. This festival was observed on the 14th and 15th of Adar, Esth. 9:16-19, and was preceded by a fast on the 13th in memory of Esther's fast, Esth. 4:16. The roll of Esther was read publicly in the synagogue, the congrega tion joining in cursing Haman and Ze- resh and in blessing Mordecai and Esther. After the synagogue services on the even ing and morning of the 14th, the feast was further celebrated on that day and the next by private festivities, mutual pres ents, alms, ptay, and self-indulgence. It is still observed by the Jews in the month of March. " The temple may fail, but Pu- rim never," is a Jewish proverb. Some think Purim is alluded to in John 5:1, but more probably it was the Passover. PUR'PLE. The famous and costly Tyr- ian purple, the royal color of the ancients, is fabled to have been discovered by the god Melkat, the Tyrian Hercules, whose dog having by chance eaten a shell-fish called Purpura, and returning to his mas ter with his lips tinged with a purple color, occasioned the discovery of this precious dye. Two kinds of purple are mentioned in the Old Testament: 1. Argaman, ren dered in our version " purple," denoti-g a TYRIAN ROCK-SHELL: MUREX TRUNCULUS. reddish purple obtained from one or more species of muscle or shell-fish found on the 460 coasts of the Mediterranean, undoubtedly the Murex Trunculus- of Linnaeus, and dog-whelk: purpura lapillus. probably the Purpura Lapillus. 2. Te- cheleth, rendered in the English Bible " blue." This was a bluish or cerulean purple, likewise obtained from another species of shell-fish. The "scarlet" or " crimson," for the 2 words denote essentially the same color, was produced from the coccus insect, coc cus ilicis. All these were sacred colors among the Hebrews, and were used in col oring the priestly garments and the furni ture of the tabernacle, Exod. 26:1, 14, 31, 36; 28:31; Num. 4:6-12; 15:38. The " purple " of the ancients seems to have included many different tints derived originally from shell-fish, and modified by various arts in which the Tyrians excelled. As each fish yielded but a few drops of coloring matter, the choicest purple bore a very high price. Purple robes were worn by the kings and first magistrates of an cient Rome, and Nero forbade their use by his subjects under pain of death. Our Saviour was clothed with a royal robe of purple in mockery of his title, " The King of the Jews," John 19:2, 5. Compare also Judg. 8:26; Esth. 8:15; Prov. 31:22; Dan. 5:7; Luke 16:19. Moses used much mate rial, chiefly woollen, dyed of a crimson and purple color, in the work of the taberna cle and in the ornaments ofthe high-priest, Exod. 25:4; 26:1, 31, 36; 39:1; 2 Chr. 3:14. The Babylonians also clothed their idols in robes of a purple and azure color, Jer. 9:10; Ezek. 23:15; 27:7, 16. PURSE. Besides the bag used for car rying money, and by merchants for carry ing weights, Deut. 25:13; Prov. 1:14; Isa. 46:6; Mic. 6:11; Luke 10:4; 12:33; 22-'35> 36, the girdle anciently, as now in the East, served as a purse, Matt. 10:9; Mark 6:8, being provided with a double fold in which there was an opening, closed with a cover or strap. PUR'TENANCE, A. V., Exod. 12:9, the viscera, or " inwards " as rendered in Exod. 29:13, 22; Lev. 1:9, 13; 3:3, 9, 14- In Psa. 64:6 the same word is used, the word thought being supplied by the translators. PUR BIBLE DICTIONARY. QUA PURVEY'ORS, in A. V. "officers," I Kin. 4:5, 7, literally men appoinledby Solomon, one for each month of the year, to collect from their several portions of the kingdom, 12 in number, the large supplies of food required for the royal houshold — the wives, guests, and attendants. Whether they were purchasers or tax-gatherers, or stewards of the royal domain, is not known. PUT, 1 Chr. 1:8; Nah. 3:9, A. V. See Phut. PUTE'OLI, sulphurous wells, was on the northern shore of a small bay running northward on the west of the somewhat larger Bay of Naples. Baiae was on the west shore. The city anciently gave its name to the whole bay, including that of Naples. It was a favorite watering-place of the Romans, who resorted to its hot springs for the cure of various diseases; but especially it was the great port of Rome, though 141 miles southeast from it. The Alexandrian corn-ships unloaded here, and enjoyed the peculiar privilege of entering the harbor under full sail. Here Paul was landed, and found Christians, with whom he spent a week. Acts 28: 13, 14. The ancient Greek name of the place was Dicaearchia. Cicero had a villa near Pute- oli; Nero planned his mother's murder here ; Vespasian gave the city peculiar privileges ; Hadrian was buried here. Poz- zuoli, the modern Puteoli, is a small town 7 miles west of Naples. Remains of the ancient city are an aqueduct, reservoirs, an amphitheatre, baths, a building called the temple of Serapis, and 13 of the 25 arches which supported the great pier where passengers and merchandise were landed. PU'TIEL, afflicted of God, the father-in- law of Eleazar the priest, Exod. 6:25. PY'GARG, white-rump, Deut. 14:5, the Septuagint, Vulgate, and A. V. rendering of a Hebrew term believed to denote some species of the antelope, perhaps the Oryx addax, or the Addra ruficollis of Africa ; the latter is a fine beast, about 3 feet 3 inches high, and 5 feet 4 inches long, often seen in flocks in Nubia and Gondola. PYR'RHUS, fiery-haired, the name of the father of Sopater of Beroea, Acts 20:4, is restored in the R. V., after the best Greek manuscripts. PY'THON, Acts 16 : 16, margin. This name of Apollo, the Greek god of divina: tion, was applied also to all oracular spir its, or to persons supposed to be inspired by tiiera. Q. QUAILS supplied the Israelites with flesh on 2 occasions, in the ist and 2d years of the wilderness journeyings, Exod. 16:1, 8, 12,13; Num. 10:11, 33 ; 11:4,10,18-23,31- 34; Psa. 78:26-28; 105:40; 106:15. The season in each case was spring, when quails, which abound in most parts of the THE QUAIL : COTURNIX COMMUNIS. Old World, migrate in immense flocks from Africa northward. The miracle seems to have consisted in a special adaptation of the natural order of things to suit the emer gency. It is the custom of quails to fly at night, and before the wind. Borne by a providential southwest wind across the western gulf of the Red Sea, the birds, being weak of wing, were exhausted on reaching the Israelites' camp; and flying low— which is believed to be the meaning of "two cubits," etc., Num. 11:31 — were readily taken by hand, as is frequently the case now. " Homers," ver. 32, is believed to bear here its indefinite sense of " heaps." Herodotus reports that the Egyptians pre served quails by drying them, and this is still the custom of the Arabs. Quails are still common in the Arabian deserts and near the Dead Sea and the Jordan, and are brought in great quantities to market at Jerusalem. They abound on the Mediter ranean coasts, 100,000 having been taken in a single day at Nettuno, on the west shore of Italy. The quail of the eastern hemisphere, Coturnix communis, is about 7 inches long, and similar to, though not identical with, the Ortyx Virginianus, called "quail "in New England and "partridge" in the Middle and Southern States. QUARANTA'NIA,/ot-(j/, a mountain about 7 miles northwest of Jericho, not named in the Bible, is indicated by tradition as the scene of our Lord's temptation, Matt. 4. It is exceedingly steep, from 1,200 to 1,500 feet high ; its rocky, precipitous sides, core 46I QUA BIBLE DICTIONARY. QUO tain many caves, once the retreats of her mits and of robbers. Its summit, accessi ble only from the western side, affords a fine view. There was a monastery on the mountain in the time of the Crusades. QUAR'RIES, Judg. 3:19, 26, A. V. The same Hebrew word is' elsewhere rendered "carved" or "graven images," as in the margin. QUAR'TUS, fourth, a Christian residing at Corinth, but according to his name of Roman origin, whose salutation Paul sends to the brethren at Rome, Rom. 16:23. QUATER'NION of Soldiers, a detach ment consisting of 4 men, Acts 12:4. The Romans assigned a quaternion of 4 men for a night guard, and divided the night into 4 watches, so that each soldier should in his turn be on guard 3 hours. See Hour. When therefore Herod, who adopt ed the Roman customs, is said to have de livered Peter to 4 quaternions of soldiers, it is to be understood that he was guarded by 4 men at a time, namely, 2 in the prison with him, and 2 before the doors (compare ver. 6), and that they were relieved every 3 hours by 4 others, making in all 16 men. QUEEN. Under the kings of Israel, ow ing to their polygamy, queenly dignity and power were enjoyed, not as now in Chris tian countries by a royal consort, but rath er by the king's mother. Compare the interviews of Adonijah and Solomon with Bath-sheba, 1 Kin. 2:13-22. The title of queen, literally mighty one, mistress, is given to the mother or rather grandmother of Asa, 1 Kin. 15:13; compare ver. 1, 2; 2 Chr. 11:20-22; and to the mother of Je hoiachin, 2 Kin. 24: 12, 15; Jer. 13:18; 22:26; 29:2. Two other Hebrew words are trans lated '' queen " in the A. V. : one, the femi nine of king, being applied to the queen- regnant of Sheba, 1 Kin. 10, and to the superior wives of a king, Esth. 1:9; 2:22; Song 6:8, 9, etc.; the other, literally wife, being also applied to queen-consorts, Neh. 2:6; compare Dan. 5:2, 3, "wives." QUEEN OF HEAVEN, a name under which the idolaters in Judah worshipped the moon, Jer. 7:18; 44:17-27. QUICK, in the old English sense, means alive, or living, Num. 16:30; Psa. 124:3; Acts 10:42; 2 Tim. 4:1; Heb. 4:12; and quicken, to make alive, John 5:21. God bestows spiritual life on men dead in tres passes and sins, Eph. 2:5, through Christ the 2d Adam, who is a quickening Spirit, 1 Cor. 1.5:45. QUICK'SANDS, Acts 27 : 17, properly " the 462 Syrtis," as in the R. V., a name given to 2 sandy gulfs on the northern coast of Africa, whose dangerous shallows and uncertain currents made them dreaded by ancient navigators. These gulfs were called the Greater and the Lesser Syrtis. Paul's ship being off the southern coast of Crete, the' northeast wind would naturally drive it into the Greater Syrtis, southwest from Crete, now the Gulf of Sidra, north of Trip oli. The Lesser Syrtis is now the Gulf of Cabes, on the eastern shore of Tunis, south west of Malta. QUIRI'NUS, or in R. V. QUIRIN'IUS, Luke 2:2. See Cyrenius. QUIT, 1 Sam. 4:9; 1 Cor. 16:13, acquit, or behave. In Exod. 21:19, 28; Josh. 2:20, absolve, or set free. QUIVER, a case of arrows, Gen. 27:3; Isa. 49:2; Lam. 3:13. The destruction wrought by the Chaldaeans invading Judah is figuratively expressed in Jer. 5: 16. The Assyrians had their quivers suspended be tween their shoulders, or at the side of the war-chariot. The Egyptian archer slung his quiver nearly horizontally at his side. QUOTA'TIONS in the Bible are of 3 class es: 1. Those made by the later Old Testa ment writers from the earlier, as are many sections of the Chronicles, and late Psalms from the older. Chief among parallel pas sages of this class are Num. 26 with Gen. 46; Deut. 5 with Exod. 20; 1 Chr. 17 with 2 Sam. 7; Ezra 2 with Neh. 7 ; Psa. 18 with 2 Sam. 22; Isa. 2:1-4 with Mic. 4:1-3; Isa. 36-39 with 2 Kin. 18-20; Jer. 52 with 2 Kin. 24, 25; Obad. 1 :8 with Jer. 4:9; Jonah 2:3 with Psa. 42:7; Jonah 2:5 with Psa. 69:2; Hab. 2:14 with Isa. 11:9. 2. Quotations from heathen writers: Acts 17:28 fr m Aratus; 1 Cor. 15:33 from Men-. ander; Tit. 1:12 from Callimachus or Epi- menides; Gal. 5:23 from Aristotle. Per haps also Acts 14:17 and Jas. 1:17. 3. Quotations from the Old Testament in the New Testament. These are numer ous, and are generally taken from the Sep tuagint, which see. In the time of Christ this version was widely spread and much used by the Jews, especially by those out of Palestine. It was also intelligible to the Greek -speaking Gentile world; and hence the New Testament writers, in re ferring to the Old Testament, naturally quoted the Septuagint rather than their own rendering of the Hebrew original. In cases where the Septuagint translation va ries from the Hebrew without important difference, the New Testament writers fre- RAA BIBLE DICTIONARY. RAB quently retain its variation, as in Matt. 15:9; compare Isa. 29:13. In other cases, where the errors of the Septuagint cause discrepancy in the sense, they are correct ed by the Hebrew, as in Matt. 21:5; 1 Pet. 4:8. Often the Hebrew is quoted directly, as in Matt. 4:15, 16; John 19:37. And in some instances the Hebrew and the Septu agint are combined, as in Mark 12:30. Be sides direct quotations, the New Testament writers abound in references and allusions to the Old Testament — often pointing out some prophecy or type relating to Christ or to the spiritual dispensation introduced by him ; the familiar phrase, "that it might be fulfilled," and the like, showing how full the Old Testament is of germs of truth un folded in the New Testament. Compare Isa. 49:8 and 2 Cor. 6:2. The quotations and references to the contents of the an cient Scriptures in the New Testament are said to be 804 in number. R. RA'AMAH, quivering, Ezek. 27 : 22, a commercial people trading with Tyre, prob ably named from Raamah, a son of Cush, Gen. 10:7; 1 Chr. 1:9, whose descendants are supposed to have settled on the south west shore of the Persian Gulf, very near the town Daden, representing the ancient Dedan. The Septuagint renders Raamah in Gen. 10:7 Rhegtna, a name mentioned b.y Ptolemy, the Egyptian geographer in the 2d Christian century, as that of a place in the territory of the Anariti, an Arabic tribe in that region. RAAM'SES, Exod. 1 : n,- a ¦ treasure-city or grain-magazine built by the Israelites during their servitude in Egypt. The name is alm6st identical with Rameses, the province in Egypt — apparently the same as Goshen, Gen. 47:11 ; compare ver. 4, 6, and ch. 45:10 — in which the Israelites set tled, and which was their starting-point at the Exodus, Exod. 12:37; Num. 33:3, 5. At the west end of Wady et-Tumeilat. Ra meses, son of the sun, was the name of sev eral Pharaohs before and after the Exodus, and the oppressor of the Israelites is now generally identified with Rameses II. of the 19th dynasty. See Pharaoh and cut p. 150. RAB, RAB'BI. The word rab in He brew and Chaldee signifies great or chief; thus Nebuzar-adan is the chief or captain of the guard, 2 Kin. 25:8, in Hebrew rab- tabbachim ; so Ashpenaz is the rab, chief or master, of the eunuchs, and Daniel of the magi, Dan. 1:3; 5:11. See Rab-mag. At a later period it was introduced as a solemn title of honor in the Jewish schools, meaning master, teacher, doctor. There were various distinctions and degrees; the term rab was accounted the least honora ble ; that of rabbi, signifying my master, being of higher dignity. Another form of the word was rabban or rabbon, from which comes also rabboni, Mark 10:51, R. V.; John 20:16; this was regarded as the high est title of honor, and was never formally bestowed on more than 7 persons, who all belonged to the celebrated school of Hillel, and were, preeminently distinguished by their rank and learning. See Gamaliel. The more common and usual appellation afterwards was rabbi ; and this has de scended among the Jews to the present day, Matt. 23:7, 8. It was a title often giv en to the Saviour both by his disciples and the people, Mark 9:5; 11:21; John 1 : 38, 49 ; 4:31; 6:25. RAB'BAH or RAB'BATH, greatness, I., Rabbath of the Ammonites, Deut. 3:11; Josh. 13:25, the chief city of the Ammon ites, was in a small valley about 22 miles east of the Jordan, 14 miles northeast of Heshbon, and 19 southeast of Ramoth- Gilead, now es-Salt. A small stream, now Nahr Amman, tributary to the Jabbok, flowed through the town. The Ammonites having provoked war with Israel, Joab be sieged Rabbah, and here Uriah was killed by David's arrangement, 2 Sam. 11:14-17; 12:9. After a long siege Joab took "the city of waters," i. e., probably the lower city traversed by the stream ; he then sent for David, who came with reinforcements and captured the citadel on the hill to the north, 2 Sam. 12:26-31 ; 1 Chr. 20:1-3. Da vid afterwards received timely aid from a citizen of Rabbah, 2 Sam. 17:27-29. The Ammonites regained their independence, and at various times encroached upon the rightful possessions of Israel, gloried over the desolations of both kingdoms, and mal treated those who fell under their power ; hence severe judgments were denounced against Rabban, Amos 1 : 13-15 ; Jer. 49: 1-3 ; Ezek. 25:1-5; compare Jer. 40:14. Proba bly Nebuchadnezzar subjugated the Am monites after his conquest of Judah, Ezek. 21:19-21; compare Jer. 25:8, 9, 15, 21. Rab bah was a place of importance under the Ptolemies, the 2d of whom, Philadelphus, B. C. 285-247, rebuilt and renamed it; it is 463 ' RAC BIBLE DICTIONARY. RAC spoken of as Philadelphia by Greek and Roman writers. Here caravans supplied themselves with water before crossing the desert of Arabia, and it contained a garri son for repelling the incursions of the des ert tribes. Antiochus the Great took it from Ptolemy Philopator, B. C. 218.' Her od the Great took it from the Arabs B. C. 30. In New Testament times it was a chief city of Decapolis, and held its importance till the 4th century, when it was the seat of a Christian church. At the Moslem con quest of Syria it was already in ruins, hav ing suffered from earthquakes. The site of Rabbah, now Amman, is occu pied by imposing ruins scattered over sev eral acres on both sides of the stream ; most of them belong to the Graeco-Roman pe riod ; they include the remains of a theatre which would accommodate 6,000 persons, baths, temples, churches, and other public buildings, also dwelling houses and an an cient citadel. Coins of the city bear the image of Astarte, and the inscription " Hera- cleion," from Hercules, whose worship suc ceeded that of Moloch, formerly " the king " of Rabbah. Amman is the resort of im mense flocks and herds ofthe Arabs, which there find water and shelter from the noon day heat, thus strikingly fulfilling the proph ecy, " I will make Rabbah a stable for cam els, and the Ammonites a couching-place for flocks," Ezek. 25:5. II. A town in the hill-country of Judah, Josh. 15:60, perhaps Kh. Rubba, south of Socoh, 12 miles northwest of Hebron. RAB'BATH-MO'AB. See Ar. rab'bi and RABBO'NI. See Rab. RAB'BITH, a multitude, Josh. 19:20, un identified. RAB'-MAG, chief magician or priest, ap parently an official title of Nergal-sharezer (see), one ofthe princes present with Neb uchadnezzar at the taking of Jerusalem, Jer. 39:3, 13. See Magi. RAB'SARIS, chief of the eunuchs, I., title of an officer whom Sennacherib, king of Assyria, sent to Hezekiah, 2 Kin. 18:17. II. Title of an officer of Nebuchadnez zar, king of Babylon, Jer. 39:3, 13. His personal name may have been Sarsechim or Nebushasban. From the mural tablets of Nineveh such officers appear to have enjoyed high honor and trust. See cut under Shalmaneser. RAB'-SHAKEH, chief butler or cup-bear er, title of an officer sent from Lachish by Sennacherib, king of Assyria, to summon Hezekiah to surrender; which message he delivered in a most audacious and insolent manner, 2 Kin. 18 : 17, etc ; 2 Chr. 32 : 9, etc. ; Isa. 36. See Nineveh and Sennache rib. RA'CA, Matt. 5:22, a strongly contempt uous expression derived from the Chaldee reka, signifying empty, worthless. RACE, Psa. 19:5, Eccl. 9:11. Various games were instituted among the Greeks and Romans in honor of their gods, and with the design of training young men to personal vigor and activity, and to intre- ¦ pidity and skill in war. These games were celebrated at stated places and times with great pomp ; renowned statesmen, legisla- 464 tors, and kings engaged in them ; dnd it was deemed the highest of all honors to be crowned with a simple chaplet of laurel, olive, pine, or parsley in the presence of the vast assemblage of witnesses who de lighted to honor the victor. The prepar atory training was very severe, and ev ery weakening indulgence was forbidden. RAC BIBLE DICTIONARY. RAI Among the most famous games were those celebrated on the Isthmus of Corinth, hence called the Isthmian games ; and to these Paul alludes in his letters to Corinth, i Cor. 4:9; 9:24-27. See also Acts 20:24; Gal. 5:7. The foot-race was a game of the first rank ; other games were the torch - race on foot or on horseback, the chariot-race, wrestling, boxing, leaping, and throwing the quoit or the javelin. The foot-race well illustrates the Christian warfare, the sacrifices to be made, the diligent bring ing of the body under subjection, the lay ing aside every weight, the myriads of spectators lining the course, and among them those previously crowned victors, the exhausting .efforts required (from which the word agonize is derived), and the glo rious prize, Phil. 3:13, 14; 2 Tim. 4:7, 8; Heb. 12:1. RA'CHEL, ewe, Ruth 4:11, Leah's young er sister, Laban's daughter, and Jacob's chosen and best-beloved wife, though Leah was favored with more children. Rachel, though attractive, was tinged with the idol atrous superstition and cunning of her fam ily. She was the adoptive mother of Dan and Naphtali, and the mother of Joseph and Benjamin, and died soon after the lat ter's birth. See her history in Gen. 29 to RACHEL'S TOMB, NORTH OF BETHLEHEM. 35. Jacob marked her burial-place with a pillar, Gen. 35:16, 19, 20; 48:7, and it was still a waymark 600 years later, in the days of Samuel and Saul, 1 Sam. 10:2; Jeremi ah, 31:15-17, poetically represents her as mourning over the calamities of her pos terity, the tribes of Ephraim and Manas seh, previously led captive by Assyria, and of Benjamin, then suffering with Judah under the sword and chains of Babylon ; compare Jer. 40:11; and as receiving a consoling promise of their restoration. A further fulfilment of the prophet's imagery occurred at Herod's slaughter of the in fants of Bethlehem and the surrounding villages, Matt. 2:17, 18. It is supposed that one of the many places called Ramah was near Rachel's grave and Bethlehem. The traditional site of her burial-place is still shown, as it has been for ages, about *4 a mile north of Bethlehem, and is revered by Mohammedans, Jews, and Christians, and visited by pilgrims. It is marked by a Mohammedan wely's sepulchre, with a dome and a stone inclosure. The build ing has been often repaired, and was prob ably first erected in the 15th century on the place before marked by a pyramid of stones. RAFT'ERS, Song 1:17, ceilings. RA'GAU, Luke 3:35, the same as Reu, R. V. See Gen. 11:20, 21. RAGU'EL, Num. 10:29, or rather RE- U'EL, as in Exod. 2:18, 21, friend of God. The Hebrew word is the same in both places. Compare Exod. 3:1; 18:1; Judg. 4:11. These passages represent him as the father of Hobab and Zipporah, and he is generally supposed to be the same as Jethro, Moses' father-in-law. Some, how ever, think he was Jethro's father, and that he is called the father of the others as be- .ing the head ofthe family. Compare Gen. 31:43; 2 Kin. 14:3; 16:2. RA'HAB. The English word Rahab rep resents 2 different Hebrew words : I. Ra hab, wide, a Canaanite woman of Jericho who gave shelter to the 2 spies sent in thither by Joshua, and in return was spared, with all her kindred, when the city was ta ken and destroyed, Josh. 2:1-21; 6:17-25. Her faith in doing this is commended in Heb. 11:31 ; Jas. 2:25. The Jews and many Christians endeavor to show that Rahab was only an honest innkeeper; but more probably the designation of " harlot " giv en to her in our Bible is correct. If she had at some time led a dissolute life, she had evidently repented ; and she after wards became a worshipper of Jehovah, the wife of Salmon, a prince ofthe tribe of Judah, Ruth 4:21, and so an ancestor of our Lord, one of the 4 women, Thamar, Rahab, Ruth, and Bath-sheba, all foreign ers, named in Matthew's genealogy of Je sus, Matt. 1:5. The penitent publican and sinner are always welcome to Christ; and many such, through the renovating power of grace, will shine gloriously in heaven, while the unbelieving moralist will perish in his sins. II. Rahab, pride, insolence, a symbolical name for Egypt, Psa. 87:4; 89:10; Isa. 30:7, "strength;" Isa. 51:9. RAIN. In Scripture the " early " and the "latter" rain of Palestine are spoken of, 465 RAI BIBLE DICTIONARY. RAM Deut. 11:14; Hos. 6:3. The former falls in the latter part of October, the seed-time of Palestine ; and the weather then continues variable, with more or less rain, the whole winter, Ezra 10:9; Song 2: 11, until after the latter or spring rain in April, which is im portant for the perfecting of the crops, Joel 2:23; Amos 4:7. In the Jordan valley bar ley is harvested fn the beginning of May, wheat a few weeks later; while the fig, olive, and grape do not ripen in quantities till August and September. In Lebanon the harvests are later, and "the former rain" earlier. Rain is extremely rare dur ing the time of the grain-harvest, 1 Sam. 12:16-19; Prov. 26:1; the earth soon be comes parched, vegetation is destroyed, and a season of scorching heat and unbro ken drought succeeds from July, or even May, until the coming of the longed-for October rains, which again prepare the earth for cultivation. Nothing can more expressively represent spiritual blessings than copious showers of rain after this try ing season is past, Deut. 32:2; Job 29:23; Isa. 44:3; Hos. 10:12. See Kishon. On the other hand, violent tempests of rain, by the devastation they occasion, Prov. 28 : 3, furnish a metaphor for the judgments of God, Psa. 11:6; Ezek. 38:22. Now, as formerly, rain in Palestine comes mostly from the west and southwest, 1 Kin. 18:43-45; Luke 12:54. The average annual rainfall at Jerusa lem is now 61.6 inches, more than the aver age fall in the United States, which is 45 inches. It would seem, therefore, that if a portion of this copious rainfall were pre served in reservoirs and used in irrigating the ground in the dry season, and if the hillsides, which in Southern Palestine es pecially are stripped of soil, were terraced and planted with trees, to hinder the rain from coursing down the rocks in torrents, often ruinous to the crops in the valleys, and to cause it to percolate more gently and generally through the soil, the old verdure and fertility of land might be re stored, and be again the rule instead of, as at present, the exception which surprises and delights the traveller. RAIN'BOW, Gen. 9:13-17; Isa. 54:9, 10. This beautiful phenomenon is owing to the refraction of the beams of the sun in pass ing the drops of falling rain ; the rays are separated into the prismatic colors, and then reflected from the cloud opposite to the sun and the spectator. We need not suppose that the rainbow was unknown 466 before the flood; but God then appointed it to be the cheering seal of his covenant with the earth, which is as steadfast as the natural laws from which the rainbow springs. The rainbow symbolizes God's mercy and faithfulness, Rev. 4:3; 10:1. RAI'SINS, grapes dried ; often made into cakes, like dates ; Num. 6 -.3; 1 Sam. 25:18; 30:12; 2 Sam. 16:1; 1 Chr. 12:40. RAK'KATH, shore, a fortified city of Naphtali, Josh. 19:35, probably not far from Tiberias. RAK'KON, thinness, a city of Dan, Josh. 19:46, traced at Tel er-Rekkut, on the coast 5^ miles north of Joppa. RAM, high, I., a Judahite, son of Hezron, 1 Chr. 2:9, 10; called Aram in the A. V., Matt. 1:3, 4; Luke 3:33. II. A son of Jerahmeel, 1 Chr. 2:25, 27. III. One to whose kindred Elihu be longed, Job 32:2; by some identified with Aram, Gen. 22:21. See Battering-ram. RA'MAH, plural Ra'moth, a high place, and hence many places in Palestine are named Ramah, Ramath, Ramoth, and Ra- mathaim, etc. Sometimes the same place is called by one or other of these names indiscriminately, all signifying the same, 2 Kin. 8:28, 29. Sometimes Rama, or Ra moth, is joined to another name, to deter mine the place of such city or eminence ; and it is sometimes put simply for " a high place," and signifies neither city nor vil lage, Ezek. 16:24, 25, 31. 39- I. The principal Ramah was a city of Benjamin near Gibeah, and 5 miles north of Jerusalem, Josh. 18:25; Judg- :9:T3- After the division of the kingdom, Ramah, being a frontier town on a naturally strong site, was fortified by Baasha king of Israel, but was afterwards retaken by Asa king of Judah, 1 Kin. 15:17, 2*, 22- Hosea, 5:8, re fers to it as a point from which tidings of an approaching enemy might well be sent. It is noticed in Isaiah's prediction of Sen nacherib's march towards Jerusalem, Isa. 10:29. After the destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar's army, Jeremiah was liberated at Ramah, Jer. 40:1-4. It was reoccupied after the Captivity, Ezra 2:26; Neh. 7:30. Dr. Robinson identified it with the village er-Ram, on a conical hill a lit tle east of the road from Jerusalem to She chem. Here are ruins — broken columns, large hewn stones, and an ancient reser voir. The site commands an extensive view, but the village is mean and contains only about 15 families. RAM BIBLE DICTIONARY. RAN II. Ramatha'im-Zo'phim (so only once), Samuel's birthplace, home, and burial- place, i Sam. 1:1, 19; 2:11; 7:17; 8:4; 15:34; 16:13; 19:18,22,23; 25:1; 28:3. It is once described as " of Mount Ephraim," a region of vague limits, apparently reach ing southward to the neighborhood of Je rusalem; compare 2 Chr. 13:4, 19; 15:8; Judg. 4:5. It is uncertain whether the un named place where Saul was anointed by Samuel, 1 Sam. 9:4 to 10:2, was the proph et's home or some other city visited by him at intervals in his annual circuit as judge. The position of this Ramah is a difficult and much disputed question; the follow ing are some ofthe sites assigned: 1. Neby Samwil, the prophet Samuel, a high hill, with a village, mosque, and reputed tomb of Samuel on it, 4 miles northwest of Jeru salem. At this site, favored by Grove, Ra mah is placed by a tradition at least as early as A. D. 700, and common to Mos lems, Jews, and Christians. — 2. Er-Ram, Ramah I. — 3. Soba, 6 miles west of Jerusa lem, suggested by Dr. Robinson. — 4. Ram- Allah, 5 miles north of Neby Samwil. — 5. Ramleh, 2 miles southwest of Lydda; improbable. — 6. Beit Sahur, 1 mile east of Bethlehem, favored by the British Palestine Explorers. III. A border city of Asher, Josh. 19:29. Robinson placed it at the village now called Ramia, 13 miles southeast of Tyre. IV. A fortified city of Naphtali, Josh. 19:36; perhaps represented by the mod ern site Fer'am, 8 miles north of the Sea of Galilee and 5 miles west of the Jordan. V. A city of Gilead, 2 Kin. 8:28,29. See Ramoth-Gilead. VI. A place reoccupied by Benjamites after the Captivity, Neh. 11:33; .perhaps Ramah I. RAMATHA'IM-ZO'PHIM, double height of the watchers, or Zuphites, the full name of Ramah, II., 1 Sam. 1:1. RA'MATHITE, 1 Chr. 27:27, a native or resident of Ramah. RA'MATH - LE'HI, Judg. 15 : 17. See Lehi. RA'MATH-MIZ'PEH, height of the watch- lower, Josh. 13:26, a town of , Gad, usually identified with Ramoth-Gilead, which see, and Mizpah, II. It seems to have marked the northern border of Gad, and Dr. Mer rill would place it at Kulat er-Rubad, a prominent point 15 miles north of the Jab bok, on the wady Ajlun, 10 miles east of the Jordan. But if south of the Jabbok, it would naturally be placed at Jebel Osha, mount of Hosea, otherwise Jebel Gilad, the loftiest peak of Gilead, 3,650 feet above the sea and 3 miles northwest of Es-Salt; it has traces of a solid wall, with remains of towers and angles. RA'MATH-NE'GEB, A. V., RAMATH OF the South, a city in the south of Simeon, Josh. 19:8; 1 Sam. 30:27. Its site has been placed at Jebel Barabir, a hill 45 miles southwest of Beer-sheba; at the ruins of Kurnub, 20 miles southeast of Beer-sheba; and at Tell el-Lekiyeh, 4 miles north of Beer-sheba. RAME'SES. See Raamses. RA'MOTH. See Remeth. RA'MOTH IN GIL'EAD, or RA'MOTH- GIL'EAD, an important city east of the Jordan, in the mountainous district of Gil ead. It was conquered from the Amorites, assigned to Gad and to the Merarite Le vites, and appointed a city of refuge, Deut. 4:43 ; Josh. 20:8; 21:38. During Solomon's reign it was the headquarters of one of his commissariat officers, 1 Kin. 4:13. Hav ing been taken by the Syrians, Ahab king of Israel undertook to recover it, with the help of Jehoshaphat king of Judah, but was defeated and mortally wounded there, B. C. 896, 1 Kin. 22:3-37; 2 Chr. 18. About 12 years later, Ahab's son Jehoram made another attempt to recover it, in alliance with his nephew and Jehoshaphat's grand son, Ahaziah king of Judah. He took the city, but was wounded and returned to Jezreel. Jehu, a chief officer in his army at Ramoth, was there anointed by Elisha's order as successor of Jehoram, 2 Kin. 8:28 to 9:15; 2 Chr. 22:5,6. The city was also called Ramah. It has usually been identi fied with Es-Salt, but without certainty. Es-Salt is about 25 miles east of the Jor dan, and 13 miles south of the Zerka or Jabbok. It is the capital and most popu lous place ofthe Belka, the district extend ing from the Modjeb or Arnon to the Zerka, and is the residence of a Turkish governor. It is strongly and picturesquely situated on a hill whose summit is crowned by a castle. It is 2,740 feet above the sea level, and has a healthy climate and a popula tion, mainly agricultural, of about 400 fam ilies of Mohammedan Arabs and 80 fami lies of Greek Christians. There are ruins of the Roman period, and the hills show many traces of ancient rock-tombs. See Ramath-Mizpeh. RAN'GES, 2 Kin. 11:8, 15; 2 Chr. 23:14, ranks of soldiers. RAN'SOM, the price paid for the free- 467 RAP BIBLE DICTIONARY. REC dom of a captive or slave, i Cor. 6:19, 20. Under the Levitical law an offering was required of every Israelite of 20 years and upwards at the time when the census was taken. This offering was called a ransom or atonement - money (Heb. covering), Exod. 30:12-16. It was to be made under penalty of the plague, and was settled for Yx a shekel, 25 cents or more, for rich and poor alike, 1 Pet. 1:18, 19. Our Saviour gave himself as a ransom for our souls' life, Matt. 20:28; Mark 10:45; 1 Tim. ?:6. See Redemption. RA'PHA, possibly the name of a man, but translated " the giant " by both A. V. and R.V. in 2 Sam. 21:16-22; 1 Chr. 20:4, 6, 8. RA'PHAEL, the divine healer ; accord ing to Jewish tradition, one — with Michael, Uriel, and Gabriel — of four angels supposed to stand around the throne of God. The name is not in the Bible, but in Tobit 12:15. raven: corvus corax. RA'VEN, Heb. 'Oreb, black, Song 5:11, a bird similar to the crow, but larger and not gregarious. It was unclean by the Leviti cal law, Lev. 11:15, where no doubt are included all the crow family found in Pal estine, 8 or more species. It feeds on car rion, and devours first the eyes of a dead body, Prov. 30:17, where the disgraceful exposure of a corpse in the open field, without burial, is implied. The raven in habits desolate places, Isa. 34:11, and needs to fly over a large area to satisfy its voracious appetite or that of its young, Job 38:41; Psa. 147:9; Luke 12:24. It builds its nest on cliffs or tall trees, and rears from 4 to 7 nestlings till they are well able to provide for themselves. Elijah was mi raculously fed by ravens, 1 Kin. 17:4, 6. 468 It is debated whether Noah's raven re turned to the ark at all, Gen. 8:7; but nearly all versions and interpreters under stand the Hebrew phrase "going and re turning" as equivalent to "to and fro" — wherever it found a resting-place. RAVEN, to prey with savage rapacity, Gen. 49:27; Psa. 17:12, margin. Hence "ravenous." RA'ZOR, Gen. 41:14; Num. 6:5, 18, a common instrument among the Hebrews, who on completing a vow shaved their heads, Acts 21:24. A life-long Nazarite was not permitted to shave his head, Judg. 13:5; 16:17; 1 Sam. 1:11. The razor was used in the ceremonial cleansing of a lep er, Lev. 14:8, 9, and to produce one of the tokens of mourning, Isa. 15:2; Jer. 41:5. REAP'ING in Palestine was usually done with the sickle, Deut. 16:9; 23:25; Jer. 50:16; Joel 3:13; Rev. 14. In some cases, however, to increase the supply of fodder, the grain was plucked up by the roots ; which explains Psa. 129 : 6, where the premature withering of the wheat " before it be plucked up," instead of " groweth up " as in the A. V., is an emblem of the early de cay and fruitlessness of the wicked. REAR'WARD, the strong battalion that closed and guarded the rear of an army, Josh. 6:13; Isa. 52:12; 58:8. REA'SONABLE SER'VICE, Rom. 12:1, rational or spiritual worship. RE'BA, four, a Midianite king, Num. 31:8; Josh. 13:21. REBEK'AH, in New Testament REBECCA, a noosed cord, implying probably her ensnaring beauty, Gen. 26:7, a daughter of Bethuel, and sis ter of Laban in Mesopotamia, who became the wife of Isaac, and 20 years afterwards the mother of Jacob and Esau, Rom. 9:10- 12. The manner in which she was sought and obtained as the wife of Isaac exhibits a striking picture of Oriental manners and customs. Through her partiality for Jacob she was tempted into the use of unjustifia ble means to secure for him the inherit ance, not having faith to leave to God the fulfilment of his own purposes, Gen. 25:22, 23. Her deceit led to disastrous results: Jacob fled from home; and when he re turned from Mesopotamia, 20 years after wards, his mother, it is supposed, lay bur ied in. the cave of Machpelah, Gen. 24-28 ; 49:3*- RECEIPT' OF CUS'TOM, Mark 2:14; REC BIBLE DICTIONARY. RED Luke 5:27, a place of toll, R. V. See Pub lican. RE'CHAB, a horseman, I., father or an cestor of Jehonadab, 2 Kin. 10 : 15, 23 ; 1 Chr. 2:55; Jer. 35:6-19- II. One of the murderers of Ishbosheth, 2 Sam. 4:2, 5-12. III. Father of Malchiah, Neh. 3:14. RE'CHABITES, a tribe of Kenite or Mid- ianite origin, descendants of Jehonadab or Jonadab, and named from his father or an cestor Rechab, 1 Chr. 2:55; 2 Kin. 10:15; compare Judg. 1:16; 4:11, 17. They were worshippers of the true God, though not fully identified with Israel. Jonadab aided Jehu in executing the divine commission to exterminate the idolatrous house of Ahab, and in destroying the worshippers of Baal, 2 Kin. 10:15-23. He laid an injunction on his posterity not to drink wine, or build houses, or sow seed, or plant vineyards, or hold lands, but to dwell in tents, Jer. 35:6, 7. These rules were obeyed by his de scendants, and their nomadic life and sim ple habits may have facilitated their escape from the Assyrians, who carried captive the Israelites ofthe northern kingdom, in which Jonadab had dwelt. Nearly 300 years after Jonadab's day the Rechabites took refuge in Jerusalem on Nebuchadnez zar's invasion of Judaea in the reign of Je hoiakim. Jeremiah was commanded by God to invite them into the temple and offer them wine to drink, that their refusal and filial obedience might rebuke the Jews for their disobedience to God's commands. A divine promise of continued existence as a family was conveyed to the Rechabites by Jeremiah, Jer. 35:1-19; and was undoubt edly fulfilled, though it may not now be possible to distinguish them, as some claim to do, among the tribes of Central Arabia. It is interesting, however, to note that trav ellers mention a tribe to the northeast of Medina who identify themselves with the Rechabites, and have the Old Testament in Arabic. They call themselves the Beni Khaibr, sons of Heber, and their land Khaibr. RECONCILE, Eph. 2:16, RECONCILIA'- TION, Rom. 5:11, R. V. These passages refer to the change of relation between God and man, from hostility to friendship, effected through the mediation of the Son of God, Heb. 2:17 with 1:1-3. To make human salvation possible, a just God must be reconciled to the sinner, and the rebel lious sinner be reconciled to God. This reconciliation is effected by the sacrifice of Christ, which satisfies the justice of God, and through the operation of the Holy Spirit discloses to the sinner the love of God, and draws from him a response of gratitude, trust, and love, Rom. 5:10, 11; 2 Cor. 5:18-20. When the words appear in the Old Testament they — with 2 excep tions, 1 Sam. 29:4; 2 Chr. 29:24 — represent the Hebrew word more frequently transla ted "atone " and " make atonement," Lev. 6:30; 8:15; Ezek. 45:15, 17; Dan. 9:24. Christ bids the man who has wronged his brother to make peace with him by con fession and reparation before presenting his gift at God's altar, Matt. 5:23, 24. RECORD often means in the A. V.wit- ness or testimony, John 1:32, 34; 1 John 5:7; Rev. 1:2. "Take you to record," A. V., in Acts 20:26, is rendered in the R. V. "testify unto you." RECORD'ER, remembrancer, an officer of high rank at the court of David and Sol omon, 2 Sam. 8:16; 1 Kin. 4:3, and later of the kings of Judah, 2 Kin. 18:18, 26, 37; 2 Chr. 34:8, 9. Besides holding the office of annalist, the recorder seems to have been a counsellor or chancellor of the king, Isa. 36:3, 22, was a commissioner in time of war, and superintended temple repairs. REDEEM'ER, a name given to Jesus Christ, the Saviour of the world, because he redeems mankind from the bondage and guilt of their sins by dying in their place, and thus paying their ransom, Matt. 20:28; Gal. 3:13; Eph. 1:7; 1 Tim. 2:6; Tit. 2:14; 1 Pet. 1:18, 19; Rev. 5:9. The work of redemption is illustrated by the Old Testament uses of the word. A participle from gaal, to redeem, viz., goel, redeemer, denotes one's nearest male blood relative, to whom certain rights and duties appertained: 1. To redeem, without waiting for the Jubilee year, the property or person of one who, having become in volved, was unable to free himself, Lev. 25:25-28,47-53; Ruth 3: 12; 4:1,10,14. God is represented as the nearest kinsman, the goel or redeemer of his people, Exod. 6:6; Job 19:25; 33:27, 28; Psa. 103:4; Isa. 41:14; 43:1, 14; 44:6, 22; 48:17, 20; 49:7. Among the Hebrews this sometimes in volved the marrying of the widow of the deceased kinsman. 2. To receive the rep aration due from a 3d person to a deceased relative who had been wronged, Num. 5:6- 8. 3. To avenge the death of a murdered kinsman, Num. 35:12, 19, 21, 27; Deut. 19:6, 12, 13. See Refuge. So Christ, having taken our nature upon him, as our nearest 469 RED BIBLE DICTIONARY. REF of kin destroys Satan, our murderer, John 8:44; Heb. 2:14, 15. Another Mosaic institution provided that a man might redeem by a fixed price the life of man or beast which were claimed as God's, c. g., the firstling of a domestic animal, by paying the priest's estimate of its value and i-5th more, Lev. 27:27, or a slave, Exod. 21:8; Lev. 19:20, or the first born of an Israelite, Exod. 13:13, 15; Num. 18:15, "-6, e.g., of those not exchanged for Levites, Num. 3:46, 51. In these cases the idea of purchase illustrates Christ's re demption of his people, 1 Cor. 6:20; 7:23; Rev. 14:3, 4. See Ransom. Another great type of Christ's work was the deliverance of Israel from the bondage in Egypt, the whole narrative abounding in parallels to the redemption and salva tion of sinners, Exod. 15:13; Deut. 7:8 9:26; Psa. 74:2; 77:15; 130:7,8; Isa. 48:20 59:20; 63:9; Jer. 31:11; Rom. 3:24, 25 Gal. 3:13. RED SEA. See Sea. REED, sometimes a stalk or rod of any plant, as of the hyssop, Matt. 27:48; John 19:29. Usually, however, the word reed denotes a reed or cane growing in marshy grounds, Job 40:21 ; Isa. 19:6, slender and fragile, and hence taken as an emblem of weakness, 1 Kin. 14:15; 2 Kin. 18:21; Isa. 36:6; Ezek. 29:6, and of instability, Matt. 11:7. "A bruised reed," Isa. 42:3; Matt. 12:20, is an emblem of a soul crushed and ready to sink in despair under a sense of its guilty and lost condition. Such a soul the Saviour will graciously sustain and strengthen. The reed of spice, or good reed (A. V. " sweet calamus," Exod. 30:23, "sweet cane," Jer. 6:20), also called simply "reed" ("calamus" or "sweet cane"), Song 4:14; Isa. 43 : 24 ; Ezek. 27 : 19, may be the sweet flag of India, Calamus odoratus, or the lemon-grass, Andropogon schosnanlhus, of Arabia and India. The Arundo donax, common in Egypt and Palestine, has a slen der jointed stalk about 12 feet high, with a large tuft of bloom at the top. and long leaves shaped like those of maize Wild beasts make their lairs in the dense growth of this reed about the perennial streams of Palestine. Musical instruments are still formed of hollow reed tubes. Reeds were anciently used as pens and as measuring- rods, Ezek. 40:5; 42:16; 3 John 13. The Hebrew " reed " is supposed to have been about 11 feet long. See Measures, Bul rush, Flag, Rush. REFI'NER, Job 23:10; Psa. 66:10; Prov. 470 17:3; Isa. 48:10. In working the precious metals the refiner separated the dross from the pure ore, first reducing the mass to a fluid state by.the application of heat, and by the aid of solvents, such as alkali or lead, which, amalgamating with the dross, permitted the extraction of the pure metal. The instruments required were a crucible or furnace, and a bellows or blow-pipe. The refiner of silver sits at his work, stead ily watching the process, which is comple ted only when he sees his own image re flected in the molten mass, Mai. 3:3; com pare Isa. 1:25; Jer. 6:29; Zech. 13:9. So Christ sanctifies his people, Rom. 8:29; Heb. 12:10. REFRAIN', Prov. 10:19, hold in check. REF'UGE, Cities of. To provide secu rity for those who should undesignedly kill a man in such ways as are specified in Exod. 21:22, 23; 22:2, 3; Num. 35:22, 23; Deut. 19:5; 22:8, the Lord commanded Moses to appoint 6 cities of refuge, or asy lums, that any one who should thus shed blood might retire thither and have time to prepare his defence before the judges of the place where the slaying occurred, Josh. 20:4-6, and that the goel, or nearest of kin of the deceased, might not pursue or kill him, Exod. 21:13; Num. 35:11-34. Of such cities there were 3 on each side of the Jor dan. On the west were Kedesh of Naphtali, Shechem, and Hebron; on the east, Golan, Ramoth-Gilead, and Bezer, Josh. 20:7, 8. These cities served not only for Hebrews, but for all strangers who resided in the country, Deut. 19:1-10. The Lord also commanded that when the Hebrews should multiply and enlarge their land, they should add other cities of refuge; but this com mand was never fulfilled, unless, as Jewish writers affirm, the Levitical cities were also cities of refuge, Num. 35:6. The custom of blood-revenge appears to have been very early introduced among the nomadic Oriental tribes. So firmly was this practice established among the Israelites before their entrance into the promised land, and probably also even be fore their sojourning in Egypt, that Moses was directed by Jehovah not to attempt to eradicate it entirely, but only to counteract and modify it by the institution of cities of refuge. Later Jewish writers say that va- ' rious provisions were made to facilitate escape to these cities ; the roads were good, and sign-posts were erected to point the way. The custom of avenging the blood of a member of a family or tribe upon some REF BIBLE DICTIONARY. REG member of the tribe or family of the slayer still exists in full force among the modern Bedouins. Niebuhr informs us that " the Arabs rather avenge themselves, as the law allows, upon the family of the mur derer, and seek an opportunity of slaying its head, or most considerable person, whom they regard as being properly the person guilty of the crime, as it must have been committed through his negligence in watching over the conduct of those under his inspection. From this time the 2 fami lies are in continual fears, till some one or other of the murderer's family be slain. No reconciliation can take place between them, and the quarrel is still occasionally renewed. There have been instances of such family feuds lasting 40 years. If in the contest a man of the murdered per son's family happens to fall, there can be no peace until 2 others of the murderer's family have been slain." How far supe rior to this was the Mosaic institution of cities of refuge, where the involuntary hom icide might remain in peace till the death of the high-priest, and then go forth in safety, while a really guilty person did not escape punishment, Deut. 19:12. Certain skeptical writers claim to have found rea son to believe that the cities of refuge were not instituted till late in Jewish history. But it is inconceivable that the different sacred writers who at various intervals of time describe them should have interwo ven in their narratives of contemporane ous events accounts of an institution that did not then exist, or that the Jews of the later age supposed should permit such an interpolation in their own national and sacred annals. Among most of the nations ot antiquity, temples, and particularly the altars within them, were regarded as proffering an asy lum for fugitives from violence. Among the Hebrews we find indications of the cus tom on the part of the culprit of fleeing to the Lord's altar. But this was not allowed to screen the guilty from deserved punish ment, Exod. 21:14; 1 Kin- 2:28-34. There is an appointed city of refuge for sinners exposed to the second death, and an altar of refuge sprinkled with atoning blood, Heb. 6:18. Happy the soul that flees and is safe in Christ ere it is overta ken by the avenging law of God. RE' GEM, friend, 1 Chr. 2:47. RE'GEM - ME'LECH, the king's friend, apparently the title of a commissioner sent with Sharezer by the Jews of the Captivity to inquire at the temple concerning fast ing, Zech. 7:2, B. C. 517. REGENERA'TION, the new birth; that work of the Holy Spirit by which the soul, previously dead in sins, is created anew in Christ unto righteousness. It is expressed in Scripture by being born again, anew, or from above, John 3:3-7; becoming a new creature, 2 Cor. 5:17; being quickened to a new life of holiness, Eph. 2:1 ; being re newed in mind, Rom. 12:2; having Christ formed in the heart, Gal. 4:19; and being made partaker of the divine nature, 2 Pet. 1:4. The sole author of this change is the Holy Spirit, John 1:12, 13; 3:5; Eph. 2:8- 471 REH BIBLE DICTIONARY. REH io; and he effects it ordinarily by the in strumentality of gospel truth, i Cor. 4:15; Jas. 1:18; 1 Pet. 1:23. In this change the moral image of God is brought back into the soul, and the principle of supreme love to him and unselfish love to our neighbor is implanted. Regeneration, producing faith, is accompanied by justification, and by actual holiness of life, or sanctification begun, and completed when the "babe in Christ" reaches in heaven "the fulness of the stature of the perfect man " in Him. In Tit. 3:5 " the washing of regeneration " denotes the purifying work of the Spirit in the new birth. In Matt. 19:28 the refer ence is to the renovation or restoration of all things at the glorious external manifes tation of Christ and his kingdom. Com pare Acts 3:21. REHABI'AH, whom fehovah enlarges, a grandson of Moses, 1 Chr. 23:17; 24:21; 26:25. RE'HOB, breadth, or a street, I., father of Hadadezer king of Zobah, 2 Sam. 8:3, 12. II. A Levite who sealed the covenant with Nehemiah, Neh. 10:11. III. The northernmost point reached by *.he spies sent out by Moses to explore Ca naan, Num. 13:21. It is also called Beth- fehob, Judg. 18:28; 2 Sam. 10:6, 8, and was near Dan. Robinson places it west of the Sources of the Jordan, at the ruined castle of Hunin; but Thomson suggests Banias, east of Dan or Tell el-Kady, as the site. IV. A town of Asher, Josh. 19:30, appa rently towards Zidon. V. Another town of Asher, allotted to the Gershonite Levites, Josh. 21:31; 1 Chr. 6:75- One of these is traced at Kulat er-Rahib, 16 miles east of the waters of Merom. Of one the Canaanites long retained posses sion, Judg. 1:31. REHOBO'AM, enlarger ofthe people, the son and successor of Solomon, by Naamah, an Ammonitess, 1 Kin. 12; 14:21-31; 2 Chr. 10 to 12. He was 41 years old when he be gan to reign, and reigned 17 years at Jeru salem, B. C. 975-958. At his succession the 10 tribes, excluding Judah and Benjamin, revolted and formed the " kingdom of Is rael " under Jeroboam, 1 Kin. 11:26-40. Aside from Ephraim's long-standing jeal ousy of Judah, the immediate cause of this secession was Rehoboam's headstrong folly in rejecting experienced counsellors and claiming tyrannical power, in refusing at Shechem the request of the people for re- 472 lief from an oppressive taxation. Reho boam fled to Jerusalem on the stoning of his chief ta^-gatherer, and at once sought to recover the revolted tribes by force ; but his preparations were checked by a mes sage from God through the prophet She- maiah. Yet it is probable that he did not long delay hostilities of some sort, which continued through his whole reign. In spite of the settlement/ in Judah of the priests and Levites driven from Israel by Jeroboam's course, Judah, after a brief pe riod of comparative faithfulness to God, lapsed into idolatry and heathen immoral ities such as Solomon introduced. Their sin was punished, in Rehoboam's 5th year, portrait of rehoboam : from the temple at karnak, egypt. by the invasion of Shishak, king of Egypt. See Shishak. He took the fortified cities on his line of march, and despoiled Jeru salem of the treasures accumulated by Solomon. On Rehoboam's humbling him self before God he was spared severer punishment. He "did evil because he prepared (or fixed) not his heart to seek the Lord," a lack of sincere devotion to God attributable in part to the influence of his heathen mother, and to the example of his father's idol-service at one period of his life, 1 Kin. 11:4-10; 14:21, 31; 2 Chr. 12:13, 14. It is probable that Solomon wrote Eccl. 2 : 18-21 with Rehoboam in mind. REHO'BOTH, wide places, I., a city of Assyria, Gen. 10:11, founded by Nimrod in Asshur (A. V., margin), or by Asshur. Rawlinson would locate it at Selamiyeh, a village on the site of an ancient inclosure REH BIBLE DICTIONARY. REN on the west bank of the Tigris, 3 miles north of Nimrud. Some, however, trans late "the city Rehoboth" "the streets of the city," i. e., of Nineveh, as in the A. V. margin. II. " Rehoboth by the river," the city of Shaul, an early king of the Edotnites, Gen. 36:37; 1 Chr. 1:48. The "river" is sup posed to mean the Euphrates. The name Rahabah is still borne by 2 places on this river, said to contain ancient remains : one is a few miles below the mouth of the Kha- bour, and 3 miles west of the Euphrates ; the other is a little farther down on the east bank. III. The well dug by Isaac after leaving Gerar, Gen. 26:22. At the head of a wady 20 miles southwest of Beer-sheba is a place now known as er-Ruhaibeh, where, near some stone ruins, is a well 12 feet in cir cumference, whose massive stone mason ry, with 2 troughs made in huge blocks of stone, has an appearance of great anti quity. This is supposed to be the site of Rehoboth. RE'HUM, compassionate, I., the " chan cellor " or governor of Samaria under the king of Persia. By an insidious letter to Artaxerxes (Pseudo- Smerdis), B. C. 522, he procured an edict for the discontinu ance of the rebuilding of Jerusalem, Ezra 4:8-24. II. Four others are mentioned, Ezra 2:2, called Nehum in Neh. 7:7; Neh. 3:17; 10:25; 12:3, called Harim in ver. 15. RE'I, friendly, an officer of David who refused to join Adonijah in rebellion, 1 Kin. 1:8. REINS, Jer. 12:2. The Hebrews consid ered the reins or kidneys, as well as the heart, to be the seat of various emotions and affections which we popularly attrib ute to the heart alone. They ascribed to them knowledge, Psa. 16:7; joy, Prov. 23:16; sorrow, Psa. 73:21 ; desire, as some interpret Job 19:27; see margin. Hence God is called the searcher of the reins, Psa. 7:9; 26:2; Jer. 17:10; Rev. 2:23. Agreeable to this ascription of moral attributes to the kidneys seems the require ment of the Mosaic law selecting them for presentation to God on the altar of burnt- offering, in cases where only a part of the victim was to be consumed on the altar — as in the sin, trespass, and peace offer ings, Exod. 29:13, 22; Lev. 3:4, 10, 15; 4:9; 7:4. Thus the Israelite seems to have heen admonished to cause his desires and affections to ascend to God, while the out poured blood of the sacrifice made atone ment for his sins, Lev. 17:11. RE'KEM, variegation, I., A descendant of Machir, 1 Chr. 7:16. II. A king of Midian, slain with Balaam, Num. 31:8; Josh. 13:21. III. Son of Hebron and father of Sham- mai, 1 Chr. 2:43, 44. IV. A city in Benjamin, Josh. 18 : 27, traced in Kh. el-Meraghib, 2*4 miles north by west from Jerusalem. REMALI'AH, protected by fehovah, the father of Pekah, king of Israel, 1 Kin. i5:25, 27, 3°, 32. 37; l6:l, 5; 2 Chr. 28:6. The frequent mention of his name seems to imply that it was a reproach to his son, Isa. 7:4, 5; 8:6. RE'METH, height, a city of Issachar, Josh. 19:21, perhaps the same with the Le vitical Ramoth, 1 Chr. 6:73, and Jarmuth, named as a Levitical city, Josh. 21:29; now perhaps Jelatneh, 3'A miles north of En- gannim. REMIS'SION, or forgiveness, of sins is granted on the ground of the atoning sac rifice of Christ, Matt. 26:28. The apostles were commissioned to proclaim this doc trine, John 20:23; compare Acts 5:31, 32; 10:43; 1 John 2:1, 2, and were endowed by the Holy Spirit with a supernatural in sight, enabling them to discern and declare whether one exercised the true repentance and faith to which remission of sins was granted, Acts 5:1-11 ; 8:21. REM'MON, a city of Simeon, Josh. 19:7. See Rimmon. REM'MON-METH'OAR, a place in Zebu- lun, Josh. 19: 13. " Methoar " should prob ably read, " reaching," i. e., to Neah. See Rimmon, IV. REM'PHAN, or RE'PHAN, R. V., Acts 7:43. This quotation by Stephen, from Amos 5:26, is in almost the exact words of the Septuagint version, both substituting Rephan for the " Chiun " of the Hebrew. These may have been interchangeable names for some god secretly worshipped by Israelites in Egypt and the wilderness, Josh. 24:14; Ezek. 20:7, 8, 10-18. See Chiun. On a tablet from Egypt in the British Museum is a representation of a group of gods, 2 of which are named Ren- pu and Ken ; possibly one or both of these may have been worshipped by the Israel ites. REND'ING one's garments was a sign of great sorrow, fear, or contrition, Gen. 37 : 29; 34; Ezra 9:3; Matt. 26:65; Acts 14: 14. Joel, 2 : 13, bids the people rend their hearts, not 473 REP BIBLE DICTIONARY. REP their garments only. See Mourning. On Jer. 4:30, see Eye. REPENT'ANCE, a change of mind, ac companied with regret and sorrow for something done, and an earnest wish that it was undone, 2 Cor. 7:8, 10. Such was the repentance of Judas, Matt. 27:3; and so it is said that Esau found "no place of re pentance" in his father Isaac, although he sought it with tears, Heb. 12:17; that is, Isaac would not change what he had done, and revoke the blessing given to Jacob, Gen. 27. God is sometimes said to " re pent" of something he had done, Gen. 6:6; Jonah 3:9, 10; not that he could wish it undone, but that in his providence such a change of course took place as among men would be ascribed to a change of mind. But the true gospel repentance, or " re pentance unto life," is sorrow for sin, grief for having committed it, and a turning away from it with abhorrence, accompan ied with sincere endeavors, in reliance on God's grace and the influences of the Holy Spirit, to live in humble and holy obedi ence to the commands and will of God. This is that repentance which always ac companies true faith, and to which is prom ised the free forgiveness of sin through the merits of Jesus Christ, Matt. 4:17; Acts 3:19; 11:18; 20:21; 26:20. It is not an ar bitrary demand of God, but is in the nature of things essential. The way of holiness is the only way of peace and safety, and it cannot be well with one who has strayed from this till he returns to it. The appro val of God and of conscience is a first re quisite of happiness, and nothing but true contrition can restore it to the transgressor. REPETITIONS in prayers, which our Saviour censures, Matt. 6:7, were short forms or particular expressions in prayer, which the Jews were accustomed to repeat a certain number of times. So Roman- catholics still repeat the Lord's Prayer, Ave Marias, etc., a great number of times, and think that the oftener a prayer is re peated the more meritorious and efficacious it is. The repeated cry of a soul in ear nest is indeed welcome to God, Gen. 18; Matt. 26:44; Luke 18:1; but he regards the heart and not the lips ; and the greater the number of prayers one repeats as a task by which to acquire merit the greater his sin. REPH'AIM, sometimes transferred from the Hebrew in the A. V., 2 Sam. 5:18, 22; 23:13, sometimes translated "giants," Deut. 3:11 ; Josh. 15:8; 18:16, is used in 2 senses. 474 I. In the time of Abraham Rephaim seems to have been the name of a distinct tribe, probably of uncommon stature and power, settled east of the Jordan, at Ashte- roth-Karnaim, where they were defeated by Chedorlaomer, Gen. 14:5. Their pos sessions were promised to Abraham's seed, Gen. 15:20. Branches of this race were driven from their lands east of the Jordan by the Moabites and Ammonites, Deut. 2:9-11, 19-21. Og, king of Bashan, was a survivor ofthe race, Deut. 3:11 ; Josh. 12:4, and the occupation of Bashan by Israel, Deut. 3:13, was a partial fulfilment of the promise to Abraham. They had posses sions also west of the Jordan, in the terri tory assigned to Ephraim, Josh. 17:15, and to Judah, Josh. 15:8. Survivors ofthe race, e. g., the family of Rapha, may have been among the Philistines in David's time, 1 Sam. 17:4; t Chr. 29:4-8. It is possible that the name of this early tribe may later have been applied to other tribes resem bling them in s'ze. The valley of the Rephaim, or gi ants, was on the northern border of Judah, Josh. 15:8; 18:16. David twice defeated the Philistines here, 2 Sam. 5 : 17-25 ; 23 : 13 ; 1 Chr. 11:15, 16; 14:9-16. It was noted for its fertility, Isa. 17:5. Josephus describes it as " the valley which extends (from Jeru salem) to Bethlehem." Since the 16th cen tury it has been identified with the broad cultivated upland plain running southwest from Jerusalem into the deep wady el- Werd, valley of roses ; it is crossed by the road from Jerusalem to Bethlehem, is 4 or 5 miles long, and is called by the Arabs el- Buka'a. II. Rephaim, the spirits of the departed, dwelling in Sheol or Hades, generally ren dered in our version "the dead" ("dead things," Job 26:5), Psa. 88:10; Prov. 2:18; 5:5; 7:27; 9:18; 21:16; Isa. 14:9; 26:14, 19. See Dead. This application of the word may have originated in the idea that Sheol was the residence of the fallen spir its or buried giants. REPHI'DIM, resting-places, an encamp ment of the Israelites between the wilder ness of Sin and Mount Sinai, where the people murmured, and whence Moses went to strike the rock in Horeb from which God gave them water. Here also the Ama lekites attacked them, and were defeated, Exod. 17. Rephidim is placed by Robin son, Keil, Delitzsch, Porter, and others on the northern edge of the "wilderness of Sinai," Exod. 19:2, in the broad part ofthe REP BIBLE DICTIONARY. RES valley now called wady es-Sheikh, running northeast from Sinai, and at 12 miles' dis tance, an easy day's journey, Num. 33 : 14, 15. Moses seems to have gone up from the camp at Rephidim with the elders only to smite the rock; and the water would flow down through es-Sheikh into and through its outlet to the west and the sea, wady Feiran. Alush, the preceding sta tion, may have been a point now bearing nearly the same name, at the northern ex tremity of es-Sheikh ; and the Amalekites, occupying wady Feiran, after harassing the rear ofthe Israelite host, Deut. 25: 18, came to battle with them at Rephidim. In this valley is a rock at the foot of a conspicuous hill which the Arabs now call " the seat of the prophet Moses." The majority of the " British Ordnance " party, however, with Stanley, Ritter, Lep- sius, and others, prefer for Rephidim a location in wady Feiran, where Arab tra dition points out a rock as the one smitten by Moses, and where Jebel Tahunah may well have been the station of Moses, Aaron, and Hur during the battle. It is a broad cultivated valley, and was once a resort of hermits ; but its distance from Sinai, Jebel Musa, 25 miles, and its copious supply of water, seem adverse to its claim to be re garded as Rephidim. See Sinai. REPORT', reputation or fame, Gen. 37:2; Acts 6:3; 10:22; Phil. 4:8; t Tim. 3:7. REP'ROBATE, rejected as not enduring the test of worthiness, Jer. 6 : 30. Some men are spoken of as reprobate even in this life, being hardened in sin and unbelief, Rom. 1:28; 2 Tim. 3:8; Tit. 1:16. REPROVE', Job 6 : 25, confute. REQUIRE', Ezra 8:22, request. RE'SEN, a bridle, as in Isa. 30:28, a very ancient Assyrian city between Nineveh and Calah, Gen. 10:12. G. Rawlinson, identi fying Asshur with Kileh Shergat, and Ca lah with Nimrud, the Larissa of Xenophon, about 20 miles south of Mosul, locates Re- sen near the village Selamiyeh, about 3 miles north of Nimrud, where are Assyr ian remains. Fergusson, identifying Ca lah with Kaleh Shergat, places Resen at Nimrud. RESPECT' OF PER'SONS. The judges of the Hebrews were directed to give sen tence strictly according to truth and jus tice, without regard to the comparative wealth, influence, or other advantage of one party over the other, Lev. 19: 15 ; Deut. 16:17, J9I Prov. 24:23. Thus God judges, not according to outward appearance or station, but according to the heart, Acts 10:34; Rom. 2:6-11. Thus ought men to estimate and treat their fellow-men; and to court the favor of the rich and influen tial is sharply censured in Scripture, Prov. 28:21 ; Jas. 2:1-9; Jnde 16. REST, in Acts 9:31, in the R. V. "peace," refers to the respite from persecution en joyed by the Christians in Palestine, after the conversion of Saul of Tarsus, during the last 2 years of Caligula's short reign, A. D. 39 and 40, when the Jews were so harassed by the attempts of the emperor to force them to worship himi as a god that they forebore to afflict the followers of Christ. RESTITUTION, Job 20:10, 18. The re pairing of wrongs done, and the restoring of what one has wrongfully taken from an other, are strictly enjoined in Scripture, and are a necessary evidence of true repent ance, Exod. 22:1-15; Neh. 5:1-13; Luke 19 : 8. Restoration should be perfect and just, replacing, so far as possible, all that has been taken, with interest, Lev. 6:1-6; 24: 21. In Acts 3:21, the "restitution of all things," is, the time when Christ shall ap pear in his glory and establish his king dom, as foretold in the Scriptures. RESURRECTION OF Christ. This is of fundamental importance in Christianity, both historically and doctrinally. As a fact indisputably proved, it was the crowning demonstration of the truth of all Christ's claims, 1 Cor. 15:14-18. He had repeat edly foretold it, Matt. 16 : 21 ; 20 : 19 ; and his enemies were careful to ascertain that he was actually dead, and to guard his tomb for additional security. Yet he rose from the dead on the 3d day, and ap peared to numerous witnesses on at least 12 recorded occasions, as follows: a. Mark 16:1-8; b. Mark 16:9-1; John 20:11-18; c. Luke 24: 34; 1 Cor. 15:5; d. Mark 16:12, 13; Luke 24:13-25; e. Mark 16:14-18; Luke 24 : 36, 49 ; John 20 : 19^23 ; 1 Cor. 15:5; f. John 20 : 24-28 ; g. John 21 : 1-23 ; h. Matt. 28:16-20; 1 Cor. 15:6;" i. 1 Cor. 15:7; j. Mark 16:19: Luke 24 : 50-52 ; Acts 1 : 3-9 ; k. Acts 9: 3-9, 17; /.i Cor. 9:1; 15:8, convin cing even those who were the most doubt ful, and after 40 days ascended to heaven from the Mount of Olives. This all-im portant fact the apostles attested by their altered conduct and in their preaching, Acts 1:22; 2:24-32; 4:33; 10:40,41; 1 Cor, 15:4-8. It is further demonstrated by the establishment and continuanceof the Chris tian religion, and additional testimony is 475 RES BIBLE DICTIONARY. RET Jorne to it by the change in the day cele brated as the Sabbath. In its relation to Christian doctrine it stands as a rock of strength, assuring us of God's acceptance of the expiatory Sacrifice, of Christ's divine character and mission, of his triumphant accomplishment ofthe work of redemption, and of his raising to immortal life the souls and bodies of his people. He was buried under the load of our offences ; but he rose again, almighty to justify and save us. His dying proved the greatness of his love ; his rising again shows that his love had se cured its object. Resurrection of the dead. It is the peculiar glory of the New Testament that it makes a full revelation of this great doc trine, which was questioned or derided by the wisest of the heathen, Acts 17:32. In the Old Testament also we find, though less frequently, the doctrine asserted : as, for example, Isa. 26: 19; Dan. 12: 2. When our Saviour appeared in Palestine, the doc trine of the resurrection of the dead was received as a principal article of religion by the whole Jewish nation except the Sad ducees. Their denial of it rested on the assumption that at death the whole man, soul and body, perishes. " The Sadducees say that there is no resurrection, neither angel nor spirit," Acts 23:8. Hence the refutation of this unscriptural assumption was a complete overthrow of the ground on which their denial of a future resurrection rested ; for if the soul can survive the body, it is plain that God can give it another body. In this way our Lord met and effec tually refuted them, Matt. 22:31, 32; Mark 12:26, 27. The resurrection of Christ is everywhere represented in the New Testament as a pledge and an earnest of the resurrection of all the just, who are united to him by faith, 1 Cor. 15:49; 1 Thess. 4:14, in virtue of their union with him as their Head. He is "the resurrection and the life," John 1 1 : 25 ; they " sleep in Jesus," and shall be brought to glory "with him," 1 Thess. 4:13-17; 5 : 10 ; their "life is hid with Christ in God," Col. 3:3; and because he lives, they shall live also, John 14:19. The " first- fruits " of his great harvest appeared at the time of his own resurrection, when the bod ies of many saints arose, Matt. 27:52, 53. The Scriptures also teach that there will be a resurrection of the unjust. But they shall be raised, not to be glorified with Christ, but to be judged by him, and sen tenced to eternal punishment, Dan. 12:2; 476 John 5:28, 29, compared with Matt. 25:31- 46; Acts 24:15. To cavillers against this doctrine in his own day Christ replied, "Ye do err, not knowing the Scriptures, nor the power of God." The work is miraculous; and He who is omniscient and omnipotent will permit nothing to frustrate his designs. He has not revealed to us the precise na ture of the spiritual body, nor in what its identity with the earthly body consists; but it will be incorruptible, fashioned like Christ's glorious body, Phil. 3:21, and a meet companion of the soul made perfect in his likeness. RETRIBU'TION. This life being one of probation, the future life is one of retri bution — when all men shall be for ever rewarded or punished "according to the deeds done in the body." The eternal blessedness of the redeemed, however, is " the gift of God ;" not earned by any good deeds, but freely bestowed through Christ on penitent believers ; while the unending woe of the lost is " the wages of sin." The Christian church in all ages has substan tially agreed in the belief that "all sinners who do not repent and take refuge in the divine mercy in the present life shall in the future state suffer eternal punishment as the necessary and just retribution of their sins." Several large classes of Scripture passages combine to teach this truth. They are thus enumerated by McClintock and Strong. 1. Passages which declare that certain sinners shall not enter the kingdom of heaven; such as Matt. 5:20; 7:13, 21-23; 18:3; Mark 10:23-25; Luke 13:24-28; John 3:3-5; 1 Cor. 6:9, 10; Gal. 5:19-21; Eph. 5:5; Heb. 3:19; 4:1-3- 2. Passages which describe the final state of good men and bad in contrast: as Prov. 10:28; Dan. 12:2; Matt. 3:12; 7:13,14,21; 8:11,12; 13:30-43.47-50; 24:46-51; 25:23- 46; Mark 16:16; Luke 6:23, 24,47-49; John 5:29; Rom. 6:21-23; Gal. 6:7, 8; Phil. 3:17- 21; 2 Thess. 1:5-12; Heb. 6:8, 9; 1 Pet. 4:18. 3. Passages which apply to this future state the terms " everlasting," " eternal," " for ever," and " for ever and ever :" Dan. 12:2; Matt. 18:8; 25:41-46; Mark 3:29; 2 Cor. 4:18; 2 Thess. 1:9; 2 Pet. 2:17; Jude 6, 7, 13; Rev. 14:10, 11; 19:3; 20:10. 4. Passages which express future punish ment by phrases which imply its everlast ing duration: Matt. 10:28; 12:31,32; Mark 3:29; 9-'43"48; Luke 9:2— 14:25; John REU BIBLE DICTIONARY. REV 3:36; 8:21 ; 17:12 ; Heb. 6:2; 10:26, 27; Jas. 2:13; 1 John 5:16. 5. Passages which teach that a change of heart and preparation for heaven are con fined to this life: Prov. 1:24-28; Isa. 55:6, 7; Matt. 25:5-13; Luke 13:24-29; John I2:35>36; 2Cor.6:i,2; Heb. 3:1-10; 12:15- 25; Rev. 22:11. 6. Passages which foretell the conse quences of rejecting the gospel : Psa. 2:12; Prov. 29:1; Acts 13:40-46; 20:26; 28:26, 27; 1 Cor. 1:18; 2 Cor. 2:15, 16; 4:3; 1 Thess. 5:3; 2 Thess. 1:8; 2:10-12; Heb. 2:1-3; 4:1-"; 10:26-31, 38, 39; 12:25-29; 1 Pet. 4:17, 18; 2 Pet. 2:1-21; 3:7. Com pare Acts 4:12. See Prove, Sadducees. RE'U, friend, Gen. 11:18, 21 ; 1 Chr. 1:25, called Ragau in Luke 3:35, a patriarch, an cestor of Abraham. REU'BEN, Heb. REU'BEN, behold! u son, the eldest son of Jacob and Leah, Gen. 29:32. In consequence of a great sin, Gen. 35:22, he was deprived of the privileges of primogeniture, which were divided between Judah and Joseph, Gen. 48:3; 49:3, 4, 8-10, 22-26; 1 Chr. 5:1, 2. Though impulsive and ungoverned, he gave evidence of kind-heartedness in his effort to save Joseph's life at Dothan, Gen. 37: 18- 30; 42:22, and in his well-meant proposal in regard to Benjamin, Gen. 42:37, 38. He had 4 sons. He was " unstable as water," i. e., quickly boiling upon the application of heat, and subsiding when it is with drawn. REU'BEN, TRIBE OF. This was the 7th tribe in numbers at the exodus from Egypt, but at the census in the plains of Moab its men of war had diminished from 46,500 to 43.73°, Num. 1:1, 18-21; 26:2, 7. Its sta tion in the camp was on the south side of the tabernacle, with Simeon and Gad, Num. 2:10-16. Members ofthe tribe were prominent in a rebellion against Moses and Aaron, Num. 16. The tribes of Reu ben and Gad being rich in cattle, obtained an apportionment in the conquered region east of the Salt Sea and the Jordan on con dition that they were to aid in conquering Canaan west ofthe Jordan, Num. 32; Deut. 3 : 16-20. After fulfilling this promise, Josh. 1:12-18, the eastern tribes joined in erect ing by the Jordan a memorial of their unity with western Israel as the people of the Lord, Josh. 22. As Jacob and Moses pre dicted, Gen. 49:3, 4; Deut. 33:6, the tribe never became especially powerful or no ted. They Were reproved by Deborah for discussing the war by their brooks — A. V. " divisions " — amid their flocks, instead of aiding it, Judg. 5: 15, 16. Yet they are hon orably mentioned for their valor and faith shown in conflict with Hagarite hosts, 1 Chr. 5:1-10, 18-22. After the division they formed a part of the kingdom of Isra el, and shared in the prevalent idolatry. Their frontier position exposed them to many assaults from the east; they suffered from the power of Syria about 884 B. C, 2 Kin. 10:32, 33, and with Gad and half Manasseh were the first captives to Assyria, B. C. 740, 1 Chr. 5:25, 26. Previous to this cities of their territory seem to have been occupied by the Moabites, Isa. 15; 16; Jer. 48. REU'BEN, TERRITORY OF. This lay between the Arnon on the south and Gad on the north, and stretched from the Salt Sea and the Jordan to the eastern desert, Num. 32:37, 38; Josh. 13:15-23. The Isra elites took it from Sihon king of the Amo rites, who had taken it from the Moabites, Num. 21:24-26; Deut. 3:8, 16, 17. It inclu ded a part of the low Jordan valley, the mountains on its eastern verge, and the high rolling tract beyond, well watered, abounding with herbage and forest, and gradually sloping into the desert wastes. This district was named the Mishor, or "plain," Deut. 3:10; 4:43, now the Belka, and esteemed by the Arabs their best pas ture-ground. RE-U'EL, or RAGU'EL in A. V. Num. 10:29, friend of God. I. Son of Esau by Bashemath, Gen. 36:4, 10, 13, 17; 1 Chr. 1 :35. 37- His 4 sons were Edomite chiefs. II. See Raguel. III. Leader of the tribe of Gad at Sinai, also called Deuel, Num. 1:14; 2:14; 7:42, 47; 10:20. IV. A Benjamite, 1 Chr. 9:8. RE-U'MAH, elevated, secondary wife of Nahor, Abraham's brother, Gen. 22:24. REVELA'TION, an extraordinary and supernatural disclosure made by God of truths beyond man's unaided power to dis cover, Rom. 16:25; Gal. 1:12; Eph. 3:3; Rev. 1 : 1. Its modes have been various, as by dreams, Gen. 37:5; 40:5; 41 ; 1 Kin. 3:5; Dan. 7:1; Matt. 1:20; vision, Gen. 15:1; 46:2; Ezek. 1:1 ; Dan. 8:2; ActS9:io; 10:3; direct communication, Gen. 6:13; Exod. 3; Luke 1:11-20, 28-38; 9:35; John 12:28; ecstasy or otherwise, 2 Cor. 12 : 1-7 ; com pare Num. 12:5-8. Upon the direct and full revelation of God in his Word, Psa. 1 19 : 105 ; 2 Tim. 3:15-17; Heb. 4:12, 13, and in the person and work of his Son, John 477 REV BIBLE DICTIONARY. RHO i : 18; Heb! I : i, 2 ; 2 Pet. 1 : 19, the Christian religion is founded. A less direct revela tion of God is made in the works of creation, Psa. 19:1-4; compare Rom. 1:19, 20; Acts 14:17; 17:26-28; in the human conscience, Rom. 2:14, 15; compare John 1:9; and in history, Deut. 29:22-28; Acts 14:17; 2 Pet. 2:14-19; compare John 1:5, 10. But this triple revelation, however valuable as a constant witness to the divine nature and rule, and as a guide intellectually and morally, is only partial, and is besides lia ble to misinterpretation by the human rea son, 1 Cor. 1:21. "The revelation of our Lord," 1 Cor. 1:7, R. V., is his glorious 2d coming, Luke 17:24-30; 2 Thess. 1:7-10; 1 Pet. 4: 13. For the Book of Revelation see Apoc alypse. REVEN'GER, or Avenger of Blood, the man who had the right and duty, under the Mosaic law, of killing him who had killed one of his relatives. Personal retal iation or revenge is the mode of punishing crime most popular in a primitive state of society, and was anciently, as now, preva lent in the East; compare Gen. 34. The Mosaic law, by just and humane provis ions, regulated and restrained this deep- rooted and ancient institution, Deut. 24:16. Compare 2 Sam. 14:6-11. See Refuge. At the same time the spirit and tendency of the law, as well as the direct command of the gospel, are against all revengeful feel ing or action, Exod. 23:5; Lev. 19:17, 18; Prov. 20:22; 24:294 Matt. 5:39; Rom. 12:19, 20; 1 Pet. 3:9. REVIVE', live again, 1 Kin. 17:22; 2 Kin. 13:21; Rom. 14:9. RE'ZEPH, a hot stone, as for baking, a city conquered by the Assyrians, 2 Kin. 19:12; Isa. 37:12. Its site may be at Ras- appa, about 25 miles west of the Euphra tes, on the road from Rakkah to Hums. REZI'A, delight, of the tribe of Asher, 1 Chr. 7:39. RE'ZIN, firm, I., a king of Damascene Syria, who with his ally, Pekah king of Is rael, invaded Judah in the last days of Jotham, B. C. 742, 2 Kin. 15:37, and in the reign of Ahaz, 2 Kin. 16:5-9; 2 Chr. 28:5; Isa. 7:1-8. Unsuccessful in the siege of Jerusalem, Rezin deprived Ahaz of Elath, but was soon conquered and slain by Tig- lath-pileser II., king of Assyria, whose aid Ahaz had procured. Rezin's people also were carried captive to Kir, Isa. 7:16; 8:4; 9:11; 17:1. The Assyrian monuments re cord this conquest of Rezin and Damascus. 478 II. The head of a family of Nethinim, Ezra 2:48; Neh. 7:50. RE' ZON, prince, the founder of a dynasty in Syria-Damascus in the time of David, and a great annoyance to Solomon, 1 Kin. 11:23-25. He had been an officer under Hadadezer king of Zobah. RHE'GWM, fracture, a. city on the coast near the southwestern extremity of Italy, southeast of Messina in Sicily, from which it is separated by a strait 6 miles wide. Paul stopped here one day on his voyage to Rome, Acts 28:13. A favorable south wind, for which the ship waited, would take it through the strait and to Puteoli within 24 hours. It was a city of consid erable note under the Roman Empire. Caligula proposed making it a port for the Alexandria grain-ships, but died without accomplishing his project. Under its mod ern name, Reggio, it is a flourishing com mercial town of about 10,000 inhabitants. RHE'SA. It has been conjectured that this is not a proper name, but the title of Zerubbabel, answering to the Hebrew rfish, head or prince, Luke 3:27. RHO'DA, rose, a maid in the household of Mary, mother of John Mark, when Peter was miraculously released from prison,- Acts 12:13-15. RHODES, rosy, an island in the Mediter ranean, 13 miles from the southwestern coast of Asia Minor. It is of a triangular form, 46 miles long and 18 miles wide, with an area of 420 square miles. The soil is extremely fertile, the air proverbially pure, and the climate delightful. The city of Rhodes, at the northeast end of the isiand, was founded by the Dorians about 400 B. C, and became noted for commerce, liter ature, and the arts. It was famed for its Colossus, one ofthe Seven Wonders ofthe world : a brazen statue of Apollo 105 feet high, standing on 60 marble columns at the right of the entrance of the harbor, not striding across it as often represented. It was erected B. C. 290, but was overthrown by an earthquake B. C. 224. There were Jews at Rhodes during the time of the Maccabees. Herod the Great built there a beautiful temple to Apollo. Paul touched at Rhodes on returning from his 3d mis sionary tour, A. D. 58, Acts 21:1. It was then enjoying considerable independence under the Romans, not being made a Ro man province until the time of Vespasian. In the Middle Ages Rhodes was for over 200 years, from 1309, the residence of the Knights Hospitallers or Knights of St. RIB BIBLE DICTIONARY. RIG John. It was captured by the Turks in 1522, and is still oppressed by them. The present population of the island is about 30,000, two-thirds being Turks, the remain der Greeks and Jews. The modern city carries on a considerable trade. RIB, literally side, as often translated, the part taken from Adam to form Eve, Gen. 2:21, 22; Dan. 7:5. In the expres sion, "the fifth rib," 2 Sam. 2:23; 3:27; 4:6; 20:10, the word rib is supplied. The R. V. reads, "in the belly." RIB'LAH, fertility, a city on the north eastern border of Israel, Num. 34:10, 11. It has generally been identified with " Rib- lah in the land of Hamath," el-Buka'a, on the great road between Palestine and Bab ylonia naturally traversed by invaders of Palestine from the north and east. Here Pharaoh-necho, on his way to or from As syria, deposed king Jehoahaz, B. C. 610, 2 Kin. 23:29-33; and here Nebuchadnezzar caused the eyes of Zedekiah to be put out and his sons killed, B. C. 588, and many of the chief men of Judah to be slain, 2 Kin. 25:6, 7, 18-21; Jer. 39:5-7; 52:9-11. Rib- lah is identified with the poor modern vil lage called Ribleh, on the east bank of the Orontes, the el-Asy, about 35 miles north east of Baalbek, and 20 southwest of Hums. About 10 miles south of Ribleh is the great fountain-source of the Orontes, still called el-Ain, "the fountain," supposed to be in dicated in Num. 34:11. Ribleh is in the midst of a large and fertile plain, level as the surface of a lake, and was evidently a place of much strategic importance. Some regard Riblah as the same with Diblath, Ezek. 6:14; but Conder finds the latter at the modern village Dibl. Grove and others think Riblah in Ha math too far north to be the place denoted in Num. 34:10, 11, and look for the latter near Banias, on the side of Hermon, where however no such place has yet been found. RID'DLE. The Orientals have always been fond of such exercises of ingenuity as the "riddle" calls for. The diversion was practised by the Egyptians, and by the Greeks and Romans at banquets. The Heb. word thus rendered in Judg. 14:12- 19 means something entangled and intri cate, a "dark saying," Prov. 1:6; "prov erb," Hab. 2:6; or allegory, Ezek. 17:2. It is the "dark speech," or riddle, of Num. 12:8, a passage which Paul may have had in mind when writing 1 Cor. 13:12, where the margin has " in a riddle " for " darkly," *". e., in an obscure allegory. RIGHT'EOUSNESS, rectitude, justice, holiness ; an essential perfection of God's character, Job 36:3; Isa. 51:5-8; John 17:25, and of his administration, Gen. 18 : 25 ; Rom. 3:21, 22; 10:3. It is the wonder of grace that, as the righteous guardian of the law, he can acquit the unrighteous. " The right eousness of Christ " includes his spotless holiness, his perfect obedience to the law while on earth, and his suffering its pen alty in our stead. It is called " the right eousness of God," because accepted by him, Rom. 3:25. "The righteousness of the law " is that perfect obedience the law demands ; and the righteousness " without the law," or "of faith," is that imputed to the sinner who believes in Christ. Justifi cation before the law having become im possible to fallen man, Psa. 143:2, a new ground of justification was provided by God, Psa. 24:5, "witnessed by the law and the prophets," Luke 24:25-27; Rom. 3:21, the trust of the pious Jew as well as of the Christian of our own day, Hab. 2:4; so that all condemnation is removed from the believer, and he is "accepted in the Be loved," Rom. 8:1; Eph. 1:6. With refer ence to personal character, righteousness is used both for uprightness between man and man, and for true religion, Gen. 18:23; Lev. 19:15; Isa. 60:17; Rom. 14:17; Eph. 5:9- RIGHT-HAND, the most efficient mem ber of the body, Matt. 5:30, and the ready executor of the behests of the will. Hence its use as a symbol of power, especially the almighty power of God, Exod. 15:6; Psa. 21:8; 77:10; of honor, Psa. 45:9; Matt. 25:33, 34! Acts 7:55; of special benedic tion, Gen. 48:14; of friendship, Gal. 2:9; and of allegiance, 1 Chr. 29:24, margin. See Benjamin. It was raised in the act of prayer, and also in taking an oath, Gen. 14:22; Isa. 62:8; the right-hand of a per jured man, or of a pretended friend, was 479 RIM BIBLE DICTIONARY. RIN "a right hand of falsehood," Psa. 144:8, At the right hand of a man was a conven ient station for one bent on opposing and hindering him, Psa. 109:6; Zech. 3:1. In regard to the points of the compass, the right-hand in Hebrew denotes the south, 1 Sam. 23:19, margin, 24, as the left-hand means the north, Gen. 14: 15. See East. RIM'MON, pomegranate, I., an idol of the Assyrians in Damascus, 2 Kin. 5 : 18. See Naaman. Some maintain that Rim mon represented the fertilizing principle in nature, often symbolized by the pome granate in ancient religions; others, that Rimmon is abridged from Hadad-rimmon (see), Hadad being the sun-god of the Syr ians, and in combination with Rimmon per haps the sun-god of the late summer, the fruit-ripener — the pomegranate ripening in August and September. Gesenius and others derive the name of the Syrian idol from a Hebrew root meaning " to be high," and translate it " the most high." II. A Benjamite of Beeroth, father of the murderers of Ishbosheth, 2 Sam. 4:2, 5, 9. III. A city of Judah, Josh. 15:21, 32, afterwards of Simeon, Josh. 19:7; 1 Chr. 4:32; Neh. 11:29; Zech. 14:10; traced at Umm er-Rumanin, 18 miles southwest of Hebron, and 10 northeast of Beer-sheba, where on a hill-top are rock-cisterns and foundations of important buildings. IV. A city of Zebulun, assigned to the Merarite Levites, Josh. 19:13; 1 Chr. 6:77. See Remmon-methoar. It was probably the same as Dimnah, Josh. 21:35, and is found in the modern village Rummaneh, 6 miles north of Nazareth, and 8 or 9 north west of Mount Tabor. V. A rocky height to which 600 Benja- mites fled, Judg. 20:45-47; 21.13. It lay towards "the wilderness," i. e., the uncul tivated region between the central high lands of Benjamin, where Gibeah stood, and the Jordan valley; found in the pres ent village Rummon, 3% miles east of Beth el, now Beitin, on a high limestone hill, rugged and difficult of access, surrounded by deep valleys and commanding a wide view. RIM'MON-PA'REZ, pomegranate of the breach, an encampment of the Israelites in the wilderness between Rithmah and Lib- nah, Num. 33:19, 20. Jebel Ikhrimm, 80 miles southwest of Beer-sheba, has been suggested as a probable site. RINGS, ornaments for the ears, nose, legs, arms, or fingers. The antiquity of rings appears from Scripture and from 480 profane authors. Judah left his ring with Tamar, Gen. 38:18. When Pharaoh com mitted the government of Egypt to Joseph, he gave him his ring from his finger, Gen. 41 : 42. After the victory of the Israelites over the Midianites, they offered to the Lord the rings, the bracelets, and the gold en necklaces taken from the enemy, Num. 31:50; and as these ornaments were of RIN BIBLE DICTIONARY. RIV gold and much larger than ours, they were highly valued, Job 42:11. The Israelitish women wore rings, not only on their fin gers, but also in their nostrils and their ears, and on their ankles. See Bracelet, Amulets. James distinguishes a man of wealth and dignity by the ring of gold on his finger, Jas. 2:2. At the return of the prodigal son his father ordered that a ring should be put on his finger, Luke 15:22. The ring was used chiefly as a signet fo seal with, and Scripture generally assigns it to princes and great persons ; as the king of Egypt, Joseph, Ahab, Jezebel, king Ahas uerus, his favorite Haman, Mordecai, king Darius, etc., 1 Kin. 21:8; Esth. 3:10; Jer. 22:24; Dan. 6:17. The patents and orders of these princes were sealed with their rings or signets, an impression from which was their confirmation. Hence the ring was a token and symbol of authority. See Seal. RING-STREAKED, marked with circular streaks of various colors, Gen. 30:35. RI'OTOUS, in A. V., means dissolute, revelling, rather than turbulent, Prov. 23 : 20 ; 28 : 7 ; Luke 15 : 13 ; Rom. 13 : 13 ; 2 Pet. 2:13. RI'PHATH, a son of Gomer, Gen. 10:3; 1 Chr. 1:6. His descendants have been identified by some with the Ripheans, the ancient Paphlagonians ; others trace the name in the Rhipaean mountains — either the Carpathian range or heights north of the Caspian Sea. RIS'SAH, ruin, 20th station of Israel in the wilderness, Num. 33:21, 22. It is found by some in the Roman Rasa, 20 miles north west of Ezion-geber ; by others at Ain el- Jughamileh, 125 miles south-southwest of Beer-sheba, or at el-Kusaby, 55 miles south west of Beer-sheba. RITH'MAH, broom (the plant retem, a large bush growing in the wilderness), the 17th station of Israel, Num. 33 : 18, 19. There is much reason for identifying Rith- mah with Kadesh, Num. 13:26, or its im mediate vicinity. The latest authorities find Kadesh or Kadesh-barnea at Ain Ka dis, 50 miles south of Beer-sheba. A few miles west is a wady called Aboo Rete- mSt. RIVER. The true perennial streams of considerable size in Palestine are limited to the Jordan and the Leontes, the other streams being either winter torrents dried up in the summer, or reduced to very smnll streamlets sunk in narrow beds and con cealed by a dense growth of shrubs. Un- 31 der this general head belong 3 Hebrew terms: . 1. Ye6r, from an Egyptian word. It always designates or alludes to the Nile and its various branches and distributing canals, as in Gen. 41:1-3, 17, 18, and often in Exodus. It is also translated "brooks," Isa. 19:6-8; "flood," Jer. 46:7, 8; and "streams," Isa. 33:21. In Job 28:10 the word is used in a general sense, and in Dan. 12:5-7 it denotes the Hiddekel, Dan. 10:4. 2. Nahar is applied to constantly flow ing streams, Gen. 2:10-14; Exod. 7:19, "streams;" Deut. 1:7; 2 Kin. 5:12; Isa. 18:1. When used with the article it usu ally denotes the Euphrates, Exod. 23:31; Josh. 24:2, 3, in A. V. " flood;" 1 Kin. 4:21 ; 14:15, but apparently the Nile in Isa. 19:5; and the Jordan in Psa. 66:6, "the flood." 3. Nahal, a torrent-bed or valley, through which the water flows only or chiefly in the rainy season ; also the stream thus flow ing, Lev. 11:9, 10; Deut. 2:24, 36,37; 10:7; Josh. 16:8; Judg. 4:7, 13. We have no ex act equivalent for this word in English, and to express the idea the Arabic word wady of the same meaning has been adopted. Nahal is often translated in the A. V. " val ley," Gen. 26 : 19 ; Psa. 104 : 10, and " brook," Gen. 32:23; Num. 13:23, 24; 1 Kin. 17:3-7; 18:5. Such streams, often sadly disap pointing the thirsty and perishing travel ler, are to the Orientals striking emblems of inconstancy and faithlessness, Job 6:15- 20; Jer. 15:18. In Ezek. 31:4 "little rivers" represents a Hebrew word elsewhere rendered " con duit," as in 2 Kin. 18:17. In Ezekiel the reference seems to be to small streams artificially directed for irrigation. Such conduits were easily turned by moulding the soil with the foot, and are probably re ferred to in Deut. 11:10; Prov. 21:1. RIVER OF EGYPT, Gen. 15:18, Hebrew Nahar Mizraim, probably the Pelusiac or easternmost branch of the Nile, as the west ern limit of the land promised to Abraham's seed— who, however, never extended their sway so far. In the other 7 passages where "river" or " stream of Egypt " occurs, the Hebrew term is Nahal Mizraim, and denotes the ancient boundary between Egypt and Is rael, now wady el-Arish, a broad valley through which in the rainy season the va rious wadies of the central desert et-Tih flow into the Mediterranean about 40 miles southwest of Gaza, Num. 34:5; Josh. 15:4, 481 RIZ BIBLE DICTIONARY. ROE 47; 2 Kin. 24:7; 2 Chr. 7:8; Isa. 27:12. This natural boundary was sometimes called "Sihor" or "Shihor," Josh. 13:3; 1 Chr. 13:5, a name elsewhere applied to the Nile, Isa. 23:3; Jer. 2:18. RIZ'PAH, a live coal, as in Isa. 6:6, a concubine of king Saul, taken after his death by the ambitious Abner, who bitterly resented Ishbosheth's censure of his de sign in this act. Her 2 sons, Armoni and Mephibosheth, were afterwards hanged with 5 grandsons of Saul, to avenge the wrongs he had inflicted on the Gibeonites. With the most devoted maternal affection Rizpah watched over their remains day and night, apparently from April to Octo ber; and David, being informed of her painful watchings, gathered the bones of all the family of Saul and gave them an honorable burial, 2 Sam. 3:7-11 ; 21 : 1-14. ROAD, 1 Sam. 27 : 10, a raid or incursion on an enemy's country. ROB'BERS OF CHURCHES, Acts 19:37, rather " robbers of temples," as in the R. V. ROB'BERY has ever been one of the chief employments of the nomad tribes of the East, from the time of Ishmael, Gen. 16:12, to the present day, when many of the Bedouin tribes are robbers by trade. Many predatory inroads, large and small, are recorded in the Bible : as the incursions of the Sabeans and Chaldaeans, Job 1 : 14- 17; the plundering of Shechem by Jacob's sons, Gen. 34:27-29; the frequent despoil ing of the Israelites by their enemies, and their reprisals in the period of the Judges, and the invasion by Micah, Judg. 18 : 11-26. Highway robbery was practised in the time of the Judges, Judg. 5:6; 9:25. Similar disorders in later times were reproved by the prophets, Hos. 4:2; 6:9; 7:1; Mic. 2:2, 8, and continued, more or less, down to the Roman period, during which also the insecurity of life and property appears from incidental mention in the New Testa ment, Luke 10:30; John 18:40; Acts 5: 36, 37; 21:38; compare 2 Cor. 11:26. The " thieves " crucified with Christ were prop erly "robbers," Matt. 27:38, R. V. A customary camping-place, a day's jour ney north of Jerusalem, is called " the rob bers' fountain," Ain el-Haramiye. For "robbery," in Phil. 2:6, some read, " a prize," as in the R. V. ROBES. See Garments. ROCK, Exod. 17:6; Num. 20:8; Judg. 6:21. Cliffs and caverns abounded in the limestone hills of Palestine, and were much resorted to for shelter and protection, Judg. 482 15:8, 11; 20:47; l Sam. 13:6. Hence God is styled the Rock of his people, Deut. 32:4, 15, 18, 31 ; 2 Sam. 23:3; Psa. 18:2, 31. The term is applied to Christ as the source, smitten by God, of the water of life, 1 Cor. 10:4. From the intense heat and glare of a tropical sun a rock affords far more complete protection than a tree, Isa. 32.2. The names Sela and Tyre both mean rock, and of the 5 Hebrew words thus translated in 'the A. V. these are the two of most fre quent occurrence. See Sela. ROD, a shoot or branch of a tree, Gen. 30:37; Isa. 11: 1 ; used as a staff in walk ing, Gen. 32:10; 38:18, 25, and so symboli zing support, Lev. 26:26; Ezek. 4:16; used by a shepherd in guiding, controlling, and defending his flock, Exod. 4:2; compare 3:1; Lev. 27:32; Mic. 7:14; and by a su perior in correcting a subordinate, Exod. 21:20, thus symbolizing the guiding, de fending, and chastening providence of God, 2 Sam. 7:14; Job 9:34; 21:9; Psa. 23:4; Mic. 6 : 9. Borne by a ruler as a badge of authority, Gen. 49:10; Num. 17:2,3,6; Psa. 2:9; 125:3; Ezek. 19:11, 12, 14; Rev. 19:15. Used by the husbandman in threshing small seeds, Isa. 28:27; by the diviner, Hos. 4:12; by the surveyor in measuring land, Rev. 11 :i. The " rod " of God's in heritance, Psa. 74:2; Jer. 10:16, might be rendered the " tribe " or people ; compare Deut. 4:20, the 2 Hebrew words there used, meaning scions or rulers' sceptres, being also often used for "tribes," as in Gen. 49:16,28; Exod. 31:2; compare Matt. 24:30. Or the reference may be to Israel as under the special rod or rule of God ; or to the measuring and apportionment of the land by a rod or reed, Ezek. 40:3, the "rod" meaning the land thus measured ; compare Deut. 32:9, where the " lot " in the A. V. is really the surveyor's " cord" or "line," an early and usual measuring instrument ; compare Psa. 78 : 55 ; Amos 7:17; Zech. 2:1. Sheep passed under the rod to be counted as they entered or left the fold, and in tith ing the lambs every 10th one was marked by the end of the rod dipped in red ochre, Lev. 27:32; Jer. 33:13. There may be an allusion to this custom in Ezek. 20:37, sig nifying Israel's reappropriation to the Lord. In Isa. 10:26 the reference is to the exhibitions of God's power through the rod of Moses. ROE'BUCK and ROE, masc. and fern., the A. V. translation of a Hebrew word meaning beauty, an animal clean by the Mosaic law, Deut. 12:15,22; 14:4,5; highly ROE BIBLE DICTIONARY. ROM esteemed as food, i Kin. 4:23; a favorite object of the chase, Prov. 6:5; Isa. 13:14; and noted for its agility and swiftness, 2 Sam. 2:18; 1 Chr. 12:8; Song 2:8, 9, 17. It is believed that the animal denoted is the gazelle, Antilope Dorcas, or Gazella Arabica, a species of antelope abundant in Syria, Arabia, Persia, Egypt, and Barbary, and long celebrated in Oriental poetry for its beauty and grace. It is about 2 feet high, of a reddish-brown color, with mark ings of dark brown or black and of white, with black horns, which viewed from the front outline together the form of a lyre, and large, lustrous eyes. It is gregarious and easily tamed, though very timid and apt to die in captivity; its flesh is excel lent. It frequents both the plains and the mountains of Syria, and is sometimes hunt ed with falcon and grayhound cooperating, also by driving the herds into large inclo sures, with pitfalls. Tabitha and Dorcas, Acts 9:36, are the Aramaic and Greek words for gazelle. In Prov. 5:19, "roe" in the A. V. trans lates a different Hebrew word, denoting the female of the wild or mountain goat. The " fallow-deer," only mentioned as a clean animal, Deut. 14:5, and as food for Solomon's table, 1 Kin. 4:23, was an ani mal of the deer tribe, either the Cervus dama, found in Western and Southern Asia, or the Bubale, resembling the harte- beest of Southern Africa. roll. See Book. ROLL'ER, Ezek. 30:21, a bandage, to wrap a broken limb, ROLL'ING-THING, Isa. 17 : 13, or "wheel," Psa. 83:13, A. V., conjectured to mean the wild artichoke, the twigs of which, uniform in length, form a globe a foot or more in diameter, and when dry break off at the ground and by thousands roll and bound over the ground before the wind. RO'MAN, a native or resident of Rome, John 11:48; Acts 25:16; also one who has acquired the rights of Roman citizenship, Acts 16:21, 37, 38; 22:25-29. See Citizen ship. RO'MAN EM'PIRE. This succeeded the Macedonian Empire in extending its rule over the greater portion of the then known world. It is alluded to in the prophecy of Daniel, 2:33, 40; 7:7, 19, 23, as the 4th world-power. At the closing of the Old Testament canon the Romans had not come in contact with the Jews. But about B. C 162 Judas Maccabeus made an alliance with them, 1 Mace. 8, which his brothers Jonathan and Simon renewed, B. C. 161- 135, 1 Mace. 12:1; 15:17. The taking of Jerusalem by Pompey, B. C. 63, and by Sosius, B. C. 36, brought the Jews under the dominion of Rome ; and Judaea became a dependency of the Roman province of Syria at the banishment of Archelaus, A. D. 6. The Roman Empire, strictly so called, arose from the commonwealth or republic of Rome, and extended from B. C. 31 — when, by the battle of Actium, Octavius, afterwards Augustus, became the ist Ro man emperor — to the abdication of Augus- tulus, A. D. 476. The New Testament ref erences concern chiefly the early days of the empire under the emperors Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero. See Caesar. Its extent and power were then at their height. Its bounds were the Atlantic on the west, the Euphrates on the east, the African deserts, Nile cataracts, and Arabian deserts on the south, the Rhine, Danube, and Black Sea on the north. Britain was also conquered; Par thia on the east, and Germania on the north, were Semi-independent powers. The population of the empire in Claudius' reign is estimated by Gibbon at 120,000,- 000. Countries conquered by Rome be came subject provinces, and were governed by rulers usually sent from Rome, though sometimes allowed a degree of independ- 4«3 ROM BIBLE DICTIONARY. ROM ence under native rulers. See Province. Some of the conquered cities were called " free cities," being ruled by their own magistrates and exempt from occupation by a Roman garrison; and others were called "colonies," being primarily and chiefly communities of transplanted Roman citizens. The destruction of Jerusalem and the temple, foretold by Christ, Matt. 24:1, 2, 14-22, took place in the reign of Vespa sian, A. D. 70. The exile and prophetic vision of the apostle John, Rev. 1:9, 10, are supposed to have occurred in Domitian's reign, which ended A. D. 96. The condi tion of external unity into which the Ro man dominion had brought the nations, the construction of military roads, the sup pression of robbery and piracy, the exten sion of traffic, and the spread of Latin in the West as Greek had already spread in the East, were favorable to the propaga tion of Christianity; while the skepticism and atheism of the learned, the supersti tion of the ignorant, and the universal cor ruptness of morals, called loudly for a di vine remedy. The gospel appears to have been carried throughout the empire in the days of the apostles. With rare exceptions the Roman emperors were noted for their vices and cruelty; under them the Chris tians from time to time suffered severe persecutions, until Constantine embraced Christianity, A. D. 323, and made it the religion of his empire. ROME, long the mistress of the known heathen world, and for many centuries the chief ecclesiastical capital ofthe nominally Christian world, is on the river Tiber in Italy, about 15 miles from its mouth. It is said to have been founded by Romulus on the Palatine Hill about B. C. 753, at which time Jotham was king of Judah and Pekah of Israel. The "seven hills" on the left bank of the Tiber, which formed the nucleus of the ancient city, were inclosed by the Ser vian wall, built by the 6th king, Servius Tullius, B. C. 578-534, Rev. 17:9. Rome was at first governed by kings. After the expulsion of Tarquin II., the 7th king, B. C. 509, the government was committed to 2 consuls, elected annually, with whom were afterwards, B. C. 493, associated 2 tribunes. The republic ttius established lasted nearly 500 years, until the battle of Actium. See Roman Empire. From B. C. 31, when Octavius became possessed ofthe supreme power as the first emperor, Rome was the capital of the Roman Empire until A. D. 328, when Constantine transferred 484 the seat of government to Constantinople. The city was enriched with the spoils of conquered nations, including art treasures of sculpture and painting, and was noted, especially after Nero's time, for the mag nificence of its public buildings and of many private residences. The idols of the conquered were admitted as objects of wor ship, and the people were full of supersti tion, and in morals exceedingly corrupt. Paul's painful representation of the sins of heathenism, Rom. 1:21-32, is fully con firmed by Roman writers. The New Tes tament reader's interest in Rome centres in its condition at the time of Paul's cap tivity there, between the restoration of the city by Augustus— who boasted that he found the city of brick and left it of mar ble — and Nero's restoration after the great fire in A. D. 64. It had outgrown the Servian wall, and was a vast irregular mass of buildings over 12 miles in circuit, and unprotected by any outer wall. The streets were in general narrow and crook ed, flanked by crowded lodging-houses, whose height Augustus had limited to 70 feet. Most of the structures which now attract attention as relics of antiquity were still unbuilt ; but some parts of the city, as the Forum, the Campus Martius, and the Palatine Hill— where were the emperor's palace, the camp of his body-guard, and connected buildings— must have presented a magnificent appearance. Gibbon esti mates the population of Rome at that time at 1,200,000; probably half were slaves, in whose hands were the useful trades and professions ; a large part of the remainder were pauper citizens supported by the pub lic; the smaller remaining class were the wealthy nobility, whose luxury and profli gacy are described by the writers of that time. Paul approached Rome by the Ap pian Way, which entered the city on the southeast. He was kept at Rome 2 years, A. D. 61-63, being allowed to live in his own hired dwelling with the soldiers who guarded him, to whom he was probably fastened by a chain, Acts 28:16, 20, 30; Eph. 6:20; Phil. 1:16; and was permitted to preach the gospel to all who visited him. Acts 28:30, 31. His epistles to the Colos- sians, Ephesians, Philippians, Philemon, and the 2d to Timothy, are believed to have been written here, the last shortly before his death, 2 Tim. 4:6. Many think he was acquitted on his appeal to the em peror, but after a period of freedom was again brought a prisoner to Rome, where ROM BIBLE DICTIONARY. ROM tradition affirms that he suffered martyr dom under Nero, A. D. 68. See Paul, Pe ter, Pr^etorium. Many Jews were taken to Rome as captives by Pompey ; a special district was assigned to Jewish freedmen and emigrants on th« right bank of the Tiber, and they were allowed liberty of worship and other privileges by Julius Caesar and Augustus. Their banishment under Claudius, Acts 18:2, must have been brief, for numbers of Jews were residing at Rome at Paul's visit, Acts 28: 17. The gos pel was early introduced there, perhaps by some who were in Jerusalem at Pentecost, Acts 2:10. Paul had written to the Roman Christians as early as A. D. 58, and was cheered by their greetings on his way to the city, Acts 28: 15. There were believers in the household of Nero, Phil. 4:22, prob ably among his slaves. Nero instituted a fierce persecution against the Christians on the charge of setting fire to the city, A. D. 64. The scene was in " the gardens of Nero," now within the Vatican. See Nero. Rome as a persecuting power is alluded to in the Revelation under the name of Babylon, Rev. 14:8; 16:19; T7:5, 6; 18:2, 21. The catacombs, subterranean galleries commonly from 8 to 10 feet high and from 4 to 6 feet wide, with occasional enlarge ments, extending for miles under Rome, especially in the region of the old Appian and Nomentane Ways, were used as places of refuge, worship, and burial by the early Christians. More than 4,000 inscriptions have been found in them, which are re ferred to the period between Tiberius and Constantine, one of the oldest being dated A. D. 71. RUINS OF THE COLOSSEUM, AT ROME. The Colosseum, whose majestic ruins still impress the beholder with a sense of the power and cruelty of heathen Rome, was the scene of many a conflict of Chris tian martyrs with wild beasts. It was erected by Vespasian and Titus for gladia torial shows, and is said to have contained seats for 80,000 spectators. It was 620 feet long and 513 broad, with an arena 290 feet by 180 ; the uppermost and outer circle of tiers of seats was 160 feet from the ground. From the time of Constantine's establish ment of Christianity as the State religion, A. D. 323, the corruption of doctrine and practice, which had already begun to ap pear in the church, began to spread more rapidly. Soon the bishop of Rome claimed supreme authority, chiefly on the assump tion that he was the successor of Peter ; and the patriarchs of Antioch, Alexandria, and Constantinople finally acknowledged him first in honor, though not supreme in juris diction, A. D. 451-604. After the schism of the 9th century, which led to the division of Christendom into the Roman-catholic Church and the Greek Church, the popes 485 ROM BIBLE DICTIONARY. RUD of Rome exercised an immense power over Europe until the Reformation in the 16th century. Since then their power has grad ually declined, though it is still considera ble in Roman-catholic countries and over the Romanists in all Protestant countries. Rome was made the political capital of the united kingdom of Italy under Victor Em manuel in 1871, when the power of the pope as a temporal or political sovereign was abolished. His dignity and influence as head of the Roman-catholic Church still continue, and his residence is at the Vati can palace adjoining St. Peter's at Rome. Modern Rome lies on the north side of the ancient city, its principal portion on the left bank of the Tiber covering the plain formerly called the Campus Martius ; on the right bank it embraces the Vatican quarter and the low ground beneath it. The "seven hills" are largely occupied by villas and farms. Rome is rendered espe cially interesting by the magnificent ruins of its former greatness, temples, pillars, aqueducts, triumphal arches, and amphi theatres. The Arch of Titus commemo rates his victory over the Jews and spoil ing of the temple. Rome retains its pre eminence as a treasure-house of the fine arts. It contains large libraries, including that ofthe Vatican, numerous galleries and museums full ofthe choicest paintings and sculptures, besides palaces, villas, schools, and hospitals, and over 360 churches, among them St. Peter's, the largest in the world. The Epistle to the Romans, i. e., the Christians of Rome, was written by Paul during the 3 months he remained at Cor inth, early in A. D. 58, before going to Je rusalem to attend Pentecost, Rom. 15:25. Compare Acts 20:2, 3, 16; Rom. 16:23; 1 Cor. 1:14; 2 Tim. 4:20. It is the most important, systematic, and argumentative of the epistles of Paul, a profound discus sion of man's state as a sinner and of the plan of salvation. Its immediate occasion seems to have been the misunderstanding which existed between Jewish and Gentile converts, not only at Rome, but everywhere. The Jew felt himself in privilege superior to the Gentile ; who, on the other hand, did not allow this superiority, and was vexed by the assertion of it. In reference to this, in the first 5 chapters the apostle proves that the entire human race is depraved and under condemnation — that neither Gentile nor Jew has any privilege of birth or personal merit, but that each receives all benefits through the mere sovereign 486 grace of God, Christ alone being our justi fication. He then proceeds to exhibit Christ as our sanctification ; and answers the objections made to the doctrine of gra tuitous justification, that it tends to encour age sin, and that God has no right to treat mankind in this way. In ch. 10, 11 he ap plies all this to the Jews. In the remainder of the epistle, which is hortatory, the apos tle lays down many practical rules of con duct, which are of the highest moment to all Christians. There is no allusion to Pe ter as present at Rome; and Paul's rule was not to build on another man's founda tion, Rom, 15:20; the Gentiles were his field as the Hebrews were Peter's, Gal. 2:7-9; Rom. 1:11, 13. ROOF. See House. ROOM is sometimes synonymous with seat or place, as in Psa. 31:8; Luke 14:8- 10; 20:46. ROPES were used for binding prisoners, Judg. 15:13; Psa. 2:3; Ezek. 3:25; volun tarily assumed they were a token of hum ble submission, 1 Kin. 20:31, 32. ROSE, Song 2:1 ; Isa. 35:1. The Hebrew word means acrid bulb, and cannot denote the true rose, but probably the Polyanthus narcissus. This beautiful and fragrant flower grows in the plain of Sharon, and is a great favorite, its blossoms being sold in the bazaars. True wild roses are seldom met with except in the extreme north of Palestine. Cultivated varieties ofthe queen of flowers are abundant in Syria and high ly prized, especially for the rose-water and attar made from them. ROSH, head or chief, should probably have been left untranslated in Ezek. 38:2, 3; 39:1, as a proper name of one of the 3 great Scythian tribes : " the prince of Rosh, Meschech, and Tubal "—the first mention of the Russian race in Scripture. RU'BY. The Oriental ruby is next in value, as a gem, to the diamond. Indeed, a ruby of this kind, above a certain size, is more valuable than a diamond ofthe same weight. The Oriental ruby is a red vari ety of the sapphire ; its color is usually be tween a vivid cochineal and crimson. The word " rubies " occurs several times in the English Bible, as Job 28:18; Prov. 3:15; 8:11; but the corresponding word in He brew is thought to denote red coral, or per haps pearls; while the true ruby is more naturally designated by the "agate" or "carbuncle" of Isa. 54:12; Ezek. 27:16. RUD'DER-BANDS, Acts 27:40, ropes by which the 2 large steering-paddles neat RUD BIBLE DICTIONARY. SAB the stern of ancient ships were lashed up out of the way of the ground-tackle when the vessel was at anchor. See Ship. RUDE, 2 Cor. 11:6, artless and unpol ished. RU'DIMENTS, or elements, the first and simplest principles of a science or litera ture, Gal. 4:3, 9; Col. 2:20. RUE, the Ruta graveolens, a well-known herb, about 2 feet high, having a strong odor and a bitter taste. It grows wild in Palestine, and was also cultivated as a medicine and condiment. The Pharisees were punctilious in paying tithes of this plant, Lev. 27 : 30, but inconsistently ne glected some of the more important of the divine requirements, Luke 11:42; compare Matt. 23:23. RU'FUS, red, a son of Simon, the Cyre- nian who was constrained to carry the cross on which the Saviour was to be cru cified, Mark 15:21. If Rufus is the same person whom Paul salutes in Rom. 16: 13, as is possible, we may see in this instance the divine blessing abiding on the household of one who befriended Christ and bore his cross. RUHA'MAH, obtaining mercy, a symbol ical name used by Hosea, 2:1; compare 1:6, 7. RU'LER, Luke 24:20; Acts 14:5, in the New Testament a person of high position and influence among the Jews, sometimes of official authority, either as " ruler of the synagogue," Matt. 9:18 with Mark 5:22, 35-38; Luke 8:49; 13:14; Acts 13:15; 18:8, 17; see Synagogue; or as a member of the Sanhedrin, Luke 23 : 13, 35 ; Acts 4 : 5, 8 ; 13:27; 16:19. In many cases it is im possible to say which class is meant. The young ruler of Matt. 19:16-22 ; Mark 10:17- 22 ; Luke 18 : 18-23, brought credentials on which many of our churches would admit him without hesitation ; but Christ enfor ces the necessity of a change of heart. RU'MAH, exalted, 2 Kin. 23:36. Some suppose it identical with Arumah, 6 miles southeast of Shechem, Judg. 9:41; others with Dumah, 10 miles southwest of He bron, Josh. 15:52. Conder would identify it with the ruined village Rumeh, on the west of Rimmon, 9 miles northwest of Mount Tabor. RUMP. See Sheep. RUSH. Two Hebrew words are thus translated, one denoting the bulrush or pa pyrus reed, an aquatic plant of the sedge family, Job 8:11; Isa. 35 : 7 ; Exod. 2:3; Isa. 18:2; see Bulrush; the other, also ren dered "bulrush" in Isa. 58:5, A. V., and " hook" in Job 41 :2, representing a differ ent reed-like plant, of the sedge or the grass family, Isa. 9:14. The proverbial expression in Isa. 19:15 denotes the high est and the lowest of the people, i. e., the entire people. See Reed. RUTH, a Moabitess, who, having re turned with her mother-in-law Naomi to Judah, probably about the time of Gideon, soon after married Boaz, a kinsman of Naomi's husband. From this marriage descended David, and through him our Saviour Jesus Christ, Matt. 1 :'5. See Adop tion. The Book of Ruth contains this his tory, told in a most simple and affecting manner. The object of the writer, no doubt, was to trace the genealogy of king David. At the outset he says that these events took place when the Judges ruled in Israel — an intimation that in the time of the writer they had ceased to rule. At the close of the book the name of David is introduced; which shows that it was not written before his day, B. C. 1060. This book is inserted in our Bibles after the book of Judges, as a sort of sequel to it. Many of the ancient fathers made but one book of Judges and Ruth. The story of Ruth exhibits the frank and simple man ners of the times, and the courtesy and charity of the Hebrew laws, gives an inti mation of the future extension of the gos pel to the Gentiles, and illustrates God's providential care of families, and the bless ings which flow from filial piety and faith in God. RYE, Exod. 9 : 32 ; Isa. 28 : 25, A. V., called " fitches " in Ezek. 4:9. It is probable that the true rendering is " spelt." Rye is a Northern grain, rarely cultivated in the Levant even now, and probably unknown there in ancient times; but spelt, Triticum spelta, has been cultivated and prized in the East for ages. It differs but little from wheat, though inferior, and its flour is often mixed with wheat flour in making bread. SABACHTHA'NI, hast thou forsaken me? a Syro-Chaldaic word, a part of our Sa viour's exclamation on the cross, Matt. 27:46; the whole is taken from Psa. 22:1, where it is used prophetically. SABA'OTH or SAB'AOTH represents the Hebrew tsebaoth, hosts or armies, and 487 SAB BIBLE DICTIONARY. SAB appears in Rom. 9:29; Jas. 5:4, as the representative in part of the divine title so often found in the Old Testament, and in the A. V. translated "Lord of hosts," 1 Sam. 17:45; Psa. 24:10; Isa. 1:9; Jer. 32:18. We are to understand the word hosts in the most comprehensive sense, as including the host of heaven, the angels and ministers of the Lord ; the stars and planets, which, as an army ranged in bat tle array, perform the will of God; the armies of earth, whose conflicts his provi dence overrules to the accomplishment of his own wise designs; the hordes of infe rior creatures, as the locusts that plagued Egypt, the quails that fed Israel, and "the canker-worm and the palmer-worm, his great army," Joel 2:25; and lastly, the peo ple of the Lord, both of the old and new covenants, a truly great army, of which God is the general and commander, Exod. 7:4; 2 Kin. 23:5; 2 Chr. 18:18; Neh. 9:6; Psa. 148:2; Dan. 8:10, 11. SAB'BATH, rest, cessation. God having created the world in 6 days, " rested " on the 7th, Gen. 2 :2, 3 ; that is, he ceased from producing new beings in this creation ; and because he had rested on it, he " blessed " or sanctified it, and appointed it in a pecu liar manner for his worship. We here have an account of the origi nal institution of the day of rest. Like the institution of marriage, it was given to man for the whole race. Those who wor shipped God seem to have kept the Sab bath from the first, and there are tokens of this in the brief sketch the Bible contains of the ages before giving the law at Mount Sinai. Noah sent forth the raven from the ark, and the dove thrice, at intervals of 7 days, Gen. 8. The account of the sending of manna in the desert implies that the Sabbath was already known and observed, though it may have been largely neglected during the Egyptian bondage, Exod. 16:5, 22-30. The week was an established divis ion of time in Mesopotamia and Arabia. Gen. 29:27; and traces of it have been found in many nations of antiquity so re mote from each other and of such diverse origin as to forbid the idea of their having received it from Sinai and the Hebrews. Assyrian and Chaldaean inscriptions of an earlier date than the time of Moses refer to a week of 7 days, and to the 7th day as a day of rest, on which it was unlawful to work, or for the king to drive out or to perform sovereign acts. The reenactment of the Sabbath on Mount Sinai, among the Commandments of the moral law, was also designed not for the Israelites alone, but for all who should receive the Word of God, and ulti mately for all mankind. Christ and his apostles never speak of the Decalogue but as of permanent and universal obligation. "The Sabbath was made for man." The 4th commandment is as binding as the 3d and the 5th. Certain additions to it, with specifications and penalties, were a part of the Mosaic civil law, and are not now in force, Exod. 31:14; Num. 15:32-36. On the Sabbath day the priests and Levites, min isters of the temple, entered on their week, and those who had attended the foregoing week went out, 2 Kin. 11:5-7. They placed on the golden table new loaves of show- bread, and took away the old ones, Lev. 24:8. Also on this day were offered partic ular sacrifices of 2 lambs for a burnt-offer ing, with wine and meal, Num. 28:9, 10. The weekly Sabbath was celebrated like the other festivals, from evening to evening. The Sabbath was kept as a day of rest, di vine worship and religious instruction, and of sacred and social rejoicings, 2 Kin. 4 : 23 ; Neh. 8:9-12; Psa. 92; 118:24; Hos. 2:11. It was one of the signs of God's covenant with Israel, Exod. 31 : 13-17. The prophets denounced its profanation and blessed its faithful observance, Isa. 56:1-7; 58:13, 14; Jer. 17:21-27; Ezek. 20:12-24. After the return from captivity the Jews entered into a fresh covenant to keep it, Neh. 10:31. Under Antiochus Epiphanes profanation of the Sabbath was one of the distinctive marks of apostasy to heathenism, : Mace. 1:11-15, 39-45- In the time of our Lord Pharisaic legalism had made the Sabbath burdensome by the minute and often ab surd regulations concerning its observance : e. g., forbidding walking on the grass, as that would be a kind of threshing. Against these oppressive human enactments our Saviour protested, maintaining the lawful ness of works of necessity and mercy on the Sabbath, while he kept the day in the true spirit of the law. The chief obligation of the Sabbath ex pressed in the law is to sanctify it, Exod, 20:8; Deut. 5:12: "Remember the Sab bath day to sanctify it." It is sanctified by necessary works of charity, by prayers, praises, and thanksgivings, by the public and private worship of God, by the study of his Word, by tranquillity of mind, and by meditation on moral and religious truth in its bearing on the duties of life and the SAB BIBLE DICTIONARY. SAB hope of immortality. The other require ment of the law is rest: "Thou shalt not do any work," Exod. 23:12; Lev. 23:3. The ordinary business of life is to be whol ly laid aside, both for the sake of bodily and mental health, and chiefly to secure the quiet and uninterrupted employment of the sacred hours for religious purposes. The spirit of the law clearly forbids all uses of the day which are worldly, such as amusements, journeys, etc., whereby one fails to keep the day holy himself, or hin ders others in doing so. The Christian Sabbath represents the original day of rest established in the gar den of Eden and reenacted on Sinai, with out those requirements which were pecu liar to the old dispensation, but with all its original moral force and with the new sanc tions of Christianity. It commemorates not only the creation of the world, but a still greater event — the completion of the work of atonement by the resurrection of Christ, a still greater deliverance than that of Israel from Egypt, Deut. 5:15; and as Christ rose from the dead on the day after the Jewish Sabbath, that day of his resur rection has been observed by Christians ever since. The change appears to have been made at once, and as is generally be lieved under the direction of the " Lord of the Sabbath." On the same day, the ist day of the week, he appeared among his assembled disciples ; and on the next re currence of the day he was again with them, and revealed himself to Thomas, John 20:19-29. The Pentecostal descent ofthe Holy Spirit is traditionally reported, and with probability believed, to have oc curred on the ist day of the week, Acts 2. From 1 Cor. 11:20; 14:23, 40, it appears that the disciples in all places were accus tomed to meet statedly to worship and to celebrate the Lord's Supper; in 1 Cor. 16:2 the apostle connects an act which is a part of religious worship, viz., the regular .set ting apart for charitable purposes of a due proportion of the Christian's income, with the ist day of the week; and in Acts 20:6- 11 we find the Christians at Troas actually assembled on the ist day to partake of the supper and to receive religious instruction. John observed the day with peculiar solem nity, Rev. 1 : 10 ; and it had then received the name of " The Lord's day," which it has ever since retained. For a time such of the disciples as were Jews observed the Jewish Sabbath also ; but they did not re- auire this nor the observance of any festi val of the Mosaic dispensation of Gentile converts, nor even of Jews, Col. 2:16. The early Christian fathers refer to the ist day of the week as the time set apart for wor ship, and to the transfer of the day on ac count of the resurrection of the Saviour. Pliny the younger, proconsul of Pontus near the close of the ist century, in a letter to the Emperor Trajan, remarks that the Christians were " accustomed on a stated day to meet together before daylight, and to repeat a hymn to Christ as God, and to bind themselves by a solemn bond not to commit any wickedness," etc. Ignatius, a disciple of John, who wrote about A. D. 100, contrasts Judaism with Christianity, and in exemplification of the contrast speaks of the Jewish Sabbath as abolished, and indi cates the ist day of the week as its succes sor. Justin Martyr, in the 2d century, ob serves that "on the Lord's day all Chris tians in the city or country meet together, because that is the day of our Lord's res urrection, and then we read the writings of the apostles and prophets ; this being done, the person presiding makes an ora tion to the assembly, to exhort them to im itate and to practise the things they have heard ; then we all join in prayer, and after that we celebrate the sacrament. Then they who are able and willing give what they think proper, and what is collected is laid up in the hands of the chief officer, who distributes it to orphans and widows and other necessitous Christians as their wants require." See 1 Cor. 16:2. Under Constantine, the ist Christian emperor of Rome, the Lord's day, or " Sunday," as it was also called, was first civilly recognized by an edict, A. D. 321, requiring a certain degree of abstinence from- labor on that day. The commandment to observe the Sab bath is worthy of its place in the Deca logue ; it is suited to the needs of man's physical, intellectual, and spiritual nature; and its observance is of fundamental im portance to society, which without it would fast relapse into ignorance, vice, and un godliness. Its very existence on earth, by the ordinance of God, proves that there re mains an eternal Sabbath in heaven, of which the "blest repose" of the day of God is an earnest to those who rightly ob serve it, Heb. 4:9. " The 2d Sabbath after the ist"— Greek, "second-first Sabbath" — Luke 6:1, is ex plained by some as " the ist Sabbath after the 2d day of the Passover." See Pass- 489 SAB BIBLE DICTIONARY. SAB over. Others interpret it as the ist Sab bath in the 2d year of the Sabbatical cycle of 7 years. By some Greek MSS., followed in the R. V., the puzzling expression is omitted altogether. The " preparation of the Sabbath " was the Friday before ; for as it was forbidden to make a fire, to bake bread, or to dress victuals on the Sabbath day, they provided on the 6th day everything needful for their sustenance on the Sabbath, Matt. 27:62; Mark 15:42; John 19:14, 31, 42. The term "sabbath" was applied to other days and times similarly sanctified, Lev. 19:3, 30; 23:24, 38, 39; 25:4. In the original Greek of the New Testament the word sometimes designates a week, as counted from Sabbath to Sabbath, Matt. 28:1; Mark 16:2. In Lam. 1:7 for "sab baths " we should read " calamities " or " ruin." For a Sabbath day's journey see Jour ney, Measures. SABBAT'ICAL YEAR, or " Year of Re lease," Deut. 15:9; 31:10-13, was to be cel ebrated among the Israelites once every 7 years ; the land was to rest and be left without culture ; debts were to be remitted to Hebrew borrowers; and the Law was to be read to the assembled people at the Feast of Tabernacles, Exod. 23:10, 11; Lev. 25:1-7; Deut. 15:1-11; 31:10-15. Pro vision for the 7th year might be stored up from the abundance of preceding harvests, Lev. 25:20-22. The fertility of the soil would be increased by its lying fallow. God appointed the observance of the Sab batical year to preserve the remembrance of the creation of the world, to enforce the acknowledgment of his sovereign author ity over all things, particularly over the land of Canaan, which he had given to the Hebrews, and to inculcate humanity on his people by commanding that they should resign to servants, to the poor, to stran gers, and to brutes the produce of their fields, of their vineyards, and of their gar dens. A long disuse of the Sabbatical year has been inferred from 2 Chr. 36:20, 21; compare Lev. 26:33-35. But it seems to have been observed after the return from captivity, in the time of Judas Maccabeus, 1 Mace. 6:49, 53; Josephus mentions the same Sabbatical year and 2 others, and implies the customary observance of the law down to his own time. Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar are said to have excused the Jews from tribute in the Sab batic year. See Jubilee. 490 SABE'ANS. This word represents 2 dis tinct peoples, who, in accordance with the original Hebrew, might have been more properly called Sebaeans and Shebaeans. I. The first denotes the inhabitants of the country called Seba. This appears to have been the great island, or rather pen insula of Meroe, in Northern Ethiopia, or Nubia, formed between the Nile and the Astaboras, now Atbara. Upon this penin sula lay a city of the same name, whose site may be indicated by ruins still visible 20 miles northeast of the modern Shendy. Meroe was a city of priests, whose origin is lost in the highest antiquity. The mon arch was chosen by the priests from among themselves, and the government was en tirely theocratic, being managed by the priests according to the oracle of Jupiter Ammon. This was the Seba of the He brews, according to Josephus, who men tions at the same time that it was conquered by Cambyses, and received frOm him the name Meroe, after his sister. With this representation accord the notices of Seba and its inhabitants in Scripture. In Gen. 10:7 their ancestor is said to be a son of Cush, the progenitor of the Ethiopians. In Isa. 43:3 and. Psa. 72:10 Seba is mentioned as a distant and wealthy country; in the former passage it is connected with Egypt and Ethiopia ; and Meroe was one of the most important commercial cities of inte rior Africa. These Sabeans are described by Herodotus as men of uncommon size. Compare Isa. 45: 14. A branch of this fam ily, it is thought, located themselves near the head of the Persian Gulf; and the Sa beans mentioned in Job 1:15 were proba bly Cushites. See Cush and Raamah. II. The inhabitants ofthe country called Sheba. The Sheba of Scripture appears to be the Saba of Strabo, situated towards the southern part of Arabia, at a short dis tance from the coast of the Red Sea, the capital of which was Mariaba, or Mareb. This region, called also Yemen, was prob ably settled by Sheba the son of Joktan, of the race of Shem, Gen. 10:28; 1 Chr. 1:22. The queen of Sheba, who visited Solo mon, 1 Kin. 10; 2 Chr. 9; Matt. 12:42, and made him presents of gold, ivory, and costly spices, was probably the mistress of this region ; indeed, the Sabeans were celebrated, on account of their important commerce in these very products, among the Greeks also, Job 6:19; Isa. 60:6; Jer. 6:20; Ezek. 27:22; 38:13; Psa. 72:10, 15; Joel 3:8. The tradition of this visit of the SAC BIBLE DICTIONARY. SAC queen of Sheba to Solomon has maintained itself among the Arabs, who call her Bal- kis, and affirm that she became the wife of Solomon. Besides the Joktanite Sheba, 2 others of the same name are mentioned in the Bible. 1. A son of Jokshan, and grandson of Abra ham and Keturah, Gen. 25:3. 2. A grand son of Cush, Gen. 10:7. It is possible that the descendants of the Cushite Sheba may have had their residence in Africa, but the question of these 2 Shebas is obscure and difficult to determine. The Sebaeans and Shebaeans are both mentioned in the same prophecy, Psa. 72 : 10, as coming to lay their offerings at the feet of Christ. In Ezek. 23:42 the marginal rendering in A. V., " drunkards," is preferable to "Sabeans." SAB"I AH and SAB'TECHA, sons of Cush, Gen. 10:7. It cannot be decided whether they settled in Africa, Arabia, or southeast ern Asia. SACK, SACK'CLOTH. Sack is a pure Hebrew word, and has spread into many modern languages. Sackcloth is a coarse dark stuff made of goats' or camels' hair, Rev. 6:12. It was used for sacks or bags, Gen. 42:25; and rough garments made of it were worn as a sign of mourning or pen itence, sometimes next the skin, and some times instead of the outer garment, Gen. 37:34; 2 Sam. 3:31; 1 Kin. 21:27; 2 Kin. 6:30; Jonah 3:6; Matt. 11:21. The proph ets were often clothed in sackcloth, Isa. 20:2; Zech. 13:4; Matt. 3:4; Rev. 11:3. In times of joy, or on hearing good news, those who were clad in sackcloth cast it from them, and resumed their usual cloth ing, Psa. 30:11. SACK'BUT. See Music. SACRIFICE, an offering made to God oi some gift, especially an animal slain, as an acknowledgment of guilt and an atonement for sin, -a grateful recognition of God's au thority and goodness, a means of securing his favor, or a token of the giver's self- dedication to his service. Whatever was thus offered to the Lord had first been fur nished to the giver by Him, 1 Chr. 29:14. The universal prevalence -of sacrifice wit nesses to man's universal sense of guilt and estrangement from God. It is be lieved that after the fall Jehovah himself appointed sacrifices of beasts, of the first killing of which we find indications in the clothing of Adam and Eve, Gen. 3:21 ; com pare 2:17. At first sacrifices were offered by individual worshippers, as Cain and Abel; after the flood, by heads of families or tribes, as Noah, Melchizedek, Isaac, Ja cob, Job. From being the prerogative of the firstborn, the offering of sacrifices was by the Mosaic law devolved upon Aaron and his descendants. The offering of sac rifice was connected with God's covenant with Noah, Gen. 8:20 to 9:17, with Abra ham, Gen. 15:9-21, and with Israel at Sinai, Exod. 24:4-8, the ratification of his cove nant of eternal salvation through the sac rifice of Christ being thus foreshadowed, Heb. 9: 13-20; 13:20. The idea of the sal vation of one condemned to death by means of a vicarious death, taught in the substitu tion of the ram for Isaac, Gen. 22:13, and the idea of the necessity of the expiation of sin by blood in order to entering into covenant with God, were enforced by the inaugurative sacrifices of the Mosaic pe riod, the killing of the passovers, Exod. 12:3-13, and the sacrifices of Exod. 24:4-8. The law given on Sinai prescribed the offer ers of sacrifice, Exod. 28 : 1 ; Lev. 21 : 16-23 ! 22:25, the place of sacrifice, the one altar appointed by God— at first in the taberna cle, afterwards in the temple, Lev. 17:1-9; Deut. 12:5-18, and the time, methods, and kinds of sacrifice. On some special occa sions sacrifices were offered with the di vine sanction otherwise than the law pre scribed, Judg. 2:5; 6:25, 26; 13:19, 20; 1 Sam. 7:17. The divine limitations of sacrifice emphasized the truth that it was God himself who provided the way of ap proach to him: and the occasional excep tions illustrated his sovereignty over his own law and grace, and taught that there was no intrinsic virtue in the prescribed persons or place. Human sacrifices were strictly forbidden, Lev. 20:2; Deut. 12:31. 491 SAC BIBLE DICTIONARY. SAC The law prescribed certain regularly- recurring national sacrifices: daily, Num. 28:2-8; weekly, ver. 9, 10; monthly, ver. 11-15; and yearly, ver. 16 to 29:39 — the lat ter connected with the 3 great feasts and the great Day of Atonement ; and also made provision for occasional voluntary individ ual expressions of penitence, devotion, and praise. The general term for sacrifice was "an offering made by fire unto the Lord," Num. 15:3, 13. The sacrifices prescribed in the law were both bloody and bloodless, from the ani mal and the vegetable kingdoms, repre senting the most valuable possessions of the people, the sustenance of their life, and thus their life itself. The animals offered were to be without blemish, signifying the perfect righteousness and holiness required by God; and were of the ox-kind, sheep, goats, turtle-doves, pigeons, and other small clean birds. The bloody sacrifices were the whole burnt-offering, the peace-offer ing, the sin-offering, and the trespass-offer ing. Of bloodless offerings there were the meat-offering, the drink-offering, incense, and first-fruits. I. The whole burnt-offering — Heb. olah, that which goes up, i. e., in flame and smoke: Greek holocaust, wholly burnt, Heb. 10:8. This was an ancient form of sacrifice, Gen. 8:20. Under the law it was offered twice daily, was doubled on the Sabbath, and was prescribed for other sta ted sacred seasons and for numerous occa sional emergencies. The daily national sacrifices were 2 lambs, one offered about 492 sunrise, after the morning incense-offer ing, Exod. 30:7, 8; the other at the decline of day, before the evening incense-offering, Exod. 29:38-42; Num. 28:3-8. They were burned by a small fire, that they might continue burning the longer, Lev. 6:8-13. With each was offered a meat-offering of flour and oil, and a drink-offering of wine. The voluntary whole burnt-offering might be a young male from the herd, or of the sheep or goats, or a turtle-dove or young pigeon, Lev. 1. If of the herd or flock, the offerer, having brought it to the altar-court, laid his hand upon its head to signify its substitution for himself; it was then killed, its blood was sprinkled by the priest upon the altar; it was flayed, the skin being given to the officiating priest, Lev. 7:8; it was cut in pieces, which the priest laid upon the altar, the entrails and legs being first washed; and the whole was burned. Every burnt-offering contained a general acknowledgment of sin, national or indi vidual, which was typically expiated by its blood, Lev. 17:11 ; it was a type ofthe com plete self-devotion of Christ for the sinner, and of the completeness of his expiation, John 1:29; Eph. 5:2; Heb. 10:4-10. Italso symbolized the offerer's entire self-surren der to the Lord. II. The peace-offering, Exod. 24:5; Lev. 3; 7:11-34, was eucharistic, votive, or vol untary. It was a male or female of the herd or flock. Its blood was sprinkled on the altar in expiation of sin. The interior fat, the kidneys, the caul, and the tail if the victim was a sheep, were burned on the SAC BIBLE DICTIONARY. SAC altar. The breast and the right shoulder were reserved for the priests, and these parts, together with those to be burned, were placed in the hands of the offerer, and by him, supported and directed by the priest, waved from side to side, or heaved upward, before the Lord. The rest of the flesh was to be eaten by the offerer and his family or friends, they being ceremonially clean, on the same day if the offering was for thanksgiving ; on the ist and 2d days if it was a votive or free-will offering; what remained 011 the 3d day must be burned. A slight exception to the requirement of perfection was made in the free-will offer ing, Lev. 22 : 23. The special signification of the peace-offering was friendship with God, and holy communion with him, his minis ters, and people. Peace-offerings were pre scribed for certain occasions, Exod. 29 : 28 ; Num. 6:14; 7:17, one of which was the na tional yearly feast of first-fruits, Lev. 23 : 19 ; Deut. 16:9-11. Otherwise they were op tional. III. The sin-offering and the trespass- offering were sacrifices introduced by the Mosaic law. They were closely connected, and yet clearly distinguished, the sin-offer ing being the more general and compre hensive, and the more solemn in its ritual. 1. Regular occasions when a national sin- offering was prescribed were the ist day of each month, Num. 28:11-15; each day of the Passover feast, ver. 22, 24 ; the feast of first-fruits, ver. 26, 30 ; of trumpets, Num. 29:I, 5; each day of the feast of taberna cles, ver. 12-38; and the day of atonement, when a special sin-offering for the high- priest was also appointed, ver. 7, 11 ; Lev. 16:3-28. The sin-offering, like the tres pass-offering, was enjoined in the case of particular offences against law, either moral or ceremonial, committed through " igno rance "¦ (rather negligence or frailty), or at least not in a presumptuous spirit; com pare Num. 15:30, 31; Heb. 10:26-29. As an occasional offering it was of several grades: for the high-priest, the whole con gregation, a ruler, a private person, Lev. 4:1 to 5: 13; Num. 15:22-28. It formed part of the ritual of various purifications, both sin and trespass offerings being required in the case of a leper. The kind and sex of the victim differed on different occa- sins — a bullock, a he-goat or kid, a she-kid or lamb, turtle-doves or young pigeons, and even for the very poor about 5 pints of flour, without oil or incense, compare Psa. 40:17, being variously required. The cer emonial was especially significant and sol emn in regard to the disposal ofthe blood. On the day of atonement some was sprin kled on the mercy-seat in the holy of ho lies ; at other times some was sprinkled 7 times before the veil of the holy of holies, and put on the horns of the altar of in cense; and sometimes the horns of the burnt-offering altar were touched. When 493 SAC BIBLE DICTIONARY. SAC the victim was a quadruped, the parts burned on the altar were the same as in the peace-offering. When some of the blood was brought into the sanctuary none of the victim was eaten, but that which remained from the altar was burned in a clean place outside the camp, Lev. 4:11, 12, 21; 6:30; compare Heb. 13:11, 12. Of other sin- offerings the priests were to eat, Lev. 6:26, 29; 10:17. 2. The trespass - offering was always an individual's sacrifice, and a ram, Lev. 5 : 14 to 6:7; its blood was simply sprinkled around the altar of burnt-offer ing; the parts consumed on the altar were the same as in the sin-offering, and other portions were eaten by the priests, Lev. 7:1-7. Restitution for wrong against the service of God, or against human rights, was required in connection with the tres pass-offering; compare Num. 5:6-8. Isa iah, 53: 10, says that Christ " made his soul a trespass-offering," perhaps indicating a specific as well as a general need and effi cacy of his blood. Both the sin and the trespass offering specially set forth the need of atonement for sin, and the fact that ignorance and infirmity do not do away with its guilt. The provisions respecting the former indicate that sins are of differ ent degrees of heinousness. The require ment of restitution with the latter teaches that reparation should if possible accom pany repentance, confession, and faith. The special sacredness of the shed blood of the sin-offering, Lev. 6:27, points to the' infinite preciousness of the blood of Jesus, 1 Pet. 1 : 19, 20, of whom the sin-offering was an eminent type, John 1:29; 2 Cor. 5:21 ; 1 John 2:2. In the offering of all the animal sacrifices the laying of hands upon the victim was an essential part, always accompanied, ac cording to Jewish authorities, by confes sion of sin, and signifying in every sacrifice the transfer of guilt to the innocent victim, and the substitution of its life, represented by its blood, in payment of the death-pen alty for sin, instead of the offerer's life. The penalty being typically paid, and ac cepted by God on the altar, sin was typi cally expiated; and the worshipper, repre sented or assisted by the mediating priest, might engage in other acts of devotion, The fire ofthe altar, kept continually burn ing, Lev. 6:12, 13, was expressive of the nature of God. Exod. 24: 17, and his accept ance ofthe offerings; compare Lev. 9:24. IV. Meat-offering, Heb. minchah, gift. The A. V. translation is misleading, now 494 that "meat" has the sense oi flesh, rather than oi food, as formerly. This offering was an accompaniment of the stated, and the occasional and voluntary, whole burnt- offerings and peace-offerings. Exod. 29:40, 41 ; Lev. 23 :37 ; Num. 28 ; 29 ; Lev. 2 ; 6: 14- 18; 7:9-14; Num. 15:1-13. It consisted of fine flour, usually of wheat; unbaked, or made into cakes. It was salted and min gled with oil, and frankincense was placed upon it. When offered for the high-priest it was wholly burned on the altar, Lev. 6:22, 23. Otherwise, a portion of it was burned as a memorial, and the rest was eaten by the priests, ver. 14-18. All the incense was burned. A drink-offering of wine accom panied the meat-offering, Exod. 29:40; Lev. 23: 13; Num. 15:5, 7, 10. Honey and leaven were not to be burned on the altar, though leavened bread entered into the Passover- offerings of first-fruits and the eucharistic peace-offerings, Lev. 7:12-14; 23:17. The meat-offering specially signified the offer er's grateful and faithful service, which was to be incorrupt and pure (salted and unleavened), sanctified by divine influen ces (oil), and acceptable through the ato ning blood of Christ (frankincense). With some of the sacrifices, as on the day of atonement, Lev. 16:20-22, and the cleansing of a leper, Lev. 14:4-7, 49-53, the liberation of a living goat or bird was connected, signifying in the former case Christ's vicarious bearing and removal of sin, and in the latter probably emancipa tion from the restraints of leprosy. Sacrifices formed an important part of the ritual of purification from canonical uncleannesses — as childbirth, Lev. 12; is sues, Lev. 15; leprosy, Lev. 14; contact with dead bodies, Num. 19 — teaching the all-defiling presence and guilt of sin, and its need of expiation. Such were the sacrifices of the Hebrews : of divine appointment, and accepted and used by God for the salvation of the sin cerely penitent and trusting worshipper; yet in themselves incapable of atoning for sin, clearing the offender from its guilt, or of making him personally holy, Heb. 10:1-4. Paul has described these and other cere monies of the law as " weak and beggarly elements," Gal. 4:9; and as "a tutor, to lead to Christ," Gal. 3 : 24. They Were pro visional and temporary, prophecies and figures of the true Sacrifice, the Lamb of God, and ofthe regenerating and sanctify ing work ofthe Holy Spirit. Accordingly, Jesus Christ, by his one offering of himself SAC BIBLE DICTIONARY. SAD once for all, superseded and abolished all other sacrifices, and saves for ever all who believe on him; while without his expia tory sacrifice divine justice could never have relaxed its hold on a single human soul, Isa. 53; Luke 24:44-47; Rom. 3:21- 26 ; 4 : 24 to 5 : 1 1 ; 1 Cor. 5:7; Eph. 5:2, 26 ; Tit. 3:5, 6; Heb. 1:2, 3; 2:9, 17; 9; 10; Rev. 1:5; 5:6. The Israelites were carefully directed not to rely on sacrifices as works of merit. They were taught that without repentance, faith, and reformation all sacrifices were an abomination to God, Psa. 51:17; Prov. 21:3; Isa. 1:11-17; Jer. 6:20; Joel 2: 12-18; Amos 5:21, 22; that he desires willing obe dience and supreme love to himself, and justice and mercy to fellow-men, 1 Sam. 15:22; Prov. 21 13; .Mic. 6:6-8; Matt. 5:23, 24; 9:13; Mark 12:33. So, in order to sal vation by the sacrifice of Christ, true re pentance and faith are required, and from these will spring fruits of love to God and man. With allusion to the whole burnt-offer ing, the peace-offering, and the meat-offer ing of the Mosaic ritual, the services of Christians are sometimes called sacrifices, acceptable through Christ's one sin-offer ing and his continual high-priestly inter cession, and themselves fruits of the grace of God, Rom. 12:1; Phil. 4:18; Heb. 7:25; 10:10, 12, 14, 18; 12:28; 13:15,. 16; 1 Pet. 2:4, 5; Rev. 8:3, 4. SACRILEGE, any profanation or abuse of things peculiarly sacred to God; such as robbing the house of God, or making it a den of thieves, Matt. 21:12, 13. In Acts 19:37, for "churches" read "temples," heathen. In Rom. 2:22, "commit sacri lege," A. V., has the same meaning. SAD'DUCEES, a sect of the Jews who were usually at variance with the other leading sect, namely the Pharisees, but united With them in opposing Jesus and accomplishing his death, Matt. 16:1-12; Luke 20:27. The term may be translated from the Hebrew, Ihe just, but is more probably derived from the proper name Zadok, either one who was prominent in the 3d century before Christ, and whom the Jews commonly regarded as the found er of the school, or from Zadok the high- priest under David and Solomon, 1 Kin. 1:32-45 — whose descendants are referred to as "the sons of Zadok," Ezek. 40:46, and may finally have become a sort of sacerdotal aristocracy, with many adhe rents, rationalistic in opinion, and in many cases high in position and wealth ; com pare Acts 5:17. The Sadducees disregard ed all the traditions and unwritten laws which the Pharisees prized so highly, and professed to consider the Scriptures, espe cially the Pentateuch, as the only source and rule of the Jewish religion. They re jected the demonology of the Pharisees, denied the existence of angels and spirits, considered the soul as dying with the body, and of course admitted no future slate of rewards and punishments, Matt. 22:23. While, moreover, the Pharisees believed that all events and actions were directed by an overruling providence or fate, the Sadducees considered them all as depend ing on the will and agency of man. The tenets of these free-thinking philosophers were not in general so acceptable to the people as those of the Pharisees ; yet many of the highest rank adopted them. Annas and Caiaphas and many other members of the Sanhedrin were Sadducees, Acts 23 : 6-9. The resurrection of Christ naturally added bitterness to their hatred of his doctrines and followers, Acts 4:1-7; 5:17. The Sad ducees disappear from history after the ist Christian century. Modern Annihilation ists adopt one phase of Sadduceeism, believing that the wicked who die out of Christ are annihilated, body and soul. They place this event immedi ately after the final judgment. In support of their opinion they allege that the soul is not essentially immortal, but having come from nothing may return to nothing, and will do so unless immortality is brought to it by Jesus Christ; that endless conscious suffering is never expressly declared to be the penalty of sin ; that privation of happi ness, continued for ever by annihilation, is the only eternal punishment : and that this total destruction is the true and sola mean ing of the word death. This error is sufficiently refuted, primd fade, by the fact that, although it appeals so powerfully to our sympathies, and might almost seem a logical necessity, arguing from the goodness of God, it has still found so few followers: the great mass of Chris tians and Bible students of every age and sect finding the Word of God dearly teach ing the eternal conscious suffering of the impenitent. Some of the Bible arguments against annihilation are these: (il There are various degrees of future punishment ; yet annihilation admits of no degrees. (2) To the condemned soul, full of shame and fear under the divine anger, annihila- 495 SAF BIBLE DICTIONARY. SAL tion would be a relief rather than a pun ishment— Jude 7, R. V., "in eternal fire." (3) The punishment of men is the same as that of wicked angels, who, " reserved to the judgment of the great day," "be lieve and tremble," instead of rejoicing. (4) The other Scripture phrases which describe this destruction show that in the final " lake of fire " " there is weeping and wailing and gnashing of teeth." (5J The eternal life of the righteous, always con nected with the death ofthe wicked, is not mere existence, but endless holiness and happiness; so the death set over against it is endless sin and sorrow. See Retribu tion. SAF'FRON, Song 4:14, the Crocus sati- vus, or saffron Crocus, a plant abundant in Palestine and adjacent countries, and much cultivated in Europe. The flower has 3 stigmas, which, when gathered and dried, form a valued article of commerce. They are thread-like, orange-colored, aromatic in odor, and slightly bitter in taste. Saf fron was early prized as a perfume, and was formerly much used as a seasoning and as a stimulating medicine, for all which purposes it is still highly esteemed in the East. The stigmas also yield an orange dye. SAINT, one set apart from the world to the service of God, Deut. 33 :2, 3 ; Psa. 50:5 ; 106:16; Dan. 7:21-27; Matt. 27:52; Acts 9:13, 32, 41. The original Heb. and Gr. terms are often translated " holy," Exod. 19:6; 22:31; Deut. 33:8; Mark 6:20; 8:38; John 17:11, and applied to inanimate ob jects devoted to God, Exod. 16:23; 29:31; Matt. 4:5. As applied to men they do not imply perfect holiness in this life, but the obligation to strive after it ; compare Rom. 1:7; Eph. 1:4; Col. 1:22; 1 Pet. 1:15, 16. Nothing is more common in the writings of Paul than the name " saints " given to all Christians, Rom. 8:27; 1 Cor. 14:33; Eph. 1:1; Phil. 1:1; Rev. 8:3, 4. The special application of the word to apostles, evan gelists, and other eminent Christians, and the rendering of peculiar honors to them, crept into the church, with other corrup tions, about the 4th century. The Church of Rome assumes the power of making saints; that is, of announcing certain de parted spirits as objects of adoration, from whom the faithful may solicit favors — a no tion contrary to Scripture and dishonoring to Christ, 1 Tim. 2:5; Heb. 7:25. SAL' AMIS, a maritime city with a good harbor on the east coast of the island of 496 Cyprus. It stood in a plain on the north side of the river Pediaeus, was anciently the capital of the island, and under the Ro mans its most important commercial town. Paul and Barnabas visited it on their first missionary journey, A. D. 45, when the Jewish residents were evidently numerous, sustaining more than one synagogue, Acts 13:5. Jews would naturally be attracted to this city by its flourishing trade in the products of this fertile island, among which were fruit, wine, flax, and honey. The city was partially destroyed in Jewish insur rections under Trajan and Hadrian, and ruined by an earthquake in the time of Constantine the Great. When rebuilt it was called Constantia. Its ruins, broken cisterns, columns, and foundations, are called Old Famagusta, and are near the modern town of Famagusta. See Cyprus. SALA'THIEL, 1 Chr. 3:17, or Sheal'- tiel, asked of God, father of Zerubbabel, Ezra 3:2; Neh. 12:1; Hag. 1:1; one of the ancestors of Christ, named in both the gos pel genealogies, Matt. 1:12; Luke 3:27. See Genealogy. SAL'CHAH, a city in the east of Bashan, conquered by the Israelites and assigned to Manasseh, Deut. 3:10; Josh. 12:5; 13:11. It was near the border of Gad, 1 Chr. 5:11. It is identical with the modern Salchat or Sulkhad, at the southern end of Jebel Hau ran and 56 miles east ofthe Jordan. Near it begins the great Syrian desert extending to the Euphrates. The city occupies a com manding position on a hill. On the sum mit is a castle of the Roman period, on which are Roman eagles, and also Greek and Arabic inscriptions. There are about 400 stone houses, many in good preserva tion; but owing to the scarcity of water there are few inhabitants. An extensive view is had from the hill, embracing many ruined towns. SA'LEM, peace, Gen. 14:18; Heb. 7:1, 3, generally understood to mean the city of which Melchizedek was king, and referred to Jerusalem. So Josephus understood it. Some interpret the word as a part of the title of Melchizedek. It is used as a poet ical abbreviation of Jerusalem in Psa. 76:2. Jerome regarded it as identical with the Shalem of Gen. 33 : 18, and located the town 6 miles from Beth-shean. SA'LIM, peaceful, John 3:23, by some identified with Salem. By Eusebius and Jerome it is mentioned as near the Jordan, 8 Roman miles south of Beth-shean. Rob inson proposed to identify it with the vii- SAL BIBLE DICTIONARY. SAL lage of Salim, 314 miles east of Shechem. Condor apparently adopts this suggestion. SAL'MA, or SAL'MON, a garment, 1 Chr. 2:11, a chief man of the tribe of Judah, hus band of Rahab, and father of Boaz, Ruth 4:20; Matt. 1:4, 5; Luke 3:32. This is conjectured to be identical with Salma the son of Caleb, on the supposition that he adopted him. SAL'MON, shady, Psa. 68:14, supposed to be the same as "Mount Zalmon," near Shechem, Judg. 9:48. The Hebrew word in the 2 passages is the same. See Zal mon. SALMO'NE, Acts 27:7, a cape on the east coast of Crete. It is usually identified with Cape Sidero, a bold promontory at the northeast extremity of the island ; but by some with a promontory 15 miles farther south, called by the natives Plaka, but by sailors Cape Salmone. See Crete. SALO'ME, peaceful, I., wife of Zebedee, mother of James the elder and John the evangelist, one of those women of Galilee who attended our Saviour in his journeys and ministered to him, Matt. 27:56. She requested of Jesus that her 2 sons James and John might sit one on his right hand and the other on his left hand in his king dom, Matt. 20:20-23. Her conceptions as to the true nature of Christ's kingdom were no doubt changed by his crucifixion, which she witnessed " afar off," and by his resurrection, of which she was early ap prised by the angels at the tomb, Mark '15:40; 16:1. Some infer, by comparing Matt. 27:56 and John 19:25, that she was a sister of Mary the mother of Jesus. II. Salome was also the name of the daughter of Herodia's. Her name is given by Josephus. She married her paternal uncle Philip, tetrarch of Trachonitis, and after his death Aristobulus, king of Chal- cis, a great-grandson of Herod the Great. SALT was important to the Israelites not only as an antiseptic and condiment, but also as an indispensable adjunct to the sacrifices and the sacred incense. It is abundant in Palestine, being procured from the immense ridge of rock-salt at the south ern end of the Dead Sea, and by evapora tion from the water of the Dead and Medi terranean Seas. The ridge referred to is called by the Arabs Jebel Usdum, Mount Sodom. It is 7 miles long, iK to 3 miles wide, and several hundred feet high, and is mainly composed of pure rock-salt. Blocks of salt a foot thick are sometimes found on the eastern shore of the Dead 32 Sea, the product of evaporation after the annual freshets. The Arabs also dig pits on the shore, to be filled by the sea at its spring rising; the evaporation leaves a crust of salt an inch thick on the sides of the pits, which the Arabs remove and sell, Zeph. 2:9. The stones on the shore are incrusted with lime or gypsum, and twigs or branches that fall into the water are coated with salt. Lot's wife, Gen. 19:26, is by some supposed to have been thus in- crusted ; while others suppose she was miraculously transformed into a solid col umn of salt. As an essential article of diet, Job 6:6, salt is a symbol of subsistence and of hos pitality; and being, as a preservative, also a symbol of incorruption and perpetuity, it symbolizes the mutual obligations to fidel ity which, especially according to Oriental ideas, rest upon host and guest, and the fidelity due from servants to their employ ers, Ezra 4:14 — margin, "are salted with the salt of the palace." For the same rea sons salt was required with all the sacrifi ces consumed on God's altar, Lev. 2:13; Ezra 6:9; Ezek. 43:24; Mark 9:49; and also as an ingredient of the sacred incense, Exod. 30:35, margin. It symbolized the truth and durability of a covenant, Num. 18:19; 2 Chr. 13 : 5. Good men are " the salt of the earth," Tviatt. 5: 13, and divine grace, or true wisdom, is the salt of human charac ter and language, Mark 9:50; Col. 4:6; see also Ezek. 16:4. Among the Arabs salt is still a symbol of fidelity; and among the Persians and East Indians being in the ser vice of another is termed " eating his salt." Ground impregnated with salt is barren, Deut. 29:23; Job 39:6, margin; Psa. 107:34, margin; Jer. 17:6; Ezek. 47:11; Zeph. 2:9; hence the devotion of a place to desolation was signified by " sowing it with salt," Judg. 9:45. Frederic Barbarossa, in 1162, levelled the walls of Milan, and ploughed and salted the ground. Oriental salt often retains mineral im purities, and on exposure is liable to lose its saltness and become utterly worthless Matt. 5:13; Mark 9:50; Luke 14:34, 35. SALT, CITY OF, the 5th of the 6 cities of Judah situate in "the wilderness," Josh. 15:62 ; perhaps Nahr Maleh, ravine of salt ; or Um-baghek, a ruin 4 miles north of Jebel Usdum. SALT, VALLEY OF. The site of 2 vic tories over the Edomites : that of David, 2 Sam. 8:13; 1 Chr. 18:12; Psa. 60; com pare 1 Kin. 11:15, 16; and that of Amaziah, 497 SAL BIBLE DICTIONARY. SAL 2 Kin. 14:7; 2 Chr. 25:11. It has usually been located in the broad and desolate val ley El-Ghor, extending south of the Dead Sea nearly 8 miles to the chalky cliffs for merly called Akrabbim. This plain is in parts whitened with salt, contains brackish pools and streams, and is bordered on the northwest by the mountain of salt, Jebel Usdum. The Hebrew word, however, de notes a ravine rather than a valley, and the circumstances following Amaziah's vic tory seem to indicate a locality nearer to Sela, 50 miles south of the Dead Sea ; and it is suggested that the Hebrew name for the site may represent some ancient Edom ite name not referring to salt. SALUTA'TION. The usual formula of salutation among the Hebrews was Sha lom lekha, Peace be with thee. The same expression is the common one among the Arabs to the present day : they say, Salam lekha, to which the person saluted replies, "With thee be peace," Gen. 29:6; Judg. 18: 15, margin. Hence we hear ofthe Arab and Turkish "salams," that is, salutations. Other phrases of salutation are found in Scripture, most of them invoking a bless ing: as, "The Lord be with thee;" "All hail," or, Joy to thee; " Blessed be thou of the Lord." These and similar phrases the Orientals still use on all occasions with the most profuse and punctilious politeness. The letter of an Arab will be nearly filled with salutations ; and should he come in to tell you your house was on fire, he would first give and receive the compliments of the day, and then say perhaps, " If God will, all is well ; but your house is on fire." Their more formal salutations they accom pany with various ceremonies or gestures ; sometimes they embrace and kiss each 498 other; sometimes an inferior kisses the hand or the beard of a superior, or bows low, with the hand upon the breast, and afterwards raises it to his lips or forehead, or even prostrates himself and touches his forehead to the ground in rendering obei sance to a prince, Gen. 37:7. See Jacob's salutation of Esau, Gen. 33; and compare Gen. 19:1; 23:7; 42:6; 1 Sam. 25:23; 2Sam. 1:2; John 20:26. The due and dignified performance of some of these ceremonious courtesies, especially when frequently re curring, requires much time; and hence, when the prophet sent his servant in great haste to lay his staff upon the dead child, he forbade him to salute any one or an swer any salutation by the way, 2 Kin. 4:29. For a similar • reason our Saviour forbade the 70 disciples to salute any one by the way, Luke 10:4, that is, in this for mal and tedious manner, wasting precious time. Much of the Oriental courtesy was superficial and heartless ; but the benedic tion of Christ was from the heart, and car ried with it what was " better than life." "My peace I give unto you; not as the world giveth, give I unto you," John 14:27. The Jews restricted their salutations to those whom they regarded as " brethren," i. e., members of the same religious com munity, Matt. 5:47 ; so a Mohammedan will not address his salutation of "peace" to one whom he knows not to be a Moham medan. See Worship. SALVA'TION means strictly deliverance, and so it is used of temporal deliverance,' victory, in Exod. 14:13; 1 Sam. 14:45. But as the spiritual deliverance from sin and death through the Redeemer, Matt. 1:21, is a far greater salvati6n, so this word has come to be used mostly only in this moral and spiritual sense, and implies not only this deliverance, but also the consequences of it, namely, eternal life and happiness in the kingdom of our Lord, 2 Cor. 7: 10; Eph. 1 : 13. It is most justly described as a " great salvation," Heb. 2:3. The Hebrews rarely use concrete terms, as they are called, but often abstract terms. Thus, instead of saying God saves them and protects them, they say God is their salvation. So a voice of salvation, joy of salvation, the rock of salvation, the shield of salvation, a horn of salvation, a word of salvation, etc., are equivalent to a voice declaring deliverance, the joy that attends escape from a great danger, a rock where any one takes refuge and is in safety, a buckler that secures from the attack of an SAM BIBLE DICTIONARY. SAM enemy, the power that effects salvation. Thus, to work great salvation in Israel, signifies to deliver the nation from an im minent danger, or give it a great victory. The "garments of salvation," Isa. 61:10, refers to the splendid robes worn on festi val days. The expression is used figura tively to denote the reception of a signal favor from God, such as deliverance from great danger. SAMA'RIA, I., a city about 6 miles north west of Shechem and 30 north of Jerusa lem, built upon an oblong hill rising 1,542 feet above the sea level, near the centre of a broad and deep valley encircled by hills. It was built by Omri king of Israel about 920 B. C, and named after Shemer the previous owner ofthe hill, 1 Kin. 16:23, 24- It succeeded Shechem and Tirzah as the capital of the kingdom of Israel, ver. 28, 29, continuing thus 200 years. It was a seat of idolatry, and often denounced as such by the prophets, Hos. 10:5-7; Amos 6:1; Mic. 1:1-7; Isa. 9:9; Jer. 23 : 13; Ezek. 16:46-55. Ahab built there a temple of Baal, 1 Kin. 16:32, 33, and a portion of the city was called "the city of the house of Baal ;" this temple was destroyed by Jehu, 2 Kin. 10:18-28. Samaria was a place of great strength. It was twice besieged by the Syrians and rescued from them: in Ahab's reign, B. C. 901, 1 Kin. 20:1-21, and in Joram's reign, B. C. 892, 2 Kin. 6:24 to 7:20. During the latter siege the people suffered terribly from famine, and their remarkable deliverance was predicted by Elisha. An act of brotherly generosity to wards captives from Judah was performed, in obedience to a prophetic order, by chief citizens of Samaria during Pekah's reign, 2 Chr. 28:6-15. Samaria was besieged for 3 years by the king of Assyria, and was finally taken by Sargon, B." C. 720, 2 Kin. J7:5, 6; 18 j9, 10, when the people of the land were carried captive to Assyria. The city seems to have been partially restored by the Cuthite colonists. It was taken by Alexander the Great, B. C. 333, and colo nized with Syro-Macedonians. John Hyr canus took it B. C. 129, and nearly demol ished it. Pompey replaced these Samari tans, who had been supplanted by the Syro-Macedonians and the Jews. The pro consul Gabinius rebuilt it, and called it Gabinia; and it was afterwards given by Augustus to Herod the Great, who enlarged and adorned it and named it Sebaste, the Greek equivalent of Augusta, in honor of the emperor. He placed in it a colony of 6,000, chiefly veterans, surrounded it with a strong wall and colonnade, and built in it a magnificent temple dedicated to Au gustus. The gospel was successfully preached 499 SAM BIBLE DICTIONARY. SAM here by Philip and others, Acts 8:5-25, and the church there formed was represented at the Council of Nicaea, A. D. 325. The city fell under Moslem power in A. D. 614. A Latin bishopric was established here by the Crusaders, and mention is made of the place by subsequent travellers. It is now an inconsiderable village called Se- bustiyeh, with a few houses built of stones from the ancient ruins. Modern travellers describe the situation as one of exceeding beauty, strength, and fertility. The hill on whose slope the vil lage stands, and the somewhat higher hills surrounding the encircling valley, are ter raced, and cultivated to the summits, sown with grain, and planted with figs, olives, and vines. The ascent of the hill of Sama ria is steep, the narrow footpath winding among the cottages and the ruins of former buildings ; and the summit commands a delightful view, extending westward to the Mediterranean, whose waters, 20 miles dis tant, are plainly visible. On the top is the ruined church of John the Baptist, built by the Crusaders of the 12th century on the traditional but improbable site of his grave, and now used as a mosque. Near the sum mit and on 2 sides of the hill are remains of colonnades, probably Herod's. The whole scene vividly illustrates the prophecy in Mic. 1 :6. II. SAMA'RIA in the Old Testament is sometimes synonymous with the king dom of, Israel, 1 Kin. 13:32; 2 Kin. 17:24, 26, 28; Ezek. 16:53; Hos. 8:5, 6; Amos 3: 9. Its size varied greatly at different periods, being at first coextensive with the territory of the 10 tribes both east and west of the Jordan, but afterwards much reduced by the conquests of the Assyrian kings Pul and Tiglath-pileser, B. C. 771 and 740, who carried captive the people of the northern portion and those east of the Jordan, 1 Chr. 5:26; 2 Kin. 15:29. A few years later the remaining region was deprived of most of its Israelite inhabitants, and colonized by heathen imported from various parts of the Assyrian Empire, 2 Kin. 17:23-29; Ezra 4:2, 9, 10. Its boundaries then prob ably corresponded nearly with No. III. III. SAMA'RIA in the New Testament is the region lying between Judaea on the south and Galilee on the north, west of the Jordan. Its limits, as described by Jose phus, have been traced by the British Ord nance Survey. On the northern boundary was En-gannim, now Jenin ; on the south western Antipatris, now Ras el-Ain; near 500 the southern limit, but in Judaea, was Shi loh, now Seilun. Josephus says that Sa maria had no seacoast, the whole plain of Sharon belonging to Judaea. A Roman road from Galilee to Jerusalem ran through the country east of the Jordan (Peraea), with a ford near Jericho; this route enabled Galilean pilgrims to avoid passing through Samaria, though the direct route, a Roman road through Samaria, was frequently pur sued, Luke 17: 11 ; John 4:4, 5. SAMAR'ITANS, inhabitants of the city or the region of Samaria. In 2 Kin. 17:29 the idolatrous Israelites ; compare ver. 9-12. In the New Testament the word denotes the mixed race which sprang from the remnant of Israel and the more numerous heathen brought in from various parts of Assyria at the Captivity, ver. 23, 24. This colonization may have been effected at dif ferent times, and is ascribed to Esar-had- don by the descendants of the colonists, about B. C. 687, Ezra 4:2, 9, 10. The colo nists lived at first in unmixed heathenism ; but terrified by the ravages of lions, they afterwards sought to propitiate " the God of the land" by bringing back an Israel itish priest to Bethel, and mingling with their own idolatries a corrupt worship of Jehovah, 2 Kin. 17:25-33, 41. Such a mon grel race and religion would of course be odious to the Jews when purged from their own idolatries ; and on their return from captivity, B. C. 536, they declined the Sa maritans' request to be permitted to help build the temple, Ezra 4. In consequence of this refusal the Samaritans molested and calumniated the Jews, hindering the erec tion of the temple until B. C. 520, and after wards the rebuilding of the walls of Jeru salem, B. C. 445, Neh. 4; 6. The mutual enmity was augmented by the Samaritans' erection of a rival temple on Mount Geri zim, where they offered sacrifices accord ing to the Mosaic law, claiming that Deut. 27:11-13 marked this, the mount of bless ing, as the proper site for the temple; though, according to the Hebrew text, the original altar was set up on Mount Ebal, ver. 4 ; Josh. 8 : 30-35. It is uncertain wheth er the Samaritan temple was built in Nehe- miah's time, when the high-priest's son was expelled for marrying a daughter of San- ballat, Neh. 13 : 28, or, as Josephus states, about B. C. 330, by permission of Alexan der the Great. The Samaritans rejected all the Hebrew Scriptures except the Pen tateuch. Josephus says they claimed or disowned kinship with the Jews as it suit- SAM BIBLE DICTIONARY. SAM ed their circumstances. Shechem became their chief city. Their temple was de stroyed by John Hyrcanus about B. B. 129, but they still esteemed the mountain sacred and worshipped towards it. From time to time malcontent Jews joined them, but the national and religious hatred between the 2 peoples increased, Ecclus. 50:25, 26. In our Saviour's time " Samaritan " was a term of bitter contempt, John 8:48, and Jews sought to avoid all intercourse with them, John 4:9. On the other hand, the Samaritans annoyed the Jews, refusing hos pitality to pilgrims traversing their country, Luke 9:52, 53, and sometimes assaulting them; still they claimed, through Joseph, descent from a common ancestor, Jacob, John 4:12, while the Jews taunted them with their heathen ancestry. Jesus, while denying the Samaritan claim of orthodoxy, ver. 20, 22, and deferring the ministry of his disciples among them, as among the Gentiles, till after his resurrection, Matt. 10:5; Acts 1:8, showed his superiority to the race and sect prejudices of the Jews in his interview with the Samaritan woman and his personal ministry among her towns folk, John 4, his praise of the grateful leper whom he healed, Luke 17:15-19, and his parable ofthe good Samaritan, Luke 10:33- 37. The unspirituality of their formal wor ship, and their superstitiousness, appear from John 4:22-24 and Acts 8:9-11. A complaint of the Samaritans against Pi late's severity in subduing a tumult among them led to his deposition; 11,600 of them were slain on Mount Gerizim for resisting Vespasian in his subjugation of Palestine. Considerable success attended-the preach ing of the gospel among them, Acts 8:4-17; 9:31, but the greater number adhered to their ultra-Mosaicism. They joined the Jews in a revolt against Septimius Severus, A. D. 193-211, who consequently deprived Neapolis (Shechem) of its privileges. In the 4th, 5th, and 6th centuries they bitterly opposed the Christians, and slew many of them. Benjamin of Tudela, a Spanish rab bi, writes of them in the 12th century as residents of Nablus, Ascalon, Caesarea, and Damascus. A community of them, num bering about 150, still exists at Nablus, and has often been visited by modern travellers. They are strict observers of the Mosaic law, so far as is possible without sacrifices, which they account unlawful since the de struction of their temple. They rigidly observe the Sabbath, from Friday evening until Saturday evening, meeting 3 times in their synagogue and worshipping to wards Gerizim. Their religious officers are 2, a priest and a ministrant. Their lit urgy, in Hebrew, is in a great measure unintelligible to most of them, for their common language has long been the Ara bic, They observe the new moon, the pass- over and feast of unleavened bread, pente- cost and feast of tabernacles, and keep an absolute fast of 25 hours at the Day of Atonement. During their great festivals they resort to their sacred place on the summit of Mount Gerizim, where at the passover 5 or 6 lambs are solemnly slain, roasted, and hastily eaten with bitter herbs ; their blood is applied to the children's faces, and their right fore-legs are burned, the observance thus partaking of the char acter of a sacrifice. They believe in Jeho vah as the only God, in Moses as the only lawgiver, in the Torah or Law as the only divine book, and in Mount Gerizim as the only house of God. They also believe in a future Messiah — "the Restorer," who is to be a great teacher and converter of the world to their faith, in a general resurrec tion, and in future rewards and punish ments. In the 5th century a Christian church was built on the summit of Mount Gerizim, and surrounded by a strong wall in the 6th century by Justinian, for the protection of Christian worshippers against the Samari tans. The massive ruins of both church and fortress are still to be seen. Samaritan Pentateuch. The first copy of this was acquired by Christian scholars in 1616 from Samaritans in Damascus. Its variations from the Hebrew text are for the most part unimportant, most of them being due to an imperfect knowledge of Hebrew ; some to the design of conforming the text to Samaritan ideas, especially in regard to the sanctity of Mount Gerizim, as in Deut. 27:4, where " Gerizim " is read for " Ebal;" others to a desire to remove ob scurities. The language is Hebrew ; the characters are those called Samaritan — rounded in form and such as were used by the Jews themselves until some period after the Captivity, when they adopted the pres ent square form. Many MSS. of the Sa maritan Pentateuch, more or less complete) are now in European libraries; they are written on vellum or cotton-paper, and are all in book form, not rolls ; none are thought to antedate the 10th century. In the Sa maritan synagogue at Nablus is a very an cient parchment roll, illegible and patched 501 SAM BIBLE DICTIONARY. SAM \n many places, which the Samaritans affirm was written by Abishua the great- grandson of Aaron. It is exhibited to the congregation once a year, on the Day of Atonement, when it is devoutly kissed. Another roll is ordinarily used. The Pen tateuch was early translated into the Sa maritan language — a compound of Hebrew, Chaldee, Syriac, etc., supplanted by the Arabic after the Mohammedan conquest — and in the nth century into Arabic. SAM'GAR-NE'BO, Jer. 39:3, one of the Babylonish generals who took Jerusalem. SAM'LAH, a garment, Gen. 36:36, 37; I Chr. 1:47, 48, an Edomite king. SA'MOS, a height, a lofty island in the .fligean Sea, a few miles from the western coast of Asia Minor. It was celebrated as the birthplace of Pythagoras, and was de voted to the worship of Juno, fragments of whose magnificent temple, 2 miles west of the city Samos, still exist. Its chief manu facture was a fine kind of pottery called " Samian ware," a term afterwards'of gen eral application, like our " china." In the time of Simon Maccabeus Jews were set tled here, and an application was made to the Samian governor in their favor by the Romans, 1 Mace. 15:23. Paul touched here returning from his 3d missionary tour, A. D. 58, Acts 20:15. Opposite the harbor, now called Port Tigani, were the cape and town of Trogyllium. Samos, the capital in Paul's time, was "a free city." The island is still called Samo. It is 27 miles long and 10 wide, has an area of 165 square miles and a population of about 60,000. The Turk ish governor's residence is at Colonna, named from a solitary column remaining of the temple of Juno. The island, though ill-cultivated, is fruitful in oranges, grapes, and olives, and exports corn, wine, raisins, oil, and silk. SAMOTHRA'CIA, in the R. V. SAM'O- THRACE, a mountainous island 8 miles long and 6 broad, in the northeastern part of the jEgean Sea, about 20 miles south of the coast of Thrace. To its ancient name Samos, height, the epithet thracia was added to distinguish it from the other Samos. It was a conspicuous landmark for sailors, being visible from Troas. Its peak is 5,248 feet high. The island was noted for its celebration of the mysteries of Ceresand Proserpine, and ofthe deities called the Cabiri ; and hence was held sa cred and was a resort of pilgrims and an asylum for fugitives. According to Pliny il enjoyed under the Romans the privileges 502 of a small free state, though a dependency of the province of Macedonia. The city Samothracia was on the north side of the island, and afforded shelter over night from the southeast wind which gave Paul a quick passage from Troas to Neapolis on his ist missionary tour to Europe, Acts 16 : 11. The island, now called Samothraki or Sa- mandrichi, belongs to Turkey, and has from 1,000 to 2,000 inhabitants, chiefly fishermen. It is largely covered with forests, and has but one village. SAM'SON, sunlike, the son of Manoah, of the tribe of Dan, a deliverer and judge of the southwestern tribes ofthe Hebrews for 20 years, during the latter part of " the 40 years" period, and partly contemporary with Eli and Samuel, Judg. 13-16. His birth was miraculously foretold ; he was a Nazarite from infancy, and the strongest of men; and Was equally celebrated for his fearless and wonderful exploits, for his moral infirmities, and for his tragical end. He was not a giant in size, though of such undaunted courage, and his exploits were wrought by special divine aid ; " the Spirit of God came mightily upon him," Judg. 13:25; 14:6, 19; 15:14; 16:20, 28. The providence of God was signally displayed in overruling for good the hasty passions of Samson, the cowardice of his friends, and the malice of his enemies. The sins of Samson brought him into great disgrace and misery ; but grace and faith triumphed in the end, Heb. 11:32. His story forcibly illustrates how treacherous and merciless are sin and sinners; and the watchful care of Christ over his people in every age. Compare Judg. 13:22 and Matt. 23:37. SAM'UEL, heard of God, 1 Sam. 1 : 20, a child of prayer, the celebrated Hebrew prophet and judge, Acts 3:24; 13:20. He was a Levite by birth, 1 Chr. 6:22-28, 33-38, and the son of Elkanah and Hannah, at Ramah in Mount Ephraim, northwest of Jerusalem. At a very tender age he was carried to Shiloh, and brought up beside the tabernacle under the care of Eli the high-priest. Having been consecrated to God from his birth, and devoted to Naza riteship, he began to receive divine com munications even in his childhood, 1 Sam. 3; and after the death of Eli he became established as the judge of Israel. He was the last and best of the Hebrew judges. We contemplate his character and admin istration with peculiar pleasure and rever ence. The 12 tribes, when he assumer* their charge, were in a low condition both SAM BIBLE DICTIONARY. SAN morally and politically. He induced them to abandon their idolatry, freed them from the Philistine yoke, administered justice with vigor and impartiality, promoted edu cation and true religion, 2 Chr. 35:18, uni ted the tribes, and raised them higher in the scale of civilization. Their demand of a king, in view of the advanced age of Samuel and the vile character of his sons, showed a great want of faith in God and of submission to his will. Yet He granted them a "king in his wrath," Hos. 13:11. Samuel anointed Saul as their first king; and afterwards David, who in due time was to take the place of Saul, already re jected by God. As long as he lived Sam uel exerted a paramount and most benefi cial influence in Israel, even over Saul himself. He instituted the " schools of the prophets," which were long continued and very useful. He died at an advanced age, about B. C. 1058, honored and lamented by all. Even after his death the unhappy Saul, forsaken by the God whom he had abandoned, sought the prophet's counsel through the agency of a pretended dealer with spirits. God was pleased to cause Samuel to appear with a prophetic message to the king. In Psa. 99:6 he is ranked with Moses and Aaron. See also Jer. 15: 1 ; Heb. 11:32. His grandson Heman was a chief singer in David's time, 1 Chr. 6:33; 15: t7> 19- Jewish' tradition, recorded in the Talmud about A. D. 500, attributes the books of Judges and Ruth to Samuel, as well as the books that bear his name ; see below. A tradition, traced to the 7th Chris tian century, places his tomb on a com- , manding height overlooking the town of Gibeon, now el-Jib, and called Neby Sam wil, prophet Samuel. See Ramah, II., and Ramathaim-Zophim. The 2 books of Samuel could not all have been written by him, because his death is mentioned in 1 Sam. 25, about B. C. 1060. Thus far it is not improbable that he was the author, while the remain ing chapters are commonly attributed to Gad and Nathan, prophets under David and Solomon; see 1 Chr. 29:29. The his tory may, however, possibly be an inspired compilation of somewhat later date from earlier records. In Hebrew MSS. the work is one, and bears the name of Samuel. The division into 2 books was made in the Septuagint and followed in the Vulgate, and they were called the First and Second Books of Kings ; hence the secondary title in some Bibles. See Kings. The 2 books comprise the history of Samuel, Saul, and David, and cover a period estimated at about 150 years, forming a connecting link between the theocratic and the regal eras. The events there recorded synchronize with the siege of Troy, the founding of Tyre, and the ascendency of Nineveh as the capital. The Hebrew is very pure, in dicating an early date of authorship. Por tions of Samuel are quoted in the New Testament (compare Acts 13:22; Heb. 1:5, with 1 Sam. 13:14; 2 Sam. 7:14), and allu ded to in the Old Testament, especially in the Psalms. SANBAL'LAT, probably a native of the Moabite Horonaim, but a resident in Sama ria (II.), where he seems to have held some office under the Persian king Artaxerxes. Allying himself with Tobiah the Ammo nite, Geshem the Arabian, and others, he bitterly and cunningly opposed Nehemiah and the Jews, striving in various ways to hinder the rebuilding ofthe wall of Jerusa lem, B. C. 445, Neh. 2:10, 19; 4:6. Proba bly during Nehemiah's absence at the Per sian court after his 12 years' governorship of Jerusalem, Sanballat, with the conni vance of the Samaritan faction in Judah, Neh. 6: 17-19; 13:4-7, married his daughter to a grandson of the high-priest Eliashib ; see also Tobias; for which unlawful alli ance Nehemiah expelled the son of Joiada from the priesthood, ver. 28. SANCTIFY,' to make holy, or to set apart for God, Gen. 2:3; Exod. 19:23. In the Old Testament sanctification frequently denotes the ceremonial or ritual consecra tion of any person or thing to God : thus the Hebrews as a people were holy unto the Lord, through the covenant with its ordinances and atoning sacrifices, Exod. 31:13; Num. 3:12, 13; Deut. 7:6, 9-12; compare. Gen. 17:7-14; and the tabernacle, altar, priests, etc., were solemnly set apart for the divine service, Lev. 8:10-12. In a similar sense men "sanctified themselves" who made special preparation for the pres ence and worship of God, Exod. 19:10, n, 22 ; Num. n : 18 ; a day was sanctified when set apart for fasting and prayer, Joel 1:14; and the Sabbath was sanctified when re garded and treated as holy unto the Lord, Deut. 5:12. All such sanctifications were testimonials to the holiness of God, and signified men's need of moral sanctifica tion, or the devotion of purified and obe dient souls to his love and service, Lev. 11:44; 2o:7, 8; 2 Cor. 6:16-18. In Christ's declaration that he sanctified himself, John 503 SAN BIBLE .DICTIONARY. SAN 17:19, there is an allusion to his high- priestly self-dedication as a sacrifice to God; compare Heb. 7:27; 9:14. The people of God are exhorted to " sanc tify him," Lev. 10:3; Num. 20:12; Isa.8:i3; i. e., really and manifestly to set him apart from and above all other beings and con siderations, as the supreme object of their reverence and obedience, thus showing forth his glory. In 1 Pet. 3 : 15 the R. V. reads, "sanctify in your hearts Christ as Lord." In a doctrinal sense sanctification is the making truly and perfectly holy what was before defiled and sinful. It is a progres sive work of divine grace upon the soul justified by the love of Christ. The be liever is gradually cleansed from the cor ruption of his nature, and is at length pre sented "faultless before the presence of his glory with exceeding joy," Jude 24. The Holy Spirit performs this work in con nection with the providence and Word of God, John 14:26; 17:17; 2 Thess. 2:13; 1 Pet. 1:2; and the highest motives urge every Christian not to resist the Spirit of God, but to cooperate with him, and seek to be holy even as God is holy. The ulti mate sanctification of every believer in Christ is a covenant mercy purchased on the cross. He who saves us from the pen alty of sin also saves us from its power, and in promising to bring a believer into heaven engages also to prepare him for heaven. SANCTUARY, a holy place devoted to God. It appears to be the name some times of the entire tabernacle or temple, Josh. 24:26; Psa. 73:17; Heb. 9:1; some times of the " holy place," where the altar of incense, the golden candlestick, and the show-bread stood, Num. 4:12; 2 Chr. 26:18; and sometimes ofthe " Holy of holies," the most secret and retired part, in which was the ark of the covenant, and where none but the high-priest might enter, and he only once a year on the day of solemn ex piation, Lev. 4:6. It also denotes the fur niture ofthe tabernacle, Num. 10:21; com pare Num. 4:4-15. See Tabernacle and Temple. The temple or earthly sanctu ary is an emblem of heaven, Psa. 102:19; Heb. 9:1, 24; and God himself is called a sanctuary, Isa. 8:14; Ezek. 11:16, in refer ence to the use of temples as a place of refuge for fugitives, because he is the only safe and sacred asylum for sinners pur sued by the sword of divine justice. SAND. The Hebrew term is derived 5°4 from a root denoting a sliding or rolling motion. In Palestine sand is rarely found except along the seashore, Jer. 5:22, and the desert lands on the east and south con sist for the most part of gravel. In Egypt sand abounds ; the Nile valley is constantly threatened by the shifting sands of the great desert on the west, and many mon uments of antiquity have been thereby wholly or partially covered. Sand affords a ready hiding-place and shows no trace of disturbance, Exod. 2:12. It symbolizes multitude, Gen. 32:12; weight, Job 6:3; Prov. 27:3; and insecurity, Matt. 7:26. SAN'DAL, Mark 6:9, a sole fastened to the wearer by thongs passing between the toes, around the heel, and over the top of the foot. Probably this is the article usu ally meant by " shoes " in the A. V. Laced shoes resembling those of modern times were sometimes worn by the Greeks and SAN BIBLE DICTIONARY. SAN Romans, but the Egyptians appear to have used sandals only, and it is generally thought that this was the ordinary custom of the Hebrews. Egyptian sandals were made of plaited palm-leaves, or papyrus stalks, or of leather, and were sometimes pointed and turned up at the toes. The Assyrians often wore a sort of half-slipper, encasing the heel and sides of the foot, but leaving the toes bare ; it was made of wood or leather. The Talmudists describe the Hebrew sandal as having a sole of leather, cloth, felt, or wood, and sometimes pro tected with iron. The " shoe-latchet " or thong, and indeed the whole sandal, was often proverbially worthless, Gen. 14:23; Amos 2:6; 8:6. The sandals of ladies were made of the skin of some animal, Ezekj 16 : 10, and were frequently much ornamented, Song 7:1, probably with em broidered thongs ; though something may have been worn resembling the modern Oriental slipper — which is often of moroc co, or embroidered with silk, silver, or gold. See Badger. Sandals were not usually worn in the house, Luke 7 : 38 ; see Foot; but were put on for out-door business or a journey, Exod. 12:11; Acts 12:8; or for a military expedition, Isa. 5 : 27 ; Eph. 6:15; and an extra pair was often car ried, Luke 10:4; comp. Matt. 10:10; Mark 6 : 9 ; Josh. 9 : 5, 13. Tobindon the sandals, to loose them, to carry them till needed, was the business of a servant or slave, Matt. 3:11; Mark 1:7. The poor often went barefoot, but among the middle and upper classes this was a sign of mourning, 2 Sam. 15:30; Isa. 20:2-4; Ezek. 24:17, 23. Sandals were put off in token of reverence and of moral defilement, Exod. 3:5; Josh. 5:15. Hence the priests ministered bare foot in the temple. Mohammedans now remove their shoes on entering a mosque, and Samaritans on ap proaching the site of their temple. In early times in Israel transfers of property or privilege were con ferred by the grantor's delivery of his sandal to the grantee, Ruth 4:7-11, as in mediaeval Europe by the transfer of a glove. So owner ship is symbolized by the casting of one's sandal on the soil, Psa. 6o|:8; 108:9; or these passages' may refer to a slave's caring for the master's sandals. The public and legal loosing of a man's san dal on his refusal of obedience to one of the Mosaic marriage laws, Deut. 25:7-10, may refer to the usual barefootedness of slaves. So in the parable of the prodigal son, " putting shoes on his feet " denotes the father's reception of the penitent as a free man and a son, Luke 15:22. Modern Turks, Syrians, and Egyptians wear a light shoe re sembling our slipper, and some times a wooden shoe with a high heel. The Bedouins wear only sandals. SAN'HEDRIM, or more accurately SAN'- HEDRIN, an Aramaic form of the Greek sunedrion, council. I. The chief insti tution thus termed is called in the Mish- na " Beth-din," house of judgment, also " The Great Sanhedrin." This, the su preme council and tribunal of the Jews at Christ's time and before, held its sessions at Jerusalem, and was composed of 71 members, chief-priests, elders of the peo ple, and scribes. Its officers were a Nasi, chief, or president, who was often the high- priest; a vice-president, called Ab-Beth- din ; and according to some a 2d vice-pres ident, called Hakam, sage. There were also secretaries and servants or " officers," 505 •SAN BIBLE DICTIONARY. SAN Mark 14:65, R. V.; John 7:32. The time when this council originated is in dispute : Jewish tradition and some Christian schol ars trace it to Moses' appointment of 70 elders ; others to Jehoshaphat's establish ment of a court of appeal at Jerusalem, about B. C. 900, 2 Chr. 19:8-11; but more probably it came into being during the Macedonian supremacy in Palestine, in the 2d or 3d century B. C. Josephus' mention of it as citing Herod for trial about B. C. 47, indicates that it was then an old and powerful institution. Its meeting - place adjoined the temple on the east side, and earlier on the south side. It met daily ex cept on Sabbath and festival days. The members sat in a semi-circle, the Nasi oc cupying a raised central seat, the Ab-Beth- din on his right, the Hakam on his left. Back of these were 3 graded rows of disci ples, from whose ranks vacancies were filled. The Sanhedrin had authority to interpret the divine law, to decide on the qualification of priests for service, to watch over the religious life of the nation, and try those accused of idolatry, and false proph ets and heretics; even the king and the high-priest were amenable to it ; and gen eral affairs, such as the waging of war, the appointment of provincial courts, and the regulation of the calendar, were also sub ject to it. It decided on appeals from infe rior courts, and Jews in foreign lands rec ognized its authority, Acts 9: 2. It inflicted corporal punishment, Acts 5:40, and also death by stoning, burning, beheading, or strangling, until this right was taken from them by the Romans, about 3 years before the crucifixion of Christ, John 18:31, 32. The presence of the accused was his right, John 7:50, 51, and just and humane regu lations guarded all judicial investigations, which however were set aside when Jesus was accused of claiming to be the Messiah and of misleading the people. Both Phar isees and Sadducees were admitted as members, Acts 23 : 6. It was doubtless from the Sanhedrin that the deputation of in quiry was sent to John the Baptist, John 1:19-28. Christ predicted its action in his own case, Matt. 16:21; 20:18, 19. The 3 classes constituting this court exercised a hostile supervision over the ministry of Je sus, Luke 19:47, 48; 20:1-26; John 7:32; his arrest was planned by them and accom plished by their emissaries, Mark 14:43-46; Luke 22:3-6; John'n : 47-53, 57; and it was by an informal session of the Sanhedrin that he was illegally tried, condemned to 506 death for blasphemy, and delivered to the Roman governor on the charge of treason, Matt. 26:57 t° 27:2; Luke 23:1-5, 13, 14. Yet even in the Sanhedrin Joseph of Ari- mathaea and Nicodemus believed on him, Luke 23:50-53; John 7:51; 19:38-42. Be fore this court Peter and John were twice examined, Acts 4:5-22; 5:21-41; Stephen was tried, and either illegally condemned by it or executed in a popular tumult, Acts 6 : 1 2 to 7 : 60. Paul appeared before it, Acts 22:30 to 23:10; comp. 23:15; 24:20, 21 ; and as Josephus relates, James "the Lord's bro ther " was by it condemned to be stoned, A. D. 62. Paul's teacher Gamaliel was an influential member of the Sanhedrin, Acts 5:34-40, and the apostle before his conver sion occupied some position under the 71, Acts 7:58; 8:1. After the destruction of Jerusalem the Sanhedrin was transferred to Jamnia till A. D. 80, and finally, after other changes, to Tiberias, about A. D. 200. Its constitution underwent considerable alteration ; near the close of the 3d century it dropped the title Sanhedrin for Beth ham-Midrash, house of interpretation ; and at last it became extinct, A. D. 425. II. There was an inferior tribunal in every town to judge less important mat ters, Deut. 16:18. The number of the mem bers is variously given as 7 or 23, the for mer according with Josephus' account of Mosaic constitutions, the latter with the rabbinical statements in the Mishna. Ac cording to the rabbins the sessions were held on the 2d and 5th days of each week, in a room by the local synagogue, for the trial of both civil and capital offences ; and stripes, when ordered, were delivered in the synagogue by the proper officers. Je rusalem had 2 such minor sanhedrins. Probably such a tribunal is called "the judgment " in Matt. 5:21 ; and reference to them is made in Matt. 10:17; Mark 13:9. III. A still smaller tribunal of 3 judges was established in smaller districts, and took cognizance of debts, robbery, and in juries to person and reputation. Jerusa lem is said to have had 390 of these courts. In Matt. 5:22 different grades of severity in the one divine punishment of spiritual death seem to be symbolized under the terms "the judgment," see No. II., "the council," No. I., and "the Gehenna of fire." See Hinnom. SANSAN'NAH, palm-branch, Josh. 15:31, a town in the south of Judah, apparently the same as Hazar-susah, afterwards as signed to Simeon, Josh. 19:5; 1 Chr. 4:31; SAP BIBLE DICTIONARY. SAR perhaps wady es-Suny, io miles south of Gaza. SAPH, a dish, 2 Sam. 21 : 18, a Philistine giant; called Sippai in 1 Chr. 20:4. SA'PHIR, fair, a town mentioned only in Micah 1:11; according to Eusebius and Jerome, " in the mountain district between Eleutheropolis and Askelon." It may be represented by Suwafir el-Ghabiyeh, 9 miles northeast of Askelon, though Suwafir lies in the plain. SAPPHI'RA, beautiful. See Ananias, I. SAP'PHIRE, apparently a blue stone, Exod. 24:10, very precious, Job 28:6, 16; Song 5.^4; set in the high-priest's breast plate and engraved with the name of a tribe, Issachar, Exod. 28:18, 21; 39:11, 14; among the ornaments of the king of Tyre, Ezek. 28:13; likened in color to the plat form of the throne of God and the throne itself, as seen in vision by Moses and the elders of Israel, and by Ezekiel, Exod. 24:10; Ezek. 1:26; 10:1; and one ofthe foundations of the New Jerusalem in John's vision, Rev. 21:19, compare Isa. 54:11. It has generally been identified with the mod ern lapis-lazuli, an opaque stone of a gen eral deep blue color, with several lighter shades, and often mottled with gold-col ored crystals (of iron-pyrites) ; it occurs in masses of some size, and takes a fine -polish, Lam. 4:7. With the appearance of our lapis-lazuli Pliny's description of the " sapphire " exactly agrees. The best, he says, was found in Media, and Persia is still one ofthe few localities of lapis-lazuli. This stone, however, is not well suited for engraving; and some scholars, maintain ing that the Bible notices of the sapphire indicate a pellucid gem, well adapted for engraving, still hold that it was the same as our modern sapphire, the blue corun dum — which belongs to a class of gems ranking next in hardness and value to the diamond, and including also the Oriental ruby, topaz, and emerald. Its color varies from a deep indigo blue through the lighter shades to colorless. The best are found in Pegu and Ceylon, and they are seldom of large size. SA'RAH, or Sara, I., the wife of Abra ham, the daughter of his father by another mother, Gen. 20:12. Most Jewish writers, however, and many interpreters, identify her with Iscah, the sister of Lot and Abra ham's niece, Gen. 11:29; theword "daugh ter," according to Hebrew usage, compri sing any female descendant, and "sister" any female relation by blood. When God made a covenant with Abraham he changed the name of Sarai, my princess, into that of Sarah, or princess, and promised Abraham a son by her, which was fulfilled in due time. The most prominent points of her history, as recorded in the Bible are, her consenting to Abraham's unbelieving dis simulation while near Pharaoh and Abime lech, her long-continued barrenness, her giving to Abraham her maid Hagar as a secondary wife, their mutual jealousy, and her bearing Isaac in her old age, " the child of promise," her faith prevailing over her previous unbelief, Gen. 12-23. She ap pears to have been a woman of uncommon beauty, a most exemplary and devoted wife, and a sympathizing mother, Gen. 24:67. Her docility is eulogized in 1 Pet. 3:6, and her faith in Heb. 11: 11. See also Isa. 51:2; Gal. 4:22-31. Sarah died at He bron, aged 127, about 37 years after Isaac's birth and 28 years before Abraham's death. She was buried near Hebron in a cave in the field of Machpelah, which Abraham bought of Ephron the Hittite, Gen. 23. See Machpelah. II. Num. 26:46. See Serah. SA'RAPH, burning, 1 Chr. 4:22, a de scendant of Shelah the son of Judah, prob ably about the time of the conquest of Ca naan. SAR'DIS, a town about 50 miles northeast of Smyrna and 30 northwest of Philadel phia, was the seat of one of the 7 churches in Asia Minor addressed by John, Rev. 3:1-6. It lay at the southern foot of Mount Tmolus, on a spur of which its citadel was built ; the spacious and fertile plain before it was watered by several streams, and the river Pactolus with its "golden sands" passed through the city. It was a very 507 SAR BIBLE DICTIONARY. SAT ancient place, and was the capital of the kingdom of Lydia, whose last monarch, Croesus, famed for his immense wealth, was conquered by Cyrus king of Persia, about B. C. 550. On account of the strength of the citadel it was garrisoned by the Per sians; it became the winter - quarters of Xerxes on his way to Greece, B. C. 480, and was surrendered to Alexander the Great after his victory over the Persian troops at the Granicus, B. C. 334. It was taken and sacked by Antiochus the Great, B. C. 214, and soon afterwards fell under the Roman power. From early times it was famous for its dyed woollen manufac tures, and had an extensive commerce ; the surrounding region was fertile, and the Pactolus sands yielded much gold. Money is said to have been first coined at Sardis. After the Persian conquest the Lydians be came noted for luxury and profligacy. Their manufactures and commerce de clined after Alexander. The church in cor rupt Sardis was reproached for its declen sion from vital religion, Rev. 3:1-3. The ruins of Sardis are now called Sert- Kalessi. The height on which the citadel stood is shattered as if by an earthquake, and only a few fragments of the wall re main. North of the citadel are remains of a theatre and a stadium, and to the west the ruins of the senate-house. More an cient than these are 2 remarkable Ionic columns, over 6 feet in diameter, believed to be remnants of a temple of Cybele built only 300 years after Solomon's tem ple. Portions of 2 churches, apparently built from the remains of this temple, may be seen. There are countless sepulchral mounds in the vicinity, and the site is un healthy and desolate. SAR'DIUS, Exod. 28:17; Ezek. 28:13, or SAR'DINE, A. V. Rev. 4:3; 21:20, one ofthe engraved gems in the high-priest's breast plate, and in John's vision of the New Je rusalem one of its foundation stones. The Hebrew 6dem was called Sard or Sardfus from Sardis in Lydia, and is now better known as the carnelian. It is a superior variety of agate, of a blood-red or flesh color, and translucent. It is well suited for engraving and a favorite with artists for this purpose. A very fine dark-red carne lian is found in Yemen in Arabia. SAR'DONYX, as if a sardius and onyx combined, Rev. 21 :2o, a kind of onyx, hav ing a transparent red layer like the sard resting on an opaque white layer, or in the reversed order. 508 SAREP'TA, Luke 4 126. See Zarephath. SAR'GOH, firm king, Isa. 20:1-4, an As syrian king, formerly supposed to be Shal maneser IV., Sennacherib, or Esar-haddon, but now ascertained from the Assyrian records to have reigned about 17 years, B. C. 722-705, between Shalmaneser, whose throne he is thought to have usurped dur ing the long siege of Samaria, and Sen nacherib, whose father he was. On his monuments he claims to have taken Sama ria in the first year of his reign, with which agrees the indefiniteness of the Scripture record ofthe capture, 2 Kin. 17:6; 18:9-11, and to have carried captive 27,280 of the inhabitants. He probably completed the deportation of the Israelites later in his reign, settling them within his own domin ions, and commencing the colonization of Samaria with foreigners from conquered regions, 2 Kin. 17:24. His annals, extend ing over 15 years, testify that he was a great warrior, and changed the abode of those whom he conquered; he successful ly warred against Babylonia and Susiana, Media, Armenia, Syria, Palestine, Arabia, and Egypt. In his 3d campaign in this last direction, in his 9th year, B. C. 711, his gen eral, or "tartan," took Ashdod, Isa. 20:1. At this time he represents Judah as subject to him, and in the following year he reduced Merodach-baladan, king of Babylon, to vas salage. A statue of Sargon, now at Berlin, was discovered at Idalium in Cyprus, which island also paid him tribute. Sargon was eminent as a builder also: his monuments relate that he repaired the walls of Nineveh (Koyunjik), and the royal palace at Calah (Nimrud), where he seems to have chiefly resided. His greatest work, however, was the building near Nineveh of a magnificent palace, and a city which he named after himself Dur-Sargina ; and its site, near the village of Khorsabad, retained the name Sarghun till after the Mohamme dan conquest. His reign was marked by an advance in various useful and orna mental industries, and by the perfecting of the art of enamelling bricks. SA'RON, Acts, 9:35, A. V. See Sharon. SAR'SECHIM,/>rf«cff ofthe eunuchs, Jer. 39:3, conjectured by Gesenius to be a title equivalent to Rabsaris ; which see. SA'RUCH, Luke 3:35, A. V. See Serug. SA'TAN signifies adversary, enemy, 1 Kin. 11:14; Psa. 109:6. Hence it is used partic ularly of the grand adversary of souls, the devil, the prince of the fallen angels, the accuser and calumniator of men before SAT BIBLE DICTIONARY. SAU God, Job 1:6-12; Zech. 3:1, 2; Rev. 12:9, 10. He seduces them to sin, 1 Chr. 21:1 ; Luke 22:31 ; and is thus the author of that evil, both physical and moral, by which the human race is afflicted, especially of those vicious propensities and wicked actions which are productive of so much misery, and also of death itself, Luke 13:16; Heb. 2:14. Hence Satan is represented both as soliciting men to commit sin and as the source, the efficient cause, of impediments which are thrown in the way of the Chris tian religion, or which are designed to diminish its efficacy in reforming the hearts and lives of men and inspiring them with the hope of future bliss, Matt. 4:10; John 13:27; Rom. 16:20; Eph. 2:2. The Bible however plainly teaches his subordination to God and his final punish ment and deprivation of all power to harm, Rev. 20:10. In the meantime Christ en courages believers to meet the wiles ofthe adversary with incessant vigilance and prayer, assuring them that his grace will then give them the victory, Eph. 6:10-18; Eph. 5:8, 9. See Devil. The "synagogue of Satan," Rev. 2:9; 3:9, probably denotes the unbelieving Jews, the false zealots for the law of Moses, who at the beginning were the most eager per secutors of the Christians. In the phrase "the depths of Satan," Rev. 2:24, there is probably an allusion to the mysteries of early Gnostic sects, which professed a deep knowledge of spiritual matters, often combined with a lawless im morality; compare Rev. 2:14, 15, 20. Christ on one occasion addressed Peter as Satan, Matt. 16:22, 23, because the dic tatorial and ease-loving spirit of his words was opposed to Christ, and in accord with the temptations which Satan had already presented to the Lord; comp. Matt. 4:1-10. SAT'YRS, Isa. 13:21; 34:14. The He brew word means hairy, shaggy, and is often properly rendered " goat," as in Lev. 4:24. See Goats. In Lev. 17:7; 2 Chr. 11:15 it is translated in the A. V. "devils," and refers to some objects of idolatrous worship, perhaps goats or images of goats, in imitation ofthe Egyptian worship of this animal at Mendes. The monuments repre sent a cynocephalous or dog-faced ape as an object of veneration. The Septuagint has "demons" in the 2 passages in Isaiah, and many interpreters, ancient and mod ern, hold that the reference is to evil spir its believed by the Orientals to haunt des olate places; compare Rev. 18:2. The more probable opinion seems to be that shaggy animals like wild goats, or perhaps some species of ape, are denoted. In any case, the desolate condition of the site of Babylon, Isa. 13:19-22, and of Bozrah in Edom, Isa. 34:5-15, is predicted. In classical mythology satyrs were imag inary beings, half men and half goats, clothed in skins of beasts, and revelling with Bacchus the wine-god in forests and groves. SAUL, more properly SHAUL, desired, I., an early king of the Edomites, Gen. 36-37, 38; 1 Chr. 1:48, 49. II. The son of Kish, of the tribe of Ben jamin, the 1st king ofthe Israelites, anoint ed by Samuel, B. C. 1096, and after a reign of 40 years, filled with various events, slain with his sons on Mount Gilboa. He was succeeded by David, who was his son-in- law, and whom he had endeavored to put to death. His history is contained in 1 Sam. 9-31. It is a sad and admonitory narra tive. The morning of his reign was bright with special divine favors, both providen tial and spiritual, 1 Sam. 9:20; 10:1-11,24, 25. Beautiful and commanding in person, and rich in the talents that win popular admiration, he was the very ideal sove reign the Jews longed for. But he soon began to disobey God, and was rejected as unworthy to found a line of kings ; his sins and misfortunes multiplied, and his sun went down in gloom. In his ist war with the Ammonites God was with him ; but then follow his disobedient and presumptuous sacrifice in the absence of Samuel, his rash vow in battle with the Philistines, his spa ring Agag and the spoil of the Amalek ites, his spirit of distracted and foreboding melancholy, his jealousy and persecution of David, against whom his mind was poi soned by a secret slanderer, his barbarous massacre of the priests and people at Nob and of the Gibeonites, his consulting the witch of Endor, the battle with the Philis tines in which his army was defeated and his sons were slain, and, lastly, his despair ing self-slaughter, his insignia of royalty being conveyed to David by an Amalekite. He had been engaged in 7 distinct mili tary operations. The men of Jabesh-Gile- ad, grateful for his deliverance of their city many years before, 1 Sam. 11, rescued his headless body and the bodies of his sons from the wall of Beth-shan and buried their bones at Jabesh-Gilead, whence they were afterwards removed by David to Saul's ancestral sepulchre at Zelah, 1 Sam, 509 SAV BIBLE DICTIONARY. SCA n ; 31; 2 Sam. 1; 2:4-6; 21:12-14; 1 .Chr. 10. The guilty course and the awful end of this ist king ofthe Hebrews were. a signifi cant reproof of their sin in desiring any king but Jehovah, and also show to what extremes of guilt and ruin one may go who rebels against God and is ruled by his own ambitious and envious passions. III. Saul was also the Hebrew name of the apostle Paul. SAVE, except, as in John 6:22, 46; 13: 10. For "God save the king," 1 Sam. 10:24; 2 Sam. 16:16; 1 Kin. 1:25, 34, 39, the more literal rendering is " Long live the king." There is no mention of God in the Hebrew. SAVING HEALTH, in Psa. 67:2; in the R. V. "salvation." SA'VIOUR, a term applied in the Old Testament to men especially raised up and qualified by God to give temporal deliv erance and prosperity to his people : as Joshua, whose name is the Hebrew original of Jesus; the judges, Neh. 9:27; Jeroboam II., 2 Kin. 13:5; and often appropriated to Jehovah himself, Isa. 43:3, 11 ; 45:21 ; 60: 16, 17, from whom a spiritual salvation from sin was also looked for, Psa. 39:8; 79:9. The term is applied preeminently to our Lord Jesus Christ, because, as the angel expressed it, he came to " save his people from their sins," Matt. 1:21. He was there fore called Jesus, which signifies Saviour, John 4:42; Acts 4:12; 5:31. SA'VOR, that quality of objects which ap peals to the sense of smell or of taste, Matt. 5:13. It is also used in the sense of repu tation, Exod. 5:21; compare Gen. 34:30. The sacrifice of Noah and that of Christ were acceptable to God, like the odor of a sweet incense to a man, Gen. 8:21; Eph. 5 : 2. The chief savor of the apostles' teach ing was Christ crucified ; and this teaching was welcomed by some to their eternal life, and rejected by others to their aggravated condemnation, 2 Cor. 2:15, 16. In Matt. 16:23; Mark 8:33, A. V., to savor means to mind, to think highly of. SA'VORY MEAT, Gen. 27 : 4, etc'. In Prov.. 23:3, 6, "dainties." Modern Orientals de light in a dish consisting of some kind of flesh cut into small pieces and cooked with as many varieties of vegetables, fruits, and condiments as are procurable. SAW, Isa. 10:15. This tool was early known to the Egyptians, as their monu ments testify. The teeth of ancient saws, as of modern Oriental ones, were usually inclined towards -the handle instead of 510 away from it as with us. Egyptian saws appear to have been single-handled only, but a double-handled iron one has been found at Nimrud. The Hebrews had saws for cutting stones, 1 Kin. 7:9. Torture and death were sometimes inflicted with the saw, 2 Sam. 12:31; 1 Chr. 20:3; a mode of punishment also used by the Egyptians, Persians, and Romans. According to an ancient Jewish tradition, Isaiah was thus put to death ; compare Heb. 11 :37. SCALL, Lev. 13:30, an eruption or tetter. SCAPE-GOAT. See below. SCAR'LET, a blood-red color, Song 4:3, obtained from a small grub, often called by the Hebrews tola (rendered "worm" in Deut. 28:39), though the Greeks and Romans regarded it as a vegetable excres cence (coccus, a grain). The insect, the female only being used, is found abundant ly in Western Asia and Southern Europe, living 011 various plants, especially the ev ergreen oak, Quercus Coccifera, to whose branches and twigs it adheres. It grows to the size and form of a splitpea, but is of a violet-black color, and covered with a whi tish powder. It is picked from the tree and dried, and the color is obtained by in fusion in water, and made permanent by adding a mordant, anciently alum. The Coccus ilicis is still used in India and Per sia, but is superseded in Western coun tries by the Coccus cacti, or cochineal, an insect found in Mexico on the cactus ; this yields a larger proportion of coloring mat ter, and usually a more brilliant though perhaps less permanent dye. Scarlet was early known in Canaan, Gen. 38:28-30; Josh. 2:18-21. Wool thus dyed was con tributed for the service of the tabernacle, in making curtains, cloths, and priestly garments, Exod. 25:4; 26:1, 31, 36; 28:6, 8, 15; 35:6, 23, 25; Num. 4:8; and in the rit ual for purification from leprosy, Lev. 14:4, 49-52. Scarlet was worn by women, 2 Sam. 1:24; by the wealthy and luxurious, Lam. 4:5; by Median warriors, Nah. 2:3; and by Roman officers, Matt. 27:28. The depth and strength of the color, " double-dyed," are alluded to in Isa. 1 : 18, and it is made a symbol of profligacy and cruelty in Rev. 17:3, 4; compare Jer. 4:30, where "crim son "should be scarlet. In Prov: 31: 21 the Hebrew word may etymologically be ren- ¦ dered " double garments," as in the mar gin. In Dan. 5:7, 16, 29 purple is meant. SCAPE-GOAT, Heb. Azazel, found only in Lev. 16:8, 10, 26, A. V. ; " one lot for the Lord and the other lot for azazel;" "the SCA BIBLE DICTIONARY. SCH goat on whom the lot fell for azazel;" " he that let go the goat for azazel." On the annual Day of Atonement 2 spotless goats were presented before the Lord as one sin- offering, ver. 5; the ist by lot to be sacri ficed as a sin-offering to purge the Holy Place, and the 2d "to make atonement" for the sins ofthe people, having them sol emnly laid upon his head by the high- priest, and then being sent forth into the uninhabited wilderness bearing the curse, ver. 18-2S. The illustration of the way of salvation furnished by this symbolic rite is very clear : the Lamb of God " beareth away" the guilt of his people, John 1:29. But the exact meaning of the word azazel is much disputed. It appears to be de rived from the root azal, to remove or sep arate, and is now believed by some schol ars to denote Satan or an avenging spirit, popularly. believed to haunt desolate pla ces, and to whom the sin-burdened goat was surrendered as a victim; comp. 1 Cor. 5:5. But Satan would be called by his own name; he frequents the busy haunts of men and not the desert ; compare Matt. 12:43-45; and should not be brought in, unless the passage requires it, as the agent of God in the exercise of justice. Hence most interpreters prefer to understand the word as simply meaning complete separa tion; the act symbolizing the entire remo- . val Of the sins of the penitent and believing people as borne away by the victim ; com pare Psa. 103:12; Jer. 50:20. See Expia tion. SCAT'TERED AND PEELED, etc., Isa. 18:2, rather " tall and shaven, whose land the rivers divide." SCEP'TRE, a " rod " or decorated staff, sometimes 6 feet long, borne by kings, lead ers, and magistrates as a symbol of author ity, Gen. 49:10; Num. 24:17; Esth. 4:11; 5:2; Isa. 14:5; Ezek. 19:11, 14; Zech. 10: it. See Rod. This usage may have been de rived from the shepherd's use of his rod; compare Num. 27:15-17. Christ's sceptre is a ." right sceptre," Psa. 45:6, but fatal to his foes, Psa. 2:9; Dan. 2:44. The sceptre of the wicked shall not always rule the land of the righteous, Psa. 125:3. In Judg. 5:14, for "pen ofthe writer," read "sceptre of the ruler." SCE'VA, prepared, a Jew at Ephesus, a leader among the priests, perhaps the head of one of the 24 courses. His 7 sons pre tended to practise exorcism, and presumed to call on evil spirits to come out from per sons possessed, in the name of Jesus. The ignominious discomfiture of 2 of them*(R. V. ver. 16) by a man possessed' by an evil spirit promoted the cause of the gospel at Ephesus, Acts 19:14-16. SCHISM, a rent or fissure, Matt. 9:16; generally used in the New Testament to denote a division within the Christian church by contentions and alienated affec tions, without an outward separation into 511 SCH BIBLE DICTIONARY. SCO distinct bodies, I Cor. 1:10, margin; 12:25, 26. The sin may lie on the side of the ma jority, or of the minority, or both. It is a sin against Christian love, and strikes at the heart of Christianity, John 17:21 ; Rom. 12:4-21. SCHOOL. The Gr. word schole means leisure, i. e., from manual labor; thence the learned occupation of leisure, a lecture or discussion ; compare Ecclus. 38:24-34; and then, as in Acts 19:9, a room where a teacher met his disciples for instruction and debate. SCHOOL'MASTER, 1 Cor. 4:15; Gal. 3 : 24, 25, Paidagogos, child-conductor ; among the Greeks an attendant who took the charge of young children, taught them the rudi ments of knowledge, and at a suitable age conducted them to and from school; Thus the law was the pedagogue cf Israel, watch ing over the childhood of the nation, and at length conducting them through its types and prophecies to Christ. When a Jew came to a believing knowledge of Christ this office of the law ceased. SCHOOLS, HEBREW. Nothing is known of national or elementary schools in Israel before the return of the Jews from captiv ity. The Mosaic law strictly enjoine'd upon parents the personal instruction of their children, Deut. 6:7; 11:19. In addition to this, the Levites were charged to teach the people, Deut. 33:10. A general knowledge of reading and writing seems impliedly re quired by the directions in regard to the inscription of certain portions of the law, Deut. 6:9; 27:2, 3, 8. The king must be able to read and write, Deut. 17:18, 19. With the lapses of the nation into idolatry and servitude to idolaters, education doubt less declined. In Samuel's time we first read of associations for training young men for the prophetic office, 1 Sam. 10:5, 10; 19:20; and they continued under the kings of Israel, 1 Kin. 20:35; 2 Kin. 2:3, 5; 4:38; 6:1; Amos 7:14. Yet parental instruction was most relied up'on, Prov. 1:8. In the kingdom of Judah the Levites became neg ligent, 2 Chr. 15:3, and were recommis- sioned by Jehoshaphat, 2 Chr. 17:7-9; they attended to their charge under Hezekiah and Josiah, 2 Chr. 30:22 ; 35:3 ; and in the time of Ezra again appear as teachers and interpreters of the pepple, who had become unfamiliar with Hebrew, Neh. 8:7-9, '3, hy long residence in Babylonia and use of the "Syriac" or Aramaic dialect, Dan. 2:4. According to Jewish tradition, Ezra gath ered around him men skilled in the law, 512 and with their aid trained public teachers, who established synagogues with provis ion for instruction in Jerusalem and the towns of Judaea. These schools in Christ's time were under the management of the officers of the Sanhedrin and the " scribes " and " doctors." The instruction in the higher schools was catechetical, the master propounding some doctrine and the pupils questioning, Luke 2 : 46, or the teacher questioning and the pupils answering. The method often pursued by Jesus resembled this, Matt. 22:17-22; Mark 8:27-30; Luke 20 : 2-4. Flagging attention was quickened by stories, allegories, etc. Besides instruc tion in the Scriptures and traditions in the sacred Hebrew, in Greek, and the sciences as then known, etiquette as to salutations, etc., was carefully taught. Each lad was compelled to acquire a practical knowledge of some trade, Acts 18:3. Our Lord's in dependence of these higher schools excited the surprise of his learned antagonists, John 7:15, to whom he often unfolded the true meaning of passages which they had stud ied without comprehending, Matt. 12:2-5; 19:4; 21:15, 16^42; Mark 12:18-26. His early apostles had no high education, Acts 4:13, but Paul had been a pupil of Gama liel, Acts 22:3. Josephus and Philo repre sent Jewish parents as extremely careful for their children's instruction in the sa cred law, and that they should be taught to read it ; carefully copied portions of it were given them to study. According to the Talmud a boy began the study of the Mo saic Scriptures at home at 5 years of age; compare 2 Tim. 3:15; was sent to school at 6, and at 10 commenced the study of the traditional lore, which however was not committed to writing till after the time of Christ. Persons who had not received Rabbinical teaching were despised as igno rant, John 7:49. After the fall of Jerusalem Jewish elementary and higher schools con tinued to flourish, and wherever the Jews resided were regarded as of great import ance. The education of girls was usually inferior to that of boys. SCI'ENCE, 1 Tim. 6:20, in the R. V. "knowledge," which is the A. V. rendering of the Greek word in its other and frequent occurrings. The apostle refers to the false claims to superior knowledge, Gr. gnosis, by the Gnostic sects, who exalted their mystical conceits above the pure gospel of Christ and the true way of salvation, t Cor. 8:1; Col. 2:18-23. SCOR'PION, Luke 10:19, a small venom- SCO BIBLE DICTIONARY. SCO ous animal of warm climates, belonging, like the spider, to the class Arachnida, but so like the lobster in form that the Arabs call the latter the sea-scorpion. There are many varieties of the scorpion. Those of Southern Europe and Palestine are from I to 3 inches long, but in tropical Africa and South America they reach the length of io inches. The jointed tail terminates in a poison-bulb ending in a sharp curved sting, which inflicts a wound into which venom is injected from 2 openings near the point of the sting, Rev. 9 : 3-10. The wound is very painful and sometimes fatal, the effect varying with the species, age, etc., of the scorpion and the susceptibility of the victim. Scorpions are hibernating and nocturnal in their habits. They lie dor mant through the cool and wet months of the year, and during their active period pass the day under stones or the loose bark of trees or in crevices in walls, and issue forth at night for food and pleasure. They are useful in destroj'ing other arachnida and insects, and have been known to feed upon their own species. Maupertius saw 100 scorpions reduced in a few days to 14 by mutual extermination, and also wit nessed an imprisoned female scorpion de vour all her young but one, which took refuge on her back and at last killed her. A scorpion runs with its tail erect, which, with the formidable-looking claws termi nating the palpi and used for grasping its prey, gives it a very threatening aspect. It has been said that one surrounded with fire will sting itself to death ; but this story may bo founded simply on the convulsive mo tions of the scorched animal and its habit of curving its tail over its back. At the time of the Exodus scorpions abounded in the Sinaitic desert, Deut. 8:15, where they are still found. Several species abound in Pal estine, in the Lebanon range, the mountains of Judah, and the Jordan valley. Banias, where there are many ruins, is infested with them, and they still inhabit the low 33 range of cliffs a few miles south of the Dead Sea, where was the point formerly called from them "the ascent of Akrabbim" or scorpions, Num. 34:4; Josh. 15:3. The "scorpions" of Rehoboam's threat, 1 Kin. 12:11, 14, may have been thongs armed with knots, or bits of stone or metal, unless the expression is wholly figurative. The earlier captives of Judah in Babylonia, 2 Kin. 24 : 10-16, among whom Ezekiel dwelt, are called scorpions, Ezek. 1:1, 2 ; 2:6; a metaphor justified by the nation's malignant treatment of many of its true prophets; compare Jer. 26:7-11, 21-23. "A scorpion for an egg," i. ; Isa- l6:I4; Mark 1:20. The Romans held in bondage captives taken in war, and purchased slaves. Their bondage was perpetual, and the master held unquestioned control of the person and life of his slaves. Yet large numbers were set free, and in many instances Ro man freedmen rose to the highest honors. A favorite slave of a Roman centurion was healed by Christ, Luke 7:2-10. Many of the early Christians were slaves, 1 Cor. 7:21 ; such was Onesimus the bond-servant of Philemon. (See.) The allusions of the Bible to involuntary servitude imply that it is an evil and unde sirable condition of life ; yet the bondman who cannot obtain his freedom is divinely SER BIBLE DICTIONARY. SEV exhorted to contentment, i Cor. 7 : 20-24. Meanwhile the Bible gives directions as to the mutual duties of masters and ser vants, Eph. 6:5-9; Col. 3:22-4:1; Tit. 2:9, 10; Phile.; 1 Pet. 2:18; and proclaims the great truths of the common origin of all men, the immortality of every human soul, and its right to the Bible and to all neces sary means of knowing and serving the Saviour — the application of which to all the relations of master and servant, supe rior and inferior, employer and employed, would prevent all oppression, which God abhors, Deut. 24:14; Psa. 103:6; Isa. ion- Si Amos 4:1 ; Mai. 3:5; Jas. 5:4. The prin ciples of the Bible' have operated to the mitigation and gradual abolition of slavery in Christian countries. The term applied to Phoebe, Rom. 16:1, is the feminine of the Greek word which is also translated " deacon." See Deacon ess and Phebe. SER'VITOR, 2 Kin. 4:43, a servant or attendant. SET ON, Acts 18: 10, assault. " Set to his seal," John 3:33, "set his seal to this." SETH, appointed, called SHETH in 1 Chr. 1 : 1, the ist son of Adam after the death of Abel, Gen. 4:25, 26; 5:3, 6, 8, and ancestor ofthe line of godly patriarchs, who believed the promises and held fast the truth trans mitted through them from Adam. SE'THUR, hidden, Num. 13:13, a prince from the tribe of Asher, one of the 12 sent by Moses to explore Canaan. SET'TLE, Ezek. 43:14, 17, 20; 45:19, a border or ledge around the altar. SEVEN. As from the beginning this was the number of days in the week, so it often has in Scripture a sort of emphasis attached to it, and is very generally used as a round or perfect number. Clean beasts were taken into the ark by sevens, Gen. 7. The years of plenty and famine in Egypt were marked by sevens, Gen. 41. Accord ing to the Mosaic law not only was there a 7th day Sabbath, but the 7th month was particularly distinguished, every 7th year was a sabbath, and after every 7 times 7 years came a jubilee. The great feasts of unleavened bread and of tabernacles were observed for 7 days; the number of ani mals in many of the sacrifices was lim ited to 7. The golden. candlestick had 7 branches. Seven priests with 7 trumpets went around the walls of Jericho 7 days, and 7 times on the 7th day. In the Apoc alypse we find 7 churches mentioned, 7 candlesticks, 7 spirits. 7 stars, 7 seals, 7 trumpets, 7 thunders, 7 vials, 7 plagues, and 7 angels to pour them out. Seven is often put for any round or whole number, just as we use "ten" or "a dozen ;" so in Matt. 12:45; 1 Sam. 2:5; Job 5:19; Prov. 26:16, 25; Isa. 4:1; Jer. 15:9. In like manner 7 times or 7-fold often means abundantly, completely, Gen. 4:15, 24; Lev. 26:24; Psa. 12:6; 79:12; Matt. 18:21. And 70 times 7 is a still higher su perlative, Matt. 18:22. The regard given to the number 7 was not restricted to the Hebrews, but pre vailed among the Persians, Esth. mo, 14, the ancient people of India, and the Greeks and Romans to a certain extent. With the exception of six, seven is the only numeral word which the Shemitic languages have in common with the Indo- European. The Hebrew "sheba," seven, is essentially the same as the term in Greek, Latin, Sanscrit, Persian, Gothic, English, etc. The notion of 7 is also em bodied in the Hebrew word signifying to swear, literally to " do 7 times ;" compare Gen. 21:29-31. See Sheba. The half of 7, 35-2, is believed to represent incomplete ness, and secondarily suffering and disas ter ; it appears in the prophetic term " a time, and times, and half a time," Rev. 12:14; Dan. 7:25; 12:7, and other equiva lent expressions, Rev. 11:3; 12:6; 13:5. SEVEN, THE, Acts 21:8. Comp. Acts 6:1-6. SEVEN STARS, THE, Amos 5:8. See Pleiades. SEVENTY WEEKS, Dan. 9 : 24-27. Counting " each day for a year," Ezek. 4:6, this is a period of 490 years, the last period of probation for the Jewish nation. It has been estimated to begin with the " com mand," Dan. 9:25, of Artaxerxes Longima- nus for the rebuilding of Jerusalem, pub lished at Jerusalem in July, B. C. 457, by Ezra, ch. 7 ; and to end with the divinely- appointed formal commencement of the proclamation of the gospel to the Gentiles, as represented by Cornelius and his friends, Acts 10:1-11:18, whose conversion would be placed by this calculation in A. D. 32. The 70th " week " of years is estimated to begin with Christ's entrance upon his pub lic ministry at his baptism in the fall of A. D. 25; for one "week," i. e., 7 years, he personally, and after his ascension through his apostles, "confirmed the covenant with many;" compare the notices of numerous conversions among the Jews prior to the martyrdom of Stephen and the mission of 539 SEV BIBLE DICTIONARY. SHA Peter to Cornelius, Acts 2:41, 47; 5:14-16; 6:7. " In the midst of the week," i. e., after a ministry of 3K years, Christ superseded the sacrifices of the Mosaic ritual, Dan. 9:26, 27, fulfilling their typical import and efficacy and providing the reason for their actual termination, by his sacrifice of him self on the cross in the spring of A. D. 29. The destruction of Jerusalem by the Ro man prince Titus, A. D. 70, is predicted in ver. 26, 27; compare Matt. 24:15-22; Luke 21:20. SEVERAL, 2 Kin. 15:5; Matt. 25:15, sep arate, individual, or isolated. SHAALAB'BIN, Josh. 19:42, or SHAAL'- BIM, Judg. 1 :35, place of foxes, a town as signed to Dan, but held for a time by the Amorites, whom the tribe of Ephraim as sisted in subduing. It was in one of Solo mon's commissariat districts, 1 Kin. 4:9, is associated with Beth-shemesh and Ajalon, and is probably represented now by the village Selbit, 3 miles northwest of Yalo or Ajalon. SHAAL'BONITE, 2 Sam. 23:32; 1 Chr. 11:33, a native of Shaalbon, a place un known. SHAARA'IM, or in the A. V., Josh. 15:36, incorrectly SHARA'IM, two gateways, I., a town in the Shephelah or plain of Judah, 1 Sam. 17:52. It may be represented by the ruin Kh. es-Siagh, 13 miles west of Je rusalem, 2'A east of Beth-shemesh. II. Shaaraim in the list of the cities of Simeon, 1 Chr. 4:31, is probably identical with Sharuhen, Josh. 19:6, and Shilhim, Josh. 15:32. SHAASH'GAZ, servant of the beautiful, Esth. 2:14, a chamberlain of Ahasuerus. SHAD'DAI, in the A. V. always rendered " Almighty," an ancient name of God, self- appropriated in his revelations to the He brew patriarchs, and in use by them, Gen. 17:1; 28:3; 35:11; 43:14, before the name Jehovah was revealed in its full signifi cance, Exod. 6:3. In the book of Job it is often used by Job, Eliphaz, and Elihu, Job 5:17; 6:4; 32:8, and once by God himself, Job 40:2. It was also used by the Mesopo- tamian Balaam, Num. 24:4, 16, and contin ued in occasional use in Israel, as by Nao mi, Ruth 1:20, 21; David, Psa. 68:14; see also Psa. 91 : 1 ; Isaiah, ch. 13:6; Ezekiel, ch. 1 : 24 ; 10:5; and Joel, ch. 1 : 15. One of the Greek equivalents used in the Septu agint, Pantokrator, Almighty or All-ruler, is also employed in the New Testament as one of the titles of God, 2 Cor. 6:18; Rev. 1:8; 4:8, etc. .*)40 SHAD'OW sometimes denotes intense darkness and gloom, Psa. 23:4, and some times a cool retreat; Isa. 32:2, or perfect protection, Psa. 17:8; Isa. 49:2. The long shadows cast by the declining sun are allu ded to in Job 7:2; Jer. 6:4. The swift, never-ceasing motion of a shadow is an emblem of human life, 1 Chr. 29:15; Psa. 102:11. The term is sometimes used to express the relation of the types of the Mosaic economy to the realities of the Christian dispensation, Col, 2:17; Heb. 8:5; 10:1. SHA'DRACH, royal one, the Chaldaean name given to Hananiah at Nebuchadnez zar's court, B. C. 604, Dan. 1:7. See Abed- nego. Shadrach and his 2 companions in the furnace, ch. 3, are alluded to among the examples of faith, Heb. 11:34. During the persecution of the Jews under Antiochus Epiphanes, Mattathias, father of Judas Mac- cabaeus, encouraged his sons by referring to their deliverance, 1 Mace. 2:59. SHA'KING, Ezek. 37:7, an earthquake. SHA'LEM, peace, Gen. 33:18. Most in terpreters read here, "Jacob came in peace to the city of Shechem ;" comp. Gen. 28:21 ; 33:19; Josh. 24:32; John 4:5. If, however, Shalem is a proper name, the town may be identified with Salim, a village 3% miles east of Nablus, or Shechem. The Samari tan codex and apparently Josephus favor the former reading ; the LXX. and Vulgate the latter. SHA'LIM, rather SHA'ALIM, jackals, LAND OF, 1 Sam. 9:4, an undetermined locality in Ephraim ; perhaps the " land of Shual," 1 Sam. 13: 17, in the region of Oph- rah. SHAL'ISHA, LAND OF, 1 Sam. 9:4, a district adjoining Mount Ephraim. The city Baal-shalisha, 2 Kin. 4:42, is thought to be traced at Tulluza, 6 miles east of Samaria, and the land of Shalisha in the plain south of the town and east of Shechem. SHAL'LECHETH, cutting out, I Chr. 26:16, a gate on the west of Solomon's temple, communicating with the viaduct from his palace, 1 Kin. 10:5. Grove would place it at the gate now called es-Silsileh, the main entrance to the Haram area, 600 feet from its southwestern corner. SHAL'LUM, retribution, I., the murderer of Zachariah, king of Israel, and usurper of his throne, B. C. 772. He reigned only 1 month, and was killed in Samaria by Menahem, 2 Kin. 15:10-15. See Zacha riah. II. See Jehoahaz, II. SHA BIBLE DICTIONARY. SHA III. The husband of Huldah the proph etess in the time of Josiah, B. C. 623, 2 Kin. 22:14. Others of this name are alluded to in 1 Chr. 2:40; 7:13; 9:17, 19, 31; Ezra 2:42; 7:2; 10:24, 42; Neh. 3:12; 7:45; but little is known of them. SHAL'MAN. See next page. S,HALMANE'SER, fire-worshipper, the I connected with the history of the kingdom name of 4 Assyrian_kings, 2 of whom are [ of Israel. 541 SHA BIBLE DICTIONARY. SHA I. Shalmaneser I. appears from inscrip tions on bricks found at Kaleh-Shergat, anciently Asshur, an old capital of Assyria, to have reigned about B. C. 1320-1300. II. Shalmaneser II. succeeded his father, Asshur-natsi-pal, a great warrior and con queror, and reigned 35 years, B. C. 858-823. He personally conducted 23 campaigns, besides others led by a tartan or general. In 854 he defeated the united forces of Ben- hadad II. king of Syria, the king of Ha math, Ahab king of Israel, and kings of the Hittites and Phoenicians. In 842 he gained a decisive victory over Ben-hadad's suc cessor, Hazael, whose territory he overran and plundered. Tyre, Sidon, and Byblus, and Jehu king of Israel, intimidated by his successes, sent him tributes. A few years before his death his eldest son led a revolt against him, but was subdued by his 2d son, Shamas-rimmon II., who succeeded Shalmaneser. At Calah (Nimrud) Shal maneser built a palace whose ruins were uncovered by Layard in 1840, and are known as the "central palace;" much of its material had been removed for use in later buildings. Here was found a 4-sided black marble obelisk, about 7 feet high, in excellent preservation, and containing on each side 5 bas-reliefs and records in cu neiform writing. The bas-reliefs in the 2d row represent Israelite envoys presenting tributes of gold and silver to the king, be fore whom the chief ambassador humbly prostrates himself. (See the illustration on the preceding page.) The accompanying inscription relates that this tribute was sent by Jehu, " son," i. c, successor, " of Khum- ri," or Omri. The obelisk is now in the British Museum. It seems possible that the "Shalman" referred to by Hosea, 10: 14, as the destroyer of Beth-arbel, may have been Shalmaneser II., who during his west ern campaigns may have invaded Israel. III. Shalmaneser III., B. C. 781-771. reigned during a period of decline in the Assyrian power. IV. Shalmaneser IV., B. C. 727-722, succeeded Tiglath-pileser II., who had strengthened and reorganized the Assyr ian Empire, had attacked Israel under Pe kah, and transported Israelite captives from both sides of the Jordan to Assyrian territories, 2 Kin. 15:29; 1 Chr. 5:26. It was probably soon after Shalmaneser's ac cession that he reasserted Assyrian domin ion over Israel by invading it and securing from Hoshea the payment of tribute, 2 Kin. 17:3. On Hoshea's defection and alliance 542 with Egypt, Shalmaneser returned and im prisoned him, ver. 4. Soon after he over ran the whole kingdom and besieged Sa maria, which withstood the Assyrian arms 3 years, ver. 5, 6. Sargon claims its cap ture in his ist year, and it seems probable that he usurped the Assyrian throne dur- . ing Shalmaneser's prolonged absence in these campaigns. Scripture does not name Shalmaneser as the taker of Samaria, ver. 6; 18:10. See Sargon. According to Josephus, Shalmaneser subdued the Phoe nician cities; but insular Tyre revolted and for 5 years sustained a siege the issue of which is unknown. He died in 722 B. C. SHAL'MAN, Hos. 10:14, probably not to be identified with Shalmaneser IV., as is commonly thought, since Hosea's prophecy seems to have been delivered years before that monarch's invasions of Israel. Shal man is by some interpreters regarded as an Assyrian king before Pul. See Shal maneser, II. SHAM'BLES, 1 Cor. 10:25, a public meat- market. SHAME'FACEDNESS, 1 Tim. 2:9, in R. V. "shamefastness," a character fixed in blushing modesty. "Shameful spewing," Hab. 2:16, in the R. V. "ignominy." SHAM'GAR, cup-bearer, son of Anath, the 3d judge of Israel, after Ehud and shortly before Barak, in a time of great in security and distress, Judg. 3:31; 5:6. He defended Israel and killed 600 Philistines with an ©x-goad. See Plough. SHAM'HUTH, desolation, 1 Chr. 27:8; perhaps the same as Shammoth, i Chr. 11:27. SHA'MIR, a sharp point, I., a city in the mountains of Judah; probably Kh. el-Emi- reh, 12 miles south of Hebron. II. A city in Mount Ephraim, residence and burial-place of Tola, a judge of Israel, Judg. 10:1, 2; probably at Bir ed-D6wa, in wady Samur, 10 miles southeast of She chem. SHAM'MAH, desolation, I., one of the 3 chief of David's 30 heroes, who shared with David and Eleazar the honor of the exploit recorded in 2 Sam. 23:11, 12; 1 Chr. 11:12- 14. Another feat in which he took part is described in 2 Sam. 23:13-17. II. A brother of David, 1 Sam. 16:9; 17: 13 ; elsewhere called Shimeah and Shim- ma, 2 Sam. 13:3, 32; 1 Chr. 2:13; 20:7. Others of this name are mentioned, Gen. 36:13, 17; 2 Sam. 23:25, 33; 1 Chr. 11:27; 27:8. SHAM'MOTH, 1 Chr. 11 : 27, perhaps SHA BIBLE DICTIONARY. SHA Shamhuth, i Chr. 27 : 8, and Shammah, 2 Sam. 23:25. SHAMMU'AH, renowned, one of the 4 sons of David and Bath-sheba, 2 Sam. 5: 14; 1 Ch. 14:4; called Shimea in 1 Chr. 3:5. Others of this name are mentioned in Num. 13:4; Neh. 11:17; 12:18. The 2d of these is called Shemaiah in 1 Chr. 9: 16. SHA'PHAN, coney, the scribe or secre tary of king Josiah, sent with the governor of the city and the recorder to the high- priest, from whom he received the newly- found roll of the law and read it to the king, 2 Kin. 22:12; 2 Chr. 34:15-23. He was the father of Gemariah, Jer. 36:10, and perhaps of Ahikam and Elasah, 2 Kin. 22:12; Jer. 26:24; 29:3! grandfather of Mi- chaiah, Jer. 36:11, and perhaps of Gedaliah and Jaazaniah, 2 Kin. 25:22; Ezek. 8:11. SHA'PHAT, judge, the father of Elisha, 1 Kin. 19:16, 19. Four others of this name are mentioned in Num. 13:5; 1 Chr. 3:22; 5:12; 27:29. SHA'PHER, goodly, MOUNT, 22d station of the Israelites in the wilderness, Num. 33 : 23 ; probably Jebel Sheraif, 30 miles west-southwest from 'Ain Kadeis (Kadesh) and 60 miles from the mouth of wady Arish on the Mediterranean. It is a conspicuous conical mountain 75 miles northwest of Elath. SHARA'IM, Josh. 15:36. See Shaaraim. SHA'RAR, father of one of David's he roes, 2 Sam. 23:33; called Sacar in 1 Chr. 11:35, A. V. SHARE, 1 Sam. 13:20, probably the iron point of the plough. SHARE'ZER, prince of fire, I., a son of Sennacherib, who assisted in slaying his father, 2 Kin. 19:37; Isa. 37:38. II. Zech. 7:2, 3, in the A. V. Sherezer; a delegate sent, B. C. 518, with Regem-me- lech and others from some of the returned Jews to inquire of the priests and prophets at Jerusalem whether, as the new temple was approaching completion, Ezra 4:24; 5:1,2; 6:14, 15; Hag. 1:14, 15, it was proper to observe the fast bewailing the destruc tion of the temple 70 years before, 2 Kin. 25:8-10; Jer. 52:12-14. In answer the Lord rebuked the formality of their fasts, but gave them a gracious assurance of prosperity and joy, Zech. 7:4 to 8: 19. SHA'RON, a plain, I., a level tract along the Mediterranean from Carmel to Joppa, or even as far south as Jamnia, about 60 miles, varying in width from 8 to 15 miles. It was noted as a place for pasturage, 1 Chr. 27:295, and flowers, Song 2:1, and for its fertility and beauty, Isa. 35:2. Its desola tion in time of war is noted as a calamity, and its peaceful reoccupation is promised as a blessing, Isa. 33:9; 65:10. Many dwellers in Sharon accepted Christ, Acts 9:35, R. V. According to some " Lasha- ron " in Josh. 12:18 is "the Sharon," with a preposition prefixed. The Hebrew arti cle always accompanies the name, except in 1 Chr. 5: 16. See II. Sharon is still very fertile, though its cultivation is decreased and made difficult for the settled villagers by the raids of Bedouins, who encamp on the plain and use parts of it as grazing-ground for their flocks. It is also much encroached upon by the sand; a line of sand-dunes extends along the shore, in some places 3 miles wide and 300 feet high. The plain is cross ed by several streams from the mountains on the east, the largest of which, the Nahr el Aujeh, breaks boldly through the sand hills, empties into the Mediterranean north of Jaffa, and contains water all the year. Dense thickets of cane line the streams, and extensive marshes are formed by the damming ofthe waters by the sand. East of the sand-dunes the plain and hilly slopes are in part thickly wooded with pine and oak, remnants of the "great forest" of which Strabo spoke, A. D. 24. The heat of summer is excessive, and the climate somewhat unhealthy. Travellers describe the view of the plain from the tower of Ramleh as one of surpassing richness and beauty. The frowning hills of Judah on the east confront the glittering waters of the Mediterranean on the west. Towards the north and south far as the eye can reach spreads the beautiful plain, covered in many parts with fields of green or gold en grain. Near by are the immense olive- groves of Ramleh and Lydda, and amid them the picturesque towers, minarets, and domes of these villages ; while the hill sides towards the northeast are thickly studded with native hamlets. The uncul tivated parts of the plain are covered in spring and the early summer with a rich profusion of flowers. See Rose. II. A place occupied by Gad, east of the Jordan; perhaps equivalent to "the Mi- shor " or upland downs, called "the plain " in the A. V., Deut. 3:10 — a region suitable for pasturage like the western Sharon. This would agree well with the meaning of the word "suburbs," 1 Chr. 5:16, an out lying pasture-ground, as around the Levit ical cities. See Suburbs. 543 SHA BIBLE DICTIONARY. SHE SHARU'HEN, home of grace, a city al lotted to Simeon, on the south of Judah's portion, apparently=Shilhim, Josh. 15:32, and Shaaraim, 1 Chr. 4:31; traced in the ruins at Tell esh Sheriah, 12 miles north west of Beer-sheba. SHA'UL, desired, the son of Simeon by a woman of Canaan, and father of the Shaulites, Gen. 46:10; Exod. 6:15; Num. 26:13; 1 Chr. 4:24. See also Saul. SHA'VEH, a plain, the open valley where Abraham and the king of Sodom met, Gen. 14:17, called also " the king's dale " or val ley; it is usually identified with the place so called where Absalom erected a monu ment, 2 Sam. 18:18. Robinson regards it as the upper part of the Kidron valley, north of Jerusalem; Stanley would place it east of the Jordan. SHA'VEH-KIRIATHA'IM, Gen. 14:5, a plain near the town of Kirjathaim— at Ka- reyat, about 11 miles east of the Dead Sea, 5 miles northwest of Diban or Dibon. SHA'VING. The Egyptians, except when mourning, shaved the head and beard, as appears from the ancient monuments and the statements of Herodotus. Hence Jo seph, as the servant of an Egyptian, shaved himself when called before Pharaoh, Gen. 41 : 14. The Egyptians, however, wore some artificial head-covering, as a wig or a cap, except the priests, who are repre sented with naked heads or with some symbolical head-dress. Egyptian women wore long hair, in elaborate curls. The Assyrians, and usually the Babylonians, retained the hair on the head and face, but Babylonian priests shaved their faces smooth. The Hittites shaved off the eye brows, moustache, and beard ; the Moab ites shaved the fore part of the head, Ara bian tribes the temples; comp. Jer. 9:26; 25:23; 49:32, margins, where the Arabian custom is alluded to. It is also mentioned by Herodotus. By the Mosaic law the Hebrews were forbidden to " round the corners of their heads " or " mar the cor ners of the beard," Lev. 19:27; and the priests were especially forbidden to shave the head or face in mourning or at any time, Lev. 21:5; Ezek. 44:20; these regu lations being designed to distinguish God's chosen people from the heathen around them, Deut. 14:1, 2. Shaving the face and head was, however, prescribed in examin ing a suspected leper and in the ceremony of his purification, Lev. 13:29-34; 14:8, 9; comp. Num. 8:5-7; Deut. 21:12. During the period of a Nazarite's vow the hair 544 was permitted to grow without the usual trimming, and at the termination of the vow the head was shaved, Num. 6:1-9, 18, 19; Acts 18:18; 21:24. Samson's Nazarite ship was intended to be life-long, Judg. I3:5> 7; I6:i7, 19; comp. 1 Sam. 1:11. The Hebrews and other bearded nations, like. Orientals of the present day, cherished the beard and resented any insult to it. 2 Sam. 10:4, 5. See Beard. Neglect of it in David's time was a sign of mourning, 2 Sam. 19:24. Shaving the head and sha ving or shortening the beard were common signs of mourning among the Arabians and Syrians, Job 1:20; Isa. 15:2; Jer. 47:5; 48:37; Ezek. 27:31; and the custom, though forbidden by Moses, became so prevalent among the Israelites, Jer. 41:5, that the prophets often refer to it as a synonym for mourning, Isa. 22:12; Amos 8:10; Micah 1:16; Jer. 16:6; Ezek. 7:18; compare Ezra 9:3. Modern Arabs in towns frequently keep their heads shaved, according to the Moslem requirements; but the Bedouins and fellahin permit both beard and hair to grow. SHAV'SHA, 1 Chr. 18:16. See Seraiah. SHEAL'TIEL. See Salathiel. SHEAR'ING-HOUSE, Heb. BETH-EKED ha-roim, 2 Kin. 10:12, 14, margin, a place between Jezreel and Samaria, where Jehu killed 42 members of the royal family- of Judah. The Septuagint and Eusebius make it a proper name, Beth-eked ; and the latter speaks of it as a village of Samaria, in the plain of Jezreel, 15 Roman miles from Me giddo; Conder suggests Akadah, on the western side of the plain. SHE'AR-JASH'UB, the remnant shall re turn, Isa. 7:3; 10:21, the name of one of Isaiah's sons ; supposed to have had a pro phetic meaning, like Maher-shalal-hash- baz. Comp. Isa. 8:18. SHE'BA, I., son of Raamah, Gen. 10:7; 1 Chr. 1:9. His posterity are supposed to have settled on the Persian Gulf. See Cush and Raamah. II. Son of Joktan, of the race of Shem, Gen. 10:28; 1 Chr. 1:22. See Sabeans, II. III. Son of Jokshan and grandson of Abraham by Keturah, Gen. 25:3; 1 Chr. 1:32. He is supposed to have settled in Arabia Deserta. SHE'BA, Queen of. See Sabeans, II. SHE'BA, seven or an oath. In the He brew this name differs from the foregoing. I. A turbulent Benjamite, who after the death of Absalom made a fruitless effort to excite a rebellion in Israel against David. SHE BIBLE DICTIONARY. SHE Being pursued and besieged in Abel-bc'.h- maachah, near the southern part of Leba non, he was beheaded by the people of the city, 2 Sam. 20. II. A Gadite chief in Bashan, 1 Chr. 5:13. III. A town in Simeon, Josh. 19:2, by . some identified with Shema ; at first as signed to Judah, Josh. 15:26. Probably found at Tell es Seba', 3 miles east of. Beer-sheba, on the road to Moladah. SHE'BAH, or SHI'BEAH, fem. of the preceding, Gen. 26:33; comp. margin; the 4th well reopened by Isaac's servants, Gen. 26:18,23-32; 21:25-31. See Beer-sheba. SHE'BAM, fragrance, a town in the pas toral district east ofthe Jordan, Num. 32:3; probably=SiBMAHlk which see. SHEBAN'IAH, whom the Lord makes lo grow, the name of 2 priests and 2 Levites. I. Neh. 9:4,5; 10:10. — II. Neh. 10:4; 12:14. —III. Neh. 10:12.— IV. I Chr. 15:24. SHEBA'RIM, breaches, Josh. 7:5, a point, perhaps in a craggy ravine, to which the Israelites fled before the men of Ai. SHE'BER, a fracture, son of Caleb and Maachah, 1 Chr. 2:48. SHEB'NA, youthful vigor, I., a "treas urer " or prefect of the palace of king Hez ekiah, Isa. 22:15, a proud and imperious man, whose degradation the prophet was commissioned to foretell, ver. 16-25. He was to be tossed " like a ball " into a large country. See Wheel. Gen. Gordon, in crossing the Korosko desert in the Soudan, saw many balls of matted dry grass, some of them 3 feet in diameter, driven cease lessly over the hot sands by the wind : an impressive image of a restless soul driven away in its wickedness. II. A scribe or secretary of Hezekiah, 2 Kin. 18: 18 -to 19:7; Isa. 36:3-22; 37:2-7. Some regard him as the same as the pre ceding. SHE'CHEM, shoulder, I., a Hivite prince who abducted Jacob's daughter Dinah, and who, with his father Hamor and many other Shechemites, was treacherously slain by Simeon and Levi, Gen. 34. II. A descendant of Manasseh, Num. 26:31; Josh. 17:2. III. Another of Manasseh's posterity, 1 Chr. 7:19. IV. A city of Central Canaan, in the val ley between Mounts Gerizim and Ebal. Abraham here erected his first altar in Ca naan, Gen. 12:6, 7. Jacob, returning from Padan-aram, encamped near Shechem, then a city of the Hivites, bought land, which he bequeathed as a special portion 35 to Joseph, and erected an altar, Gen. 33 : 18- 20; 48:22; John 4:5. In revenge for a wrong his sons captured and spoiled the city, Gen. 34. Under an oak near She chem Jacob, before departing, buried the amulets and teraphim of his household, Gen. 35: 1-4. His sons returned with their flocks to this fertile region ; and here Jo seph, journeying from Hebron, 50 miles south, sought them, Gen. 37:12-17. After the Conquest Joseph's bones were buried in his inheritance near Shechem, Josh. 24:32; Acts 7:16. The town lay in Ephra- im's territory, and was assigned to the Ko hathite Levites and made a city of refuge, Josh. 20:7; 21:20, 21. From its central position and sacred associations it became a gathering-place of the tribes. Near its site occurred the solemn reading of the law, with accompanying curses and bless ings, where Mounts Ebal and Gerizim most nearly approach each other, and persons on the opposite sides and in the valley can readily converse, Deut. 11 : 29; 27; 28; Josh. 8 : 30-35. Here Joshua won the tribes to a solemn engagement to serve Jehovah, in commemoration of which he set up " a great stone " under the oak already hal lowed by Abraham and Jacob, Josh. 24:1- 28. By this same monument probably Gid eon's son Abimelech was made king, Judg. 9:6; and from Mount Gerizim, at whose foot the city nestled, Jotham prophesied ill against the people and king, Judg. 9:7-20; a prediction fulfilled 3 years later in their destruction, ver. 22-57. Shechem was after wards rebuilt. David alludes to it as rep resenting the promised land west of the Jordan, Psa. 60:6. Rehoboam went thither to be crowned, but there gave the 10 tribes occasion to revolt, 1 Kin. 12:1-18. The city became the first capital of the northern kingdom under Jeroboam, ver. 25, but the seat of government was soon transferred to Tirzah, 1 Kin. 14:17; 15:21, 33. After the Assyrian conquest and captivity, B. C. 721, Shechem doubtless received its share of heathen colonists, 2 Kin. 17:6, 24-41. After the Babylonian conquest of Judah, B. C. 588, Shechemites were among those slain at Mizpah by Ishmael, Jer. 41:5-7; the " treasures in the field " for which 10 were spared, ver. 8, were probably provis ions hid in covered pits, such as are still used for the same purpose in the dry hill sides of Palestine. Shechem became the chief city of the Samaritans, as near their national temple on Mount Gerizim, and so continued at least till John Hyrcanus eap- 545 SHE BIBLE DICTIONARY. SHE tured the city and destroyed the temple, B. C. 129. See Gerizim and Samaritans. Near Shechem was Jacob's well, at which Christ talked with the Samaritan woman, John 4. Later, in the time of Josephus, the city, which doubtless suffered in the Jew ish war, was rebuilt by the Romans and named Flavia Neapolis, P. new town, in honor of Flavius Vespasian, Roman general and emperor. Many coins ofthe city under this title are extant, and it is still retained in the Arabic form Nabulus or Nablus. Whether the " Sychar " of John 4:5 was identical with Shechem, whose ordinary Greek form " Sychem " was used by Ste phen, Acts 7:16, is a. disputed question'. See Sychar. Shechem was no doubt vis ited by the apostles and disciples in their evangelizing tours through Samaria, Acts 8:25; 9:31; 15:3. The Christian philoso pher and martyr Justin, a heathen by birth, was born at Neapolis about A. D. 100. Pas tors of Neapolis are mentioned as attend ing church councils until A. D. 536. The city was taken by the Moslems in the 7th century. It submitted to the Crusaders after the taking of Jerusalem, A. D. 1099, but was retaken by the Moslems A. D. 1242, and has since remained in their hands. S8*wt "?<¦««*, *>» VIEW OF NABLUS AND MOUNT GERIZIM FROM THE NORTHWEST *^2**>"~' The valley in which Nablus lies extends 8 or 9 miles northwest; it is 2,360 feet above the sea, and the mountains Gerizim on the south and Ebal on the north rise some 600 and 800 feet higher. On the east the valley opens into the northern end of the fertile plain el-Mukhna, iA miles wide 'and about 10 miles long from north to south. Along this plain runs the road to Jerusalem, 30 miles south of Nablus; the road leads northeast to Tubas or Thebez, 10 miles from Nablus, and thence nearly 30 miles to the southern end of the Sea of Galilee. Sebustiyeh, or Samaria, is 3% miles northwest of Nablus, on a hill at the end of the valley; Nazareth is nearly 30 miles north of Nablus. At the foot of Mount Gerizim, [where the Nablus valley 546 opens on the plain, and close to the road to Jerusalem, is Jacob's well, still called Bir- Yakub, a site acknowledged by Jews, Sa maritans, Christians, and Moslems. Here Jesus, " wearied with his journey," sat " at the 6th hour," noon, probably in Chisleu or December, while his disciples went " into the city to buy food;" here he revealed his Messiahship to the Samaritan woman and received her fellow-citizens. At " Sychar" he spent 2 days, reaping the harvest of souls of which he had spoken to his disci ples, John 4:5-8, 25-42. The well is sur rounded by the ruins of a Christian church, built in the 4th century and destroyed be fore the time of the Crusades. Its depth in 1838 was 105 feet, but is now decreased to 75 feet by the stones which have faHen SHE BIBLE DICTIONARY. SHE or been thrown in. See Jacob's Well. About a quarter of a mile northeast of the well is the traditional site of Joseph's tomb, now covered by a square inclosure with high whitewashed walls, a Mohammedan wely's, i.e., saint's tomb. The Moslems claim that Joseph's bones were removed hence to the cave of Machpelah. A quarter of a mile farther, at the foot of Mount Ebal, is the village of Askar, by some identified with Sychar. See Sychar. There are ancient tombs around the mountain base. Nablus is a mile and a half northwest of Jacob's well, but may anciently have lain 'farther east than now. The road lies through a beautiful little valley, more than half a mile wide at its opening on the Mukhna, but narrowing, again expanding, and then contracting again to its narrowest at Nablus. About half way between the well and the city is the watershed between the Jordan and the Mediterranean. The springs which rise on both sides of this point and flow eastward and westward were in the possession of the Canaanites when Jacob, according to the tradition cited by the Samaritan woman, dug his well. About three-quarters of a mile from the well, in a recess at the northern foot of Mount Geri zim, is 'a place now named el-Amud, the pillar, which the Samaritans make the site of the oak — A., V. "plain" — of Moreh, Gen. 12:6; 35:4, and the stone of Joshua, Josh. 24:26. The valley is well watered by several streams, and is fertile and cul tivated; near the town it is well wooded, olive-trees being most abundant. The town is surrounded by flourishing gardens and orchards of figs, mulberries, grapes, almonds, oranges, apricots, and other fruits. The main street runs from the eastern gate to the western, and contains most of the bazars. The side streets are narrow, vault ed, and dark. The houses are high, built of stone, with domes and battlements on the flat roofs. There are 5 mosques, 3 of which were originally churches of the Cru saders. The Samaritans live in the south western quarter, near their synagogue, and from the western gate of the city a road leads up to their sacred place on Mount Gerizim. The population is variously esti mated at from 9,000 to 13,000, all' Moham medans except about 140 Samaritans, a few Jews, and about 650 Christians, chiefly of the Orthodox Greek Church. The inhabi tants are actively engaged in manufactures and trade ; about 20 factories make soap from olive-oil, and pile their refuse in heaps outside of the city; woollen and cotton goods are also manufactured ; and the pro ducts supply the neighborhood and are sent to distant points by caravans. The following extracts are from Dr. Clarke's description of this place : " There is nothing in the Holy Land finer than a view of Nablus from the heights around it. As the traveller descends towards it from the hills it appears luxuriantly embos omed in the most delightful and fragrant bowers, half concealed by rich gardens and by stately trees collected into groves all around the bold and beautiful valley in which it stands. ... In the morning after our arrival we met caravans coming from Grand Cairo, and noticed others reposing in the large olive plantations near the gates. . . . " Upon the hills around flocks and herds were feeding as of old ; nor in the simple garb of the shepherds of Samaria was there anything repugnant to the notions we may entertain of the appearance presented by the sons of Jacob. . . . '*' Perhaps no Christian scholar ever at tentively read the 4th chapter of John without being struck with the numerous internal evidences of truth which crowd upon the mind in its perusal. ... In dependently of its importance as a theo logical document, ... a volume might be filled with the illustration it reflects on the history of the Jews and on the geography of their country. All that can be gathered on these subjects from Josephus seems but as a comment to illustrate this chapter. The journey of our Lord from Judaea into Galilee, the cause of it, his passage through the territory of Samaria, his approach to the metropolis of this country, its name, his arrival at the Amorite field which ter minates the narrow valley of Sychem, the ancient custom of halting at a well, the female employment of drawing water, the disciples sent into the city for food, by which its situation out of the town is obvi ously implied, the question of the woman referring to existing prejudices which sep arated the Jews from the Samaritans, the depth of the well, the Oriental allusion con tained in the expression 'living water,' the history of the well and the customs there by illustrated, the worship upon Mount Gerizim— all these occur within the space of 20 verses." SHECHI'NAH, dwelling, a word not found in the Bible, but used in the Jewish Targums and by Christian writers to de- 547 ¦ SHE BIBLE DICTIONARY. SHE note the visible majestic manifestation of the presence of Jehovah, as in the cloud concealing and also revealing his glory, Num. 16:42, which guided the Israelites, enveloped Sinai, Exod. 13:21, 22; 19:9, 16, 18, came to the tabernacle at its dedica tion, rested on it during its sojourn in the wilderness, Exod. 40 : 34-38, and abode within it on the mercy-seat, Lev. 16:2; 2 Sam. 6:2; which also came to Solomon's temple at its dedication, 1 Kin. 8:10, 11, and abode there on the mercy-seat, 2 Kin. 19:15; Psa. 80:1, perhaps with intervals of withdrawal, till the destruction of the tem ple, Psa. 91 : 1 ; 99: 1, but was absent, as the Jews claim, from the rebuilt temple. The Jews based an expectation of the return of the Shechinah in the days of the Messiah on such prophetic passages as Ezek. 43:7, 9; Hag. 1:8; Zech. 2:10; comp. Isa. 4:5. Allusion is made in the New Testament to this "glory of the Lord," Acts 7:2; Rom. 9:4; Heb. 9:5. Similar manifestations at tended the birth and transfiguration of Christ, Luke 2:9; Matt. 17:5; 2 Pet. 1:17, 18. As a type, the Shechinah pointed to the incarnation of the Son of God, John 1:14; comp. Heb. 1:3. THE BROAD-TAILED SYRIAN SHEEP. SHEEP. This animal was early domes ticated, Gen. 4:2, and offered in sacrifice, ver. 4. Much of the wealth of the ancient patriarchs consisted in sheep, Gen. 12:16; 13:2, 5; 24:35; 26:14; 32:5, "4; Job 1:3; -.2:12. They formed an important part of the possessions of the sons of Jacob at their settlement in Egypt, Gen. 46:32; 47:1, 3, and of their descendants at the Exodus, Exod. 12:38, and on and after their en trance into the promised land, Num. 32: 1 ; 1 Sam. 25:2; 2 Sam. 12:2. Scripture says that Pharaoh gave Abraham sheep, not horses ; and it is worthy of note that con- 543 temporary Egyptian monuments show sheep, but no horses till after the Hyksos' invasion. They are among the animals accounted " clean " and eatable by the Mosaic law, Lev. 11:2, 3; Deut. 12:20, 21; 14:4. Their milk was in common use for food, Deut. 32:14; Isa. 7:21, 22; their flesh was often eaten when animal food was em ployed, as ou festive occasions, in the exer cise of hospitality, or ordinarily in the households of persons of high rank, 1 Sam. 25:18 ; 2 Sam. 12:4; 17:29; 1 Kin. 4:22, 23; Neh. 5:18; Isa. 22:13; Amos 6:4. Their wool was spun into cloth, Lev. 13:47; Deut. 22:11 ; Job. 31: 20; Prov. 31:13. Sheep-skins formed one of the coverings of the taber nacle, Exod. 26:14; 36:19, and were worn by the poor, Heb. 11 :37. Tribute was paid by the Moabite king Mesha in sheep and wool, 2 Kin. 3:4; and they were important articles of trade, as between Tyre and the Syrians and Arabians, Ezek. 27:18, 21. Sheep were offered as sacrifices on many occasions, Gen. 15:9; 22:13; Exod. 20:24; the Mosaic law prescribed 2 lambs as a daily burnt-offering, Exod. 29:38, 39, and 4 for the Sabbath, Num. 28:3-10; and rams and lambs were among the burnt-offerings appointed for the new moons, the 3 great feasts, and the Day of Atonement, Num. 28: 11 ; 29. A lamb was the usual Passover victim, Exod. 12:3-5; and from the sheep were often taken peace-offerings and sin or trespass-offerings, Lev. 3:6, 7; 4:32; 5:6, 15, 18; 6:6. See Sacrifice. When a sheep was presented as a peace or sin- offering, in addition to the internal parts required to be burned on the altar, as when the victim was an ox or a goat, the "whole rump," that is, the tail, is speci fied, Exod. 29:22; Lev. 3:9: 7:3. Dr. Rus sell describes 2 varieties of Syrian sheep : the so-called Bedouin sheep, resembling our ordinary sheep ; and the more numer ous broad-tailed sheep, whose tail is com posed of a delicate fat resembling marrow, which is often vised in cooking instead of butter, and, cut into small pieces, forms an ingredient in many dishes. The tail of an ordinary sheep of this sort often weighs 15 pounds, and that of a fatted specimen may weigh 3 times as much. Probably this broad-tailed sheep anciently, as now, was the favorite variety, and the Israelites were commanded to devote to Jehovah its choi cest part. Sometimes strong towers were erected for the defence of the flock, Gen. 35:21; Mic. 4:8, as is still the case in lonely diss- SHE BIBLE DICTIONARY. SHE tr'icts. When the sheep were to be shorn they were, as now, collected in a fold. Frequently also, as now in the East, the sheep were not folded at night, Luke 2:8. Christ informed the Jews that besides his " own sheep " in the " fold " of Israel, he had other sheep among the Gentiles who would "hear his voice," and whom he would gather with Jewish believers into "one flock," John 10:16, R. V. None can pluck them out of his hand, John 10:27-29. SHEEP'-GATE, a gate of Jerusalem as rebuilt by Nehemiah, Neh. 3:1, 32; 12:39. It is believed to be referred to by John as near the pool of Bethesda, John 5:2, R. V. Tradition would identify it with the pres ent St. Stephen's gate, beyond the north east corner of the temple inclosure. More probably it was in the centre of the west ern wall, at the present Bab-el-Kattanin, near which is the Hammam esh-Shifa, heal ing bath. SHEEP'- MARKET, John 5 : 2, rather SHEEP-GATE, as in the R. V. See Sheep- gate. SHEETS, Judg. 14:12, A. V.; "shirts," as in the margin ; probably the garments worn next to the skin. SHEK'EL, weight. The shekel was pri marily only a certain weight, and as such a common standard of measure and valu ation for many articles, as spices, Exod. 30:23, 24; hair, 2 Sam. 14:26; brass or bronze and iron, Gen. 24:22; Exod. 38:24, 25, 29; Josh. 7:21; 1 Sam. 17:5, 7. It was equal to about Vi an ounce avoirdupois. Uncoined silver, in the form of ingots, rings, etc., was weighed by shekels in pay ment as money, as by Abraham to Ephron, Gen. 23:15, 16, and by Jeremiah to Hana- meel, Jer. 32:9, 10. In distinction from the common shekel, the " shekel ofthe sanctu ary," equal to 20 gerahs, probably denotes a just and full shekel according to the standard weight preserved in the house of God, Exod. 30:13; Ezek. 45:12; compare Lev. 19:36; Ezra 8:29, 33. By this were to be weighed all taxes, fines, and contri butions for sacred purposes, Exod. 38:24- 26; Lev. 5:15; 27:2-7, 25; Num- 3:45-5°; 18:14-16. Whether a shekel "after the king's weight" differed from this is un known, but in 2 Sam. 14:26 a copyist's error of " 200 " instead of " 20 " shekels is suspected. In silver by weight in shekels civil taxes were paid, 2 Kin. 15:20; Neh. 5:15, and dues in general, 2 Sam. 24:24. In a time of famine at Samaria a half-pint of food ordinarily despised was worth 5 shek els, 2 Kin. 6:25; but soon after a "meas ure," Heb. seah, = 10 quarts, of fine flour sold for a shekel, 2 Kin. 7:1, 16, 18. A time of scarcity is shown by the rating of a chce- nix, = 1% pints, of wheat at a denarius, or nearly Vi oi a shekel, Rev. 6:6. Dishonest merchants cheated their customers by giv ing small measure, weighing the silver paid them with too heavy shekels, Amos 8:5; comp. Mic. 6:10, 11. See Ephah. Where amounts are mentioned a word is often omitted in the Hebrew, as in Gen. 20:16; 37:28; Song 8:11; instead of "pie ces," the word supplied should always be " shekels," as it is in some cases, Judg. 17:2, etc.; 1 Kin. 10:29. Half, third, and quarter shekels of silver are mentioned, Exod. 30:13, 15; 1 Sam. 9:8; Neh. 10:32. The Jews became acquainted with coined money in the lands of their captivity, and after their return Ezra and Nehemiah men tion the Persian gold coin called " daric," A. V. "dram," Ezra 2:69; Neh. 7:70-72; but the practice of weighing silver still continued, Zech. 11:12, 13. About B. C. 139 Simon Maccabaeus, then high -priest and governor of the Jews, received per mission from the Syrian king Antiochus VII. "to coin money with his own stamp," 1 Mace. 15:6, and there are silver shekels and half-shekels still extant which are at tributed to him. The obverse of these shekels, the first Jewish coinage, bears a vase, perhaps a representative ofthe pot of manna, and an inscription meaning "the shekel of Israel ;" the reverse bears a twig with 3 buds, perhaps indicating Aaron's almond-rod, and an inscription meaning "Jerusalem the holy." The letters are nearly identical with those now known as Samaritan. See Samaritan Pentateuch. Bockh estimates the original weight of this shekel at about 274 Paris grains. It equal led about 60 cents of U. S. currency. The tribute" (Greek two drachmas) asked of Christ at Capernaum, Matt. 17:24-27, R. V., was the half-shekel tax mentioned by Jo sephus as annually paid by the Jews in his time into the temple treasury; compare Exod. 3orr3; 2 Kin. 12:4, 5; 2 Chr. 24:6-9; 549 SHE BIBLE DICTIONARY. SHE the "piece of money " found in the fish's mouth, in Greek "stater," =4 drachmas or 1 shekel, was just the amount required for 2 persons. The " 30 pieces of silver " paid to Judas for betraying Christ, Matt. 26:15; comp. Zech. 11:12, was the valua tion set on a slave's life, Exod. 21:32. SHE'LAH, petition, I., Judah's youngest son, Gen. 38:5, 11, 14, 26; 46:12; Num. 26:20; 1 Chr. 2:3. II. Son of Arphaxad, 1 Chr. 1 :t8, 24 ; called Salah in Gen. 10:24. SHE'LEPH, drawn out, the 2d son of Joktan, Gen. 10:26; 1 Chr. 1:20. An Ara bian tribe and district in Yemen in South Arabia are mentioned by Arabic writers as bearing from him the name Sulaf. SHELO'MITH, peaceful, Lev. 24:11, a woman of the tribe of Dan, whose hus band was an Egyptian and whose son was stoned for blasphemy. SHELU'MIEL, friend of God, Num. 1:6; 2:12, a Simeonite prince at the Exodus. SHEM, name, a son of Noah, Gen. 5:32; 6:10, always named before Ham and Ja pheth, as the eldest son, or as the forefa ther of the Hebrews. In Gen. 10:21 "el der " may be applied to Shem instead of Japheth. Shem was 98 at the time of the Flood, Gen. 7:13; comp. 11:10; his son Ar phaxad was born 2 years after the Flood. The Hebrews were descended from. Ar- phaxad's grandson Eber, through his son Peleg, Gen. 11:12-16, 18-26; many Arabian tribes descended from Eber through his son Joktan, Gen. 10:25-30. Elam, Asshur, Lud, and Aram, also sons of Shem, ver. 22, were progenitors of other nations. Shem died, aged 600, Gen. 11:10, 11. According to the apparent chronology of the Hebrew text, in his first century he was contempo rary with Methuselah, whose first 243 years contemporized with Adam ; and when Shem died Abraham was 148 years old. Shem received from his father a blessing, Gen. 9:26, in the form of a doxology to "Jeho vah," afterwards to reveal himself as pecu liarly the " God of Shem," of whose line were the chosen patriarchs and Israel, and finally the Messiah, Luke 3:23-36. Many Jewish and Christian scholars regard part of Gen. 9:27 as included in the blessing of Shem, explaining, as the Hebrew allows, " God shall . . . dwell in the tents of Shem ;" comp. Exod. 25:8; Num. 5:3; others read, " Japheth shall dwell in the tents of Shem," and find it fulfilled spiritually in the admit tance of the Gentiles to the church of God, Eph. 2:13, 14; 3:6. The servitude of Ca- 55° naan under Shem, Gen. 9:26, was fulfilled partly in the subjugation ofthe Canaanites to Israel, Josh. 23 : 4 ; 2 Chr. 8 : 4, 7, 8 ; comp. Gen. 10:15-18; 15:18-21. The regions peo pled by Shem's descendants intersect por tions of Japheth and Ham. A family of languages is called Shemitic, as pertaining to nations descended from Shem; it in cludes Hebrew, Chaldee, Syriac, Arabic, Ethiopic, etc. ; but in this general class are included several languages spoken by na tions descended from Ham. SHE'MA, fame, Josh. 15:26, a town in the territory first assigned to Judah. See Sheba, III. Probably found at Tel Jem- neh, 9 miles south by west of Gaza. SHEMA'IAH, fehovah hears, the name of many Hebrews, of whom we specify, I., one of the chief Levites who helped David transport the ark from Obed-edom's house to Jerusalem, 1 Chr. 15:8, 11, 12; about B. C. 1042. II. A Levite who made for David a reg ister ofthe 24 priestly classes, 1 Chr. 24:6; about B. C. 1015. III. A prophet by whom God forbade Rehoboam's projected attempt to recover by arms the revolted 10 tribes, 1 Kin. 12:21- 24, and a few years later called Rehoboam and his court to repent at the invasion of Shishak, 2 Chr. 12:5-8. He was a chroni cler of Rehoboam's reign, ver. 15. IV. A false prophet among the exiled Jews in Babylon, who opposed the prophet Jeremiah and incurred divine judgments on himself and his family, Jer. 29:24-32. His appellative, " the Nehelamite," is translated " dreamer " in the margin ; comp. ver. 8. V. A false prophet hired by Sanballat and Tobiah, who sought to terrify Nehe miah into a cowardly retreat within the temple, Neh. 6:10-14. SHEME'BER, soaring aloft, king of Ze- boim in Abraham's time, Gen. 14:2-10. SHE'MER, lees of wine, called SHO'MER in 1 Chr. 7:32; the former owner of the hill on which Omri built Samaria, 1 Kin. 16:24. SHEM'INITH, the eighth, Psa. 6; 12, titles; 1 Chr. 15:21. It seems to denote not an instrument, but a part in music, perhaps the lowest ; or,, as others think, a a certain musical time or key. SHEMU'EL, heard of God, 1 Chr. 6:33, the true Hebrew name of the prophet Samuel. SHEN, the tooth, 1 Sam. 7:12, probably a sharp conspicuous rock, like "Sensh," 1 Sam. 14:4. SHE BIBLE DICTIONARY. SHE SHE'NIR and SE'NIR, snowy peak, the Amorite name for Mount Hermon, Deut. 3:9; Ezek. 27:5; or perhaps for a portion of Hermon, 1 Chr. 5:23; Song 4:8. The part of Anti-Lebanon north of Damascus, now called Jebel esh-Shurky, east moun tain, was mentioned as Senir by the Ara bian historian and geograper Abulfeda, A. D. 1300. See Hermon and Sirion. SHE'OL, a Hebrew word, transferred in the R. V. in many passages of the 65 in which it occurs and in which in the A. V. it is incorrectly rendered "hell," "the grave," or "the pit." It denotes, not the final abode of the lost, nor the place where dead bodies are deposited, but the realm of departed spirits, both the righteous, Gen. 37 : 35 ; Psa. 16:10, and the wicked, Psa. 9:17. See Hell, Soul. SHE'PH AM, fruitful, Num. 34:10, II, a place on the eastern border of the land promised to Israel, between Hazar-enan and Riblah. SHEPHATI'AH, the name of 8 men allu ded to in the, following passages : 2 Sam. 3:4; 1 Chr. 12:5; 27:16; 2 Chr. 21:2; Ezra 2:4; ver. 57; Neh. 11 :4; Jer. 38:1. SHEPHE'LAH, THE, the lowland, the southern portion of that region of Canaan lying between the central hills and the Mediterranean, the northern part being called Sharon. " The Shephelah " often occurs in the Hebrew and always with this definite signification ; it continued to be so used down to the 5th century, and is men tioned by Eusebius and Jerome. It should have been transferred to the English, but is rendered in the A. V. " the vale," Deut. 1:7; Josh. 10:40; 1 Kin. 10:27; 2 Chr. 1:15; Jer. 33:13; " the valley" or " valleys," Josh. 9:1; 11:2, 16; 12:8; 15:33; Judg. 1:9; Jer. 32:44; "the plain," Jer. 17:26; Obad. 19; Zech. 7:7; "the low plains," 1 Chr. 27:28; 2 Chr. 9:27; and "the low country," 2 Chr. 26:10; 28:18. In 1 Mace. 12:38 it appears as "Sephela." Josh. 15:33-47 contains a list of 43 cities included in the Shephelah, showing that it embraced not only the mar itime plain from Ekron to the " river of Egypt" southwest of Gaza, but also the lower hills leading up to " the mountains of Judah." It formed one ofthe 3 main divis ions of Judah, the others being "the Moun tains" and the Negeb, in the A. V. "the south," Judg. 1:9'; Jer. 32:44. The region was favorable for olive and sycamore trees, 1 Chr. 27:28; 2 Chr. 9:27, and for cattle, 2 Chr. 26:10. Though in the territory of Judah, the Philistines long retained the corn - producing maritime plain, with its cities, 2 Kin. 8 : 1-3 ; Obad. 19. See Phi listia. The Shephelah rises from 100 to 500 feet above the sea, and is still exceed ingly fertile; the lower western plain and the broad valleys among the hills produce large crops of grain, and on the hills olive- groves still flourish. The hilly district con tains many villages, with houses of stone or mud, and also many ruins of ancient sites. Ancient wells and some fine springs occur. The hills are of soft white lime stone, with bands of brown quartz between the strata. In Josh. 11:16, the 2d " Shephelah," with out the article in the Hebrew, in the A. V. " valley of the same," evidently refers to the lowland adjoining Mount Ephraim — " the mountain of Israel "—i. e., probably the northern continuation of the Shephe lah, elsewhere called Sharon. SHEP'HERD, or Pastor. Abel was a keeper of sheep, Gen. 4:2. When men began to multiply and to follow different employments, Jabal son of Lamech was acknowledged as father, that is the first, of shepherds and nomads, Gen. 4:20. A large part of the wealth ofthe ancient patriarchs consisted in flocks and herds, the care of which was shared by their sons, daughters, and servants, Gen. 13:7; 29:9; 37:2. Shep herds were also employed, but were not highly esteemed, Job 30:1. Jacob seems to have been pressed by Laban beyond the requirements of the pastoral.law, Gen. 31:39; compare Exod. 22:13; Amos 3:12. Oriental law still provides that "a cattle- tender may exonerate himself from blame or loss by carrying to his employer some portion of an animal that has died without the tender's fault ; but if he cannot prove his innocence and due carefulness he must bear the loss. Moses and David were both shepherds before they were called to be leaders of Israel, Exod. 3:1-10; 1 Sam. 16:11-13; Psa. 78:70-72. Shepherds were highly honored in receiving from heaven tidings of the birth of Christ, Luke 2:8-20. In the time of the kings, the " chief herds man " held a post of importance and honor, 1 Sam. 21:7; 1 Chr. 27:29-31. In Spain, flocks of merino sheep sometimes number 10,000, and are under the care of a chief shepherd with some 50 assistants. Char- din mentions a clan of Turcoman shep herds whose sheep and goats numbered 3,000,000, and who had besides camels, horses, oxen, and cows amounting to 400,- 000. In Palestine and its vicinity, besides 551 SHE BIBLE DICTIONARY. SHE those who united the keeping of flocks and herds with the tillage of the ground, there were and still are numbers of nomads or wandering shepherds confining themselves to no settled home. These dwellers in tents often had a wide range of pasture- grounds, from one to another of which they drove their flocks as occasion required, Gen. 37:12-17. In the vast deserts east and south of Palestine they found many spots which in winter and spring were clothed with verdure, Exod. 3:1; Psa. 65 : 12, 13. But the heat of summer withered these " pastures of the wilderness " and drove the shepherds and their flocks to seek for highlands and streams. There are many indications in Scripture of the conscious strength and independence of the ancient shepherd patriarchs, of the extent of their households, and the consideration in which they were held, Gen. 14:14-24; 21:22-32; 26:13-16; 30:43; Job 1:3. The Egyptians, however, despised shepherds, Gen. 46:34, a fact attested by the ancient monuments, which represent shepherds as of low caste, slovenly, and in some cases deformed. God sometimes takes the name of Shep herd of Israel, Psa. 80: 1 ; Jer. 31:10; and kings, both in Scripture and ancient wri ters, are distinguished by the title of " Shep herds of the people." The prophets often inveigh against the "shepherds of Israel," that is, the kings, who feed themselves and neglect their flocks, or distress them and lead them astray, Ezek. 34:10. In like manner .Christ, as the Messiah, is often called a shepherd, Zech. 13:7, and also takes on himself the title of "the Good Shepherd." who gives his life for his sheep, John 10:11, 14, 15. Paul calls him the great Shepherd of the sheep, Heb. 13:20, and Peter gives him the appellation of Chief shepherd, 1 Pet. 5:4. His ministers are in like manner the pastors or under- shepherds ofthe flock, Jer. 3:15; 23:3, 4; Acts 20:28-30; Eph. 4:11. In many passa ges where the word " feed " occurs, the expressive original word means " be a shepherd to," Psa. 28:9; John 21:16; Acts 20:28; 1 Pet. 5:2; Rev. 7:17. In John 10:1-16, 27-29, our Saviour says the Good Shepherd lays down his life for his sheep, that he knows them and they know him, that they hear his voice and fol low him, that he goes before them, that no one shall force them out of his hands, and that he calls them by their names. These, however, being all incidents, taken from the customs of the country, are by no means 552 so striking to us as they must have been to those who heard our Lord, and who had often witnessed such methods of con ducting this domesticated animal. Mod ern travellers in the East meet with many pleasing confirmations of the truth of Scrip ture in respect to these particulars; they see the shepherd walking before his flock, any one of which will instantly run to him when called by its own name. The hire ling, or bad shepherd, forsakes the sheep, and the thief enters, not by the door of the sheepfold, but climbs in another way. See Sheep. The Bible applies many of the excellences of the faithful shepherd in il lustration ofthe Saviour's care of his flock. The shepherd was responsible for each member ofthe flock intrusted to him, Exod. 22:10-13; John 10:28; he had need of great courage and endurance, Gen. 31 :4o; 1 Sam. 17:34, 35; John 10:15; he exercised a ten der care towards the feeble, carried the lambs in his arms, Gen. 33:13; Isa. 40:11; Mark 10 : 14, 16 ; and searched for the lost sheep, bringing it back from the " land of drought and the shadow of death" into green pastures and by the still waters, Psa. 23; Luke 15:4-7. SHEPHU'PHAN, serpent, 1 Chr. 8:5, a grandson of Benjamin ; called Shu'pham, Num. 26:39; Shup'pim, i Chr. 7:12, 15; and Mup'pim, Gen. 46:21. SHE'RAH, consanguinity, 1 Chr. 7:24, a female descendant of Ephraim, founder of several towns. SHERD, an earthenware vessel or frag ment, Isa. 30:14; Ezek. 23:34. SHEREBI'AH, heat of fehovah, a Levite trusted and faithful in the return from Cap tivity, Neh. 8:7; 9:4, 5; 10:12; 12:8, 24. SHERE'ZER, Zech. 7 : 2. See Share- zer, II. SHER'IFFS, Dan. 3:2, 3, in the Babylo nian kingdom, probably officials answering to the muftis or " head-doctors " of Moham medan law in the Turkish Empire. SHE'SHACH, a poetical or symbolical name for Babylon, Jer. 25:26; 51:41. The word may designate Babylon as the city with bronze gates; or may signify, from the Persian, " the house of the prince;" or it may contain the name of one of the di vinities worshipped by the Babylonians. SHESHBAZ'ZAR, Ezra 1:8, 11; 5:14, 16; comp. Ezra 2:1,2; 3:8-10; Zech. 4:9; the Chaldaean or Persian name of Zerubbabel. SHETH, tumult, I., 1 Chr. 1:1, the more correct form of the patriarch Seth's name. See Seth. SHE BIBLE DICTIONARY. SHI II. Num. 24:17; the word here is proba bly not a proper name: instead of " chil dren of Sheth," it is proposed to render "sons of tumult," i. e., the tumultuous warriors of Moab ; comp. Jer. 48:45. SHE'THAR, star, one of the 7 chief princes of Persia and Media under Ahasu erus or Xerxes, B. C. 483, Esth. 1 : 14; comp. Ezra 7:14. SHE'THAR-BOZ'NAI, star of splendor, a Persian officer in Palestine under Tatnai, in the reign of Darius Hystaspis, B. C. 520, Ezra 5:3, 6; 6:6, 13. See Tatnai. SHE'VA, 2 Sam. 20:25. See Seraiah, II. SHEW'-BREAD, or SHOW-BREAD. See Bread. SHIB'BOLETH, an ear of grain, Gen. 41 : 5, a branch or twig, Zech. 4 : 12, a stream or flood, Psa. 69:2, 15. The Ephraimites, jealous of the Gileadites' victory over the Ammonites, provoked a war with the Gile adites under Jephthah, and were defeated. When an escaping Ephraimite sought to pass the Jordan, denying that he was an Ephraimite, the Gileadites guarding the fords bade him 'say shibboleth, but as he pronounced it sibboleth, he was discovered and killed. In this war 42,000 Ephraimites perished, Judg. 12:1-6; comp. ch. 11. This incident shows that variations of dialect existed among tribes of the same nation and speaking the same language. It is no wonder, therefore, that the same word is found written in different ways, according to the pronunciation of different tribes. Thus in the time of Christ the peculiarities of Peter's dialect bore witness that he was brought up in Galilee, Matt. 26:73. Shib boleth is naturalized in English in the sense of a party test or watchword. SHIB'MAH, balsam, a town in Reuben, east of the Jordan, Num. 32:38. See Sib- mah. SHIC'RON, drunkenness, a landmark in the northern boundary of Judah, Josh. 15:11. Traced at Kh. Sukerei, 5 miles northeast of Ashdod. SHIELD, BUCK'LER, TAR'GET, a piece of defensive armor, in all ages before fire arms rendered them useless, of different forms and sizes, not uniformly distinguish ed in the A. V.; usually round or oval. The large shield, tsinnah, 1 Chr. 12:24, 34. was sometimes borne before a warrior by an attendant when not in actual combat, 1 Sam. 17:7, 41. A smaller shield, magen, Judg. 5 : 8, often translated " buckler," 1 Chr. 5:18, was in common use, and the 2 are often mentioned together as soldiers' equipments, 2 Chr. 14:8; Jer. 46:3; &£ek 23:24. Both Hebrew terms are applied to God as the protector of his people : magen in Gen. 15:1; Deut. 33:29; Psa. 84:9, 11; tsinnah in Psa. 5:12. Earthly rulers are also called "shields," Psa. 47:9. From 1 Kin. 10:16, 17 it appears that much more material was required for the tsinnah or "target " than for the magen or "shield." Shields were borne on the left arm held by a thong near the elbow and anothei grasped by the hand, or with a central knob or handle. They were made with a light wooden framework covered with tough hides, and so might be burned, Ezek. 39:9; often with projecting bosses or spikes, Job 15:26, and rounded and polished to turn aside weapons. Sometimes they were rimmed with iron or cased with gold, as the shields made by Solomon for religious or state processions, 1 Kin. 10:16, 17, taken by Shishak, and replaced by Rehoboam with bronze ones, 1 Kin. 14:25-28. Metal shields were used by the soldiers of Anti ochus V., 1 Mace. 6:39. The surface was kept in good condition by applying oil, Isa. 21 :5, and was further protected by a cover when not in use, Isa. 22:6. Saul's shield was cast away in battle and " not anoint ed," 2 Sam. 1:21. Shields protected the wearers in besieging cities, Isa. 37 : 33 ; Ezek. 26:8, being so interlocked as to form an unbroken front. The word rendered "shield" in Job 39:23; 1 Sam. 17:45, and "target" in 1 Sam. 17:6, means a lance or javelin. Paul the prisoner takes the shield of his Roman guard as the symbol of Chris tian faith, Eph. 6:16; 1 John 5:4; compare 2 Sam. 22:36. See Arms. SHIGGA'ION, pi. SHIGIO'NOTH, Psa. 7, title ; variously derived and interpreted by Hebrew scholars: as a song or psalm, a song of praise or of lamentation, an irreg ular lofty ode. " Upon Shigionoth," or "after the manner ofthe Shiggaion," Hab. 3:1, may be a musical direction as to the accompaniment of the " prayer " or ode. SHI'HON, ruins, Josh. 19:19, a town of Issachar ; traced at Ayun esh-Shain, 3 miles northwest of Mount Tabor. SHI'HOR, black, 1 Chr. 13:5. See River of Egypt and Sihor. SHI'HOR-LIB'NATH, black-while, a point in the boundary of Asher, Josh. 19:26, the Nahr Namein, a stream emptying into the Bay of Acre, a little southeast of that city SHIL,1 HIM, fountains, Josh. 15:32, a town in the south of Judah. See Sharuhen. SHIL'LEM, Gen. 46:24; Num. 26:49 553 SHI BIBLE DICTIONARY. SHI called Shallum in s Chr. 7:13, recompense ; a son of Naphtali. SHILO'AH, Isa. 8:6. See Siloam. SHI'LOH, Gen. 49:10. This term in Ja cob's prophetic blessing upon Judah has been applied by some scholars to the town Shiloh — until Judah " come to Shiloh;" but this town did not then exist, nor was Judah there dethroned. The common view, sup ported by the ancient Jewish and Christian versions (the Jewish Septuagint, the tar- gums of Onkelos and Jerusalem, the Ara bic version, the Christian, Syriac, and Latin versions, and the Samaritan Pentateuch) refers the word to the Messiah. All are not, however, agreed as to the literal sig nification of "Shiloh:" some translate, "till He come lo whom it belongs," i. e., the sceptre; comp. Ezek. 21:27; others, "the Peacemaker;" others still, "the Desired One." The most probable meaning is " the Peaceful One," of whom Solomon, peaceful, was a type, and who is termed in isa. 9:6 "the Prince of Peace;" comp. John 14:27. The last clause of the verse is to be ren dered, "and unto him shall the obedience of the peoples be," including heathen na tions. Compare Matt. 11:28-30; 23:37, and Isaiah's description of the combined peace and power of the Messiah, Isa. 42 : 1-3. The prophecy thus falls into line with the previous divine announcements to Abra ham, Isaac, and Jacob of a Seed in whom all the nations should be blessed, Gen. 12:3; 22:18; 26:4; 28:14; comp. John 8:56; Gal. 3:16, while it goes beyond them in defin ing among Jacob's 12 sons the one from whom the Seed, the " Lawgiver between his feet," should descend; compare Num. 24:17; Zech. 9:9, 10; Rev. 5:5. It is fur ther expanded in such passages as Psalms 2, 72, and no. King David and his line long held the sceptre of Judah, 1 Chr. 5:2, and Isaiah predicted the springing of a powerful " rod," an everlasting kingship, from the stock of Jesse, Isa. 11 : 1-12. The beginning ofthe fulfilment ofthe prophecy of the Messiah's reign was announced to Mary by Gabriel, Luke 1:32, 33. After the fall of the actual kingdom of Judah, the tribal name survives as that of a national ity, the term Yehudim, Judaeans or Jews, in cluding representatives of the other tribes, Neh. .1:2; Esth. 2:5; 3:6; John 5:1; Acts 26:3-7. The final passing away of the civil power from Judah, indicated by the " tax ing " at Christ's birth, and completed in the destruction of Jerusalem, did not occur till Shiloh had come, to assume a spiritual 554 sceptre which is in no danger of ever pass ing away. SHI'LOH, peace, rest, a city of Ephraim, 19 miles north of Jerusalem, 11 south of Shechem, about 2 miles east of the main road between them via Bethel, Judg. 21:19. Here, when the Promised Land was sub dued, the Israelites assembled and estab lished the ark and tabernacle, previously at Gilgal ; here Joshua allotted the portions of the 7 tribes not already located, Josh. 18 ; 19 ; to Eleazar and Joshua and the el ders at Shiloh the Levites applied for theii promised cities, Josh. 21 ; from Shiloh Josh ua solemnly dismissed the tribes whose possessions .were east of the Jordan, Josh. 22 : 1-9, and hence a deputation of inquiry was sent to them on a rumor of idolatry, ver. 10-34. The tabernacle and ark, the centre ofthe worship of Jehovah, remained at Shiloh through the period of the Judges, Judg. 18:31. Here, at an annual " feast of the Lord," the remnant of the Benjamites seized maidens of Shiloh for wives, Judg. 21 : 19-23 ; comp. Exod. 15 : 20; Psa. 68 : 25. At Shiloh Hannah's vow was made and ful filled, 1 Sam. 1:8 to 2:11 ; and here Samuel grew up and was called to be a prophet of the Lord, 1 Sam. 2:18-21, 26; 3; 4:1. The ark, removed by Saul to the battlefield and captured by the Philistines in Eli's time, 1 Sam. 4:2-22, was not returned to Shiloh, ch. 5:1 to 7:2; 2 Sam. 6:2, n, 12 ; and the tabernacle was transferred to Gibeon, 1 Kin. 3:4; 1 Chr. 16:39. This catastrophe was a striking proof that sacred objects and. forms have no talismanic virtue, but will surely fail those who rely upon them instead of God. The degradation of Shi loh because of the iniquities of Israel, i Sam. 2:12-17, 22-25, is referred to by Asaph, Psa. 78:58-60, and cited by Jeremi ah as a type of God's vengeance on Jeru salem and the temple, Jer. 7: 12-14; 26:6. 9- The prophet Ahijah was a resident of Shi loh, 1 Kin. 11:29; 12:15; 14:2-4. See also Jer. 41 : 5. In Jerome's time, A. D. 340-420, Shiloh was in ruins. Shiloh has been identified with Seilun, where, on a low hill, surrounded by higher hills, are ruins of a comparatively modern village, with hewn stones and foundations of a much earlier date. In a little valley half a mile northeast are a spring and pool affording an abundant supply of water— the scene probably of the dance and cap ture of the "daughters of Shiloh;" and near by are rock-hewn tombs, among which Jewish tradition places those of Eli and hip SHI BIBLE DICTIONARY. SHI' SEILUN, FORMERLY SHILOH. sons. Traces of terraces are on the hills, proofs of former cultivation. The position of Shiloh was both central and secluded, and well fitted for the national sanctuary of Israel. SHILO'NI, Neh. 11:5. See Shilonites. SHI'LONITE, an appellation of Ahijah, as a native or resident of Shiloh, 1 Kin. 11:29; comp. ch. 14:2,4. SHI'LONITES, THE, 1 Chr. 9:5, descend ants of Judah's son Shelah, Gen. 46:12; elsewhere called Shelanites, Num. 26:20, and in Neh. 11:5 Shiloni, A. V. SHIM'EA, SHIM'EAH, rumor, I., a bro ther qf David, 2 Sam. 13:3; 21:21; 1 Chr. 20:7; called Shammah, 1 Sam. 16:9, and Shimma, 1 Chr. 2:13. II. A son of David and Bath-sheba, 1 Chr. 3:5; called also Shammua, 2 Sam. 5:14; 1 Chr. 14:4. III. A Merarite Levite, 1 Chr. 6:30. IV. A Gershonite Levite, 1 Chr. 6:39. SHIM'EAM or SHIM'EAH, splendor, a Benjamite, 1 Chr. 8:32; 9:38. SHIM'EATH,yawze, an Ammonitess, mo ther of Zabad or Jozachar, one of the 2 murderers of king Joash, 2 Kin. 12:21; 2 Chr. 24:26. SHYM!El,famous, the name of 14 or more Hebrews, of whom the following may be specified: I.' A son of Gershon the son of Levi, Num. 3:18: 1 Chr. 6:17, 42; 23:7, 9, 10; called Shimi, Exod. 6:17. It is to his de scendants, probably, that reference is made in Zech. 12:13; comp. Num. 3:21. II. The son of Gera, a Benjamite and a kinsman of Saul, who insulted king David when fleeing before Absalom, and humbled himself on David's return. On both occa sions David spared and forgave him ; but when dying he cautioned Solomon against a man who knew no restraints but those of fear. Shimei gave his parole never to leave Jerusalem, but broke it by pursuing his fugitive servants to Gath, and was put to death on returning, 2 Sam. 16:5-14; 19:16-23; 1 Kin. 2:8, 9, 36-46. III. An officer under David, and perhaps under Solomon, 1 Kin. 1:8; 4:18. SHI'MI, Exod. 6:17, and SHIM'ITES, Num. 3:21. See Shimei, I. SHIM'MA, hearing, 1 Chr. 2:13. See Shimea, I. SHIM'RITH, watchful , a Moabitess, mo ther of Jehozabad, one of the murderers of king Joash, 2 Chr. 24:26, who in 2 Kin. 12:21 is called the son of Shomer. SHIM'ROM, watch, 1 Chr. 7:1, A. V., properly SHIM'RON, a son of Issachar, Gen. 46:13; Num. 26:24. SHIM'RON, watch, an ancient city of Canaan, whose king, under Jabin, opposed Joshua and was defeated, Josh. 11:1 ; comp. ver. 5-12; probably the same as Shimron- meron, whose king was one ofthe 31 allies 555 SHI BIBLE DICTIONARY. SHI defeated by Joshua, Josh. 12:20. Shimron was allotted to Zebulun, Josh. 19:15. It is traced at Semuniyeh, 14 miles southeast of Haifa, and 11 miles west of Mount Tabor. SHIM'RONITES, descendants of Issa- char's son, Shimron, Num. 26:24. SHIM'RON-ME'RON, Josh. 12:20. See Shimron. SHI'NAR, THE LAND OF, contained the cities of Babel, Erech, Calneh, and Accad, Gen. 10:10. In this region the confusion of tongues occurred, Gen. 11:2-9. One of its kings, retreating with his allies from a successful inroad on Canaan, was pursued and routed by Abram, Gen. 14:1-17. Its textile fabrics were early and widely prized, Josh. 7:21 (Heb. "garment of Shinar"). The term is used by Isaiah, 11: n, Daniel, 1:2, and Zechariah, 5:11. Shinar is prob ably to be identified with the Sumer ot Shumer of the cuneiform inscriptions, a name there denoting apparently the south ern portion of the " land of the Chaldae ans," " Babylonia," or " Mesopotamia " in its wider sense, Acts 7:2. "Sumer and Accad " frequently occurs in the inscrip tions as a name for the whole rich and populous alluvial plain along the Euphra tes and Tigris, from the Persian Gulf (which anciently extended northward beyond the present junction of the 2 rivers) to a point a little north of modern Bagdad, more than 200 miles. A highly -cultivated non-She- mitic people appear to have early held this region, compare Gen. 10:8-10, before the Shemitic Chaldaeans subjugated it, adopt ing the civilization and preserving the dia lect of the conquered race. A LARGE ANCltiNT SHIP: FROM A PAINTING AT POMPEII. SHIP. The Hebrews were not a mari time people. The Mediterranean and Red Sea ports were usually in the hands of their heathen neighbors. When Solomon re quired timber from Lebanon, the ships of Tyre conveyed it to Joppa, 2 Chr. 2:16; comp. Ezra 3:7; and when he undertook foreign navigation he again had recourse to Phoenicians, 1 Kin. 9:26-28, who were long celebrated for the ships and their ex tensive commerce. The attempt of Jehosh aphat in foreign commerce was a failure, 1 Kin. 22:48. The people of the northern kingdom, by contact with the Phoenicians, may have acquired some naval skill ; comp. the prophetic "blessing" of Jacob upon Zebulun, Gen. 49:13, and of Moses upon Zebulun and Issachar, Deut. 33:18, 19; also Deborah's rebuke to Dan and Asher, Judg. 5: 17; and Ahaziah's offer of aid to Jehoshaphat, 1 Kin. 22:49; 2 Chr. 20:35, 36. Of the Phoenician ships, with their cedar masts, oaken oars, and sails of Egyptian cloth, some idea may be gained from Ezek. 27, a description in accord with represen tations of Phoenician galleys in Assyrian sculptures. For an account of a tempestu ous voyage in an ancient merchant-ship 556 from the port of Joppa, see Jonah 1. These ships, Prov. 31:14, which also carried pas sengers, are those commonly referred to in the Old Testament ; but the following pas sages relate to ships of war, Num. 24:24; Dan. 11:30, 40, and probably Isa. 33:21; Ezek. 30:9. Ancient Egyptian monuments represent ships with a central mast, a large square sail, and also many rowers. War ships were often armed with a sharp pro jecting prow, and were used as rams. The Chaldaeans doubtless had ships on the Per sian Gulf, Isa. 43 : 14. The " ships " on the Sea of Galilee were fishing-boats, impelled by oars, Mark 6:48; John 21:6, and some times having a mast and sail, Luke 8:23. The verb " was full " in Mark 4:37 is better rendered in the R. V., " was filling." Paul made many voyages in ships, and was sev eral times wrecked, 2 Cor. 11:25. In his voyage as a prisoner to Rome he sailed in 3 ships, the first probably being a coasting vessel of small size, Acts 27:2, R. V., the others large Alexandrian corn-ships, Acts 27:6; 28:11. In Greek and Roman ships there were usually several banks of row ers, one above another, who could propel the vessel steadily and swiftly without the SHI BIBLE DICTIONARY. SHI aid of a sail. Their merchant-ships were of larger and heavier build, often from 500 to 1,000 tons burden, and relied upon sails ; that in which Paul was wrecked carried 276 persons, besides a cargo of wheat, Acts 27:37, 38. Besides the large mast, PART OF A WAR-GALLEY with a long yard and a large square sail, top-sails were also used, and a fore-sail attached to a smaller mast at the bow, ver. 40, R. V. In a gale the heavy top-gear of the mainmast was taken down, ver. 17, R. V. The great strain on the mainmast was sometimes relieved and prevented from causing leaks by the use of " helps," 1. e., cables or chains passed around the ship to tighten it, ver. 17. Ships were steered by two large paddle-rudders pro jecting through row-locks, one on each side of the stern ; these were lashed up when at anchor, out of the way of the ground- tackle, and loosed when again needed, ver. 40, R. V. The anchors resembled those of modern times, and were frequent ly cast from the stern, ver. 29. The ship's outfit included a boat, ver. 16, 17, 30, 32. Ships were often highly ornamented at the prow and stern, which were similar in shape ; an eye being often painted on each side of the bow, ver. 15, R. V.— literally " could not look at the wind." The "sign " by which a vessel was known was often a sculptured image of its tutelar divinity, Acts 28:11. An ancient ship could sail 7 miles an hour. Having no compasses, ancient navigators guided their course by the heavenly bodies, Acts 27:20, making a harbor on dark nights if practicable, Acts 20:13-16; 21:1, and not willingly remain- FROM AN ANCIENT BAS-RELIEF. ing at sea in winter, when the sky was often obscured, Acts 27:9, 12; 28:11. The Romans spoke of the sea as " closed " from November till March, when it was "open ed" again. Luke's faithful description of the voyage and shipwreck of Paul and him self, Acts 27 ; 28, gives many details as to ancient navigation confirmed by such noti ces as we find in classic authors, ancient sculptures, pictures, and coins, and the re sults of modern study. See Tarshish. SHIPH'MITE, 1 Chr. 27:27, probably a native of Shepham. SHIPH'RAH and PU'AH, midwives in Egypt, who through the fear of God spared the newborn sons of the Hebrews, contrary to the orders of the king. God rewarded their kindness to his people, though con- -demning no doubt the untruthfulness of their excuse to the king. He "made them houses," that is, probably gave each of them a numerous family, Exod. 1:15-21. SHI'SHA, 1 Kin. 4:3. See Seraiah, II. SHI'SHAK, a king of Egypt who afforded a refuge to Jeroboam fleeing from Solo mon, 1 Kin. 11:40. Perhaps incited by Jeroboam when the latter had become king over Israel, Shishak, with a vast army of subjects and allies, invaded the kingdom of Judah in the 5th year of Rehoboam, about B. C. 969, captured his fortified cit ies, and appeared before Jerusalem, forcing 557 SHI BIBLE DICTIONARY. SHI Rehoboam to yield to him the treasures of the temple and of the royal palace, inclu ding the golden shields made by Solomon, I Kin. 14:25, 26; 2 Chr. 12:2-9; compare 11:5-10. Shishak is identified with the Sesonchis ofthe Egyptian priest-historian Manetho, B. C. 300, the Sheshonk I. of the monu ments, first king of the 22d or Bubastite dynasty. He overthrew the rival dynasty of Tanis (into which probably Solomon had married) and that of Thebes, and estab lished his court at Bubastis, taking as the title of his standard, " He who attains roy alty by uniting the two regions " — Upper and Lower Egypt. Shishak has left a rec ord of his conquests, including that of Ju dah, on a wall of the great temple at Kar- nak, Thebes. He is represented in a large bas-relief as preparing to inflict death, in the presence ofthe chief Theban god Amun, upon a group of captives. Each conquered country or city is personified, its name be ing written in an oval shield attached to the figure. One of these figures, with He brew features, has on its shield the charac ters which stand for foudh-Malek, followed by the character for land, the whole signi fying "kingdom of Judah." See Reho boam. Many other symbols are believed to denote fortified cities of Judah and Le vitical cities of Israel — which it is conjec- 558 tured Jeroboam may have abandoned to Shishak to punish them for adhering to Rehoboam and leaving Israel, 2 Chr. 11:13, 14. Shishak reigned at least 21 years, and was succeeded by his son Osorthon or Usarken, possibly the Zerah of Asa's reign. See Pharaoh and Zerah. SHIT'TAH-TREE, Isa. 41:19. See Shit- TIM-WOOD. SHIT'TIM, the acacias, the place where the Moabites and the Midianites, by Ba laam's advice, seduced Israel into sin, for which a terrible punishment was inflicted on the Israelites, Num. 25, and later upon the Midianites, Num. 31. Shittim, or Abel- shittim, was the last encampment of the Israelites before crossing the Jordan into Canaan, Num. 33:49; Josh. 2:1; 3:1. It is the well-watered plain extending from the foot of the mountains of Moab to the Jor dan, and was named from the number of acacias which grew there. It is now called Ghor es-Seisaban, and is described by Tristram as " the largest and richest oasis in the whole Ghor " or Jordan depression. At the southern extremity is Suweimeh, identified by Dr. Merrill and others with Beth-jeshimoth ; and at the northern mar gin is Tell Kefrain, whose " marshy ver dure," according to Tristram, identifies it with Abel-shittim, meadow of the acacias. SHIT'TIM, THE VALLEY or winler-lor- rent OF, Joel 3:18; probably some wady on the west of the Jordan ; by some identi fied with the gorge through which the Kid ron in rainy seasons flows to the Dead Sea; comp. Ezek. 47:1, 8. SHIT'TIM- WOOD, Exod. 25:5. The wood of the shittah-tree, Isa. 41 : 19, was much employed in constructing the taber nacle and its furniture : the boards, bars, and pillars of the building, the ark, the show-bread table, and the incense-altar, with their staves, were of shittim-wood overlaid with gold; the burnt-offering altar and its staves were of the "same wood over laid with brass, Exod. 25; 26; 27; 30; 36; 37; 38. The shittim-wood is identified with the acacia, several varieties of which grow in Egypt, Arabia, and Palestine. The Acacia seyal is the only timber-tree of any considerable size growing in the deserts of Arabia; it is scattered over the Sinaitic peninsula, and is found on the western shore of the Dead Sea, where it gives its name to wady Seyal, south of Ain Jidy, or En-gedi. See Shittim. The seyal at a distance resembles an apple-tree. Its wood is close-grained, hard, and of a brown SHO BIBLE DICTIONARY. SHU color, being both handsome and exceed ingly durable. The leaves are decom pound and pinnate, the blossoms cluster in yellow, fibrous-looking balls, and the fruit resembles a locust-pod. The bark is yel low and smooth, and the branches abound in long, sharp thorns. From cracks or in cisions in the seyal and some other acacias exudes the well-known gum-arabic, which the Arabs gather and sell and sometimes use as food. They convert much of the wood into charcoal. The trunk is some times 3 or 4 feet in diameter. SHO'A, Ezek. 23:23, is variously inter preted, as a title, noble, or the name of a place, or of some Chaldaean tribe. SHO'BACH, the general of Hadarezer, king of Syria-Zoba; he was defeated and killed in a battle with David, 2 Sam. 10:15- 18. He is called Shophach in 1 Chr. 19:16- 18. SHO'BI, taking captive, a chief Ammon ite who befriended David in his flight from Absalom, 2 Sam. 17:27-29, son of a former king, Nahash, also friendly to David, 2 Sam. 10:1, 2; comp. Prov. 17:17; 27:10. SHO'CHO, 2 Chr. 28:18; SHO'CHOH, 1 Sam. 17:1; SHO'CO, 2 Chr. 11:7. See Socoh. SHOES. See Sandals. In Egypt and Syria taking off one's slipper and striking another with it, or throwing it at him, is still a customary token of renunciation, as of an unworthy son — and perhaps, play fully, of a daughter leaving her parents at her marriage; in lieu of this the modern Arab sometimes exclaims, " My shoe at you!" Compare Ruth 4:7, 8; Psa. 60:8; 108:9, ant* the treatment of the refractory brother by the Mosaic law, Deut. 25:5-9. A missionary in Alexandria reports that the Moslems thus renounce their relatives converted to Christianity. SHO'MER, keeper, I., an Asherite, called also Shamer, 1 Chr. 7:32, 34. II. Parent, perhaps father, of Jehozabad, 2 Kin. 12:21; comp. 2 Chr. 24:26. SHO'PHACH, 1 Chr. 19:16, 18. See Sho- bach. SHO'PHAN, bareness, Num. 32:35, prob ably to be connected with the " Atroth " preceding, to distinguish it from the Ata- roth of ver. 34, both in Gad, east of the Jordan. SHOSHAN'NIM, lilies, Psa. 45 ; 69, titles ; SHOSHAN'NIM-E'DUTH, lilies, a testimo ny, Psa. 80, title ; SHU'SHAN-E'DUTH, lily, a testimony, Psa. 60, title. These expres sions are all inscribed "to the chief musi cian," and may safely be regarded as indi cating the melody " after " or " in the man ner " of which — A. V. "upon" — the Psalm was to be sung. Some, however, see in the terms an allusion to the subject-matter of the Psalm; and others regard the shu- shan, pi. shoshannim, as a lily-shaped mu sical instrument, a cymbal, a trumpet, or an instrument with 6 strings. SHOULD, John 6:71, would; in Acts 23:27, "was about to be." SHOUL'DER. Burdens being commonly borne on the shoulder, Num. 7:9; Psa. 81:6, to "bow the shoulder" denotes ser vitude, Gen. 49:15, and to "withdraw" it denotes rebellion, Neh. 9:29; Zech. 7:11. SHOVEL, Isa. 30:24, a winnowing fork or fan . SHOW-BREAD. See Bread. SHRINE. See Diana. SHROUD, Ezek. 31 : 3, cover or shelter. SHU'A, noble, daughter of Heber, 1 Chr, 7:32- SHU'AH, depression, a son of Abraham and Keturah, Gen. 25:2; 1 Chr. 1:32; per haps the progenitor of Bildad the Shuhite, Job 2:11. SHU'AH, prosperity, a descendant of Caleb son of Hur, 1 Chr. 4:11. SHU'AL, jackal, or fox, THE LAND OF; a region towards which one of the maraud ing Philistine bands went from Michmash, 1 Sam. 13:17; probably the range south east of Shechem, on the east border of Ephraim, overlooking the Jordan valley. See Shalim and Zeboim. SHU'HAM, a son of Dan, Num. 26:42; called Hushim in Gen. 46:23. SHU'HITE. See Shuah. SHU'LAMITE, the title of the bride in Solomon's Song, 6:13; literally the Shulam- miless, Heb. hash-Shulammith, which some interpret as equivalent to "the Shunam- 559 SHU BIBLE DICTIONARY. SHU mitess," or woman of Shunem — as if con trasting the rustic origin cf the bride with that of " the daughters of Jerusalem," Song 1 :5, 6, etc. Others regard it as a figurative proper name, derived from the same root with Solomon — Heb. Shelomoh, peaceful — and corresponding with it as a feminine form, as Julia with Julius. Still others consider it a simple appellative, meaning " the peaceful." See Shunammite and Shunem. SHU'NAMMITE, a female of Shunem; applied to Abishag, I Kin. 1:3, 15; 2:17, 21, 22; and to Elisha's hostess, 2 Kin. 4: 12, 25, 36; comp. ver. 8. See Shunkm. SHU'NEM, double resting-place, a city in Issachar, Josh. 19:18. Here was the first encampment of the Israelites before the battle of Gilboa, 1 Sam. 28:4. Abishag, king David's nurse, was of Shunem, 1 Kin. 1:3; also the woman who entertained Eli sha and whose son the prophet restored to life, 2 Kin. 4:8-37. It is now represented by the village of Sulem, on the southwest ern slope of Jebel Duhy, "the hill of Mo reh," 6 miles south of Tabor and north of Gilboa, 2h miles north of Jezreel. It is a mud hamlet, with a fountain and trough, surrounded by fine grain-fields and fruit- gardens, and looking westward across the plain of Esdraelon to Mount Carmel. Its people are rude and unfriendly, and its boys are still to be seen playing bare-head ed in the grain-fields under the scorching sun. SHUR, wall or fori, a place ea.st of the northeastern border of Egypt. Hagar, fleeing from Sarah, was " in the way to Shur" when met by the angel, Gen. 16:7; comp. ver. 17. Abraham "dwelt between Kadesh and Shur," Gen. 20:1; it is men tioned as one of the boundaries of the Ish- maelites, Gen. 25:18, and as an ancient boundary of the Amalekites, the southern Geshurites, and the Gezrites, 1 Sam. 15:7; 27:8; comp. Josh. 13:2, 3. The Israelites, after crossing the Red Sea, entered upon the wilderness of Shur, Exod. 15:22, 23, called also the wilderness of Etham, Num. 33 : 8. The region indicated stretched along the northeastern frontier of Egypt, inclu ding the district now called el-Jiffar — white shifting sands with a few fertile spots. E. H. Palmer derives the name Shur from the long wall-like range which stretches on the east of Suez northward to the Mediter ranean, and which Dr. Trumbull claims was so fortified and guarded as to prevent the Israelites from attempting the northern 560 and direct route from Egypt, and turn them to the south by the way of Suez, Exod. 13:17, 18. SHU'SHAN, lily, the capital of Elam and a very ancient city. It is mentioned in the inscriptions of Assur-bani-pal as captured by him, about B. C. 650, and a plan of the city is given. It passed into the hands of the Babylonians at the division of the Assyrian Empire between Nabopolassar of Babylon and Cyaxares of Media. In the 3d year of Belshazzar Daniel was at Shushan " on the king's business," when he beheld " the vision of the ram and the he-goat," Dan. 8:1, 2, 27. The conquest of Babylon by Cyrus transferred Shushan to the Per sians, and it became the capital and chief residence of the Achaemenian kings, being cooler than Babylon and more central than Ecbatana and Persepolis, their summer resorts. Darius Hystaspis founded at Shu shan the grand palace referred to in Esther as occupied by his son and successor Xer xes, Esth. 1:2, 5. Nehemiah was at Shu shan when he received from Jerusalem the intelligence that led him to seek leave from Artaxerxes to rebuild the walls of the holy city, Neh. 1 : 1-28. As Susa, Shushan is often mentioned by classic authors as the Persian capital, the province of Elam being called Susis or Susiana, and also Cissia. The city retained its eminence till the Mac edonian conquest, when Alexander found there treasure worth ^"12,000,000. After this period Susa declined and Babylon in creased. It was taken by Antigonus, B. C. 315. The Moslems gained Susiana A. D. 640. The site of Shushan has been identified with the ruins of Sus or Shush in lat. 32° 10' N., long. 48° 26' E., on the east bank of the Shapur River, 275 miles east of Baby lon, 175 miles north of the Persian Gulf. See Ulai. The remains consist of 4 prin cipal mounds, in a circuit of 3 miles, with lesser mounds eastward, the whole within a circumference of about 7 miles. Of the 4 chief mounds, the westernmost, of earth, gravel, and sun-dried brick, measures about 2,580 feet around the summit, the highest point being 119 feet above the river. Its sides are steep, and it is believed to have been the citadel. West of it is the traditional tomb of Daniel. East of the citadel mound is the great central platform, covering more than 60 acres, and from 40 to 70 feet high. The square northern mound shows the remains of a vast palace : the central hall, about 200 feet square, had SHU BIBLE DICTIONARY. SID 36 columns, probably about 60 feet high. Adjoining on the north, east, and west were 3 porches, each with 12 columns, and each 200 feet wide by 65 feet deep. In one of these the great feast of Ahasuerus was probably held. The "king's gate," where Mordecai sat, Esth. 2:19, 21, may have been the hall 100 feet square, 150 feet or more from the northern portico; and this Intervening apartment, the " inner court," where Esther implored the king's favor, ch. 5:1, 2. The "royal house," ch. 1:9, and the "houses of the women," ch. 2:9, 11, would be south of the great central hall, between it and the citadel. Shush now abounds in wild beasts — lions, wolves, boars, etc., Ezek. 33:24. The summer heat is intense, but is sometimes mitigated by breezes from the mountain range 25 miles eastward. Spring in this region is delight ful ; and after the winter rains the country is clothed with verdure and the air is laden with the scent of flowers. SHU'SHAN-E'DUTH, Psa. 80, title. See Shoshannim. SIB'BECHAI, or SIB'BECAI, a thicket, 2 Sam. 21:18; 1 Chr. 11:29; 20:4; 27:11, one of David's heroes; called Mebunnai in 2 Sam. 23:27. SIB'MAH, balsam, SHIB'MAH,and SHE'- BAM, Num. 32:3, a town beyond the Jor dan, rebuilt or fortified by the tribe of Reuben, ver. 38; Josh. 13:15, 19. The Is raelites conquered this region from the Amorites, as the latter had taken it from the Moabites, Num. 21:25-31. After the trans-Jordanic tribes of Israel were carried captive by the Assyrians, the Moabites seem to have reoccupied their ancient pos sessions, 2 Kin. 15:29; 1 Chr. 5:26. Sib- mah was renowned for its grapes, Isa. 16:6- n ; Jer. 48:32. Jerome says it was hardly 500 paces from Heshbon, and some trace of it may be preserved in the ruined vil lage es-Sameh, 4 miles northeast of Hes ban. SIB'RAIM, double hill, a landmark in the northern boundary of Israel, between Da mascus and Hamath, in the portion assign ed to Dan in Ezekiel's vision of the resto ration of the tribes of Israel, Ezek. 47:16; comp. ver. 13-17; 40:1-4; 48:1. SI'CHEM, Gen. 12:6, A. V. See She chem. SID'DIM, THE VALE OF, the scene of the battle between Chedorlaomer and his allies and the kings of Sodom, Gomorrah, etc., Gen. 14:3, 8-10; it abounded in wells of bitumen, ver. 10. The Hebrew word here 36 rendered "vale" is the same used in the term "the valley of Jezreel " — a long low plain; probably a section of the Arabah somewhat lower than the rest is indicated. It is generally believed to have been the site of the cities afterwards destroyed. In Gen. 14:3 it seems to be identified with the Salt Sea. For the view which locates the vale of Siddim in part or wholly in the shallow southern portion of the Dead Sea, see Sea, III. Some scholars now main tain that the cities stood at the northern end of the Dead Sea, and hence look for the vale of Siddim there also. Dr. Merrill suggests identifying it with the plain of Shittim, in which he claims to have found many bitumen pits. See Shittim. SI'DON, the Greek form of the name properly called in the Old Testament ZV- DON (Heb. Tsidon, fish-town); a celebra ted Phoenician city on the east coast of the Mediterranean, 20 miles north of Tyre, 40 miles south of Beirut, and 123 north of Jerusalem, on the northern slope of a promontory jutting out from a narrow plain between the Lebanon range and the sea. Zidon, now Saida, was one of the oldest cities in the world, its founder having been apparently a great-grandson of Noah, Gen. 10:15,19; 49:13. At the division of Canaan " Great Zidon " was allotted to Asher, Josh. 11:8; 19 : 28, but was never subdued by the Hebrews, Judg. 1:31; 3:3; 10:12. In the time of the Judges it was still the chief city ofthe Phoenicians, Judg. 18:7, 28, who were generally called Zidonians by the Hebrews. Its principal deities were Baal and Ashto reth, into whose worship the Israelites were at different times seduced, Judg. 10:6; 1 Kin. 11: 1, 5, 33; 16:31; 2 Kin. 23:13. The Zidonians were among the oppressors of Israel in the time of the Judges, Judg. 10:12. Friendly relations subsisted under David and subsequent kings, 2 Sam. 24:2, 6. Its people were noted for arts and manufac tures, commerce and navigation, Isa. 23:2; Ezek. 27:8. They assisted in the construc tion of Solomon's temple, 1 Kin. 5:6; 1 Chr. 22:4, and in the rebuilding of the temple under Zerubbabel, Ezra 3:7. For much of their food supply they depended on Pales tine, 1 Kin. 5 : 9, 1 1 ; Ezek. 27 : 17 ; Acts 12 : 20. Zarephath, the scene of one of Elijah's mir acles, was in its territory, 1 Kin. 17:9; Luke 4:26. Zidon continued under the govern ment of its own kings, but after David's time was usually subordinate to Tyre, Isa. 23 ; Ezek. 28. It joined Tyre in selling in habitants of Judah into slavery, and was 561 SID BIBLE DICTIONARY. SID SA1DA, THE ANCIENT SIDON, FROM THE NORTH. threatened by the prophets, though less severely than Tyre, Isa. 23:4; Jer. 25:22; 27:3; 47:4; Ezek. 28:20-23; 32'3°l Joel 3:4-8; comp. Amos 1:9. Homer celebrates the skill of Zidonian workmen, and mentions the presence of Zidonian ships at the siege of Troy. In the 9th, 8th, and 7th centuries B. C. Zidon was tributary to Assyria; it was destroyed by Esar-haddon about B. C. 6S0, but was re built. It was next subject to the Babyloni ans, Jer. 27:2-7. Under the Persian domi nation Zidon recovered preeminence over Tyre ; according to Herodotus. Zidoniau ships and sailors were the best in the fleet which Xerxes led against Greece, B. C. 480, and the king of Zidon sat next to Xer xes in council. It rebelled in the reign of Artaxerxes (III.) Ochus but was betrayed to the Persians by its king, and 40,000 citi zens perished in the flames of the city, kin dled by themselves, B. C. 351. After the battle of Issus, Zidon, which had gradually recovered prosperity, willingly yielded to Alexander the Great, B. C. 333, and its fleet assisted him in subduing Tyre. After his death it was subject to Egypt, and then to the Seleucidae; and fell under the Roman power B. C. 65, and became a wealthy and flourishing city. People from Tyre and Sidon, or the ad jacent region, attended upon the teaching of Christ, Mark 3:7, 8; Luke 6:17; com pare Matt. 11:20-22; Luke 10:13, x4- Tne neighborhood, and possibly the city itself, 56a which is about 40 miles northwest of the Sea of Galilee, was visited by Jesus, Matt. 15:21; Mark 7:24, 31, R. V. The gospel was preached to the Jews at Sidon after the martyrdom of Stephen, Acts 11:19, and Paul visited Christian friends there on his way to Rome, Acts 27:3. See also Acts 12:20. A paster from Sidon attended the Coun cil of Nicaea, A. D. 325. Sidon surrendered to the Moslems after their conquest of Syria, A. D. 636. It suffered greatly during the Crusades, being repeatedly taken and lost, destroyed and rebuilt, between its capture by Baldwin I. in nil and its final recovety by the Moslems in 1291, when it was again destroyed. It gradually recovered, and until 1791 was the principal commercial city on the Syrian coast, a position to which Beirut has succeeded. Saida is beautifully situated on a prom ontory with an island in front of it; its southern harbor is abandoned, and the northern is so choked with sand and stones as to be inaccessible to any but the small est vessels. The city is surrounded by walls and has many large and fine houses. The population is estimated at 10,000, 7,000 being Mohammedans and the rest Greek Catholics, Maronites, Orthodox Greeks, and Jews. Saida is the seat of a flourishing Protestant mission of the American Pres byterian Board. There are remains of quays built of large hewn stones, frag ments of marble and granite columns, Mo- SID BIBLE DICTIONARY. SIL saic pavements, pottery, etc. ; and on the island! ruins of a mediaeval castle. In the environs oranges, lemons, citrons, bana nas, etc., grow luxuriantly. Numerous sepulchral caverns exist at the base of the mountains east of the city, and sarcophagi of various shapes and materials have been found in them — one, of black syenite, bear ing the name of " Ashmanezer, king of the Sidonians," and found in 1855, being now in Paris, Its probable date was during the Persian domination. SIDO'NIANS, Deut. 3:9; Josh. 13:4, 6; Judg. 3:3; 18:7; 1'Kin. 5:6; 11:1. See Sidon. SIEVE, SIFT. Ancient writers mention 4 qualities of flour, implying sieves of dif ferent degrees of fineness. The allusion in Isa. 30:28; Amos 9:9; Luke 22:31 seems to be to the husbandman's process of winnow ing grain to remove the chaff, rather than to the household task of sifting meal or flour; comp. Matt. 3:12. SIGN, a token, pledge, or proof, Gen. 9:12, 13; 17:11; Exod. 3:12; Isa. 8:18. Also a supernatural portent, Luke 21:11, 25, and a miracle, regarded as a token of the divine agency, Exod. 4:7-9; Mark 8:11, The " signs " of the Old Testament were not evenly distributed, but seem to have been more numerous than usual at 3 crit ical epochs : at the delivery of Israel from Egypt and their establishment in Pales tine ; at the period of their apostasy, in the days of Elijah and Elisha; and during their captivity, in the time of Daniel. The mir acles of Christ were foretold, Isa. 42:7; Matt. 3:17. Comp. the question of John's disciples and the miracles which Jesus wrought as his reply, Luke 7:19-23; also Matt. 12:23; John 7:31. Those recorded by the evangelists were only specimens of many others, Matt. 4:23; 8:16; Luke 6:17- 19; John 2:23. The "signs of heaven" were the movements and aspects of the heavenly bodies, from which heathen as trologers pretended to obtain revelations, Isa. 44:25 ; Jer. 10:2. See Ship. SIG'NET. See Rings and Seal. SI'HON, sweeping away, bold. This king of the Amorites was reigning at Heshbon on the Israelites' arrival at his border, he having driven out the Moabites to the south of the Arnon. On refusing passage to the Israelites and attacking them, he was slain and his army routed, and his dominions were divided between Reuben and Gad. Num. 21:21-31, 34; 32:I-5. 33-38; Deut. 2:24-36; Josh. 13:15-28. In several later books reference is made to his signal over throw, Judg. 11 :i2-28; Psa. 135:10, 11. His name seems to be preserved in Shihan and Jebel Shihan, 3 or 4 miles south of the Ar non, and the ruins called Shihan 4 miles south of the Jabbok. SI'HOR, properly SHI'HOR, black, turbid. In Isa. 23:3 ; Jer. 2: 18, this word must mean the Nile; in Josh. 13:3; 1 Chr. 13:5, it is probably a name for " the river of Egypt," Num. 34:5; 1 Kin. 8:65, the desert winter- torrent now called wady el-Arish, a boun dary between Canaan and Egypt, flowing northwest into the Mediterranean about 45 miles southwest of Gaza. SI'LAS, a contraction of SILVA'NUS, a forester ; one ofthe chief men ofthe early church at Jerusalem, deputed, with Judas Barsabas, to accompany Paul and Barnabas to Antioch, bearing the decree of the coun cil at Jerusalem as to the relations of Gen tile converts to the Mosaic law, Acts 15:22- 30; compare Ver. 1-21. Silas, himself "a prophet " (see Prophet) spent some time preaching at Antioch, ver. 32, 33. After the separation of Paul and Barnabas, Silas ac companied the former, A. D. 51, on his 2d missionary tour through the provinces of Western Asia, Acts 15:36-16:10, and his ist visit to Europe ; he was imprisoned with Paul at Philippi, and seems to have been a Roman citizen, 16:11-40. After some stay at Thessalonica he parted from Paul at Bercea, Acts 17:1-15, but rejoined him at Corinth, Acts 18:5, perhaps bearing the donations referred to in 2 Cor. 11:9; Phil. 4:15. He may have returned with Paul to Syria, Acts 18 : 18-22. During the 18 months spent at Corinth, ver. 11, Paul sent 2 epis tles to the Thessalonians, A. D. 52, 53, in the superscriptions to which he inserts the name of Silvanus, 1 Thess. 1:1; 2 Thess. 1:1; and in an epistle to the Corinthians, A. D. 57, he mentions the labors of Silva nus among them, 2 Cor. 1 : 19. This fellow- worker with Paul is supposed to be the same whom Peter commends as a " faithful brother," and by whom he sent an epistle to the Jewish Christians in Asia Minor, 1 Pet. 5:12. SILK has been from ancient times a pro duct of China, whence it was early export ed to India. It may have become known to the Hebrews through the foreign com merce of Solomon and his successors ; com pare Isa. 49:12. See Sinim. The word shesh, rendered "silk" in the A. V., Gen. 41:42; Exod. 25:4, margins, and Prov. 31:22, is however the same elsewhere correctly 563 SIL BIBLE DICTIONARY. SIL translated " fine linen." Ezekiel, 16 : io, 13, describing rich attire, uses another word, denoting something drawn out fine, which may well denote silk — which was probably well known in Assyria and Babylonia long before Ezekiel's captivity, B. C. 598. Pliny says that the raw material came to Greece from Assyria, and was worked up by Gre cian women. Silk was among the valuable spoils taken from the Syrians by Judas Maccabaeus, about B. C. 166, 1 Mace. 4:23. It is mentioned among the luxuries of the typical Babylon, Rev. 18:12. Under the Roman emperors, a robe composed wholly of silk was accounted too luxurious for a man ; and one of the extravagances im puted to the emperor Heliogabalus, A. D. 218-222, was that he wore such a robe. SIL'LA, 2 Kin. 12:20, a place near which king Joash was killed; apparently in the valley south of Jerusalem. SIL'LY, Hos. 7:11; 2 Tim. 3:6, simple and heedless, rather than foolish. SILO'AH, The pool of, Neh. 3:15, prop erly the pool of Shelach, i. e., the dart, a corruption probably of the more ancient form Shiloach — from shelach, lo send, Isa. 8:6. The pool is believed to have been included within the ancient wall of Jeru salem at the southeast corner. The " wa ters of Shiloah," gently fertilizing the adja cent gardens and symbolizing the blessings of Jehovah, in whom alone Judah should have trusted, Isaiah, 8 : 6-8, contrast with the desolating flood ofthe swollen Euphra tes, symbolizing the kingdom of Assyria, alliance with which was secured by Ahaz to his impoverishment, 2 Kin. 16:5-9; 2 Chr. 28:16-21; and whose forces were erelong to desolate the kingdom of Israel, 2 Kin. 15:29; 17:3-6, and to sweep through Judah, 2 Kin. 18:13-17; 19:32-36. See Siloam. SILO' AM, THE POOL OF, to which Christ sent the blind man, John 9:7, 11, is doubt less the same as the above. Josephus lo cates it at the mouth of the Tyropoeon valley, and Jerome in the valley of the son of Hinnom. It still exists at the junction of these 2 valleys, at the foot of Ophel, the southward prolongation of the temple mount, and nearly 1,900 feet from the Ha- ram wall. Though the smallest of the ancient pools of Jerusalem, it alone retains its old name, under the Arabic form " Bir ket Silwan." It is an artificial reservoir, about 52 feet long, 18 feet wide, and 19 feet deep, with steps leading to the bottom. The water does not now exceed 3 or 4 feet in depth, but flows off by an opening in the 564 southeastern end of the reservoir, in a sin gle stream, afterwards subdivided to irri- POOL OF SILOAM. gate fruit and vegetable gardens in the valley below. The reservoir is partly cut out of the rock and partly of masonry, and is in a ruinous condition; broken columns extend from top to bottom around its sides, possibly supports of a building mentioned by travellers in the Middle Ages as built over the pool. The water is supplied from UPPER POOL, OR FOUNTAIN OK THIi VIRGIN. the much smaller " Fountain of the Virgin," Ain Sitti Maryam— or " Fountain of the Mother of Steps," Ain Um ed-Deraj— about 1,200 feet north of Siloam, on the eastern side of Ophel ; the connection is by a zig zag underground channel cut through the rock, 1,708 feet long. This passage, whose height varies from 16 feet at its Siloam out let to 16 inches in some places, was trav- SIL BIBLE DICTIONARY. SIL ersed by Dr. Robinson, and more recently by Barclay, Warren, and Sayce. Several side channels were discovered, now block ed with rubbish, supposed to have once brought to the conduit water from the city pools or the temple wells. The water ebbs and flows at intervals varying with the season in the " Mother of Steps "—so named from the 2 flights of steps leading down to it— and less perceptibly in Siloam. In the upper fountain Dr. Robinson saw it rise a foot and fall again within 10 minutes. The water has a peculiar taste, slightly brackish, especially in the dry season, and probably due in part to the use of both reservoirs by washerwomen and tanners. In 1880 an inscription was discovered on the east side of this conduit, on a tablet set in the wall 19 feet from the Siloam end : 6 lines of pure Biblical Hebrew, probably ofthe time of king Hezekiah, commemora ting the skill ofthe excavators, who worked from both ends and met midway. The con duit enters a rock-cut chamber 5 or 6 feet broad, at the northwest angle of Siloam, at the base of the cliff above the pool ; into this " vestibule " a few steps lead, under whichthe water falls into the pool. Flow ing out from Siloam the stream seems an ciently to have passed into another reser voir before watering the gardens ; this 2d pool, perhaps 5 times as large as Siloam, is now abandoned and overgrown with trees; it may have been the " king's pool " of Neh. 2:14; it is now called "Birket el- Hamra," the red pool. According to the Rabbins it was from the pool of Siloam that a Levite drew water to pour on the sac rifice on " the last or great day " of the Feast of Tabernacles, in memory of the water from the rock of Rephidim, Exod." 17:1-6, a custom thought to be alluded to by Christ, John 7:37, 38; and from Siloam was taken the water to be mingled with the ashes of a red heifer for purification. The gardens below Siloam, Isa. 8:6, are the greenest spot about Jerusalem. SILO'AM, The tower in, Luke 13:4, 5, at some point in the city wall, which it is believed then inclosed Siloam, Neh. 3:15, 26. Christ teaches us in this passage that temporal calamities are not always proofs of special guilt, though the utmost suffer ings here endured are far less than the sins even of the best of men deserve, Lam. 3:39. East of the Kidron valley, near the foot of the southern height of Mount Olivet and opposite the rough gray slope between the " Virgin's Fount " and Siloam pool, is the " kefr " or village Silvvan, an irregular and dirty village on the site of an old quarry, and probably near the spot where altars were erected by Solomon to Chemosh and other idols, 1 Kin. 11:7; 2 Kin. 23 : 13. SILVA'NUS. See Silas. SIL'VER is first mentioned in Scripture in the history of Abraham, Gen. 13:2; 20:16, though iron, gold, and lead are spo ken of before the Deluge. It was used in building the tabernacle, Exod. 26:19-25, and the temple and its furniture, 1 Chr. 28:14-17; 29:2-7; for trumpets, Num. 10:2, ornaments, Gen. 24:53, vessels of various sorts, Gen. 44:2; Num. 7:13, and in the covering and adornment of idols, Deut. 29: 17; Isa. 40: 19; Dan. 5:4, 23; Acts 17:29. It was the chief medium of trade, and as such was anciently weighed out uncoined, Gen. 23:16; Job 28:15; Zech. 11:12. Sil ver coins were common in New Testament times, Luke 15:8, 9. See Shekel and Money. The Hebrew word for silver, "keseph," also denotes money in general, like the French "argent." Solomon ob tained silver, which in his reign was very abundant in Israel, 1 Kin. 10:27, from Ara bia, 2 Chr. 9:14, and from Tarshish, 1 Kin. 10:22; 2 Chr. 9:21 — whence also Tyre was supplied, Ezek. 27 : 12. The Midianites were nomads, yet gold and silver are men tioned in Num. 31:22, 50-54; Judg. 8:24- 26, as abundant among them ; a statement confirmed by Capt. Burton's discovery of ancient mine-workings in that land and an abundance of precious metals. Masses of almost pure silver are sometimes found, but it usually occurs in rock veins, Job 28:1, in combination with other metals. The mining and refining of silver are re ferred to in Psa. 12:6; Prov. 25:4; Ezek. 22:18-22; and filigree work in Prov. 25:11. In Mai. 3:3 there is a reference to the so- called fulguration of silver, the sudden brightening of its surface at the end of the smelting process, when the last film of the oxide of lead disappears from the molten mass and the pure silver flashes forth. The silver breast and arms of the image in Nebuchadnezzar's vision, Dan. 2:32, are usually interpreted as representing the Medo - Persian Empire, which succeeded the Babylonian, ver. 39; comp. Dan. 5:28, 31- SIL'VERLING, Isa. 7:23, literally "sil ver," as the word is elsewhere rendered; probably the quantity denoted by a shekel. See Silver. SIM'EON, hearing, I., the 2d son of Ja- 565 SIM BIBLE DICTIONARY. SIM cob and Leah, Gen. 29:33, one of "the 12 patriarchs " or fathers ofthe tribes of Isra el, Acts 7:8. His disposition was revenge ful and violent. He and Levi took a vin dictive and cruel revenge on Shechem and his people for the injury done to their sister Dinah, and were reproved by their father, Gen. 34. There is no record that Simeon relented, as Reuben and Judah did, in re gard to the murderous purpose against Joseph, Gen. 37: 18-33. It may have been as the one either actively or by omission guiltiest in this matter that Simeon was afterwards detained as a hostage by Jo seph, Gen. 42:21-24, 33, 36. He was re stored to his brethren on their 2d visit to Egypt, Gen. 43:23, and afterwards settled in Egypt with his 6 sons, Gen. 46: 10 ; Exod. 1:1,2. Jacob in his dying address rebukes the sin of Simeon and Levi in regard to the Shechemites, and predicts the visita tion of it upon their descendants, Gen. 49:5-7; comp. Exod. 20:5. See Simeon, Tribe of. II. An eminently pious man at Jerusa lem, under the special influence of the Holy Spirit, Luke 2:21-35. He was awaiting "the consolation of Israel," compare Isa. 40:1, and the Holy Spirit had revealed to him that he should live to behold the long- promised Messiah. So he was led to the temple just when Joseph and Mary pre sented Jesus there in obedience to the law ; comp. Exod. 13:12, 13; 22:29; Num. 18:15, 16; Lev. 12:1-8; he took the child in his arms, gave thanks to God, and blessed Joseph and Mary, uttering a remarkable prediction of the effects of the Saviour's coming; comp. Isa. 42:6; 45:17-25; 49:6. HI. Sym'eon Ni'ger, the black, Acts 13:1, one of the prophets and teachers of the Christian church at Antioch. Some, without proof, identify him with Simon the Cyrenian, IV. This is the name given to Peter in Acts 15:14, though he is elsewhere called Simon. V. A name in the genealogy of Joseph, Luke 3:30. SIM'EON, TRIBE OF. At the 1st census in the wilderness of Sinai the tribe had 59,300 men, Num. 1:1-3, 22> 23> being ex ceeded only by Judah and Dan ; 38 years later, in the plains of Moab, Simeon was the smallest of the tribes, numbering only 22,200 men, Num. 26: 1-4, 14 ; the tribe may have suffered more severely than the rest in chastisement for special sins, if its char acter is at all indicated by the flagrant and 566 obstinate wickedness of Zimri, one of its princes, Num. 25:6-9, 14. Simeon belonged to the " camp of Reuben," which encamped south of the tabernacle, and was 2d to the camp of Judah in the order of marching, Num. 2:10-16; 10:18-20. Simeon had its station on Gerizim, the mount of blessing, at the solemn ceremony at Shechem, Deut. 27:12; comp. Josh. 8:33. In conformity with the prediction of Jacob that Simeon should be scattered and divided in Israel, Gen. 49:7, the territorial limits of the tribe seem to have been at the outset loosely defined and to have varied somewhat in later times. Their portion under Joshua was only a district set off from the territory previously assigned to Judah, Josh. 19:1-9, including 18 cities, with villages, in the south of Judah ; comp. Josh. 15:26-32. In this region, which the Judahites helped the Simeonites to conquer, Judg. 1:3, 17, the latter were dwelling in David's time, 1 Chr. 4:24-33, and their warriors helped to es tablish him king over all Israel, 1 Chr. 12:23-25, 38; 2 Sam. 5:1-3. At the divis ion of the kingdom, B. C. 975, the Sime onites apparently sympathized with the seceding northern tribes, Simeonites being mentioned among the "strangers" outside of Judah and Benjamin who were affected by the reformation of Asa, B. C. 941, 2 Chr. 15:9-13; and again in the reformation of Josiah, B. C. 630-624, 2 Chr. 34:6-9, which extended to the " remnant of Israel " left after the Assyrian captivity, the cities of Simeon are so classed with Manasseh, Ephraim, and Naphtali as to suggest that a part of the tribe had been " scattered " into the northern kingdom. In the earlier reign of Hezekiah, B. C. 726-697, two expe ditions of Simeonites had conquered terri tory south and east of their original por tion, 1 Chr. 4:34-43. The name of Simeon is omitted from the benedictions of Moses, Deut. 33, but is mentioned in Ezekiel's vis ion of the restoration of Israel, in which the tribe is placed between Benjamin and Issa- char, Ezek. 48:24, 33; and in the vision of John, Rev. 7:7. SIM'EONITES, members of the tribe of Simeon, Num. 25:14; 26:14. Judith, the heroine of a story in the Apocrypha, is rep resented as a Simeonite, Judith 8:1; 9:2, also her husband Manasses, 8:2, and Ozi as, a governor of their city Bethulia, near the plain of Jezreel, 6:14, 15. SI'MON, a contraction for . Simeon, or borrowed by the post-captivity Jews from the Greeks. SIM BIBLE DICTIONARY. SIN I. One of the 12 apostles, Matt. 4:18. See Peter. II. Another of the 12 apostles, distin guished as " the Cananaean," Matt. 10 : 4, R. V., or "zealot," Luke 6:15; Acts 1:13, R. V. The " Zelotes " of Luke is the Greek equivalent for the Chaldee term used by Matthew and Mark, 3 : 18, which has no ref erence to Canaan or Cana, but is derived from the Hebrew kana, zeal, and desig nates Simon as a member of the faction of the Zealots, fierce defenders of the Mosaic law and ritual. HI. One ofthe "brethren "of Jesus, Matt. I3:55; Mark 6:3. Some have supposed him the same with Simon Zelotes, or with the Symeon who succeeded James in the pastorate at Jerusalem, A. D. 62, and suf fered martyrdom in Trajan's reign at the age of 120. Both identifications are prob ably erroneous. IV. A Pharisee in Galilee, at whose house Jesus was anointed by a penitent sinner, Luke 7:36-50. V. A leper, probably healed by Jesus. At his house in Bethany Jesus was anoint ed by Mary, a sister of Lazarus, Matt. 26:6-13; Mark 14:3-9; comp. John 12:1-8. VI. A man of Cyrene, who was compelled to bear the cross of Jesus when the Saviour was exhausted, Matt. 27:32; Mark 15:21; Luke 23:26; comp. John 19:17; an igno minious yet most blessed ministry. Mark, writing for Roman Christians, calls him "the father of Alexander and Rufus," the latter being perhaps the Rufus residing at Rome, to whom with his mother Paul sent a cordial greeting, Rom. 16: 13. VII. Simon Iscariot, the father of Judas Iscariot, John 6:71, R. V.; 13 :2. 26, R. V. VIII. A tanner, in whose house at Joppa Peter lodged, Acts 9:43 ; 10:6, 17, 32. IX. A Samaritan sorcerer, often called "Simon Magus," i. c, the magician. By the practice of magical arts this imposter acquired an ascendency over the people of Samaria, who seem to have regarded him as divine. Under Philip's preaching many of his fellow-citizens became Christians, and Simon also professed conversion and was baptized —having long " amazed " the people by his false wonders, and now being truly "amazed" at the genuine miracles wrought through Philip, Acts 8:4-13, R. V. On the arrival of Peter and John he sought to purchase from them the divine gift of imparting the Holy Spirit. Peter denoun ced his hypocrisy, to his great alarm, but he showed no true penitence, Acts 8:14-24; comp. Exod. -8:8. Peter bade him ask mercy from God, evidently far from claim ing any power in himself to forgive sin. There are doubtful traditions as to Simon's subsequent course. The sin of buying and selling spiritual offices and privileges, or ecclesiastical preferments, called simony after Simon Magus, was severely censured and punished by early ecclesiastical and civil law. It however became frequent in the corrupted Church of Rome, being more odious to Peter than to many who have claimed to be his especial followers. SIM'PLE and SIMPLICITY are some times used in the Bible in a good sense, denoting sincerity, candor, and an artless ignorance of evil, 2 Sam. 15:11 ; Rom. 16:19; 2 Cor. 1:12; 11:3; sometimes in a bad sense, denoting a heedless foolishness both mental and moral, Prov. 1:22; 9:4; 14:15; 22:3; and sometimes in the sense of mere ignorance or inexperience, Prov. 1:4; 21:11. SIN, any thought, word, desire, action, or omission of action, contrary to the law of God or defective when compared with it, 1 John 3:4; 5:17. The origin of sin is a subject which baf fles all investigation ; and our inquiries are much better directed when we seek through Christ a release from its penalty and power, for ourselves and the world. Its entrance into the world and infection of the whole human race, its nature, forms, and effects, and its fatal possession of ev ery unregenerate soul, are fully described in the Bible, Gen. 3; 6:5; Psa. 51:5; Matt. 15:19; R°m. 5:12; Jas. 1:14, 15. As contrary to the nature, worship, love, and service of God, sin is called ungodli ness or impiety, Rom. 1 : 18 ; as a violation of the law of God and of the claims of man, it is a transgression or trespass ; as a devi ation from eternal rectitude, it is called in iquity or unrighteousness, Exod. 34:7. As the evil and bitter root of all actual trans gression, the depravity transmitted from our first parents to all their seed, it is called by theologians "original sin," or in the Bible "the flesh," Rom. 7:18; Gal. 5:16-21. The just penalty or " wages of sin is death," Rom. 6:23 ; this was threatened against the first sin, Gen. 2 : 17, and all subsequent sins : " The soul that sinneth it shall die," Ezek. 18:4, 20. A single sin, unrepented of and unforgiven, destroys the soul, as a sin gle break renders a whole ocean cable use less. Its guilt and evil are to be measured by- the holiness, justice, and goodnes- of 567 SIN BIBLE DICTIONARY. SIN the law it violates, the eternify of the mis ery it causes, and the greatness of the Sac rifice necessary to expiate it. " Sin " sometimes denotes the sacrifice of expiation, the sin-offering, described in Lev. 4:3, 25,29. So Hos. 4:8; Rom. 8:3; and in 2*Cor. 5:21 Paul says that God was pleased that Jesus, who knew no sin, should be our victim of expiation: " For he hath made him to be sin for us who knew no sin, that we might be made the righteous ness of God in him." Thus many under stand Gen. 4: 7, "sin," or a sin-offering, "coucheth at the door," implying that the use and meaning of sacrifices for sin had already been revealed. See Sacrifice. For the sin against the Holy Ghost see Blasphemy. SIN, mire, a fortified city on the north east frontier of Egypt, and exposed to the predicted invasion of Egypt by Nebuchad nezzar, and probably also to later inva sions, Ezek. 30:15, 16. It is identified with the Pelusium, muddy, of Greek and Latin authors, 2 miles from the sea, in the midst of morasses, on the easternmost or Pelusiac outlet of the Nile, now dry. It witnessed many great battles. Its exact site is not determined • some place it at the mounds of el-Farma, one mile from the Bay of Tineh, the supposed Pelusiac mouth ofthe Nile, and 14 miles east of the Suez Canal ; others at the mound Abu-Khiyar, between el-Farma and Tel-Defenneh, or Tehaphne- hes, which is 13 miles west of the Suez Canal. The mounds are now approached only by boats, except during the driest part of summer. SIN, WILDERNESS OF, between Elim and Rephidim, Exod. 16:1; 17:1; Num. 33:11, 12. Here, a month after leaving Egypt, the Israelites received their first miraculous supply of quails and of manna; • and here the Sabbath was reinstituted, Exod. 16:2-34. It is believed to be the desert plain now called el-Markha, running along the east shore of the Gulf of Suez 25 miles, from wady Taiyibeh to wady Feiran. It is a dreary region and has little vegeta tion. Travellers report having seen many quails there. SI'NA, Acts 7:30, 38, A. V, the Greek form of Sinai. SI'NAI, thornbush, the mount in Arabia Petraea from which God proclaimed the Ten Commandments to assembled Israel, in the 3d month after they left Egypt, Exod. 19:1-20; 20; Deut. 4:10-13, 33,36; 5:1-22; and to which Moses retired at several times 568 to receive from God various ordinances for his people, Exod. 20:21; 24:1; Lev. 27:34; Deut. 5:23-31. Here Moses remained for two periods of 40 days, miraculously sus tained without food, at the end of the first period receiving the 2 tablets of stone in scribed with the Ten Commandments by God, Exod. 24:12; 31:18; 32:15, 16, 19; here he had a vision of the divine glory and continued his intercession for Israel after their idolatry of the golden calf, Exod. 34:5-9; comp. Exod. 33:18-23; and here, at the close of the second 40 days, he re ceived the stone tables substituted for those which he had broken, Exod. 34:1-4,28, 29; comp. Deut. 9:9-19, 25 to 10:5. In this same region Moses had, a year or two be fore, beheld the burning bush and been commissioned by God to liberate Israel, Exod. 3:1 to 4:17; Acts 7:30, 38. Here also, 6 centuries later, God revealed him self to Elijah, who had fled from the wrath of Jezebel, 1 Kin. 19:1-18. The manifested presence of God and his sublime and aw ful delivery of the law on Mount Sinai are referred to in Judg. 5:5; Neh. 9:13; Psa. 68:8, 17. In the New Testament the dis pensation proclaimed from Sinai is con trasted with the gospel of the grace of God, Gal. 4:24, 25; Heb. 12:18-29. The Scripture use of the 2 names Sinai and Horeb is such as to make it probable that Horeb, dry, was the general name for the mountain group, and Sinai the name of the special summit on which Jehovah " de scended in fire " and " talked with " Israel, Exod. 19:16, 18; Deut. 5:4; 33:2. Modern usage applies the name Sinai to the whole peninsula flanked by the 2 gulfs of the Red Sea, as well as to the central group of mountains, and to an individual peak of that group. The peninsula of Sinai is a triangle, whose base extends from the head of the Gulf of Suez to that of Akaba, about 150 miles; its western side, along the Gulf of Suez, being about 190 miles long, and its eastern side, along the Gulf of Akaba, about 130 miles. It contains about 11,500 square miles, one-tenth more than the State of Vermont. On its northern border is a broad sand-belt, adjoining the bare lime stone ridge which forms the southern bor der of the desert et-Tih. A gravelly plain of varying breadth extends along the Gulf of Suez, but the coast along the Gulf of Akaba is narrow, being closely approached by mountains. A rugged mass of granite mountains occupies the body of the penin- SIN BIBLE DICTIONARY. SIN PLAIN ER-RAHAH, AND CONVENT OF ST. CATHARINE. Egypt fled here, and many brotherhoods oi monks were formed, on Mount Serbal and in wady Feiran. They suffered much from the attacks of the Arabs, and in A. D. 527 Justinian authorized them to build a church surrounded by a fortified convent, the orig inal of the present convent of St. Catha rine. Mohammedanism established its sway over the peninsula in the 7th century. sula, the eastern and western ranges meet ing in an angle at the south. Deep wadys leap up from the borders to the central heights. The mountains are of granite and gneiss, with some outcropping of limestone, and on the north and west buttresses of red sandstone. The highest summits are over 8,000 feet above the sea. The cliffs some times show gorgeous tints of red, purple, and green, but the whole aspect of the region, though grand, is naked and desolate. The pen insula contains iron, copper, and turquoise. The Egyptians early established colonies there, and at times conducted mining oper ations—notably at Maghara, 15 miles east of the Gulf of Suez, where hieroglyphic inscriptions exhibit the names of Pharaohs from the 4th dynasty to the 19th —from the building of the great pyramid of Gizeh to the He brew Exodus. At this time the peninsula was inhabited by the Amalekites and Midianites, and later by the Nabathaean Arabs, whose chief city was Petra in Idumaea. See Sela. With the rest of Arabia Petraea the penin sula was annexed to the Roman Empire, A. D. 105. Christian ity was early planted here, and coexisted with the native Saba- ism or worship of the heavenly bodies. Christian refugees from persecution in WADY MUKATTEB. In many parts of the peninsula, but chiefly in wady Mukatteb, written, which 5°9 SIN BIBLE DICTIONARY. SIN enters wady Feiran from the northwest, there are many inscriptions on the native rocks, short and rudely cut, largely of proper names — neither Jewish nor Chris tian, often preceded by such words as "peace," "blessed," "in memory of" — mingled with rough representations of men and animals, stars, crosses, ships, etc. Prof. Palmer, of the English ordnance sur vey, pronounces the language Aramaean, the characters Nabathaean, and the inscrip tions- " the work of idle loungers." They appear to range through several centuries, from the 2d B. C. to the 4th A. D., and some are in Greek, Coptic, and Arabic. The loftiest summits of the Sinaitic pen insula are Jebel Serbal, in the northwest, 6,734 feet; Jebal Musa, 7,363 feet; Jebel umm-Shaumer, 8,449 feet; jebel Catharina, 8,536 feet; Jebel Zebir, 8,551 feet. The district around Jebel Musa, which is in the centre of the mountain range, has, with the exception of the oasis in wady Feiran, and near Tur on the Gulf of Suez, the best sup plies of water and pasturage in the penin sula, and to it the Bedouins resort when springs and wells elsewhere are dry. There has been much discussion as to which mountain was the scene of God's giv ing the law, the chief claimants being Ser bal, Musa, and Ras Sufsafeh. The Scrip ture requirements are: 1. The summit must be visible from a level space large enough to accommodate 2,000,000 of people, Exod. 19:11; 20:18. ^. The mount must rise ab ruptly from the plain, Exod. 19: 12 ; Deut. 4:11; Heb. 12:18. 3. The neighborhood must afford a supply of water and pas turage — a condition met by all 3 claim ants. Jebel Serbal, 2 miles south of wady Fei ran through the rugged wady Aleiyat, does not fulfil the ist and 2d requirements; it rises more than 4,000 feet above the valleys at its base, but its summit, a ridge 3 miles long, is broken into a number of sharp peaks, and the surrounding valleys are "a wilderness of boulders and torrent-beds." Only an occasional glimpse of the moun tain can be obtained from wady Feiran. About 20 miles southeast from Jebel Ser bal is an isolated ridge 2 miles long from northwest to southeast, and nearly a mile broad. Its highest peak is at the southern extremity, and is now called Jebel Musa, mountain of Moses, being identified by monastic tradition from Justinian's time with the sacred summit; but wady Sebai- yeh, the keeper's valley — so called with ref erence to Exod. 3:1 — is too contracted and 570 rugged to have afforded standing-ground for the Hebrew host. The northern peak of the same ridge, Ras es-Sufsafeh, peak of the willow — from a willow-tree on its side — meets all the re quirements. It rises abruptly from wady SIN BIBLE DICTIONARY. SIN er-Rahah high above all the other moun tains near it and in sight, and is so isolated from them by the plain and by deep and steep ravines, that bounds might have been set around it. At its very base lies the wady er-Rahah, rest, a plain 2 miles long, from southeast to northwest, and half a mile wide, containing 2,000,000 square yards available standing-room, a space doubled by the valleys which open into it on the east. The summit of Ras Sufsafeh, nearly 2,000 feet above the plain, is accessible from er-Rahah by a wild ravine, descending which between two cliffs Moses might have heard the shouts of the calf-worshippers before he saw them, Exod. 32:17, 19. By the same ravine a winter-torrent finds its way down to er-Rahah; and there are sev eral perennial springs and streams in the neighborhood, Deut. 9:21. Dr. Robinson, who ascended Ras Sufsafeh in 1838, first proposed its identification as the sacred mount. " The extreme difficulty," he says, "and even dangej of the ascent, was well MOUNT SINAI, FROM THE PLAIN ER-RAHAH. rewarded by the prospect that now opened before us. The whole plain -Rahah lay spread out beneath our feet ; while wady esh-Sheikh on the right and a recess on the left, both connected with and opening broadly from er-Rahah, presented an area which serves nearly to double that of the plain. Our conviction was strengthened that here, or on some one of the adjacent cliffs, was the spot where the Lord de scended in fire and proclaimed the law. Here lay the plain where the whole con gregation might be assembled ; here was the mount which might be approached and touched ; and here the mountain brow where alone the lightnings and the thick clould woud be visible, and the thunders and the voice of the trump be heard, when the Lord came down in the sight of all the people upon Mount Sinai. We gave our selves up to the impressions of the awful scene, and read with a feeling which will never be forgotten the sublime account of the urans ction and the commandments there promulgated, in the original words as recorde y the great Hebrew legisla tor," Exod. 19:1 to 20:21. The members of the English Ordnance Survev, after a careful survey of the re gion in 1868-9, unanimously agreed in identifying Ras Sufsafeh with the sacred mountain. Separated by ravines from the Sufsafeh- Musa ridge are 2 parallel ridges. Mount Catharine, 3 miles southwest of Jebel Musa, is the southern peak of the western ridge. In wady ed-Deir, between Sufsafeh and the eastern ridge, is the convent or deir of St. Catharine, founded by Justinian, A. D. 527, where about 50 monks now reside. Its 571 SIN BIBLE DICTIONARY. SIN library contains some 1,500 printed books and 700 MSS., among which Tischendorf, in 1859, discovered the Codex Sinaiticus, a most valuable Greek MS. of the Septua gint and the New Testament, probably of the 4th century. North of er-Rahah is a mountain called Jebel Seneh, suggesting the ancient name of Sinai, but far less im posing than Ras Sufsafeh. The Israelite host, travelling from the wilderness of Sin eastward from the Red Sea, are believed to have reached their camping-ground near Mount Sinai by a se ries of wadys winding up among the moun tains, chiefly wady Feiran and wady esh- Sheikh, in one of which was Rephidim. Wady Feiran commences near the Red Sea, and curving to the northeast opens into wady esh-Sheikh, which making a cir cuit north of Jebel Seneh bends southward and enters the plain cr-Rahah at its east ern end. A shorter but much more diffi cult way is sometimes taken by travellers through the rough and sublime Nu; b Ha- wa, pass of the wind, which leaves c-sh- Sheikh west of Jebel Seneh, and enters er-Rahah on its northwestern extret-ity, commanding a grand view of the plain, the fortified convent of St. Catharine, and the majestic height of Mount Sinai. SI'NAI, WILDERNESD OF, a region be tween 2 stations ofthe Israelites, Rephidim and Kibroth-hattaavah, Num. 33:15, 16, which the Israelites reached on the 3d month after they left Egypt, Exod. 19: 1, 2 ; comp. Exod. 18:5, and where they remain ed nearly a year, Num. 10:11, 12,33. Dur ing this time judges were appointed, Exod. 18:13-26; the law was communicated to the people through Mos^.. ; the tabernacle was constructed .-ind furnished, Exod. 39:42 to 40:35; Aaron and his sons were conse crated to the priesthood ; Nadab and Abi hu perished, Lev. 8-10; Num. 3:4; the Levites were consecrated, Num. 3:5-16; 8:5-22; the first recurring passover feast was observed, Num. 9:1-5; and the first census taken, Num. 1:1-19. Tms year's camping-ground of the Israelites was in the smooth and roomy upland plain north of Mount Sinai, now called er-Rahah, togeth er with the adjoining wady esh-Sheikh, and other minor wadys adjacent to these. This region is well supplied with springs, streams, and pasturage. See Sinai, Mount. SIN'CERE, 1 Pet. 2 : 2; 2 Pet. 3:1, R. V., without guile. SINCERITY, pureness, gen uineness ; opposed to guile or deceit, Phil. 1:10. 572 SING'ING, in the ancient church, was an appointed part of divine worship, 2 Chr. 29:28; Ezra 3:11; 7:24; Psa. 87:7; 100:2, and in all ages a manifestation of joy, Psa. 126:2; Eccl. 2:8; Isa. 35:2; 44:23; 49:13; Jer. 7:34. See Music. A recent traveller says that in Egypt and Palestine there is an entire absence of cheerful music, es pecially from the children ; " the mirth of the land is gone," Isa. 24:11. SIN'GLE EYE, Matt. 6:22; Luke 11:34, unclouded and clear vision, rather than sin gleness of aim. SIN'GLENESS, Acts 2:46; Eph. 6:5; Col. 3:22, freedom from duplicity. SIN'GULAR, Lev. 27:2, A. V , special or particular, not odd. SI'NIM, a people remote from the Holy Land, whose conversion to the God of Is rael is foretold, Isa. 49:12. They are now generally identified with the Chinese, called Sinae or Thinae by the Greek geographer Ptolemy, A. D. 140, and earlier known to the Arabs as Sin, and to the Syrians as Tsini. Tsin is also the rabbinical name for China. Commercial routes early con nected the east of Asia with the west, and brought some ofthe commodities of China, such as raw silk and silken goods. See Silk. The Nestorians early preached the gos pel in China. In 1625 a Jesuit missionary discovered, at Si-gan-foo, the ancient cap ital of China, and now capital of the prov ince of Shin-se in the Northwest, a stone tablet of th : year 78 1 , recording in Chinese and Syriac the establishment in the city, by imperial consent, ofthe "King Kiao" or Illustrious Religion, and bearing a long list of Nestorian clergymen. In the 12th and 13th centuries the conquests of Jen- ghis Khan and his successors, covering the greater part of Asia and Eastern Europe, opened anew the way for communication with China, then known as Khitai or Ca thay—from the Khitan, the ruling dynasty of the 9th and 10th centuries. Travellers, including the famous Venetian Marco Polo, traders, and Franciscan missionaries, now visited Cathay; converts to Romanism were made, and an archbishopric was es tablished at Cambaluc, now Peking. After the fall of the Jenghis dynasty, 1368, Cathay again became closed to Europeans, and all traces of Christianity disappeared. In the 16th century the Portuguese and Spanish naval officers rediscovered it under the name of China, and Jesuit and Dominican missionaries were sent there from Rome. SIN BIBLE DICTIONARY. SLU Their missions flourished for nearly a cen tury and a half; but, compromising with the national idolatry and withholding the Bible from the converts, they accomplished little for the promotion of true religion, morality, or intelligence. At last a jeal ousy of papal influence sprang up among the ruling classes of the empire, and in 1722 an edict for the suppression of Chris tianity was issued: 300 churches were de stroyed or suppressed, and 300,000 con verts were exposed to persecution, many submitting to suffering and death with ad mirable constancy. In 1842 the ports of Canton, Amoy, Foochow, Ning-po, and Shanghai were opened to foreign com merce ; in 1845 toleration was granted by edict to Christian converts ; and in 1858 all forms of Christianity were sanctioned throughout the empire. The pioneer of Protestant missions in China was the Rev. Robert Morrison, 1807 to 1834, who made the first translation of the Bible into Chi nese, and labored privately to spread the gospel, its public proclamation being then forbidden. After the opening of the 5 ports Protestant missions commenced in earnest, and their abundant fruits, especially in recent years, attest the faithfulness of the divine promise. SI'NITES, a Canaanite tribe, Gen. 10:17 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 15, probably near Mount Lebanon. SIN'-OF'FERING. See SACRIFICE. SI'ON, I., one of the names of Mount Hermon, Deut. 4:48; comp. Deut. 3:9, and see Hermon. II. The Greek form ofthe Hebrew Zion, Matt. 21:5, A. V. SIPH' MOTH, fruitful fields, 1 Sam. 30:28, a resort of David when a refugee from Saul. Probably 12 miles southeast of Hebron. SIP'PAI, threshold? a Philistine giant, 1 Chr. 20:4; called Saph in 2 Sam. 21:18. SI'RAH, retired, THE WELL OF, 2 Sam. 3:26, the place which Abner had reached, going from Hebron, when he was recalled by Joab. There is a spring and reservoir called Ain Sara on the western side of the road about a mile north of Hebron. SIR'ION, breastplate, the Zidonian name of Mount Hermon, Deut. 3:9; Psa. 29:6. See Hermon. SIS'ERA, battle array, I., the general of Jabin, king of Hazor, an oppressor of Is rael in the time of the Judges, defeated by the Hebrew army under Deborah and Ba rak, and ingloriously slain by Jael, I Sam. 12:9; Psa. 83:9. See Jael and Kishon. II. Ancestor of Nethinim who returned with Zerubbabel from captivity, Ezra 2:53; Neh. 7:55. SIS'TER, in Scripture usage as broad a term as "brother," "father," "son," etc. It denotes not only " a full sister " by the same father and mother, but also a " step sister " or " half-sister," or any near female relative, Gen. 12:13; 2o:i2; 26:7; Matt. 13:56. It also denotes one in close affinity of thought and inclination, Ezek. 16:46,- and one of the same spiritual family by faith, Rom. 16:1; 1 Cor. 9:5. It is one of the terms by which Christ expresses the close relation to which he graciously ad mits his disciples, Matt. 12:49, 5°- In Co'- 4:10 "sister's son" should be rendered "cousin," as in the R. V. SITH, Ezek. 35:6, in some copies of the Bible, an obsolete word meaning "since." SIT'NAH, strife, the 2d well dug by Isaac in the valley of Gerar, whose possession Abimelech's herdsmen claimed, Gen. 26:21. SI'VAN, the 3d Hebrew ecclesiastical month and the 9th of the civil year, begin ning with the new moon of our June, Esth. 8:9. The name is probably of Persian ori gin. See Month. SKILL, often used in Scripture as a verb, to understand or know how, 1 Kin. 5:6; 2 Chr. 2:7, 8; 34:12. SKINS, Gen. 3:21, perhaps of animals offered in sacrifice, by divine appointment, immediately after the fall. SLAVE, Jer. 2 : 14 ; Rev. 18:13. See Ser vant. SLIME. See Pitch and Sea, III. SLING, a favorite weapon of Oriental shepherds, 1 Sam. 17:40; comp. the meta phor of Abigail , the wife of the great flock- owner Nabal, 1 Sam. 25:29. It was also very effective in war, Judg. 20:16; 1 Sam. 17:49, 50; 2 Kin. 3:25; 1 Chr. 12:2; and was regularly employed not only by the Israelite troops, but also by the Syrians, 1 Mace. 9:11, the Assyrians, Judith 9:7, the Egyptians, and the Persians. Sling-stones were chosen for their smoothness, 1 Sam. 17:40, and Uzziah had stores of them pro vided for his troops, 2 Chr. 26:14, margin. The sling supplied Jeremiah with an image of violent removal, Jer. 10:18. Travellers speak of modern Bedouin shepherds as dexterous in the use of this weapon. See War. SLOW'-BELLIES, Tit. 1:12, in the R. V. " idle gluttons." SLUI'CES, translated " reward " in Prov. 11:18. In Isa. 19:10, for "all that make sluices and ponds for fish," the R. V. reads, 573 SMI BIBLE DICTIONARY. SMY " all they that work for hire shall be grieved in soul." SMITH, a worker in metal ; in the Bible particularly copper, iron, gold, and silver. The art of the smith, as one of the first essentials of civilization, was early prac tised, Gen. 4:22. Without it a nation was defenceless in time of war, hence Israel was deprived of smiths by the Philistines, 1 Sam. 13:19-22; comp. Judg. 5:8; and by Nebuchadnezzar, 2 Kin. 24:14, 16; Jer. 24: 1 ; 29:2. In Israel, as among the heath en, the art was often perverted to the ser vice of idolatry, Judg. 17:4; Isa. 40:19; 41:7; 44:12; Acts 19:24. A smith at his work is described in Ecclus. 38:28. SMI'TING and "slew" in Exod. 2:11, 12 are the same verb in Hebrew, to slay. Se - - ~-~ ---_^~^-- ~^=b^ ^-.. . - ~-y jl j t__ £5jj|| | \S 'J ''-*- s s ¦ s '¦ ysi « ' ''W^t. -" S7,"8:7, 8; comp. 1 Chr. 22:2. SOL'OMON'S SONG, or THE SONG OF SONGS, ver. 1, i. e., the most excellent of songs; sometimes called " Canticles," from its title in the Latin Vulgate, " Canticus Canticorum." It has always held a place" in the canonical Scriptures, appearing in the ancient versions from the Septuagint onward, and in the catalogues from that of Melito, about A. D. 160, onward, and being highly esteemed by Jews and Christians. There seems to be no sufficient reason for doubting that its author was king Solo mon, at some period during the former half of his reign. As to its subject and plan very different opinions have been held — embraced in one or another of the following 3 classes : 1 . The allegorical view. Almost all Jew ish writers of the Christian era interpret this beautiful poem as an allegory, agree ing usually with the Targum, the Chaldee paraphrase, which explains it as an alle goric and prophetic representation of the history of Israel from the Exodus to the coming of the Messiah and the building of the third temple. The allegorical mode of interpretation was adopted by the early Christian writers, who regarded the Song SOL BIBLE DICTIONARY. SON as setting forth either (i) the loving com munion between Christ and the soul of the individual believer; or (2). the rela tion between Christ and the church, or (3) both; or (4) the relation between Jehovah and the people of Israel, the Old Testa ment theocracy; or (5) the history of the church in both Old Testament and New Testament periods. The allegorical view in some form has continued to be that of the majority of Christian theologians and believers to the present day. 2. Literal view. As early as the 5th century Theodore of Mopsuestia in Cilicia maintained the literal sense of the Song, as celebrating the earthly love and mar riage of Solomon and his bride — Shelomoh and Shulamith ("the Shulamite"), sup posed to be Pharaoh's daughter. This lit eral view long met with little acceptance, but in the last and present centuries has found supporters, chiefly German ration alists, the bride being sometimes regarded as an Egyptian princess, sometimes as an Israelite shepherdess from Shunem. It is obvious that the bare literal view fails to account for the place which the Song has always had in the inspired Scriptures and in the hearts of God's people, and unwar rantably ignores the typical character of Solomon as well as many Scripture repre sentations of the relation between God and his people drawn from the marriage relation. 3. Typical view: Midway between the allegorical and the literal views is that which accepts the Song as setting forth in its primary signification the loving inter course of king Solomon and his bride, and, by virtue of the representative and typical character of the king, as the vicegerent of Jehovah and a type ofthe Messiah, shadow ing forth the tender relation between Je hovah and his chosen people, and the still more loving communion between Christ and his church. Thus understood, the Song harmonizes with the divine system of actual, historic, and personal types of Christ in his various aspects. The Song holds an important place in the develop ment of the idea of the marriage relation as the figure of that existing between God, and particularly Christ, and his people; and was thus adapted to nourish the faith, love, and fidelity of Old Testament believ ers, as well as of Christians in later times. This idea is involved in expressions in the writings of Moses, Exod. 34:15, 16; Num. 13:39; and of Asaph, Psa. 73:27; lies in the foundation of the 45th Psalm, by a writet contemporary with Solomon; is enlarged upon by the prophets in words of comfort and rebuke, Isa. 54:5; 62:5; Jer. 3; Ezek. 16; 23; Hos. 1-3; and adopted by John the Baptist, John 3:29, and by our Lord and his apostles, Matt. 9:15; 2 Cor. 11:2; Eph. 5:23-32; Rev. 19:7-9; 21:2-9. Comp. also Song 8:12 and Isa. 5:1; Song 2:14 and Psa. 74 : 19 ; Song 5 : 2 and Rev. 3 : 20. In form the Song is a lyrical drama or dialogue, the speakers being Solomon, the bride, and her friends the maidens of Jeru salem. See Solomon, Shulamite. In the exposition of this beautiful poem we must remember that modern conven tional rules and notions are not the stand ard to which its plan, its images, or its phraseology should be brought. Dr. John Brown of Haddington, in the introduction to his admirable paraphrase of this book, says, " If understood of the marriage and fellowship between Christ and his people, it will appear most exalt ed, instructive, and heart-warming. Its majestic style, its power on men's con science to promote holiness and purity, the harmony of its language with that of Christ's parables and the book of Revela tion, the sincerity of the bride in acknowl edging her faults, and its general recep tion by the Jewish and Christian church, sufficiently prove it inspired of God. To such as read it with a carnal and especially with a wanton mind, it is the savor of death unto death, as the mind and conscience of such are defiled ; but to such as have expe rienced much fellowship with Christ and read it with a heavenly and spiritual tem per of mind, it will be the savor of life unto life. The speakers in it are Christ, belie vers, and the daughters of Jerusalem," or companions and friends of believers. SOME'TIME, or SOME'TIMES, in the A. V. should read " aforetime," "once," or "in times past," Eph. 2:13; 5:8; Col. 1:21; 3:7; Tit. 3:3; 1 Pet. 3:20. SON is used in a variety of senses in the Scriptures: sometimes denoting a grand son or more remote descendant, Gen. 29:5; Matt. 1:20; one occupying a relation like that of a son — by adoption, Gen. 48:5; by law, Ruth 4:17; by education, 1 Sam. 3:6; 1 Kin. 20:35; compare Prov. 1:8, etc.; by conversion, Tit. 1:4; by resemblance, Isa. 57:3; Matt. 5:9, 45; Acts 13:10. By a fur ther figure of speech, persons, to express their real or apparent origin, their temper, or their destiny, are sometimes called 58l SON BIBLE DICTIONARY. SON " sons " of localities, qualities, affections, or conditions ; as " sons of the East," Judg. 6:3, 33: "of this world," Luke 16:8; "of hell," Matt. 23:15, R. V.; "of Belial" or worthlessness, Judg. 19:22; "of disobedi ence," Eph. 2:2; "of death," 1 Sam. 20:31, margin; "of perdition," John 17:12. Even inanimate objects were called "sons" of other inanimate objects, as in a sense their offspring: thus an arrow is a "son of the bow," Job 41:28, R. V., margin, or "of the quiver," Lam. 3:13, margin; and threshed grain is the "son of the threshing-floor," Isa. 21:10, margin. The Hebrew word ben, sou, occurs in composition in many personal, tribal, and local names, as Ben jamin, Gen. 35:18, margin; Bene-berak, sons of lightning, Josh. 19:45. Bar, Ara maic' and poetic Hebrew for son, is also found in the New Testament, as in Bar timaeus, Mark 10:46. SON OF DAVID, 1 Chr. 29:22; Matt. 1:20; Luke 3:31. This title became, by reason of the Old Testament prophecies announ cing the firm and glorious dominion of a descendant of David, Isa. 9:7; Jer. 23:5; Amos 9:11, one of the recognized designa tions of the Messiah, Matt. 12:23; 22:41, 42; Mark 12:35; John 7:42, and as such is repeatedly appropriated to Jesus, Matt. 1:1; 9:27; 15:22; 20:30, 31; 21:9, 15; compare Luke 1:32. SON OF GOD. I. Adam, as deriving his origin directly from God and endowed with a mental and moral likeness to Him, is so called, Luke 3:38; compare Gen. 1:26, 27. The expression occurs first in the plural, Gen. 6:2, 4, where the best interpretation regards it as denoting, not angels, Luke 201 35. 36, but the descendants of Seth, of whose line were the pious patriarchs of Gen. 5; comp. Gen. 4:26, and the "daugh ters of men " as denoting women of the race of Cain, the accursed one, Gen. 4:9- 16. The term "sons of God" is also ap plied to angels, Job 1:6; 2:1; 38:7; and to kings and rulers, 2 Sam. 7:14; 1 Chr. 28:6; comp. Psa. 82:6; as well as to the worship pers or chosen people of God — as, beside the Sethites, Gen. 6:2, 4, Israel, Exod. 4:22, 23; Deut. 14:1 ; Isa. 45:11; Jer. 3:^ ; 31:20; Hos. 1 : 10; and especially believers in Christ — as adopted by his Father, born again into the spiritual family of God, and having wrought in them a new nature, di vine in origin and by resemblance, John 1:12,13; Rom. 8:14-17; Phil. 2:13-15; Heb. 12:5-7; 2 Pet- 1:4. See Regeneration. Nebuchadnezzar likens the superhuman 582 companion of Shadrach and his friends in the fiery furnace to "a son of the gods," Dan. 3:25, R. V.; comp. ver. 28; in the thought of the heathen king there was prob ably no reference to " the Son of God," A. V., the Messiah. II. The title " the Son of God " belongs in a peculiar and always distinguishable sense to the Lord Jesus Christ, expressing his unique and eternal relation to the Father, as "the only-begotten Son," the revealer of the Father, his agent in crea tion and redemption, in providence and in judgment, John 1 : 14, 18, 34 ; 3:16; 5 : 22, 23 ; Heb. 1 ; comp. Psa. 2. This title is applied to Christ more than 40 times in the New Testament, Matt. 3:17; 16:16, 17; 17:5; Rev. 2:18. The Jews rightly understood him to assert equality with God in claim ing it, John 5:18, R. V.; 10:30-36. The truth that the Messiah would be essentially divine is involved in declarations Of the Hebrew Scriptures, Psa. 2 ; Isa. 7 : 14, R. V., margin; 9:6; Mic. 5:2; which were so far understood that the title " Son of God " was one of the recognized names of the Mes siah, Matt. 26:63; Mark 14:61; John 1:49. But the vast majority of the Jews, entan gled in earthly conceptions of the Messiah and his office, failed to apprehend the full meaning of these Scriptures, stumbled at the poverty and unworldliness of Jesus, and rejected as false his claim to be the Messiah and as blasphemy his announce ment that he was the Son of God in the fullest sense of the term, Matt. 26:63-66; John 5:18; 8:58, 59; 19:7. See Trinity. God's gift of his own Son is at once the greatest proof of the enormity of sin, of the strict holiness and justice of God, and of his gracious love for sinners, John 3:16; Rom. 3:25, 26; 8:3,32; Heb. 10:28, 29. SON OF MAN. This expression is often used iii the Old Testament as an equiva lent for "man;" it is coupled with allu sions to human weakness, Num. 23: 19; Job 25:6; Psa. 144:3; 146:3, and is a reminder to humility, Ezek. 2:1, 3, 6, 8; 3:1, etc. It is applied to Ezekiel's contemporary, Daniel, Dan. 8:17. In Daniel's vision of the suc cessive world-kingdoms, after the 4 pre figured under bestial forms, Dan. 7:3-8, he describes the ruler of the final, universal, eternal kingdom as " like unto a son of man," ver. 13, 14, R. V.; of human aspect, yet approaching close to "the Ancient of Days," a remarkable prediction of the union of the human and the divine in the Messiah. See also Dan. 10:16. The title soo BIBLE DICTIONARY. SOR "the Son of Man," understood by the Jews of our Lord's time as a designation of the Messiah, John 12:34, is that which Christ most frequently applied to himself, some times interchanging it with "the Son of God," John 1:49-51; 3:14-18; and appro priating to himself the prophecy of Daniel, Matt. 26:63, 64; comp. Rev. 1:13; 14:14, R. V. As applied to Christ — more than 80 times in the New Testament — it implies not only his humiliation, Matt. 8:20, that he, the Son of God, became a true man, Rom. 8:3, but also that he was the one per fect Man, sinless, and complete in every human virtue; also the representative Man — personally, as elevated above indi vidual, class, and national prejudices, and officially, as the representative of the hu man race in his life and death for man. As Augustine says, " The Son of God be came the Son of Man, that you who were sons of men might be made sons of God." The Son of God is still also the Son of Man, in his exaltation to the glory of the Father, Luke 22:69; Acts 7:55, 56; comp. John 17:5; and as such has perfect sympa thy with men, Heb. 4:15, and is to judge the world, Matt. 25:31; John 5:26, 27; Rev. 5:9, 10. In Acts 3:13, 26; 4:27, 30, theword "son" in the A. V. is "servant" in the R. V. Comp. Isa. 42:1 ; Matt. 12:18. SOOTH'SAYER, i. e., truth-teller, one claiming to foretell coming events, the Bi ble translation of several Hebrew words : in Dan. 2:27, etc.. a divider, one who pre tended to learn secret or future things by dissecting the entrails of animals; comp. Ezek. 21:21. In Isa. 2:6, where the people of Israel are reproached with being "filled with customs from the East," R. V., and with being " soothsayers like the Philis tines," the word may mean observers of the clouds, or practisers of secret arts ; so also in Mic. 5:12. Many modes of divina tion were practised. See Divination, Magic, Sorcerer. SOP, John 13 : 26, a small portion of bread dipped in sauc'e, wine, or some other liquid at table, Ruth 2 : 14. Modern table uten sils were unknown or little used by the ancients. The food was conveyed to the mouth by the thumb and fingers, and a choice morsel was often thus bestowed on a favored guest. Similar customs still pre vail in Palestine and other Oriental coun tries. Jowett says, " There are set on the table 2 or 3 messes of stewed meat, vege tables, and sour milk. To me the privi lege of a knife, spoon, and plate was grant ed; but the rest helped themselves imme diately from the dish, in which 5 Arab fingers might be seen at once. Their bread, which is extremely thin, tearing and fold ing up like a sheet of paper, is used for roll ing together a large mouthful, or sopping up the fluid and vegetables. When the master of the house found in the dish any dainty morsel, he took it out with his fin gers aud put it to my mouth." SOP'ATER, a father's deliverer, a Beroe- an Christian who accompanied Paul from Greece or Macedonia to Asia, on his return from his 3d missionary journey, A. D. 58. He was a son of Pyrrhus, Acts 20:4, R. V. Comp. Acts 17:10-12. Some would iden tify him with Sosipater. SOR'CERER, Exod. 7:11; Jer. 27:9; Dan. 2:2, and SOR'CERESS, Exod. 22:18, R. V., a man or woman who joractised sor cery — often by the use of incantations to which superhuman power was ascribed. Such a person, in the A. V. " witch," was denounced by the Mosaic law, Exod. 22: 18, R. V.; Deut. 18:10. Yet sorcery and its kindred arts, all of which flourished among the heathen, were more or less practised by the Hebrews ; and the encouragement of it was one of the sins of Manasseh, king of Judah, 2 Chr. 33:6, R. V. One ofthe latest denunciations of the Old Testament is against sorcerers, Mai. 3:5. In New Testament times there were many who pretended to foretell the destinies of men by the aspects of the planets and stars, and to cure diseases, expel demons, and per form other wonders by means of certain drugs, incantations, etc. Simon of Sama ria, Acts 8:9-11, and the Jew Bar-jesus at Paphos, Acts 13:6-11, and the pythoness, Acts 16:16, belonged to this class, which was also abundantly represented at Ephe sus, Acts 19:13-19. The punishment of sorcerers is foretold, 2 Thess. 2:9-12; Rev. 21:8; 22:15. See Divination, Enchant ments, Magic, Necromancer, Sooth sayer. SORE, "severe," ¦> Chr. 21:19; Job 2:7; Psa. 2:5; Heb. 10:29. As an adverb, "greatly" or "grievously," Gen. 49:23; Isa. 23:5; Matt. 17:15; Luke 2:9; Acts 20:37. SO'REK, choice vine, the valley in which Delilah lived, Judg. 16:4, near Zorah, Sam son's birthplace, Judg. 13:2. Zorah is now traced at Surah, 14 miles west of Jerusa lem, on a hill on the north side of wady Surar, a part of which was probably called 583 SOS BIBLE DICTIONARY. SOU the valley of Sorek. It is a wide and fer tile valley, flanked by low hills of white limestone well adapted for vine-culture; the bed of its winter-torrent, Judg. 16:4, margin, white and shingly in the dry sea son, runs through the middle ofthe valley. On its south side, nearly 2 miles from Surah, is 'Ain Shems, formerly Beth-shemesh ; and some 2 miles southwest from 'Ain Shems is Tibneh, formerly Timnah, the home of the Philistine maiden whom Samson mar ried, Judg. 14:1. Nearly 2 miles east by north from Surah is Eshua, supposed to be the ancient Eshtaol, Judg. 13:25; 16:31. From Surah the valley takes a northwest erly course, along the boundary between Judah and Dan, to the Mediterranean, pass ing 3 miles south of Akir, the ancient Ek ron; and it may have been the route taken by the Philistines' kine drawing the ark of God from Ekron to Beth-shemesh, 1 Sam. 5:10 to 6:13. Sorek Js translated " choice vine " in Gen. 49:11; Isa. 5:2; Jer. 2:21, and the valley may have derived its name from the cultivation of such vines on its slopes ; the vineyards of Timnah are mentioned in Judg. 14:5. In modern Arabic the word denotes a highly-prized variety of Syrian grape, which is small, purple, and sweet, with few and small seeds, and yielding a red wine. SOSIP'ATER, a father's saviour, a kins man of Paul, with him at Corinth when the Epistle to the Romans was written, A. D. 58, Rom. 16:21. See Sopater. SOS'THENES, preserver of the nation ? the ruler of the synagogue at Corinth after the conversion of Crispus, and probably leader of the Jews in their attempt to de stroy Paul. When Gallio refused to take cognizance of the Jews' complaint against Paul, A. D. 53, Sosthenes was publicly beat en bythe Grecians; and possibly Paul's for giving sympathy won him to Christianity, so that he may be identical with the " Sos thenes our brother " who was with Paul at Ephesus and joined him in writing to the Corinthians, A. D. 57, 1 Cor. 1:1; 16:8. SOUL. In the English Bible— with the exception of Job 30:15, where the R. V. correctly renders the Heb. nedibah, " hon or," and Isa. 57:16, where the original is neshamah, " breath " or " spirit " — soul is the rendering of the Heb. nephesh and its Gr. equivalent psuche ; both of which pri marily mean " breath," as nephesh is trans lated in Job 41:21 ; hence they denote the vital spirit or principle, and both are often 584 translated "life," Gen. 9:4; Exod. 4:19; 1 Sam. 25:29; Matt. 2:20; 6:25, of which brutes as well as men, Gen. 1:20, 30; 2:7, are possessed, Job 12: 10. This animal life is in Scripture, as well as by the discover ies of modern science, closely allied with the blood, which is " the life (nephesh) of the flesh," Gen. 9:4, 5; Lev. 17:11-14, R. V. ; comp. Isa. 53:7-12; John 19:34. Accord ing to the American Revisers " life " is the better, because plainer, rendering of the Hebrew word in Psa. 49:8, where, as the context shows, the reference is to the im possibility of purchasing a continuance of bodily existence; comp. Job 33:22-30. But together with this principle of life, which is common to men and brutes, and which in brutes perishes with the body, there is in man a spiritual, reasonable, and immortal soul, the seat of our thoughts, affections, and reasonings, which distin guishes us from the brute creation, and in which chiefly consists our resemblance to God, Gen. 1 : 26. This must be spiritual, because it thinks ; it must be immortal, because it is spiritual. Scripture ascribes to man alone understanding, conscience, the knowledge of God, wisdom, immortal ity, and the hope of future everlasting hap piness. It threatens men only with pun ishment in another life and with the pains of hell. To the soul of man, created in God's image, Gen. 1:26, is ascribed a peculiar power, and from it is demanded a peculiar activity, viz., the "seeking of the Lord," Deut. 4:29; 11:18; 30:2, 6, 10, including the exercise towards him of all these thoughts, feelings, affections, and volitions, with their appropriate resultant actions, which His character and His relations towards man should produce, Psa. 41:4; 42; 103. In correspondence with this need of the hu man soul is its privilege of having Jehovah for its portion, Lam. 3:24, 25, and of find ing rest in Christ, Matt. 11:29; comp. Psa. 107:9. In some places the Bible seems to dis tinguish soul from spirit,. 1 Thess. 5:23; Heb. 4:12: the organ of our sensations, appetites, and passions, allied to the body, from that nobler portion of our nature which most allies man to God. Yet we are to conceive of them as one indivisible and spiritual being, called also the mind and the heart, spoken of variously as liv ing, feeling, understanding, reasoning, willing, etc. Its usual designation is " the soul." sou BIBLE DICTIONARY. SOU The immortality of the human soul is a tundamental truth of revealed religion and a prominent doctrine of Christianity. It is implied in God's styling himself "the God of Abraham, Isaac," etc., long after their earthly lives were finished, Exod.. 3:6; Matt. 22:32. In the Old Testament a dis tinction is often made between the respec tive destinies of the body and the soul at death: the same individual is spoken of as being "gathered to his people," i. e., trans ferred to some already populous home of his still living ancestors, and as being " buried," sometimes in an apparently sol itary grave, as Aaron on Mount Hor, Gen. 25:8-10; 35:29; 49:29; Num. 20:24; l Kin. 2:10. The distinction is further made in the use of a specific term for the place of departed souls, both of the righteous and the wicked. See Sheol. The true sense of Sheol is often obscured in the A. V. by translating it "the grave," "the pit," or "hell;" but it is restored in the R. V., if not in the text, at least in the margin, Gen. 37:33,35; Psa.g:i7; 30:3; 31:17; Isa. 14:9- 20; comp. 1 Sam. 28:8-19. And though the passage into that unseen world is tinged with sadness even to the godly man's soul, Job 7:9; Psa. 6:5; 89:48; Isa. 38:10, 18, there are records of divine assurances to the righteous of release from it and of ac cordant joyful anticipations, Psa. 16:10; 49: r5; 73:23~26; Hos. 13:14. The faith and obedience of God's ancient servants attest their hope of another life, Heb. 11 : 10, 13-40. It was however reserved for Christ to reveal most fully the soul's immortality and worth and the blessedness of those who die "in the Lord," Matt. 10:28; 16:26; John 11:25, 26; Heb. 12:22, 23; Rev. 14:13. See Immortality. To save the souls of men he freely devoted himself to death ; and how does it become his redeemed peo ple to spend and be spent to promote the great work for which he suffered and died ! In the Scriptures the words rendered " soul " are used concretely to denote a liv ing being, especially a human being, Gen. 12:5; Lev. 5; Josh. 10:28, etc.; Acts 2:43; Rev. 16:3; as an object of traffic, a slave, Rev. 18:13. The- same Hebrew word is also used to denote that which has had life, a corpse, Num. 9:6, 7, 10. Withthe posses sive pronouns, "soul" is often equivalent to"self," Jer. 37:9, margin. A soul is as cribed to God, Lev. 26:11, 30; Judg. 10:16, by the same figure of speech which im putes to him an " arm " or " eyes." SOUTH. I. "The South," "the South country," or "the land ofthe South," Heb. negeb, dry. This is the name of a large region on the south of Canaan (applied to it even when approaching it from further south) frequented by Abraham and Isaac, Gen. 12:9; 13:1, 3; 20:1; 24:62. It was crossed by the spies sent by Moses from Kadesh, and was at that time a seat of the Amalekites, Num. 13: 17, 22, 29. It is men tioned among the grand divisions con quered by the Israelites, Josh. 10:40; comp. Num. 21:1-3, and formed part of the terri tory allotted to Judah and afterwards to Simeon, Josh. 15:21-32; 19:1-8; 1 Chr. 4:24-33. In this region the family of Ca leb the Kenite, and the Judahite family of Jerahmeelites settled, Judg. 1:10-16; 1 Sam. 27:10; in David's time part of it was held by the Philistines, who gave Ziklag to him, 1 Sam. 27:5-7; 30:1, 14-16; comp. 2 Chr. 28:18. The mountains on the southwest of the Dead Sea formed the eastern border of the Negeb, which extended westward to the neighborhood of Gaza and Gerar. It consisted of a high plateau intersected by mountain ranges and sloping westward into the plain. The towns assigned to it, from Rimmon on the north to Kadesh on the south, Josh. 15:21-32, indicate a length of 60 miles. The northern part of this region was tolerably fertile and cultiva ted, but the southern portion partook of the character of the wilderness on which it bordered. Its wadys, filled with water by the winter rains, Psa. 126:4, soon dry up, and it suffers from the hot winds from the desert in their season, Isa. 21:1 ; com pare Luke 12:55. There are many ruins of former towns — wells, aqueducts, reser voirs, terraces, etc.— but none now inhab ited. Ambassadors from Judah to Egypt would cross it, Isa. 30:1-6; comp. 36:6. Jeremiah predicts a Jewish reoccupation of its cities which shared in the desolation of Judah by the Babylonians, Jer. 32:44; 33:13; comp. Obad. 19, 20; Zech. 7:7; and the fulfilment of this prediction is record ed, Neh. 11:25-30. By Jeremiah, in Jehoiachin's reign, the term negeb seems to be applied to the en tire land of Judah approached from the north, Jer. 13:19; comp. ver. 18, R. V., 20; 2 Kin. 24- 12, and a few years later by Eze kiel prophesying in Babylon, Ezek. 20:46, 47; 21 :i, 2 ; comp. Ezek. 1:1-3 ; 20:1. Dan iel, ch. 11, applies the term to Egypt. It sometimes denotes merely relative direc tion, as in Exod. 26: 18. " the south side." As a distinct geographical term the R. V. 585 sou BIBLE DICTIONARY. SPA distinguishes the South by a capital ini tial. II. Darom, a word applied to part of the territory of Naphtali, Deut. 33:23, and also used as a simple relative term, Eccles. 1:6; Ezek. 20:46, R. V. ; 40:24, etc,; and poeti cally for the south wind, Job 37:17. III. A frequent term for the south is te- man, the right hand, i. e., of one facing the east, Exod. 26:18, " southward," Josh. 15:1; Isa. 43 : 6. It is also used for the south wind, Song 4: 16. In Zech. 6:6 " the south coun try " denotes Egypt. IV. Another term denoting " the right hand," yamin, is used for the south, 1 Sam. 23:19, 24; in Psa. 89:12 evidently in the widest sense. V. In Psa. 107:3 the original term, liter ally " sea," A. V., margin, is the word translated "west" in Deut. 33:23; Isa. 49:12, and "sea" in Amos 8:12. VI. The south is designated in Psa. 75:6 by the word midbar, wilderness, in allu sion to the character of Arabia south of Palestine. SOUTH, QUEEN OF THE, Matt. 12:42. See Sabeans, II. SOUTH RA'MOTH, 1 Sam. 30:27. See Ramath Negep. SOWING, Psa. 126:6; Prov. 11:18; Amos 9:13; Matt. 13:19-28; 2 Cor. 9:6. Many Scriptures present the analogy between agricultural and spiritual sowing, and show that the sure resultant harvests from sowing good seed or evil seed are not arbi trary judgments from God, but the natural and necessary results of our conduct, Gal. 6:7,8. SPAIN, Rom. 15:24, 28, the peninsula in the southwest of Europe, about 480 miles wide and 600 long. The Phoenicians had commercial settlements on the coast, one of which, called by the Greeks Tartessus, was probably the Tarshish of Hiram and Solomon. See Tarshish. Gades, now Cadiz, was another Phoenician settlement. The earliest inhabitants known to the Greeks and Romans were the Iberians, around the river Iberus, now Ebro. These were afterwards mingled in some places with invading Celts. The name Iberia was extended by the Greeks from the west coast, where they had settlements, to the whole country. In B. C. 238 the Cartha ginians invaded Iberia and conquered the southeast portion, but were expelled by the Romans in the 2d Punic war, about B. C. 206. After the Roman conquest the coun try was named Hispania — a name traced 586 by some to the Shemitic word shaphan J see Coney ; by others to the Basque word Ezpana, the edgeAand of Europe. Spain was famed for its mineral wealth of gold, silver, etc. The Roman conquest was not completed until the time of Augustus, B. C. 19, who divided the country into 3 provin ces, the one named Lusitania nearly cor responding to Portugal. Many Romans settled in Spain, and their language and civilization gradually spread through the country ; the elder Seneca was a native of Spain. Probably many Hellenistic Jews resided there, and perhaps there were Christians there at the date of the Epistle to the Romans, A. D.. 58, when Paul, at Corinth intended to visit the country, Rom. 15:24, 28— a design perhaps accomplished between his ist and 2d imprisonments at Rome, A. D. 64-66. See Paul. On the decay of the Roman Empire Spain suffered as a battle-ground of the Teutonic tribes. The Goths established their supremacy in 427, and exchanged their Arian Christianity for the Roman-catholic faith in 587. About 713 the Mauritanian Arabs, or Moors, con quered Spain, driving the Christians into the north, and retained a Mohammedan empire there -until deprived of their last remaining kingdom, that of Granada, in 1482 by Ferdinand and Isabella, who also expelled the Jews from Spain. The king dom reached its height of prosperity under the emperor Charles V. (I. of Spain), Isa bella's grandson; and commenced a de cline under Philip III., grandson of Charles. Previous to 1868 the teaching of Protestant doctrines was forbidden by law. SPAN, Exod. 28:16; 1 Sam. 17:4; Isa. 40:12; Ezek. 43:13, the distance from the extremity of the thumb to that of the little finger when spread apart— 9 or 10 inches. The Hebrew word rendered "spanned" in Isa. 48:13 means "spread out," as in the R. V. From the same verb is derived the term used in Lam. 2:20, where the R. V. has children that are " dandled in the hands," instead of "a span long;" comp. ver. 22, where the same verb is rendered "dan dled," instead of "swaddled," A. V. SPAR'ROW, Psa. 84:3; 102:7; Prov. 26:2., Heb. tsipp6r, a term resembling in sound the chirp of many small birds, and one of wide application. It occurs more than 40 times in the Old Testament, but is usually rendered "bird," as in Gen. 7:14; 15:10; Job 41:5; Eccles. 12:4, or "fowl," Deut. 4:17. Like the still oftener occur ring oph, wing, also rendered " bird," Gen. SPA BIBLE DICTIONARY. SPE 40:17, 19, and "fowl," Gen. 1:20; 7:14, tsippor is sometimes used in the most com prehensive sense, Deut. 4:17; Psa. 148:10, including carrion-eaters, Ezek. 39:17, though a special term is also used for these, viz., ayit, rendered in the R. V. "birds of prey" aud "ravenous birds," Gen. 15:11; Job 28:7; Isa. 18:6; Jer. 12:9. In Ezek. 39:4 ayit is used with tsippfir, and rendered "ravenous." But the chief ap plication of tsippor was to the insectivo rous and frugivorous small birds, account ed "clean," permitted as food, Deut. 14:11, and directed to be used iri the ceremony for the cleansing of a leper, Lev. 14:4, etc. Beside sparrows, there were inclu ded finches, thrushes, larks, and many oth ers; comp. also Gen. 15:10 with ver. 9. Wanton destruction of such birds was guarded against, Deut. 22:6, 7. Over 100 species of passerine or sparrow-like birds have been observed in Palestine, inclu ding the common English sparrow, Passer' domesticus, and 3 other sparrows. The English tree - sparrow, Passer montanus, abounds in the Mount of Olives and around the mosque on the site ofthe temple, whence they acquire a sort of sacredness in the view of Mohammedans, as under the divine protection; comp. Psa. 84:3 — where how ever " altars " cannot be understood liter ally, and many claim that birds were not allowed within the sacred precincts at all, and that the Psalmist only asserts that as the birds find anywhere a safe nest, so his soul found rest and a home in Jehovah. In Psa. 102:7 the reference is not to the lively and gregarious sparrow, but to the blue thrush, Petrocincla cyanea, often seen perched singly, or with a single compan ion, on houses in the villages of Palestine, uttering from time to time its plaintive and monotonous note. Among the birds to whose notes reference is made in Psa. 104: 12 we may doubtless number the Pal estine bulbul, Ixus xanthopygius, a thrush like bird, closely allied to the nightingale of Persia and India; it frequents wooded districts, especially the banks of the Jor dan, where in the early morning it pours forth its exquisite song. Small birds were no doubt anciently used as a common food, Neh. 5:18, and were so abundant in mar ket and cheap in our Lord's time as to fur nish a striking illustration of God's care over his people, Matt. 10:29-31 ; Luke 12:6, 7 ; long strings of sparrows, wagtails, and larks are to-day offered in the streets of Jerusalem. The Old Testament contains many allusions to the capture of birds, effected by snares and nets of various sorts, Psa. 124:7; Prov. 7:23; Eccles. 9:12; Amos 3:5, sometimes with the help of a decoy bird, Jer. 5:27. See Partridge. Mussul mans cut the throat of game and spill the blood on the ground, as Moses bade the Hebrews to do, Lev. 17:13. In Isa. 31:5 God's tender care over his people is illus trated by that of a mother- bird flying around or near her young in time of danger. The fugitive habit of the sparrows illustrates the failure of an undeserved curse to cling to the person against whom it is aimed, Prov. 26:2; comp. Num. 23:8; Deut. 23:5. The Hebrew term occurs as the name of the father of Balak, Num. 22:2, and of the Midianite wife of Moses, Exod. 2:21. SPEAR. Several different kinds seem to be intended by as many different Heb. words. I. The chanith seems to have been the chief weapon of this sort, 1 Sam. 13:19, 22 ; one of great size and weight was borne by Goliath, 1 Sam. 17:7, 45, and by other giants, 2 Sam. 21:19; 23:21; 1 Chr. 11:23; it was the habitual companion of Saul, 1 Sam. 22:6: 26:7-12, 16, 22; 2 Sam. 1:6, and other warriors, 2 Sam. 2:23; 23:18; 1 Chr. 11:11, 20. It was this, and not a "javelin," that Saul hurled at David, 1 Sam. 18:10, 11; 19:9, 10, and at Jonathan, 1 Sam. 20:33, R- V. Its wooden staff, 5 or 6 feet long, bore a metal head, sharp-edged and pointed, 1 Sam. 17:7; its butt also was sometimes shod with metal to facilitate sticking it in the earth, 1 Sam. 26:7, etc., and with this end a fatal blow might be struck, 2 Sam. 2:23. Like this was the Roman spear with which a large wound was inflicted in the side of Jesus, John 19:34; 20:27. II. The kidon or "javelin" was appar ently a lighter weapon. It was this that 587 SPE BIBLE DICTIONARY. SPI Joshua stretched out as a signal to his host in ambush to assault Ai, Josh. 8 : 18-26, R. V. One of brass or bronze was borne by Goli ath on his shoulders when not in use, 1 Sam. x7:6. 45, R. V., called in the A. V. "target" and "shield." It is associated with the spear in Job 39:23; in the A. V. "shield." III. Another frequent term for shield is romach, Num. 25:7, R. V. ; Judg. 5:8; 1 Kin. 18:28, in the R. V. "lances;" 1 Chr. 12:8, in the A. V. " buckler ;" 2 Chr. 11:12; 14:8; 25:5; Neh. 4:13, 16, 21 ; Ezek. 39:9. SPEAR'MEN, Acts 23:23, probably light- armed lancers, in distinction from the heavy-armed legionaries, "soldiers," and the cavalry. The words rendered "the company of spearmen "in Psa. 68:30, A. V., are translated in the R. V. "wild beast of the reeds," meaning probably the croco dile, as the symbol of Egypt; comp. ver. 31; Psa. 74:14; Ezek. 29:3. SPEED, success, Gen. 24 : 12. " God speed," 2 John 10, n, good health and success ; in R. V. " give him no greet ing." Sped, Judg. 5:30, succeeded; R. V., " found." SPI'CERY, Heb. nekoth, Gen. 37:25; 43:11, R. V. ; either the storax, an odorous gum valued as an incense and for its med ical properties — exuded from incisions in the Storax officinalis, a low tree found in Syria, Palestine, Asia Minor, and Greece ; or as some think, tragacanth, a gum from the Astragalus tragacantha, which still grows in Palestine. The shrub is low and wide -spreading, with small leaves and many long and strong thorns. The gum is odorless and sweetish in taste, and has always been prized in the East, being mixed with honey for medicinal use. Dissolved in water it forms a fine mucilage. SPI'CES is the rendering of 4 Heb. words, one of which, basam, found only in Song 5:1, may perhaps denote the precious bal sam obtained from the gum and berries of the Amyris opobalsamum, Arabic basham. See Balm, also Song 5:13; 6:2, R. V., mar gin. In the other passages where " spi ces " are mentioned the reference is prob ably to aromatic substances in general, including not only odorous gums, roots, woods, and barks, but also fragrant seeds and the perfumes of flowers, Song 4:14, 16. Some of these substances were used in compounding the sacred incense and an ointing oil, Exod. 25:6; 30:23-25, 34, 35; .35:8, 28; 37:29. Some were products of Palestine, others were obtained from Ara- Dia, or through Arabia from India, Persia, 588 East Africa, etc.; comp. 1 Kin. 10:2, 10; Ezek. 27:22, R. V. The Greek word aro- mala, rendered "spices" in Mark 16:1; Luke 23:56; 24:1, also denotes aromatic substances in general, the two specified in John 19:39, 40 being a gum and a fragrant wood. Josephus mentions the attendance of 500 spice-bearers at the funeral of Herod the Great. ^i*v-~7^:5r'^!^L*§^*lteL^- sBei SPI'DER, a well-known little creature belonging to a family of the order Arach nida, of which many kinds are found in Palestine. Most of them spin some sort of a web or "house," sufficiently strong to catch and hold their prey, but yet exceed ingly frail. To this slender structure Bil- dad compares "the hope of the godless man," Job. 8 : 14, R. V. The spider's thread is formed by the union of thousands of mi nute silky threads, invisible to the naked eye, issuing from its spinneret and quickly hardening in the air. It shows marvellous ingenuity in forming its web, great cun ning in securing its prey, and ferocity in seizing, poisoning, and devouring it. Isa iah shows the men of Judah that their sim ilar traits and works can as little cover or protect them from the judgments of God, Isa. 59:5, 6. In Prov. 30:28 a different He brew word is used, denoting, according to the Septuagint, the Vulgate, and the R. V., the lizard ; perhaps the gecko, several spe cies of which are common among ruins in Palestine and Egypt; with its fan-like toes it is able to mount perpendicular walls, and even to cling to ceilings. Some scholars, however, with the A. V., still regard the house spider, Aranea domestica, as re ferred to. SPIKE'NARD (Heb. nerd, derived from the Sanscrit and denoting " giving an odor "), a highly-valued scented oil or oint ment, mentioned as perfuming the bride in Song 1:12; comp. 4: 10, and sending forth its fragrance " while the king sat at his ta ble." In Song 4:13, 14. the king, likening SPI BIBLE DICTIONARY. SPI her to a garden, includes spikenard among its precious plants ; and she desires that its "spices" or odors may all exhale to THE NARDOSTACHVS JATAMANSI, A SINGLE SPIKE. please him, ver. 16. In harmony with Ori ental custom, the bride's ointment may be regarded as the gift of the king; compare Esth. 2:12; and these pleasant odors may symbolize the spiritual graces of the church, derived from God and exercised under the influences of his Spirit. It is interesting to trace the correspondence between these, the only Old Testament references to spike nard, and the only New Testament notices of it. A few days before the crucifixion of our Lord, Mary the sister of Lazarus brought a flask of ointment of spikenard, "very costly," broke its seal or its slender neck, and anointed him with the ointment, whose fragrance filled the house; and for this manifestation of her adoring love she received the high commendation of the King of the church, Mark 14:3-9; John 12:1-8; compare Matt. 26:6-13; Phil. 4:18. The quantity thus expended was worth more than 300 denarii, nearly $30. See Alabaster, Penny, Spices. Nard is mentioned by many Greek and Latin wri ters. It is an East-Indian plant, having many shaggy spikes — Gr. slachus, Lat. spica— from one root; whence it was called nardostachus or spica nardi, Eng. spike nard. By the Hindoo natives it is called jatamansi and balchur; it belongs to the Valerian family. SPIN, SPIN'DLE. Hebrew women oc cupied much of their time in spinning, Exod. 35:25, 26; Prov. 31:19; Matt. 6:28. Wool and flax were spun for woollen and linen cloth, and goats' and camels' hair for sackcloth — which was used for mourning garments and girdles, and for tent-cover ings; comp. Zech. 13:4; Matt. 3:4. The different fibres were drawn out and twist ed into thread by means of a distaff or spindle, Prov. 31 : 19. The process of spin ning, with the spindle suspended from one hand while the other draws out the thread, is exhibited in Egyptian pictures and may stnM be seen in Palestine. SPIR'IT, a word answering to the Heb. ruach and the Gr. pneuma, primarily de noting "wind," Gen. 8:1; Eccles. 11:4; John 3:8; used in various senses in Scrip ture. I. For the Deity, especially THE Holy Spirit, the 3d person of the Holy Trinity, who inspired the prophets, animates good men, pours his unction into our hearts, im parts to us life and comfort, and in whose name we are baptized and blessed, as well as in that of the Father and the Son. When the adjective Holy is applied to the term Spirit we should always understand it as here explained ; but there are many places where it must be taken in this sense, al though the term Holy is omitted. See Holy Spirit. II. Breath, respiration ; or the princi ple of animal life, common to men and ani mals; this God has given, and this he re calls when he takes away life, Eccles. 3:21. See Soul. 1 1,1. The rational soul which animates us and preserves its being after the death of the body. That spiritual, reasoning, and choosing substance which is capable of eternal happiness or misery, Luke 23 : 46 ; Acts 7:59; 1 Cor. 5:5; Heb. 12:9, 23. See Soul. Sometimes an apparition of a dis embodied soul, Luke 24:37, 39. In Matt. 14:26; Mark 6:49 another Gr. word, phan- tasma, is used to express a similar idea. See R. V. The spirits in prison," 1 Pet. 3:19, seem, according to ver. 20, to denote the souls of antediluvian sinners now reserved in con finement unto the judgment-day; compare 2 Pet. 2:4, 9, R. V. The "preaching" or proclamation to them by Christ "in the, §89 SPI BIBLE DICTIONARY. SPO spirit " (R. V.), is generally understood as performed in the days of their earthly life through Noah, influenced by the Holy Spirit, sometimes called "the Spirit of Christ." Comp. 2 Pet. 2:5. Thus Christ preached to Gentiles and Jews through his inspired apostles and ministers, Eph. 2:17; comp. Luke 24:46, 47. Others understand in 1 Pet. 3:19 some proclamation made by Christ personally when his human spirit, at death, entered Hades ; comp. Acts 2:31 ; such a proclamation, however, cannot be understood as implying any change in the condition of souls dying impenitent; comp. Luke 16:23-31. IV. A non-human created intelligence, an angel; either holy, Heb. 1:14, or fallen and sinful, Matt. 10:1. The existence of angels and of disembodied human spirits was denied by the Sadducees, Acts 23:8. V. The disposition of the mind. Thus we read of a spirit of jealousy, a spirit of fornication, a spirit of prayer, a spirit of wisdom and understanding, a spirit of fear ofthe Lord, Hos. 4:12; Zech. 12:10; Isa. 11:2. In Luke 13:11 "a spirit of infirm ity " refers to some ill condition of the body, perhaps as in some way produced by the permitted agency of a spiritual being, Satan, ver. 16. VI. The renewed nature of true be lievers, which is produced by the Holy Spirit and conforms the soul to his like ness. Spirit is thus the opposite of flesh, John 3:6. This spirit is vitally united with, and in some passages can hardly be dis-_ tinguished from, the "Spirit of Christ," which animates true Christians, the chil dren of God, and distinguishes them from the children of darkness, who are animated by the spirit of the world, Rom. 8:1-16. This indwelling Spirit is the gift of grace, of adoption — the Holy Spirit poured into our hearts — which emboldens us to call God "Abba," i. e. "Father." Those who are influenced by this Spirit "have crucified the flesh, with its affections and lusts," Gal. 5n6-23- "Distinguishing or discerning of spir its " consisted in discerning whether a man was really inspired by the Spirit of God, or was a false prophet, an impostor, who only followed the impulse of his own spirit or of Satan. Paul speaks, 1 Cor. 12:10, of the discerning of spirits as being among the miraculous gifts granted by God to the faithful at the first establishment of Christi anity. To "quench the Spirit," 1 Thess. 5:19, 590 is a metaphorical expression easily under stood. The Spirit may be quenched by forcing, as it were, that divine Agent to withdraw from us by irregularity of life, frivolity, avarice, negligence, or other sins contrary to charity, truth, peace, and his other gifts and influences. We "grieve" the Spirit of God, Eph. 4:30, by withstanding his holy inspirations, the impulses of his grace, or by living in a lukewarm and incautious manner, by des pising his gifts or neglecting them, by abusing his favors, either out of vanity, curiosity, or indifference. In a contrary sense, 2 Tim. 1:6. we ''stir up" or "stir into flame" the gift of the Spirit of God which is in us by the practice of virtue, by compliance with his inspirations, by fervor in his service, by renewing our gratitude, and by diligently serving Christ and doing the works of the Spirit. SPIR'IT, FAMIL'IAR. See Divination, Witchcraft. SPIRITUAL, belonging to the Holy Spir it, Rom. 1:11; Eph. 1:3; communicated by him, 1 Cor. 10:3, 4; determined and influ enced by him, 1 Cor. 3:1 ; Gal. 6:1; Eph. 5:19; 1 Pet. 2:5. See Spirit, I., VI. SPIRITUAL BODY, 1 Cor. 15:44, the body of saints after resurrection, immor tal, incorruptible, and glorious, a fit organ for the perfectly sanctified spirit; comp. ver. 31-33; Pnil- 3:21- SPIR'ITUAL GIFTS, 1 Cor. 12:1, the mi raculous endowments conferred by the Holy Spirit on the primitive believers in Christ; comp. ver. 3-1 1. SPIR'ITUAL WICK'EDNESS, Eph. 6:12, rather, " the spiritual hosts of wickedness," as in the R. V. ; wicked spirits. See Spir it, IV. SPOIL, booty taken in war. A tenth of all thus gained was devoted to God for the use of his priest as early as the time of Abraham, Gen. 14:20; Heb. 7:4. After Israel's victory over the Midianites, Moses, by God's command, ordered the spoil of captives and cattle to be halved between the 12,000 warriors engaged and the mass of the Israelitish non-combatants ; the former being commanded to devote one five-hun dredth part of their share to God for the priests, and the latter one fiftieth of their part for the Levites, Num. 31:26-47. A voluntary thank-offering to the Lord, of gold, was also given, ver. 48-54. All this was probably intended as a precedent for future occasions; comp. 2 Sam. 8:6-12; 1 Chr. 26:26, 27. David provided that the SPO BIBLE DICTIONARY. STA baggage-guard should share equally with the fighters, i Sam. 30:21-25. As a verb "spoil" often means "to plunder," Gen. 34:27, 29; 1 Sam. 14:36; 2 Kin. 7:16; 2 Chr. 14:14. In Exod. 3:22; 12:36 the word ren dered "spoil" and "spoiled" means to recover property taken away by violence ; comp. 1 Sam. 30:18, 22. Christ "spoiled" principalities and powers when by his ato ning work he deprived Satan and his hosts of their power to injure his people, Col. 2:15. The verb means "stripped," as of clothing or armor ; and some interpret it as meaning that " having put off his body," he made a show of principalities, etc. Paul warns Christians not to permit the votaries of human philosophy, tradition, etc., to "spoil " them, i. e., to carry them captive, Col. 2:8. See Philosophy. SPONGE, a submarine substance abun dant in the eastern parts of the Mediterra nean, adhering to rocks, and obtained by divers. Homer, about B. C. 850, mentions sponges as in use among the Greeks for washing the person and for cleansing ta bles after meals. The familiar sponge of commerce consists of a network of minute fibres inclosed by their membranes, making a highly porous and elastic mass, fitted to convey drink where a cup could not be used, Matt. 27:48; Mark 15:36; John 19:29. The sponge in its native state belongs to the lowest order of animals, called Pori- fera, from the pores with which the sub stance abounds ; this being clothed and built up by a jelly-like aggregation of sep arate bodies, some of which are furnished with long cilia or filaments. These by constant vibrations keep up a current of water, which enters the pores of the sponge and is expelled through the larger open ings, after parting with such of the solid particles in the water as" can be digested by the gelatinous mass. SPRINK'LING, BLOOD OF, Heb. 12:24. Once every year, on the great day of atone ment, the high-priest went into the holy of holies, carrying blood, which he sprinkled on the mercy-seat, to make atonement be cause of all the sins of the children of Isra el, Lev. 16:15, 16. So Christ, after his sac rifice of himself, entered into the presence of God in heaven, Heb. 9:12, 24, present ing, as the great High-priest, his own blood as an atonement for sin. By virtue of this " blood of sprinkling " the penitent sinner, oelieving on Christ, may draw near to God and find a gracious welcome — the blood of Christ not calling for vengeance, like that of Abel, Gen. 4: 10, 11, but speaking of par don, peace with God, and eternal life; comp. Heb. 9:13-22; 10:19-22, 29; Exod. 24:6-8; Lev. 8:30; 14:6, 7; Num. 19:17-19; Isa. 52: 15 ; Rev. 1:5, 6. STA'CHYS, ear of grain, a ' Christian friend of Paul at Rome, Rom. 16:9. The name is Greek. STAC'TE, one of the 4 ingredients of the sacred perfume or incense, Exod. 30:34, 35. The Heb. word nataph and the Gr. stacte (Sept.), both denote a drop, e. g., of the gum of some plant. Greek writers de scribe two kinds of stacte. One is the gum of the myrrh-tree, found in Arabia, the Balsamodendron opobalsamum. Myrrh, however, is mentioned in Scripture by a distinct name — m6r deror, "pure" or " flowing " myrrh— as an ingredient of the sacred ointment, Exod. 30:23. The other substance called stacte was a species of storax-gum, transparent like a tear and re sembling myrrh. The storax-tree abounds in the lower hills of Galilee, attains a height of 15 or 20 feet, has dark green oval leaves, whitish underneath, and flowers resembling orange-blossoms, in clusters at the end of the twigs. A resinous and highly fragrant gum exudes from the bark. The gum from a kindred plant in Borneo, the Sty rax ben zoin, is burned as incense in Hindoo tem ples. STAFF, Heb. 11:21. The statement here found concerning Jacob is quoted from the Septuagint translation of Gen. 47 :3i, where the Greek translator mistook the Hebrew word denoting a bed, mittah, which occurs also in Gen. 48:2; 49:33, for the similar word denoting a staff, matteh. The mean ing is simply that Jacob assumed a rever ential posture; comp. 1 Kin. 1:47. See Quotations. In Hos. 4:12 allusion is made to some use of a staff in divination. In Isa. 30:32, first clause, read, "Every stroke or passing of the destined staff." STAIRS, Song 2:14, in the R. V. "steep place," as in Ezek. 38:20; apparently a natural rocky ascent. By the -leaders of the Israelitish army at Ramoth-gilead Jehu was informally proclaimed king " on the top of the stairs "—or " on the bare steps," R. V., margin — seated on the garments of his fellow-officers, 2 Kin. 9:13. This was probably where the stairs from the main court of the house. joined the flat roof, a conspicuous place for thus recognizing the prophetic anointing of Jehu, ver. 1-12. See House. STAND'ARD, Num. 1 :52. In the wilder- 591 STA BIBLE DICTIONARY. STA ness journeyings the 12 tribes were grouped in 4 camps of 3 tribes each, each camp hav ing its own standard, Num. 2:2, 3, 10, 17, >", 25. 34- Besides these grand-division standards, other " ensigns " marked the smaller divisions into tribes, and perhaps sections of tribes, ver. *. Ancient stand ards usually consisted of long spears or poles surmounted by figures of symbols of various sorts, sometimes of animals, men, or deities; an eagle surmounted the stand ard of a Roman legion. See Abomination. One of the Heb. words rendered " stand ard," as in Jer. 4:6, 21, is often translated " ensign," and denotes a rallying sign or signal ; such were planted on some con spicuous spot, as a bare 'hill, Isa. 13:2, R. V.; 30:17. The attractive power of the preaching of the gospel is signified in Isa iah's prediction that to " the Root of Jes se," raised " for an ensign of the peoples," "the nations shall seek," Isa. 11 :io, R. V. ; comp. 5:16; 11:12; 49:22; Rev. 5:9. In Isa. 59 : 19, last clause, the R. V. reads, " for he shall come like a rushing stream, which the breath of the Lord driveth." In Isa. 10:18, "a standard-bearer fainteth," some read, " a sick man pineth away." STAR. Under the term stars the He brews included all the heavenly luminaries except the sun and moon — planets, mete ors, comets, and stars, Gen. 1 : 16. They use the stars " and the seashore " sands " to express uncounted multitudes, Gen. 15:5; 22:17; 26:4; Deut. 1:10, etc. To exalt the power and omniscience of God, the Psalm ist says, " He telleth the number of the stars," etc., Psa. 147:4, like a king review ing his army and knowing every soldier's name; comp. Isa. 40:26. Similarly the stars are called " the host " or army " of heaven," and God is "the Lord of hosts," Deut. 4:19; 2 Kin. 17:16; Psa. 24:10; 33:6; 148:2, 3. No part of the visible creation exhibits the Creator's glory more illustri ously than the starry heavens, Psa. 8:3; 19: 1. The stars were anciently, as at pres ent in the East, believed to influence the destiny of men, Judg. 5:20. Their value as guides to the mariner is alluded to in Acts 27:20. In astronomical knowledge the Hebrews were surpassed by the Egyptians, Phoeni cians, and Chaldaeans ; but the science of these nations was mingled with supersti tion and idolatry; comp. Isa. 47:1, 13. The beauty and splendor of the stars — which are especially brilliant in the pure dry at mosphere of Egypt, Arabia, and Pales- 592 tine — and the benefits ascribed to them, early led to the conception of them as pos sessing life, intelligence, and power. The religions ofthe East consisted more or less of star-worship ; and omens, favorable or hostile, were drawn from the aspects of the heavenly bo'dies. Against such idolatry and superstition the Israelites were warned, Deut. .,.19; 17:3; Jer. 10:2; butthey often disregarded the prohibition, 2 Kin. 17:16; 21:3.5; 23:4. 5; Jer. 8:2; 19:13; Amos 5:26; Zeph. 1:5; Acts 7:42,43; comp. Rom. 1:18-21, 25. The number of stars visible to the un aided eye, and even the countless myriads revealed by the telescope, are probably but a fraction of the entire number called into being by God; comp. Job 25:3; 26:13, r4- So distant are the fixed stars that the strongest telescope shows them only as glittering points. . It is calculated that the nearest of them is at least 19 trillions of miles from the earth, and that its light takes nearly 4 years to reach us, while for others thousands of years are required. Human fancy early grouped them in con stellations, and the Scriptures allude to sev eral of these under their Shemitic names, which in English are exchanged for the names given by the Greeks, Job 9 : 9 ; 38:31, 32; Amos 5:8; see R: V. Under the term stars are sometimes met aphorically designated earthly rulers and illustrious men, Isa. 14:4, 12, 13, R. V.; Dan. 8:10; also pastors, Rev. 1:16, 20; probably angels, Job 38:7; David and his antitype the Messiah, Num. 24:17. Times of public calamity involving the governing powers of nations, may in part be typified in Matt. 24:29 ; Rev. 6:13. False teachers are termed "wandering stars" or mete ors, Jude 13. Christ is called "the bright, the Morning Star," as outshining in his revelations his servants the prophets, and ushering in the gospel day, Rev. 22:16; comp. 2 Pet. 1 : 19. The famous Jewish false Messiah, Bar- cocheba, son of a star, who in Hadrian's reign headed an insurrection which lasted 3 years, A. D. 132-135, and who was de stroyed with many of his followers, assumed his title in allusion to Num. 24:17. STAR OF THE WISE MEN, Matt. 2:1-12, apparently a supernatural star or meteor, which attracted the attention of the magi in their country east of Palestine, probably Chaldaea or Persia, and miraculously gui ded them first to Jerusalem the capital of Judaea and thence to Bethlehem and the STE BIBLE DICTIONARY. STE spot where Jesus was born. This view, most readily deducible from the gospel narrative, harmonizes with the occurrence of other miracles at this momentous epoch, the incarnation and birth of the Son of God. Another view, first suggested by Kepler on observing a conjunction of Jupiter, Sat urn, and Mars in 1604, and adopted by many interpreters, especially by those who seek to eliminate from the Gospels all that is supernatural, explains the "star" by a like conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn in May, B. C. 7, and again in December of the same year with the addition of Mars. The wise men may very probably have observed with deep interest these conjunctions, and may, as astrologers, have associated them with the Messianic hopes of the Hebrews, with the prediction from the mouth of Ba laam, an Eastern soothsayer, Num. 24:17, and that of Daniel, well known in the East as prince of the Magi, Dan. 4:9; 5:11; 9:24,25. But these conjunctions occurred several years before the accepted date of Christ's birth ; the two planets were at no time nearer each other than twice the sun's diameter, and could not be described by the evangelist as "His star;" nor does it appear how they could guide the magi west, to Jerusalem, then reappearing, south and southeast up to Bethlehem, and be come stationary over the spot where Jesus v/as born. Whatever note, therefore, they took of the conjunctions, they were proba bly impelled to their jiurney by a divine influence and guided by a heavenly sign. STEEL. Where " steel " appears in the A. V., 2 Sam. 22:35; Job 20:24; Psa. 18:34, and Jer. 15:12, the true rendering of the Hebrew is copper, or " brass," as in the R. V. and in all other passages in the A. V. That the ancient Egyptians were acquaint ed with steel is inferred from representa tions of weapons in ancient tombs, some being painted blue like steel, others red like bronze. See Iron. In Nahum 2:3 the R. V. has " flash with steel " instead of "flaming torches," referring apparently to steel ornaments, or possibly scythes, flash ing in the chariots arrayed against Nine veh. See Nineveh. STEM, the stock or trunk of a tree; the stump remaining in the earth after the tree is cut down, Isa. 1 1 : 1 ; comp. Job 14:8, 9. STEPH'ANAS, a Christian at Corinth, whose family, afterwards mentioned, Rom. 16:5, as "the first-fruits" or earliest con verts "of Achaia," in the R. V, "Asia," 38 and as distinguished for their services to Christian brethren, Paul baptized, A. D. 52. Stephanas visited Paul at Ephesus in the spring of 59, 1 Cor. 1:16; 16:15-18. STE'PHEN, crown, one of the 7 men ap pointed by the church at Jerusalem to aid the apostles by ministering to the poor, Acts 6.1-6; whence the title " deacons," Gr. diakonoi, ministers or servants, has been given to them, though not directly applied to them in the Bible. Stephen was distin guished among the seven as "full of faith and of the Holy Spirit." Like his associ ates, except the proselyte Nicolas, he seems from his Greek name to have been a Hel lenistic Jew. See Greece. His mighty works excited the jealousy and hostility of the Jews, especially those of the Hellenistic synagogues, with whom he probably came most in contact; and his unanswerable ar guments still further embittered them, ver. 8-10. He was arrested on a charge of blas phemy and heresy, and brought before the Sanhedrin for trial, ver. 11 to 7: 1. His de fence, including a summary of the history of Israel, proves, against the charges ofthe false witnesses, Acts 6:11,13, n's reverence towards God and his respect for the great lawgiver of Israel; but at the same time he shows that the divine presence and favor had not been rigidly confined to a particu lar land or sanctuary; that Moses himself had taught that he was to have an illustri ous successor ; that a rebellious spirit had always been characteristic of Israel; and that they who had lately slain Christ and were now opposing his gospel, were the- true children and imitators of their fathers who in all ages had opposed true religion.- Stephen seems to have spoken calmly till- near the close of his address, when, noting' the gathering malice of his judges, he be came their just and vehement accuser, Acts 7:5I_53- Then, turning from the threaten ing storm of human passion, he raised his eyes upward and spoke of what he saw: the heavens parted, the glory of God, and Jesus at His right hand, as if just risen from his throne to receive his servant, ver. 54-56. His description of this vision ofthe exalta tion of "the Son of man," the prediction of which by Christ himself had before so enraged a similar assembly, Matt. 26:64- 68; Luke 22:69-71, excited his judges be yond all pretence of obedience to the law of their Roman masters, John 18:31, and they at once hurried Stephen out of the city and stoned him, Acts 7:57-60. According to the Mosaic law, Deut. 17:7, the witnesses 593 STE BIBLE DICTIONARY. STO took the lead, Acts 6 : 13 ; their outer gar ments, laid off for convenience, were put in charge of Saul, probably one of the chief accusers of Stephen. The faithful Chris tian manifested his Christlike spirit by praying for the pardon of his murderers. He was the first of the " witnesses," Gr. mar lures, oi Jesus, Luke 24:48; Acts 22:20, R. V., actually put to death ; hence — when the ecclesiastical sense of " martur," which primarily denoted any witness, comp. Acts 6: 13 ; 7:58, had become restricted to denote especially those who witnessed for Jesus by submitting to death for his sake — the application to Stephen of the title of "first martyr." See Martyr. His death was the prelude to a general persecution in Je rusalem. This, however, by scattering the Christians and the gospel, Matt. 10 : 23, greatly increased the number of believers, Acts 8:1-4; 11:19-21, "the blood of the martyrs" thus becoming,' as Tertullian (A. D. 160-220) remarks, "the seed of the church." The custodian of the witnesses' clothes, who may have been one of Ste phen's Cilician opponents, Acts 6:9; 22:3, seems to have been at first stirred to a fiercer bigotry, Acts 8:3; 9:1, 2; but though he had doubtless felt the force of Stephen's arguments and testimony, nothing availed for his conversion till he saw the Saviour himself, Acts 9:4-6. Yet there is doubtless a degree of truth in the saying of Augus tine (A. D. 354-430), that the church owes the conversion and ministry of Paul to Stephen's prayer. Years afterward, when Paul was himself in similar circumstances, he bewailed his presence and consent at the martyr's death, Acts 22:20 — that tri umph of Christian faith and love which has taught so many martyrs and Christians how to die. Comp. Psa. 109:31. A strong argument for the divinity of Christ is found in the prayers addressed to him by Ste phen, Acts 7:59, 60; comp. Luke 23:34, 46. Stephen's death occurred probably about A. D. 37. Early tradition located the event on the north of Jerusalem, near the Damas cus gate, which in the 12th century bore the name of St. Stephen's gate, from a neigh boring church built in memory of the mar tyr. A later tradition placed the martyr dom near the present St, Stephen's gate, on the east of Jerusalem, just north of the Haram area. The slight variations of Stephen's de fence from the Hebrew Scriptures may be accounted for partly by the influence ofthe Septuagint version, and partly perhaps by 594 his use of traditionary additions, or possi bly of particulars taught him by the Holy Spirit. The spirit of the Old Testament history, if not always the exact letter, is faithfully represented. STEWARD, the chief overseer and man ager of a household in behalf of the mas ter, Gen. 43:16 (R. V.), 19; 44:1, 4. Jo seph filled this position in Potiphar's house, Gen. 39:5. In Gen. 15:2 a different He brew expression is used, denoting "the son of acquisition," i. e., according to the R. V. "he that shall be possessor," etc., the presumptive heir, ver. 3. Eliezer, who is thus designated, probably was Abra ham's steward, and is commonly identified with the " servant, the elder of his house," mentioned in Gen. 24:2, R. V. To this important officer, whose responsibilities were so great and in whom faithfulness was so essential, there are several allusions in the parables of our Lord, Matt. 20:8; Luke 12:42-48. In the parable of the un righteous steward, Luke 16:1-9, not the dishonesty, but the prudent policy of his course is commended to the " children of light;" comp. Luke 12:33. Ministers, Luke 12:42 ; 1 Cor. 4:1,2; Tit. 1:7, and all Chris tians, 1 Pet. 4:10, are called stewards, as being entrusted by God with all they have, 1 Cor. 4:7, and responsible to him for the use of all. Every human being is thus a steward of God. STOCK, the trunk of a tree, Job 14:8, a contemptuous term for an idol carved out of wood, Isa. 44:19; Jer. 2:27; 10:8; Hos. 4:12. STOCKS, Job 13 : 27 ; 33 : 1 1 , an instrument f>r confining the feet. In Jer. 20:2, 3, " stocks," in which Jeremiah was kept all night, is the rendering of a different He brew word, which some suppose to mean the common stocks, a frame with holes for confining the ankles ; others, -- pillory, or frame with holes for the neck and wrists ; and others, a. frame with 5 holes, in which the neck, wrists, and ankles were placed, the body being bent. Whatever its precise form, it seems to have been in frequent use; it is mentioned again in Jer. 29:26 R. V. (A. V. "prison"); and in 2 Chr. 16:10; see R. V., margin, "the house of the stocks." The stocks which made fast Paul and Silas, Acts 16:24, seem to have confined their ankles only, and probably resembled the instrument in use until re cent times in Europe and America, the upper beam being movable. Stocks and pillories were frequently placed in public STO BIBLE DICTIONARY. STO places, that the insults of the populace might be added to the pain of confinement, Jer. 20:2. Still another word is translated "stocks" in the A. V. of Jer. 29:26, repre sented in R. V. by the more general term " shackles." The word rendered " stocks " in Prov. 7:22, A. V., is better translated " fetters " in the R. V., the same word be ing represented by "anklets" in Isa. 3:18, R. V. ; in the A. V. "tinkling ornaments." STO'ICS, a sect of fatalistic heathen phi losophers, so named because its founder, Zeuo, a native of Citium in Cyprus, held his school at Athens, in the 3d century B. C, in a public portico or colonnade called the Stoa Pcecile, Painted Portico. The Stoics were pantheists, believing that the deity was not the creator of the uni verse, but its reason and soul, pervading and organizing all matter; that not only man, but the deity himself, was subject to inevitable destiny; and that the present universe, having developed out of God, would in time be resumed into him, and be succeeded by a fresh development. While the Stoics taught the unity of God, they allowed polytheism, regarding the many gods of heathen mythology as minor de velopments of the great World-god. The soul of man they considered a material emanation from the deity, to be burned at death or reabsorbed into him. They ex pressed a disregard of pleasure and pain, placed man's supreme good and happiness in living virtuously, agreeably to nature and reason, and held that a man thus liv ing was perfect and self-sufficient. In their affected austerity and apathy and professed indifference to outward circumstances they resembled the Pharisees. They maintained the natural equality of all men. Suicide they esteemed a proper escape from the evils of life when they became too great. Thus many of the leading doctrines of Sto icism were in direct antagonism to Christi anity, and especially to the truths which Paul preached concerning the personal God and Saviour, the resurrection, and the necessity for humble faith in Jesus, Acts 17:18-20; comp. ver. 22-33. At the time of Paul's visit to Athens, A. D. 51, and for about two centuries after wards, the Stoic philosophy was popular and influential not only in Greece, but throughout the Roman Empire. Among the most celebrated of the school were Cleanthes, Zeno's immediate successor, au thor of a hymn to "Jove of many names;" Caesar's contemporaries Cato and Brutus ; Seneca; the freedman Epictetus, who died about A. D. 115; and Marcus Aurelius, Ro man emperor, A. D. 161-180. STOM'ACHER, Isa. 3 : 24, perhaps a broad plaited girdle. According to the Septua gint, a tunic with purple stripes. STONE is mentioned in Scripture as used for a great variety of purposes. For most public buildings hewn stones were used, as for the temple erected by Solo mon, 1 Kin. 5:17, and for city walls. The size of'the stones thus used was remarka ble. See Heliopolis, II., and Walls. The Phoenicians were very skilful in stone- cutting, 2 Sam. 5:11; 1 Kin. 5:18. Houses of the rich were also built of hewn stone, Amos 5:11. Altars, according to the Mo saic law, were to be built of unhewn stone, Exod. 20:25; Josh. 8:31. Different kinds of stone used in building and decorating are mentioned in 1 Chr. 29:2, where in stead of "glistering stones" the R. V. reads "stones for inlaid work;" compare 2 Chr. 3:6. Stones were used for pave ments, 2 Kin. 16:17; compare Esth. 1:6. Large stones were employed for closing the entrance of caves, Josh. 10:18; Dan. 6:17; sepulchres, Matt. 27:60; John 11:38; and wells, Gen. 29:2. Flint-stone knives were anciently used, Exod. 4:25; Josh. 5:2, 3, R. V., and were employed by the Egyp tian embalmers. Stones were used as weapons for individual defence and in reg ular warfare, being discharged from slings, 1 Sara. 17:40, 49, and catapults, 2 Chr. 26:14, 15, R. V. They served as boundary marks, Deut. 19:14- comp. Josh. 15:6, and as millstones, 2 Sam. 11 :2i; and the He- 595 STO BIBLE DICTIONARY. STO brew " weights " were called " stones," Lev. 19:36, margin. Large stones were set up to commemorate remarkable events, Gen. 28: 18; 31:45; 35:14; Josh. 4:9; 1 Sam. 7: 12; and were sometimes consecrated by an ointing, as by Jacob at Bethel, Gen. 28:18; 35 : 14. Worship of idols and pillars of stone was practised by the Canaanite nations and expressly forbidden to Israel, Lev. 26:1, R. V.; Num. 33:52, R. V; comp. Isa. 57:6; Hab. 2: 19. Stones were heaped up in com memoration of a treaty, Gen. 31:46, or on the graves of notorious offenders, Josh. 7:26; 8:29; 2 Sam. 19:17. This custom still exists among the Arabs, each passer by adding a stone to such a heap. Stones were used as tablets for inscriptions, Exod. 24:12; Josh. 8:32; Job 19:24. As hurtful to husbandry, stones were cast on an ene my's ground, 2 Kin. 3:19, 25, and were re moved from land previous to cultivation, Isa. 5:2; comp. Ecclus. 3:5. Metaphorically, stones denote hardness or insensibility, 1 Sam. 25 : 37 ; Ezek. 11:19; also firmness or strength: in Gen. 49:24 "the stone of Israel " seems to be equiva lent to " the Rock of Israel," a title often applied to God, 2 Sam. 23:3; Isa. 30:29, R. V. In accordance with the conception of the church of God as a temple, Chris tians are called "living stones," Christ himself being "the chief corner-stone," the great "living stone" and source of life to those built upon him, Eph. 2 : 20-22 ; 1 Pet. 2:4-8. See Corner-stone. STONES, PRE'CIOUS. Mention is made in the Bible of about 20 different names of precious stones, many of which it is im possible to identify certainly with modern gems. Ancient mineralogy was far from exact, the same term being often applied to different substances having in common some property indicated by the term. Thus in Greek usage the term adamant, uncon querable, was applied to steel and to sev eral extremely hard stones ; and the He brew " kerach " denotes either " ice," Job 6:16, or rock-crystal, Ezek. 1 : 22. See Sap phire. Precious stones, however, were early known and valued, Gen. 2:12. The art of cutting and engraving them was prac tised ; engraved signets of several kinds of precious stones were in common use among the ancient Babylonians and Egyp tians, and also, it is probable, among the neighboring nations ; one was carried by Judah, Gen. 38:18, 25. See Seal. The Hebrew high-priest's shoulder-stones and the 12 stones of his breastplate were eu- 596 graved with fhe names of the tribes of Israel, Exod. 28:9-12, 17-21. The identifi cation of some of these stones is still a mat ter of controversy, as appears from alter native renderings of the R. V. Some crit ics would exclude from the breastplate the diamond, sapphire, ruby, emerald, and to paz, on the assumed ground that the art of cutting the harder gems was unknown at the time of Moses. Precious stones were collected by David for the temple, 1 Chr. 29:2. Tyre traded in them and used them extensively, Ezek. 27:16, 22; 28:11-13, ob taining them from Syria as " the bakers' street," Jer. 37:21, and the " valley of the cheesemongers ;" and streets were "made" for merchants, 1 Kin. 20:34. In modern cities the streets have gates, which are locked and guarded at night as in former times, Song 3:3. The street in Damascus called "Straight," Acts 9:11, appears to have been narrow in an cient times, as it is now, but in the Roman age it was wide, and was divided by colon nades into 3 avenues, a mile long, running through the city. See House. STRENGTH, in Isa. 63:6, is "life-blood" in the R. V. STRINGED IN'STRUMENTS. See MU SIC STRIPES, Deut. 25:1-3; 2 Cor. 11:24. See Punishments and Scourge. STRONG DRINK. See Wine. STU BIBLE DICTIONARY. SUP STUB'BLE. See Straw. STUFF, Gen. 31:37; 45:20; 1 Sam. 10:22 ; Luke 17:31, household vessels and furni ture, or "baggage," as in 1 Sam. 17:22; Isa. 10:28, called " carriage " in the A. V. STUM'BLING- BLOCK, anything over which one is liable to trip, Lev. 19:14; 1 John 2:10; used of an idol as a tempta tion to idolatry, Zeph. 1 :3~5. Obstructions were sometimes placed in narrow roads by robbers to confuse and delay travellers and facilitate plundering them. Compare Jer. 6:21; Ezek. 3:20; Rev. 2:14. The doc trine of the cross — that we are sinners, justly perishing, and to be saved only by the atoning grace of Christ — is offensive to the unrenewed heart, Rom. 9:32, 33; 1 Cor. 1:23; 1 Pet. 2:6-8. See Offence. SUB'STANCE sometimes means prop erty or possessions, as in Gen. 13:6; Job 1:3, 10; Heb. 10:34. In Psa. 139:15 an embryo ; in Isa. 6: 13 the stock of a tree. SUCCOTH, booths. I. A spot in the val ley of the Jordan and near the Jabbok, between Penuel east of the Jordan and Shechem on the west, where Jacob erected a house for himself and booths for his cat tle, in preparation for a considerable stay, on his- return from Mesopotamia, Gen. 33:17. Joshua assigned the city subse quently built he're to the tribe of Gad, Josh. 13:27. Gideon tore the flesh of 77 principal men of Succoth with thorns and briars because they haughtily refused to aid him when pursuing the Midianites, Judg. 8:5-16. It seems to have lain on the east side of the Jordan, 3 mil^s from the river, in the latitude of Shechem, but may possibly have been on the west side, at the place now called 'Ain es-Sakut, 10 miles south by east of Beth-shean. Comp. 1 Kin. 7:46; Psa. 60:6. II. The first encampment of the Israel ites on their way out of Egypt, Exod. 12 : 37 ; 13:20; Num. 33:5, 6.** Their starting-place, Rameses, lay at the west end of wady et- Tumeilat, and Succoth has recently been confidently identified with ruins 20 miles east in the same wady, also called Pithom, which see. SUC'COTH-BE'NOTH, tents ofthe daugh ters, 2 Kin. 17:30, an object of idolatrous worship among the Babylonians; appa rently the name of an idol, like Nergal and Ashima in the same verse, or perhaps with reference to booths, in which the Babylo nian females prostituted themselves in honor of Mylitta, the Assyrian Venus. SUD'DENLY, 1 Tim. 5:22, hastily, rashly. SUF'FER often means to permit, as in Psa. 105:14; Eccl. 5:12; Matt. 8:21. SUK'KIIM, booth-dwellers, allies of Shi shak in his invasion of Judah, 2 Chr. 12:3; probably from regions southeast of Egypt. SUM'MER. See Canaan. SUN, the "greater light" of Gen. 1:14-16, the great luminary of day, which furnishes so many similitudes to the Hebrew poets, as well as those of all nations, Judg. 5:31 ; Psa. 84:11; Prov. 4:18; Luke 1:78, 79; John 8:12. It was set not only " for seasons and for days and for years," but for "signs," such as eclipses — which were tokens of di vine power and wisdom, and symbols of wonderful providences, Joel 2:31; Matt. 24:29; Rev. 6:12; 8:12, and were regarded by the heathen with superstitious dread, Jer. 10:2. The sun "ruled the day" by furnishing light, heat, and vivifying influ ences, also the means of measuring its parts — there being between sunrise and sunset 3 chief points : 9 A. M., when the sun became hot, 1 Sam. 11:9; Neh. 7:3; noon, or "the double light," Gen. 43:16; 2 Sam. 4:5 ; and the " Cool of the day," just before sunset, Gen. 3:8. The rising sun marked the east, and the setting sun the west, which were also intended by the words "before" and "behind," and the north and south points by the "left hand" and "the right." Comp. Job 23:8, 9. Scrip ture speaks of the apparent motion of the sun, as all people do in common speech, as if it were a reality, Josh. 10:13, 27! 2 Kin. 20:11 ; Psa. 19:5, 6; 50:1; Ecci. 1:5; Hab. 3:11. The " wings " of the sun beto ken the darting swiftness of its rays, Psa. 139:9; Mai. 4:2. Spots on the sun are said to be mentioned in Assyrian tablets, which implies the use of telescopes ; and Layard found a crystal lens in the Nineveh ruins. The Assyrians seem to have worshipped the sun directly, without an intervening idol, Job 31:26, 27. The Egyptians, Phoe nicians. Persians, Ammonites, Assyrians, and other ancient nations -had sun-idols, and the Hebrews often followed their ex ample, 2 Kin. 21:3, 5; 23:5, 11, 12; Jer. 19:13; Ezek. 8:16, 17; Zeph. 1:5. See Baal, Molech, and Heliopolis, I. God's law is like the sun, Psa. 19:4-7 ; and Christ is "the Sun of righteousness," Mai. 4:2; Rev. 1:16. SUPERSTI'TION and SUPERSTI'TIOUS, Acts 17:22 and 19:25, are not to be under stood offensively. Paul found the Athe nians " much addicted to devotion," such as it was; perhaps "religion" and "reli- 601 SUP BIBLE DICTIONARY. SWI giously inclined" may better express the sense of the original. The Hebrews were preserved by their knowledge of the true God, the Maker and Ruler of all things, from many of the superstitions then prev alent among their neighbors, as they are among the heathen now. SUPH, sea-weed. In Deut. i : i, for " the plain over against the Red Sea," the R. V. reads, "the Arabah over against Suph." See Arabah and Zephath. Usually, how ever, Suph, with the addition of Yam, sea, is the Hebrew word clearly denoting the Red Sea, Exod. 10:19; 13:18, etc. In Num. 21:14, f°r "What he did in the Red Sea," A. V., the R. V. reads, " Vaheb in Suphah." Yet no place named Suph or Suphah has as yet been found. SUP'PER. See Eating, Cup, and Lord's Supper. It is worthy of note that in Paul's account of the institution of the Lord's Supper, 1 Cor. 11:23-29, the bread is thrice called " bread," ver. 26-28, and the wine is still called by our Saviour the '' fruit of the vine," Matt. 26:29, after both had been blessed and given to the disci ples. Consecration had made no change in either ofthe elements. For the suppers or love-feasts which used to accompany the celebration of the Lord's Supper, see Feasts. SURE'TY, one who makes himself per sonally responsible for the safe appear ing of another, Gen. 43:9 and 44:32,33, or for the full payment of his debts, etc., Prov. 22:26. This was often sealed by hand-shaking, Job 17:3, and was apt to prove an ill-advised act, Prov. 6:1 ; 11:15; 17:18; 20:16; 22:26. God is the perfect- surety, or "undertakes," for his people, Psa. 119:122; Isa. 38:14; and Christ is the " surety of a better testament;" that is, in the glorious and complete covenant of grace he engages to meet all the claims of the divine law against his people, that they may be absolved and enriched with all covenant blessings, Heb. 7:22; 9:11-15. Hence his obedience unto death, Isa. 53:5, 12. SUSAN'NA, a lily, Luke 8:3, one of the women who ministered to Christ with their means. SWAD'DLE, to swathe an infant's ten der body with protecting cloths, as is still customary in the East, Ezek. 16:4; Luke 2:7. In Lam. 2:22 read, bear on the palm. SWAL'LOW, ill the A. V. put for two Hebrew words: 1, deror, swiftness, Psa. 84:3, believed to fnean the swift, Cypselus 602 apus, a bird resembling the swallow, very common in Palestine and swarming in the streets and around the sacred buildings of Jerusalem— a bird of passage noted for its rapid flight and its harsh, incessant cry; and 2, agur, twitterer, the crane, Isa. 38:14; Jer. 8:7. See Crane. In Prov. 26:2 the R. V. reads, "As the sparrow in her wandering, as the swallow in her fly ing, so the curse that is. causeless lighteth not." Balaam and Shimei might curse, but God blessed, Deut. 23:5; 2 Sam. 16:5-12; Psa. 109:28. SWAN, Heb. tinshemeth mentioned as unclean in Lev. 11:18; Deut. 14:16. The true swan is not found in Palestine, and the sacred Egyptian ibis may be intended, or more probably the purple hen or gallinule, with dark blue plumage, red beak and legs, and long claws. SWEATING. See Oath. To "hear the voice of swearing," Lev. 5:1, is to be put under oath to testify the truth, or " bear the iniquity " of perjury as a sin against both God and man. SWEAT, Gen. 3:19; Ezek. 44:18, a token of a life of toil. The blood suffusing the perspiration of Christin Gethsemane, Luke 22:44, was an evidence of the dreadful agony he endured. The phenomenon is exceedingly rare, but is known to have occurred in several instances. SWIM' MING. The mode depicted on Assyrian sculptures is hand over hand, bringing down each forcibly, Isa. 25:11. SWINE, Prov. 11:22, a well-known ani mal, forbidden as food to the Hebrews, who held its flesh in such detestation that they would not so much as pronounce iis name, Lev. 11:7; Deut. 14:8. It divides the hoof, but does not chew the cud ; and as it was also useless while living, the raising SWO BIBLE DICTIONARY. SYE of swine was not practised by the He brews, nor is it by modern Jews or Moham medans. The eating of swine's flesh was among the most odious of the idolatrous abominations charged upon some of the Jews, Isa. 65:4; 66:3, 17. The herd of swine destroyed by evil spirits in the Sea of Gennesaret, Matt. 8:32; Mark 5:13, are supposed to have been kept by Jews for sale to the Gentiles around them, in defi ance of the law. The beautiful and affect ing parable of the prodigal son shows that the tending of swine was considered an em ployment of the most despicable character, Luke 15:14-16. The irreclaimably filthy habits of this animal illustrate the insuffi ciency of reformation without regeneration, 2 Pet. 2 : 22 ; as its treading in the mire any precious thing which it cannot eat illus trates the treatment which some profligates give to the gospel, Matt. 7:6. See Boar. SWORD. The Hebrew words translated sword have a wide latitude of meaning ; in Josh. 5:2; Ezek. 5:1, 2, "sharp knives." Some swords had 2 edges, Psa. 149:6 ; they often had richly-decorated hilts, were car ried in sheaths, 1 Sam. 17:51 ; 2 Sam. 20:8, slung by the girdle, 1 Sam. 25:13, resting on the thigh, Judg. 3:16; Psa. 45:3. Gird ing them on was a prelude to hostilities and a symbol of war, Isa. 34:5 ; Rev. 19: 17, 21, of power, Rom. 13:4, and of divine judg ments, Deut. 32:41; Psa. 17:13. TheGreek and Roman sword was usually a broad, straight, two-edged blade, rather short. SYCAMINE, Luke 17:6, the Morus nigra or black mulberry-tree, still called syca- minea in Greece, a lofty deep-rooted tree, furnishing a highly -prized berry and a grateful shade. Both the black and white mulberry are now common in Palestine. The sycamore is a different tree. SYCAMORE, fig -mulberry, the Ficus sycomorus, a tree which seems to partake of the nature of both the mulberry and the fig, the former in its leaf and the latter in its fruit. It was a tree of this sort that Zacchaeus climbed to see our Saviour pass ing through Jericho, Luke 19:4. Tristram found aged specimens near the outlet of wady Kelt and the site of ancient Jericho. The sycamore is of the height of a beech or walnut, with a large trunk breaking into stout branches not many feet above the ground. Its leaves are heart-shaped, downy underneath, and fragrant. The fruit is borne on short sprigs growing di rectly from the trunk and branches, and is produced through a long season. It has the figure and smell of real figs, but is in ferior to them in taste, Amos 7:14; it is yellowish on the outside, and darker, with yellow spots, within. It is much used in Egypt as food. From 1 Kin. 10:27; 1 Chr. 27:28; 2 Chr. 1:15; 9:27; Psa. 78:47, it is evident that the tree was common in Pal estine, and was as much valued in ancient times as now. Its timber, though porous, was extremely durable, being used in build ings, Isa. 9:10, and the sycamore mummy- chests and boxes in Egyptian tombs re main uncorrupted after 3,000 years. SY'CHAR, falsehood, or drunken, John 4:5, 6, or SY'CHEM, Acts 7:16. See She chem. The village of Sychar may have been nearer to Jacob's well than the an cient Shechem and. the modern Nablus; and Lieut. Conder and others favor the present -village ,'Aschar as occupying its site, on the side of Mount Ebal, more than a mile from Nablus. In Sychem, Stephen seems to affirm, other patriarchs as well as Jacob were buried, Acts 7:15, 16. SYE'NE, Heb. Seveneh, opening or key, a city on the southern frontier of Egypt, towards Ethiopia, between Thebes and the cataracts of the Nile, and now called Es suan or Aswan. Pliny says it stood in a peninsula on the eastern shore of the Nile, that it was a mile in circumference, and had a Roman garrison. " From Migdol," the tower, " unto Syene," denotes the whole length of Egypt from north to south, Ezek. 29:10; 30:6. Few remains ofthe ancient city are now extant. Its Hebrew name is very appropriate for its position, just be low the first cataract, where the Nile breaks through the mountains into the open plain of Egypt. Its Egyptian name was Sun. The modern town lies north of the ancient site. In its vicinity are quarries of the Egyptian granite called Syenite, which fur nished the material for numerous obelisks and colossal statues. 603 SYN BIBLE DICTIONARY. SYN SYN'AGOGUE, an assembly, like the word church, applied to the buildings in which the ordinary Jewish assemblies for the worship of God were convened. From the silence of the Old Testament with refer ence to these places of worship, many are of opinion that they were not in use till after the Babylonish captivity, and that before that time the Jews held their social meet ings for religious worship, Isa. 1:13, either in the open air or in the houses of the prophets. See 2 Kin. 4:23; Psa. 107:32; Ezek. 33:31. In Psa. 74:8 it is very doubt ful whether the Hebrew word rendered synagogues refers to synagogue-buildings such as existed after the Captivity. In the later Hebrew books allusions to stated meetings for worship are more frequent, Ezra 8:15, 21; 10:1-9; Neh. 8:1-3; 9:1-3; 13:1-3; Zech. 7:5; and in our Saviour's time they abounded, Acts 15:21. Benjamin of Tudela, a traveller in the Middle Ages, claims to have seen the synagogues built by Moses, David, Obadiah, Nahum, and Ezra. Synagogues could only be erected in those places where ten men of age, learn ing, piety, and easy circumstances could be found to attend them. Large towns had several synagogues, and they became the parish churches ofthe Jewish nation. Their number appears to have been very consid erable; and when the erection of a syna gogue was considered a mark of piety, Luke 7:5, or a passport to, heaven, we need not be surprised to hear that they were multiplied beyond all necessity, so that in Jerusalem alone there were said to be not fewer than 460 or 480. They were gener ally built on the most elevated ground, and consisted of 2 parts. The westerly part contained the ark or chest in which the book of the law and the sections of the prophets were deposited, with the syna- gogical robes of the officials, and was called the temple by way of eminence. The other, in which the congregation assembled, was termed the body of the synagogue. The people sat with their faces towards the tem ple, comp. 1 Kin. 8:29; Psa. 28:2, and the elders on a platform opposite and facing the people, with the pulpit or reading-desk on its front. Their seats are often referred to as " the chief seats in the synagogues," Matt. 23:6; Mark 12:39; Luke 11:43; Jas. 2:2, 3. The women sat by themselves, at first shut off by a partition 5 or 6 feet high, and afterwards in a gallery secluded by lattice-work. The apartment was lighted by an ever-burning lamp. 604 The stated office-bearers in every syna gogue formed 6 distinct classes: first the Archisynagogos, or " chief ruler ofthe syn agogue," who regulated all its concerns and granted permission to address the as sembly, Acts 18:8. Of these there were 3 in each synagogue. Dr. Lightfoot believes them to have possessed a civil power and to have constituted the lowest civil tribu nal, commonly known as "the council of three," whose office it was to judge minor offences against religion, and also to de cide the differences that arose between any members of the synagogue as to money matters, thefts, losses, etc. To these offi cers there is perhaps an allusion in 1 Cor. 6:5. See also Judgment. The 2d office bearer was "the angel of the synagogue," or minister of the congregation, Luke 4:20, who prayed and preached. In allusion to these, the pastors of the Asiatic churches are called " angels," Rev. 2 ; 3. Other offi cers were the almoners, a legate or leader, an interpreter, to translate the Hebrew Scriptures into the vernacular, and the ten "men of leisure," including perhaps these. just named, who were relied upon to war rant the forming of a synagogue and secure a regular congregation. The service ofthe synagogue was as fol lows : The people being seated, the " angel of the synagogue " ascended the pulpit and offered up the public prayers, the people rising from their seats and standing in a posture of deep devotion, Matt. 6:5; Mark 11:25; Luke 18:11, 13. The prayers were 19 in number, and were closed by reading the execration. The next thing was the repetition of their phylacteries ; after which came the reading ofthe law and the proph ets. The former was divided into 54 sec tions, with which were united correspond ing portions from the prophets; see Acts 13:15, 27; 15:21; and these were read through once in the course of the year. After the return from the Captivity an in terpreter was employed in reading the law and the prophets, Neh. 8:2-8, who inter preted them into the Syro-Chaldaic dialect, which was then spoken by the people. The last part of the service was the expounding of the Scriptures and preaching from them to the people. This was done either by one of the officers or by some distinguished person who happened to be present. The Saviour often availed himself of the oppor tunity thus afforded to address his coun trymen, Luke 4:16-20; and there are sev eral instances recorded of himself and his SYN BIBLE DICTIONARY. SYR disciples teaching in the synagogues. See Matt. 13:54; Mark 6:2; John 18:20; Acts T3:5. 15, 44,* 14:1; *7:2-4. 10, 17; 18:4, **5; 19:8. The whole service was concluded with a short prayer or benediction. The Jewish synagogues were used not only for the purposes of divine worship, but also for courts of judicature in such matters as fell under the cognizance of the Council of Three of which we have already spoken. On such occasions the sentence given against the offender was sometimes, after the manner of prompt punishment still prevalent in the East, carried into effect in the place where the council was assembled. Hence we read of persons be ing beaten in the synagogue and scourged in the synagogue, Matt. 10:17; 23:34; Mark 13:9; Luke2i:i2; Acts 22:19; 26:11; 2 Cor. 11:24. To be "put out of the synagogue," or excommunicated from the Jewish Church and deprived of the national privileges, was a punishment much dreaded, John 9:22; 12:42; 16:2. The name of synagogue was long retained as that of a place of worship, Jas. 2:2; Rev. 2:9. In our own day the Jews erect synagogues wherever they are sufficiently numerous, and assem ble on their Sabbath for worship, the read ing or chanting of the Old Testament and of prayers being conducted in the original Hebrew, though it is a dead language spo ken by few among them. Among the syn agogues of Jerusalem, now 8 or 10 in num ber, are some for Jews of Spanish origin, and others for German Jews, etc., as in the time of Paul there were separate syna gogues for the Libertines, Cyrenians, Alex andrians, etc., Acts 6:9. SYN'TYCHE, with fortune, and EUOD'IA, good journey , Phil. 4:2, 3, women eminent for virtue and good works, perhaps dea conesses in the church at Philippi. Paul exhorts them to act harmoniously together in their Christian labors, as all should do who are " in the Lord." SYR'ACUSE, now Siracusa, a large and celebrated city, occupying a peninsula and the adjacent shore, on the eastern coast of Sicily, with a capacious and excellent har bor. It was founded by Corinthians 734 B. C, was opulent and powerful, and was divided into 4 or 5 quarters or districts, which were of themselves separate cities. The whole circumference is stated by Stra bo to have been about 22 miles. Syracuse is celebrated as having been the birthplace and residence of Archimedes, whose inge nious -nechanical contrivances during its siege by the Romans, 215 B. C, long de layed its capture. After its destruction by Marcellus, B. C. 212, Augustus rebuilt the city in part, and it recovered much of its former greatness and power ; it was taken by the Saracens A. D. 675, and retaken by Roger, Duke of Apulia, A. D. 1090. The peninsula is now an island, called Ortygia. Paul passed 3 days here, on his way from Melita to Rome, in the spring of A. D. 63, waiting for a favorable wind, Acts 28: 12-14. Population anciently 200,000; now 11,000. SYR'IA, a Greek name possibly derived from the Heb. Tsur, or Tyre; in Heb. A'RAM; Num. 23:7; Judg. 10:6, translated Mesopotamia in Judg. 3: 10; a large district of Asia, lying, in the widest acceptation of the name, between the Mediterranean, Mount Taurus, and the Tigris, and thus including Mesopotamia, or Syria of the 2 rivers. It was about 240 miles long and from 120 to 150 miles wide, and contained 5 or 6 principalities : 1. Aram-Dammesek, or Syria of Damascus ; 2. Aram-Maachah ; 3. Aram-Beth-rehob, 1 Kin. 10:29; 2-Kin. 7:6; 4. Aram-Zobah ; 5. Aram-naharaim, Syria of the 2 rivers, or Padan-aram, usu ally Mesopotamia in the A. V. See Aram, II. Of these portions of Syria the bounds often varied. Syria of Damascus was the most noted in Hebrew history. See the cities above named; also Antioch, Baal bek, Gebal, Hamath, Tadmor. In the New Testament Syria may be considered as bounded west and northwest by the Mediterranean and by Mount Taurus, which separates it from Cilicia and Catao- nia in Asia Minor, east by the Euphrates, and soufh by Arabia Deserta and Judaea, including the northern part of Palestine, Matt. 4:24; Luke 2:2; comp. 2 Kin. 5:20; Acts 15:41; comp. Gal. 1:21; Acts 18:18; 20:3. The physical geography of Syria is marked by, 1. a narrow belt of low land along the Mediterranean, with occasional heights projecting into the sea ; 2. the moun tain range of Lebanon on the south, the Bargylus range midway, 4,000 feet high, terminating in Mount Casius near the mouth of the Orontes, 5,700 feet high, and Mount Amanus on the north, 6,000 feet high ; 3. the valley of Coele-Syria, between the Lebanon and Anti - Lebanon ranges, and the valley ofthe Orontes on the north — 230 miles long; 4. the Anti-Lebanon range, and its prolongation northwards; 5. the high desert plateau extending to the Eu phrates, in which lies the remarkable oasis 605 SYR BIBLE DICTIONARY. TAB of Palmyra. See Tadmor. The Coele- Syria valley is about ioo miles long and from 6 to 20 wide, and nearly as level as the sea. Syria was in early ages the seat of a powerful Hittite kingdom, the Khatti of Assyrian monuments. Joshua disputed their sway in Northern Palestine, Josh. 1 1 : 2-18. David claimed the country to the Euphrates, Gen. 15:18, defeated the king of Zobah in a great battle, 2 Sam. 8:3, 4, 12 ; 10: 6-19, and the Syrians of Damas cus, 2 Sam. 8:5, 6; and Solomon ruled al most all Syria to the end of his days, 1 Kin. 4:21; 11:23. R was in frequent conflict with Judah and Israel, 1 Kin. 15:18-20; 20; 2 Kin. 10:33; 13:22; 14:25, 28, and was at length subjugated by Tiglath-pileser, and ruled by the Babylonians and the Per sians. Alexander the Great conquered it B- C. 333, and after his death Seleucus Ni cator formed of Mesopotamia and Syria a powerful kingdom, with a line of 16 princes named Seleucidae. Subsequently it fell into the hands of the Parthians under Ti- granes, and B. C. 64 of the Romans under Pompey. Christianity was early planted in Syria both by Paul, Gal. 1:21, and by the refugees from Jewish persecution, Acts 11:19, and the Syrian churches became large and prosperous, Acts 13:1 ; 15:23, 35, 41. In A. D. 634 the Mohammedans con quered the country, and have since held it, except for 2 centuries of the Crusades. It was subdued by the Turks under Selim I. in A. D. 1517, and in modern times was held for a short period by the Egyptians under Ibrahim. It now falls under 3 Turk ish Pashalics — Aleppo, Damascus *and Si don. Its better portions have been thickly populated from a very early period, and travellers find traces of numerous cities wholly unknown to history. Its present population is less than 2,000,000, more than 54 of whom are Mohammedans, the rest Greek, Latin, and Maronite Christians, Druses, Yezidees, and Jews. Notwith standing the nominal protection of Great Britain, the non-Mohammedan population is ruinously oppressed. The prevailing language is the Arabic. There are 70 or 80 Christian mission stations in Syria, Bei rut being a chief missionary centre; the communicants in Protestant churches num ber 700, and there are 175 schools. SYR'IAC LAN'GUAGE, Dan. 2:4, prop erly the Aramaic, the western dialect of that branch of the Shemitic languages called the Aramaean, very nearly the same, 606 when spoken, as the eastern dialect, the Chaldee, and closely allied to the Hebrew. It is now a dead language, but is rich in 2 ancient versions of the Old Testament Scriptures, which greatly aid in the right interpretation of the Hebrew: one made from the Hebrew, and called the Peshito, simple, and the other from the Greek Hex- apla, in the 6th century. The book of Daniel, from ch. 2:4 to the end of ch. 7, is in Aramaic. SY'RO-PHCENI'CIA, the name of Phoe nicia proper during the period of its sub jection to Syria ; hence the name given in Mark 7:26 to the woman who is also called a " Greek," i. c, a Gentile, and a " Ca naanite," Matt. 15:22 — that country having been settled by Zidon, the eldest son of Canaan, Gen. 10:15: See Phoenicia. SYR'TIS, in the R. V. Acts 27:17; in the A. V. " quicksands," which see. T. TA'ANACH, sandy or fortified, a Canaan ite royal city, one of 31 conquered by Josh ua, Josh. 12:21, in the territory of Issachar, but assigned to Manasseh, Josh. 17:11; 21:25; ! Chr. 7:29. In the war between the Canaanites under Sisera and Israel it was a strong post of the Canaanites, Judg. 5:19, many of whom remained there as tributaries, Josh. 17:11-18; Judg. 1:27. It was one of Solomon's supply districts, 1 Kin. 4:12. The modern village Tannuk lies among ruins on a hill on the south west border of the plain of Esdraelon, 6 miles southeast of Megiddo. TA'ANATH-SHI'LOH, the coming of or to Shiloh, Josh. 16:6, now T'ana, a place 7 miles southeast of Nablus, where are large cisterns. TABBA'OTH, rings or spots, Ezra 2:43; Neh.. 7: 46. TAB'BATH, celebrated, a place to which Gideon drove the Midianite host, Judg. 7:22; found at Tubukhat-Fahil, terrace 0) Fahil, a mound 600 feet high, overlooking the Jordan from the east, in the latitude of Beth-shean. TA'BEAL, or TA'BEEL, God is good, I., a Syrian whose son— unnamed— Rezin king of Syria and Pekah king of Israel proposed, with the aid of a party in Jerusa lem, to substitute for Ahaz as king of Ju dah, Isa. 7:6; 8:6,9, 12. II. A Persian officer in Samaria under king Artaxerxes, Ezra 4:7, B. C. 519. TA'BER, to beat the tabret, a small TAB BIBLE DICTIONARY. TAB drum or tambourine, Psa. 68:25. The word is used in Nah. 2 : 7 of women beat ing their breasts in sign of grief. TABE'RAH, burning, so named on ac count of the fire which fell upon the Israel ites for their murmurings while encamped here, Num. 11:1-3; Deut. 9:22. Conjec turally located in Wady es-Saal, 25 or 3a miles northeast of Sinai, near Erweis el- Ebeirig. TAB'ERNACLE, a tent, booth, pavilion, or temporary dwelling, Exod. 33:7-11. For its general meaning and uses, see Tent. In the Scriptures it is chiefly em ployed to denote the place of religious worship of the Hebrews before the build ing of the temple. Several other names are also applied to it in English, answer ing to several Hebrew names, mishkan, meaning the inner dwelling, Exod. 25:9; 26; 38; 40; Num. 1; 3; 9; ohel, the outer tent, Exod. 33 ; kodesh or mikdash, sanc tuary, Exod. 25:8; Lev. 4:6; Num. 4:12; and heykal, temple or palace, 1 Sam. 1:9; 3:3. The tabernacle par excellence was that erected by Moses, Bezaleel, and Aho- liab in the wilderness by divine direction, on the ist day of the 2d year out of Egypt. , This tabernacle was of an oblong rec tangular form, 30 cubits long, 10 broad, and 10 in height, Exod. 26:15-30; 36:20-30; that is, about 55 feet long, 18 broad, and 18 high. The two sides and the western end were formed of planks of shittim wood, overlaid with thin plates of gold, and fixed, each by 2 tenons, in solid sockets, made of pare silver. Above, they were secured by bars of the same wood overlaid with gold, passing through rings of gold which were fixed to the boards. On the east end, which was the entrance, there were no boards, but only 5 pillars of shittim wood, whose chapiters and fillets were overlaid with gold, and their hooks of gold, stand ing is 5 sockets of brass. It was closed with a richly embroidered curtain suspend ed from these pillars, Exod. 27:16. The tabernacle thus erected seems to have been inclosed by a large tent with sloping sides, covered with 4 different kinds of hangings or curtains. The first and inner curtain was composed of fine linen, magnificently embroidered with figures of cherubim, in shades of blue, purple, and scarlet ; this formed the beautiful ceiling. The next covering was made of fine goats' hair; the third of rams' skins or morocco dyed red, and tachash skins. See Badger. Exod. 26:1-30. Such was the external appearance of the sacred tent, which was divided into 2 apart ments by means of 4 pillars of shittim wood overlaid with gold, like the pillars before described, 2^ cubits distant from each other, only they stood in sockets of silver instead of brass, Exod. 26:32; 36:36; and on these pillars was hung a veil formed of the same materials as the one placed at tba 607 TAB BIBLE DICTIONARY. TAB east end, Exod. 26:31-33; 36:35; Heb. 9:3. The interior of the tabernacle was thus di vided, it is generally supposed, in the same proportions as the temple afterwards built according to its model, two-thirds of the whole length being allotted to the first room, or the Holy Place, and one-third to the second, or Most Holy Place. Thus the former would be 20 cubits long, 10 wide, and 10 high, and the latter 10 cubits every way. It is observable that neither the Holy nor the Most Holy Place had any win dow. Hence the need of the candlestick in the one for the service that was per formed therein, the Most Holy Place being illuminated by the Shechinah only. r !f/NC£M$£ ,0 Quva n ——j The tabernacle thus described stood in an oblong court, 100 cubits in length and 50 in breadth, situated due east and west, Exod. 27:18. This court, open to the sky, was surrounded with 60 pillars of brass, with silver capitals, and placed at the dis tance of 5 cubits from each other, 20 on each side and 10 on each end. Their sock ets were of brass, and were fastened to the earth with pins of the same metal, Exod. 38: 10, 17, 20. Their height was probably 5 608 cubits, that being the length of the curtains that were suspended on them, Exod. 38: 18. These curtains, which formed an inclosure round the court, were of fine twined white lir.^n yarn, Exod. 27:9; 38:9, 16, except that at the entrance on the east end, which was of blue and purple and scarlet and fine white twined linen, with cords to draw it either up or aside when the priests entered the court, Exod. 27:16; 38:18. Within this area stood the altar of burnt-offering and the laver with its foot or base. This altar was placed in a line between the door of the court and the door of the tabernacle, but nearer the former, Exod. 40:6, 29; the laver stood between the- altar of burnt- offering and the door of the tabernacle, Exod. 38:8. In this court all the Israel ites presented their offerings, vows, and prayers. But although the tabernacle was sur rounded by the court, there is no reason to think that it stood in the centre of it. It is more probable that the area at the east end was 50 cubits square ; and indeed a less space than that could hardly suffice for the work that was to be done there and for the persons who were immediately to attend the service. We now proceed to notice the furniture which the tabernacle contained. In the Holy Place, to which none but priests were admitted, Heb. 9:6, were 3 objects worthy of notice : namely, the altar of incense, the table for the show-bread, and the candlestick for the lights, aii of which have been described in their re spective places The altar of incense was placed in the middle of the sanctuary, be fore the veil, Exod. 30:6-10; 40:26, 27; and on it the incense was ourned morning and evening, Exod. 30:7, 8. On the north side of the altar of incense, that is, on the right hand of the priest as he entered, stood the table for the show-bread, Exod. 26 : 35 ; 40:22, 23; and on the south side of riie Holy Place the golden candlestick, Exod. 25:31-39. In the Most Holy Place, into which only the high-priest entered once a year, Heb. 9:7, was the ark, covered by the mercy-seat and the cherubim. The gold and silver employed in deco rating the tabernacle are estimated at not less than $1 ,000,000. The remarkable and costly structure thus described was erected in the wilderness of Sinai on the ist day of the ist month of the 2d year after the Israelites left Egypt, Exod. 40:17; and when erected was anointed, together TAB BIBLE DICTIONARY. TAB with its furniture, with holy oil, ver. 9-1 1, and sanctified by blood, Exod. 24:6-8; Heb. 9:21. The altar of burnt - offering espe cially was sanctified by sacrifices during 7 days, Exod. 29:37; while rich donations were given by the princes of the tribes for the service of the sanctuary, Num. 7. We should not omit to observe that the tabernacle was so constructed as to be taken to pieces and put together again, as occasion required. This was indispensa ble, it being designed to accompany the Israelites during their travels in the wil derness. Over it moved and rested the symbolic pillar of*"fire and cloud. As often as Israel removed the tabernacle was ta ken to pieces by the priests, closely cov ered, and borne in regular order by the Levites, Num. 2^4. Wherever they en camped it was pitched in the midst of their tents, which were set up in a quadrangular form, under their respective standards, at a distance from the tabernacle of 2,000 cubits; while Moses and Aaron, with the priests and Levites, occupied a place be tween them. The tabernacle conveyed the great truth of a living, ever-present God, dwelling among his people to protect, rule, judge, guide, and bless them. It was God's house, Exod. 25:8; 29:45. From it he revealed • his will to his people, Num. 11:24, 25J 12:4-10; 16:19, 42J 2o:6; 27:2-5; Deut. 31 : 14, 15. The separation of the outer and inner courts denoted the separation of the unconverted world from God and his peo ple. The altar of burnt -offering, in the court without the sanctuary, indicated the necessity for an atonement in approach ing him. The altar of incense stood in the Holy Place, and its incense of grateful ado ration perfumed the atoning blood which the high-priest bore into the Holy of holies, where the mercy-seat over the ark of the covenant witnessed an atonement perfect ed and accepted there — as the one great sacrifice of the Redeemer is presented by him in heaven, Heb. 9 : 10, 1 1, 24. How long the tabernacle existed we do not know. During the conquest it remained at Gilgal, Josh. 4:19; 10:43. After the conquest it was stationed for many years at Shiloh, Josh. 18:1; 19:51; 22:12; 1 Sam. 1:9, 24; 3 : 3, 15. It was somewhat shorn of its glory when the ark, captured by the Philis tines and miraculously restored, rested at Kirjatb-jearim and in the house of Obed- edom, 1 Chr. 13:6, 14; 2 Sam. 6:11, 12. Meanwhile the tabernacle, with the altar of 39 burnt - offering, was stationed at Gibeon, 1 Chr. 16:39,40; 21:29, an " make disciples of" all nations. They that are "taught of God," Isa. 54:13, hav- ing " learned of the Father," come to Christ, John 6:45; and it is a chief duty of the believer to impart " to every creature," so far as possible," this saving knowledge of Christ. There was a class of men, called "teachers" in Eph. 4:11, perhaps private expounders of Christian doctrines and du ties, occupying the place in the Christian Church of the learned Rabbis of the Jew ish Church, Rom. 12:7. TEARS. Small urns or lachrymatories of thin glass or simple pottery, and supposed to contain the tears of mourners at funer als, used to be placed in the sepulchres of the dead, where they are found in great numbers on opening ancient tombs. This custom may perhaps illustrate Psa. 56:8, which shows that God is ever mindful of the sorrows of his people; though many think these vases were receptacles for per fumes or for flowers, not for tears. In Rev. 7: 17 God is represented as tenderly wiping all tears from their eyes, or removing for ever all their griefs, especially death, one of the chief sources of sorrow, Isa. 25:8; Jer. 22:10; 31:15, 16, and the bitterness of repentance, Joel 2:12; Matt. 26:75. In an cient times public weeping at funerals and in national calamities was more frequent than now, Num. 14:1; Eccl. 12:5. TE'BETH, vrinter, Esth. 2:16, the 10th month of the Hebrew sacred year, com mencing with the new moon in January or late in December. The 8th, 9th, and 10th were fast days. TEETH. The Scripture references to TEH BIBLE DICTIONARY. TEM " gnashing the teeth," as expressing rage and anguish, Matt. 8: 12 ; 24:51; Lukei3.28, to " cleanness of teeth " through starva tion, Amos 4:6, and to being deprived of a tooth for having caused the loss of a tooth to another, Lev. 24:20, are readily under stood; also the close connection between parents and children in guilt and punish ment quaintly expressed in Ezek. 18:2-13. TEHAPH'NEHES, Ezek. 30: 18. See Ta- HAPANES. TEHIN'NAH, supplication, a Judahite, probably a kinsman of David and founder of the " city of Nahash," 1 Chr. 412. TEIL'-TREE, Isa. 6: 13, A. V., Heb. Elah, translated " elm " in Hos 4: 13, and usually "oak," and meaning the terebinth. See Oak. The turpentine-tree, Pistachia tere- binthus, Arabic " butm," is now found in the warmer parts of Palestine, often stand ing solitary in ravines, 20 feet high and up wards. It is not an evergreen ; its leaves are lanceolate, of a dark reddish green, and it yields from the trunk a small quan tity of pure turpentine. TE'KEL, weighed, Dan. 5 : 25. See Mene. TEKO'A, or TEKO'AH, a stockade, a city of Judah, founded by Ashur, 1 Chr. 2 : 24 ; 4 : 5, and fortified by Rehoboam, 2 Chr. 11:6. It was the home of the wise woman whom Joab hired to intercede for Absalom, 2 Sam. 14:2, of Ira, one of David's valiant men, 2 Sam. 23:26, and also of Amos the proph et, Amos 1:1. It is mentioned as a signal- post, Jer. 6:1, and as aiding to rebuild the temple at Jerusalem, Neh. 3:5, 27. It was inhabited by Christians in the time of the Crusades. It is found in the modern Te- ku'a,