"^.I

i^»^^Sfe.3?ft.b-' s^

Gift of
Professor George Park Fisher
1907

LIBRARY

BIBLICAL AND THEOLOGICAL

LITERATURE.

edited by
GEOEGE E. CEOOKS, D.D.,

JOHN F. HUEST, D.D.

VOL. III.-THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA AND
METHODOLOGY.

NEW YORK: HUNT & EATON
CINCINNATI : CRANSTON & CURTS
1894

PUBLISHERS' ANNOUNCEMENT.

THE design of the Editors and Publishers of the Biblical
AND Theological Libkaey is to furnish ministers and lay
men with a series of works which, in connection with the
Commentaries now issuing, shall make a compendious appa
ratus for study. While the theology of the volumes will be in
harmony with the doctrinal standards of the Methodist Episcopal
Church, the aim will be to make the entire Library acceptable
to all evangelical Christians.
The following writers have co-operated in the preparation of the
series : Dr. Harman, Introduction to the Study of the Holy Scrip
tures (tenth thousand). Dr. Terry, Biblical Hermeneutics (fifth
thousand). Drs. Crooks and Hurst, Theological Encyclopaedia
and Methodology (fourth thousand). Dr. Bennett, Christian
Archaeology (third thousand). Dr. Miley, Systematic Theolog}^,
Vols. I and 11. Vol. I, second thousand, and Vol. II, ready
Juno 1, 1894. Tlie Introduction to the Study of the Holy
Scriptures, Hermeneutics, and Encyclopaedia and Methodology
are revised editions, the revision of the last named being com
pleted May 1, 1894.
Other works in preparation are, The Evidences of Christianity,
by Dr. Eidgaway; Christian Theism and Modern Speculative
Thought, by Dr. Charles J. Little ; History of Christian Doctrine,
by Dr. Crooks ; and History of the Christian Church, by Bishop
Hnrst In the case of every treatise the latest literature will be con
sulted and its results incorporated. The works comprised in
the series will be printed in full octavo size, and finished in the
best style of typography and binding.

THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPJDIA

ANB

mp:]thodology.

ON" XmS BA.SIS OF PI.A.Gi-IG>rBA.C H.

GEORGE R. CROOKS, D.D.,
AND
JOHN F. HURST, D.D.

NEW EDITION, KEVISED.

NEW YORK: HUNT & EATON
CINCINNATI: CRANSTON & CURTS
1894

Copyright, 1894, by
HUNT & EATON,
New Vokk.

f.

2)3

CONTENTS.

INTRODUCTION.

Idea and Scope of Encyclopsedia, 7.
Idea and Scope of Methodology, 11.
Theological Science and Theological Em-
piriui.sm, 12.
The Choice of Theology as a Vocation, 15.
Importance of the Teaching Order to So
ciety, 18.
Superiority of Religious Teac'ning to Law
and Art, 20.
Religion, 26.

The Religious Community — -Christianity,
42.
The Church and Theology, 44.
Theological Schools and the Spiritual Or
der, 46.
Relation of the Spiritual Order to the
School and the Church, 50.
The University, 52.
The Formation of Character, 55.
Doubt and Belief, 56.

PART L
GENERAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

Theology Considered as a Positive Science,
58.
As an Art Theory, 61.
In its Historical Development, 62.
As Related to Preparatory Studies,
66.
Philology the First of the Preparatory
Studies, 68.
Uses of Mathematical and Natural Science
to the Theologian, 70.
Theology as Related to the Arts and Gen
eral Culture, 12.
As Related to Philosophy, 74.
Brief History of the Relations of Philos
ophy and Theology, 74.
The Leading Object of the Study of Phi
losophy, 79. '
Pliilosophy Incapable of Originating Theo
logical Doctrine, 81.
No Objection to Philosophy from the Va
riety of Systems, 82.

Unchristian Systems of Philosophy, 84.
Sense in which a Philosophy must be
Christian, 86.
Relations of Ethics, Psychology, and Logic
to Theology, 87.
The Leading Tendencies of Theological
Thought in the Early Church, 100.
In the Middle Ages, 101.
Among the Reformers, 101.
In the Seventeenth Century, 102.
In the Eighteenth Century — Ration
alism, 102.
The New Direction given to Theology, 103.
Pietism, Mysticism, and Confessionalisni,
105.
Theological Tendencies in England and tlie
United States, 107.
Relation of the Student to these Tenden
cies, 109.
Appendix — History and Literature of Tlieo-
logical Enoyclopffidia, 118.

CONTENTS.

PART II.

SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPiEUIA.

Division into Departments, 139. i
Arrangement of the four Departments, 143.
CHAPTER I.
EXEGETIOAL THEOLOGY.
Idea and Scope of Exegetical Theology,
146.
The Holy Scriptures as the Subject of
Exegesis, 147.
Division of the Canonical Scriptures, 151.
The Old and the New Testaments, 154, 156.
Value of the Old Testament, 155.
Influence of the Old Testament on the Form
of New Testament Thought, 154.
Classification of Old Testament Books, 155.
Scope of the New Testament, 157.
Subdivisions of the New Testament, 15S.
Sciences Auxiliary to Exegesis, 159.
The Original Languages of the Bible, 160.
The Hebrew Language and, other Semitic
Dialects, 161..
History of the Study of the Hebrew, 163.
The Hellenistic Greek, 170.
Brief Sketch of the Study of Hellenistic
Greek, 172.
Biblical Archaeology, }75.
The Material of Biblical ArohjEology, 176.
History of Biblical Archasology, 179.
Isagogics, 191.
Limits of Isagogics, 191.
Formation of the Canon, 194.
Biblical Criticism, 204.
Conditions of Canonicity, 206.
Critical Procedure, 210.
Positive and Negative Criticism, 212.
The Relation of Criticism to Exegesis, 214.
History of Criticism, 215.
Biblical Hermeneutics, 234.
A Branch of General Hermeneutics, 236. ¦
The Science of Hermeneutics a Gradual
Growth, 237.
Exegesis as the Product of Hermeneutics,
244.
The Application of Exegesis, 247.

The Method of Exegetical Theology, 240.
History of Interpretation, 251.
CHAPTER n.
HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
Sacred History, 274.
History of the Hebrew People, 275.
Periods of Hebrew History, 275.
Life of Christ, 285.
The Life of Jesus Self-interpreting, 288.
History of the Biographies of Jesus, 290.
Strauss and Renan and the Replies, 291-
293.-
Lives of the Apostles and of the Found
ers of the Church, 306.
Biblical Dogmatics, 310.
Relations of Life and Doctrine, 31 1.
History of BiWical Dogmatics, 313.
Church History, 316.
Historical Development of the Church, 318.
External and Internal History of the
Church, 318.
Periods of Church History, 321.
Proper Treatment of Church History, 324.
Criticism of Sources, 824.
Mediate and Immediate Causation,
325.
Deistic, Pantheistic, and Theistic
Methods of History, 327.
The Moral and Religious Disposition
of the Church Historian, 329.
Method of Church History, 331.
Monographs and Parallels, 334.
History of Church History, 335.
Sciences Auxiliary to Church History, 369.
Separate Branches of Historical Theology,
378.
The History of Doctrines, 384
Definition of the History of Doctrine, 385.
The Task and Province of Doctrinal His
tory, 385.
General and Speci,il Doctrinal History, 387.
Division of Doetiinal History, 389.
Method of Treating Doctrinal History, 391.

CONTENTS.

Patristics and Symbolics, 396.
The Church Fathers, 396.
The Term Classic, 398.
History of Patristics, 399.
Definition of Symbolics, 402.
Scope of Symbolics, 404.
Relation of to History of Doctrine,
404.
History of Symbolics, 403.
-\rclia3ology, 410.
History of Arclueology, 412.
Statistics, 412.
History must Furnish Statistics, 413.
Best Source of Statistics, 413.
CHAPTER m. ,
SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY.
Definition and Scope of Systematic Theol
ogy, 416.
Christian Doctrine Ethical, 418.
Dogmatics and Ethics Distinguished, 419.
Dogmatics, the Center of all Theology,
421.
Apologetics — Its Relation to Dogmatics.
425.
The Task of Apologetics, 428.
The History of Apologetics, 430.
Polemics and Irenics, 437.
The History of Polemics and Irenics; 441.
The Method of Dogmatic Theology, 444.
Outline of a Dogmatic System, 447.
Theology (Doctrine of God), 448.
Anthropology, 451.
Christology, 453.
Soteriology, 435.
The Church and the Sacraments, 458.
Eschatology, 460.
The Trinity and Predestination, 462.
Orthodoxy and Heterodoxy, 464.
History of Dogmatics, 466.
Christian Ethics, 481.
Christ's Work the Basis of Ethics, 485.
Division of Ethics, 487.

The History of Ethics, 490.
The Methodology of Systematic Theology,
496. CHAPTER IV.
PRACTICAL THEOLOGY.
Province of Practical Theology, 500.
Practical Side of Clerical Life, 303.
Method of Treating Practical Theology, 506.
History of Practical Theology, 510.
Catechetics, 514.
Catechetical Methods, 516.
The Mental and Spiritual Endowment of a
Catechist, 520.
History of Catechetics, 521.
Theory of Worship — Liturgies, 526.
Roman Catholic and Protestant Liturgies,
530.
Forms of Worship and their Relation to
Art, 534.
The Methodology of Liturgies, 541.
History and Literature of Liturgies, 543.
Homiletics, 547.
Iloniiletical Arrangement and Material,
553.
The Method of Homiletics, 660,
History of Homiletics.
I. History of the Christian Sermon,
563.
II. History of the Theory of Preach
ing, 568.
The Literature of Homiletics, 571.
Pastoral Theology in its Limited Meaning,
574.
The Pastor's Relation to Church and Peo
ple, 677.
Practical Sciences Auxiliary to Pastoral
Theology, 580.
The Method of Pastoral Theology, 581.
History of Pastoral Theology, 583.
The Further Cultivation of Theological
> Studies, 585.
Literature of Pastoral Theology, 586.

PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION.

OUR American and Englisli theology has been singularly desti
tute of a general introductory work to the theological sci
ences. The following EncyclopEedia and Methodology is designed
to supply this lack. It aims to give an outline of the importance,
nature, and history of the four great divisions of theological
study, together with a bibliography of the Engli&h and American
literature. The volume on this subject by the Rev. Dr. Karl
Hagenbach, who taught Historical Theology many years in Basel
University, has been so highly esteemed that we have made it the
basis of our work. In this edition the bibliography has been en
larged and enriched by descriptive accounts of iuiportaut works.
To meet the wants of sttidents we have also placed, in an ap
pendix, a selection of the English and American literature of the
relations of religion and science, and a list of histories of Chris
tian Churches in the United States. "We have endeavored, by
utilizing both the material of Hagenbach and the material added
by us, to make a handbook for the theological student ; a guide
to show him the right path of inquiry ; a plan or draft of the
science, so that by the help liere afforded he can see its exterior
lines, the boundaries of its subdivisions, and can take the M-hole
into the compass of a complete survey.
New York, May 1, 1894.

INTRODUCTION.

SECTION I.
rnHEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA is a survey of ail the de-
-*- partments- of theology, with a statement of what has been
accomplished in each. It is a branch of Universal En- „ . .„
^ . . . Deflnltlon of
cyclopaedia. It does not aim, however, to unite within Thcoiofficai eu
itself the substance of all that deserves to be known, •'y'"!"^'"*-
but rather to comprehend the further development of the science
as conditioned by its historical character; and, also, to describe its
form and extent in theii' inward and outward relations by correctly
indicating its limits.'
The position of Theological Encyclopa3dia is outside the organism
of theological science, since its otKce is to describe that organism
and open the way into it for the student. On the other hand, how
ever, it forms a part of the larger, univei'sal organism
of science, and in the character of tlieological encyclo- ™
paedia constitutes a fragment of encyclop.'edia in general. Every
student should endeavour, at the outset, to gain a general idea of
the range of human knowledge, not for the purpose of superficially
determining every question, but that he may recognise his ti'ue
place npon the orbis doctrince..''
' With regard to the force of iyKiiiKio^ nauhin, tynvKXin fia^^ftara {orbis doctrince,
Qnmctil., i, 10), see Lobeck, Aglaophamus, torn, i, p. 54; Philo, comp. Diihne, Alex.
RIgspliil., I, 90; Clem. Alex., Strom., i, pp. 333, 373 (ed. Potior); vi, 781, 787 (in
opposition to Philosophy in the proper sense); vii, 839. The compound form, kyicv-
K>jnraiiUla, is first (?) found in Galen (f A. D. 201); comp. Staudenmaier, Theol. En-
C3'kl., p. 3, sqq. ; Felt, Theol. Encykl., p. G, sqg. ; Pauly, Realencykl. der klass. Alter-
thiimswiss., s. v. Eilucatio, p. 39: and my article, Encyklopajdie, in Herzog's Real
encykl., iv, p. 9, ,iqq.
'"The recognition of the organic whole of the sciences must precede the definite
pursuit of a speciallj'. The scholar who devotes liimself to a particular study must
become auqiiainted with the position it occupies with relation to this whole, and the
particular spirit that pervades it, as well as the mode of development by which it
enters into the harmonious union of the whole — hence -the method by which he is
himself to estimate his science, in order that he may not regard it in a slavish spirit,
but independently, and in the spirit of the whole."-^ScHELLi\o, Method., p. 7. " Phi-
losojjhy is substantially encyclopaedia, inasmuch as truth can only be a totality, and
it is only by observing and determining its ditl'erences that the necessity for them,

6 HISTORY OP ENCYCLOP.a;DIA
Both general and special (theological) Encyclopsedia aim to con
centrate rather than to dissipate the mental faculties. Encyclo-
pajdia should not degenerate into a pattern-card, but rather resemble
a map — a comparison that demonstrates itself. But few works of
recent times fulfil the required object.' While German resolution
and thoroughness, ir a form that is no longer adequate to the needs
History of En- of science, appear in Ernesti (Initia Doctrinae Solidioris,
cyciopsEdia. firgt ed., 1730, and often), the so-called French encyclo
pedists brought the science of encyclopsedia into bad odour," so that
an encyclopedist, like a philosopher, became synonymous with a
freethinker. The lexical method followed by those writers, which
now became popular, and was adopted also by the German encyclo
pedists,' suffered from the additional disadvantage of being limited
to the discussion of subject-matter only, and might as readily be
made to serve the superficial mind for destructive purposes, as to
aid the cautious scholar in referring to matters that deserve to be
known. As the material deficiencies of the science became ajiparent, there
arose also a demand for its organic and comprehensive treatment;
that is, for a proper science of encyclopedia. Eschenburg was the
first to employ the title of Wissenschaftskunde (Introduction to the
Sciences, third ed., Berlin, 1809), and Jaesche (Prof, .at Dorpat)
wrote an Architektonik der Wissenschaften in 1816.'' Large and far-
reaching views into the organism of the sciences were opened by
Schelling's Vorlesunsren fiber die Methode des akademischen Stu-
and the freedom of the whole, can be made to coexist. Hence it follows that an en
cyclopaedic treatment of science is not to present it in the thorough development ol
its particulars, but must be confined to the beginning and fundamenlal ideas of the
particular science." — Hegel, Encykl. der phil. Wiss., sees. 7 and 9.
'Concerning the older works — Martianus Capelia (about A. D. 460), Cassiodorua
(f after 562), Isidore of Seville (f C36), Hugo de St. Victor (f 1 141, see Liebner's Mo-
nographie, p. 96, sqq.), Vincent of Beauvais (\ about 1264), Louis de Vives (•)• 1540),
Oerh. Joh. Voss (f 1649), Grotius (f 1645), Lord Bacon (f 1626), J. G. Aisled (f 1 638),
D. G. Morhof (+ 1691, Polyhistor., fourth ed., Liibeck, 1732), Joh. Matili. GcRsner
(f 1756, Isagoge, see Herder's Sophroii., Werke zur PhiL und Gesch., x, p. 253)—
800 Pelt, I. n. ^
' (Diderot cl d'Alembert) Encyclop6die ou dictionnaire raisonne des scienocg, das
arts, et des metiers, etc., Paris, 1751-1772, 28 vols. Comp. Herzog's Encykl., It, p, t,
and M'Clintock and Strong's Cyclop., s. v. Encyclopa3dia, French, etc.
• Deutsche Kncykl. od. allg. Realworterbuch aller Kiinste u. Wissenschaften, ate
Frankfurt, 1778-1804, (A-Ky), and other works of that day, which have been sup
planted by later productions; c. g., H. A. Pierer, Univers.-lex. od. voUst. Encykl.
Wortorbueh. Altenburg, 1822-1836, 26 vols., 8vo., fourth ed. ; ibid., 1857-1864. &
dXtli edition was l>egun at the close of 1867 ; and especially the (not yet complete i,
Allgem. Encykl. d. Wissenschaften u. Kiinste, by Ersch and Gruber.
See Pelt, pp. 12, 13, where additional works are citod; Scheidler, Hodegetik, p. 51

AND METHODOLOGY. 9
diums (seconded., Tflb., 1813); .and still earlier Fichte had consid
ered the "Vocation of the Scholar" (Bestimmung des Gelehrten,
Berlin, 1794) and his Character (Wesen des Gelehrten, 1806) in .an
ideal light. The works by Heidenreich,' Tittmann,' Beneke,° Schei
dler,* Mussmann,' Leutbecher," Kirchner,' von Schaden,' and otliersj
are better adapted to practical requirements, and are of a more
methodological character.
With reference to the nature of the encyclopsedia of theolojjy it
should be observed that the real encyclopsedia, or dictionary, which
contains the subject-matter of theological knowledge,
is distinct from the encyclopsedia in our sense. The Sie^iEnc^
value of the former consists in the completeness of the ciopaedia, oi
matter to be imparted," while the latter seeks to avoid
crushing the mind beneath the weight of a mass of knowledge, and
confusing the vision by the number of objects to be presented. It
confines itself, instead, to the work of pointing out the road to be
pursued. The aims of encyclopsedia are not the objects souglit by
the different branches of theology, but those branches themselves."
It is, of course, impossible to separate a study from its object, or
the form from its matter, for the one conditions the other ; and,
therefore, encyclopsedia will be compelled to put on flesh, unless it
is to become a naked skeleton. The matter, however, which it con-
' [Teller aie zweckmrissige Anwendung der Uiiiversitatsjahre. Leipsig, 1804.
- Uober die Bestimm. des nelehrten u. seine Bildung dilrch Schule u. Universitiit.
Berlin, 1833. (The Vocation of the Scholar: The Nature of the Scholar, and its
M.anifestations. Both translated by Dr. Wm. Smith. London, .lohn Chapman, 1848.)
*Einl. ins akad. Stadium. Gottingen, 1826.
* Grundriss der Hodegetik od. Methodik des akad. Studiums. Jena, 1 832 ; second ed.,
1839; third ed., 1847.
' Vorlesungen iib. d. Studium d. Wissenschaften u. Kiinste, etc. Halle, 1832.
° Abriss d. Methodologie d. akad. Studiums. Erlangen, 1834 (p. 15, sqq. — the older
and more recent literature in this field). The same author has translated Van Heusde,
Socrat. Schule, parts 1 and 2, Enoyklopadie. Erlangen, 1840.
• ' Akad. Propadeutik od. Vorbereitungswissensch. zum akad. Studium. Leipsig, 1842.
Hodegetik od. Wegweiser zur Universitat fiir Studierende. Leipsig, 1852. Compa:*,
also, Fritz, Vers. ub. die zu d. Studien erforderlichen Eigenschafteu. Strasburg, Ifef S.
" Ueber akad. Leben u. Studium. Marburg, 1845.
" Real-encyklopadie fiir protestant. Theologie u. Kirohe, by J. J. Herzog, assisted bj
(ither Pr&wSBtant scholars and theologians. 22 vols. Gotha, 1854-1868. Partially
translated by Bomberger, of Philadelphia, 1856, sqq. Of Roman Catholic works : Jos.
Ashbach, Allgem. Kirchen-lexijcon. Frankfurt, 1846-50, 4 vols., 8vo. Wetzer and
Welte, Kircihen-lexikon, od. Encykl. der kath. Theologie u. ihrer Hiilfswissenachaften.
Fieiburg, 1846-1860. 12 vols., 8vo., with index.
" In other words, " The object of encyclopaedia is the organism of science rather
than its subject-matter, since it aims to discover the relations existing between the
manifold branches of knowledge." — Harless. p. 2.

10 KELATION OP ENCYCLOPEDIA
nects with its descriptions is only designed to aid in comprehend
ing the form. But inasmuch as the science is not definitely com
plete, being rather in process of growth, it becomes a matter of jiri-
mary importance that its ideal object should be brought into view,
by the clear pointing out of the goal it strives to reach. This like
wise requires a substantial' foothold, a 86q fioi, ttov ard, without
which the entire structure will be a castle in the air. Care inusl,
however, be taken that the footstool be not regarded as the top'
most round in the heavenly ladder, beyond which lies an infinite
perspective. Encyclopsedia thus becomes not merely "a descrip
tion of the circle of human knowledge as it should be, nor yet a dis
cussion of the character of that circle as it is . . . it is the under
standing of what has come into being, through the recognition of
its end." (Harless, Theol. Ency., etc., p. 459.)
SECTION IL
The relation of theological encyclopasdia to the body of theolog
ical science is twofold ; it stands at the threshold of the course as
ReiationofEn- ^^ introductory science, and it serves a complemeittary
cyciopsEdia to purpose for him who has arrived at its end, by collect-
eo og7. jj^g- -fQgg^jjgr the results obtained. Upon this distinction
in the relations it sustains to the whole course of study will, in great
measure, depend its treatment. In the former aspect it is predom
inantly stimulating, methodological, working toward its object,
which in the latter case; has been attained and passed. The proof
of every truly scientific method consists in this — that the beginning
and the end correspond; and tliat what proceeds from a living con
ception of things and their relations, shall again lead to a deeper
spiritual apprehension and insight of the object sought.
This distinction has generally received too little attention in con
nexion with the teaching of Encyclopaedia.' Most of the recent
encyclopsedias have not only attempted to introduce the student
into the field of theology, but also to develop the science itself. In
this reg.ard the whole of theology is greatly indebted to Schleier-
macher's little book." But all men are not Schleiermachers. He,
like all reforming si)irits, closed an old, and at the same time opened
a new, era. 'And yet that very book presents insurmountable diiK-
culties to the beginner. An encyclopsedia for the learned {virtuosos
was Schleiermacher's term) should certainly exist, for the study of
' See Harless, § 4, p. 2.
'Kurze Darstellung des theol. Studiums, etc. 2d ed., Berlin. 1830. (Comp. th«
history of cncycl. at the end of Part I.) (Brief Outline of i,(.. yt«3, jf Thoniocr
Tianslated by William Farrer T. & T. Clark, Edinburgh.)

TO THEOLOGY. 11
encyclopsedia, ffke that of the catechism, can never be pertains botii
exhausted; and as exponents change with varying mag- ^ "^^ beffin-
, ' ^, -. , ° . , . nlns and the
nitudes, so does encyclopasdia keep pace with science, endottheoiog'-
It forms tne dial-plate to the mechanism of the clock. '«ii study.
But to introduce the pupil into the deliberations of the masters, and
allow him to participate in forecasting the future before he has
comprehended the present, would be' to reap where we should sow.
It might, therefore, be wise to recommend that every student should
give attention to encyclopsedia twice, provided that it be presented
from these two points of view — the beginning and the end of the
course. The present encyclopsedia professes to belong to the intro
ductory class.' SECTION III.
Methodology (Ilodegetics) is applied encyclopsedia ; for a true
conception of the nature and combinations of the sci- Deflnitton ol
ence will lead to its con-ect treatment; and as an ency- Methodology.
olopsedic comprehension is the necessary condition of a correct
method, so the latter demonstrates the former.
In other words. Methodology contains " the regulative conclusions
from the principles and historical character of a science, which are
requisite for the process of appropriation."' These conclusions
might be properly regarded as self-evident, were it not that many
unpractised persons whom introductory encyclopsedia is designed
to aid require some guidance. Introductory encyclopsedia will,
therefore, in proportion as it has comprehended its task, of neces
sity assume a methodological character, without finding it requisite
to tow methodology in its wake as a supplementary and distinct
study. For works on General Methodology (Hodegetics) see on
Section I. SECTION IV.
Two dangers are to be avoided in connection with Methodology:
first, that of failing, by reason of the numerous obiects „ , „
' »' J _ J _ Dangers in the
presented from without, to attain to a connected view treatment i
and an intellectual control of the subject-matter (a false *'^"""^°''>sy-
' This distinction does not imply, however, that introductory encyclopstdia differs
materially from the complementary. The relation is, rather, that of the germ to the
fruit, of the school-grammar to the fully-rounded system of instruction in language.
It furnishes the first lines toward an art which must be perfected by study. Nor
does it imply that the masters are in the possession of an esoteric learning, while the
pupils are obliged to content themselves with mere exoteric knowledge. The lowest
roimd upon the ladder conducts toward the highest, but no round may be overleaped.
Fe science, as elsewhere, intermediate stages have their value ; and a view from be
neath creates a different impression from that obtained by a view in perspective from
above. "Harless, p. fi.

13 . THEOLOGICAL SCIENCE HAS
empiricism); and second, that of being puffed up with the conceit
of idealistic wisdom, which loses sight of actual life and its condi
tions, as ordered of God, and consequently mistakes and fails to
realize the true object of science, and, more than all, the life-obiect
of the theologian.
Lord Bacon makes use of a suggestive figure upon this pcint,
when he compares the raw empiric to an ant, the idealistic dreamer
to a spider, and the true devotee of science to a bee. The previous
age suffered more from the first ailment, the jiresent l.anguislies
under the influence of the second.
"Non scholse sed vitse discendum," is an old maxim.' The schoo!
and actual life are not, however, to form a contrast; for life is itself
Life the object ^ school, and the school is designed to prepare for life,
of all study. to impart life, to beget and promote life. What do we
understand by life ? If it be explained to denote the multiplicity
and diversity of objects among which we are placed- and with whicli
we are interwoven, without understanding our experience, life cer
tainly forms a contrast with science, whose office it is to unify this
very multiplicity of diversity, and to seek an inward comprehension
of the objects presented from without. But while penetrating their
nature, it first vivifies them, and not until this has been done can
we realize that we have hitherto been employed upon dead matter
Science, however, can only give life by ente^-ing into things, not by
taking its stand, as an abstract theory, over against them. In the
latter character it is itself dead, and its corpse-like pallor is more
repulsive to the mind than even the diversified and fiuctuating play
of life. If the life is to assume a scientific character, it will be
necessary that science should also live; they must react upon each
other. Kant strikingly observes, "Ideas without observation arc
empty, and observation without ideas is blind."
The maxim that " theory has become gray " has often been abused
in the service of a lazy empiricism. Among medical men empirics
Theological ^^'^ Contrasted with " rational physicians," and the term
empiricism, ig applied especially to persons who are entirely governed
by the accidental circumstances of a particular disease presented to
their notice, and the accidental possession of remedies which, by a
sort of mechanical routine, they have become accustomed to employ,
and who lack the ability to rise into a higher and more legitimati
method of treatment based on scientific diagnosis. But empirics are
also found in theology; and their empiricism is manifested in two
' Comp. Herder, in the Sophron. Werke zur Philos., a, p. 207, sqq. Cetcros enim
pudeat, qui se ita litteris abdiderunt, ut nihil possint ex his neque ad communem
affere fructum neque in aspectum lucemque proferre. Cic. Oi-at. pro Archia poeta, c. 6

LIFE FOR ITS OBJECT. 13
different directions, and from two thoroughly opposite religious
points of view. The one is asceticaUy pious, and imagines that
practical piety will be all-sufficient; perhaps defending itself with
the plea that the apostles themselves were unlearned men, thus mis
interpreting the connexion between primitive Christianity and the
requirements of the present age. This tendency has always found
supporters among persons who are too indolent to study or think, or
has been ironically advocated by the class which occupies the stand
point of extreme idealism, and despairs of the scientific character of
theology.' The other is the p/iilanthro2}ic, cosmopolitan view (allied
to the older rationalism), which restricts the duty of the clergyman
to lecturing and enlightening the public, and, therefore, regards an
encyclopsedic training in a normal school as possessing the highest
value. Theological knowledge and dogmatic proficiency are thrown
overboard. It calls for jjractical men. Its idea of practical Chris
tianity differs from that of pious empiricism, however — a proof that
even the most trivial schemes cannot be sustained without a previ
ous scientific explanation.
The bad repute into which science has been brought
with both these classes is not, however, the fault of fweer'lde^
scieiice itself, but of its caricature, which constitutes and learned
the most wretched of all empiricisms, because it is ^^'^'^'
thoroughly impracticable in its nature'. We refer to that dry
learning which simply heaps up lumber, and smothers itself with
the dust of books, without attaining to a clear consciousness of
what it is doing, or of the object towards which study is direct
ed." Learnedness and scholarship are unlike. There may be
very learned persons who are unable to appreciate science; and
although science cannot exist apart from learning, it is yet possible
'Strauss, Glaubcnsl., ii, p. 626. "Theological study, formerly the means employed
to prepare for the service of the Church, now forms the most direct road to unfitness
tor that service. The cobbler's bench, the writing-room, .and any other place that is
secure against the entrance of science, now constitute better places for preparatory
practice for the ministry than the universities and seminaries. Religious idiots and
self-taught theologians, the leaders and speakers of pietistic gatherings — these con
stitute the clergy of the future."
'Kant (Anthropologic, p. 164) s.ays: "There is a gigantic erudition which is yet
Cyclopean, in that it lacks an eye with which to comprehend rationally, and for a pur-
j.-f)ae, this mass of historic knowledge, the burden of a hundred camels, viz., the eye
af a true philosophy." With reference to this mechanical knowledge, in which the
memory does not operate as the " energy of mental retention," but simply as a store
house of perceptions, compare Carblom also (Das Gefiihl, etc., p. 44,sqg.) : " The mo*
repulsive exhibition of this kind is afforded by the spiritual office, when simply tht
tongue, hand, and foot of the clergyman are engaged in it, but not his spirit, to sau
nothing of the Spirit of God."

n THEOLOGICAL SCIENCE
to display the scientific spirit in a high degree, in cases where the
learning is confined within very narrow limits (as with a youthful
student). Learning without scientific culture commonly w*ars the
garb of school-boy pedantry, except when it simply has the ippear-
ance of a superficial acquaintance with many studies; it at once
dries up and inflates the mind, and, being confined within the nar
row boundaries of its specialty, its estimate of other branches of
knowledge is often coarse and contemptuous.
While, however, it is admitted that a false empiricism exists,
M'hose unscientific character is manifest, even when it appears in
the garb of learning, there is also a falsely vaunted science (1 Tim.
vi, 20), which superciliously spreads itself under that usurped name,
but in the end dissolves into empty vapour. The present gene-
True method oi ration should be warned against both errors, with an
malting theo- emphasis increasing with the separation which exists
logical science '¦ " . '^ .
practical. between the school and actual life, and in proportion as
the contrast between scientific theology and the practical perform
ance of clerical duties threatens to become irreconcilable.' If it be
true, that every science which lacks sufficient support from observa
tion and experience resembles the soap-bubble, in which the colours
of the light are, indeed, magnificently displayed, but which bursts
at the slightest breath of air, it is especially true of theological sci
ence, which can only lay claim to the name and character of a dis
tinct science by reason of its living relations to religion and the
Church. It should accordingly be required, ia the interests of gen
uine science, that the study 'of theology be made 2>ractical, but
practical in the sense that the science itself is to become action,
that the indwelling word of life is to be made flesh, and the inhe
ring germ of life to produce appropriate fruit. Science must be
come a salt that shall penetrate the entire mass; "but if the salt
have lost its savour, wherewith may we salt?"
"The letter is not science!" True; but the mind cannot dispense
even with the letter. It must achieve its results through the
Word, the firm, clear, living Word, not by means of idle words;
but without the letter there can be no words, and no Word. Gen
uine science is as far removed from a dead materialism as fi-om a
dead formalism and an empty idealism. It deals with the nature
of mind and the nature of things, and in this light it becomes at
once both realism and idealism. The idea of science is conditioned
' " Is, then, the historical knot to be so solved, as that Christiivnity must take sidei
with ba,rbarism, and science with unbelief?" was the question of Schleiermacher
thirty years tigo. Compare the preface to the Prot. Kirchenzeitui'g fiir das cvang.
Deutschland, 18S4.

MUST BE PRACTICAL. 15
by thoroughness, clearness, depth, free activity, and originality ot
thou^htj' in connexion with caution and soberness of judgment, as
opposed to superficial and confused thinking, shallowness, dullness,
servile subjection to prejudices old and new, pedantic dryness, and
boorish narrowness. It will, moreover, maintain a steady regard
for the purely human while pressing toward the divine. Ii certainly
seems as if clearness at times detracted from depth, or depth from
cinarness; but dullness and a fluid-like transparency carried to the
verge of shallowness, should no more be confounded with clearness,
than a darkly-brooding, shadow-loving stupidity should be identi
fied with depth. Shallow-headedness finds every thing obscure that
is beyond its comprehension, while wrong-headedness attributes the
profoundest depth to the very thing it fails to understand.
It is no doubt true that he who would be eminent in science must
confine himself to a single branch (a specialty); but devotion to a
specialty should not begin too early. The general cul
ture, which itself involves progressive gradations, must mgahouidpre-
precede the special. Elementary schools call the desire "**** ^^*^^^-
to know into being; the gyinnasial training strengthens .and intensi
fies its character. The training, whose method was conditioned by
the study of languages and mathematics, realizes its higher object
in the departments of history and the natural sciences. The univer
sity training follows, not only to bring the whole field of science
within the range of vision, but also to concentrate the efforts of the
student by assigning to him a definite field of learning. Not until
the university studies are ended is the practical preparation for
active life in place, whether for the pastorate, or for independent
scholarly investigations with a view to carrying forward the theo
retical development of science by means of authoi-ship or .academ
ical instruction. SECTION V.
CIIOICK Ob' THE TIIKOI.OGICAL VOCATION.
Dau. Schenkel, Die Bedeiitung des gelstllchen Berufs, etc.. In Stud. u. Erlt., 1852, p. Mb, »i/iv. ,
Uageiibacb, Ueber die Abnabine des tliwil. Studiuuis, in Klrchenbl. fiir die rol. Schvvuiz, 1856,
Nos. 0 and 7 ; Und., 1802, and Gelzer's Moualsbl., 18(13, January ; Dleckholl (IU~m. Cath.). Ueber
den Beruf u. d. Vorbereltung zum geisll. Stande, Faderborn, 185D.
AUliough the study of encyclopsedia is necessary to the theologian
fcr a clear understanding of the nature of his work, it is yet proper
to require that every person who enters thereon should have
reached a general conception of the position he expects to occupy
'No absolute originality is intended, but simply independent reproduction. "To
accept and submit to auihority,'' says Marheineke, " is not unworthy of an indepen
dent spirit. But the mind must resei^e to itself, especially in scientific matters, the
right to know and understand the authority in the principle of its necessity."

16 THEOLOGICAL STUDY NOT
in human society, and that he should have formed a clear and satis
factoiy idea of the nature of the calling to which he gives himself
in the exercise of his own independent choice.
We begin with the concrete, with the individual and his relation
to the science. What urges you to the study of theology? Die
Worldly mo- cur hie? we inquire of every candidate who is an-
tives lor the nounced. Dat Galenus opes, dat Justinianus honorrs
study ol theol- ,.,.., . , . . , • i /¦» r
ogy not sum- Neither of these can come into question here (Matt, x,
I lent. g^ sqq.), even less in our day than heretofore. Is it
matter for complaint, that the time is over in which persons stud
ied theology in the expectation that they would soon receive an
assured provision for their wants, and be able to lead a life dovoid
of care ? ' Nor is it a misfortune that theology is no longer the
outer court through which the scholar engaged in the pursuit of
other objects must pass in order to secure oflicial position in the
schools. None are compelled to become theologians, unless they
choose. The apostle's words, "Let a man examine himself," and
"he that eateth and drinketh unworthily, eateth and drinketh
damnation to himself," are not without significance in this connex
ion also, where no mere bread-and-butter science in the usual sense
is involved,' but the dispensing of the bread and drawing of the
water of life .itself."
'We recommend to persons who still entertain such desires, the perusal of Valen
tin Andrea's glorious poem. Das gute Leben ciiies rechtschaffenon Dieners Gottes, in
Herder's Briefe iiber das Studium der Theologie (No. 49), lately published by Lau
rent (1865); and also the twenty-fourth of Herder's own letters.
' Hoc intelligamus, hominum duo essa genera, alteram indoctum ct agreste, quod
anteferat semper utilitatem honestati, alteram humanum et politum, quod rebus om-
uibus dignitatem anteponat. Cicero Orat. part. c. 25. Comp. Ancillon, Vermittlung
der Extreme, i, 47 ; Herder, 1. o. : " There is scarcely one among the learned classes
that contains so many cripples as does the clergy; necessities, poverty, ignoble am
bition, hundreds of miserable motives, urge people to that work, so that God is fre
quently obliged to accept the refuse instead of the firstlings of its kind." — The twenty-
fifth letter : " Perhaps no study has in all ages had so few to serve it with entire faith
fulness, as theology; precisely, however, for the reason that it is an almost superhuman,
divine — the most difficult study." " He who devotes himself to the Church," saj's
Daub, "and to that end studies theology, will miss his aim, if he simply desires a
church office that he may have life, sustenance, comforts, ease, honour etc. • for
while he considers the office as a means, and himself or the gratification of his desires
as an end, he can never become a church officer, but must remain a hireling ' See
Daub and Creuzer, Studien, ii, p. 67.
"Archbishop Leighton speaks, in like manner, of "men ministering the doctrine of
salvation to others, and not to themselves ; carrying it all in their heads and tongues
and none of it in their hearts ; not hearing it, even while they preach it ; reaching the
bread of life to others, and eating none of it themselves." — Commentary on 1 Peter
ch. i pp. \(^-\i.

A WORLDLY PURSUIT. 17
SECTION VI.
The resolution to study theology will be inspired more especially
either by the influence of practical religion, or by the love of study,
in accordance with the varying peculiarities of natui'al
endowment, and of previous training and culture. It both religion
will be suflicient in the beginning that a disposition and n^^fuMo'the
desire for both religion and learning should exist, to- study of theoi-
gether with a general conviction that piety without °*^'
learning is as incapable of forming a theologian, as is learning
without piety.
Young men who approach the study of theology do not invaria
bly bring from their homes an assured religious consciousness, so as
to be able to say, with Schleiermacher, " Piety was the maternal
womb, in whose sacred darkness my young life was nourished and
prepared for entrance on the as yet inaccessible world." Not all
of them are Timothies, of whom it may be said that they have
"known the Holy Scriptures" from their childhood (2 Tim; iii, 15),
although such characters are not, upon the whole, very uncommon.
It is, after all, the correct principle, that the desire to study theol
ogy should spring from religious impulses, even though much that
is confused and sickly be in particular instances involved. It is the
oiRce of study to clear up the uncertain, and to correct the sickly tone
of the mind. Experience has shown that an unconquerable religious
impulse to become a minister of God whether as pastor or as mis
sionary has enabled many, even in advanced years, to surmount the
difficulties which opposed their resolution; and, however supei-cil-
iously the fact may be criticised (comp. § 4, note 2), it is true that
the writer's desk, the cobbler's or the tailor's bench, have contrib
uted servants to the Church of whom she has no cause to be
.ashamed, while the same boast will not apply to all who have simply
stepped from the schoolroom into theology.
Such, however, are exceptional cases. The rule probably is, that,
with a majority of persons who have received a proper preparatory
education, the resolution to study is formed before they come to de
cide upon the particular course in which they will engage. Prac
tical considerations have less effect upon their determination than
theoretical; and this again is proper, provided the religious factor
be not reduced to zero in making the decision. When religious
motives are not ignored in such a case, a real study of theology
serves naturally to increase their power; for scientiflc interest is
as certainly conditioned by religious interest, as the religious by
the scientific. Each must increase with, and be nourished by,
the other 2

18 'I'HE EXALTED POSITIOJN
Within the circle of the sciences persons may, moreover, be de-
tei-mined to theology by a variety of endowments. So philology
_ . . becomes for some the bridge into theology, while others
r.f a vociition come to it through philosophy, oratorical, or artiatic
eoogy. gifts, or a talent for teaching. The future theologian
may be suspected in the person who at school displays readiness in
the acquisition or use of languages, just as a mind turned toward
the natural sciences indicates the future physician, political econo
mist, or technicist."
As a preliminary qualification, the existence of a genuinely scien
tific spirit must be considered important. The mori! a religious
mind is in earnest .about the determination to study, the less will it
yield to the vagary that piety can take the place of learning; and
the more thoroughly the studious disposition enters into .science, the
more powerful will be its conviction that a sound theology cannot
exist without piety, since all theological truth becomes intelligible
only in the light of religion. The sharp contrast between " jiious "
and " scientific " students can be obviated on no other principle.
SECTION VII.
Without anticipating the discussion of the special place belong
ing to the clergy (§ 17), we now include them in the category o^
teachers, whose high importance demands recognition
teShere^'the ^^'^^ "^ ^^'^- ^e therefore remark that the order of
highest In so- teachers stands flrst among the cultivators of man's
spiritual nature, and is superior, in this regard, to the
legislative and artist classes.
This exaltation of the teaching order is, however, in no wise in
tended to excite learned or spiritual pride. The agriculturist and
the soldier are likewise of great importance to the organism of
society ; and they, too, may, in the hand of God, become an element
of culture and deyelopment. The cultivation of the soil was the
most ancient teaching of mankind, and the sword of the warrior
' Great impoi-tance should be attached to such natural indications ; nothing is more
hurtful than a hum.an predestination to any study, and especially that of theology.
The days when it was believed important to dedicate children in the cradle to God bv
devoting them to the pulpit, are probably over. Hut how many sons of clernrmen
adopt the paternal calling in obedience to family custom, without being inwardlv
moved thereto either by religious or scientific considerations ! The inclinations of a
child or youth are not, of course, to be held decisive in every case ; but Goethe ia
probably correct when he says, "Our desires are premonitions of the abilities that lie
In us, intimations of what we shall be able to perform. The things we can and wish
10 accomplish present themselves to our imagination froin without and as future • we
feel a longing for that which we already secretly possess." Autobiography, vol. i,
pp. 331, 332.

OF THE WORLD'S TEACHERS. 10
opened the earliest furrows into which the seed of culture might
falL Commerce and manufactures became the most powerful levers
of culture in the Middle Ages. It accordingly is a blinded judg
ment which conceives of the height that industrial i^acugrgnotan
life has reached in our day, as being purely material- isoiatedorderof
istio. The range of encyclopsedic culture involves """'^'y-
rather that such facts, however distant from the field of the
ology they m.ay lie, should be estimated in accordance with their
social importance; and to theology in particular, unless it prefers
to perish in monastic isolation, belongs the task of comprehending
these " secular matters " in their relations to the household of God
and the sacred order of his kingdom, in harmony with the apostle's
thought, " all things are yours." (1 Cor. iii, 21.) In that divine order
each thing is linked with every other thing, and the most material
elements strive to become spiritualized. Accordingly, the military
calling finds its spiritual expression in legislation, and the handi
craft rises to the dignity of an art; but both legislation and art rise
above the preliminary conditions illustrated by the soldier and the
artisan, since the former not only controls wickedness by the re
straints of law, but also establishes the fundamental principles of
behaviour in the State, and the latter does not confine itself to the
adorning of the sensual life, but, in addition, spiritualizes the sen
sual in harmony with its ideal character, and employs it for ideal
purposes. The legends of immemorial times, and the traditions of later ages,
have always represented artists and legislators as the spiritual lead
ers of mankind, and as revealers of the godlike, who derived their
origin from heaven.' They, too, are teachers of man- ™. , ,
o . , The relation of
kind in a certain sense, although not in the complete teaching to art
and highest sense; for with the one the teaching ele- "udiegisiation.
ment is subordinate to the purposes of illustration, and with the
other it is secondary to the idea of absolute rule. Mere law has in
itself no life; its whole importance depends upon external condi
tions; it can only determine the outward character of human action
with reference to a given case. Habit and custom may enable the
power of the law to penetrate into the depths of the moral disposi
tion, and from thence to put forth shoots; but law will never be
able to develop the actual root of the moral life from within itself.
Art, on the other hand, is uncertain and undecided in its effects.
Every work of art is a concealed symbol, to be interpreted only
' Odyss., xix, 179. Herod., 1, 66. Plutarch, vita Lycurgi, c. 6 ; vita Numae, a 4.
Anthol. graeCa, iv, 81. Philostrat. vita ApoUonii, vi, 19. Jacobs, academische Be-
den, i, 362.

30 THE TEACHING FUNCTION SUPERIOR
by the cultured person who has been initiated into the interior life
of art; to the uncultivated mind it remains an unexplained hiero
glyphic' But what is beyond the ability of both law and art is
accomplished by the living word of teaching alone. It goes down
into the depths of human dispositions, taps every vein, passes
through every stage of culture, addresses both the child and the
adult; and as the magic of art calls forth a god from the rougli
block of marble, so does the powerful magic of the word bring into
view the image of God from the undeveloped spiritual tendencies
in man. In this regard the teacher unites in himself, and with in
creased efBciency, the functions of both legislator and artist with
reference to the cultivation of mankind. He is the bearer of the
divine, an administrator in the domain of holy things, a priest of
God. Without an order of teachers men would still be in a savage
or half-civilized state. The heritage of cuUv^e is forever secured
and guaranteed to a people only where wise men, scholars, philoso
phers, orators, poets,' prophets, authors, in one word, the instructors
of mankind have by vivid employment of the vernacular given
their intellectual treasures to the public, and, through the medium
of a free circulation of ideas, have developed a common conscious
ness, the results so gained being embodied in history for the ben
efit of succeeding generations. SECTION vin.
Inasmuch as the teaching-order is preiJminently the spiritaal
trainer of mankind, it follows that only a religion which has a
body of doctrine, and consequently an order of teachers, will corre
spond to the idea of religion in its highest form.
Religion (on its nature see infra, § 12), which we consider for the
moment, in its general character, as the highest interest of man.
Superiority of could only appear, in any period, under the three forms
theteachhigoi of Law, Art, and Teaching, discussed in the preceding
religious doc- .. rnv, i c ¦ ^ i ,• . ,
trine to law section, ihe laws oi ancient peoples were religiously
and art. sacred; priests and scholars were at the same time polit
ical and religious personages. This fact rests upon the truth that
ideas of right have their origin in the eternal laws of reason, and,
' Oruneisen, referring to Grecian art, observes very correctly : " It was the lack of
positiveness, power, and depth, the unsettled and undecided elements in the moral
consciousness, and its influence over the world-view and artistic conceptions of the
Greeks, that permitted illusions and immorality to intrude upon this field also and
that in the end opposed with steadily decreasing energy the superior force of moral
oorruption." Compare his treatise, Ueber das Sittliche der bildenden Eunst bei den
Oriecben, p. 14.
'Poets convey art and instruction through spirit anil word.

TO ART AND LEGISLATION. 21
therefore, in the Divine; but what was true in the idea became
perverted by the abuse of the spirit in the letter. The law can
only represent the eternal by an inadequate comparison with the-
temporal, whose conditions are limited and modified by existing
states. When circumstances undergo a change, the law becomes
a d6ad statute. Law is moreover deficient in seizing upon only a
single aspect of religion — ^that of unconditional obedience and the
consequent recompense. It knows nothing of an unconstrained
love and enthusiasm. Upon this latter point art is in advance of
law. It assumes the infinite (ideal), and makes that its object; but
in the qualities in which law is too rigid, art appears entirely too
free and unrestrained. The moral element, which appears in the
law under the rigid form of commandment, is here entirely subor
dinate; it is neither desired nor allowed to become prominent, for
fear that it might injure the purposes of art which accounts for
the mongrel character of all didactic poetry ; but art can never
displace doctrine, because its function is not, primarily, to teach.
A merely aesthetic religion, a mere " worship of genius," is quite
as deficient as a merely legal religion. The latter lacks the power,
the former the discipline, of the spiritual element; the one is deficient
in not providing for the free exercise of the religious disposition,
the other in not possessing the strict principles and the impelling
power of the ethical.' It follows that the doctrine, the word, in
struction, and sermon (6i,3ax'q, Aoyof, kut^xW'^C, tciiQiryfia) occupy
a. higher place than either law or art, the two inadequate modes of
revealing the life of religion. Teaching possesses the ability to
excite the entire man to action. It arouses feeling — to create it is
beyond its ability also — develops the understanding, and gives
direction, although not ability, to the will. It lifts man out of the
undecided chaos of impressions into a hannoniously-developed ra
tional life, and treats him as a free, self -determining nature. It is
the "fountain of life, to depart from the snares of death" (Prov
erbs xiii, 14). SECTION rx.
The conclusion reached in the foregoing discussion may be his
torically illustrated by the Jewish, heathen, and Christian religions,
since the development of Judaism has been chiefly in the direction
of law, of heathenism in the direction of art, and of Christianity in
the direction of doctrine.
The Jews were the people under the law (pi tmd tov vofwv). The
' Valuable observations on this point in Ullmann's work, Der Cultus des Genius,
Hamb., 1840.

33 THE SUPERIORITY OF TEACHING
law was conditioned by the theocracy. So long as the latter con-
Snperiority of tinned, the law retained the peculiar importance as-
the teaching signed to it in the Divine economy (John iv, 22). It con-
and art 111^ taincd elements (aTt)f;^;eto) of Divine training that tended
trated. toward a higher development, and became a school
master (naidayuydg) working toward perfection (Gal. iii, 24; iv, 3).
The prophetical institution was already introduced as the necessary
complement of the law, and of the priesthood founded upon law.
A still more decided turning toward doctrine is apparent after the
Captivity. Provision for teaching is made in the synagogues,
which, however, affords opportunity for the perversions of Phari
saism to vaunt themselves, until the true Teacher, sent of God,
appears in Israel. In ancient heathenism art formed the leading
element of religion, attaining its highest development in Hellen
ism (the gods of Greece).' While, however, the Jews strove in
vain to express from the rind of the law the last drop of the juice
of life, and the statues of gods left the heart as cold as the marble
from which they were carved, and while only a dreamy suspicion of
the existence of an " unknown God" pervaded the nations, the hu
manized divine doctrine, the Logos, the Word from heaven that
was made flesh," was walking quietly and humbly among men in the
form of a servant, and scattering the seed which should produce
the Divine regeneration of the nations. Preaching gave birth to
faith (Rom. x, 1 7), and faith to love, while love bloomed in the life
that conquers death. The worship of God in spirit and in truth
took the place of the law, and the altar of "the unknown God"
received name and significance.
The inter-relation of these elements should, however, be ob
served. In each of the religious systems to which we have re
ferred, the three, law, art, and doctrine, exist, although in vary-
' "Heathenism," says Rust (Philos. u. Christenthum, 2 ed., p. l0."ll, "had no lumi
nous teaching in which the result of the development of its religions life was laid
down, and it had no need for it. Instead of doctrine, it cultivates a mighty symbol.
itm, which has emanated from its own being, a concrete representation of its relig
ious spirit to the senses." (Also in Grilneisen, at § 7.) " Nowhere in heathendom
does the human spirit rise above natural conceptions. In the figures of his gods the
heathen beholds simply the form of his own being." Schenkel, Der ethische Char-
akter des Cliristenthums, in Gelzer's Prot. Monatsbl., 1867, p. 44 ; comp,, also, p. 47 :
"The pagan systems of religion exhaust their strength in the effort to construct a
thoughtful and frequently artistic symbolism. They are- extrav.agant in ceremonial
manipulations and changeless customs, but indifferent about moral manifestations, and
unconcerned about the eternal nature of things.'"
" It is scarcely necessary to observe that no attempt to exhaust the Logos idea in
an exegetical or dogmatic way, is here implied.

OR DOCTRINE ILLUSTRATED. 83
ing proportions and combinations. Not only does Judaism, by vir
tue of its worship, include artistic elements, and the law
stand forth m religious dignity among the he.athen, but Doctrineco-ro-
doctrine also seeks to gain acceptance with both Jews '"'*'*¦
and pagans. The prophetic order toiled for this among the Jews,
as did philosophy among the Greeks. The great importance of
Socrates consists in this, that he turned the attention of philosophy
away from nature and toward man, that he aroused reflection upon
moral and religious questions, and that he represented in himself
the noblest work of art — a moral renovation. Christianity, on the
other hand, includes in its constitution both law and art; for to the
extent to which "man's highest work of art is man,"' will .appear
the representation of- a pure man, which existed in Socrates only as
an effort, in absolute perfection in Christ, the Divine Son of man;
hence the ideal Christ represents art's highest task. Chri.st, in like
manner, came not to destroy the law, but to fulfil it ; in harmony
with which principle, it cannot be disguised that modern art and
the public life of modern nations are essentially determined by the
teachings of Christianity. , That Christianity is not a mere abstract
system of doctrine, but a living word, a higher law, and independent
(ai't-) work of the Spirit, will appear from what follows.
SECTION X.
The teaching function of Christianity is more strongly empha
sized by Protestantism than by Roman Catholicism, since the latter
elevates law and art, at least to the level of doctrine, while with
the former doctrine holds the first place.
In the apostolic age teaching was the leading element, most fully
developed in the Pauline Christianity, while the Ebionitish Judaiz-
ing Christianity retained a legal character, and Gnosticism severed
the doctrine from its historical foundations, and carried it back into
mythology. At a later period the body of doctrine,
after having been speculatively and ecclesiastically de- function more
veloped, was held in the unyielding restrictions of protestahtism'
dogma, and became rigid. A theoretical legalism was ihan in Rom-
developed side by side with a practical righteousness *"'^'°"
of works, and as the latter manifested itself, as formerly in .Tuda/-
ism, only in the performance of ecclesiastical ceremonies, a supera
bundance of symbolic and artistic mtitter was produced, which, in
its turn, served to encourage the legal spirit. The two elements
are combined in the established canon of the mass. The unlicensed
sensuality of common life at last resulted again in heathenism; but
' Ullmann, Cultus des Genius, p. 67.

24 PROTESTANTISM THE RESTORER
while art celebrated its prosperous condition in modern Rome ovei
the ruins of the Apostolic Church, the restoration of the word to its
primitive authority, and the preaching of the free doctrines of the
Gospel, were being accomplished in Germany and Switzerland.'
Prom this time forward the sermon became the heart and centre of
Protestant worship, to an extent which compels the admission that
in some instances the element of teaching received undue pi emi
nence, to the exclusion of every thing artistic, and even that doc
trine itself hardened into legalism, which gave rise to reactionary
movements endangering the existence of the Protestant faith.
SECTION XL
Although the religious instructor belongs preeminently to the
order of teachers, he is still so far to be distinguished from the sci
entific instructor, as religion is not bare knowledge, and therefore
cannot be taught and acquired direcfly, and without the interven
tion of other agencies.
The position of We liave now reached that point in the field of learn-
teache™'S°to '"S ?¦* "which the different courses and methods of study
other teachers, may be distinguished from each other. With respect
to methods of insti'uction the 'clergyman, as a teacher of adults,
holds a position midway between the teacher of youth and the aca
demical professor. Being addressed to adults, his teachings will
assume a more elaborate character, and take a higher range th.an
those of the teaober of youth; but as they do. not subserve a purely
scientific purpose, they will be more popular and less purely didactic
-than those of the acodesmical instructor. The sermon, moreover, is
not to become a mere intellectual discourse, though the preacher
should never cease to be a teacher." The clergyman, in the exer
cise of both his catechetical and his pastoral duties, divides the
function of training with the teacher of youth. The subject-matter
of his instructions is determined by the peculiar nature of religion
itself, to which we now direct attention.
' The Lutheran Reformation in Germany bore predominantly the character of a re
action against the Judaism that had intruded into the Church, while the Eeformed, in
Switzerland, was chiefly « reaction against paganism. This distinction is, however.
only relative. Comp. Al. Schweizer in the Introduction to the Glaubeuslehre der
evang.-reformirten Kirche, Zurich, 1844.
' " The clergyman should be both preacher and teacher of religion. It is even im
possible, in various regards, for him to be a genuine teacher, without being, at the
same time, a preacher, and introducing one element of the sermon — illustrative dis.
course — into his teachhig ; and he cannot be a true preacher of religion without being
at the same time a teacher, and basing his entire preaching upon his teaching func
tion, so as to connect it with, and ground it in, the doctrine itself."  K. Sack Werth
n. Reiz d. Theologie, Sixth Discourse, p. 92.

OF CHRISTIAN TEACHING. 25
SECT. xn.
EHLIGION.
Elwert, Das Wesen der Religion, etc., in Tiib. Zeitschr. fur Theologie, 1835, No, 8
Reich, Das Sohleiermachersche Religionsgefiihl, in Stud. u. Krit, 1846, No. 4, p. 846;
Herm. Renter, Die Religion als die Ureinheit des Bewusstseins, in Hanov. Vierteljahrs-
Bcrift, Gott., 1846, No. 4; J. P. Lange, Phil. Dogmatik, p. 185, sqq.; E. Zeller, in
Tiib. Jahrbb., 1845 ; D. Schenkel, in Herzog's Encycl., s. v., Abhangigkeitsgefiihl ;
Tholuck, id., s. v., Gefiihl, iv, p. 704, sqq.; C. D. Kelbe, psychischer Ursprung u. Ent-
wicklungsgang der Religion, Brunswick, 1853 ; Carlblom, Das Gefiihl in seiner Be
deutung fiir den Glauben (Religionsphil.) ; H. Paret, Eintheilung der Religionen, in
Stud. u. Krit., 1856, No. 2; Jul. Kostlin, in Herzog, s. v.. Religion, xii, p. 641, sqq.;
Jens Baggesen, Phil. Nachlass, 2 vols., 1868-63 ; Jager, Was ist Religion? in Jahrbb.
fiir deutsche Theologie, x. No. 4, p. 118, sqq.; Bobertag, Einige neuere Bestimmungen
d. Begriffes d. Religion, id., xi. No. 2, p. 254; Tolle, Die Wissenschaft der Religion,
2 vols., 1865-71 ; Pfleiderer, Die Religion, ihr Wesen u. ihre Geschiohtc, 2 vols., 1869;
Fauth, Ueber die Friimmigkeit, in Stud. a. Krit., 1870, No. 4 ; Biedermann, Bilanz iib.
d. rationellen Grundbegritfe der Religion, in Zeitschr. f. Wiss. Theologie, 1871, No. 1.
(Comp. the literature on the philosophy of religion, § 30.)
Religion (piety, the fear of God, godliness, nih" hnt, ^ofiog tov
^eov, evaSPeia) is, primarily, neither knowledge nor ac- Deflnition oJ
tion, but rather a definite state of feeling, which is to religion.
be developed into a clear and rational consciousness through the
exercise of intelligent reflection, and into a firmly established dis
position through the moral determination of the will. As the true
principle of life, it is to permeate the whole inner man (6 effu dv-
iSpojTrof), and to manifest itself externally as the highest fruitage of
human nature.'
An objection might be raised at the outset against the use of tlie
Latin term religion (from religio), and "godliness" be suggested as
a substitute; but if Hase's definition," that, objectively
considered, religion is man's relation to the infinite, and w™'? religion!
that, subjectively, it is the detei-mination of human life andthedistinc-
. ' ¦',.•'' 1 ,, n,. „ , . . ''0° between
by that relation, be accepted, " godliness and similar it and varioua
terms will be inadequate, as indicating only the subjec- """^"^ terms.
tive side of religion. The word "faith" is likewise not entirely
sufficient; for, as David Schulz (Die Chr., Lehre von Glauben,
2 ed., p. 114) observes: "In the word religion, for which the Bible
' On the etymology of the word (whether from relegere, Cicero, De nat. deor, ii, 8, or
from religare, Lactantius, Inst, div., iv, 28; or even from relinquere, M. Sabin., in
Gellius Noctt. Att., iv, 9), comp. Nitzsch, Religionsbegriff d. Alton, in Stud. u. Krit.,
i. No. 8; *J. G. Miiller, Ueber Bildung und Gebrauch d. Wortes Religio, Basle, 1834;
0. A. Dietrich, De etymol. voeis religio, Schneeb., 1836; K. F. Briiunig, Religio nach
Ursprung u. Bedeutung erortert, Leips., 1837. Also, Rohr's Krit. Predigcrbibl, xviii, 3,
p. 248, sqq.; Redslob, Sprachl. Abhandll. zur Theologie, Leips., 1840, and Stud, u
Krit., 1842, No. 2.
"liehrbuch der ev. Dogmatik, 1838, § 2.

26 THE TERM RELIGION
has no special term,'but which in the New Testament is generally
represented by nioTig and maTEveiv, wi conceive of all the rela
tions of man to God in their entirety and their connexions with
each other. The fear of God, trust in God, love, reverence, piety,
hope, all express definite and particular relations of the rational
creature towards the Deity, and therefore constitute separate feat
ures of religion." However inadequate this term may be, there
fore, when the object is to illustrate a decided piety, it is yet con
venient and even indispensable, whenever choice or necessity com
pels a more general discussion, as in scientific exposition.
Thus much on the word. With reference to its interpretation, it
is to be observed that the older method, dating from Buddseus,
by which "religio" is taken as equivalent to "modus Deum cog-
noscendi et colendi," has been shaken in both its members by the
more recent definition, which, according to Schleiermacher,' denies
that religion is either bare knowledge or action.
1. It is not simply knowledge. Cicero's derivation (from relegere),
and, to some extent, the scriptural and popular usage'
Bellglon la not , . ' , , ' . , ^, . ^.. ., °
merely knowi- (niH' n;'T, emyvuaig TOV Kvpiov), seem to justify the ren
dering of religion by " knowledge," inasmuch as it may
be both taught and learned. But, practically, religion presents a
somewhat .abnormal ' appearance among the courses of study in an
institution of learning ; and it cannot be said, with the same pro
priety, that a student is a good religionist as that he is a good
philologist, mathemadcian, geographer, etc. The maxim that re-
• Glaubensl., i, g 8. Schleiermacher, however, was neither the first nor the only
person who regarded religion as a matter of feeling. Without recurring to the
earliest period and to mysticism, we may notice that Zwingle defined religion to be
devotion to God, hence an ¦ inclination and determination of the feelings, (De vera
relig., p. 61 ; Vera religio vel pietas haec est, quae uni solique, Deo haeret.) Among
moderns the emotional theory, with various modifications, has been adopted by
Herder, Jacobi, Lavater (Biographic von Gessner, iii, p. 151), Clodius, Fries, de
Wette, Twesten, Benj. Constant, and, with special thoroughness, by Elwert. The
philologist, J. G. Hermann, expresses similar views (in his oration at the jubilee of
the Leipsic reformation, p. 6) : Non enim mentis, sed pectoris est pietas ; and also
Bulwcr (England, i, 2), " Religion mUst be a scntunent, an emotion, forever present
with us, pervading, colouring, and exalting all." An additional question concerns the
adequacy of the term " feeling " itself, which must be settled by what follows in
the text.
• It is evident, however, that the exercise of reflection and the scrupulous exami
nation into questionable features, which are involved in the term religio, in their rjm
direct attention to a state of feeling that lies at the basis of all such questioniu<'s.
The knowledge, moreover, to which the Scriptures refer, is a practical heart-knowl.
edge. It is also significant that the Hebrew regarded the heart (aj) as the seat of
knowledge.

INADEQUATE, YET USEFUL. 27
ligion is a concern of the intellect is, moreover, subject to vaiious
interpretations. The lowest view would be that which it is not bare
makes it a mere matter of memory, which is often done ™,J^^* "
in practice. The memory should certainly not be ex- the memory.
eluded, for all positive religion rests upon tradition, and religious
instruction properly begins with impressing on the memory the
facts of religion and its truths as conveyed in proverbs, hymns, etc.
This, however, must be regarded simply as a method of reaching
the heart, in which the scattered seed is to take root and grow, so
as to exert an influence over the dispositions and the character.
Such one-sided cultivation of the memory, and the contentment with
such religious knowledge, constitutes a dead orthodoxy.
Another doctrine advocates a different view. Religion is not to
engage the memory alone, but is to be received into the understand
ing and ¦wrought over by it. Some try to improve on j^ ,g ^^j ^^^
this by substituting the word reason, though they often knowledge, aa
\, , . ^ ,. . , . ' ., ^, . •',, grounded In
mean the unaerstandmg simply, i, e., the logically an- the under-
alytic and synthetic faculties of the mind, or also a ^'""'Ung.
sound common-sense, which, without being conscious of its proc
esses, instinctively discovers the right. N"o sensible person will
deny that understanding is necessary in all things, and religion
among the rest, and the Scriptures concur in attributing proper dig
nity to this faculty.' Experience teaches, however, that bare intel
lectual knowledge is by no means identical with religious knowledge.
The work of the understanding in the field of religion is strictly crit
ical, and, therefore, negative. It strips off the robes of figurative
speech from religious conceptions, guards against misapprehen
sions and stupidity, and, like a current of fresh air, becomes a
healthful corrective to religious feeling; but there is unceasing
necessity that it be confined within its proper limits and reminded
that the infinite cannot be embraced within the range of finite
ideas. An exclusive tendency to cultivate the understanding con
stitutes a false rationalism.
Science, however, presses its claims from a third point of view.
In opposition to both a formal orthodoxy and an Intel- it is not a
lectual rationalism, it contends that religion belongs f^o^tedge"'S
to the department of a higher knowledge. It takes the absolute.
exclusive possession of the term reason, and declares that religion
belongs to the field of the thinking spii-it, which mediates all con-
' Jesus was pleased when the scribe answered him " discreetly " {yowtx'^Q), Mark
zii, 34; and St. Paul counsels Christians to be children in malice, but men in under
standing. 1 Cor. xiv, 20. The Old Testament, likewise, connects the religious dispo
sition with the understanding (ni'^a), Prov. ix, 10, and elsewhere.

28 RELIGION NOT BARE
trasts, a.nd penetrates and energizes all things (knowledge of the
absolute). Not the dead conception, but the living idea, foi-ms
the element in which religion lives. Short-sighted understanding
cannot penetrate to the highest ideas of reason. We agree to this :
but we question whether reason as here described is innate to the
mind, instead of being the product of the feelings and the under
standing — a resultant higher unity of the two. It is a further ques
tion whether the grasping of this idea or whatever phrase may be
applied to it is itself religion and eternal life, or whether reason
as thus conceived is not rather a mere phantom of the mind, so long
as it is not the reflex of a profound personal feeling and experience.
As the word reason is, with rationalists, often merely a sort of
Sunday suit in which ordinary understanding clothes itself, so the
same word serves with idealists to conceal an arbitrary poetizing
fancy, which is incapable of satisfying either the feelings or the
understanding.' That imagination in its proper character is not
the source of religion will be universally conceded, although it
must be allowed, like every other faculty, to share in the religious
life." The following general considerations should be brought to bear
against the assumption that religion is merely an intellectual
affair : —
1. If religion were simply this, it would follow that knowledge
Evidence that ^^^ right thinking concerning it would determine the
religion is not measure of piety. Our own age ought to be more
product of the pious than former ages, philosophers than the public.
Intellect. jjjgjj than women, adults than children. Why was sal
vation transmitted through the Jews, rather than through the
schools of Greece ? Why did God conceal it from the wise men
of this world, and reveal it to babes and sucklings? WTiy did the
renaissance of learning simply prepare the way for the Reform.a-
tion, instead of completing it? Why is the finely-cultured Erasmus
eclipsed by Luther, his inferior in culture ?
2. If knowledge were to constitute religion, the Church (com
munion of believers) would possess no value, and must become
transformed into a community of the learned, or school. Tlie dif
ferent degrees of learning among its members would produce an
' Comp. C. A. Thilo, Die Wissenschaftliohheit der modemsn speculativen Theologie
in ihren Principien beleuchtet, Leipsic, 1851 — a book that deserves to be noticed,
despite its prudish bearhig towards all religious speculation, since it urges sobemcs.<i
and watchfulness.
' Ullmann has beautifully developed this idea in Theol. Aphorismen, In Stud \\.
Krit., 1844, p. 417, sqq.

THINKING OR KNOWLEDGE. 211
esoteric and an exoteric class, so that "many men of many minds"
might be said of this community, but not "one heart and one soul."
If such descriptions are heard even now, it is the result of the fact
simply, that in the Church undue importance has been attached to
learning, and theology has been allowed to supplant religion. Sec
tarianism and controversial tendencies have their origin chiefly in a
false assertion of the claims of knowledge, and in a lack of purity
and simplicity of faith.'
3. If thinhing and investigation constituted the peculiar organs
of religion, their exercise ought to produce religious satisfaction,
and religious inspiration ought to reach its highest energy during
the process of thinking ; and in like manner religion should decrease
in moments when the faculty of thought is impaired or restrained,
e. g., in old age," and upon the sick and dying-bed, while the truth
is, that, under precisely such circumstances, it often appears in its
highest perfection. The emphasis placed upon thinking is mis
placed ; for in the vocabulary of religion the emphasis rests rather
upon feeling. When the Quietists asserted that the most perfect
prayer is that in which thought has no place, they were guilty of
exaggeration verging upon the absurd ; but a prof ounder truth
lies at the basis of the apparent absurdity, which is wholly over
looked by those whose views would reduce even prayer to a mere
arithmetical example.
II. Religion is not merely action. The idea that re- Religion not
ligion is altogether a doing, a moral determination of ™^''®'y action-
the wUl, has even more support than that which identifles it with
knowledge. " If ye know these things, happy are ye if ye do them "
' A fact stated by an old Reformed Theologian, Keckermann, Is generally forgotten
(he himself overlooked it occasionally), namely, that theology is not simply a disci-
plina contemplatrix, but also operatrix. See Al. Schweizer's Ref. Dogmatik, p. 103.
The members of the general synods of Bergen, beginning with A. D. 1680, were,
on the same principle, required to pledge themselves to the . studium pietatis as
well as the studium orthodoxiiE. The excessive importance attached to the so-called
Confessions is evidently owing to the misconception that religion has its seat in the
cavities of the brain instead of the chambers of the heart, or that it may be preserved
in formulas, as anatomical subjects are preserved in alcohol.
' For a remarkable psychological proof of the fact that religious ideas are capable
of being clearly present to the consciousness, independently of other processes of
thought, and even under circumstances when the power to think is departing, comp.
John Spalding's Life of his Son, 6. L. Spalding (Halle, 1804), p. 188, sqq., note, and
also the death of Schleiermacher, in W. von Humboldt's Briefe an eine Freundin, ii.
p. 259. Schenkel's remark is, therefore, of great force: "The religious consciousness
is infinitely greater than the world-consciousness, even as God is infinitely greater th.in
the world ; and it, therefore, contains a fountain of inexhaustible power and perennial
comfort " —Dogmatik, i, p l.'iS

30 RELIGION IS NOT
(John xiii, 17.) It is sustained also by the expressions nfn' ^Ti, bdde,
TOV Kvplov, mbi7, 'dgrjaKeia, ¦degaTteia. epya, KapnSg, etc., religio (in the
sense of conscientiousness), and by popular usage, according to
which a pious person is the same as one who is good or upright
(dtKotof), and which conceives of virtue and godliness as being iden
tical. There are, however, different methods of conceiving religion
as confined to the sphere of action. The lowest view, a counterpart
of that which places it in the memory, regards piety altogether
Not action in as a work to be outwardly performed (opus operatum),
meehanicafdcv * mere dead, mechanical doing. It is evident tluat this
ing of works, does not deserve the name of religion. It is to be
observed, on the other hand, that they who contemplate religion
chiefly with the understanding, generally identify it with moral
ity (the Kantean, rationalistic view), or, at any rate, regard as
essential to religion only such elements as will promote the moral
autonomy of reason. A higher view (corresponding to
Identical with the speculative theory, among those who assign religion
moral ty. to the intellect) makes religion an internal activity, or
an action of the spirit in us. If the latter expression be not a more
speculative phrase, behind which moral indifference may hide, it
may be understood, in the Christian sense, as a work of the Di>ine
Spirit in us, and therefore as equivalent to " regeneration." The
supporters of this opinion add that at bottom piety is concerned to
Not Identical bring about the improvement or sanctification of our
TOsed spirituS dispositions and our walk ; so that here rationalism and
activity. pietism agree in the practical demand that religion mvM
produce results. To insist upon religious action does not, however,
constitute a proof that religion in its last analysis is action. In
opposition to this view we present the following: —
The reasons for I. While religion and morality coincide in their high-
^'toion '^tmd ^^* development, so that a true religion without morality
morality. and a true morality without religion are equally incon
ceivable,' they are yet clearly distinguished in their details as well
' Rothe (Anf ange der Cliristlicheu Kirohe, p. 27) remarks : " A complete morality,
which is not in its positive aspects substantially religious, does not exist. In the
bame proportion in which morality should not have acquired the certainty of religicE
(the certainty of conscious dependence npon God) would its development as morality
be deficient." Kym (Die Weltanschauungen und deren Consequenzen, Zurich, 1864,
p. 9) : "A religion that should not pass over into morality, and through this into life,
would be a centre without circumference, therefore a half, and accordingly untrue,
unreal religion. A morality that should have no connexion with the Deity would be
without depth and without a last (?) central point  The morality which separates it
self from religion is likely to become self-righteousness and self -satisfaction, because it
lacks provision for the judgment of self. Hence faith is the creative reason of love."

IDENTICAL WITH MORALITY. 91
as their general character. A genuine piety is found to exist in
which the moral element leaves much to be desired, but which can
not be justly rated as hypocrisy; and there are many poorly-
behaved and ill-bred children of God who yet know that God is
exercising discipline over them, and submit to his authority. This
was true of David and other Old Testament characters. Without
this presumption it becomes impossible to understand the Old Test
ament as a whole,' and also the Middle Ages, with their profound
apprehension of God and their boundless immorality.
The period of the Reformation and modern pietism might also
furnish illustrations of this point." On the other hand. Morality and
the piety of many is put to shame by the existence of ^gg^°" f^^^^
a praiseworthy and correct morality, which has grown separatPd.
beyond a mere legality, and become moral self-respect and solf-
control, in a measure compelling approval and^ admiration, which
yet lacks the sanctions and the impulse of religion; i. e., a definite
relation towards God and eternity. This applies not only to the
stoicism of the ancients, but also to the categorical imperative of
Kant, and the morality of cultivated persons in our day. , While,
therefore, morality and religion belong together, and in their ulti
mate development must coincide, they may yet be logically distin
guished, and bear a separate character in the lower stages of their
development even in actual life. It is, however, the mark of a
truly religious disposition, that, when moral imperfection or sin is
recognized, it should be acknowledged as siA, and as a wrong com
mitted against God (" I have sinned against heaven and in thy
sight," Luke xv, 21); and that the soul should bow before God, and
humble itself and repent. Morality without religion knows nothing
of sin as such, but recognizes only moral deficiency; and it therefore
substitutes " self -improvement " for repentance. Sin and repent
ance are religious-ethical ideas.
2. Morality presupposes capacity, developed by practice, and
evidencing: itself in a series of moral actions or denials. „ ,, . , _.
° . , . . , . . . Religion is orlg-
Religion is original power, original spiritual life, and is inai sphituai
concentrated upon a single point. It stands related to p"^™""'
' All objections against the moral character of the patriarchs are founded on this
misconception. ' What a contrast exists between the spiritual songs and the passionate polemical
writings of Angelus Silesius (SchefBer) ! a contrast so great as to apparently require
that tw,-) diiferent persons be assumed in explanation of their authorship (comp. Kahl-
ert, Ang. Silesius, Breslau, 1863, conclusion). A similar contrast is presented by the
Lutheran poet Philip Nicolai, whose hymns breathe a profound piety, while his con
troversial works bear witness to a morality by no means refined (comp. Schweizer,
Prot. Centraldogmen, p. 684).

33 RELIGION REQUIRES WORSHIP
morality as genius to talent in the sphere of art. Men of genius
may exist who possess a rich fund of intellectual conceptions, but
who nevertheless are exceedingly awkward in the application of
technical rules, while others may work in obedience to the highest
rules of art to represent utterly commonplace ideas; and a simil.ar
distinction holds good between morality and religion. The real
master, of course, is he whose talent has become subservient to
genius; and impregnated by it.
3. Moral action is determined by the external conditions of life.
Moral action and its range is confined within the limits of such con-
outwM'd^con- ditions. The castaway cannot employ his morality in
ditions. the solitude of his island, unless moral self-respect
should become for him a mode of worship, and thus idolatry supply
the place of religion. The religious life, on the contrary, may ap
pear in its highest perfection under circumstances of quiet seclusion
from the world.' AnchoJetism, like Quietism, is a morbid phenom
enon; but it arises from the truth that a religious person, unlike the
merely moral man, has occasional need of solitude ; and the ideal
element in such phenomena can be properly estimated only from a
religious point of view.
4. The mor.al life needs no worship; the moral action constitutes
Religion re- its Cult. The religious life likewise finds expression
quires more ¦ ^j ug ^^^-^^ f^uits ye shall know them." But
than action for •' _ •'_ _
Its expression, it Seeks, in addition, to manifest itself symbolically in
words and imagery. It seeks to express itself in prayer, to portray
itself in art, to communicate itself to others, and, when rejected by
them, to commune with God himself. It was because of this that
the conduct of Mary Magdalene was incomprehensible to the pro
saic company of banqueters; and similarly a rational morality still
asks, " Why this waste ? " whenever the religious life finds expres
sion without regard to utility: "The money might be given to the
poor," etc. A community founded simply on morality would not,
as Kant conceived, exhaust the idea of the Church. It could only
have either a negative tendency, like a temperance union, or an in
structive purpose, as in schools of morality and lectures, which,
however, are no longer necessary to the advanced learner, or, finally,
it must aim at practical results in the outward life (benevolent and
mutual aid societies). The Church-union is grounded in a totally
different want, and it is a misconception of the religious idea to re-
' In the exercise of religiori man is primarily concerned for himself ; he alone is in
volved therein, in his relation towards God. In this he is alone with his God. . . . For
this very reason the view that religion in itself is the relittion of the individual to the
commimity, or of the community to the individual, is erroneous. Schenkel, 1. c. p. 156.

FOR ITS EXPRESSION. 33
gard a congregation of worshippers as belonging to any of the above
classes. Are prayer and the sacraments simply means for the pro
motion of virtue? and are they necessary only to the weak? Let it
be remembered that the ideal of the Church is not the ecclesia mil
itant, but the ecclesia triumphans, the glorified community of
heaven, which is exalted above all conflict. Religion is not only to
accomplish something for God, but to receive something from him
\^the idea of grace), and is ultimately to rejoice in God, and find its
perfect rest and satisfaction in him (the idea of glory).
5. Morality is based on the ideas of independence and self-deter
mination; religion on those of dependence and direc- Morality is
tion from .above. The two do not exclude each other, bsised on inde-
•T ., • • 1 ,1 1 .1 pendence, re-
and are even necessarily conjoined, though they may ligion on de-
be separately eonsidere<l. The religious element may pendence.
predominate at one time, and the moral at another, in the life of
every individual, and as the result of his circumstances and dis
position. The most perfect state, however, is that in which religion
transfigures morality, and in which the moral attests the religious
character.' III. Should religion, then, be considered a matter of feeling?
Loud protest is raised asrainst this view. Baumgarten-
Crusius has most torcibly included the various objec- is religion root-
tions to it in the sentence, "No one who understands eamieeUng?
himself, and who is concerned to attain to an assured and definite
life, will make feeling the basis of religion."" The problem pre
sented will be solved, however, if we set the idea of religious feel
ing in a clear light, and show that a " definite and assured life "
may exist in connexion with it when properly understood.
A cle.ar apprehension of this subject is certainly necessary, for
the name of religious feeling is not due to all that lays claim there
to." It will be needful, first of all, to exclude the sensuous feeling,
' " Although religion and morality are two noble buds upon a single stalk, they have
nevertheless their respective shoots and crowns. For religion is nothing else than a
conscious life-connexion with God, a conscious dependence of the finite spirit upon the
infinite. The flower could not lose the feeling of connexion with its roots, were it,
like man, capable of feeling. Religion is in a derived sense only a matter in which
the thinking and volitional spirit is concerned ; primarily, it is the feeling of the re
lations our life sustains to God." — Tholuck, Gesprache iiber d. vornehmsten Glaubens-
fragen der Zeit, Halle, 1846, p. 60.
' Binl. in die Dogmatik, p. 64.
'Steffens beautifully remarks: "While the term 'feeling' maybe indefinite, and
not entirely appropriate, this feeling (of Schleiermacher) was more comprehensive ; it
contained a life and consciousness of its own, and designated the sacred groxmd of its
mm origin." — Christliche Religionsphil., p. 11.
3

84 IN WHAT SENSE
to which some have applied the term sensibility.^ It would be
„ „_, , , dangerous to assume that the most impressible, emo-
Itellglous feel- . ° ,, • n ,
Ing not mere tional, sensually and intellectually excitable persons are
sensibility. ^^j^ ^j^^^ account the most pious. They who are unable
to conceive the subject in a different aspect from this are entirely
justified in rejecting a religion of feeling at the outset, and taking
refuge in a religion of action. Spalding's essay, On the Value of
the Religious Feeling, will continue to assert its force against such
defenders of sentimentalism, even though, like many others, he fails
to comprehend the true nature of feeling. That Schleiermacher,
the keen dialectician, whose sermons have even been described as
icy-cold, should have advocated mere sensibility, can be asserted
only by persons who are determined to misunderstand. Nor is <m-
„ „.^ . thetic feeling intended. A certain relation of art and
Religions not °. .
thesameasaes- poetry to religion cannot be denied; but it would be
thetic feeling, yguturesome to assert that .all who are unable to appre
ciate art, or, more boldly still, who are not endowed with creative
imagination," are thereby unfitted for religion; or, on the contrary,
to maintain that the greatest poet, painter, or, possibly, even the
most eminent actor, is therefore the most pious man. We are com
pelled to acknowledge that often the devotees of the beautiful and
the priests in the service of genius resemble the parasitic plants,
which fix themselves upon the sacred blossom of religion, and ex
tract from it the life-giving sap ; " while, on the other hand, the
' The usage npon this point is, apparently, not yet settled. It is as allowable to
speak of a sensibility for religious and material things, as of feeling for them. We
shall not err greatly, however, if we consider sensibility as excited more particularly
oy impressions received from without, while feeling is a spiritual faculty that is rooted
in the inmost depths of our being. Hence it might be more proper to attribute sensi
bility than feeling to brutes. Sensibility is more especially related to the perceptive
faculty, and to the individual object upon which it is engaged (thus, the eye is sensi
ble of the entering ray of light) ; in feeling, the subject and the object are more inti
mately combined (f feel myself blessed). In this view we coincide with Carlblom,
who finds in ssiisation single points of contact between the subject and the object,
while in feeling he discovers the collective relations between the two — "the collective
impressions made upon the subject by the object as a whole," or "the uplifting of the
subject through the ideal power of an object " (inspiration). Comp. p. 2 ; also. Twos-
ten, Einl. zur Dogmatik ; Kym, 1. c., p. 5.
' Ullmann, 1. c, makes the just observation that " feeling and imagination, although
they connect in the unity of the spirit and condition, and excite each other, are yet
not one and the same."
"An evidence of this is found, upon the one hand, in the degenerate romancing of
a Zacharias Werner ; and, on the other, in the observations of a now defunct " Young
Germany.'' The course which the young German school of poetry believed itself com
pelled to adopt, in its reaction against an overwhelming romanticism, serves however
to illustrate also the damage inflicted upon poetry when it is separated from religion.

IS RELIGION PEELING? 35
fulness of religious life, existing side by side with impei'fect forms of
art and a neglected sBsthetic culture, justifies us in overlooking such
deficiency. What else gives attractiveness to a badly-modelled
image of some saint, or endows the excruciating church music of an
assembled village congregation with the power to edify, nay, to
excite profoundest emotion ? We would not approve the bad taste
which, under the influence of religious zeal, appears to have con
spired against whatever is beautiful. An unajsthetic piety, and
that miserable absence of. taste which is so often commended as
being originality, are assuredly more hurtful than beneficial to re
ligion. Who would venture to assert, however, that a lack of
religious feeling in Zinzffndorf is evident, because he sometimes
wrote verse in bad taste, or in Abraham a Santa Clara, whose
preaching was of a like character ? Such men have religion, but
they lack the sense of beauty ; a proof that the two are different. '
But are religious and moral feeling identical ? They are certain
ly closely related, and touch upon and interpenetrate Religious not
each other. It is possible, however, to distinguish the identical with
two in thought, for the purpose of scientific inquiry, in """^ ^^ ^^'
the same w.ay as has been done with religion and morality them
selves. The mora^ feeling manifests itself more particularly in its
negative asjiects as tact, .and on the positive side as impulse or in
stinct. The substance in which it adheres is conduct — the doing
of things, or leaving them undone. It impels or restrains. Relig
ious feeling is self-centred, and finds its satisfaction in itself. It is,
in short, the sacred chamber of our inner bei?ig, that ddvTov of the
soul, in which all earthly changes cease to agitate, together with all
opposition of desire and aversion, within whose limits the merely
sensuous has its range. This inner sanctuary," which is first disclosed
' Kahler, Sittenlehre, p. 239, distinguishes in a similar way between the religious
feeling, and the pathological or EBSthetical.
' The internal basis of life, the Ego, in which are comprehended all distinctions in
their individual simplicity and their concrete lack of dissimilarity, must be regarded
as the soil and ground of religion." — Deinhardt, Beitr. zur rel. Erkentniss, Hamb.,
1844, p. 6. "Religion is and must remain an immediate influence, a something that
lies as near to man as do the impressions which are made upon the senses by the
outer wcrld. If, for this reason, religion be defined as the ' feeling of dependence,' a
real truth will be conveyed, provided a spiritual feeling is understood thereby ; for in
matters relating to the spirit there can be no reference to sensuous impressions." —
Fritzo, Ideen zur Umgestaltung der Kirche, Magdeb., 1844, p. 2. We can readily ap
prove of the substitution of the term heart for feeling (in popular language), as being
justified by scriptural usage, and including both the intellectual and the moral ele
ments (27), " The assurance with which genuine culture retains words like heart in
their higher significance, despite the definitions of the sciences, unquestionably rests
upon the assumption that the animal life is the counterpart of human being, even as

36 THE SENSE OF DEPENDENCE
to the penitent alone — this heaven in the soul, whence shine the
stars of faith, and love, and hope, to cheer the darkness of oui
night — this anchor that holds firm, upon which every thing depends
and must depend if it shall not founder in the current of fleeting
time — is religious feeling.
We designate it more closely as the feeling of dependence ; that
Religion a leei- ^®' dependence upon God, the Infinite One. Objections
Ing of depend- are raised against this also. It is said, " The very dogs
ence upon o . ^^^.^^ ^^ feeling of dependence !" — a cynical reflection,
which is beautifully disposed of by Matt, vii, 6, and xv, 21-28.
Comp. Isa. i, 3, and Athenag. Apoloog. for Christ., p. 16 (ed. Oxon).'
Dependence is construed to mean servility, and the saying of Jan-
sen, "Dei servitus vera libertas," or of our Lord in John viii, 32, is
forgotten. We likewise discover a twofold character in religious
feeling — a discouraging (humbling) and an encour,aging (exalting)
element; but in their inmost nature the two are one. Even the
feeling of liberty and of communion with God must be derived
from God; and St. Paul's exclamation, " I can do all things through
Christ, which strengtheneth me," is as thoroughly pervaded by the
sense of dependence as that other word, " Without me ye can do
nothing.'" To be dependent is equivalent to being conditioned
the former finds its counterpart in the organism of the visible body ; or, that in this
life, at least, the anatomical and physiological organization corresponds to the spirit
ual forms of the human soul, that it was constructed for and determined by it, so that
it still conveys the shadowy image where the soul itself has fled. From this point of
view the cultivated person, whom we request to undertake an explanation of the idea
heart, will describe it as the centre, or the pulse ; or, better still, as the proper source
of our entire inner life." — Steffeusen, Das menschl. Herz u. d. Philosophic, in Gelzer's
Monatsabl., 1854, p. 281.
' Deinhardt, 1. c, p. 9, strikingly observes : " The genius of religion lies in the rec
ognition of our limitations and our nothingness. The limitation docs not of itself
lead to religion, for the very beasts would in that case become possessed of religion ;
but the consciousness of our limitations involves at the same time the recognition of
the infinite, and of our relations to the infinite.'" And Carlblom writes (1. c, p. 180):
" The feeling of unqualified dependence, freed from pantheistic and Pelagian elements,
can only work advantage to our time, as a scientific principle."
'Kahler's remark is therefore correct (Sittenlehre, p. .S24): "In their relation to
God or the absolute, dependence and communion hold the same position ; they are
inseparable. Upon what is such communion based, if it be not upon dependence ?
We do not invite him to fellowship, he calls us ; and we attain to the feeling of com
munion with him only through that of dependence upon him ; through the fear of
God to the love of God." Comp. Nitzsch, System of Christ. Doct., p. 18, "There is
nothing religious in free consciousness but the consciousness that we are free through
God and in God; that is, dependent on him." Kahler nevertheless cndeavouis to
limit the idea of dependence, against which see Elwert, p. 79, sqq. It may be true
that, with Schleiermacher, the feeling of dependence is connected with pantheistic
assumptions • but if so, the attacks of criticism should be directed simply against hi?

CONSISTENT WITH FREEDOM. 31
and determined by an outward power, as is sufficiently apparent in
the relations that exist between men. Who so dependent upon
others as he whose life is interwoven in such a way with another life
as to justify the language, "Without thee I cannot live?" The
religious man depends on God in this sense, that he cannot be with
out God, that his life is guided and controlled by God, and th.at he
knows himself to be so determined and controlled. It is impossible
to see how such a feeling of dependence can impair or negative our
freedom. It is, on the contrary, itself the highest freedom.
If we have been successful in isolating religious feeling in the
way of analysis, so that it becomes available for scien- rj^^ synthesis
tific observation in a pure and unmixed form, it will °' reugious
now be required that, in the way of synthesis, we shall our other lac-
again connect it with the faculties of the soul, by which, "'"'®'*-
and through which, it finds expression. The " theory of feeling "
is not antagonized simply because its opponents misconstrue the
term, but because they deduce the radically erroneous conclusion
that feeling alone is implicated therein, and that cognition and ac
tion are excluded by the fact that they are not made the immediate
seat and organ of piety. A " definite and assured " life would, of
course, bo impossible, if religion were so restricted to the feelings
as to never venture out of its sanctuary, either into the light of
knowledge, or into the fresh air of active exertion. As the germ
contains within itself the principle of development, so the nature of
healthy religious feeling involves the disposition to strive for the
attainment of clearness on the one hand, and of steadiness, firmness,
and thoroughness on the other. The infant in the manger grows
to maturity, and becomes the light and joy of the world. Kahler'
methods of deduction, not against the principle itself. Nor can we acknowledge that
the feeling of dependence is "wanting in the moral element" (Schenkel, in Herzog's
Encykl., p. 64). What is obedience, the source of religious morality, but the ethical
outworking of the feeling of dependence ? or sacrifice ? or the devotion of love ?
moral self-denitil ? humility ? When Biedermann (Dogmatik, p. 32) observes that the
necessary correlative of " liberty in God," that is, in an " infinite dependence '' is
"freedom from finite dependence," that is, "from the world considered as world," ho
is simply stating in speculative language what we have expressed merely as a dictum
of experience. In the ssime connexion that author gives some noteworthy observa
tions concerning the interrelation between God, the infinite, and man, the finite spirit,
and also concerning the "correlation of revelation and faith," although we find it im-
possible, from our point of view, to accept his conclusions.
'Christl. Sittenlehre, p. 195. Comp. also Dav. Schulz, Vom GLauben, p. 112:
" When a person has attained to self-consciousness, he cannot avoid observing th«
movements of his feelings, which at first are possibly involuntary, and, as it were, pas
sive, but which he will now elevate, by his free activity, into a condition of greater
clearness, and consequently into convictions."

88 OUR RELIGIOUS AND OTHER
strikingly remarks: "From feeling, as it sends forth its roots, pro
ceeds the more definite activity which is termed thought, and desire
Religious feel- when it grows the bud." It connects itself with the
reu™'^°ii'"th^ understanding, and thereby attains to clearness; it joins
unaerstandmg with itself the power of the will, and thus acquires
and wiu. steadiness and firmness. The knowledge that is rooted
in religious feeling, and supported by it, is religious faith. Faith,
in its turn, is capable of a further development, and ripens toward
a state of, as yet, conditioned sight. The moral power -arising from
religious feeling manifests itself in analogy with faith in the form
of conscience,^ .and develops into moral disposition or firmly-estab
lished religious-ethical principle, ultimately resulting in that cer
tainty of action, that devotion to virtue, which is the highest
expression of true liberty.
Religious feeling should become a conscious feeling. The relig-
Eeiigious feel- ious feeling has correspondent religious conceptions,
the Tmagina^ ^"*^ vixth. reference to these receives aid first from the
Won. imagination, which clothes the conceptions in figurative
garb. " It is the sculptress who collects the heavenly treasure into
earthen vessels." " The understanding comes to its support in the
service of imagination, arranging the figurative conceptions, and
combining them into a whole. Thus arise mythology and mythol-
ogizing symbolism, bare, or more refined ; and the greater the
supremacy acquired by logical sequence over the original fresh and
vivid poetical conceptions in such a system of symbolism, the less
will it be able to satisfy the reason, which seeks to discover a higher
Reason cooper- ^^^^Y- I* will be only a shell, a dry skeleton, from
ative with re- which the life has departed. It is the office of reason
ugious feeling. ^^ recognize, by virtue of its ideal nature, the eternal
character of the contents of the feelings, though given under a finite
form, and to combine and reunite in a higher unity the elements dis
tinguished by the understanding. While unable (supra) to regard
reason as the source of religion, we yet consider it the pure mirror
(reflex) of all that has its birth in the feelings ; it is reason that
catches and reflects the ray which emanates from that source. It
does not create the religious life out of its own substance, but It
watches over that life as over every other impulse, and it stamps it
with the mark of intelligence. We, therefore, consider a religion
' We cannot regard the eonsdetice proper as the original seat and organ of religion,
after the noteworthy observations made by Schenkel upon this subject, though we
cordially recognize the importance of conscience, as the moral factor within the sphere
of religion.
' Ullmann, 1. c, p. 480.

FACULTIES EXHIBITED SYNTHETICALL V. 39
of reason as impossible as a poetry of reason or a commor. wealth of
reason ; but we demand a rational religion as we demand a rational
poesy or a rational government. True reason cannot be hostile to
religious feeling, but is rather necessary to the recognition of the
latter {niaTig develops into yvibacg). Religious knowledge, thus
borne upon the feelings, is no longer mere dead knowledge, but a
living consciousness.
An objector might now admit that the primitiv<3 form of religion
was feeling, and that the feelings constituted its earli- t,biection-
est seat; but he might .add that this was the worst " Feeling uiha
form, and that religion has no more urgent duty to w"mTora/of
fulfil than that of removing its -se.at from the feelings religion."
to the reason, from the heart to the head. This, however, is not
correct." It is important that the double meaning of the word
"feeling" be not forgotten. Feeling certainly involves a pre
liminary perception. There is a spiritual as well as a physical
sense of touch, which often instinctively discovers the right in
either case. It must not be assumed, however, that such feeling
and touching (iprjXacpav) is all that is required (Acts xvii, 27); for
he who does no more than feel in religious matters, " is blind and
gropes with the hand," where he ought to avail himself of the eye
of knowledge. The merely anticipative consciousness of feeling
must accordingly give way to a clear understanding. A different
principle applies to feeling in its proper character (the feeling of
love, of gratitude, of devotion, etc.). This cannot be dissolved into
reason, any more than music may be resolved into one of its pai-ts,
or may petrify into a building. Reason does not love, give thanks,
or pray, any more than it eats or drinks ; but love, gratitude, and
prayer, may be justified to the reason as highly rational matters, as
readily as eating and drinking. Religious feeling is the root of tht-
religious life ; and we certainly do not aid the tree to put on its
' Rousseau has already observed, " Quand on commence i penser, on cesse do sentir."
On the other hand, Passavant (to Diepenbrok) says truly, "This statement is false, for
the reason that only a certain class of feelings are displaced by thought; while the pure
thought and the pure volition carry with them a higher feeling in steadily increasing
power and exaltation. So the feeling of pleasure, in which the unskilled person
shares, becomes a higher and more intelligent emotion to the connoisseur in music,
w hen observing the harmony of some grand composition. So, too, the indeterniinato
feeling of imm.ensity caused by a view of the starry heavens changes into an intelli
gent admiration wi^Wlje astronomer, whose thought embraces not only the magnitudes
of masses and tiMMpfetances, but also the laws which govern the most distant worlds
and the falling 3|mjK sand, and who realizes that he has apprehended in nature one
of the thoughtilWiraf " — Briefe von J. M. Sailer, M. Diepenbrok, u. J. K Passavant
Frankfort. 1860^|||3p^) sq.

40 THROUGH CONSCIENCE RELIGIOUS
crown of bloom when we cut off the root, or permit it to decay.
The soundness of the root determines the biightness of the foliage
and the perfection of the blossom ; for " as feeling is the point at
which all spiritual life begins and breaks forth in man, so it is also
the goal of perfection in the cultivation of the spirit." '
Religious feeling should be firm and steadfast. As it developH
Through con- ^^^'^ definite convictions, it should also become a settled
science reii.g- disposition. In this reg.ard the conscience renders the
lousleellngbe- . . . , r, j. ¦ ..i.
comes a stead- Service m practice which reason pertorms in theory,
last disposition, ^g ^]jg j-eligious feeling is enlightened by reason, so it is
established and morally strengthened by Ihe conscience. In practical
matters law stands related to conscience as the understanding to
reason in the domain of theory. In the latter province, that is,
theory, the cognitions, being merely logically arranged and com
bined by the understanding, may harden into a lifeless dogma, and
become rigid ; and, in like manner, the law of outward morality
may become a dead statute, for the letter of the law kills, the spirit
makes alive. A conscience enlightened by reason will doubtless be
one in which religious feeling manifests and approvep itself. But
Religious feel- as feeling could not be resolved into reason, so here it
ing not, howey- gQj^j,,^^; jg resolved into conscience. What we are accus
er, resolvable
Into conscience, tomed to term a good conscience, which gives us bold
ness before God and happiness in him, is of itself an indication
that conscience is rooted in feeling.. But the fervent love-life
of communion with God, which forms the crowning point of all
religion, the blessed life, which, as being designed for eternity,
makes use of the finite forms of earthly worship to find expres
sion in a rich anticipative symbolism as "joy in God" — this sure
ly is not a mere matter of the conscience! The contrary is true:
for if a system of worship were to assert itself in the character
of a concern of the conscience, it would degenerate into work-
righteousness. Worship is altogether an expression of the feelings.
Religious impulses may possibly emanate from the conscience under
certain circumstani^es (e. g., the impulse to pray) ; but this will be
the case only when religious feeling has become dull and listless, so
as to need a spur. Where the religious feeling is in a healthful
state, it overflows in thanksgiving, praise, etc., without requiring
'De Wette, Vorlesungen iiber Religion, p. 73. Carlblom uses similar language
(1. c, p 184): "An absolute feeling of dependence is the propeif expression for re
ligion, even in the highest stages of its development. The Chriatjipili's heart is moved
because he believes; he conceives himself in feeling as a persflnatuhit befoie God.
In the character of devotion, feeling combines clearness of unk^fKKing and force
of will in a mighty ardour, that is inspired by the present God." i^F

FEELING BECOMES STEADFAST. 41
the admonitions of conscience. The same reasoning applies to love.
Conscience may admonish to works of love, but the love that is
dictated by conscience is not the highest and truest love, which
loves because it must, and cannot refuse. Conscience does not love,
give thanks, pray, and praise, in its own character ; and for that
very reason is no more capable than reason, which likewise fails in
this regard of being the organ of religion.
We sum up in the following paragraph what has been pre
sented : —
Religion, f.ar from being, in the first instance or exclusively, con
fined to knowledge or to action, has its seat in the centre of man's
spiritual and moral nature — in the heart ' (which is the summary of
scriptural and popular term for what we have hitherto ^"^^ argument.
designated as the feelings, and what others call tlm spirit). This
religion of the heart, however, must develop into a living co)isoi<yus-
ness through the intellectual process of rational thinking (reflec
tion), and must ripen into a settled disposition, and attest itself
in action, through the moral processes induced and perfected by
the conscience.
We may accordingly say that religion is a subject in which the
whole inner man is engaged,' but whose pivotal point is in the feel
ing of dependence. "A healthy religion," remarks an excellent
' On the heart, as the seat of religion, see Prov. xxiii, 26 ; Josh, xxiv, 23 ; 1 Sam. vi, 6 ;
Ezek. xi, 19 ; xxxvi, 26 ; Matt, v-, 8 ; Phil, iii, 7 ; Col. iii, 15 ; Heb. xiii, 9, and many other
passages. A new objection might arise here, based on the language of the Scriptures,
viz. : that the heart is represented as the seat of evil, of ungodliness also. Gen. vi, 5 ;
viii, 21 ; Psa. xiv, 1 ; liii, 1 ; Jer. xvii, 9 ; Matt, xv, 19. These passages, however, illus
trate this very point, that the heart is man's central organ, the hearth, upon which both
pure and impure fires may bum, the soil, capable of propagating both good and evil
seed. Comp. Luke viii, 15. Hence we do not make the heart the source of religion;
if it were, man might devise a. religion in accordance with the desires of his heart.
The source is in God ; but God addresses his revelations to the heart, as the receptive
organ of religion. God's word takes root in the heart ; regeneration proceeds from
the heart, and the peace of God, in the character of a good conscience, dwells in the
heart. The non-identity of heart and conscience, which forbids the substitution of
one word for the other, is apparent from the usage of ordinary speech, which approves
of a large heart, but not of a large (elastic) conscience. We therefore commend tht
language of Julius Kostlin : " According to the ordinary usage, conscience is simply
the organ for the recognition of requirements as such, etc. The recognition of gra^
cious impressions, and, more emphatically still, the feeling of blessedness, which
steadily becomes more profound, and connects more and more intimately with God in
the truly religious. Christian life, cannot be assigned to it ; for which reason the con-
acienoe may not be designated the religious organ, in an unqualified sense." Comp.
also Immer, Das Gewissen, seine Gesundheit u. s. Krankheit, Berne, 1866.
' This is strongly asserted also by Mynster (Ueber den Begriff der. Christl. Dogmatik,
mStud: u. Krit., 1831, 3, p. 449); Olshausen (Begriff der Religion, ibid, 1830, 3, p. 614);

42 A PURELY SUBJECTIVE
theologian, " exercises power over all the circumstances and condi
tions of life. Where its authority is acknowledged it is the heart,
the silent pulse-beat of our entire being. It there consecrates and
transfigures all things, however humble ; and it applies a correct
rule to all things, however proud and ambitious they may be. Not
in states of spiritual excitement and exaltation merely does the con
sciousness of God's presence express itself, but in discouragement
and deepest sorrow likewise does it convey peace, and exert a sanc
tifying power." ' SECTION XIIL
The task of the religious instructor is consequently threefold:
Threefold task (^) ^° excite and quicken religious feeling itself; (2) to
oithereugious cultivate the understanding and develop perception,
*" ^''' under the guidance of reason, into a clear c'onsciousness ;
and, (3,) to bring moral influences to bear upon the conscience and
the will, until the religious consciousness becomes an abiding dis
position. The three lines of effort in the one task are not, however,
entirely separated, but are mutually dependent on each other for
their successful prosecution.
Neither an exclusive attention to feeling, nor a bare exercising
of the understanding, nor yet the mere inculcation of moral maxims,
will satisfy the conditions of this task. The religious teacher must,
at the outset, fix his attention upon the entire man. He is to edify,
to arouse, to teach, to guide, to admonish, to reprove. The modes in
which the separate features of the task acquire a more distinct prom
inence in the work of the Christian Church will appear hereafter.
SECTION XIV.
THE BELIGIOUS COMMUNITY  CHEISTIAinTT.
The religious community constitutes the soil in which the relig
ious life of the individual is rooted, in which it develops, and upon
which it reacts. Hence the teacher who desires to achieve perma
nent results in the religious cultivation of other minds should not
only be penetrated by religious principle, but also stand connected
with a religious society, and hold an active relation thereto.
A purely subjective religion and a corresponding culture, after
the manner of Rousseau's Mnil, are conceivable; but they will exist
in the imagination only, and be without a corresponding object in
but they do not indicate what constitutes the controlling element in this whole. For
a contrary view, see Elwert, 1. c, p. 46. Deinhardt, 1. c, p. 4, defines religion as " the
life of God in man, and the life of man in God," and joins us in limiting the term
" man " to the inner nature, and in understanding by religion tho living presence and
efficacy of the Deity in the inner self-conscious man or Ego.''
' Ullmann, Ueber den Cultus des Genius, p. 62.

RELIGION IS IMPOSSIBLE. 43
the world of realities, besides being deficient in depth. However
earnestly we may have sought to locate religion in the _^..
feelings, we have not implied that the subjective feeling mg common to
of one person alone is sufficient to meet the requue- *™™'""'"'y-
ments of the case, or that any one may construct his religion accord
ing to the likes and dislikes of his heart. Religion is certainly
subjective and personal in its root, and is a natural principle, as
being grounded in the human constitution, instead of being the re
sult of accident; but that which animates a single person is designed
to quicken aU. Religion is a common interest of the entire human
race. Subjective feeling must expand into the feeling of brother
hood ; it requires prompting ; it is rarely powerful enough to be
self -stimulating.' When it does so manifest itself, its subjects are,
humanly speaking, religious geniuses, comparable with the creative
minds of art in its religious aspects ; men endowed and inspired of
God. Such " elect persons " become founders of religions, about whom
gather congregations of believers. An erroneous and misdirected
feeling may, no doubt, likewise display such energy (as in the case
of false prophets) as to be successful ^n founding a communion; and
for this reason the communion to which one belongs is by no means
a matter of indifference. He only can be a genuine and properly
qu.alitied founder of a religious system, in whom the religious feeling
exists in absolute strength and purity, and in a spiritual harmony
with all the faculties of the soul ; in whom the God-consciousness
and the self -consciousness are so one that all friction is removed.
That such a Being has actually appeared, and that he has founded
a religion which not only deserves a place beside and above all
others, but which, accurately considered, is t]ie only religion;^ and
that, consequently, the salvation which the individu.al vainly seeks
in himself or others is to be found in him alone, are necessary as
sumptions, if we would extend our way farther into the field of
Christian theology, within which a proper place (apologetics) wUl
be found for justifying what we now take for granted.
' This should especially be asserted against the mistaken objection that the religion
of feeling excludes all objectivity. Against this, see Elwert, 1. c, p. 69, sqq., and
Schleiermacher, Glaubeuslehre, i, p. 188. The feeling of beauty is excited in like
manner by the study of real works of art, the sense of justice by the study of positive
laws, etc.
' All the statements we have made concerning religion as such are actualized in
Christianity. God was in Christ, and his life was involved in the life of God. This
psychological-historical fact is the root of the entire tree. In no other positive relig
ion does religious feeling, as a primary feeling, possess such fervid, energetic power ; and
no other religion has so clear a consciousness and such free determination of the will

44 THE THEOLOGIAN MUST LIVE
SECTION XV.
TUB CHTJECH AND THEOLOGY:
H. Schultz, Die Bewegung Innerhalh der evang. Kirche u. d. Aufgabe d. Theologie derselben
(Zu den ktrchl. Fragen d. Gegenwart). Frankfort, 1869.
The teacher of the Christian religion belongs to the Christian
Church, or to the visible religious communion of believers in Jesus
Christ, and must regulate his course as a teacher of religion by that
Quaiiflcations ^^^^' '^° qualify himself for the duties of his calling,
of thereUgious he must, first of all, come to regard CLristiaulty, the
^^' kingdom of God in its historical manifestation, as di
vinely ordained, and a necessary, rather than accidental, fact. He
must trace its origin and recognize its bearings in every direc
tion, and appropriate to himself all the knowledge and skill made
necessary by the historical progress of the Church and its present
state. The scientific treatment of a positive religion as here indi
cated constitutes the study of theology in the narrow sense.
Every positive religion which is rooted in the facts of history
presumes positive intellectual acquirements. The necessity for such
historical mediation should impress the theologian at :he very be
ginning of his studies, that he may avoid the danger, on the one
hand, of falling into a false idealism, and, on the other, of pursu
ing. In a merely mechanical way, studies whose importance to relig
ion he is not able to estimate. Our ideal suggests a man filled with
religious fervour entering the theological school, and finding there
the critical, historical, and philological apparatus, which must be
regarded as the source from which theological wisdom is to be
drawn. He may, no doubt, be discouraged by the thought of such
a mass of apparently dead and unproductive material. It would
The true spirit certainly seem more attractive and profitable to draw
of the theoiog- simply from the depths of the soul, and with strong
leal student. draughts to drink what nature, art, and, perhaps, his
tory (chiefly regarded, however, in the large perspective outlines of
its development), may have to offer, than to toil laboriously with
grammar, and devote the greater p.trt of student-life to the interpre
tation of single letters, which frequently have but a very distant re
lation to the word of God.' We cannot do otherwise than rejoice
in the question, Cui bono ? the very question to which encyclopaedia
is to furnish the answer. There is a certain kind of self-denial, w hich
does not pause to inquire about the utility of prescribed studies,
but rather enters on them in the conviction that the future will
throw light on this point. Such modesty is rare, however, and dif
fers greatly from the indifference and tho listlessness which lead so
' Goethe, Faust, i.

IN AND FOR THE CHURCH. 45
many to be directed by, instead of directing, their studies. They
hear lectures on exegesis. Church history, dogmatics, etc., simply
because these belong to the course ; they would, in the same way,
pursue any other study — heraldry, for instance — if an examination
at the end of the term should be required. The object of Encyclo
paedia is to deliver from the dullness that asks no questions.
SECTION XVL
The theology developed by a positive religion will assume a sci'
entific character in proportion as its body of doctrine is intelligent
and complete. In this regard the highest place is held by the the
ology of Protestant Christianity.'
So long as a religion contents itself with the transmission of
myths and legends, and with the observance of symbolical usages,
it confines the wisdom of its priests within narrow _ ^.„ ,
^ Conditions of a
limits. A higher scientific character belongs to a the- fuiiy developed
ology which stands related to existent sacred writings, *'^^°^°^-
whether they be found in a sacred language and accessible to the
priests alone, or whether they be the common possession of the peo
ple, and consequently riequire interpretation. But wherever the
letter of the writing is not animated by the spirit which pervades
the community, and wherever the religious idea laid down in such
writings is permitted to remain undeveloped, the theology will
speedily become a lifeless letter. That religion only which adds
to its sacred writings a living history, to its standard and unchange
able element s others capable of being modified, can produce a sound
theology. This character belongs to Christianity. It has sacred
writings in languages which, though ancient, are accessible to all.
The writings are not the exclusive property of a priestly order, but
b.dong to the people as a whole; on this account they require a
tl orough exposition, based on the original meaning. It has also a
historical development in a higher degree than any other religion.
More than any other, historical Christianity has become ^^^^ ^^^^_
the religion of the world, seizing upon every language tions luiniied
and popular custom, and entering so thoroughly into ''y'''"^''™!'^-
the culture of modern times as to seem, during an extended period,
its sole support. These remarks are preeminently true of Protes
tantism. The Roman Catholic Church, which has an authorized
version of the sacred writings, but reserves their interpretation to
itself, cannot demand of its servants that each individual shall so
carefully go back to the first meaning of the original ; and, in view
of the limited use of the Bible by the people, it does not place an
' Comp. Schleiermacher, § 2 and 4

46 THE THEOLOGICAL SCHOOL AN
equal value on the practical exposition of the Scriptures. The ^
principle of historical development is more apparently present in
Roman Catholicism (tradition) than in Protestantism. As, however,
development in Roman Catholicism is restrained by outward au
thority, and stability is exalted into a ruling principle instead, it
results that even history has a higher importance in Protestantism.
This does not imply that, on the one hand, many individuals will
not pass beyond, or, on the other, that many will not fall behind,
the requirements of their Church in scientific matters. The scien
tific character of Roman Catholic theologians is, accordingly, a very
praiseworthy opus supererogativum, while a similar character is,
with Protest.ants, a conditio sine qua non.'
SECTION XVIL
THE THEOLOGICAL SCHOOL AND TIIB CLERGY.
K. Ullmann, Theologie, Theologen u. GelstUche zu dieser Zeit ; preface to Studd. u. Krltt. for
1849; K. Lechler,"D. neutest. Lehre vom hell. Amte, Stuttg., 1857; W. Preger, d. Gesch. vom
geistl. Amte, NSrdllngen, 1857 ; Nesselmann, Ueber Priester-u. Prophetenthum In Ihrer Bedeu
tung f . d. Christl. Kirche, Elbing, 1380 ; G. F. Magoun, Theological Education In England, Bib.
Sacra., xxlv, p. 531; E. A. Park, Bib. Sacra., xxvlli, pp. 60-97.
In proportion as theological science widens, and its treatment
becomes more profound, will a division of the work be found nec-
Theoiogians essary. To some persons will be presented the duty of
and practical cultivating the science for its own sake, while to others
ers— how dis- it becomes simply a means for the practical ends of the
tinguished. teaching oflfice in the Church. The former constitute
the theological school, and are termed theologians, in the strict
sense ; the latter form the teachers of the Church (clerus), and are
variously designated in accordance with local or denominational
usage, or as their stations in the Church and their leading duties
may suggest; e. g., priests, clergymen, ministers of God's word,
rectors, preachers, pastors, cures, and confessors.
It should be remembered that the Church is more ancient than
Scientiflc theo- the school. The latter sprang from the former. Pas-
'aftors co^re- ^^^^ °^ ^^^ Congregation existed before doctors of the-
lated. ology. The distinction between them, which has now
become necessary, is not designed to result in their alienation from
each other; for the life of the Christian community depends fpr its
soundness largely upon the effects produced by the school and
Church upon each other. The scientific theologian can only form a
correct estimate of his science when he views it as having living
' The future must decide the extent to which the " Old Catholic " party, which de
nies the infallibility of the Pope, but nevertheless, in its own fashion, acknowledges
the authority of the Church, shall secure an independent organization as a Church
and develof a theology corresponding to its character.

OUTGROWTH OP THE CHURCH. i'l
relations to the Church and its specific needs; while the practical
clergyman can successfully measure up to the duties of his calling
only when he holds friendly relations to theological science and its
cultivators.' The pretended gentility of scholar.^, which, instead of
-seeking to train faithful servants for the Church, rather aims to de
prive her of their aid whenever possible (on the ground that good
heads are too valuable for such business, is quite as perverse as the
boorishness of unscientific empirics, which looks with suspicion upon
the adv.antages of learning, and seeks, to the extent of its ability,
fo repress all inquiry. It is, therefore, important to the preserva
tion of the union between the school and the Church that men
should be found in whom the scientific and the clerical characters
combine, so as to fit them for successful labours in either field (as
was the case with most of the reformers, and in a qualified sense
with some in recent times; e. g., Tzschirner, Schleiermacher, Sack,
Nitzsch, Tholuck, J. Miiller, Al. Schweizer, Rothe, Schenkel, Bar
row, Wesley, Chalmers, Jonathan Edwards, Hopkins, Moses Stuart,
etc.). The same rule, however, does not apply to all. All that can
be required is that men should be open to influences from the one
department, even while exclusively employed in the other. The
Church must not be excluded from the school, nor the school
bolted out of the Church.
A few words on the appellations above cited. We do not take
the title doctor of theology in the empirical sense, which q,„„|j3 by
implies that the holder of it has received a diploma; which pastors
but in its more pregnant meaning as involving scientific
acquirement.s. It applies not only to .academical teachers, but to
all who are called to give material aid in the further development
of theological science as such, .and also to theological writers.'
All Christians are priests (I Pet. ii, 5), for the spiritual priest
hood, to which .all .are called, must for that very reason lead to the
universal priesthood. But, inasmuch as the priestly character is to
be especially exemplified in those who are called to minister in holy
things in the name and in behalf of the congregation, it is not im
proper that the Protestant clergyman should bear the title, although
not in the exclusive sense of the Roman Catholic Church. Viewed
in its etymological bearings, it is very simple ; for if the word priest
be derived from npeoPvTTjg, npeapvrepog, a presl^yter, it follows that
every { astor is a priest, or even a bishop, since kniaKo-Kog and npEo-
HvTepoi denoted the same officer, in the apostolic Church. But it is
'Comp. Schleiermacher, § 12.
'Comp. De Wette, Opuse. theol., p 169 sq., who compares doctors of thf ology to
the piophets of the Old Testament.

48 THE CLERGY NOT CALLED PRIESTS
evident that we think rather of the Sacerdotium {iF.pdieviia^) than
of the Presbyterium, when we use the word, and in that sense the
Protestant clergyman cannot properly appropriate the title exclu
sively to himself." This consideration, however, has not prevented
defenders of the priestly character (as the possession of a privileged
class) from arising even in Protestantisn. When Spalding ex
pressed a purely economic view of the utility of the clerical office,
(Nutzbarkeit d. Predigtamtes, 1772), Herder replied in the Provin-
zialbliitter for 1774, defending its priestly character, but guarding
against erroneous conclusions.' Marheineke * and Harms ° likewise
came to its support, the latter remarking that the priest need i.ot
necessarily be conceived as armed with the sacrificial knife, while the
former held that the sacrifice and the priest are most intim.ately con
nected, because "every one who sacrifices is a priest, and, on the other
hand, the priest exists only for the sake of sacrifice." — Lect. ii, p. 14.
In the Reformed Churches the clergy are usually designated as
tlie spiritual order (geistlicher stand, geistlichkeit), and the expres
sion is employed in the confessions. Many have protested against
the phrase, among them Harms (I. c), who insists that the spiritual
^ , class should include all Christians (Gal. vi, 1, nvevaaTi-
Varlous deslg- . ^ '
nations of the Kot). The language, however, is not intended to oppose
clergy. ^j^^ TTvevnariKog to the ipvp^iKog, or the aapKiKog, but has
reference to the distinction between KXrjpiKog and XaiKog. The or
ganized body of teachers in the Church (ordo) is now known as the
' Some derive the word priest from the Persian Perestar, one who prays, equivalent
to the afiriTTip of Homer. Comp. Unger, Eeden an kiinftige Geistliche. Leipsic, 1834.
"Comp. Conf. Helv., ii, o. 16: Diversissima inter se sunt sacerdotium et ministe-
rium. Illud enim commune est Christianis omnibus, hoc non item. Luther is particu
larly emphatic : " In the New Testament we find no external, visible priests, except
those raised up and established by the devil through the lies of men. By tho testi
mony of the Scriptures the external priesthood is hurled to the earth in the New
Testament, for it makes prayer, access to God, and teaching the privilege of all." —
Werke, Walch's ed., vol. xix, p. 1311. Similarly Spener.
' " We are not set apart to sacrifice for the people, to be intermediate between God
and man, half divine and half human, theurgists and theanthropists, in short, exor-
cists of the devil — nor do I know what rabble could suppose this. Not the bearer of
an offering for the people, but bearer of God's gift to the people, teacher of his rev
elation, scatterer of the truest means of culture, and to that extent really a separated,
chosen, mediating person, a messenger and an instrument of God ! Not an anointed
administrator of sacred ufeges, especially as based on human arbitrariness, but some
thing nobler : an anointed, i. e., chosen administrator of sacred functions, of the holi
est duty on earth, the cultivation of the soul through the influence of religion." See
Werke zur Religion u. Theologie, vol. x, p. 342, sj.
* Grundlegung der Homiletik in einigen Vorlesungen iib. d. wahren Charakier der
Prot. Geistlichkeit. Hamb., 1811.
' Pastoral theologie, ii, 1st and 2d discourses.

AS BEING MEDIATORS. Jh
clergy, and the above designations are simply f.amiliar versions of
this term. The clergy are not termed " spiritual " in the subjective
sense, as being more spiritual than other persons, but in the objec
tive sense of having in their sfficial character to perform certain
functions. This of course does not forbid that the laity also may
and should be a spiritual order; and, in any case, the designation
may serve to continually remind him who bears it by reason of his
office, that he should be spiritually-minded beyond all others.'
Minister of God's word (verbi divini minister) is an expression that
prevails especially in the Reformed Church. It forms the direct
contrast to the term priest, but by that very fact becomes one-sided,
since it limits the service to the Word, and disregards the liturgical
element. The proper term to apply to the body of servants of the
Word would, accordingly, be the ministry (ministerium, not clerus
or clergy).
The term rector properly denotes the person who has a parish,
as distinguished from the unappointed candidate, the mere admin
istrator (vicar), or the assistant (diaeonus). In this sense some
derive its German equivalent, Pfarrer, from ndpoiKog, napoiKla,
comp. dtoLKriatg. If it be derived from irdpoxog, (Trape^w,) it is
equivalent to dispensator, administrator, and then every person
who administers the Word and Saci'aments might assume the title.'
' The German language makes a keen distinction between the outwardly spiritual
and the inwardly spiritual. The outwardly spiritual should always be spiritual in its
inward essence, but the latter docs not always fall into the category of the former.
Differently expressed, not every thing that is spiritual is the object of spiritual func
tions. It has been said (Wechsler, Charakter u. Zukunf t d. Protestantismus, Konigsb.,
1844, p. 6, sq.) that "the great mission of Protestantism consists in promoting tho
subjectively spiritual (das Geistige), rather than the spiritual in its outw.vd bearings,
as relating to order, functions, etc. (das Geistliche). The latter merely indicates like
ness to the spiritual, and is related to it about as reddishness is to red." This is an
entire perversion. The subjectively spiritual is the demonstration of the spirit in
the most general way, including its worldly (cosmical) relations, while the objectively
spiritual expresses the relation of the finite spirit to the infinite spirit, and tliu.s be
comes a powerful exponent of the religious idea.
" Another etymology that is urged with much confidence — from pfaren (faren), the
same as to beget (Vorfahren, ancestors, those who have previously begotten), or £ven
from Farr, a bullock (P-arr, the herd), is adduced simply as a curiosity. See Clamor,
Die Zustande d. Christl. Kirche in d. ersten 6 Jahrhunderten, Ilalbcrst., 1850, p. 46,
note. The word Pfaffe (out of iruKirag), which had a good meaning in the Middle
A^cs, now denotes the caricature of the priestly char.acter. The danger of becoming
" /Va/Te threatens every clergyman more nearly than may be supposed ; for, while the
teachiii" order is a necessity for the Church, the merely professional administration
of reli"ious duties is .always an unhappy indication. Only a high and enthusiastic de
votion can secure against falling into the depths of vuluar frivolity or of hypocrisy.
See ZoUikofer's Predigten iib. d. Wiirde des Mensohen, ii, p. 474.
4

50 THE THEOLOGIAN RELATED BOTH
Preacher (predicant) is a name derived from the leading function
of the Protestant clergyman, to which those of the pastor and over
seer of souls are added in a complementary way ; but as the liturgi
cal element is not included, the term is insufficient and one-sided.'
P.astor {noifii^v, nt'i) is taken from John x, II, sqq.; xxi, 15, sqq.;
Epli. iv, 11; Heb. xiii, 20; 1 Pet. ii, 25. Comp. the Pastor of Her
mas, and the Shepherd (Ilirte) of Zwingle. Every person who, in the
love of a disciple, feeds the sheep and lambs in healthful pastures,
is accordingly entitled to this name. As an oflicial title it corre-
s])onds to rector (Pfarrer). Curate (Seelsorger) in the Refonned
Church, and Confessor (Beichtvater) in the Lutheran, have refer
ence more jiarticularly to the relation sustained by the clergyman
toward the individual members of his charge.' In the Church of
Eiiglund, the word curate denotes a rector's assistant or substitute.
Stipyplement 1. — No reference has been made to the missioi^aries,
, , , , who constitute a distinct class in the theolotjical order.
Missions In . . , . .„ , , . ...
Theological The increasingly scientific method with which mission-
Encyciopajdia. ^^^ affairs are administered in recent times, renders it
more and more imperative that Theological Ericyclopaedia should
make room for the science of missions in its organism.
2. The officers of the apostolic age (apostles, prophets, evangel
ists, pastors, and teachers, Eph. iv, II ; comp. 1 Cor. xii, 28) have
in recent times been regarded by members of the Catholic Apos
tolic Church, better known as Irvingites, as obligatory for the
future also, but without sufficient exegetical or historical authority.
The fact that the lists of officers in the two passages do not corre
spond, is of itself sufficient to suggest a more independent view.
Neither ])assage, moreover, refers to the office of angels, which is
t.aken from the Apocalypse, nor to that of deacons, which occurs in
Acta vi. SECTION xvm.
RELATION OF TUE THEOLOGIAN TO SCHOOL AND CHURCH. '
The Protestant student belongs to the theological school during
the period of his academical studies, and derives his culture from
' The reason for this is found in the history of Protestantism. The teaching and
pmloral office^ which certainly demands the most various gifts, was exalted, in oppo-
Biti(m to the mechanical duties of the "mass-priest." The true liturgist, however,
dciorvcs to be termed a priest (with Harms), in so far as he represents the priestly
character of the entire congregation in the liturgical act — ^but in this ease only, and in
this point of view.
'Other, provincial, designations (e. g., domine among the Dutch), or such as relate
to the government of the Church, or to special oflicial stations (bishop, abbot, super
intendent, aiitistes, provost, dean, aiclideacon, deacon, etc.), do not come under review
in this place.

TO THE CHURCH AND THE SCHOOL. bl
that source, rather than immediately from the Church. The latter
is entitled, however, to demand from persons who seek a place
among its teachers such evidence of theological acquirements and
Christian disposition as may be necessary.
The Church itself prepared its servants in the earliest period.
The apostles trained their assistants, and the latter trans- sketch of the
mitted to others, in a purely practical way, what they fJ^eS "'trainl
had received. Science was as yet in the possession of ing.
the ancient (heathen) world, and Christians were in the habit of
attending the schools of heathen philosophers and I'hetoricians, and
of appropriating to their own uses whatever of good they could
thus obtain.' Specifically Christian training-schools were soon in
troduced, however, as that for catechumens at Alexandria (in the
third century), and the schools at Antioch, Ctesai-ea, Edessa, Nisi-
bis, etc The monasteries, also, afforded training-schools, and during
the Middle Ages the episcopal and convent schools, founded by
Charlemagne and his successors, in which the trivium and quadiriv-
ium — grammar, logic, rhetoric, and arithmetic, geometry, astron
omy, and music, the seven liberal sciences — were taught, were
especially valuable for the purposes of ecclesiastical education.
The rise of universities (studia generalia) in the twelfth century
introduces a new era in the history of the sciences. At The rise Qiuni-
the first, certain universities were managed more par- Tersities.
ticularly in the interests of a single faculty, the schools at Paris,
Oxford, Cologne, and Louvain, being especially jirominent for
theology. In these scholasticism set up its throne. New uni
versities, vvhose beginnings were due, to some extent, to the con
flicts of the hour, were founded in or about the time of the Refor
mation, and generally became the exponents of some theological
tendency (Wittenberg, Jena, Halle, Helmstedt). This exclusive
char.acter was gradually laid aside, and in more recent times the
superiority of a university training over that received in institutions
devoted to a specialty came to be properly recognized,' more
particularly as manifested by the wide culture, the mutual
exchange and free intercourse of different forms of thought, and
the unrestrained liberty of teaching and study, which it involves.
A'^'ainst this, however, it has been remarked that a wise limitation
with regard to the matter of instruction, and a more definite ideal
governing the methods of instruction, would in no wise impair the
Dbjecl for which universities exist.
' Comp. Augustine, De doctr. Chr., ii, 40.
'See Schleiermacher, Ueber rniveisitiiteii, p 62.

.53 THE LECTURE SVSTEM
SECTION xrx »
THE UNIVERSITY.
•Schleiermacher, Ueber Unlversltaten in deutscben SInne, Berlin, 1808; H. Steffens, Idee der
Unlversitaten, Berlin, 1809; Id. Ueber Deutschlands prot. Universltaten, Berlin, 1820; F. C. v.
Savlgny, Wesen u. Werth d. deutscben Universltaten, In Ranke's Histor.-pollt. Zeitschrlft, Ham
burg, 1833 : L. F. Frorlep, Ueber das Elgenthumllche der deutscben Universltaten, Weimar, 1834 ;
0. O. Marbach, Universltaten u. Hochschulen In dem auf Intelllgenz aich griindenden Staate,
Leipsic, 1834 ; (Fr. Theremin, Ueber d. deutscben Universltaten, Berlin, 1836 ; A. DIesterweg,
Beltr. zur LOsung d. Lebensfrage der Civilisation, Essen, 1838, 1838) ; rr. Thiersch, Ueber d.
neuesten Angriffe auf d. deutsch. Universltaten, Stuttgart, 1837 ; J. E. Krdmann, D. umversltat
u. Ihre Stellung zur Kirche, In his Vennlschte Aufsatze, I, Leipslo, 1846; V. A. Huber, Ueber
akad. Convlcte, zur Innern Mission aut d. Universltaten, Berlin, 1833 ; Henry P. Tappan, Uni
versity Education, New York, originally an article m the Bib. Repository for July, 1850 ;
Noah Porter, American Colleges and the American Public, New Haven, 1870, from the New
Bnglander lor 1869 : also Index to Bib. Sacra.,. pp. 242-244, title Universities.
The period of academical study is the time spent in the college
or university. Usage has limited it to a brief term of years, which
would seem to be scarcely sufficient, in view of the present state of
science. Much has been said for or against the exclusive adoption
The university of the lecture system in university .training." Scientific
lecture system, instruction can evidently be conveyed only in connected,
uninterrupted discourse, and the mind of the hearer is stimulated
to higher energy by quietly receiving and inwardly digesting what
it hears, than by hastily interrupting and throwing in replies. It is
by this very feature that the academical lecture is to be distin
guished from that employed in the seminaries (gymnasia) and
grammar-schools. A lecture of this kind " should of course be ex
tempore and fresh, carrying the hearers along with the current of
thought ; not declamatory or pathetic, but strictly methodicalj dig
nified, and earnest, and accomplishing its purpose by clearness and
depth of thought instead of foreign ornamentation. It should even
be edifying, not, however, in the nianner of a moving pulpit dis
course, but through the silent power of the truth. As it is not
'Theremin demands a more conversational method of instruction. Dicsterweg goes
still further, and traces much of the existing corruption to the present character of
the universities. Comp. also C. F. Fritzsche, De ratione docendi Socratica in institu-
tione academica, in the Opuse. aoadem. (Tur., 1846), p. 361, sqq., and more recent
treatises on the same subject.
' Comp. especially Schleiermacher, p. 62, sqq. ; L. Thilo, Grundsatze des akad. Vor-
trags, 1809; Scheidler, p. 108, sqq. "What Pyrrhus says to his Epirots, 'Te are my
pinions I ' is felt by the zealous teacher toward his hearers, whom he loves, and whose
entire soul is interested in his discourse. His investigations are not facilitated merely
by the desire to be clear, and not to present any thing as the truth that could be at
all doubtful ; but much more by the view of his audience, to whom he sustains per
sonal relations that awaken » thousand thoughts even as he speaks." (Niebuhr, in
Preface to the second edition of his Roman history. Eng. edition (Hare & Thlrlwall's),
pp. xi, xU. Compare also bis letter to a young philologist, published by K. G. Jacob. Leli>.
sic, 1839, D. 38.

AND ITS rilOPER USE. 53
designed for immediate effect, but to excite thought .and mental
activity on the part of hearers who think and act for themselves, it
is desirable that these latter should seek to retain the mental image
brought before them in the lecture by sketching it on paper, or re
producing it in its main outlines. College sketches of this kind, the
work of the student's personal power of independent mental repro
duction, and accompanied with marginal notes of inquiry, doubt,
etc., form the most valuable journal of the years of academical
preparation, whose direct relation to the writer forbids that any
printed book should ever take its place. The mere attendance on
lectures and listening to them, without subsequent writ- ^.^
ing, is often simply intellectual sloth, or, at best, awk- od of profiting
wardness, which, however, not unfrequently conceals ''^ '^'''''"¦^'•
itself behind a screen of easy indifference. The sort of copying
to be commended, by which we mean the independent recording
of thought from the mind of another person, is, of course, very
different from a thoughtless writing of dictated matter. Formal
dictation can only become necessary through the force of circum
stances, and with regard to a few leading postulates (for want of a
printed guide). In other respects the teacher is no more to be de
graded into an instrument of dictation than the student is to become
a copying-machine.' While, however, the lecture should not be
displaced by any other method of instruction, it is certainly bene
ficial to combine with it other methods. Teaching by question and
answer seems adapted to primary scholars, and involves a painful
element ; but semi-annual examinations, following a completed
course, have their beneficial side. Especially stimulating, however,
are disputatiofis under the guidance of the teacher; and independ
ent societies for practice among the students, or presided over by a
teacher, are likewise of value (comp. § 20).
SECTION XX.
Public instruction should be supplemented by private Private indus-
industry, whose efforts are not to be limited to careful ment o/puwio
preparation for the expected lecture, and to a subse- instruction.
quent exact recapitulation of its matter; it must also approve itself
by independent inquiry and exercises.
'It should never be forgotten that some things can be better conveyed through the
eyj, and others through the ear. Names, figures, the titles of books, etc., should be
before the hearer in printed form, as also the necessary documents. Against dictation,
see Schleiermacher ut supra, p. 66. It is remarkable that the Jesuits in the sixteenth
century were the chief originators and promoters of dictation, although the Jesuit Posse-
vin clearly points out its disadvantages. See his Bibl. selecta, i, 26. The Pietistic school
(Lange) of Halle likewise opposed the practice, while the Wolfians favoured it greatly.

.54 REPETITION AND DISCUSSION
Attendance on too many lectures at once works injury and con
fusion. In this regard the study of encyclopsedia and methodology
helps to produce system and rule. But private industry is not to
prevail at the expense of public instruction, else the sojourn ,at the
Preparation university will be without an object. > Preparation and
to be'Sdedto repetition (repetitio mater studiorum) constitute the
the lecture. bonds of union between private industry and the objects
sought in the hearing of the lecture. The one, preparation, sharp
ens the vision to perceive the objects that may be presented ; the
other, repetition, impresses them more deeply on the mind. In
one department of study, however, more of preparation will be
needed, in another more of recapituLation. The former is especial
ly necessary with studies that present philological and other diffi
culties which must be overcome at the outset; the latter applies
here also, and likewise in the historical and systematic departments.
But inasmuch as the mere appropriation of knowledge is of less
importance than its digestion, the recapitulation will increasingly
ntiitty of oral expand into a "volvere et revolvere in animo," while dis-
discussion. cussion with fellow-students will provide the intellectual
gymnastics by which the faculties are strengthened and made trust
worthy. Care must be taken, however, to prevent the spirit of
disputation in religious matters from degenerating into a petulance
which eats out the heart, and attacks the root of the deeper life.
The most approved antidote against disorderly disputes and a scep
tical temper is found in severe mental labour; and to this every
student should subject himself during one or more periods of his
course, by engaging in the thorough investigation of some specialty;
this, too, if his aim is to prepare for the simplest duties in the
Church, rather than for the work of theological scholarship. They
who have themselves untied knots are alone capable of appreciating
the labours of others, and they only who possess the patience and the
courage to go to the bottom of what is individual and special can
attain the power to comprehend the universal. It may be added that
only such persons can possess the ability to derive profit from inter
course with scientific men, or deserve their notice. The chatterer
will be avoided. Much, and especially discursive, reading is to be
avoided; let "non multa, sed multum" be the rule in this regard.'
' Plin., Epp., vii, 9 ; Quinet., Inst, orat., x, 1, 59 ; Senec. Ep., 46 ; Non refert, quara
multos. Bed quara bonos habeas (libros). Lectio certa prodest, varia delcctat ; Her
der's Briefe, No. 49 , Niebuhr, Brief an einen jungen Philologen, p. 145 : " Give up
the miscellaneous reading, even of ancient authors ; there are very many worthless
ones even here. Eolus allowed only the single wind to blow that should bring Ulysses
to his goal, and bound the others ; when loosened and sweeping through each other,
they prepared him endless wanderings."

SHOULD SUPPLEJUENT LECTURES. 55
Writing, whether of compilations' or original articles,' is far more
profitable and improving. SECTION XXL
THE FORMATION OF CHARACTEE.
While attaching all importance to thorough scientific culture, it
should be a principle never lost sight of, that the char-
,. . . " Importance of
acter of a religious teacher is not only determined by character in
the measure of his knowledge, but also by the measure ">« ""^"'"b'*^-
of his religious and moral convictions, and the thoroughness of his
spiritual culture, and, consequently, that the formation of a tlieolog
ical character upon the basis of previous Christian training is as im
portant an object as the acquiring of knowledge and the develop
ment of skill.
No theological teacher who has comprehended his duty should
avoid entering into intimate relations with earnest stu- „ , ,
° . Kelatlonsofthe
dents. We must certainly require that he shall per- teacher to the
sonally illustrate a theological character that, with all ^'"''®'"^-
its deficiencies, shall yet possess certain features which are the in
voluntary expression of spiritual achievements. The whole may be
'The younger Pliny boasts (Epp., iii, 6) of his uncle. Nihil legit, quod non excer-
peret ; dicere enim solebat, nullum esse librum tarn malum, ut non aliijua parte pro-
dessct. Comp. C. Meiners, Anweisung fur Jiinglinge zum Lesen, Excerpiren, und
Schreiben. Hanover, 1791; Scheidler, Hodegetik. Herder (Sophron., p. 153) calls
excerpts the cells which bee-like industry constructs, the hives in which it prepares
its honey.
* Herder, I.e.: " Nulla dies sine linea, not a day should pass in which a young per
son does not write something for himself, whether he record what might otherwise be
forgotten, or notes and answers his doubts. The pencil, which for us means the pep,
sharpens the judgment, corrects the language, develops ideas, and excites the soul to
activity in a wonderfully pleasant manner. Nulla dies sine linea." Much writing
with the object of teaching before having learned, or a conceit of authorship, may,
however, involve its own dangers. Niebuhr — rather strong and almost extreme — ex
presses a contrary opinion (Brief, etc., p. 134 sj.); "To learn, my friend, to learn
conscientiously, and always to test and increase our knowledge, this is our thepretical
life-calling, and it is especially so for youth, which has the good fortune to be able to
expose itself without restraint to the charm of the new intellectual world revealed in
books. The writer of a treatise assumes to teach whatever he may say ; and teaching
is impossible without some degree of wisdom, which, if pursued, is given by God to
replace the evanescent bliss of youth. A wise youth is a monster." (Accordingly,
Niebuhr counsels only fragmentary writing, without any attempt at completeness and
finish [*] ). He continues : " Well is it with the young tree that has been planted in
a good soil and is surrounded by favourable conditions, whose erect growth is pre
served by careful hands, and that forms a solid heart ! Should excessive moisture
accelerate its growth, should it be soft and weak, exposed to the storm-wind's blast
without protection and support, the result will be that its wood is spongy, and its
growth deformed throughout the entire period of its life."

56 PRAYER, MEDITATION, TRIAL
comprehended in the language of one of the most esteemed theo-
logi.ans:' "Decision without exclusiveness and repulsive boldness,
independence freed from all vain self-sufficiency, dignity without
unkindnesB, firmness without harshness and passion, and all these
resting on the basis of a Christian spirit, together with wealth of
intellect and of knowledge — these are the elements that constitute
the theological character."
The student of theology who is in eal'nest will speedily discover
that this ideal cannot be realized by the way of study alone, how
ever indispensable this may be ; the causes that so often dampen
the courage and intensify the struggle are more deeply rooted in
the moral nature. If newly-gained conceptions excite alarm and
fears arise that faith may become unsettled, while the desire to
avoid the conflict suggests that it would be better to leave things
as they are, it is wise to inquire whether indolence has not be
gotten the desire, and cowardice the unwillingness to sust.ain the
fight. When novelties impress us, and we feel ourselves driven
into opposition against the existing order, we may ask what share
The temner In '" °"' condition is due to vanity, dogmatical or quarrel-
which doubt some dispositions.^ In this way the student has oppor-
shouid be met. ^jj^j^y ^q constantly apply to himself that beneficial dis
cipline of spirit, to which all were obliged to submit who attained
to eminence in theological character. In this way, too, the maxim
of the ancients, " Oratio, meditatio, tentatio, faciunt theologum,"
receives its meaning and confirmation. The practice of quiet and
frequent self-communion, even though it may oblige him to read
some pages less, meditatio' the trustful look and elevation of the
soul to God, the Living One, in prayer, oratio,* courage, and endur-
' TTlhnann, Theol. Aphorismen, in Studd. u. Kritt., 1844, No. 4, p. 448.
^" We can battle for nothing nobler than the truth ; and it is worth battling for
wlieh the mode of conflict leaves love and liberty unharmed. But to quarrel, hate.
Mill! become alienated about opinions or the authority of councils, synods, facnlties,
journals, or human decisions and forms of doctrine in general, is the most miserable
business uhder the sun for men to follow." — Menken, Leben u. Wirken, ii, p. 108.
" It was .an early custom at commencements to open a book and close it .again, in
order to suggest reflection upon the instructions now brought to a close. But inces
sant reading deprives our generation of the opportunity for thinking.
*"Dimidium stndii, rite precatus habet," said the Fathers, and Herder recommends
prayer and reading ot the Bible in the morning and the evening as a daily food
(1. c, p. 1 74). In like manner, a Swiss theologian of recent times remarks : " I Ihcre-
fore hold that no person is suited to the sacred oiBoe of proclaiming the word, who
does not come before God with prayer and pleading and sighs day by day, and who,
with every new hour in which he is to learn some lesson, does not beseech the Lord
anew in his heart, and so secretly as to escape observation, that he would bless him
in thiit hour, so that he may be able to learn the grace and mercy of God, and the

MAKE THE THEOLOGIAN. 57
ance in the conflict against doubt, and against the influences of '
sloth and pride, hypocrisy and passion, bitterness and discourage
ment, tentatio — these are the methods by which the theologian is
developed into a man of God ; and such he must become if he
would be a divine in the favour of God.' A theologia irregeni-
torum is, when carefully examined, a contradictio in adjecto.
true welfare of man, from the study upon which he is now to enter." — Zyro, Die
evang. ref. Kirche, p. 12, sq.
' It is usual to deraanl physical qualifications, also, of the future servant of the
Church, and not without propriety. The Old Testament was prescriptive in this as
well as other regards. Lev. xxi, 17, sqq. In the Roman Church, too, the authoritative
Canon law recognizes the principle, sacerdos ne sit def jrmis. The greater liberality
of Protestantism appears in this respect also, since it prescribes no formal rule. A
sound, physical constitution is, however, a fundamental condition of ministerial effect
iveness. Good lungs are a manifest necessity for the preacher. Much may be ac
complished in this direction by dieting, and imperfections of the vocal organs may be
modified by continued exercise of the parts (Demosthenes). Reading aloud, and also
sUiging, are to be particularly recommended, and no less outdoor exercise. Even study
may be carried to excess, and a walk in the open air is as important for the mind and
feelings, no less than the body, as a few hours spent beside the student's lamp.
Lord Bacon read much, but never to weariness and satiety. The beneficial change
of a walk, a ride, or a daily game of ball, always succeeded the time devoted to study
(see Rawley in Vauzelles, Hist, de Bacon, ii, p. 197). There has been a narrow age
which condemned physical exercises like gymnastics, as not suitable for a theologian
to practice (through a perversion of 1 Tim. iv, 8). We had supposed that such opin
ions were no longer held, unti) an article in Hengstenberg's Kirchenzeitung for 1863
endeavoured to show the incompatibility of gymnastics with a Christian disposition ;
it, however, received an answer, to which we assent, in the columns of the same
journal. On the advantages of gymnastic exercises for students, comp. Scheidler
Hodegetik). The great importance of social intercourse for the cultivation of man
ners is admitted, and it is greatly to be desired that students associate together in a
cheerful, joyous way ; nor should they isolate themselves from other society, lest they
fall into unbridled license. Schleiermacher, Ueber Univers. p. 126, sq.

58 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
' PART I.
GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA.
ITS RELATIONS TO OTHER SCIENCES, AND ITS AIMS.

• SECTION L
THEOLOGY AS A POSITIVE SCIENCE.
Theology is a positive or applied science (Schleiermacher, § 1),
and its scientific character is consequently not determined by any
thing within itself, as is the case with a pure science, but from with
out by an existent and historically-conditioned fact, namely, the
Christian Church and its manifestation in time.
The word positive is sometimes employed in a more limited sense,
so as to denote, not simply what is conditioned in the circumstances
of outward life, but also what is at the same time commanded by
outward authority — positive law in distinction from natural. The
Se hi h pi"0g''6ss o^ '^^^' discussiou will show, when treating of
theology is a the relation between reason and revelation, that theol-
positvescence. ^^^ -^ ^ positive science in this sense also— which is
likewise true of jurisprudence, but not of medicine. But the three
sciences refeiTed to may be termed "positive" without referring
to that question, if the word be interpreted to mean "a combi
nation of scientific elements whose collocation is not required be
cause they form a necessary constituent in the idea of science,
but simply because they are needed for the solution of a practical
problem" (Schleiermacher).' In this view natural philosophy is a
pure science, in so far as it investigates nature and its phenomena
for their own sakes and without reference to the relation of nature
to the practical necessities of the human race ; while medicine,
although based on a knowledge of natural philosophy, is still a
positive, or applied, science, because it selects and collocates simply
' Similarly Pelt ; " The whole of theology has reference primarily to an external phe
nomenon, whence its positive character is derived ; for we designate a science as pos
itive when it does not originate in a supreme principle developed by free investigation
in harmony with its own peculiar laws, but when it relates to an organism having its
beginning in time as an object, such as the ethical associations of the State or the
Church." — Encykl., p. 16, sq. Comp. Harless, Encykl., p. 25.

THEOLOGY AS A POSITIVE SCIENCE. 5 J
what concerns the relation of the human organism to the organ
ism of external nature; i. e., the relations of health and disease.'
If diseases should cease, medical science would come to an end.
And similarly, in connexion with theology, Hellenistic Greek and
Hebrew have a different significance for the philologist,'' and
Church-history for the historian, than they have for the theologian ;
and the comprehension, e. g., of exegesis. Church-history, etc., in a
single course, can be understood only in view of the common ob
ject to which they relate. "These very sciences cease Theguidanceof
to be theological, and take their places respectively 'he church the
with the particular science to which they belong by ogy^and its wn-
reason of their contents, if they have been acquired dred sciences.
and are held without reference to the life of the Church and its di
rection." "The great varieties of scientific knowledge stand related
to the purpose of participating in the guidance of the Church, as
does the body to the soul ; and without such purpose the unity of
theology disappears, and its constituents fall into distinct elements."
(Schleiermacher, § 6, 7). This, however, is not universally admitted.'
While in former times empiricism prevailed, and tho mere
thought of future practice frequently served to prevent
thoroughness in study, we now find dominant a scien- excess of the
tific spirit that mocks at life, and, with cruel harshness, ^"'^"''^''^p •¦•
drives from its presence the most crying demands of actual con
ditions. The example of Dr. Griffin (in the Memoires de Paris)
affords a melancholy illustration of the manner in which the very
hospitals are made to afford opportunities for scientific observa
tions on the part of medical men. In like manner, a certain theol
ogy claims the right to undertake its merciless vivisections on
' The anatomy of man, for instiuice, is simply a contribution to comparative anatomy
with the natural philosopher, while with the medical mtm it forms the soil upon which
his practical activity is based. To the botanist each plant is of equal value with any
other ; while the physician has a distinct science of therapeutics (materia medica), etc
" A genius for language is generally regarded as at the same time a. theological
genius, and a certificate of philological talent passes for the best assurance of the
ological fitness ; but real philologists (by profession) have themselves comprehended
that the one does not necessarily involve the other. " The connexion of theology with
philology is more properly an accidental one, arising from the fact that the principal
documents of the former are written precisely in that language to Ivhioh the latter
ascribes the highest classical character." — Passow's Leben u. Briefe, pp. 38, 12.
'Sartorius, Die Lehre von der heil. Liebe, Part I, 3d ed., Stuttgart, 1851 (new
h vol., ed. 1861) — in harmony with the Victorines and Middle Age mystics gener
ally — makes the sound observation : " Theology is a practical science, a knowledge
that pervades the affections, and stands connected with the disposition." (The term
" pectoral theology " has been invented for purposes of ridicule ; but the adage, " Pec
tus est, quod disertum facit," cannot be limited, in its application, to the orator alone.)

60 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
the body of the Church, in order to observe the palpitating spasms
of the heart which the anatomical knife has laid bare to the view.
The recent times furnish terrible illustrations of this spirit. Are
men determined not to comprehend that such inconsiderate asser
tion of the chaims of science forces science itself to become unnat
ural, and that, whatever may be thought about the height to which
such methods may seem to force it, they yet sever the root' upon
which the life of science depends, and thus ensure its death ? ' Let
it be observed, how^ever, that the very organization of universities
in faculties, which has hitherto prevailed, is based on the distinction
between the pure and the positive or applied sciences, which we
have indicated." Philosophy, as a distinct university science, has
to do with pure knowledge, and therefore deserves, not the last,
but the first, place.' Medicine, jurisprudence, and theology are
internally allied with it, though in their external bearing they face
toward actual life, and derive from life their peculiar character as
determined by its conditions.
When compared with law and medicine, the remaining positive
Relations of sciences, theology is found to present numerous points
law"!*!^ med^ °^ contact with both, and even to manifest a closer re-
cine. lationship with either than they bear to each other. It
rests upon the foundation of historic fact, like jurisprudence, and
presupposes the Church, as jurisprudence does the State. The.
courses and apparatus of study in law and theology present a sim
ilar appearance (exegesis, history, dogmatics, Bible, and Corpus
Juris), and in their practical application each involvfes public dis
course and the functions of direction and administration. The two
meet and interpenetrate each other in the department of ecclesi
astical law. But the regulative principle of theology is, never
theless, wholly unlike that of law; the latter has to do with firm
and legally-determined forms, the former with a free development
of life. A judicial theology is not what we could wish, for it
would appear as a false positivism. (See the remarks on Law and
Doctrine, § 7). Theology does not deal with an element of human
life, such as the principle of right, in the abstract, but with the living
' There is a papacy and hierarchy of learning and science, a fanatical tyranny exer
cised by the iftanied classes. Their motto is, "Fiat scientia et pereat mundus." —
Liicke, p. 10.
" Schleiermacher, Ueber Universit., p. 73 sqg., p. 76 : " The three faculties (exclud
ing philosophy) do not derive their unity immediately from learning, but from an
external employment, and they combine from different stodies whatever is needed for
that work." Comp. Herbart Phil. Encykl., chap. 2. (On man in his relations to
nature, the State and tlic Church, whence the author deduces the three faculties).
'Schleieimacher, 1. c, p. 78 ; K.ant, Ueber den Streit der Faoultiiten.

THEOLOGY AS A PRACTICAL ART. 61
man in all his relations. Its work is not mandatory, but curative;
and this connects the theologian with the physician, particularly in
the field of pastoral theology.
The care of souls reaches over into the physical realm, in view
of the intimate connexion between soul and body. The physician
and the clergyman meet beside the sick bed, not only in outward
form, I ut also in the profoundest depths of man's need of healing
(medicina clerica). The moral and intellectual qualities required
in the physician are also to be in many respects demanded of the
clergyman, and vice versa. Humanity, apart from what is specific
ally Christian, forms here the connecting link. An individualizing
method of treatment is even more apparent in the work of physicians
and clergymen than in that of jurists; their personal contact with
the subjects of their labours is more frequent, diflScult to determine,
and constant. The theologian is accordingly required The qualities
to unite in himself qualities which are usually presumed ^^I'njjeai'nthe
in both the jurist and the medical practitioner. He theologian.
must possess the historic sense, the disposition to labour in a legiti
mate way in behalf of a historically-developed society, and the gift
of oratory, in common with the lawyer; and with the physician he
must possess the talent for giving direction to the life of individ
uals, and for noting the mysteries of the psychical life, an observing
eye, keen discrimination in the treatment of different persons, and,
finally, the, desire to heal and to change diseased conditions into
states of health. In former times theology embraced both the other
sciences, and nourished them in its maternal womb; and their sub
sequent separation, though resulting in advantage to them all, does
not warrant a disregard of their continued relations to each other.
It forms one of the advantages of a university course (in contrast
with the opportunities afforded by schools devoted to a specialty),
that such relations become apparent and are partially actualized
before its studies are completed. The theologian may gather in
formation from the jurist and the physician, and each is able to aid
the others in behalf of science and future usefulness from his own
possessions. SECTION II.
THEOLOGY Ai) A PRACTICAL AET.
The relations arising from a positively determined field of activity
not only demand a certain measure of intellectual ac- p,.g^,jjg^i ^g
quisitions, but likewise a high degree of practical abil- the object of
ity; hence, theology is not to be onesidedly regarded "'^°"'8^-
as a speculative or historical science, but also as a practical art or
art-theory.

03 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
Pelt (Encykl., § 3) has propei-ly called attention to this fact;
for "the general interest of the thought docs not predominate in
theology as in philosophy; the object is not to gain a consciousness
of the truth, without reference to its application ; ' the leading idea
is, rather, that by means of such consciousness the Church should
be brought nearer to its consummation" (ibid. p. 34). The word
art {t^x^i}) is here taken in its most gener.al meaning, as denoting
free .action in conformity to recognized principles.
SECTION III.
THEOLOGY IN ITS HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT.
Zezsehwltz, G., Der Entwlcklungsgang der Theologie als Wissenschaft (particularly Its prac
tical development). Leips., 1?67.
Christian theology, regarded as the aggregate of the various
Christian theol- methods and forms of positive knowledge which have
ogyconditioned i-gfereuce to the Christian religion and Church, is whol-
by the history of . ° ' .
Christianity. ly conditioned by the existence of that religion and
Church; and its scientific character can accordingly be understood
only in connexion with the actual state of Christianity in the cor
responding period.
Comp. Schleiermacher, §-4. The attempt to explain theology
from the etymology of the word will surely dead to error. In its
highest character it is unquestionably divinity, the doctrine of Gtd
.and divine things ; and apart from this idea it becoiqes a dead
aggregate of the most various learning. This learning, however,
enters into the body of theology, however variously modified the
latter may be by the conditions of each successive period. The
m.an who should attempt to become a "theologian" in the way of
simply speculating about God, would speedily find his expectations
crumbling into ruin. The theologian is obliged, rather; to give
attention to very human matters, -as grammar, history, etc., the
knowledge of which has become necessary through the progress of
historical development. The incipient theologian, placed at the
very center of the present, will be unable to appreciate the com
plexity of his science unless he has a preliminary knowledge of its
liistory. The word theology passed over from heathen into Christian
Origin of the usage. They who, among the ancients, were able to
term theology, furnish information respecting the nature and history
of the gods, were termed theologians; the word was so applied to
' Fichte, however, demanded that the university should not simply transmit knowl.
edge to the students, but that it should become a school for teaching the art of scien
tifically employing the understanding. Comp. his life, by J. H. Fichte, Part i, p. 622,

HISTORY OP THEOLOGY. 63
Pherecydes of Syrbs (Olymp. 45-49; B. C. 600) and Epimenides of
Crete (Olymp. 64-68), a contemporary of Pythagoras.' In the
earliest Christian age the word theology was understood to signify
the doctrines of the divinity of the Logos, and of the Trinity;
and, in accordance with this view, John the Apostle and Gregory
Nazianzen were called theologians. The Middle Ages were the
first to include in Christian Theology the whole body TueMiddieAge
of Christian doctrine ; and some (e. g., Abelard) con- sense of the
tinned to employ the word preferably in connection ^"^^ theology.
with the doctrine of the Trinity even then. It was the leading
characteristic of the scholastic theology that it was chiefly con
cerned with speculative representations of the Divine nature and its
attributes. The mystics, on the other hand, whose modes of speech
were adopted by Luther and also by Spener and Francke, understood
by theology a courageous entering into the nature of religion itself,
or the absorption of the mind in God — hence the title of the book,
Theologia Germanica, and the maxim, " Oratio, meditatio, tentatio
faciunt theologum." The modern interpretation, by which theology
denotes the aggregate of the knowledge which bears upon the life
of the Church, could only originate after a more definite organiza
tion of its several I sciences had taken place; but the thing itself
was previously known under difEerent designations.
The scientific treatment of religion, or rather of its doctrines, was
called deoAoyiKri npayiiaTeia, avvTayiia nioTeug, institutio divina, doc-
trina Christiana (Augustine), etc." A distinction was made between
TTLOTig and yvcoaig (imaTTJfMrf), the latter denoting the Theological
speculative apprehension of the doctrines of religion; ^^'christfan
and a further distinction existed between the true and church.
the false gnosis.' Theological schools were formed, the speculative
tendency predominating in that of Alexandria and the grammat
ical in that of Antioch. Various considerations led to a scientific
treatment of theology: 1) the needs of apologetics; it became
necessary to resist the attacks of scholars and philosophers with
similar weapons (Justin Martyr et al., Clement and Origen, Minu-
cius Felix, Tertullian) ; 2) the interests of polemics, the various
tendencies within the Church having resulted in doctrinal contro-
' Cicero, De nat. deor, iii, 21 ; Ernesti, Clavis on that passage; Plutarch, De defectu
oraeulor., xiv, p. 323, ed. Hutten ; Plato, Polit., lib. ii ; Arist., Metaph., x, 6 ; Diodor.
Sic, V, 80; Stephani Thesaur. lingua, gr. .>. v. deoUyo^; Pollux, Onomast., i, 19, 20.
The priests of the ancients were called Upel^, veuKapot, ^aKopni. ¦Kpn(pfiraL. inromiTa,i,
Ovrai, TeTicaral, hpovpyoi, Ka'&apTal, /iuvteic, ^eofuivTHi;, ;f/:)7(T/iij(!oi, XPI"!^"^?"^
XpnfJliodurai, rravaysLC, '^vpAopot, vinjpkTnl. '&Eovpyoi, ¦&vriTz6'kot . Ibid. 14.
'Semler, Introd. to Baumgarten's Glaubeuslehre, i, p. 110, sqq. '
"See Smith's Hagenbach, Hist, of Doctr., § 25, vol. i.

64 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
versies and in the rise of heresies. The councils, beginning with
„ .-, <.. the fourth century, settled the doctrines of the faith,
Origin of form- •" '
al Christian and furnished and prepared the material out of which
heoiogy. ^ later age constructed the edifice of church doctrines
(Athanasius, Basil the Great, Gregory of Nyssa, and Gregory Nazi
anzen, among Orientals ; and Augustine in the W^est).
The contents of theology continued to be Christian; but the
form of the various doctrines was influenced by the philosophies
(Platonism and Aristotelianism) which had from the first been
transplanted from heathen into Christian soil. Various intellectual
tendencies made themselves felt even within the orthodox catholic
Church; one of these attached more importance to what had come
down from previous ages, and contented itself with a simple figura
tive phraseology, while the other combined the whole of the material
sp transmitted into a body of doctrine, (Isidore of Seville and John
of Damascus, in the seventh and eighth centuries), and sought to
penetrate it intellectually, by means of a speculative apprehension
Eariy relations ^^^ dialectic treatment of the several dogmas. The
of philosophy effort to reconcile theology and philosophy, faith and
knowledge, the prescribed and the results of personal
thought, revelation and reason, was especially apparent in scholas
ticism in various directions (Scotus Erigena in the ninth century,
Abelard and Anselm in the eleventh). Philosophy, however, be
came more and more dependent on the established teaching of the
Church, and filled, while deceiving itself with the appearance of
independent action, a servant's place in the house of its mistress.
But theology, the mistress, likewise failed to emancipate herself,
and continued to bear the fetters of a dialecticism imposed upon it
from without. Aristotle ruled the Bible.
Exegetical and historical studies, formerly cultivated, were ne-
Middie Ages glected in comparison with systematic inquiries in the
dogmatic. twelfth and thirteenth centuries from Peter Lombard
to Thomas Aquinas. Such studies finally degenerated into an in
tolerable rage for disputation, and dogmatism gave way to scepti
cism. The mystics, however, especially in the fourteenth century.
Mysticism the Were inwardly preparing for a regeneration of the
fhe" Mom" Christian life and thought, when, in connexion with
tion. the so-called humanism, philology, criticism, and his
tory again became prominent, and exegetical studies, immediately
before the Reformation, resumed their flourishing condition. (Lau
rent. Valla, Reuchlin, and Erasmus.) Theology was obliged to
renew its youth under the influence of the Protestantism of the
sixteenth century (Luther, Zwingle, Calvin), which postulated the

THEOLOGY SINCE THE REFORMATION. 05
Scriptures as the only certain rule of faith, and based every thing
upon them. The study of the Bible took a freer range and became
more independent, and was made the broad substructure of the
body of Protestant doctrine. This body of doctrine was devel
oped by the Lutheran and Reformed theologians oi Development
the sixteenth and sevienteenth centuries with great ^e'^ProtebtaS
thoroughness, but not without retaining something of Churches.
the scholastic spirit and of polemical bitterness.
The effort was finally made, from the stand-point of science
(Calixtus), and especially from that of practical life (Spener and
Pietism), to return to the simple faith of the Scriptures, and to di
rect attention to properly religious needs, in contrast with a dead
orthodoxy. When Pietism began to lose its savor at the beginning
of the eighteenth century, philosophy gave it polemical support.
Wolfianism, having been preceded by Descartes and influenceofthe
Leibnitz, brought into theology a new (mathematically ^^y on^theot
demonstrative) formalism, and though still wearing an ogy.
orthodox garb, prepared the way for rationalism, which was still
further supported by the critical tendencies of Semler and others
in the second half of the eighteenth century.
"Dogmatics" was confined within increasingly limited bounds
and became more and more undecided in its bearing, while exegetical
beginning with Ernesti, and historical theology from the time of
Mosheim, acquired a more independent position. Extraordinary
changes in the other departments of life (e. g., the awakening of
German literature in Lessing, modern pedagogics, philanthropism)
exercised both an inciting and enlightening, a levelling and a secu
larizing influence upon the life of the Church. The Wolfenbiittel
Fragments threatened injury not only to the doctrines The woifen-
of the Church, but also to the historical basis of Chris- ^"'*^' .fT'!
' on historical
tianity. " Apologetics " showed itself embarrassed, and Christianity.
allowed outwork after outwork to be taken. At this juncture Kant
appeared and marked out the limits of reason, within which a re
ligion that renounced all knowledge of the supersensual and con
fined itself to the morality of the categorical imperative was
obliged, with its practical ideas of God, liberty, and immortality,
to content itself for the time. The speculative pressure of Ger
man philosophy, in Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel, soon again made
that its real object, which others, like Jacobi, reserved for a
faith based on the feelings. Schleiermacher was as earnestly en
gaged in the work of separating theology from the philosophy of
the schools, as in penetrating all its branches with a philosophic
glance and in pointing out the germs of their life. From that time
5

66 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
it has been the task of modern theology, before all else, to compre
hend its own nature in the light of history, and to secure a clear
idea of its relation to the present age. There is no lack of persons,
however, who ignore the whole of the historical development of
theolCgyi and believe it necessary to reconstruct every thing anew
from the beginning; while others still desire to conjure up the
theology of the seventeenth century much rather than that of the
sixteenth.' SECTION IV.
THEOLOGY AS RELATED TO THE PEEPAEATORY SCIENCES (PEOP.^-
DEUTICS).
Theology, like every other positive science, presumes a strictly
scientific school-training, since it treats the pure sciences as in part
preliminary to its work, and on the other hand continually employs
them as auxiliaries.
A distinction may be made with Bertholdt, between preliminary
Dstinction be- knowledge (propaedeutics) and auxiliary sciences (boe-
tweenthepre- thctics). The former gives to every person the neces-
paratory and ,-r- • i • t i ¦ n c
the auxiliary sary qualification, and indicates nis fitness tor entering
sciences. upon one of the university courses ; the latter are, in
addition, special aids to the study of theology. A study is fre
quently at once preparatory and auxiliary, e. g., Latin, Greek, and
history. The Hebrew language — even where it is taught in gym
nasia — is included among the ordinary branches of the school-cur
riculum solely for the sake of theology; we therefore reserve its
consideration, in common with that of biblical philology in gen
eral, until the discussion of properly theological studies, where
auxiliary sciences will receive attention.
SECTION V.
THE PREPARATORY SCIENCES.
Among pure sciences the languages and history hold the first
place with regard to their application to theology, and mathematics
' In this historical resitme we have had reference primarily to German theology, and
more particularly to that of Protestantism. Roman Catholic theology, wherever it
was living, passed through the same phases, especially in Germany. All that in other
lands (in either the Protestant or the Roman Catholic. Church) has acquired reputation
as theological science (which alone is here referred to, and not the practical churcli-
life), is more or less closely connected with the course of development in Germany. In
recent times a change has certainly taken place. The conflicts of German theology
have been shared by other lands more and more fully as time progressed, and the lib
eral tendency in particular, or even the negative, has found representatives in England,
France, and Holland. With reference to England, comp., among others, Mackay.
"The Tiibingen School and its Antecedents of the History and Present Condition of
Modern Theology." London, 18fi8. Also, the "Essays and Reviews," Colenso, etc.

DIVISIONS OF HU.MAN KNOWLEDGE. 67
and the natural sciences the second — and this both in a formal
and a material aspect. We therefore observe, that a Theological
liberal classical culture forms the only assured basis for on^'a"cfa^icai
a sound, Protestant, Christian theology. basis.
"Like him who leaves his country in his youth, so the departing
student looks back over the course of studies pursued while in the
school."' Without taking philosophy into consideration for the
present (comp. § V), we may place the remaining mass of empiri
cal knowledge in two principal divisions, the one of which presents
to us the world of bodies in space, and the other the DiTigjons of
world of spirits, or the moral world as it is developed knowledge—
rfi 1 I. 11 1 1 • • philosophy, na-
in time, lo the former belong the natural sciences in ture, and his-
their entire extent, together with mathematics, which '°''y-
constitutes their formal side; to the latter belong history and its
formal medium and organ, language.^ WhUe medicine, among the
applied sciences, is based upon the conditions of nature, jurispru
dence and theology rest upon an ethical and historical basis (comp.
§ I). Without desiring to reconcile here the pedagogical dispute
about humanism and realism,' we may say, without hesitation, that
'Herder, Anwendung dreier akad. Lehrjahre (Werke zur Rel. u. Theol., x, p. 164).
Upon this entire section comp. vol. i of Noesselt's Anweisung (Niemeyer's ed., 1808,
8vo), which, however, leaves much to be modiiied in accordance with the present con
dition of the science.
" The French apply the term sciences to the so-called exact sciences, but class phi
lology and history with "lettres," a distinction that is well-founded, although such
designations are misleading, and rest upon too realistic an idea of science. It is, of
course, understood that an absolute separation between the different sciences is im
possible, because they stand organically connected, and the transitions from one into
the field of another are frequent. Thus geography (both physical and mathematical)
must be classed with natural sciences, and is seen to be most intimately related to
several of them, e. g., geology ; but it forms, at the same time, the basis of history,
and is connected with ethnography and statistics. The conditions of nature are, sim
ilarly, also the first conditions of language; and orthoepy may be connected with
physiology. From this point of view J. Grimm called attention to the mysterious
laws that control our organs of speech ; to demonstrate these laws is the oflSce of nat
ural science. CSamp. the preface to the Deutsches Worterbuch, p. iii. W. Wacker-
nagfsl, in his preface to his work. Voces Variae Animantium, a contribution to natural
science and the history of language, 2d ed., Basle, 1869, likewise refers to this inti
mate connection of the sciences with each other. It may be added, too, that history
has its mathematical side, in chronology, etc., and that its first beginnings (inquiries
respecting the primeval world) are wholly lost in the investigations of natural history,
e. g., concerning the lake-dwellings. Nor can even the most recent history be properly
comprehended without duly estimating the revolutions in natural science, and their
inffuencft upon civilization.
' Comp. F. J. Niethammer, Der Streit des Philanthropismus u. Humanismus in der
Theorie des Erziehungsunterrichts unserer Zeit, Jena, 1808; A. Rauchenstein, Bem-
erkungen uber den werth der Alterthumstudien, Aarau, 1825 ; F. Thiersch, Ueber ge-

68 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOP..EDIA.
a classical, liberal culture,' which is of advantage to the medi
cal scholar also, is yet of peculiar service to the jurist and the
theologian. On a detailed review of the preparatory studies, the first rank
Philology the wiU be occupied by philology, which possesses great im-
paratory^'suial portance for the cultivation of the mind, irrespective of
ies. all inherent value. The whole work of instruction is
based upon the power of the word ; and for this reason the study
of the mother-tongue alone is important. The power of language
to cultivate the mind does not become manifest, however, until
the ability to compare several languages with each other has been
acquired. That especially the Greek and Latin, the (by way of
eminence) so-called ancient languages, are adapted to perform this
service, by reason of their wealth of forms and their definiteness,
is conceded by scholars. The style of classical expression reacts
¦ upon the mother-tongue to purify and strengthen it ; ^ and it is
lehrte Schulen, etc., Stuttgart, 1826, 2 vols. ; A. W. Eehberg, Sammtliche Schriften,
Hanover, 1828, i, p. 238, sqq. ; F. W. Klumpp, Die gelehrten Schulen nach den Grund-
satzen des wahren Humanismus u. den Anforderungen der Zeit, Stuttgart, 1829; L.
Usteri, Rede am Schulfeste 1829, Berne, 1830 ; Selections from German Literature,
Edwards & Park, Andover, 1839.
' " The humanities, indeed, took a much wider range with ancient Roman writers,
and included every kind of science that could contribute to human culture. See the
passage in Gellii noctt. Att. xiii, 15, and J. A. Ernesti, Prol. de finibus humaniorum
studiorum regendis, Lips., 1738, 4to. But since knowledge among the Romans was
really acquired by the reading and through the influence of good authors, and in more
modern times the whole of science was restored and started on its course by the same
means, that view gave way to the more limited sense in which polite literature or the
humanities is now taken." Noesselt, i, p. 106.
" Luther well illustrates the formal as well as the instrumental value of the ancient
languages in the following : " Let us cling to the languages as earnestly as we love the
Gospel. . . . And let it be remembered that without the languages we could not well
receive the Gospel. The languages are the sheath in which this sword of the Spirit
is contained. They are the casket in which this jewel is confined. Should it ever
come to pass, which God forbid, that the languages should escape our careless grasp,
we .should not only lose the Gospel, but finally reach the condition of being able to
speak and write in neither Latin nor German. Let us be admonished by the wretched,
horrible example of the high schools and monasteries, in which not only has the Gos
pel been lost, but also the Latin and German tongues have been corrupted, so that
the miserable people have been reduced almost to the level of brute beasts, unable to
speak and write either German or Latin correctly, and almost deprived' of natural
reason itself." " Where the languages are cultivated there is animation and energy,
the Scriptures are examined, and faith continually derives new inspiration from other
and still other words and works." See the address. An die Rathsherren aller Stadte
Deutschlands, dass sie christliche Schulen aufrichten und halteu sollen. Werke,
Walch's ed., x, p. 538, sqq. Similar passages occur in Zwingle ; see Werke, Usteri
and Vogeli's ed., Zurich, 1819, 1820, ii, pp. 265, sqq., 208, sqq.

THE STUDY OF ANCIENT LANGUAGES. 69
therefore necessary that the talent for philology should be devel
oped and the intellect be strengthened by the study of ^^^^^ ^^ ^^^
the classical models themselves rather than by that, for ancient classic
instance, of later ecclesiastical writers. Nothing but ^"^uages.
narrow-mindedness can discover danger to Christianity in this.'
Besides a formal value for the cultivation of the mind, however,
the theologian finds the languages, and particularly the ancient lan
guages, to be of practical utility, a point upon which but little need
be said, as it is self-evident.
The study of the ancient languages will of itself lead to the study
of history, for which reason modern philology combines The study of
in itself both linguistics and historical inquiry.'' It be- j^f°JJ puioi-
comes absolutely necessary for the theologian to attain ogy.
to a clear idea of the ancient world, if it were only to enable him
to contrast it with Christianity.' But, in addition, the habits of
'The Church-fathers already questioned how far the reading of, heathen authors
might be beneficial or injurious to Christians ; comp. the celebrated dream of Jerome
(Ep. xxii, ad Eustochium), the oration of Basil, llpof roif viovc, oiruf uv ff t7J\.riviKC>v
ixjieXolvTO Myuv (published separately by Sturz, Gera, 1791 ; in German, by F. G. Uhle-
mann in Illgen's Hist, theol. Zeitschr., part ii, p. 88, .igq., and by F. A. Nueszlin, Mann
heim, 1830). The monks in the time of the Reformation branded all Greek learning as
heretical ; but their opponents likewise doubted whether heathen antiquity could sup
ply the Christian theologian with the most healthful food ; comp. the letter of Felix
Myconius to Zwingle (0pp. vii, 1, p. 25S). In modern times the value of classical
studies has also been abundantly debated. Comp. E. Eyth, Classiker u. Bibel in den
niedern Gelehrtenschulen, Basle, 1838, 8vo. Per contra, K. Hirzel, Die Classiker in
den niedern Gelehrtenschulen, Stuttgart, 1838. With more direct reference to theol
ogy: C. H. Stirm, De Classicis, quos dicunt, scriptoribus in usum theol. christ. legendis,
in den Studien der Wiirtemb. Geistlichkeit, Stuttgart, 1838, vol. x. No. 2; L. Baur, Die
Classiker u. deren Einfluss auf den Geistlichen, ibid, ii, 1, p. 127, sqg. ; J. G. Krabinger,
Die Class. Studien u. ihre Gegner, Munich, 1853; K. L. Hundeshagen, Die Natur u.
geschichtl. Entwickelung der Humanitatsidee, in ihrem Verhaltniss zu Kirche u. Staat,
au oration, Berlin, 1853; J. E. Erdmann, Das Heidnische im Christenthum, Ber'in,
1854; S. Hirsch, Humanitat als Religion, etc., Treves, 1854 ; J. G. Miiller, Verhaltniss
der Classiker zum Heidenthum, in Gelzer's Prot. Monatsbl., 1856 ; E. Voigtherr, Der
Humanismus, a synodal oration, Glogau, 1857; F. C. Kirchhoff, Die Christliche Hu
manitat, an oration, Altona, 1859; G. Voigt, Die Wiederbelebung des Class. Alter-
thums, od. das erste Jahrhundert des Humanismus, Berlin, 1859; A. Boden, Ver-
theidigung deutscher Classiker gegen neue Angriffe, Erlangen, 1869.
* Schiller, What Means and For What Purpose do we Study Universal History ?
Works, vol. ii., pp. 346-352, Phila., 1861 ; J. G. Miiller, Briefe iib. das Studium d.
wissenschaften, besonders der Geschichte, Ziirich, 1817; E. B. Riihs, Entwurf einer
Propaedeutik des hist. Studiums, Berlin, 1811 ; W. Humboldt, Die Aufgabe des
Geschichtschreibers, in werke, 1841, I; Gervinus, Introduction to History of Nine
teenth Century, Lond., 1866 ; Droysen, Grundzuge der Historik, Leips., 1868.
' Christianity is assuredly appointed to overcome the world, including the heathen
world, and therefore what remains in us of pre-Christian culture. This subjugation, how-

70 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
thought presented in the Bible and Christianity, so contrary to
those of heathenism, can only be appreciated by him who has
come to understand the spirit of antiquity. It is necessary to have
regard, not only to the history of the Greeks and Romans, but
also to the history of Oriental peoples ' in its relation to the
Bible ; and likewise to that of the Middle Ages and more recent
times, without which Church history cannot be understood. But
history and the attention given to it are not only of material value,
as making us acquainted with niatters of fact ; there is also a for
mal, fashioning element, the quickening of the historic sense, which
must not be overlooked. History should not, therefore, be consid
ered simply as dealing with nations and states, but, in the spirit
of Iselin and Herder, as comprehending in its province the entire
human race. In harmony with this conception, the history of man's
spiritual culture should be made prominent as its subjective feature.
While the study of languages and history thus forms the real
Uses of mathe- basis for theological study, mathematics and the natural
maticai knowi- g^jgncgg are not without value to its prosecution. The
edge to the , , i
theologian. formative value of mathematics is unquestioned; it af
fords the test of the mind's demonstrative power,' and is some
times called a practical logic, like the science of language. Its
philosophical value has, however, been overrated. Mathematical
modes of thought are as unsatisfactory in theology as juridical.
Mathematics has to do with mensurable and calculable quantities
(form and numbers), while the immeasurable nature of ideas cannot
be forced into circles and equations. The wonderful blending of
spiritual and intellectual life, the numerous and various shades of
thought, which often elude the grasp of the most flexible and skil
ful language, cannot possibly be compressed into an expression like
a+5. Not unfrequently that which, when broadly considered, is
entirely true, becomes an untruth when the attempt is made to fix
it arid to grasp it with an unimaginative and ideal-less understand
ing. Many misconceptions have arisen in this way. ^ A notion that
ever, is not to be an expulsion, as if of demoniac powers which must be cast out to make
way for the Divine Spirit. If we have recognized the connection running through the
different stages of development in the human history of the past, we can regard as the
ultimate task nothing else than the reconciliation in us of the contrast between the two
spiritual powers which may be termed the leading factors in the history of civilization,
viz., Hellenism and Christianity.'' Curtius, in Gelzer's Monatsbl., August, 1858, p. 85.
' "Hence," says Herder (Sophron., p. 89), "that which Pythagoras inscribed upon
a hall of learning, ' Without geometry let none enter here,' might properly be written
on the doors of the higher classes in gymnasia."
''Goethe remarks (Farbenl, ii, p. 158), "A great portion of what is commonly called
superstition has its origin in an erroneous application of mathematics." Let memory

USES OF THE NATURAL SCIENCES. 71
meets with special favor among cultivated laymen, is that astron
omy sustains a near relation to theology, because each is a science
of heaven. But the astronomical heaven is not that of Arfronomy not
theology, nor does " the sublimity we seek " in the world [^'j^'J^t^o'^'tbeot
of morality and religion, dwell even in infinite space; ogy-
for not all the evidences of the stars are able to lead to the star
of Bethlehem. This was acknowledged by Lalande when he had
mca.sured the entire heavens without finding God. Tho knowledge
of the starry heavens M'ill, nevertheless, adorn the theologian as
well as other cultivated persons, and the two sciences, however
they may diverge in other respects, may meet in a poetical trans
figuration in the symbol of Urania. The natural sciences in their
whole extent lie nearer to the theologian than does astronomy as a
distinct science.
These sciences were formerly considered from a theologidal point
of view as supports to theology; while, in recent times. Acquaintance
they are often compelled to do duty as sign-boards of y™ 'scienora
infidelity, as though their progress could no longer important.
harmonize with the theistic belief in God and immortality, nor yet
with the more distinctively Christian faith in the truths of Revela
tion. It will be found that they whose understanding of the sub
ject is least perfect appeal most frequently to such progress, while
many who are ignorant are afraid of ghosts. ' With regard to the
Bible it is necessary first of all to comprehend its relation to the
natural sciences (which belongs to apologetics), and afterward to
secure a thorough understanding of the matter in question, partic-
recall, for instance, the mathematical figures with which Gerbert (Sylvester ii) sought
to demonstrate the doctrine of transubstantiation in the eucharist. Similar attempts
were made in ancient times in connection with the trinity. Franz Baader, and even
Hegel, toiled mightily for a time, to apply triangles and squares to the doctrine of the
trinity ; comp. Rosenkranz in life of Hegel, pp. 101, 102. " Mathematics," says
Beiigel, " affords useful aid in certain directions, but it dethrones the understanding
in relation to truths that are wholly foreign to its forum. The desire for only definite
conceptions is fatal to living ones. There are different organs for different concep
tions ; the eyes will not serve for hearing, nor the ears for seeing," etc. Burk, Leben
Bengels, p. 71. Comp. also the passage from Melanchthon, infra, § 81, note 10.
' A single word of Goethe's : " Let intellectual culture continue its progress, let the
natural sciences increase more and more in extent and depth, and the human intellect
expand to the utmost of its desire — they will never pass beyond the sublimity and
moral culture of Christianity, as it appears in the Gospel." Eekermann, Conversa
tions with Goethe, p. 568. Fr. Fabri, Briefe gegen den Materialismus, Stuttgart, 1856 ;
Bohner, Naturforschung und culturleben in ihren neuesten Ergebnissen, etc., Hanover,
1859. A peculiar attempt to illustrate the Bible by the book of nature, and to inter
pret the latter by the former, is made by Zockler, in Entwurf einer system. Natur-
theol. vom offenbarungsglaubigen Standpunkte aus, Frankfort, 1859.

k.-

72 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
ularly with reference to the primeval world and its relation to the
Mosaic history of creation. ' SECTION VI.
THEOLOGY IN ITS EELATION TO THE ARTS AND GENERAL CULTURE.
An artistic preparation, the habit of regarding life in its ideal
aspects, and of engaging in original efforts, particularly in the field
of language is required in addition to the prelinjinary scientific
training ; a Christian culture resulting from religious instruction
previously imparted, is presupposed.
This artistic preparation is still too greatly neglected. More at-
uses of sesthet- tention should be given to stimulating the sense of the
ic culture. beautiful in early youth, for an imagination nourished
by poetry is as necessary a condition for the theologian as is an
understanding practised in history, language, and mathematics.'
Early practice in written as well as oral expression, and also in free
discourse, will especially be of inestimable value to the future
' Comp. William Bucklaud, Geology and Mineralogy Considered with Reference to
Natural Theology, London, 1837, 2 eds., 2 vols. ; Philadelphia, 1 vol. 12mo, and in
Bohn's Library, 12mo; Fr. Pfaff, Die Schopfungsgeschichte, Frankf. on the Main, 1855;
Bohner, Die freiforschende Bibeltheologie u. ihre Gegner, Zurich, 1859 ; the review by
P. Kind (in the Swiss Ministerial Association, 1863, and the subsequent discussions);
Reusch, Bibel u. Natur, etc., Freiburg, 1870; ZoUman, Bibel u. Natur in der Harmonie
ihrer Offenbarungen, 3 ed., Hoinburg, 1871; Jos. Huber, Die Lehre Darwin's, kritisch
betrachtet, Munich, 1871 ; and the English and American reviews of Darwinism.
The theological works of Paley, Sander, Bonnet, Reimarus, Brougham, and the
Bridgewater Treatises, nevertheless contain much that is stimulating ; but far supe
rior to these is Humboldt's Cosmos. Bengel, I. c, observes : " It is not right that the
study of physics is so neglected, and that such a parade should be made of a sublime,
metaphysical comprehension of the universe. But it was likewise true of the an-
cients that the general ideas of philosophers were made a cloak to conceal their igno
rance." In our day the neglect of certain theologians to acquaint themselves with
natural science is especially inexcusable. In the face of the ignorance that results,
unbelief will be able to appeal more shamelessly and defiantly to the progress of
those sciences. To close the eyes against facts, and, Bible in hand, to fight against
infidelity, or to meddle in a desultory way with a science which is but superficially
understood, can only serve to make theology ridiculous in the eyes of specialists ; and
if the attempt result from a well-meant apologetic purpose it will produce more harm
than good.
" It may be boldly asserted that a lack of poetic apprehension, for which precocious
speculation is no substitute, has led to thousands of orthodox and heterodox absurdi
ties. The secret of Herder's theology and its refreshing influence lies in this poetic
veirt, which the most learned minds so often miss. On the pedagogical value of the
fine arts comp. Herder, Sophron, pp. 82, sgg., 80, sgg. ; concerning the improvement
of the vernacular, ibid., p. 197, sgg. How unjust is the charge of Staudenmaier that
Herder pursued theology in the spirit simply of an sesthetical coquetry ! (Comp. his
Dogmatik, vol. i). He was simply no scholastic.

PHILOSOPHY AND THEOLOGY. 73
theologian. Rhetoric and poetry in the field of art are parallel with
philology and history in that of science. A practical acquaintance
with the plastic arts may not be required of the theologian, but his
mind should not be indifferent to painting, sculpture, and archi
tecture, more than it should be closed to the charms of nature.
The great importance of art will become apparent in connection
with liturgies. Architecture holds the same relation to the theo
logian in the domain of art that astronomy does in that of science,
without regard to the historical relations sustained by art toward
the history of saints and the Church. Music, especially, which
stands midway between the oratorical and the formative arts and
is closely allied to poetry, is truly theological, and was cultivated
by Luther.' The skilful fingering of an instrument is not the
principal object to be desired, but much more the cultivation of
singing and of acquaintance with the nature of music. Without
the latter knowledge the theologian will be debarred from entering
on an essential department of Christian worship. Inasmuch, how
ever, as all theology stands related to religion, and can school and
only be comprehended through that relation, it will be of Teiigious'^'^
necessary that the incipient theologian should not only feeling.
possess religious feeling in a general way, but that he should have
acquired religious culture in the preparatory schools. Much, in this
connexion, depends of course upon the character of the religious in
struction imparted in such schools, which, though not designed for
future theologians alone, may nevertheless be very stimulating and
adapted to their needs." To these must be added, moreover, the
influence of the Christian home, and the impression of Christian fel
lowship which is produced by the worship of the sanctuary. How
many an excellent theologian, especially among the older men, was
first impelled to consecrate himself to this calling by beholding the
shining example of some distinguished preacher. The first guiding
impulse came from thence, not from the school, which can only for
ward the development.
' Luther judged "that next to the word of God nothing is so deserving of esteem
and praise as music, for the reason that it is a queen over the heart, able and mighty
to control its every movement, though such emotions often rule and control man as if
they were his master. ... I therefore desire that this art be commended to all per
sons, and especially the young, and that they be admonished to love and cherish this
precious, useful, and joyous creature of God." Werke, Walch's ed., part xiv, p. 407.
" Music is a beautiful, glorious gift from God, and near to theology " (in Table Talk).
' Comp. Hagenbach, Bedeutung des Religionsunterrichts auf hohem Lehranstalten,
Ziirich, 1846.

74 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
J
SECTION VII.
THE RELATIONS OF THEOLOGY TO PHILOSOPHY.
F. E. Schulz, Selbststandlgkelt und Abhanglgkeit, Oder Philosophic und Theologie in Ihrem
gegenseitigen Verhaltniss betrachtet, Glessen, 1823 ; K. Ph. Fischer, iiber den Begrlll der Phl-
losophie, Tiibingen, 18.30, 8 ; Heinr. Schmid, uber das Verhaltniss der Theologie zur Phllosophle,
m der Opposilionsschrllt, edited by Schmid, Friess, u. SchrOter, vol. 1, 1 ; J. H. Fichte, iiber
Gegensatz, Wendepunct und Zlel heutiger Phllosophle, Heidelberg, 1836 ; A. Gengder, iiber das
Verhaltniss der Theologie zur Philosophie, Landshut, 1826 ; G. A. Gabler, de Vera Philosophlae
erga Rellgionem Christianam Pletate, Bsrl., 1836; K. Stefteusen, das Menschliche Herz und die
Phllosophle (In Gelzer's Protest. Monatsblttttcru), 1854, p. 285, sqq. ; L. P. Hlckock, Theology
and Philosophy In Conflict, American Presb. Review, vol. xii, 204 ; E. Hitchcock, The Philoso
pher and the Theologian, Bib. Sacra., vol. x, 1C6.
Philosophy should be the constant companion of theology, but
Phi o h th ^^^^ ^^ to retain, without interchange or confusion, its
companion of own peculiar field. Its work does not consist in tho
eoogy. merely logical process of connecting thoughts together
(arrangement), nor in the exercise of an occasional criticism (rea
soning) ; but rather in combining the great variety of matter
into a higher unity for the consciousness. This can only be
done after the material has been furnished from without, by ex
perience and history. Philosophy can neither invent the needed
material in the exercise of its own authority, nor destroy or make
it other than it is through a pretended transformation or idealizing
process. We purposely designate philosophy as the cotnpanion of theol
ogy, in opposition to the view that the study of philosophy may
be finished before that of theology begins, which affords the surest
way to disgust the theologian with philosophy. The application
of philosophy to theology has been the subject of controversy
from the beginning. A warning against false philosophy occurs
Relations ol as early as Col. ii, 8. Irenseus and Tertullian opposed
EogftS the Gnostic, speculative tendency in theology, while
historically. other Church fathers, the Apologists, Alexandrians,
and especially Origen made use of it. The quarrel between the
schoolmen and the positive theologians, Roscelin, Abelard, with
Bernard of Clairvaux, turned especially upon the relations of phi
losophy to theology, and the philosophical dispute (realism and
nominalism) between the schoolmen themselves likewise reacted on
theology. The perversion of philosophy by the schola'^tics, and the mistaken
habit of relying on authorities, which served to poison philosophy
in its inmost nature, gradually led from dogmatism to scepticism.
A point was reached where it appeared necessary to distinguish
between philosophy and theology in such a wjiy as to admit of

PHILOSOPHY IN GERMANY. 75
truth in either science becoming untruth in the other. It is not
•surprising that, as the result, philosophy again declined in favour,
and that empiricism was opposed to it as being the only trust
worthy method of reasoning (Roger Bacon). Philosophy was still
in its decline when the Reformation came, and the Reformation
did not at all favour what then passed for philosophy; for its
own origin was not due to the desire for a better philosophic sys
tem, but to the longing to possess the true sources of salvation
which were found in the Scriptures. Luther emploved
• 1 i 1 , , ., , „ . . Luther's oppo-
even violent language to oppose the philosophy of Aris- sitiontophiios-
totle and "old Madam Weathercock, the reason;" but °^^^-
not so Zwingle, who made use of philosophy in a peculiar manner
(his relation to Ficus of Mirandola). The dogmatical works of
Calvin and Melanchthon give evidence that they, too, were not un
acquainted with philosophic thought ; but in the Lutheran Church
many, nevertheless, accepted Luther's opinions in opposition to
philosophy.' In the Roman Catholic Church the Jansenists opposed and the
.lesuits favored philosophy; but which one was the Jesuitical phi
losophy? After the Reformation Aristotle was more Philosophy m
favorably regarded in the Protestant Church, and at thechurohait-
, , GT" IDG JElGIOr-
the beginning of the seventeenth century Martini,' in mation.
his " Vernunftspiegel," defended the use of philosophy against the
Magdeburg centuriators.'' When Descartes (1569-1650) appeared,
powerful voices were raised against him in the Church, and disputes
about this matter took place in the Netherlands. The populace
applied the name of " Globenichts " (believe nothing) to the great
Leibnitz, and the zealous clergy gave their approval. Spinoza stood
alone, identified with no ecclesiastical communion.
When, at the beginning of the eighteenth century. Wolf lectured
on a modified Leibnitzian philosophy in his strictly demonstrative
method, he was opposed in Halle by the Pietists and expelled (in
1723), but afterwards recalled (in 1740). Philosophy now received
recognition, at least in its formal aspects, and its proofs were re
garded as supports to orthodoxy, until Kant (1724-1804) de-
' Bugenhagen, too, was accustomed to write in family albums : " Si Christum
disois, eatis est, si cetera nescis ;" but he added, " Hoc non est philosophiam et
artes liberales ecclesiae et scholis necessarias contemnere, sed sine Christo nihil pro-

" Vernunftspiegel, i. e., a statement of what Reason, together with its product Phi
losophy, is, its extent, and especially its use in religious matters, in opposition to all
assailants of Reason and slanderers of Philosophy, but especially in opposition to
some uncouth libels which have gone out of Magdeburg these two years. Wittenb.
1618. 4.

76 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
stroyed these supports. The progress of philosophy could not
Influence of henceforth be ignored by theology, without degradation
Ki\pt on phi- to its own Scientific character. The one-sided influence
osophy. ^^ ^j^g Kantian philosophy upon theology was clearly
apprehended by men like Herder; but the age, nevertheless, be
came rationalistic, possessed neither of a speculative nor of the
more profound religious spirit. It was reserved for Fichte's ideal
ism, Schelling's doctrine of the absolute, and Hegel's doctrine
of the immanent spirit, to exalt the profound life-issues of Christ
ianity, which Kant imagined he had disposed of by the introduc
tion of a one-sided morality, into speculative questions of jdMIos-
ophy. Others, as F. Jacobi, Fries, etc, who laid stress upon the
distinction between faith and knowledge, assigned to subjective
feeling what the philosophers already named (particularly Hegel)
sought to elevate into demonstration through the energetic action
of thought; while Herbert and his followers assumed indifference
„ ^, . „ toward theology. Schleiermacher, who was by no means
Schleiermach- . ,, . , ,
er's aim as to averse to really profound speculation, and who was the
pwiosophy. j^^g^ skilful dialectician of his day, yet desired that
philosophy and theology should remain distinct, though he applied
philosophy to the treatment of theological questions. His simple
object was that theology should no more be lost in speculation, than
religion, which he regarded as an affair of the feelings, should be
^. . . lost in thinking. The Hegelian school was divided into
The divisions <. i t c i • i
of the Hegeh- two wings after the master's death, one of which (the
an School. right) took sides with Christianity, and the other against
it, sinking even to the level of common freethinking (nihilism).'
The speculative tendency served, on the other hand, to stimulate
certain parties to attempt an independent philosophy of Christianity
and to seek its reconciliation with theology. A period of exhaust
ion and suspicion with reference to speculative thought was, how
ever, gradually introduced among theologians, which, in the end,
resulted in the serious alienation of the two connected sciences
from each other, if not in placing a gulf between them. Under
the influence of the natural sciences a systematic scepticism was
developed, which, on its religious side, passed over into Buddhism
(Arthur Schopenhauer).
In England, the Deism which appeared in the time of Charles I.,
and was represented by a succession of writers until Hume
(1776), profoundly affected the development of a"pologetic theology.
Hobbes (1588-1679) resolved all politics into absolutism and relig
ion into statecraft. He held it to be the business of the king to
' Comp. J. W. Hanne, Der Moderne Nihilismus, Bielefeld, 1842.

PHILOSOPHY AND THEOLOGY. 77
prescribe the religious faith of his subjects. His atheistic opinions
were attacked by Cudworth (1617-1688), particularly his denial of
free-will and the immutability of moral distinctions. Lord Herbert
of Cherbury (1581-1648) attempted to fix the principles of univer
sal religion, which he made to be five, and denied all of Christianity
not included under these. Locke's (1632-1704) "Essay on the Hu
man Understanding " confirmed the disposition to apply the so-called
principles of reason to the judgment of Christianity; he remained
himself a devout believer. Toland (1669-1722) carried the devel
opment of rationalism still further in his " Christianity not Myste
rious." He denies that there is any mystery in Christianity. An
thony Collins (1676-1729) in his "Discourse on the Grounds and
Reasons of the Christian Religion," is the first English writer to
accept the title of Free-thinker. He examines the historic founda
tions of Christianity, and asserts, as Strauss has asserted in our
day, that Christianity is only ideally true. Lord Shaftesbury (1671-
1713) argued from his doctrine of innate ideas (in opposition to
Locke) and the disinterestedness of virtuous conduct that a super
natural revelation is superfluous. Matthew Tindal (1657-1733) in
his " Christianity as Old as the Creation ; or. The Gospel a Republi
cation of the Religion of Nature," tried to show that natural relig
ion is complete in itself and has, therefore, no need of supernatural
additions. Thomas Morgan (f 1743) in his "Moral Philosopher"
makes moral law the test of religion, and finds reason therefrom
for rejecting Christianity. These philosophers of the deistical
school were thoroughly met by numerous Christian apologists. Dr.
Samuel Clarke (1675-1729), besides his attempted d priori demon
stration of the being of God, wrote on the " Truth and Certainty
of the Christian Revelation." Bishop Berkeley (1684-1753) used
his system of philosophic idealism as a means of establishing the
truth of the existence of God. Bishop Butler (1692-1752)
summed up the replies of the Christian apologists to the deistical
writers of his age in his immortal Analogy. This work still
holds its place as one of the most complete defences of Christianity
ever written.
Hume (1711-1776) by his essay on "Miracles" and his "Dia
logues concerning Natural Religion " gave the sceptical philosophy a
new impulse. His objections to miracles received more replies than
can be here named; his objection to the idea of causality, as usually
received by philosophers, awakened the mind of Kant, and led the
latter to work out his " Critique of the Pure Reason." Philosophic
thought, as applied to Christianity, in our time has been greatly in
fluenced by James Mills and Coleridge, the one a representative of

78 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOP.^DIA.
the sensational, the other of the intuitional school. Each has had
numerous successors.
In America speculation received its first impulse from Jonathan
Fhiioso hic Edwards (1703-1758), who framed a theory of the
speculation in human will as a philosophic basis for the Calvinistic,
menca. theology. His principles were further developed by
his son, Jonathan Edwards the younger (1745-1801), Samuel Hop
kins (1721-1803), Nathanael Emmons (1745-1840), and Timothy
Dwight (1752-1817). Some of these followers pushed the opinions
of their master to extreme conclusions. Among the opponents of
Edwards's theory of the will may be named Henry P. Tappan
(Review of Edwards' Inquiry into the Freedom of the Will), and
D. D. Whedon (The Freedom of the Will). Dr. James M'Cosh
has applied the inductive method to the examination of the divine
government with a view to the reconciliation of nature and revela
tion (The Method of the Divine Government, Physical and Moral).
Theodore Parker elaborated an absolute religion, intuitional in its
character, but subversive of historical Christianity. The denial of
Theism has been combated by various writers, among whom may
be named Laurens P. Hickock (Creator and Creation), Asa Mahan
(Natural Theology), and Borden P. Bowne (The Philosophy of Her
bert Spencer; Theism). The denial of all philosophy by Comte has
also received much attention from metaphysicians in the United
States. Thus far the historical review. It shows that theology has never
Fact demon- been able to separate itself from philosophy, but that,
wstorfca^ re- °^ *^® Other hand, no lasting union between the two, or
view. rather, between theology and any particular philosophy,
has been practicable. To give no attention to philosophy would
be the simplest expedient, but also the most objectionable, and
impossible; for in this age no one can have the hardihood to pur
sue a theological (dogmatical) discussion without a preliminary
training in philosophy, which, moreover, must not be confined to
the ancient and wholly formal logic of the schools. The necessity
of formal logic has always been understood, although its scien
tific value has been variously estimated ; but the conviction has
been reached that the arrangement of a system and the line of evi
dence to be adopted, are themselves dependent on the intellectual
point of view from whence the system is controlled. The main
matter is to secure the point of view. The reliance upon so-called
sound common sense, with which, no doubt, many seek to supply
the lack of philosophical acquirements, is likewise misplaced in the
field of science ; eclecticism is of little benefit to the student who

LIMITATIONS OF PHILOSOPHY. 79
is misinformed about the things among which he is to choose.' It
thus becomes absolutely necessary to undertake the study of phi
losophy ; and since it can rarely be reached in the preparatory
schools, it is desirable that students of theology should begin phi
losophy in the first period of their course, in order to be nourished
by it into strength, before they approach dogmatics, the heart of
theology. ° Philosophy is simply a clear recognition by the mind
of its own constitution, and all sound philosophy should take its
rise in that recognition, or, in other words, in legitimate T^e object oi
thinking upon the ultimate grounds of all thought.' It »" philosophy.
should aid every student in attaining to a clear understanding of his
own nature, and thus place him in a position to easily comprehend
the organic connection of the different departments of knowledge,
which is the objective goal of philosophy.' Unfortunately, many
students are more confused at the end of a course in philosophy than
they were at its beginning ; like the pupil before Mephistopheles,
they feel as if a mill-wheel were revolving in their heads.
In view of this danger, the choice of a teacher and the method
to be adopted are deserving of consideration. At this point the
'"Philosophy is most of all opposed to that intellectual barrenness, which general
ly ventures to assume the name of enlightenment. The elevation of the ordinary
undei-standing to the position of arbiter in matters of the reason, will, as its necessary
consequence, bring about an ochlocracy in the domain of the sciences, and, sooner or
later, the further consequence of a general revolt on the part of the rabble." Schelling,
Methode des akadem. Studiums (comp. Anthologie aus Schelling's Werke, p. 112.)
' Schleiermacher (Ueber Universltaten, p. 78) held that all students, even the non-
theological, should be engaged simply with philosophy during the first year of their
university career. What he exacts of all is demanded at least of theologians by
Rosenkranz, Encykl., Pref., xx : " The student of medicine or law, if thoi'ough in
other matters pertaining to his specialty, may be pardoned for indifference or aversion
to the study of philosophy ; but it is required of the theologian that, in addition to
his special studies, he should pursue as thorough a course in philosophy as may be
practicable." Similarly Schenkel, Christl. Dogmatik, ii, p. 3 : "A thorough philo
sophical training is certainly essential to the theologian, and the punishment for its
1 neglect will be the more bitter, as great effort becomes necessary to recover in later
years what has been lightly regarded before."
' " The recognition of self," says the younger Fichte, " is the sole substance of all
(philosophical) perception, and its highest perfection is accordingly the real goal of
every philosophy that understands itself, and that has thereby attained to maturity."
Idee d. Personlichkeit u. d. Individ. Fortdauer, Elb., 18-34, p. 42.
' " Every person who aims to understand a particular science in its connexion with
the whole of knowledge and in its ultimate grounds, is engaged in philosophical in
vestigation, whether he be called a student of nature or a theologian, or be employed
more especially upon the works of man. Every question that proceeds beyond the
presumptions postulated by the several sciences, leads him who pursues it into the
domain of philosophy." Steffensen, p. 30.S.

80 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
incomprehensible terminology, which can scarcely be avoided un-
The hard terms der the existing methods of treating philosophy, should
shoum^not^'be "either dazzle nor alarm the beginner. Tlie leading ob-
feared. ject in the Study of philosophy is, not so much the acquisition
of finished results, as of readiness in. the art of philosophizing.^ The
philosophical jargon which is especially patronized by persons who
seek to cover the confusion of their minds with cheap fineries,
should above all things be avoided.'' Let the student endeavor to
express in his own language what he has heard. It would be no
unprofitable exercise to engage in philosophical disputations from
which certain catch words (e. g. subject, object, etc.) should be
banished at the outset. But let there be an equal unwillingness to
stamp as nonsense whatever is incomprehensible by reason of the
student's insufficient preparation or practice, or worse still, to repeat
the childish dictum that men like Hegel failed to understand them-
'selves. Let philosophy not receive exclusive attention, without
Philosophy providing real and positive food for the mind, espe-
shouid be pur- ciallv through the continuous pursuit of historical and
sued in con- ,. "^ . . ° . ¦"^, . _,
nexion with linguistic Studies. The counsel given by Pelt, that
other studies, ^j^g student should thoroughly examine some system of
philosophy (Plato, Aristotle, Spinoza, Leibnitz, Kant, Hegel), if
possible in its original sources, is likewise greatly to be commended.
The mind should accustom itself to regard each system in its rela
tion to its own time, and the current tendency of that time, as well
as in the relation of its parts to each other. Care should be taken
from the first that the judgment be not biased by the infiuence of
some one system, when matters of fact are under discussion, or
when the exegetical or historical investigation of some fact is in
progress, or when it is sought to comprehend some doctrine that
' This was Kant's desire, comp. Anthropologic, p. 167 : " He insisted, again and
again, in his lectures to his students, that they were not to learn philosophy of hira,
but how to philosophize." Kuno Fischer, Kant's Leben, p. 25.
" " It is childish to wear the ornamental rags and patches of others while we are
able and expected to provide an entire garment of our own and fitted to our person. It
is madness to destroy the eye or impair its vision for the purpose of learning to look
through the glass of others." Herder, Sophron., p. 213. The Frenchman, Edgar
Quinet, addresses a similar warning to his countrymen who are not in other respects
unduly speculative : " Empechez une nouvelle scolastique de naltre. J'entends par IA
Ies embCiches de mots, dans Ies quels I'instinct de la vie r^elle, de la verity politique
est sacrifi^ k une logomachie puerile qui n'a que I'apparence et point de corps. Com
bien d'ames droites sont ddjA dupes de cette scolastique et s'y embaracaent eI plaisir I
Combien surtout d'dmes serviles s'abritent aujourd'hui sous be masque. (Revolution
religieuse au 19 siMe. 1857, p. 113).
' Encyclopadie, p. 40.

PHILOSOPHY CANNOT ORIGINATE DOCTRINE. 81
has come down from former generations. Philosophy can invent
nothing ; could it hear the grass grow, it would yet be Philosophy can-
unable to produce a single blade. As natural philos- "heoioScSdac*
ophy is incomjDetent to originate an order of plants or trine.
a gas, so the philosophy of history is unable to necessarily deduce
an historical fact.' It is true that reason contains the general laws
by which a substance surrounded by contingencies is freed from its
accidental elements and raised into the category of the universal;
but in this regard also care is needed, in order that the very pe
culiarity of the concrete phenomenon, and the fragrance resting
^upon it, be not destroyed in the process of generalization.
Let an illustration suffice. A profound speculation seeks to
apprehend the idea of the God-man as a necessary one. The inability of
and as required for the completion of both the ideas oriSe^do^
God a,ndi man, since God most effectively demonstrates ma illustrated.
his Divinity in man, and man attains his true manhood only in
God; but the truth that the Divine life has been manifested and
actualized in a human form, in the determinate person Jesus of
Nazareth, is not derived from philosophy. It cannot prove that
precisely this person was needed for the most perfect manifestation
of God in human nature; nor can it employ authoritative dicta,
such as that nature does not usually lavish all her gifts upon a single
person, to destroy an historical fact which is necessary to explain
the existence of the Church. In like manner philosoijhy may be
permitted to show that the abstract idea of unity is not Another uius-
adequate for the more profound recognition of the na- tration.
ture of God, and that only a God who knows himself as God in
God, and is known by God as God (the Being that loves, the Being
that is loved, and the love that forms the bond of union between
them=God), can satisfy the religious consciousness." The Christ-
' Luther called reason (philosophy) the old weather-maker ; it cannot, however,
make, but only observe, or at the most, foretell the weather; and, even in this, it is
often wrong. "The philosopher should know that without theology he can know
nothing of the ' city of gold and precious stones,' and of the " pure river of the water
of life,' which St. John saw. A system of truths that must seem necessary to the nat
ural mind, can never wash away the fear of death from the heart or beget heavenly
affections in the place of beastly lusts, more than it can remedy a nervous fever, or
remove the smell of decaying matter from the atmosphere of a death-chamber."
Steffensen. We also adduce the maxim of Picus of Mirandola, " Philosophia quaerit,
theologia invenit, religio possidet veritatem."
' Thus Augustine and all the more profound Christian thinkers. It is to be ques
tioned, however, whether the speculative development of the Trinity is the proper
task of philosophy. " We cannot, upon the whole,'' says J. H. Fichte (Idee d. Person
lichkeit, p. 86), " avoid the confession that the introduction into philosophy of this
Christian dogma, which has become almost the favourite question of the day, particu-
6

82 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
ian doctrine of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, is not to be con
ceived as a mere actualizing of the speculative idea, but rather as
the historical development of the Christian revelation, from which,
in connexion with ideas previously extant in the world, the specu
lative conception was itself developed, and to which it now assumes
a relation similar to that of the philosophy of art to an actual work
of art, or of natural philosophy to one of the products of nature.
This consideration will indicate the measure of truth in the state
ment that philosophy stands outside of or 'above religion (Schleier
macher, § 38). The above is not to signify superiority, but simply
the objective character of its point of view.'
SECTION VIIL
THEOLOGY NOT BOUND TO ANT ONE PHILOSOPHY.
The diversity of philosophical systems should not be permitted
to mislead us. The truth is, that despite such diversity, every sys-"
tem of philosophy, which in any way permits a distinction between
God and the world, spirit and matter, freedom and necessity, may
be applied to theology.
larly at this time, has produced no little confbsion, not only by destroying the bound
aries between the mere a priori knowledge of God and a positive revelation, but even
more by giving rise to the thoroughly inopportune appearance of a superficial coinci-
lence of Christianity with the prevalent philosophy of any particular time." " To
combine metaphysical and theological arguments with each other for the purpose of
demonstrating that a religious tradition is metaphysical truth, or that speculative de
velopments have a Christian or orthodox character, is a deceitful process. In this way
many now attempt to construct a metaphysical trinity out of three attributes of the
Divine nature, and to substitute this arbitrary union of three such attributes for the
original Christian doctrine of Father, Son, and Spirit." Bunsen, Hippolytus, i, p. 281.
' Lord Bacon expresses himself strongly against the confounding of philosophy and
theology with each other, De augment, scientiae, ix, 487 : Quemadmodum enim theo-
logiam in philosophia quaerere perinde est ac si vivos quaeras inter mortuos, ita e
contra philosophiam in theologia quaerere non aliud est quam mortuos quaerere inter
vivos. On the impropriety of subordinating either philosophy or theology to each
other, and on the necessity for making them co-ordinates, see Rosenkranz, Encykl.,
p. 12. Comp. Fritze, Ideen zur Umgestalt. d. evang. Kirche, Magdeb., 1844, p. 11:
"Theology is not the mistress of philosophy, nor ought it to become the servant of
any particular philosophical system." Kym, Weltanschauungen, p. 33: "Although
philosophy serves as the handmaid of a particular science, e. g. theology, it is not in
the way of supporting the train of some gracious lady, but in the way of going before
it to afford a light that shall conduct the science home, to its origin.'' On the rela-
tion of religion to philosophy and its several branches comp. Steffensen, in Gelzer, 1853,
p 109 ; " They who fancy that religion will ever prostrate itself before philosophy and
transfer to it the keys of the kingdom of heaven, are certainly very silly. Nor would
philosophy accept the office if it were offered. . . . But it is equally certain that the
spectacle will not be seen in our age, of philosophers subordinating their thinking tii
authorities in whose behalf the pious people of different denominations demand faith."

THEOLOGY INDEPENDENT OP PHILOSOPHY. 83
The objection to philosophy derived from the variety of systems
is as shallow as an attempt to argue against revelation jjq sound 'ob-
on the ground of the number of positive religions.' Jection to phi-
¦vT T n 1 -1 1 • 11 1 losophy from
IS or do we mean that all philosophies are equally valu- the variety oi
able, so that one or another may be preferred at pleas- ""^ systems.
ure. Only a single one can be the true philosophy, and to it, the
absolute truth, all should strive to attain; but the more genuine
the desire to attain to the truth the less hasty will the mind be in
coming to a conclusion. Inasmuch too, as any particular system
can present only relative truth, it will always be necessary to com
bine the truths of different systems into a higher truth, and to
avoid their errors. Such an undertaking is not, however, adapted
to the powers of a single mind, and should therefore be entered
upon in and with the school, rather than outside and irrespective of
it. Until the student has become a master, he will attach himself
with preference to some particular school. Which one he shall
select is not without importance with respect to both philosophy
and theology ; but it is a less serious matter in its bear- Theology aoes
ings upon the latter, for the reason that theology is not not stand or fail
so dependent on any system of philosophy as to stand system of pM-
or fall with it. A theologian of the Kantian school, for losophy.
instance, might give evidence of more thorodgh theological acquire
ments, having grown beyond the limits of his system, than one
belonging to the school of Hegel, for this, among other reasons,
that the Christian consciousness, which is independent of all philo
sophical systems, is the principal qualification for a. theologian.
While, therefore, allowing freedom to speculation, we direct at
tention to the breakers, which threaten to shipwreck faith unless
a competent hand is at the helm. It is self-evident that a philos
ophy which annihilates God, and denies the existence of spirit and
moral freedom, a bald materialism, in short, (sensation- Both sensation
alism), must be excluded." But the spiritualistic philos- ^^^ unchSsI
ophy (idealism), which stands opposed to materialism, tian.
which regards God and spirit as the only realities, and accordingly
denies the existence of matter and the world, and which teaches
an unbounded, absolute liberty by deifying the Ego, is likewise
' Thus, it is well known that Schiller would identify himself with no religion out of re
gard for religion, and with none of all the philosophies out of regard for philosophy; but
the polemical point of an epigram cannot serve as the foundation of a solid edifice.
' In opposition to the materialism of modem times, against which theology is called
to 'contend, and whose representatives are Moleschott, Karl Vogt, and Biichner, comp.
the works of Jul. Schaller, F. W. Tittmann, J. Frohschammer, J. G. Fichte, and F,
Fabri, tile last named in Herzog., Encykl., ix, s. v., Materialismus.

84 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA.
planted in an untheological position. A god without a world is
not the God of theology; a spirit without flesh to subjugate is
not the Christian spirit; liberty that does not involve the feeling
of dependence is not the liberty of the children . of God. The
Bible everywhere presupposes a dualism, or rather parallelism, of
God and the world, heaven and earth, spirit and flesh, etc., not
as rigid and irremediable, but yet as an actual contrast to be
overcome by the might of Christianity. In this way two other
tendencies are obviated, the one of which regards such contrasts
as rigidly immovable and out of all relation to each other, while
the other, instead of reconciling them in thought, simply destroys
them by an authoritative decision, while aiming to remove them.
Deismaiidpan- The former tendency is deistic, the latter p>antheistic.
^^^T\oC^st- '^^^ former was the current adversary of an earlier age,
Ian theology, the latter is the antagonist of the theology of to-day.
The term deism is applied to a conception of the world which
not only distinguishes between it and God, but separates God from
the world, holding that the only God who exists is an extra- and
supramundane Being, who once created the world, but has now
left it to the operation of its established laws. • This God enters
into no vital relations with man ; he stands over against him, in
deed, as lawgiver and judge, but does not enter into human na
ture, nor communicate himself thereto. The deistic conception of
the relation between spirit and matter, as resembling that of two
laths glued together,' is in harmony with the separation of God
from the world, and equally rigid. Nature, too, is considered a
lifeless mechanism; and the tendency of deistic morality is to make
every thing promote the self-glorification of the reason. This phi
losophy denies the power of the inclinations, the profound influ
ences of natural conditions on the one hand, and the vital connexion
of the spirit with God on the other; it is therefore unable to appre-
Deism incapa^ bend the nature of sin or of redemption and grace, the
bie of Christian mysteries of religious communion, or the significance
^^' of prayer, the sacraments, etc. Over against Deism
stands the philosophy of identities, which unites the contrasts in
question. It has much that is attractive to the imagination and
natural feeling, but is unable to afford durable satisfaction;" for
' Following an expression that is applied by the Formula Concordiae to the two na
tures in Christ, Carri^re appropriately remarks that "spirit and matter should neither
be separated nor identified, but distinguished and combined."
" Tzschirner's Briefe on the confessions of Reinhard (Leips., 1811), are instructive
upon this point. Comp. p. ii sgg., where the author speaks of the impressions made
on himself by the then current nature-philosophy of Schelling. The hideous charao-

WHAT IS A CHRISTiaLN PHILOSOPHY? 85
inasmuch as it assumes the character of pantheism with reference ,
to the relation of God to the world, it either loses God in the world
and sinks into materialism, or it resolves the world into God and
becomes idealism. In the same way spirit is reduced ™, , . , .
¦' r^ Theological and
to matter (emancipation of the flesh) or matter is con- moral outcome
eumed by spirit (false asceticism), while moral freedom "' Pantheism.
becomes a mere phantom. Upon this teaching sin becomes a nat
ural necessity, and redemption a divinely contrived ingenious drama,
while the deity attains to consciousness only through the evolutions
of the human mind, and exhausts itself in time, through the endless
process of the immanent development of thought.
It follows that «inly that philosophy can make a league with the
ology which recognizes a living personal God,' who is neither
ter of pantheism is admirably described by Laraartine (Dernier chant du peleriaage
d'Harold,p. 18);— lie Dieu, qu'adore Harold, est cet agent supreme,
Ce Pan mysterieux, insoluble problems,
Gi'and, born^, bon, mauvais, que ee vaste univers
Kevele a ses regards sous mille aspects divers;
Etre sans atributs, force sans providence,
ExerQant au hasard une aveugle puissance-,
Vrai Satume, «nfantant, devorant tour a tour,
Faisant le mal sans haine et le bien sans amour;
N'ayant pour dessein qu^un tternel caprice,
Ni commandant ni f oi, ni loi, ni fiaerifice ;
Livrant le faible au fort et le juste au tr^pas,
Et dont la raison dit: Est-il? ou n'est-il pas?
With this eorap. a poem by Schelling, published in the Zeitschrlft fiir spec. Physik,
1800, and continued in the Anthologie aus Schelling's Werke. (Berl., 1844), p. 98.
Much, however, may seem to be pantheism from the stand-point of abstract deism,
that is not so in reality. Bunsen remarks: "The immanence of God in the world is
by no means equivalent to pantheism ; for the life of God and his continuance in it
may be conceived without excluding the self-origination of God as the idea and will
of the world, and the independence of the self-centred blessed Deity, as a necessary
result." Gott in der Geschichte, p. 5.
'The word "personal" may, of course, be erroneously explained, so as to involve
the nature of God in human limitations ; but it has become one of the tasks of modern
philosophy to settle this very idea of personality. It is of primary importance that
the distinction between the ideas person and individual should be preserved. God is
not an individual (though so eminent a thinker of former years as Hamann employed
this designation) but person — not a person, but person in the eminent sense — absolute
personality. The historical development of the doctrine of the Trinity in unity, illus
trates, though in hieroglyphics, the difficulty of the problem to be solved. An idea is
not to be rejected as unthinkable, simply because it is involved in difficulties to our
thought ; precisely the inexpressible demands the most energetic efforts of the noblest
of our powers and thought. Comp. (in addition to the younger Fichte) the treatise of

86 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
excluded from the world nor included in it, and who both transcends
_ ,,,, the world and is immanent in it; and which furthermore
The conditions , '
ot a Christian conceives of the human soul and body as organically
p 1 osop y. related, refusing to make of spirit merely sublimated
matter, or of matter the precipitate of spirit^ and acknowledging
both personal freedom and a free personality created for eternal
ends. We designate such a philosophy as theistic,^ in contrast with
both the deistic and the pantheistic, and accordingly observe that
the only system that may be applied to Christian theology is that
The only pos- of pure theism. Whether philosophy can of itself for-
pwiosophy th" i^ulate this theism, or, renouncing the attempt, whether
^"c- it shall devolve the task upon the practical reason with
Kant and Herbart, or upon feeling with Jacobi, or upon faith
and presentiment with Fries, is a matter of little consequence ;
for we are not concerned to clearly demonstrate the idea of person
ality in a scientific light, which task may be properly reserved for
philosophy. But theology can never strike friendly hands with a
philosophical conception of the world, which eliminates man's per
sonal relation to God and consequently destroys religion, the basis
of all theology itself.' Nor would we venture to assert, withr/ut a
preliminary understanding, that the philosophy must be "Christ
ian." How is the word to be understood ? If in a historical sense.
The sense in it appears that all modern philosophy, having come
ophy must "be ™^'^ being through the infiuence of Christian ideas, is
Christian. Christian; and this is true of such philosophies as are
unchristian in their results, in so far as they have passed through a
' Christian development. But if it be made to signify that the doc
trines of Christianity should constitute the subject-matter of the
philosophy, that, for instance, it should undertake to develop the
atonernent or the person of Christ, the result is that a demand is
made upon philosophy for which its power is inadequate.' Finally,
Deinhai-dt, Begriff der Personlichkeit mit Eiieksicht auf Strauss (in Beitrage, p. 85
sqq.) and Schenkel, Idee der Personlichkeit in ihrer Zeitbedeutung fiir d. them. Wis
senschaft, etc. Schaffh., 1850, and also id., Dogmatik, i, p. 29 sqq.
' It must be conceded^ that these terms are arbitrarily applied ; but they are em
ployed in harmony with the current usage. Comp. Deinhardt, Kategorie des christ-
lichen Theismus, in Beitriige, p. 67 sqq. The word theixm is still used, however, as
synonymous with deism, by some authors (as Kym, I. c).
' Lotze somewhere makes the appropriate remark, that "the truly real, which is and
is to be, is not matter and still less idea, but the living and personal Spirit of God and
the world of personal spirits which he has created." Theologjr will doubtless be able
to content itself with this philosophical result.
' Van Oosterzee presents the distinction between the material of philosophy and
that of theology in a very satisfactory manner. This distinction once accepted, the

SUBDIVISIONS OF PHILOSOPHY. 8';
if its ideas are to bo derived from other sources, e. g., from the
Bible (the thought has expression in talk about a Biblical philos
ophy), it must cease to be philosophy and lose itself in dogmatics.
A different judgment must be formed of the so-called philosophy
of Christianity, which does not attempt an a priori explanation of
the Christian Revelation, but regards it as existing, and seeks to
comprehend it in harmony with the fundamental principles of rea
son. It is accordingly a part of the general philosophy of religion,
or also of the philosophy of history, and may as readily be under
taken from an unchristian as a Christian point of view.'
SECTION IX
VALUE OP THE SEVEBAL BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY.
No single department of philosophical inquiry can be made at will
to possess special prominence for the theologian, since philosophy is
an organic whole; but the field of ethics — moral philosophy and the
philosophy of religion — will more particularly come into relations
with theology, in addition to the formal elements of philosophy
(logic, dialectics) and its general bases (psychology, anthropology).
In recent times the encgclopoedia of philosophy has been included
among the subjects usually presented in academical Branches of phi-
lectures; and its study should be urged upon the the- lre'""'fmporton^
ologian, as of primary importance." Ordinary logic, as to theology.
it was occasionally taught in preparatory schools or more generally
in the first stages of the university course, had temporarily lost
much of its significance for many students, in view of the entire
confusion of philosophy and theology is readily avoided : " Theology is distinguished
from speculative philosophy in this, that while the latter takes the pure human con
sciousness as its starting point, theology, on the contrary, must, above all, take ac
count with an historical fact, with the belief of the community in a divine revelation.
It makes the subject and ground of this belief the material for its investigation, in
order to purify the idea, to develop it, and when necessary to defend it. It is 'une
philosophie, dont la base est donnee ' (Vinet), and thus, as a science, sustains a two
fold character. It proceeds from that which is given, not in order to leave it as it is
given; it reasons and philosophizes, but not in the abstract. Its material is an his
torical product, but it must treat this in a Christian philosophical (really critical)
method." -(Christian Dogmatics, Amer. ed., v. i, p. 2).
' Comp., however, Pelt, Encykl., p. 541 sqq., and J. P. Lange, Phil. Dogmatik.
* Herbart, Troxler, and Hegel published philosophical encyclopsedias. Oppermann,
Encykl. d. Philosophie, Hanover, 1844 ; F. C. Callisen, Propaedeutik d. Phil., Schleswig,
1846 ; K. Ph. Fischer, Grundziige des Systems d. Philosophie u. EncykL.d- Phil. Wis
senschaften, Erlangen, 1848-52 and 55, 3 vols.; K. Rosenkranz, System d. Wissen
schaften, etc., Konigsberg, 1850; H. Ritter, Encykl. d. phil. Wissenschaften, 3 vols.
Gottingen, 1862-64. Comp. L. Tobler, Phil. Propaedeutik auf Gymnasien in the
Neue Schweiz. Museum of Ribbeck, Kochly and Fischer, 1861, No. 4.

88 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA.
transformation of philosophy ; but as the paroxysm wore off, the
reaction caused a more zealous return to logical sobriety, without
which all philosophizing becomes simply a tumultuous confusion.
Psychology, which for a period of considerable length had been
moving in abstract categories, presenting the life of the soul apart
from the conditions of physical life, was, after the return from this
exclusive spiritualism, drawn more and more into the field of the
physical sciences and brought into connexion with physiology — as
suredly an advantageous change for science. This change involved
the danger, however, of losing the soul-life in that of the body, and
Importance to of thereby passing from spiritualism into materialism.
soundXchoi! ^ ti'"e philosophy of religion will always be dependent
ogy. on a thorough psychology, a genuine philosophical ex
position of the nature of the soul and its various manifestations
(anthropology). An illustration is found in the relation between
faith and knowledge, to determine which is the office of philosophy,
but whose demonstration depends essentially upon psychological pos
tulates. Tho old, Socratic maxim, " Know thyself," forms the under-
Ij'ing basis of all knowledge. A further question arises, however,
concerning the extent to which even an objective apprehension of
" the thing in itself " is possible to speculative philosophy — the great
question to which various answers have continued to be returned
since the days of Kant. This leads into fields which are often des
ignated by the names of ontology and metaphysics. The names have
been exchanged for others, indeed ; but the departments to which
they apply will constitute the field of so-called speculative philosophy.
If we recur to the ancient Platonic and Aristotelian division of
philosophy into physics, ethics, and dialectics, we obtain an ana
logue to the different branches of study treated of in § 6, which
are also designated as philosophical studies in the broad sense.
Logic (dialectics) will coiTCspond to philology and mathematics,
physics tl) the natural sciences, and ethics to history. If we apply
the modern tenninology, we have on the one' hand a phenom-
Phiiosophy di- cnology of nature, and on the other a phenomenology
rf nLtarf Ind ^^ ™™*^ 5 °" *^® ''"^ ^^"^ natural philosophy, on the
that of mind, other moral philosophy (the metaphysics of morality)
and the philosophy of law (natural justice), of religion, and of his
tory. It must be left to philosophy itself to determine the relation
sustained by the philosophy of nature to empirical natural science,
or by the philosophy of religion to religion and its historical mani
festation in actual life. We likewise referred to the arts, in addi
tion to the sciences; and we here find available a philosophy of the
beautiful also — cesthetics the philosophy of art.

PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION— LITERATURE. 89
The history of philosophy is necessary to the study of philosophy
itself ; but as an auxiliary to the history of religion. Church, and
doctrine, its consideration is referred to another place.
PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION.

ENGLISH AND AMBEICAN LITERATURE.
1. The Philosophy of Beligion in its Strict Sense.
Bacon, Thomas Scott. The Beginnings of Religion. Au Essay. 12mo, pp. xv, 619.
London, 1887. (The origin of all religion is claimed to be in direct and explicit
revelation from God.)
Balfour, Arthur James. A Defence of Philosophic Doubt. Pp.355. London, 1879.
Bascom, John. A Philosophy of Religion ; or. The Rational Grounds of Religious
Belief. 12mo, pp. 566. New York, 1876. (This is largely a work on the The
istic Controversy. It finds the proof of the being of God in man's capacity for
spontaneous action, which has its grSund in his moral nature. Finite sponta
neous power argues infinite spontaneous power. The usual arguments for The
ism, cosmological, teleological, etc., are, therefore, criticised as insufficient for
their purpose. The discussion extends to Revelation, Inspiration, Miracles, etc.)
Bray, H. Truro. Essays on God and Man; "or, A Philosophical Inquiry into the
Principles of Religion. 12rao, pp. ix, 270. St. Louis, Mo., 1888.
Caird, John. An Introduction to the Philosophy of Religion. 8vo, pp. 358. New
York, 1880. (The author finds the basis of religion, (1) In man's capacity of
transcending his own individuality. (2) In the latent or implied consciousness
in us of the absolute unity of thought and being, or of an absolute self -conscious
ness on which all finite knowledge and existence rest. The cosmological, tele
ological, and ontological arguments are criticised as inadequate to prove all they
aim to prove.)
Clarke, James Freeman. Ten Great Religions. An essay in Comparative Theology.
8th ed., 8vo, pp. 528. Boston, 1871.
Drummond, Henry. Natur.il Law in the Spiritual World. 12mo, pp. 414. London,
1883. (As an argument for the Analogy between Natural and Spiritual Law this
book follows ill the line of Bishop Butler; but tlio plain teaching of the New
Testament is that effects produced in the kingdom of Christ are, as to their ori
gin, supernatural.)
Gould, S. B. The Origin and Development of Religious Belief. New York, 1870.
(Ascribes religious beliefs to a process of natural evolution.)
Hardwicke, Charles. Christ and Other Masters. The chief Parallelisms between
Christianity and the Religious Sj-stems of the Ancient World. London and
Cambridge, 1863. 2 vols., pp. 383, 461. Also, 8vo, pp. xviii, 592. London,
1875. (A Contribution to Comparative Theology.)
Hedge, Frederick Henry. Reason in Religion. 8vo, pp. iv, 458. Boston, 1875.
(Makes all the argument for rehgion intuilional as distinguished from historical.)
Lotze, Hermann. Outlines of Metaphysio. Outlines of the Philosophy of Religion.
Dictated Portions of the Lectures of Hermann Lotze. Translated and Edited by
George T. Ladd, Professor of Philosophy in Yale College, Boston. (Finds in
faith the ultimate basis of both religion and scientific cognition.)
Mansell, H. L. The Limits of Religious Thought. Boston, New York, and Cincinnati,
1860. (Mansell claims that " our knowledge of God is relative and not absolute.
We may know that an Infinite God exists, but not what he is as infinite." We

90 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
must be content, therefore, "with those regulative ideas of the Deity which are
sufficient to guide our practice; which tell us not what God is in him,self, but
how he wills that we should speak of him.")
McCabe, Lorenzo D. Divine Nescience of Future Contingericies a Necessity. 12mo,
pp. 306. New York, 1881.' (Maintains that " Divine Nescience ia a necessity in
the necessities of things." This principle is elaborated in a series of propositions,
such as, Divine Nescience of future contingencies is necessary to the interpreta
tion of Scripture, to a satisfactory Theodicy, etc.)
McCosh, James. Certitude, Providence, and Prayer. Pp.46. New York, 1883.
MoCosh, James. A Criticism of the Critical Philosophy. (Philosophie Series, No.
VII.) Pp. 60. New York, 1884.
McCosh, James. Diverse Kinds of Truth, as Opposed to Agnosticism. Being a
treatise on applied logic. New York. (In Nescience and in Nihilism the au
thor finds the most dangerous types of infidelity.)
McKinney, S. B. C. The Science and Art of Religion. 8vo. London, 1888.
Moffatt, James C. A Comparative History of Religion. Parts I and II. 2 vols.
12mo. New York, 1874.
Morell, J. D. The Philosophy of Religion. 12mo, pp. 359. New York, 1859.
(Following Schleiermacher, grounds religion on feeling — the feeling of depen
dence. Claims, also, that the feeling of dependence, " seeking its object through
all the stages of human consciousness," finds that object in the absolute Being.)
Morris, Geo. S. Philosophy and Christianity. A series of Lectures delivered in
New York in 1883, on the Ely Foundation of the Union Theological Seminary.
New York, 1884. (Shows that religion is the living apprehension of that which
philosophy aims to comprehend.)
Mulford, Elisha. The Republic of God. An Institute of Theology. 8vo, pp. viii,
261. Boston, 1881.
Miiller, F. Max. Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Beligion, as illustrated in
the Religions of India. 12mo, pp. 382. New York, 1879. (Holds that relig
ion is a natural growth.)
Miiller, Max. Lectures on the Science of Religion. With a paper on Buddhist Nihil
ism. 12mo, pp. 300. Now Ytjric, 1872. (Rejects revelation and finds the prim
itive religion in man's nature.)
Miiller, Max. Chips from a German Workshop. 4 vols. 12mo. New York, 1869.
(The first volume treats of the " Science of Religion.")
Pressens^, E. De. A Study of Origins ; or. The Problems of Knowledge, of Being,
and of Duty. Translated by Annie Harwood. 4th edition, pp. 513. Lon
don, 1883.
Benouf, P. Lo Page. Tlie Origin and Growth of Religion, as illustrated by the
Religion of Ancient Egypt. Ilibbert Lectures for 1879. 12mo, pp. 270. New
York, 1880. (Holds that religion is a natural growth.)
Salter, W. M. Ethical Religion. 12mo, pp. 3,332. Boston, 1889. (Most of the
lectures were delivered before the Society for Ethical Culture of Chicago.)
Smyth, Newman. The Religious Feeling. 12mo, pp. vii, 191. New York, 1877.
Smyth, Newman. Old Faiths in New Lights. 12mo. New York, 1880.
Tulloch, .lohn. Modern Theories in Philosophy and Religion. Edinburgh. (In
cludes an essay on " Religion Wilhout Metaphysics; or, The Modern Religion of
Experience," in which the author contends, in opposition to Matthew Arnold,
that righteousness is as much a metaphysical idea as personality, and that the
dogma of tho personality of God is neither moro nor less metaphysical than the
idea of the righteousness of God.)

PHILOSOPHY OP RELIGION— LITERATURE. 91
Upham, Thos. C. Absolute Religion. A view based on Philosophical Principles and
Doctrines of the Bible. 12mo, pp. 312. New York, 1873.
Whedon, D. D. The Freedom of the Will as a basis of Human Responsibility and a
Divine Government. 12mo, pp. 438. New York, 1869. CArgues that the "doc
trine of Necessity is incompatible with any valid theory of religion.")
2. Tlieism. — The Proof of the Being and Attributes of God. — Natural Theology.
Ackormann, C. The Christian Element in Plato and the Platonic Philosophy. 8vo,
pp. 280. Edinburgh, 1861.
Alliott, Richard. Psychology and Theology; or, Psychology Applied to the Inves
tigation of Questions relating to Religion, Natural Theology, and Revelation.
12mo. London, 18.,j.
Argyll, the Duke of. The Reign of Law. Fifth edition. 12mo, pp. xxvii, 462.
London, 1868. (A work which has been widely read. Much of it is directed
against Darwinism. The author finds " Law " to be the authoritative expression
of a human "Will enforced by Pov/er," and adds, "The instincts of mankind
have not failed to see that the phenomena of nature are only really conceivable
to us as, in like manner, the expressions of a Will enforcing itself by Power."
The topics treated arc: the "Supernatural," "Law," " Contrivance a necessity
arising out of Law," etc.)
Arthur, WiUiam. On the Difference between Physical and Moral Law. The Fern-
ley Lecture of 1883. 8vo, pp. 244. London, 1883; New York, 1884. (Tho
author's object is to rescue freedom and responsibility from a materializing and
fatalistic philosophy.)
Aydelott, B. P. The Great Question. The Sceptical Philosophy Examined. 16mo.
Cincinnati, 1868.
Bell, Sir Charles. The Hand : Its Mechanism and Vital Endowments as Evincing
Design. 7th edition, revised, 8vo, pp. xxxv, 260. London, 1860.
Berkeley, George. Principles of Human Knowledge. With Prolegomena, and with
Annotations, select, translated, and original, by Charles P. Krauth. 8vo. Phila
delphia, 1874.
Blaekie, John Stuart. The Natural History of Atheism. 12mo. New York, 1882.
(A very readable book, full of Professor Blackie'a characteristic vigor.)
Boston Lectures. Christianity and Scepticism. 12mo. Boston, 1870.
Bowen, Francis. Application of Metaphysical and Ethical Science to the Evidences
of Religion. Lowell Lectures. Pp. 465. Boston, 1849. (Lectures VIII and
IX present the argument from Design.)
Bowne, Borden P. Philosophy of The'sm. 8vo, pp. 269. New York, 1887. (An
examination of the Validity of the Theistic Argument. The author's con
clusion is that " Theism is the fundamental postulate of our total life ; " that if
" we say that it is proved by nothing, we must also admit that it is implicit in
every thing.")
Bowne, Borden P. Studies in Theism. Pp. vi, 444. New York and Cincinnati, 18T9.
(Against Atheistic theories. The scope of this book can be best understood
from two sentences of the Introduction : " The Theist does not claim to demon
strate the existence of God, but only that the problem of the world and life
cannot be solved without God. He does not assume that all order is designed
order; but lie insists that the actual order, which of course includes man, cannot
be understood, except as the outcome of design." Some of the topics of the chai)-
tersare: Knowledge and Sceplicisin, Knowledge and Belief, Mechanism and
Teleology, Theism and Pantheism, etc.)

93 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
Bowne, Bordan P. The Philosophy of Herbert Spencer. Being an Examination of
the First Principles of his System. 12mo, pp. 283. New York and Cincinnati,
1874. (Deals vigorously with Spencer's Atheism.)
Bradin, Clark. The Problem of Problems ; or. Atheism, Darwinism, and Theism.
12mo, pp. 480. Cincinnati, 1877.
Breckinridge, R. J. The Knowledge of God. 2 vols. 8vo. Vol.1: Objectively
Considered. Vol. II: Subjectively Considered. New York, 1858-59.
Bremen Lectures (The) on Fundamental, Living, Religious Questions, by Various
Eminent European Divines. Translated by D. Heagle. With an introduction
by Alvah Hovey. 12mo. Boston, 1871.
Brown, John., A Compendious View of Natural and Revealed Religion. 8vo. Lon
don, 1817.
Brown, Robert. The Gospel of Common Sense ; or, Mental, Moral, and Social Science
in Harmony with Scriptural Christianity. 12mo. London, 1864.
Buchanan, James. Analogy as a Guide to Truth and as an Aid to Faith. Pp. 126.
Edinburgh, 1864. (Part III discusses the Natural Proofs of Theism.)
Buchanan, James. Modern Atlieism under its forms of Pantheism, Materialism,
Secularism, Development, and Natural Laws. (A work of much merit.) 12mo,
pp. iv, 423. Boston, 1867.
Buchanan, James. Faith in God and Modern Atheism, Compared in their Essential
Nature, Tlieorotio Grounds, and Practical Influence. 2 vols. 8vo. London, 1857.
Burr, E. F. Pater Mundi ; or, the Doctrine of Evolution. First and Second Series.
Boston. Second Series, 1873.
Burr, E. F. Ecce Terra; or, The Hand of God in the Earth. Pp. 320. Philadel
phia, 1883. (Aims to show the grounds of our faith in a personal God.)
Calderwood, Henry. Philosophy of the Infinite. A Treatise on Man's Knowledge
of the Infinite Being. In Answer to Sir William Hamilton and Dean Mansel.
2d ed., enlarged. 8vo, pp. 539. London, 1872.
Candlish, J. S. Metaphysics. A Study in First Principles. Pp. 534. New York,
1882. (A defence of Theism.)
Candlish, Robert S. Reason and Revelation. 12mo. London, 186Y.
Cliadbourne, P. W. Natural Theology. Lectures before the Lowell Institute. 12mo.
New York, 1867. (The author holds that the argument for Theism from design
is conclusive, and adduces the adaptations of organized beings to their environ
ment as proof of the existence and character of God.)
Chalmers, Thomas. Natural Theologj'. 2 vols. 12mo. New York.
Chalmers, Thomas. The Adaptation of External Nature to the Moral and Intel
lectual Constitution of Man. 12mo. New York, 1880.
Child, G. C. Benedicite. Illustrations of the Power, Wisdom, and Goodness of God,
a? Manifested in his Works. ]2mo. New York, 1870.
Christianity and Modern Thought. 12mo, pp. 394. Boston, 1881. (Essays of Mar-
tineau. Hedges, etc.)
Christlieb, Theodore. Modern Doubt and Christian Belief. A series of Apologetical
Lectures, addressed to earnest seekers of the Truth. 8vo, pp. 549. New York,
1874. (Tho discussion in this work takes a wide range. The first lecture treats
of tlie existing breach between Modern Doubt and Christianity; the next topic,
"Whence do we derive our knowledge of God?" introduces Natural Theology,
Supernatural Theology, and the relations between the two. Modern non-bibli
cal conceptions of God are next considered. Much space is given to modern
anti-miraculous accounts of the Life of Christ and the Modern Critical Theory
of Primitive Christianity.)

PHILOSOPHY OP RELIGION— LITERATURE. 93
Clarke, James Freeman. Steps of Unbelief; or. Rational Christianity Muintained
against Atheism, Free Religion, and Romanism. 12mo, pp. 311. Boston, 1870.
Cocker, B.^P. Christianity and Greek Philosophy; or. The Relation between Spon
taneous and Reflective Thought in Greece and the Positive Teachings of
Christ and his Apostles. 8vo, pp. 531. New York, 1870. (An argument for
Theism.)
Cocker, B. F. The Theistic ponception of the World. An essay in opposition to certain
tendencies of modern thought. 8vo, pp. x, 426. New York and Cincinnati, 1875.
Cook, Joseph. Transcendentalism. ]2mo. Boston, 1880.
Cooke, Josiah P. Religion and Chemistry ; or. Proofs of God's Plan in the Atmos
phere and its Elements. 8vo, pp. 348. New York, 1864. (A contribution to
Natural Theology.)
Cudworth, Ralph. The True Intellectual System of the Universe ; wherein all the
Reason and Philosophy of Atheism is Confuted. 2 vols., 8vo. Andover. New
York, 1837.
Cunningham, William. Theological Lectures on subjects connected with Natural
Theology, etc. 8vo, pp. 625. New York, 1876.
Diman, J. Lewis. The Theistic Argument as afiected by recent theories. A course
of lectures, delivered at the Lowell Institute in Boston. 12mo, pp. 390.
Boston, 1882. (Au admirable example of perspicuous reasoning clothed in the
choicest language. The chapter on the Relativity of Knowledge is a rapid survey
of the chief modern theories of human knowledge. Other chapters are : Cause
and Force, The Argument from Order, The Argument from Design, Conscience
and a Moral Order, etc.)
Dix, Morgan. Lectures on the Pantheistic Idea of an Impersonal Substance — Deity
as Contrasted with the Christian Faith concerning Almighty God. 12mo. New
York, 1864.
Dodge, Ebenezer. The Evidences of Christianity; with an Introduction on the Exist
ence of God and the Immortality of the Soul. 12mo, pp. 244. Boston, 1869.
Dove, P. E. The Logic of Christian Faith. Being a Dissertation on Scepticism,
Pantheism, etc. 8vo. Edinburgh, 1856.
Dyer, David. Tests of Truth. Replies to Letters of a Sceptical Friend on tho
Teachings of Natural and Revealed Rehgion. 12mo. New York, 1866
Ecce CoeUim. A Parish Astronomy. Six Lectures by a Connecticut Pastor.
Boston, 1857. (The last lecture is on the question, "Is there an Author of
Nature ? ")
Elwes, R. H. M. The Chief Works of Benedict de Spinoza. Translated from the
Latin, with an Introduction. 2 vol:-,., pp. 387, 420. New York.
Ferrier, James F. Institutes of Metaphysics. The Theory of Knowing and Being.
12mo. Edinburgh, 1856.
Fisher, George P. The Grounds of Theistic and Christian Belief. 8vo, pp. 488. New
York, 1 883. (The volumo discusses the Personality of God and Man ; the argu
ments for the Being of God; the Principal Anti-Theistic Theories — Pantheism,
Positivism, Materialism, Agnosticism.)
Fisher, George P. The Nature and Method of Revelation. New York, 1890. (Dis
cusses the relation of Revelation to the Biblical record ; the progressive charac
ter of Revelation ; the relation of the two sections of Revelation to each other ;
and the relation of Revelation to faiih.)
Fisher, George P. Discussions on History and Theology. Contains Essay on " The
Unreasonableness of Atheism." New York, 1 880.
Ksher, George P. Faith and Rationalism, with Short Supplementary Essays on

94 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
Related Topics. 12mo, pp. 188. New York, 1879. (The second Essay is en
titled The Doctrine of Nescience respecting God ; the third. The Doctrine of
Evolution in its Relation to the Argument from Design, in both of which tHe
Theistic argument is delended.)
Fiske, John. The Idea of God as Affected by Modern Knowledge. Boston, 1885.
Flint, Robert. Theism. The Baird Lecture for 1876. Second edition, Edinburgh,
1878. 12mo, pp. 432. (Aipong the topics discussed is: "The Nature, Condi
tions, and Limits of Theistic Proofs." - The Appendix gives incidentally some
excellent notices of the literature of Theism."
Flint, Robert. Anti-Theistic Theories. The Baird Lecture for 1877. Edinburgh,
1879. 12mo,, pp. 555. (Discusses Atheism, Materialism, Secularism, Positiv
ism, Pessimism, and Pantheism, but purposely omits Agnosticism.)
Poster, Bishop Randolph S. Theism: Cosmic Theism; or. The Theism of Nature.
8vo, pp. 450. New York, 1889. (This work Is first an examination of modern
Antitheistic theories, and next an argument for the existence of God. In the
latter part of the discussion the cosmological, the teleological, and the moral
arguments are stated, as well as the arguments from universal belief. The argu
ments of the Antitheistic writers are slated with great fullness.)
Gillespie, William Honyraan. The Argument a pnon for the Being and the Attri
butes of the Absolute One, etc. Fifth edition. 12mo, pp. 160. Loudon, 1871.
Gillett, E. H. God in Human Thought ; or. Natural Theology traced in Literature,
Ancient and Modern, lo the Time of Bishop Butler. 2 vols., 8vo, pp. 416, 418.
New York, 1874.
Gillott, E. H. The Moral System, with an Historical and Critical Tntroduotion,
12mo. New York, 1874.
Goodwin, B. Lectures on the Atheistic Controversy. 12mo. Boston, 1836.
Giiizot, M. Meditations on the Actual State of Christianity. 12mo, pp. 390. New
York, 1867. (Examines the attacks of modern unbelief upon Christianity.)
Hamilton, Sir WiUiam. Lectures on Metaphj'sics. 8vo, pp. xx. 718. Boston, 1859.
Harris, Samuel. The Self-Revelation of God. 8vo, pp. 570. New York, 1887.
(The discussion in this work is divided into four parts: I. God as revealed in
Consciousness, as the object of religious faith and service. II. God revealed in
the Universe as the absolute Being. In this part Atheism, Agnosticism,
Pantheism, and Materialism are examined. III. God revealed in the Universe
as personal spirit through the Constitution and Course of Nature, and the
Constitution and History of Man. IV. God reveaUd in Christ as the Redeemer
of Man from Sin.)
Harris, Samuel. The Philosophical Basis of Theism. An Examination of the Per
sonality of Man to ascertain his Capacity to know and serve God, and the Valid
ity of the Principles underlying the Defence of Theism. 8vo, pp. 564. New
York, 1883. (Among the topics discussed are: Knowledge and Agnosticism;
the Criteria of Knowledge ; the Three Faculties of the Mind ; the Acls and Proc
esses of Knowing; what is known through Presentative Intuition; what is
known through Rational Intuition ; the Ultimate Realities of Human Knowl
edge ; the Three Grades of Scientific Knowledge.)
Haven, Joseph. Studies in Philosophy and Theology. 12mo, pp. 512. Andover,
1869. (Contains an essay on Natural Theology.)
Hedge, Frederick Henry. Ways of the Spirit, and other Essays. 1 2mo, pp. 367.
Boston, 1877. (Essay VI is a critique of the proofs of the Being of God.)
Hickock, Laurens P. Rational Cosmology ; or, The Kieriial Principles and Necessary
LawsoftheUuiver.se. 8vo. New York, 1871.

PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION— LITERATURE. 95
Hickock, Laurens P. The Logic of Reason, Universal and Eternal. 8vo, pp. 292.
Boston, 1874.
Hickock, Laurens P. Creation and Creator. 18mo, pp. 360. Boston, 1872. (This
work ia divided into two parts: I. Knowledge of the Creator. II. Knowledge
of the Creation. In Part I, after a criticism of llio human faculties, the author
argues that the individual reason affirms the universal reason ; affirms that the
universal reason is personal, absolute, etc. The recognition of absolute person
ality will give Theism and exclude Pantheism. The second part is devoted to a
consideration of the knowledge which reason has of space and time, of fbrco
and life.)
Hicks, L. E. A Critique of Design Arguments. A Historical Review and Examina
tion of the Methods of Reasoning in Natural Theology. Crown 8vo, pp. 417.
New York, 1883. (A r^-iurae and Analysis of tho views of writers on Natural
Theology from Socratea to modern times.)
Hicks, L. E. Faith and Rationalism, with Short Supplementary Essays on Related
Topics. 12inO, pp. 188. New York, 1879. (The second essay is entitled The
Doctrine of Nescience respecting God ; the third, The Doctrine of Evolution in
its Relation to tho Argument from Design, in both of which the Theistic argu
ment is defended.)
Hill, Thomas. A Statement of Hie Natural Sources of Theology; with a discussion
of Modern Sceptical Objections. Pp.139. Andover, 1877.
Hill, Thomas. Geometry and Faith. A Supplement to the Ninth Bridgewater Trea
tise. Pp. 109. Baston, 1883.
Hinton, James. Philosophy and Religion. Selections from the Manuscripts of the
late James Hinton, edited by Caroline Haddon. ]2mo, pp. xix, 288. Lon
don, 1881.
Ingham Lectin-, s. (R. S, Foster, A. Mahan, and others.) On the Evidences
of Natural and Revealed Religion. 12mo, pp. 365. New York and Cincinnati,
1873.
Jackson, William. The Philosnpliy of Natural Theology, etc. Prize Essay. Pp.
xviii, 398. New York, 1875.
Janet, Paul. Fiii.al Causes. Translated from the French by William AfSeck, B.D.
With a Preface by Robert Flint, LL.D , of the University of Edinburgh. Second
edition, pp. xxii, 520. Edinburgh and New York, 1883. (The first part of
Janet's work discusses tho question, "Are there ends in Nature?" the
second part, the question, " What is the ultimate cause or explanation of ends
in Nature? " His rank in this discussion is very high.)
Kant's Critique of Pure Reason. ]2mo. New York, 1880.
Kidd, J. On the Adaptation of External Nature to the Physical Condition of Man.
8vo, pp. xvi, 332. New York, 1830.
Lange, Frederick Albert. History of Materialism, and Criticism of its Present Im
portance. Authorized translation by E. C. Thomas. 3 vols., 8vo. Second
edition. Boston, 1880.
Lee, Luther. Natural Theology. The Existence of God demonstrated by arguments
drawn from the Phenomena of Nature. 24mo, pp. 186. Syracuse, 18G6.
Leitch, Alexander. Ethics of Theism. A Criticism and ita Vindications. 8vo.
Edinburgh, 1868.
Lewis, Tayler. Plato against the Atheists ; or. The Tenth Book of the Dialogues on
Laws. With Critical Notes, etc. New York, 1859.
Lord, Charles E. Evidences of Natural and Revealed Theology. 8vo. Philadel
phia, 1869.

96 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
Mahan, Asa. Tlie Science of Natural Theology; or, God the Unconditioned Cause
as Revealed in Creation. 12mo, pp. 399. Boston, 1861.
Manning, J. M. Half Truths and the Truth. Lectures on the prevailing forms of
Unbelief. 12mo, pp. 398. Boston, 1872. (Traces Modern Unbelief to Spinoza.)
Martineau, James. Essays, Philosophical and Theological. ]2mo, pp. 424. Bos
ton, 1866.
Masson, David. • Recent British Philosophy. A Review with Criticisms. 12mo,
pp. 335. New York, 1866. (The Criticism is Antitheistic.)
M'Cosh, James, and Dickie, George. Typical Forms and Special Ends in Creation.
8vo, pp. 539. New York, 1881. (Order and Adaptation are the phases of design
recognized in this work, which is a review of creation as a whole.)
M'Cosh, James. Christianity and Positivism. A series of lectures to the times
on Natural Theology and Apologetics. , 12mo, pp. 369. New York, 1871. A
reply to Spencer and Darwin, and by no means out of date. (The first series of
the lectures treats ofChristianity and Physical Science, and the argument from
design .is affected by modern discoveries. The second series treats of Chris
tianity and Mental Science. In this part the relativity of knowledge is acutely
discussed. The third series treats of Christianity and historical investigation.
The gaps in the theory of development are well exhibited in the first
Appendix.)
M'Cosh, James. Energy, Efficient and Fiual Cause. 16mo, pp. 55. New York, 1883.
Mead, C. M. An Essay concerning the Basis of the Christian Faith. Lectures
on the L. P. Stone Foundation, delivered at Princeton Theological Seminary.
Pp. 469. New York, 1889. (Discusses Theism, Revelation, Miracles, and Inspi
ration.)
Mill, John Stuart. Three Essays on Religion. (The'third essay is on Theism, and
admits, with qualifications, the argument from design.) 8vo, pp. xii, 302. New
York, 1874.
Modern Scepticism. A Course of Lectures Delivered at the Request of the Christian
Evidence Society. With an Explanatory Paper, by C. J. Ellicott. 12mo. New
York, 1871.
Murphy, Joseph J. The Scientiflc Basis of Faith. 8vo. London, 1873.
Naville, Ernst. The Heavenly Father. Lectures on Modern Atheism, translated
from the French by Henry Downton. 12mo, pp. x, 375. Boston, 1866. (A
popular treatise, in confutation of Atheistic theories.)
Naville, Ernst. The Life Eternal. From the French. 12mo, pp. 253. London,
1 867. (An argument against materialism.)
Paine, Martyn. Physiology of the Soul and Instinct, as Distinguished from Mate
rialism. 8vo. New York, 1872.
Paley, William. Natural Theology. London aud New York. Many editions.
Parsons, Theophilus. The Inflnite and the Finite. ]2mo. Boston, 1872.
Physious. A Candid Examination of Theism. Crown 8vo. Boston, 1880.
Pirie, W. R. Natural Theology. An Inquiry into the Fundamental Principles of
Religious, Moral, and Political Science. 12mo. Edittburgh, 1867.
Porter, Noah. The Human Intellect. Pp. 693. New York, 1869. (Chapter V,
Part IV, treats of Design or Final Cause.)
Porter, Noah. Science and Sentiment, with other papers, chiefly Philosophical.
Pp. 506, New York, 1883.
Potter, Alonzo. Religious Philosophy ; or. Nature, Man, and the Bible Witnessing
to God and to Religious Truth. Lowell Institute Lectures for 1845 and 1853.
8vo. Philadelphia.

PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION— LITERATURE. 97
Questions of Modern Thought; or, Lectures on the Bible and Infidelity, by Drs.
McCosh, Thompson, and others. Svo. Philadelphia, 1871.
Raby, William. Natural Theology. New York, 1824, and often.
Randies, Marshall. First Principles. 12mo, pp. 308. (Part I discusses the
various kinds of Theistic Evidence ; Part II, the Doctrine of Causality; Part
III, Theistic Evidence ; Part IV, the Theistic Argument as affected by the
advance of science and philosophy ; Part V, Relation of Natural to Revealed
Theology.)
Rogers, Henry. The Eclipse of Faith; or, A Visit to a Religious Sceptic. 12mo.
Boston, 1860.
Rogers, Henry. A Defence of tho Eclipse of Faith. 12mo. Boston, 1854.
Row, C. A. Christian Theism. 12mo, pp. viii, 318. New Yor^c, 1 890. (A popu
lar exposition of the argument for Theism.)
Saisset, Emile. An Ess.-iy on Religious Philosophy (with an essay by the English trans
lator). 2 vols., 12mo, pp. vi, 310, 273. Edinburgh, 1863. (A series of his
torical essays, followed by a series of meditations. Beginning with the
Theism of Descartes, the author analyzes Pantheistic theories from Spinoza to
Hegel.)
Samuelson, James. Views of the Deity. Traditional and Scientiflc. A Contribu
tion to the Study of Theological Science. ]2mo. London, 1871.
Schmid, Rudolph. The Theories of Darwin and their Relation to Philosophy, Relig
ion, and Morality, translated by G. A. Zimmerman, Ph.D. 12mo, pp. 410. Chi
cago, 1883. (Holds that revealed religion and theories of development may be
harmonized.)
Sexton, George. Theistic Problems. Being Essays ou the Existence of God and his
Relationship to Man.
Shairp, J. C. Culture and Beligion in Some of their Relations. 16mo, pp. 197.
New York, 1871.
Shedd, William G. T. The Ontological Argument for the Divine Existence. Pp. 1 5.
The Presbyterian Review, 1884, p. 213.
Smitli, Richard Travers. Man's Knowledge of Man and God. The Donellan Lect
ures for 1884-85. London, 1888. (Shows the force of the analogy between
the principles which control human nature, and those which we judge must
exist in God, who made human nature what it is.)
Somerset (The Duke of). Christian Theology and Modern Scepticism. 16mo. New
York, 1872.
Spinoza, Benedict de. Tractatus Theologico-Politicus. A Theological and Polit
ical Treatise. Showing under a series of Heads that Freedom of Thought
and of Discussion may not only be granted with safety to Religion and the
peace of the State, etc. From the Latin. Second edition, 8vo, pp. viii, 360.
Loudon, 1868.
Still ingfleet. Bishop Edward. Origines Sacros ; or, A Rational Account of the Grounds
of Natural and Revealed Religion. 2 vols., Svo. Oxford, 1836.
Taylor, George. The Indications of the Creator; or, The Natural Evidences of Final
Cause. 12mo. New York, 1851.
Thompson, Robert A. Christian Theism. The Testimony of Reason and Revelation
to the Existence and Character of the Supreme Being. 12mo, pp. xxii, 477.
New York, 1855.
Ward, William George. Es.says on the Philosophy of Theism. Reprinted from the
Dublin Review. 2 vols., pp. 390, 349. London. (The aim of the essays is the
" philosophic establishment of Theism " from a Roman Catholic staildpoint.)
7

98 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
Wharton, Francis. A Treatise on Theism and on the Modern Sceptical Theories.
Philadelphia and Loudon, 1859. 12mo, pp. 395.. (A discussion by a dislin-
guished lawyer.)
Wilson. A. Chapters on Evolution. With 259 Illustrations. 8vo, pp. 370. Lon
don, 1882.
Wilson, W. D. The Foundations of Religioiia Belief. The Methods of Natural The
ology Vindicated against Modern Objections. One of the Bishop Paddock Lect
ures, founded in 1880. Pp. xi, 386. New York, 1883.
Wright, G. Frederic. The Logic of the Christian Evidences. (Second part discusses
the Evidences of Theism.) Andover, 1880.
Young, John. The Province of Reason : a Criticism of the Bampton Lecture on
"The Limits of Religious Thought." Pp. 305.
3. The Pliilosophy of the Christian Religion.
Bowen, Francia. Modern Philosophy, from Descartes to Schopenhauer. New York,
1877. (Treats modern philosophy both historically and analytically from the
orthodox Christian point of view.)
Buslinell, Horace. Nature and the Supernatural as Togethbr Constituting the one
System of God. New. edition, 8vo, pp. 534. New York, 1867.
Butler, Bishop. The Analogy of Religion, Natural and Revealed, to the Constitution
and Course of Nature. Edited, with an analysis, by J. T. Champlin. 12mo,
pp. 194. Boston, 1860. Although the debate of Christian faith with unbelief
has undergone a change of issue the masterly work of Butler is still indispen
sable for liie training of the theological student. The conflict of faith is now
with atheism and agnosticism, rather than with deism. Butler's argument,
however, in proof of a moral government of God should not be missed, for it is
always available. The editions are many, and some of these have valuable
introductions and analyses. That edited by Bishop Wilson, of Calcutta, has had
ji wide circulation. (12mo, 7th edition. Glasgow, 1841.) Professor William
Fiizgerald. of Dublin University, published in 1849 au edition with Notes, and
also tho fullest fife of Bishop Butler we have yet had. (Svo, pp. xcv, 370.) A
.systematic analysis of Part I of the Analogy was issued by Henry H. Duke, wilh
an appendix of considerations upou certain of the arguments. The American
edilioiis have been many. The first appeared in Boston, 1809 (Svo, pp. 58. 422),
and contained the life by Dr. Kippis, and the preface of Bishop Samuel Halifax,
of the Diocese of Gloucester. Ano-her edition is that of Dr. Howard Malcolm,
President of the University of Lowisbiirg, Pa. Tnia is furnished with an intro
duction, notes, and a valuable index. (l2mo, 1857. Philadelphia.) An edition
frequently reprinted is that of Robert Emory and G. R. Crooks, and contains
Notes and a life drawn from tho material supplied by Professor Fitzgerald's in
vestigations. (12mo, New Yurk, 1852, and years fnUowing.) A good edition
is also to be had in one of the volumes of the Bohn Library, and another in
the School District Library of Harper and Brothers, New York, 1844. Atten
tion miiy also be directed to two works upon the value of Butler's Course of
Argument: Bishop Hampden's Essay on the Philosophical Evidence of Chris
tianity (Svo, London, 1827), and Matthew Arnold's Bishop Butler and the
Zeit-Geist (Last Words on the Church and Religion, New York, 1877). Mr.
Arnold concludes that " the great work on which such immense praise has
been lavished is, for all real intents and purposes, now a failure ; it does not
serve." But the Analogy is still read and cherished, Mr. Arnold to the contrary
notwithstanding.

GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA 99
Delitzsch, Franz. A System of Biblical Psychology. Revised by Robert Ernest Wallis.
Svo, pp. 585. Edinburgh, 1867. (Aims to show the harmony of the psychol
ogy of the Bible with modern science and philosophy.)
Huntington, P. D. The Fitfless of Christianity to Man. Bohlen Lectures. 12mo,
pp. 127. New York, 1878.
Leifchild, John R. The Higher Ministry of Nature Viewed in the Light of Modern
Science, and as an Aid to Advanced Christian Philosophy. Svo. London, 1872.
Peabody, A. P. Christianity the Religion of Nature. 12mo, pp. 256. Boston, 1864.
(Aims to show that Christianity has a foundation in the human constitution.)
Raid, Rev. John. Voices of the Soul Answered in God. 12mo, pp. 374. New York,
1865. (A philosophy of Christianity.)
Shuttleworth, Philip W. The Consistency of Revelation with Itself and with Human
Reason. 18mo. New York, 1856.
Smith, Heury B. Faith and Philosophy. Edited by George L. Prentiss. Svo, pp. 496.
New York, 1877. (The first essay is upon the reconciliation of philosophy with
Christian faith,)
Walker, James Barr. Philosophy of the Plan of Salvation. With an Introduction
by Calvin E. Stowe. 12mo. Chicago, 1874.
Walker, James Barr. Doctrine of the Holy Spirit ; or. Philosophy of the Divine
Operations in the Redemption of Man. 12mo. Chicago, 1873.

100 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA-
SECTION X.
THE PKEVAILIKG TEISTDENCIES OF THEOLOGICAL THOUGHT.
The estimate to be formed of the various theological tendencies
and the choice of a position with regard to them, are naturally con
nected with the detennination of the relation of philosophy to the
ology, though not dependent on it alone. A characterization of
these tendencies becomes necessary at this point, because their in
fluence makes itself felt throughout the entire science; but this is
by no means designed to lead to a definite conclusion, which is
rather to be attained through the medium of theological study
itself. The history of the subject enables us to recognize in the early
„ , . ,. Church two tendencies which came into frequent con-
Theological ten- ^
dencies In the flict with each Other (comp. § 3). 1 he one was more
early Church, particularly inclined to hold fast to the legal, literal,
traditional; the other, more independent, tended to pass beyond
these limits. A Petrine and a Pauline tendency were manifest even
among the primitive Christians. The earliest heresies took the
form of Ebionitism on the one hand, and of Gnosticism on the
other ; but transitions from the one to the other (Clementines), or
modifications of them (Montanism as a modification of Ebionitism?),
took place even at this stage. The same contrast was repeated
within the pale of the catholic orthodox Church, Justin, Irenseus,
and Tertullian being on the one side, and Clement and Origen on
the other. The succeeding contro-v^ersies in the Church likewise
presented the two opposing tendencies, though yet undeveloped
and unconscious, in contrast with each other, until in a later day
they assumed the forms of rationalism and supernaturalism. The
strict Arians (Eunomius), for, instance, insisted that Divine things
could be comprehended, while the great defenders of orthodoxy in
that age sought to guard their incomprehensible and mysterious
character by the development of awe-inspiring formulas. In like
manner, Nestorius, and with him the school of Antioch, represented
a sober, intelligently discriminating tendency, pervaded by the
breath of a mild piety,, while Cyril of Alexandria and his party
comprehended religious ideas in compact foi-ms of expression cal
culated to challenge contradiction on the part of reason, e. g., God
has died, and similar expressions. The same contrast appears in
the practical field, where Pelagius gave the first place to human
liberty, while Augustine assigned the first place to the grace of God.
In the domain of ethics, the former is an atomist, and the latter

THE MIDDLE AGES AND THE REFORMATION. 101
a dynamist. Farther on, in the Middle Ages, the sacramental con
troversy shows an inclination on the part of some (Ra- Theological
tramnus, Berengarius) toward intelligent reflection, Jt°''^«flaj"
while others (Paschasius Radbertus, Lanf ranc) hold fast Ages.
the transcendental and incomprehensible even in outward things, and
endeavor to embody it to the senses. John Scotus Erigena, a phe
nomenal character, but isolated and unappreciated, combined in
himself both rationalistic and mystical elements. Among scho
lastics, Abelard, GUbert of Poitiers, and Roscelin, although not
absolute rationalists, yet belong to the class of rational theologians,
while Anselm emphasizes faith, at the same time, however, striving
to apprehend it by the reason. Bernard of Clairvaux supported
strictly the positive doctrines of the Church by the weight of his
personal influence. The mystics sought to intensify and give depth
to the doctrines of the Church, but in their hands the positive was
often transformed into the ideal, and history, as in the case of
Origen, became a symbol and an allegory. They were thus uncon
sciously borne in the direction of rationalism. It is worthy of note
that in the last period of echoiastieism the prevalent nominalism
introduced a sceptical spirit, which was counterbalanced by a pure
ly external supernaturalism, based, however, on authority. The
relation between faith and knowledge thus became unnatural, the
renunciation of scientific apprehension on the part of faith resulting
in blind credulity, while ineverent thought and speculation degen
erated into frivolous unbelief.
The Reformation cannot be regarded as exclusively the precursor
of rationalism or the founder of supernaturalism. Least of all was
it the precursor of rationalism in its broad manifesta- Theological
tion and its immediate results. Luther was decidedly spint of the
opposed to all subtleties (comp. § 7). Erasmus mani
fested far more rationalistic tendencies. Many have attempted to
class Zwingle with the founders of i-ationalism, but certainly with
out cause, if the language is employed in the absolute or even the
popular sense. It cannot be denied, however, that Zwingle, who
combined soberness of judgment, with all his impulsive energy, and
sympathized with the classical humanism of the Erasmian school,
stands, at first sight, more nearly related to rationalism, than the
realistic and positive Calvin, with his leaning toward strict super
naturalism ; but the latter was, at the same time, by no means in
ferior to his opponents in the critical spirit, nor even averse to the
employment of such weapons as rationalism subsequently used in
its conflict with the orthodoxy of the Church (comp. his dispute
on the Lord's Supper with Westphal). The rationalistic principle

103 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
was clearly manifested, on the other hand, by the antitrinitarians
. and their open and concealed friends, and it tinally became settled,
although as yet not fully developed, and combined with a formal
supernaturalism, in Socinianism. Seb. Franck, Schwenkfeld, and
Theobald Thamer, the latter especially, combined rationalistic ele
ments with their mystical and theosophic tendencies..
In the Reformed Church Arminianism broke through the limits
Theological of Strict Orthodoxy in the seventeenth century; and the
thrmh^'cen- influence of English Deism soon after the beginning of
tury. the eighteenth, led Christian apologists to grant many
concessions to the spirit of the age. A system of natural (rational)
theology took root beside the revealed (positive, Scripturally eccle
siastical), while the demonstrative method (beginning with Wolf,
comp. § 7). drew the meshes of rationalistic categories through the
substance of orthodoxy. Pietism, which had formerly been at odds
with orthodoxy, now entered into a league with it for the defence
of Biblical supernaturalism, which was being shattered by the at-
Theoiogyinthe tacks of criticism (Lessing, Semler). This continued
18th century, xintil the appearance of Kant, who unravelled all that
had hitherto been woven, discharged the pure reason from all par
ticipation in theology while assigning to the practical reason the in
herited doctrines of Gtod and immortality, and assigned to morality
the categorical imperative as its basis. The more definite use of
the terms rationalism and supernaturalism dates form that period
(more particularly from the issue of the work. Die Religion inner-
halb der Grenzen der blossen Vernunft, 1793). Kant makes a
sharp distinction between rationalism and naturalism,, which should
always be observed.' German i-ationalism, as it was developed
through the tendencies of that age, though not through
modernration- the direct influence of Kant, is, in its formal character,
* *""¦ distinguished from supernaturalism chiefly in that it
considers as identical with the demands of reason, what the latter
conceives to be a supernatural revelation, and in that it consequent
ly endeavors to explain away by tricks of interpretation all that is
' A distinction similar to that between radicalism and liberalism in the field of
politics, although they often pass into each other. Comp. Kant, Rel. innerhalb d.
Grenz. d. bloss. Vernunft, p. 216 sq. The designation "rationalist" is, , however, of
earlier date. The terms Rationistse and RatiocinistiB were employed as early as the
beginning of the seventeenth century, during a controversy at Helmstedt between the
orthodox and the humanists (comp. Henke, Georg Calixt, p. 248). A sect whose ad
herents denominated themselves "rationalists," existed in England in 1646; and
Sucro, during a disputation in A. D. 1706, classed " Rationalistae, Naturalistie, Liber-
tini, Sceptici, quin imo Athei " together. Comp. Lechler, Gesch. des englischen Deis-
mus, p. 61, and Tholuck, Verm. Schriften, ii, p. 26. ,

INFLUENCE OF HERDER AND SCHLEIERMACHER. 103
supernatural in the Scriptures, or else seeks to obviate its force as be
ing merely the oiiinion of the time and people in question. It holds
fast chiefly to the ethics of Christianity. This formal difference nat
urally implies the material, with reference to the specifically Christian
doctrines of the person of Christ, the Trinity, original sin, the merits
of Christ, redemption, eschatology, etc. Frequent approximations of
the two systems to each other became apparent, however. Approaches oi
at an early day. Biblical supernaturalism departed in superTatiiraiism
many respects from the ancient orthodox doctrine of to each other.
the Church, and often agreed with Socinianism in simply retaining
the merely formal idea of a revelation, so that the controversy turned
not so much upon the contents of doctrine as upon the way by which
it had been reached. Rationalism, on the other hand, sought to
demonstrate its agreement with the Bible in essential points, and
established itself as Biblical rationalism, in opposition to doctrines
of the Church a§ developed beyond the Scriptures, as well as to the
more recent speculations. Mutual concessions led to a rational
supernaturalism and a supernatural rationalism. Meanwhile,' the
active intellect of theologians like Herder, had already jj^..^ direction
solved the contradiction in the last century, by regarding given to uieoi-
Revelation, not as an abstractly imparted doctrine from and schieier-
God to men, but as a Divine and human fact, to which ™a«her.
the Bible gives a living testimony, without attempting to place
in the hands of the systematic theologian a finished corpus doc
trince. Kleuker, too, insisted upon the recognition of the divine
ly siven facts, while entertaining freer views respecting the inspir
ation of the Scriptures which had been identified with revelation
itself.' But it was reserved for Schleiermacher, more than all others,
to allay the conflict between rationalism and supernaturalism,"
by making the historical manifestation of Christ, and acknowl
edgment of him as the Saviour of the world, the criterion by
which to judge. The contrast between sin and grace, which had
received a superficial treatment at the hands even of many Biblical
supernaturalists, was again apprehended in its profound significance,
' Compare S. Ratjen, Johann Friedrich Kleuker und Briefe seiner Freunde, Gottin
gen, 1842.
' " I, for my poor part," says Schleiermacher, " begin to feel uncomfortable as soon
as I listen to the on-rush of "the ' ra-, irra-, and supra-,' because to my mind this ter
minology simply serves to increase the tangle of the confusion," (Zugabe zu Schreiben
an Herrn Ammon, Beriin, 1818, p. 14). Concerning the influence of Schleiermacher
on the development of modern theology, comp. K. Schwarz Gesch. d. neuesten Theol
ogie, p. 29 sqg., 1st ed

104 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
and the proper manifestation of God was seen to be his manifesta
tion in Christ for the redemption of the world. Subsequent specu
lation likewise rendered material aid to the introduction of a more
spiritual conception of the idea of revelation, and the whole of
recent theology — to whose development, in addition to
ti^es oTatre- Schleiermacher, de Wette, Marheineke, Daub, Nitzsch,
cent theology. T^estgn^ Hase, Ullmann, Jul. Miiller, Dorner, Al.
Schweizer, Schenkel, Liebner, Martensen, Rothe, and Lange con
tributed, though occupying veiy different points of view — must be
considered as having passed beyond the ancient controversy be
tween rationalism and supernaturalism. It does not follow, how
ever, that the antagonism has been removed, but merely that it has
entered on a new stage. For,
l..The more modern tendency, generally speculatively mediat-
™. ...... ing is suspected bv both the older rationalistic and the
The old strife &> r j ...
in Its newer older supematuralist schools of imposing a new sense
lorms. ^^ ^j^g ancient teachings of the Church, and of using
words to conceal dishonest practices. At this point everything
depends upon a correct apprehension of the relation of the undevel
oped to the developed, the immediate contents of the Scriptures to
what has been historically and intellectually inferred, as also upon
a projjer distinction between the religious element and the ever-
changing forms of scientific expression.
2. It cannot be denied that the pantheistic spirit has often
donned the garb of superior orthodoxy in an insulting compar
ison of itself with rationalism, although the latter honestly de
nied what it believed itself compelled to deny, while, at the same
time, it decisively retained a belief in God and immortality ac
cording to the theistic view." The reproaches of pantheism do
not apply in every case, however; and, for itself, rationalism has
often found it difficult while opposing pantheism, to deny the charge
of sheer deism and naturalism. The vulgar rationalism, having
fallen behind in the march of progress, is, with all its understand
ing and practical thoroughness, deficient in intellectual mobiUty
when engaged upon details, and is deficient also in a profound ap-
' "It should be credited to the memory of rationalism, that it did not reject the
idea of personality, nor teach an impersonal God, an impersonal Christ, an impersonal
human soul, i. e., one incapable of existing after death. In its more noble representa
tives, at least, the disciples and successors of Kant, it displays the praiseworthy am
bition to secure dogmatic recognition for an absolutely perfect, personal God, who
governs the world in the interests of moral ends, an ethically perfect Christ, who is
educating the world for moral purposes, and a human personal soul, which is capable
of endless moral perfection, and is being trained on earth by Christianity for the here
after." Schenkel, Idee der Personlichkeit, p. 6.

THE POSITION OP PIETISM. 105
prehension of the nature of religion and Christianity, while, despite
its praiseworthy morality, it also lacks the devout disposition in
which all religious inspiration has its rise. This applies also, though
in a different manner, to the older Biblical supernaturalism, which
rests upon a more solid foundation, indeed, but without deriving an
adequate benefit from this advantage.
In the current conflict modern pietism has taken the place of the
older supernaturalism. The earlier pietism' contrasted
with the orthodoxy of its time, in that it represented m'Tthe
the independent, active principle in the Church, and "°°^°'-
the interests of practical Christianity (Spener, Francke). It as
sumed a weaker position after the days of the Wolfian philosophy,
and often assailed science at improper points (the pietistic opposi
tion at Halle against Wolf). Pietism joins the older supernatural
ism in holding strongly to the Scriptures; but what was a dead
form with the latter, has become a living body with the former. It
regards the Bible as the word of life, and like the later theology,
it attaches great importance to the contrast between sin and grace,
with the difference that it rejects the speculative element and con
fines itself wholly to the practical. It is only too prone, however,
to commit the error of confounding dogmatic Christianity with
practical, in its zealous defense of the letter, or to be led astray,
while striving to be piously intelligent, into insipidity and arbitrari
ness. To this must be added a fondness for dabbling with philos
ophy and natural science without honestly examining their claims,
or, in case it renounces every pretence to scientific character, a dis
position to vaunt itself in pious phraseology, which naturally /assumes
the appearance of cant.
' The name, as is well known, came into current use in the time of Spener and
Francke. At that time the pietists (as liberals) stood opposed to the strictly orthodox.
Their buoyant and pious spiritual life soon, however, gave way to ascetic formalism.
This was pietism on its practical side (affected piety) ; our concern is with dogmatic
pietism. The latter clings emphatically to the fundamental doctrines of Protestant
ism, both the formal, as involved in the principle of the authority of the Scriptures,
and the material, of sin and justification, in which connexion it strongly emphasizes
the natural corruption of man and his moral inability when not aided by grace (comp.
von Colin and Bretschneider in the passages cited below). In these respects it can
not be justly charged with sectarianism ; it has, on the contrary, always appealed to
its orthodoxy, when brought into comparison with rationalism. But its devotion to
the letter is not yet la proof of the Protestant spirit ; and the words will apply here,
"Duo cum faciunt idem, non est idem," and, "C'est le ton, qui fait la musique."
Luther's energetic nature certainly wrought out the doctrine internally with difEerent
results, and gave to it a different outward bearing, from what a sickly languishing
pietism is able to furnish. The entire life-conception of the Reformation was sound
ly pious, but far from being morbidly pietistic.

106 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
Mysticism,' which has been improperly confounded with pietism,
te presents a more attractive appearance. It is more an-
dency in theol- cient than pietism, being as old as the Church, and
°^^' even older. It is really religion itself in the exact
sense, as the latter appears when restricted to its immediate self
and not aided by intelligent knowledge, or when, guided by the im
agination, it wanders off into the labyrinths of theosophy, while in
the practical field it either gives way to the contemplative inactivity
of quietism or manifests itself as enthusiasm. ' Mysticism is super
naturalism, inasmuch as it rests on the assumption of an immediate
enlightening influence from above and of an actual communion of
the Divine with the human; it can never, therefore, come to terms
with the vulgar rationalism." But it differs from the formal Bibli
cal supernaturalism in not limiting revelation entirely to the writ
ten word, listening rather to the internal word, and evincing a strong
inclination to convert the positive features into allegory, and the
historical facts into ideal vagaries. It has this tendency in com
mon with the idealistic rationalism, as may be seen, e. g., in Swe-
denborg. Another new form of supernaturalism is the ecclesiastical posi-
Ecciesiasticai tivism and confessionalism, which again asserts itself
ooniessionaiism. ^jth power. This tendency, not content with Bibli
cal orthodoxy, lays stress upon assent to the teachings of symbol
ical books as the necessary criterion of a correct belief, and aims
' The derivation is from /ivu, fivarijc, iivarripiorv, fjvariKdc. The examination of
what is mysterious involves neither praise nor blame, aside from other considerations.
Inasmuch as religion is itself the mystery of godliness, it will involve a mystical char
acter to the apprehension of the average human understanding ; and it was not, there
fore, wholly an error, to distinguish between a true and a false mysticism, as some
have done. The corruption of mysticism has been designated by many as fanaticism
(from f anum, f anaticus) ; but there are fanatics of every kind, even rationahstic ones.
The characteristic traits of a fanatic are a cold heart and a hot head. Enthusiasm is
sometimes substituted for this term; but common usage attaches a more innocent
idea to that word. The enthusiast is capable of martyrdom in the defense of his
principles; the fanatic erects the stake. (Bretschneider describes fanaticism as the
paroxysm of enthusiasm). Nitzsch remarks, in entire correspondence with our view,
that " fanaticism is, in its inner nature, unqualifiedly cold ; every fanatic is, in his in
most being, a cold nature ; whatever heat he has is superficial ; a passionate bearing
within the limits of the external and the empirical, is cultivated as a compensation
for his coldness and indifference." Akadem. Vortrage fiber Christl. Glaubenslehre,
p. 28.
' " In the meantime," says Hase (Theol. Streitschriften, No. 3, page 90), " it would
not harm rationalism, if it were to receive into itself as much of mystical unction as
it could contain without injury to its sound common sense ; and mysticism likewise
ivould not necessarily suffer the loss of its vessel of grace, were it to receive on board
a measure of good sense, as ballast, if not as a compass."

COURSE OP THEOLOGY IN ENGLAND. 107
in Germany to destroy the existing union between Protestant
denominations. England in the latter part of the seventeenth century was pro
foundly stirred by the Trinitarian controversy, which began with
the publication of tracts on the Unitarian side, by Thomas Firmin,
a wealthy London merchant. Dr. John Wallis defended the Atha-
nasian Creed, in his Letters on the Trinity (1690). In the same year
Dean Sherlock contributed A Vindication of the Doctrine of the
Holy and Ever-blessed Trinity, in which he approached tritheism,
and was answered by Dr. South (1693) and Dr. Wallis. Bishop
Bull's Defensio Fidei l^Jiceanae (1685), collected the testimonies
of the Fathers to the pre-existence of Christ and his divinity. In
1694 appeared his Judgment of the Catholic Church, in which he
justified the anathema of the Nicene Creed. In Primitive Chris
tianity Revived (IVII), and the Council of Nice Vindicated from
the Athanasian Heresy (I7I3), Professor Whiston, of Cambridge,
set forth semi-Arianism. Whitby's Disquisitions criticised Bishop
Bull's argument from the ante-Nicene Fathers. Dr. Samuel Clarke
followed in the same line of argument, although he refused to be
called an Arian. These works elicited Waterland's Vindication of
Christ's Divinity; Defence of the Divinity of Christ ; Critical His
tory of the Athanasian Creed, etc. (I719-I724). After this contro
versy had run its course the attention of English theologians was
directed to the Deistic controversy, already noticed (pp. 76, 77).
A marked change in the tendencies of theological opinion in
England may be dated from the middle of the eighteenth cen
tury. The Wesleyan revival led to a concentration of rj,j^ggig„i^i
thought upon the atonement, justification by faith, tendencies in
and the work of the Holy Spirit in the heart of ^"s'^'^'i-
man. The effects of the revival were felt throughout the Eng
lish Church in the rise of the evangelical party, and beyond
the Church in the general diffusion of Wesleyan theological
ideas. At the same time the attack upon the internal contents of
Christianity passed on to its external evidences and called forth
a corresponding apologetic literature. In this literature Lardner
(1684-1768), Leland (1691-1766), Paley (I743-I805), and Lyttleton
(1709-1773), became conspicuous. Towards the close of the cen
tury English Deism became infected with the French spirit, of
which Gibbon, the historian, and Thomas Paine are striking exam
ples. The evangelical movement having relaxed church principles
and prepared the way for political liberalism, awakened a counter
movement, which announced itself in 1833 in the issue of the first
"Tract for the Times." From this series, which was finished in

108 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOP.^DIA.
1840, the movement has taken the name of Tractarian. It maintains
the regenerative efficacy of the sacraments, and the absolute au
thority of the Church over the individual. At the same time the
penetration of the English mind by German culture has produced
a rationalism which has run parallel with that of Germany. Liter
ary Rationalism has found a brilliant representative in Thomas
Carlyle, who, while urging his countrymen to give heed to the
moral order of the universe, seems to deny the possibility of at
taining to distinct theological conceptions. The disciples of Cole
ridge have endeavored to adjust modern philosophical thought
and the creed of the Church of England to each other, and have
produced a Broad Church party. The critical rationalistic spirit in
the State Church is represented in the "Essays and Reviews," and
the attacks of Bishop Colenso on the Credibility of the Pentateuch
and the Book of Joshua. Two of the theological tendencies of the
age are well typified by the lives of the brothers, John Henry and
Francis William Newman, one of whom passed from the evan
gelical school, through Tractarianism to Rome, and the other, from
the same starting-point, through Unitarianism to a religious idealism
which denies all historic Christianity. During the past few years/ a
call has been made among the Non-conformists of England and
Scotland for a revision of Church standards.
In the United States the Wesleyan revival spread more widely
than in England, and created a theological tendency corresponding
with its distinctive religious ideas. The Unitarian movement,
which dates from the time of Stoddard's proposal of a "half-way
covenant," obtained fresh importance under the leadership of Will
iam Ellery Channing (1780-1842). Since the time of Channing it
has shown both a conservative and a radical tendency, the radical
ism going to the length of wholly destructive criticism (Theodore
Parker and O. B. Frothingham). The Tractarian movement has
also been repeated in the United States, but without the vigor
which has marked its progress in England. The Churches of the
Reformed faith, under the leadership of the American Presbyte
rians, have formed an alliance, which has secured a collation of all
the Reformed creeds.
As one extreme, however, always calls forth the other,- rational-
The modern i^m, which was Supposed to have been forever buried,
rationalism. has again arisen, but in a different form, and, in conse
quence, assumes the designation "modern." It is remarkable that
the same philosophical school to which the defenders of modern
supernaturalism belong, originated the speculative rationalism, which
agrees with its older brother in denying the supernatural and the

THE STUDENT'S RELATION TO DOUBT. 109
miraculous, but in other respects is materially different, inasmuch
as it denies with emphasis the very doctrines which the earlier ra
tionalism energetically maintained, viz., the doctrines of a personal
God and a personal immortality, to which it adds incessant effort
to undermine the historical basis of Christianity. Although this
rationalism considers spirit a reality only as it attains to conscious
ness in man, it has yet often been confounded — by both friend and
foe, and not always without its own fault — with the other tendency
which ends with wholly denying the existence of spirit, and passes
over into bald materialism and nihilism, theories wliich manifestly
constitute the negation of all theology.
SECTION XL
EELATION or THE STUDENT TO THESE TENDENCIES.
The pupil will find no scientific charm, by the use of which he
may avoid these opposing influences, and escape the mental conflict
they naturally excite. On the other hand, let none who are con
scious of being governed by upright intentions in the sight of God,
permit mere theoretical doubts to frighten them from the study of
theology. A pious disposition will be strengthened by Tie spMt m
the continued studv of the Holy Scriptures as con- which these
. , - „, , T -, 1 • , 1 • i conflicting ten-
nected with the Church and its history, by acquamt- dencies should
ance with the great heroes who stood for the truth, t^^fet.
and who, in the midst of the most diverse complications, strove
to secure the one thing needful, by sincere prayer to God. Love,
which knows how to bear with divergent tendencies and how to ap
propriate to itself all that is good in any form, will increase with
the growth of faith, and faith will hold fast the truth which has
been secured; and wherever a living faith and love are found, hope
in the full triumph of the truth will not be wanting.
Many approach theology with false expectations; either they
have retained an unthinking faith, or they are affected by doubts
conceived in the course of their preliminary studies. The former
are easily disturbed in this study, when its critical processes threat
en to destroy what they have hitherto cherished with devoted love.
The latter become impatient when knotty doubts become still more
involved, instead of giving way. Shall hard questions be concealed
from sight, and the untenable be represented as admitting of de
fense? Shame on the science which would lend its aid ,j^^ ^^^^^^
to the attempt! Others advise, on the contrary, that ofdeaUngwith
persons who cannot keep from doubting should leave
the study of theology untouched. They urge that believing theo
logians are needed, particularly in this age. The latter is certain

no GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
ly true ; but we prefer a faith that has been tested in the conflict,
to the dullness of spirit which is often confounded with a believing
disposition. Accordingly, eminent theologians, possessing the most
loyal faith, have always valued courage in youthful aspirants. So
Bengel,' who expresses the idea that "all doctrinal ten-
great theoiogi- ets must needs pass through a conflict, and their truth
*"^' be won afresh." Harms, the man of robust faith, re
marked while standing by the grave of a rationalistic student, " He
who doubts religiously, has the true religion.'"' Neander is said to
have expressed an analogous sentiment, with reference to a young
theologian who died before the age of youthful doubts had passed,
to the effect that he died in his calling, and that to die thus is to
die well. But let the questioning be in a religious spirit, and with
a holy determination of heart which consents to part with every
thing for the sake of securing a single pearl of truth.
An earnestly religious character, even if it exists only in its most
Sound theoiog- S^^^^'^^ form, will assuredly become more positively
leal study will Christian under the influence of a sound course of the-
r ase a . QjQgjgg^j study. A vivid apprehension of Christ, even
in his human nature alone, will, if joined with enthusiasm for the
ideal, erelong beget in the heart faith in his Divine character, al
though the intellect may yet be struggling to find a satisfactory
expression of its views. Such idealism' is at all events, better than
the dry prosaic disposition of a mind wholly given up to the influ
ence of ordinary outward realities, which, precisely because of un
belief, demands that every thing shall be signed and sealed and
trebly hypothecated, and which prefers to confine its attention to
what lies on the surface, to the end that its sleep may be undis-
' See Leben Bengel's, by Burk, p. 11, and comp. the Gottingen Memorial, Ueber die
gegenwartige Krisis des kircMichen Lebens (Gott., 1854), p. 18: "As in the field of
morals Importance attaches not simply to what is done, but even more to the reasons,
purposes, and motives of our action ; so in the religious field the great question is in
no wise chiefly, who believes, but more especially how and why he believes;" and
page 20 : " Inasmuch as the spiritual oflice, however important its relation to the or.
ganism of the Church may be, does not ask to be considered a tahsman before whose
very appearance the diseases of our age must fly, it follows, that theological faculties
will be required still further to impress upon the future servants of the Church, en
trusted to their guidance and care, to the utmost of their ability, the necessity for in
ward religious and moral culture rather than the mere memorizing of the tenets of the
creed, in order that they may not merely attain to a correct belief, but also come to
hold it in a correct manner, and that thus a clergy firmly established in the faith of
our Church be perpetuated among us."
"See Rheinwald's Repertorium, xxx, p. 54.
' Comp. Kahler, Christl. Sittenlehre, p. 23, where genuine ideality is emphasized, as
against a mere giddiness of ideas.

THE LITERATURE OF RATIONALISM. Ill
tiirbed. Let, therefore, the picture of a living Christ, adapted to
compel the attention of every human soul struggling after God, be
made the central feature of the theological school. It will then be
come speedily apparent that " to love Jesus is the true supernatural
ism, to comprehend Jesus the true rationalism, and to illustrate
Jesus in personal character the true mysticism ; and that these three
constitute true Christianity." '
Let the student remember, too, that the question of rationalism
is largely a question of method. He who has, through a Christian
experience, attained a clear Christian consciousness is fixed upon a
rock from which he cannot easily be moved. Anselm has taught
us that we must believe in order to understand, and has also reminded
us that we are negligent if, " after we are established in the faith,
we do not seek to understand what we believe."^ We may be ra
tional and yet not rationalistic ; inquiring and yet thoroughly believ
ing ; philosophical and yet not unchristian. In the spirit of Anselm
Coleridge has pointed out that " in order to an efficient belief in
Christianity a man must have been a Christian ; that this is the
seeming argumentum in circulo incident to all spiritual truths, to
every subject not presentable under the forms of time and space, as
long as we attempt to master by the reflex acts of the understanding
what we can only know by the act of becoming." ' Christ's words
will furnish the student a sure clue through the tangled thicket of
rationalism : " If any man will do his will, he shall know of the
doctrine whether it be of God."
Respecting the extent to which the theological school may con
tribute to the cultivation of a right disposition, comp. § 22.
ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE.
1. On the side of Rationalism.
Arnold, Matthew. Literature and Dogma. An Essay toward a better appreciation
of the Bible. 12mo. New York, 18U.
Arnold, Matthew. God and tlie Bible. Review of Objections to Literature and
Dogma. ]2mo. New York, 1875.
Bellows, Henry W. Restatements of Christian Doctrine. In Twenty-five Sermons.
12mo, pp. 434. Boston, 1882.
Channing, W. E. Works. 3 vols. Boston, 1874.
Clarke, James Freeman. Orthodoxy : Its Truth and Errors. 12mo, pp. xi, 512.
Boston, 1866.
Clarke, James Freeman. Common Sense in Religion. A Series of Essays. 12mo.
Boston, 1880.
Clarke, James Freeman. Essentials and Non-Essentialfe in Religion. Boston, 1878.
' Kahler, infra, p. 334. '^ Cur Dens Homo ? book i, chap. ii.
* Biographia Literaria, chap, xxiv, p. 349.

113 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
Colenso, John WiUiam. The Pentateuch and Book of Joshua, Critically Examined.
12mo, pp. 229. New York, 1863. (For answers to Colenso, see (2.) and also
Hurst's History of Rationalism, pp. 599, 602.)
Dewey, Orville. Discourses in Defence of Unitarianism. Works. 3 vols. New
York, 1876.
Dewey, Orville. Why I am a Unitarian. In Pitts St. Chapel Lectures. 12mo, pp.
366. Boston, 1858.
Eliot, Wm. G. Doctrines of Christianity. 12mo, pp. 168. Boston, 1882.
Farley, Frederick A. Unitarianism Defined. The Scripture Doctrine of the Father,
Son, and Holy Ghost. 12mo, pp. 272. Boston, 1882.
Proude, John Anthony. Short Studies on Great Subjects. 12mo, t)p. 534. New
York, 1868. (Takes the rationalistic view of the authenticity of the gospels.)
Furness, W. H. Jesus and his Biographers. Boston, 1838.
Greg, W. R. Enigmas of Life. 12ino, pp. xix, 332. Boston, 1873.
Greg, W. R. The Creed of Christendom. Its Foundation Contrasted with its Super
structure. Svo. London, 1851. 2 vols., 8vo. Boston.
Hedge, Frederick Henry.' Reason in Religion. 12mo, pp. 458. Boston, 1865.
Hedge. Frederick Henry, and Associates. Unitarian Affirmations : Seven Discourses
given in Washington, by UnitHriau Ministers. 12mo, pp 175. Boston, 1879.
Lamson, Alvan. The Church of the First Three Centuries; or. Notices of the Lives
and Opinions of some of the Early Fatliers, with special reference to tlie Doc
trine of the Trinity. 8vo, pp. 352. Boston, I860.
Martineau, James. Rationale of Religious Inquiry. 12mo. London, 1839. And
8vo. 1845.
Martineau, James. Lectures : Pa it of a Series in Answer to Lectures against Unitari
anism by Thirteen Clergymen of the Church of England. 8vo. London.
Metcalf, Richard. Letter and Spirit. Winchester Lectures. 16mo, pp. 198. Bos
ton, 1882.
Miller, John. Questions Awakened by the Bible. I. Are Souls Immortal? II. Was
Christ in Adam? IIL Is Gid a Trinity ? Philadelphia, 1877.
Newman, Francis Wm. Phases of Paitli; or. Passages from the History of my
Creed. 12mo, pp. 234. London, 1850.
Newman, Francis Wm. The Soul: Her Sorrows and Aspirations. An Essay
towards the Natural History of the Soul, as tlte Basis of Theology. 8vo. Lon
don, 1849, 1852.
Norton, Prof. Andrews. Statement of Reasons for Not Believing the Doctrines of
Trinitarians concerning the Nature of God and the Person of Christ. 12mo,
pp. 550. Boston, 1882.
Parker, Theodore. Discourses of Matters pertaining to Religion. 12mo. Boston,
1853.
Parker, Theodore. Sermons on Tlieism, Atheism, and Popular Theology. 12mo.
Boston, 1853.
Parker, Theodore. Speeches, Addresses, and Occasional Sermons. 3 vols., 12mo.
Boston.
Powell, Baden. The Order of Nature Considered in Reference to the Claims of Rev
elation. 8vo. London, 1860.
Smith, G. Vance. The Bible and Popular Theology. A Restatement of Truths and
Principles, with special reference to recent works of Dr. Liddon, Lord Hatherly,
'the Right Hon. W. E. Gladstone, and others. 12mo, pp. 340. Boston, 1882.
Strauss, David Friedrich. The Old Faith and the New Faith. A Confession. From
tho German. 12mo. New York, 1874.

THE LITERATURE OF RATIONALISM. 113
Temple, Frederick, and Associates. Recent Inquiries in Theology: being Essays
aud Reviews. Second American edition, wilh Introduction by F. H. Hedge.
12mo, pp. xiv, 498. Boston, 1861.
Ware, Henry. Letters to Unitarians and Calvinlsts. 12mo. Cambridge, 1820.
Wilson, John. Unitarian Principles Confirmed by Trinitarian Testimonies. 12mo,
pp. 520. Boston, 1882.
Worcester, Noah. Bible News; or. Sacred Truths relating to the Living God, His
Only Son and Holy Spirit. 12mo. Concord, 1810, 1812, and 1825.
2. AgaiTist Rationalism.
Auberlen, Carl August. The Divine Revelation. An Essay in Defence of the Faith.
From the German. Svo, pp. 441. Edinburgh, 1867.
BusbneU, Horace. God in Christ. Three Discourses delivered at New Haven, Cam
bridge, and Andover. (Properly a mediating work; the second essay offers
Sabellianism as a ground of union between Unitarianism and Trinltarlanism.)
Bushnell, Horace. Nature and the Supernatural as Together Constituting the One
System of God. 12mo, pp. 528. New York, 1364.
Cairns, Jolm. Romanism and Rationalism, as Opposed to Pure Christianity. 12mo.
London, 1S6G.
Dorchester, Daniel. Concessions of Liboralists to Orthodoxy. IGmo, pp. 343.
Boston, 1878.
Fisher, George P. Faith and Rationalism, with Short Supplementary Essays on
Related Topics. 12rao, pp. 188. New York, 1879.
Fisher, George P. The Superuatunil Origlu of Christianity, etc. Svo, pp. 586.
New York, 1866.
Hare, Edward. The Principal Doctrines of Cliristianity Defended against the Errors
of Socinianism. 12mo, pp. 396. New York, 183".
Maurice, F. D., and Associates. Tracts for Priests and People, Ly Various Writers.
American edition. 12mo, pp. 372. Boston, 1862. (A Broad-School reply to
Essays and Reviews.)
Oxford, the Lord Bishop, Editor. Replies to Essays and Reviews, with a Preface by the
Lord Bisliop of Oxford. American edition. 12mo, pp. 443. New York, 1862.
Parkinson, Ricliard. Rationalism and Revelation; or, Tlie Testimony of Moral Phi-
losopliy, the System of Nature, and tlie Constitution of Man to the Truth of the
Doctrine of Scripture. Hiilseau Lectures for 1837. Svo, pp. 22.B. London, 1838.
Scott, W. A. The Christ of tl)e Apostles' Creed: the Voice of the Church against ^
Arianism, Strauss and Renan, with an Appendix. 12mo, pp. 432. New York,
1867.
Thompson, William, Editor. Aids to Faith. A Series of Tlieological Esso3'S by sev
eral writers, being a Reply to Essays and Reviews. American edition. 12mo,
pp. 638. New York, 1862.
Ulrici, Herman. Strauss as a Pliilosophical Thinker. A Review of " the Old
Faith and the New Faith.'' From the German. IGmo, pp. 167. Philadel
phia, 1874.
Woods, Leonard. Letters to Unitarians, occasioned by the Sermon of Rev. W. E.
Channing, etc. Svo. Andover, 1820, 1822.
Worcester, Samuel. Letters to the Rev. W. E. Channing, on Unitarianism. Svo.
Boston, 1815.
Although Strauss, in his life of Jesus, first demolishes the rationalistic Interpreta
tion of the gospels in order to prepare the way for his mythical theory, he has yet

114 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
been the occasion of the wi-lting of lives of Christ in which the supernatural view of
the person and work of our Lord is maintained, and which are therefore directed
against rationalism. Among these are :
Alexander, Wm. Lindsay. Christ and Christianity. A Vindication of the Christian
Religion, founded on the historical events of the life of Christ. 12mo, pp. 314.
New York, 1854.
Bayne, Peter. The Testimony of Clirist to Christianity. 12mo,pp. 195. Boston, 1862.
Neander, Augustus. Tlie Life of Jesus Christ in Its Historical Connexion and Histor
ical Develapment. From tlie GLTman by John M'Clintock and Charles E.-BIumen-
thal. Svo, pp. 450. New York, 1848.
Pressense, E. D. Jesus Christ: His Times, Life, and Work. From the French.
12mo, pp. 496. New York, 186S. (The first chapter discusses the objections to
the supernatural in the gospels.)
Schaff, Philip. The Person of Christ: The Miracle of History: with a reply to
Strauss and Renan, and a collection of testimonies of Unbelievers. 16mo, pp.
375. New York, 1876.
Tulloch, Jdhn. The Christ of the Gospels and the Clirist of Modern Criticism.
16mo, pp. 266. Cincinnati, 1865. (See, for other titles, p. 282.)
Some rejjlies to Colenso :
Benisch, A. Bishop Coleuso's Objections to the Pentateuch and Book of Joshua
Critically Examined. London, 1863.
Briggs, P. W. The Two Testimonies. Being a reply to Bishop Colenso's Penta
teuch and Book of Joshua. London, 1863.
Fowler, C. H, Fallacies of Colenso Reviewed. Cincinnati, 1864.
Green, Wm. Henry. The Pentateuch Vindicated from the Aspersions of Bishop
Colenso. 12mo, pp. 195. New York, 1863.
Mahan, M. Spiritual Point of View; or. The Glass Reversed. Answer to Bishop Co
lenso. New York, 1 863. See also Hurst's History of Rationalism. Pp. 599, 602. '
Sec Barman's Introduction to the Study of the H(ly Scriptures. Pp. 215-219.
3. Mijsiicism.
Tulloch, John. Henry More. Christian Theosophy and Mysticism: Chap. V of
Bati'onal Theology and Christian Philosophy in England, in the Seventeenth
Century. Vol. II, Svo. London, 1872. (See also Poole's Index to Periodical
Literature, p. 890, for review articles on several branches of tlie subject.)
Vaughn, Robert Alfred. Hours with the Mystics. A Contribution to the History
of Religious Opinion. 2 vol=., 12mn, pp. 372, 383. London.
4. History of Rationalism.
Abbey, Charles J., and Overton, John H. The English Church In the Eighteenth
Century. 2 vols., Svo, pp. 621, 551. London, 1878. (Chapter IV of the first
volume of this work contains an excellent summary of tho history of English
Deism. The source of Deism is stated to be the influence of the philosophy of
the seventeenth century upon the religion of tho oigliteenth. An attempt is
also made to define the term Deism itself, which has certainly been used In a
loose sense. A very Important p.irt of this chapter Is the account of the influ
ence of English Deism upon (lermany, and of the manner in which Deism became,
in Germany, Rationalism. Chapter VIII describes the rise and progress of the
Anti-Trinitarian Controversy In England, from the seventeenth century to the

THE LITERATURE OF RATIONALISM. 115
close of the eighteenth. The two controversies — the Deistic and the Unita
rian — are carefully discriminated; and the reader Is reminded that Unita
rianism did not make itself felt as a force till "Deism proper was well-nigh
extinct.")
Allen, Joseph Henry. Our Liberal Movement in Theology, chiefly as shown in Rec
ollections of the History of Unitarianism in New England, being a closing
course of Lectures given in the Harvard Divinity School. Svo, pp. 220. Bos
ton, 1882. (Unitarianism is defined as "rationalism within the sphere of gen
eral Christian tradition.")
Cairns, John. Unbelief In the Eighteenth Century as Contrasted with its Earlier and
Later History. (Lect. V treats of Rationalism in Germany.) 12mo, pp. 216.
New York, 1881.
Ellis, George E. A Half-Century of the Unitarian Controversy, with Particular Refer
ence to its Origin, etc. Svo, pp. 536. Boston, 1857.
Farrar, Adam Storey. A Critical History of Free Thought in Reference to tlie
Christian Religion. Bampton Lectures for 1862. 12mo, pp. 487. New York,
1863. (This valuable work is still serviceable to the student. Lect. I examines
the causes of the conflict of free thought with Christianity. The four crises of
the Christian faith are stated to be its struggles (1) with heathen philosophy,
(2) with scholastic scepticism, (3) with literature at the Renaissance, (4) wilh
modern philosophy. Lect. II discusses tiie opposition of heathenism against
Christianity in the Early Ages. Lect. Ill, Free Thought in the Middle Ages,
and at the Renaissance. Lect. IV, Deism in England prior to 1760 A. D.
Lect. V, Infidelity in France in the Eighteenth Century, and Unbelief in England
after the year 1760. Lect. VI, Free Thought in the Theology of Germany, from
1750 to 1835. Lect. VII, Free Thought in Germany subsequently to 1835, and
in France during the pre.-'ent century. Lect. VIII, Free Thought in England In
the present century. The final lesson drawn by the author from the history is
that " in all ages of peril earnest men have found the truth by the method of
study united to prayer.")
Hagenbach, K. R. German Rationalism. Its Rise, Progress, and Decline. From
the German. Svo, pp. 405. Edinburgh, 1865.
Hunt, John. Religious Thought in England, from the Reformation to the End of the
Last Century. A Contribution to the History of Theology. 3 vols., Svo, pp. 471,
468, 445. London, 1870. (The author of this work says ofhimself : "My wish
has been to write a history of theology on the rigid principles of natural sci
ence ; to feel as if I were of no party, no country, no creed." Although the
point of view is that of orthodoxy, the topics are treated in a wholly objective
way. In Volumes II and III the Trinitarian Controversy (which the author
dates from 1660) and the Deistical Controversy of the Eighteenth Century are
very fully exhibited. The author's conclusion from the entire history is that
" from the struggles of all these parties — for each has had its martyrs and suf
ferers — we have obtained religious freedom, learned mutual toleration, and by
the price that others have paid we sit under our own vine and our own fig-
tree.")
Hurst, John F. History of Rationalism. Embracing the Present State of Protestant
Theology. Svo, pp. 643. New York, 1865.
Lecky, W. E. H. History of the Rise and Influence of the Spirit of Rationalism in
Europe. 2 vols., Svo, pp. 405, 386. New York, 1873. (Lecky's thesis is that
the development of modern civilization is due to the influence of Rationalism.
Among the triumphs of Rationalism are, the destruction of the belief in witch-

116 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
craft, the suppression of religious persecution, the doubt of the Church's doc
trine of future punishment, the abolition of the belief in the guilt of error, etc.
He, however, admits that RationaUsm has destroyed, or is destroying, the spirit
of self sacrifice, which is the chief trait of the earnest Christian ages. In
saying this Lecky virtually gives up hia case; for it is the spirit of self-
sacrifice which has created modern as distinguished from ancient civilization.
The book is full of half-truths, but contains much material of value to the his
torical student.)
Leland, John. A View of the Principal Deistical Writers that have appeared in
England in the Last and Present Century. 8vo. London, 1836.
Lichtenberger, F. History of German Theology in the Nineteenth Century. Trans
lated and edited by W. Hastie. Svo, pp. xxxix, 629. New York, 1889.
(Clearly written. Nearly a fifth of the work is given to Schleiermacher.)
Mackay, R. W. The Tiibingen School and its Antecedents. A Review of the His
tory and Present Condition of Modern Theology. Svo, pp. xv, 390. London,
1863. On the Tiibingen side of the controversy. Part I treats of the General
Antecedents of the Tiibingen School ; Part II of its Special Antecedents ; Part III
is entitled General Inferences of the Tiibingen Criticism. The author classifies
the ordinary antagonists of Baur under three heads: " whiners, mystifiers, and
arguers." In view of the collapse of the Tiibingen criticism, and the vindica
tion of the genuineness of John's gospel, this book furnishes decidedly inter
esting reading. The student should examine In connexion with it the masterly
Bampton Lectures of 1890 by Archdeacon Watkins.
Salutes, Amand. A Critical History of Rationalism in Germany, from its Origin to
the Present Time. Svo, pp. x, 379. London, 1849.
Saisset, Emile. Manual of Modern Pantheism. Essay on Religious Philosophy.
2 vols., Svo, pp. vi, 310, 273. Edinburgh, 1862.
Smith, Goldwin. Rational Religion and the Rationalistic Objections of the Bampton
Lectures for 1858. Svo. Oxford, 1861. (A reply to Mansel's Limits of Relig
ious Thought.)
Stephen, Leshe. History of Enghsh Thought in the Eighteenth Century. 2 vols., Svo,
pp. 466, 469. New York, 1881. (A work of broad scope, which includes, in
its plan, Theology, Moral Philosophy, Politics, and Literature. Theology is
treated wholly from the Rationalist point of view. It is assumed that the " tra
ditional orthodoxy " has been driven from the field ; it Is held, indeed, to be
incompatible with philosophic thought. Evangelicalism, the author believes, is
doomed to sterility, because it is wholly dissociated from philosophic ideas.
The topics are, however, treated with abundant knowledge. The review of the
history of the Deistic Controversy is especially full. The second volume closes
with an account of the religious and literary reaction, in the midst of which the
eighteenth century passed into the nineteenth.)
Tulloch, John. Rational Theology and Christian Philosophy in England in the Seven
teenth Century. 2 vols., Svo, pp. 463, 500. Vol. I. Liberal Churchmen. Vol.
IL The Cambridge Platonists. Edinburgh and London, 1872.
For an account of the Dodwell Controversy on |;he Natural Immortality of the Hu
man Soul, and also the Literature of the Controversy, see Dr. Noah Porter's
Appendix to Ueberweg's History of Philosophy. Vol II, pp. 371-375. See also
Dr. Ezra Abbott's Literature of the Doctrine of a Future Life, Titles 2114-2129
inclusive.
For the Bibliography of the Unitarian Controversy in New England, see the Appen
dix to H. M. Dexter's Congregationalism as Seen in its Literature. The list of

THE LITERATURE OF RATIONALISM. 117
the titles extends to the year 1879. Chap. VI of 0. B. Frothingham's Transcen
dentalism in New England contains a brief account of the rise of New England
Unitarianism. See also " Historical Introduction " in Sprague's Annals of the
Unitarian Pulpit, and, for review articles on both sides, Poole's Index, pp. 1340,
1341.
On the Trinitarian Controversy in England during the last years of the seventeenth
•century and the first years of the eighteenth, see Hunt's History of Religious
Thought in England from the Reformation, etc Vol. II, pp. 200-221, and
Vol. in, pp. 20-23-

118 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.

APPENDIX TO PART FIRST OF THE ENCYCLOPEDIA.

THE HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF THEOLOGICAL
ENCYCLOPEDIA.
r. Zyro, Revision der christl.-theologisch. Encycklopadik, in Stud. u. Krit., 1837, No. S, p. 689,
and Hagenbach's art. in Herzog, Euoykl., vol. Iv.
The encyclopsedia of a science as a whole can only come into
being after the science has been rounded into a KvicXog; and Theo
logical Encyclopsedia, accordingly, could not originate before the
ology had been an organism of various departments. The begin
nings of this science were apparent in the Church, however, at quite
an early period, though rather in connexion with other branches of
theological study, than as a distinct subject of inquiry. Their most
natural expression was found in connexion with practical theology.
The installation of a clergyman in his office, would involve, in ad
dition to remarks relating to its particular duties, the necessity of
pointing out the kinds of knowledge and ability required. Chry-
Beginnings of sostom [nspi IspGyavvrfg) already furnishes hints as to
lyci'opSdSTn "^^^^ would be proper qualifications for the servant of
chrysostom. God, in the matter of scientific acquirements, as well as
with respect to his religious and moral character, adding many
beautiful reflections on the manifold gifts required for a worthy
administration of the spiritual oflice (Books v and vi).' Augustine
likewise (De doetrina Christiana) indicates the scientific acquire
ments needed for the exposition of the Scriptures and the duties
Quaiiflcations of the pulpit, among which he already places a knowl-
^rardinr'to ^^S^ of t^e languages in which the Bible was originally
Augustine. written; and he recommends, as helps, the use of the
Septuagint and the old Latin (Itala) versions. He also insists that
natural sciences, e. g., natural history, botany, etc., should be ad
mitted into the course of study, but only so far as they can aid in ex-
' The passage in v, 6, is remarkable, as already distinguishing between the empiric
and the cultivated minister, and between the different degrees of obligation devolving
on them, "Qars Tolf aoiuTepoi; /id^Xov tj toIc aita-^eaTepoii /jici^uv 6 vovoc. OvSl yap
iitep Tuv aiiTuv i/ l^ri^da a/islovai Toiroi^ kuksIvoi^, d^Aa Toaovrov avrri nXsluv, baov
Kal r^( . KTTiaeuc inaripac to /isaov. KaKclvoif piiv ovd' Uv hyKaXeaeit Tt(, jtr/Sh) u^Kni
Tibyov irapixovaiv ohroi S'e si /ti; fiei^ova rrj^ So^ric, ^f &7TavTe( exovai irepi avruv, asi
¦Kpo(j)ipoiev, iroTi.Xa ivapa ndvTuv eTverai ra hyKKr/jiaTa, (ed. Tauchn., p. 66). Comp.
Ni6ander, Der heil. Chrysost., i, 57, sgg.

ENCYCLOPEDIA IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 119
plaining the Scriptures. The writings of the Greeks and Romans
should receive judicious attention, and dialectics should be mas
tered. Rhetoric, and its employment in sacred eloquence are con
sidered in Book iv, which may be regarded as an essay on Christian
homiletics. Tiie work of Ambrose (De Oificiis Ministrorum), is, on
the contrary, rather morally edifying than scientific.
The work, De Disciplina Scholarium, which is attributed to
Boethius (the pupil of Augustine, f 525), belongs to a later age;
but, the De Institutione Divinarum Literarum of M. Aurelius Cas-
siodorus, which follows the precedent of Augustine in urging the
study of the Scriptures, and indicating a method for that work, is
deserving of attention (Opp., ed. Garet, Rouen, 1&19, and Venice,
1729, 2 vols, fob, p. 537, sqq.). It also recommends the study of
the Church Fathers, the decisions of oecumenical councils, and Jo-
sephus and Eusebius, and attaches importance to a knowledge of
natural science.
A sort of general (real) encyclopaBdia, in which a place was as
signed to theology, was undertaken by Isidore of Seville ,j^^ Encycio-
(sixth and seventh centuries), in the work, Originum psdia of isi-
sive Etymologiarum libri xx. He also wrote instruc
tions for monks and clergymen, which, however, are, like those of
Ambrose, of a more practical than scientific character. More,
though still a very moderate, stress, is laid upon the scientific ele
ment, by Rabanus (Hrabanus) Maurus, the abbot of Fulda, in his
work, De Clericorum Institutione, (in the first half of the ninth
century); but even he was far in advance of his age.' In the third
book he urges the study of the Scriptures, and especially of their
hidden meaning, and also familiarity with the liberal arts and with
preaching, generally in harmony with Augustine. In the Middle
Ages the mystic and schoolman, Hugo of St. Victor, (f 1 141),
published the Didascalion (Eruditio didascaliea), a work ^^ Bidasca-
which obtained for him the honourable epithet of Did- iionoiHugost.
ascalus. The work was designed to embrace an outline
of the whole circle of studies preparatory to the higher theology,
and fell into two principal parts, the first of which (booEs i-iii)
contained a methodology of the secular sciences (propedeutics), and
the second (iv-vi) an historical introduction to the books of the
Bible and the ecclesiastical writings, besides a methodology of
Scripture study.' The Dominican sub-prior, Vincent of Beauvais,
(Bellovacensis, f about 1264), did meritorious work for encyclo-
' Comp. the biography by Kunstmann (Mayence, 1841), p. 55, sgg. Opp., ed. Col-
venerius, 6 vols., fol., Cologne, 1627.
' See Liebner, Hugo von St. Victor, p. 96, sgg.

130 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
psedia and methodology as a whole, in his Speculum Doctrinale, and
added useful hints for the study of theology, generally agreeing
with Augustine and the school of St. Victor.' Toward the close of
the Middle Ages John Gerson (De Reformatione Theologiae)^ and
Nicholas of Clemange (De Studio Theologico) ' furnished practical
hints on the study of theology.
AVhile encyclopedia thus connected itself with practical theol
ogy, it could readily combine with the Introduction to the Study
of the Bible. When, therefore, the latter regained in the time
of the Reformation the independence of which the influence of
scholasticism had long deprived it, the opportunity was given
for discussing the new culture needed to adapt theologians to
the character of the age. It was improved by Erasmus, in con
nexion with the publication of his New Testament. He pref-
Erasmus'spref- aced the second edition of 1519 with his Ratio sen
ace to his edi- Mgthodus Compendio perveniendi ad veram Theolo-
tlonoftheNew ^ ^ i^ / r>r. r> i \ •
Testament. giam, an cssay whicli was soon alter (1522, Hasle) given
to the public, in a somewhat enlarged form, as an independent
work,^ and which after subsequent republications and revisions,' be
came the basis of similar undertakings. Erasmus determines the
proper aim of theological study to be that the learning acquired in
a pious spirit and with prayer should exercise influence upon the
student's personal ' experience, and, so to speak, be moulded and
transformed into life, hence, that the Christian and moral cul
ture should keep pace in all respects with the scientific. He speci
fies as particularly important the study of the Latin, Greek, and
Hebrew, the latter of which had seemed necessary even to Augus
tine, though he was not personally well acquainted with it. Dia
lectics, rhetoric, arithmetic, and music are considered useful to the
theologian; but also, for interpreting the Scriptures, natural phi
losophy, cosmography, and astronomy. On the other hand, he cen
sures an excessive regard for Aristotle and scholastic philosophy,
however useful such studies rtxight be for preparatory practice.
With reference to dogmatic studies, he recommends that the
student should personally make a collection of passages from the
' Comp. Schlosser, Vincenz von Beauvais, Frankfort, 1819, vol. ii, p. 240. The
teachings of Vincent esp., p. 257, sgg,
' Opp., T. I., with which comp. Epp. duae ad Studentes Collegii Navarrae, etc.
' In d'Acherii Spic, i, 473, sg. (Staudlin, Gesch. der theol. Wissenschaften, i, pp.
9-14). * See vol. V of his collected works, Basle, 1540.
' By Halbauer (1724) and Semler (1782). The work of Jacob Latomus of Lieven
(De trium linguarum et stndii theologioi ratione, 1519), written against Erasmus, ex
perienced no such revivifications.

THE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE REFORMATION. ' 131
Scriptures and the Fathers, and arrange them into a definite sys
tem. The theologian should be thoroughly familiar with the Scrip
tures, so as even to be able to repeat them from memory; but this
result will not be attained by a parrot-like rehearsing of passages;
a living acquaintance with the Word and a profound penetration of
its mysteries are necessary to this end. Many correct and sensible
thoughts are added, relating to the method of study, the use of
commentaries and other books, etc. He gives the first place among
the Christian Fathers to Origen. The love of fruitless disputation
is to be avoided; for it is "not merely from the syllogism, but
rather from the life, that the theologian receives his attestation."
The work of Erasmus, however, is no longer adequate to the
demands made upon encyclopsedia in the present age,
beautiful and appropriate as much of its matter is work of Eras-
found to be. It is impossible that it should be adequate, '""'*¦
for the theology of which it furnishes a sketch, was itself only be
ginning to emerge from chaos and assume a definite shape. Under
such circumstances the scholarly author named much that is no
longer included in encyclopsedia, being relegated to the history of
the canon, to patristics, to the life of Christ, to exegesis, dogmatics,
or ethics. But despite this fact, the little book may still be read
with profit.
Among the reformers the learned Melanchthon would naturally be
the flrst to feel moved by his own inclinations and the obligations of
his station, to direct the adherents of the new school into the right
course of study. His Brevis ratio discendse theologisB, ,j^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^^^
limited to three folio pages,' breathes the Protestant ot Meianch-
spirit in recommending an intimate acquaintance with the
Bible as of primary importance. With an almost undue preference
Melanchthon places the Epistle to the Romans at the head of the list
of exegetical studies, assigning to it the service of introducing the
theologian to the body of St. Paul's teaching, which, in turn, is to
conduct the learner back to the teachings of our Lord. The Gospel
by St. John is to close the cycle as the Epistle to the Romans be
gins it, so that the doctrines of faith and justification may constitute
the beginning and the end of the scriptural theology of Christianity.
The New Testament is to be completed and its loci communes to be
systematized, in order to throw light upon the contents of the Old
Testament, the study of which is to follow. Melanchthon also
recommends the study of the Fathers with that of the Bible, but
assigns to Origen, whose allegorical mode of interpretation he con
demns, a much lower place than is allowed him by Erasmus, while
' In the Basle ed. of his works (1341), vol. iii. pp. 287-89.

132 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL EN0YCL0P.3i;DIA.
he exalts Augustine with a certain degree of favoritism. He de
mands, however, and with entire propriety, that practice shall be
added to study, and makes the cultivation of style obligatory on the
religious teacher, to which end the study of the classics is above all
recommended. Nor should philosophy be slighted, as is customary
with many who are ignorant of its character ; but care is to be
taken that worldly wisdom be not substituted for the teachings of
Christ, or the ethics of society (politics) for the ethics of Chris
tianity. Although the outward form of such guides gave them but little
claim to the name of scientific encyclopsedias, they yet contained
indications of a newly awakened scientific spirit, and involved the
elements of an encyclopsedia which should be adequate for its needs.
Accordingly, a pupil of Melanchthon, Theobald Thamer, who subse
quently separated from the evangelical Church, published an Adhor-
The Adhorta- ^^^^° ' ^^ theologise studium in academia Marburgensi,
tio of Theobald 1543, in which he welcomes the theology of Protestant
ism as a glorious product of the times, in contrast with
the earlier [laraioXoyia, and particularly recommends the study of
the Bible, of Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, and of the vernacular as
well, the latter for the sake of preaching. To these he adds natural
science, in order that the Bible may be correctly undei'stood and
applied, when it treats of the works of God in nature ; and eth
ics, rhetoric, dialectics, and history. He characterizes the study
of theology as difficult, but encourages students not to be repelled
from it on that account, but rather to make greater effort. (Com
pare A. Neander, Theobald Thamer, der Reprasentant und Vor-
ganger moderner Geistesrichtung in dem Reformationszeitalter.
Berlin, 1842.)
The age immediately following the Reformation contented it
self with mechanically recapitulating, and constructing far-fetched
expositions of, what its predecessor had provided, or with reviv
ing the former scholasticism, instead of seeking to rear an organic
intellectual edifice upon the given basis and out of the existing
materials. David Chytrseus at Rostock,' a disciple of Melanchthon, and
Jerome Weller,' a pupil of Luther and inmate of his home, pub
lished instructions closely harmonizing with ¦ those of their great
' Orat. de studio theol. recte inchoando, (1557,) and Regulae studiorum seu de
ratione discendi in praeclpuis artibus recte instituenda. Lips., 1565. Comp. Schuetzll
Vita Dav. Chytraei, (Hamb., 1720-28, 3 vols.,) lib. i, p. 171, sg. ; Pelt, Encykl., p. 51;
Krabbe Chytraeus, pp. 50, 51.
' Consilium de theologiae studio recte constituendo, Norimb., 1565.

LUTHERAN AND REFORMED ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 123
masters. In the seventeenth century the great dogmatical Johann
Gerhard published an encyclopsedia, entitled Methodus
studii theologioi publicis praelectionibus in acad. Je- paedia of John
nensi a I6I7 exposita, (Ist ed., 1620, 2d ed., 1622, 3d '^^'^^''^¦
ed., posthumous, Jena, 1654.) He demands adequate preliminary
studies in language and philosophy (Aristotle's especially), and af
terwards a theological course of five years, three of which should be
devoted almost exclusively to the Holy Scriptures. In the third
year attention should be directed to questions in controversy be
tween Roman Catholics and the Reformed, while the fourth should
. be divided between such studies and practice in preaching ; and not
before the fifth (!) year were Church History and the writings of
the fathers, the schoolmen, and Luther, to receive attention.'
In the Reformed Church," Bullinger (f 1575) wrote a Ratio
studii theologioi, which is distinguished by sound practical judg
ment, and affords admirable methodological hints, reaching to the
minutest details — among other things, to the diet of the student.
The nataralist and man of multifarious learning, Conrad Gessner,
published a general encyclopsedia, the last book of which is devoted
to theology.' Andrew Gerhard, of Ypres (Hyperius), professor at
Marburg, also wrote a Theologus seu de ratione studii ^^^^ Theoiogus
theologioi (libri iv).'' The latter work affords the first oi Andrew
indications of a future division into departments, the
book treating first of exegetical, next of systematic, and finally of
practical theology, the last in connexion with historical ; but no
attempt is made to clearly distinguish the several branches from
each other or give them suitable names, nor yet to apprehend and
describe them 'in their relations to each other. The material already
¦ Pelt, Encykl., p. 52. Among Lutheran writers of the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries the following deserve mention : J. Andreae, Oratt. de studio sacrarum lite
rarum, Lips., 1667 ; N. Selnekker, Notatio de studio theol. ct ratione discendi doctrinam
coelestem. Lips., 1579. Abr. Calov, Isagoge ad s. theol., Vitemb., 1652, 85; Das
gute Leben eines rechtschaffenen Dieners Gottes von J. V. Andreae, (copied as a
poetical supplement in Herder's Briefe.) A closer examination of the above works is
found in Pelt, p. 53, sg.
2 Many elements are scattered through the works of Zwingle, (the very history of
his Ufe is a living encyclopiedia.) Comp. his work, Der Hirt, etc., 1524, (ed. Schul-
thess andSchuler, vol. i. p. 631.) Respecting Bullinger, comp. his letters to his son
Henry (on the study of theology) in Pestalozzi, Heinrich Bullinger, p. 694, sqq.
3 Pandectarum universalium Conr. Gessneri Uber ultimus de theologia, (Tiguri, 1549.)
Comp. Hanhart, Conr. Gessner, (Winterthiir, 1824,) p. 160, sqg.
* Balse, 1572, 82. The first ed. (Basle, 1556) bears the title De recte formando
theologiae studio. It should not be confounded with Methodus theologiae, etc., Basle,
1567, the latter being a systematic theology and by no means a methodology, as the
title would suggest.

134 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
becomes unmanageable because of its abundance, the whole of bibli
cal and ecclesiastical dogmatics being discussed in the limited com
pass of the book, and likewise other matters, which belong more
properly to criticism and hermeneutics. The work is, however,
characterized by sound judgment, which looks upon learning as an
aid to true piety, and directs attention to the connexion between
theology and the Church.
The dogmatist Joh. Heinr. Alsted, wrote a work in eight books
entitled, Methodus sacrosanctae theologiae (Hanov.,
ot John Henry 1623, 4) ; to this he prefixed Praecognita in two books,
Alsted. -v^hich afford a noteworthy review of the science, as
wholly governed by a new scholasticism." The second book (De
theologiae studio recte formando) alone demands notice in this
connexion, as treating of the object of theological study, which
is made to consist in the promotion of the glory of the triune
God, and in the working out of man's salvation, together with the
perfecting of .his nature. A distinction is made between the the
ology of the schools and the practical theology of the Church, and
-the advice is given to students, " Scholasticam theologiam ex pro-
fesso et semper evolves, et auctores, qui illam scriptis comprehend-
erunt, tibi reddes quam familiarissimos." The period of study
should be neither too extended nor too brief (although no limit is
fixed), and special attention should be given to prayer, the study of
the Scriptures, and a godly walk. Detailed prescriptions concern
ing this militia Christi are given. Among the requisite natural
qualifications the author includes sound health, a clear and flexible
voice, a well-organized brain, and a good bodily constitution, to
which a good memory, etc., must be added.
Among preparatory requisites he reckons acquaintance with the
vernacular ("dicunt theoiogi nostri : a preacher should not make
use of town-clerks' German") for the study of which he recom
mends, with assured judgment, Luther's version of the Bible ; and
to the mother-tongue he adds Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. The re
lation between philosophy and theology is stated to be such that
they can never reasonably come into conflict with each other. Logic
is considered a prime necessity, and after it physics and mathemat
ics (which are included under philosophy), and also metaphysics and
practical philosophy ; nor should the theologian be ignorant of ju-
' Mention is made, for instance, in the first book, in addition to the theologia falsa,
of a theologia archetypa, (quae est saplentia indubitata rerum divinarum,) theologia
ectypa, (in which the archetypa is actualized,) theologia unionis in Christo, theologia
visionis in coelis, (which includes the theologia angelorum,) theoligia viatorum, (the
theology of the present world,) etc.

SCHOOLS OF 8AUMUR AND BASLE. 125
risprudence and medical science. Upon this follow a guide to the
study of the Scriptures and a tabular view of the contents of the
several books, together with the entire dogmatic locus de scriptura
sacra ; farther, a grammar of the Bible, hermeneutics, and rhetoric
(on the figurative language of the Scriptures), the whole in a very
prolix and artificial style ; also history of the canon and other mat
ters pertaining to the science of Introduction, biblical topography,
archseology, chronology, and mingled with typology, a brief char
acterization of the different books of Scripture, and, finally, a few
additional words on dogmatics (loci communes) and practical the
ology (paedia theologica, declamatio, disputatio theologica, and ex-
ercitatio ecclesiastica).
An Encyclopsedia philosophise (Herborn, 1630, 2 vols, fol.) and
an Encyclopsedia omnium scientiarum (ibid., 1630, and Lugd. Bat.,
1640, 4 vols, fol.) by the same author are in existence, in which
vol. ii. p. 1555, sqq., is devoted to theological (real) encyclopsedia
(theologia naturalis, catechetica, didactica polemica,- theol. casuum,
theol. prophetica, and moralis).
The school of Saumur was distinguished in the Reformed Church
by the mildness of its spirit and its unbiassed judgment ,^^ Theoiogi-
in theological matters, as compared with the rigid dog- ans ot saumur
matism and formalism of which Alsted was a represent
ative.' It produced the dissertations of Stephen Gaussen," in which
we occasionally observe an active, youthful disposition, joined to a
manly energy sharpened by the salt of a biting wit ; mental quali
ties which render more enjoyable the heart-felt, childlike piety
which is apparent. Much that is here laid down would still be ap
plicable in our day.
The writings of the theologians J. L. Frei and Samuel Werenf els of
Basle, in the end of the seventeenth and the beginning of the eight
eenth centuries, breathe a spirit kindred to that of the above work.
The Meletemata de officio doctoris Christiani (17II-I5, four disser
tations that deserve to be better known) by the former resolve the
activity of the Christian teacher, both academical and parochial,
into the three functions of interpreting the Scriptures, explaining
the creed, and confuting opponents, thus dividing theological science
into exegesis, dogmatics, and polemics. This work contains many
correct ideas concerning the expqsition of Scripture, the employ-
' Comp. J. H. Heidegger, De ratione studiorum theol. Tur., 1690, 12mo., a mere
reprint of Bullinger and of works on Introduction by various authors.
" Stephan. Gausseni dissertationes ; 1. De studii theologioi ratione; 2. De natura
theologiae; 3. De ratione concionandi ; 4. De utilitate philosophlae in theologia;
6. De recto use clavlum. Ultraj., 16^8; 6 ed. cur. J. J. Rambach, Hal. 1726.

136 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
ment of reason on theological questions," the relation of dogmatics
to ethics, etc. The Opuscula of Werenfels,' though he did not
write an encyclopsedia in the proper sense, likewise present much
that is adapted to lead the young theologian into the right way
This is especially true of the sixteenth dissertation, De scope doc
toris theoiogi, which contains many a golden counsel, not only for
the future teacher of theological science, but also for ministers of
the word.
Within the bounds of the Lutheran Church a twofold opposition
was brouffht to bear upon the scholastic spirit which
Encyclopaedia " - , ,, i, j j; ^.i
m the Luther- had again become powerful — on the one nana trom the
an Church. practically pious tendency of Spener, and on the other
from the liberal scientific spirit whose representative was George Ca
lixtus. Both tendencies aided in introducing a new period for the
ological learning, and, accordingly, for theological encyclopsedia.
In the Apparatus theologicus,' which was designed to be a great
theological dictionary covering the whole ground of the science,
Calixtus leads theological study back to its exegetical and historical
basis, from which it had again gradually removed, and endeavours
to compose the quarrel of the humanists and the realists (gramma
rians and barbarians). Philip Jac. Spener wrote several works wliich
come under our notice. The Pia desideria and the Theologische
Bedenken frequently refer to the needs of the young theologian ;
but his views upon this question are principally found in the preface
to the tables compiled by him from Danhauer's Hodosophie, written
in 1690, and published under the title De impedimentis studii
theologici.'' Among preparatory sciences, philosophy is rated far lower by
spener's con- Opener than by other theologians, a prejudice that may
tributions to be cxcused in view of the spirit that pervaded the phi-
cyciopEedia. losophy of the time. This prejudice subsequently be-
" Comp. Smith's Hagenbach : Hist. Doctrines, ii, p. 464. Pelt. Encykl., p. 53, calls
attention to the fact that the Reformed theologians especially discussed the application
of philosophy to theology, and in that connexion elucidated many questions of import
ance to theological encyclopsedia. Comp. also Al. Schweizer, Glaubenslehre der
evang.-ref. Kirche, Ziirich, 1844.
" Sam. Werenfelsii Opuscula theoiog., philosoph. et philologica. Balse, 1728,
2 vols., 4to. ; 1782, 8 vols., Svo. Also J. Ch. Beck (t 1785), who prefaces his Synop
sis iustitutionum universae Theologiae, Basle, 1766, with a brief encyclopaedia and
methodology. ' Helmst., 1628, and by his son, enlarged from the MS., 1661, 4. Comp. Henke,
Georg OaUxt, und seine Zeit, p. 420, sgg.
* Comp. Hossbaoh, Ph. J. Spener u, seine Zeit, i, p. 290, sgg. New ed. (Berlin, 1861),
by Schweder, p. 211, sgg.

THE WORK OF SPENER. 137
came more apparent, in connexion with a pietistic empiricism,
which falsely based itself on the auTihority of Spener. Philology,
too, although its utility was recognized, was regarded by him from
a too restricted point of view, in consequence of which he would
not allow so wide and unrestrained a range to the study of so-called
profane writers as was conceded by Erasmus and Melanchthon. Sa
cred philology alone, in its immediate bearing upon exegesis,
received the recognition it deserved as an important auxiliary Jo
theological science. He termed exegesis the "architect, who ar
ranges all the remaining parts, and from whom they derive
nearly all their ground and material." Upon the basis of exegesis
dogmatics should be reared ; but in harmony with his mild practi
cal tendency he was less partial to scholastic quibbling and har.sh
polemics. He did full justice to Church history, though he recom
mended the thorough examination of its sources only to such stu
dents as might intend to reach the higher grades of learning.
Ethics, which he regarded as having the same importance as dog-^
matics, in this agreeing with Calixtus, should in like manner, he
thought, be drawn from the holy Scriptures. Homiletics, on the
other hand, whose deep foundations he suspected from the scriptural
teaching, but which he was unable to clearly apprehend in a scien
tific way, seemed to him " one of the chief hindrances to theological
study," while catechetics held a higher place in his estimation. At
all events, to Spener belongs the inestimable honour of having not
only restored to the science the union with the conditions of actual
life, from which it had been separated, but also of hav- value ot spe-
ing led the way to a new state of the science itself, ^^'^'^ '^°^^-
through his efforts to secure a connected course of exegetical study,
which, contrary to the spirit of the Reformation, had again been ne
glected during an extended period."
J. J. Breithaupt,'' A. H. Francke,' and Joachim Lange,' followed
in the footsteps of Spener. Of these, the first especially " combined
genuine piety with elegant culture" (Pelt., p. 55), while the horta
tory element predominated with Francke, and a certain confusion
" " Such exegetical lectures as were still sustained in the universities of that period,
confined themselves simply to the philological or polemical treatment of the more dif
ficult or controverted passages." Hossbach, p. 304.
' Exeroitationes de studio theol. Hall., 1702.
2 1. Definitio studii theologici, etc. Halle, 1708 ; 2. Idea studiosi theologiae odet
Abbildung eines der Theologie Beflissenen, ibid., 1717; 3. Methodus studii theologioi,
ibid., 1723 ; Timotheus, zum Fiirbilde alien studiosi? theologiae. Comp. Guericke,
A. H. Francke (Halle, 1827), p. 290, sqg.
* Institutiones studii theologici literariae. Hal., 1723, and De genuina studii theoiog.
praeoipue thetioi indole ac methodo, ibid. 1712, 4to. Comp. Staudlin 11, p. 309.

138 GENER.\L THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
of ideas is manifest in Lange. On the other hand the two able
Encyclopedia men, Christ. Matthias Pfaff, chancellor at Tubingen, and
piafl'^and Bud- '^°^- ^^^anz Buddaeus, at Jena, occupied an intermediate
daeus. position between Pietism and the learned theology of
the schools, and their works present a more definite arrangement of
the several branches, in their outward structure. Exegetical^ dog
matic, historical and practical theology, and the subdivisions, polem
ical, thetical, patristic, etc., were distinguished by name, and their
nature and relation to the whole of the science were described,
though the order in which they are arranged is not the same with
the two writers. Pfaff ' correctly assigns the first place to exeget- '
ical theology, while Buddaeus ^ places immediately after the pre
paratory studies, dogmatics, symbolics, patristics, ethics, ecclesias
tical law. Church-history, and polemics, and introduces exegesis at
the end. The feature is common to both, however, that they com
bine with encyclopsedia an extended history of the literature which
is stated on the title-page of Pfaff, certainly a meritorious feature,
since it provided for an existing want. But encyclopsedia itself was
thereby exposed to the danger of becoming a mere bibliographical
guide, or at least of being so largely bibliographic that its leading
object could no longer be conveniently accomplished; this, too, at a
time when encyclopsedia had scarcely attained to a measure of in
dependence, after dissolving its accidental connexion with other
branches of learning. The excessive importance attached to the
department of literary history manifested itself, as was to be ex
pected, in the Einleitung in die Theologischen Wissenschaften, by
J. G. Walch (Jena, 1753), and evidences of its presence have not
been wanting in several valuable works of more recent times.
The history of science reveals certain highly endowed spirits,
whose rays stream forth in different directions in order to throw
light upon the fields that lie extended to the view. Such was the
Contributions Chancellor Lorenz von Mosheim,' who became eminent
ol Mosheim and in the development of ethics and homiletics, no less than
Semler to en- . „, , , . , , , . , ,
cyoiopEedia. m t^hurch history, though less so with regard to ency-
' Introductio in historiam theol. llterariam, Tiibing., 1724, 3 vols., 4to.
" Isagoge historioo-theol. ad theologiam universam singulasque ejus partes. Lips.,
1727, 2 vols., 4to. Hossbaoh, p. 382, says that this work "is the product of profound ,
and comprehensive learning, and of enlightened and tolerant theological views, and
far superior to all former works of this character." Comp. also Danz, p. 129;
Staudlin, p. 311.
^ F. Liicke, Narratio de Jo. Laur. Moshemio, Gott., 1837, 4to. It is to be observed
that Mosheim, with his sound historical judgment, was the first to draw the line of
distinction between the work of the scientific theologian and that of the preacher,
though he may have gone too far In demanding a separate training for the two (p. 29).

THE INFLUENCE OF HERDER. 129

olopredia. The Kurze Anweisung, die Gottesgelalirtheit Verntliif-
tig zu Erlernen (published by his son-in-law, Windheim, Helmst.,
1756, 63) illustrates the clear, benevolent, gentle mind of its author,
but bears the marks of too great haste. In the arrangement. of the
several branches (e. g., in placing dogmatics at the head), it, rests
too little upon thoroughly comprehended principles, to possess great
importance in comparison with such predecessors as have already
been mentioned. The higher merit of having introduced a new ele
ment, the critical, into theological science, and of having tlier.eby put
new life into encyclopasdia, which might otherwise have become a
mere dead aggregate of bibliographical knowledge, belongs to John
Solomon Semler. His criticism frequently degenerated into hyper-
criticism, and his questioning spirit into scepticism; but it is certain
ly unjust to charge him with entertaining hostility to religiqu and
Christianity. Theology is indebted to him for much of stimulating
influence,. if for but little of assured results. His works, encyclo
psedic and methodological, as well as others,' failed tdreceive a cor
dial reception however, because of their involved descriptions, and
the author's difficult and heavy style in the use of both German and
Latin. The essence of Semler's writings should be extracted into
a monograph, and thus a correct estimate of his merits might be
brought into a convenient form, within the reach of a frequently
ungrateful posterity. A similar want of arrangemen,t is o-liparent
in the work of the Reformed theologian, S. Mursinna.(f 1705),'^ who
first introduced the term "encyclopsedia" into theology, although
it had been previously employed by jurists (Putter) and medical
scholars (Boerhave) in connexion with their respective sciences.
It was reserved, however, for the broadly cultured ar(d versatile
J. Gottfried Herder, to impress himself with incalculable .„. ..r. ^
' r ¦. Great influence
energy upon the theological youth and the earnest men. .otHerdir upon
of his own and future ages, by the exercise of an influ- ^^^^°P-
ence which was stimulating in manifold directions, exciting to, both in
tellect and feeling, every-where urging the attainment of the high
est ends, and as exalted above all meanness as it was free. from the
control of timid prejudice. A genuine supernaturali§t and also
rationalist, both orthodox and heterodox, or, if it be preferred,
' Versuch einer nahern Anleitung zu niitzlichem Fleisse in der ganzen Gotlesgelehr-
samkeit, etc., Halle, 1857; Institutio brevior ad liberalem eruditionem theologlcam,
ibid., 1765, 2 vols. ; Institutio ad doctrinam Christianam liberaliter discendam, ibid.,
1774 (rather a systematic theology than an encyclopsedia); Versuch einer freiern
theologischen Lehrart, ibid., 1777. The title "Encyclopsedia and Methodology" came
into currency at this time. It appears in an anonymous work (Leips.,' I778)'cited by
Danz, p. 134, and somewhat earlier in the works of Mursinna, Robert, Vogel';'comp. ibid.
^ Primae lineffi encyclopaedisB theol., Halle, 1784, ed. 2, 1798 ; comp. Pelt, p. 57.

130 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
neither, versed in Oriental mysticism and likewise in the mysteries
of human nature and 6f human history, grasping, with a magnifi
cent enthusiasm, everything in which the genius of a pure human-'
ity is portrayed, and .punishing with noble indignation all that is
shameful, deceitful, vapid, or sickly — he was thoroughly fitted to
aid the struggling and a!mbitiouS mind in reaching the path over
which, with trusty staff : in handy it must pass. The remark has
frequently been made that Herder's efforts Were rather stimulating
to others, than producti've of assured gains which might be stored
in everlasting garners. But this is precisely what was needed;,' and
if miteh that, with too venturous courage, he sought to establish
has been already overthrown, it is to be hoped that, God willing,
the spirit of profound investigation, and the clear, independent
habit of thought belonging to that more beautiful age — the flourish
ing period of " German nianners and German art " — which he aided,
in cofmexion with others, to introduce, shall nevermore be lost.'
It must be confessed that th6 Letters upon the Study of Theol-
DefectsofHer- Ogy (Weimar, 1780; 2d ed., 1785, 4 vols.)," by no
der'a Briefe. means fulfil the scientific purpose of a theological en
cyclopsedia in the strict sense. They adopt the light tone of social
intercourse and friendly conversation; and the author enters too
largely into the discussion of the different subjects themselves {e. g.,
of his f^'Vorite theme, Hebrew poetry), to admit of a clear demon
stration of the formal inter-connexion of the various branches. AH
that he says, however, tends toward that connexion, and serves to
illuminate with color the picture which a stricter method places be
fore us in bare outlines. The smaller work by Herder, Anwendung
dreier akademischer Lehrjahre, has more of the form of a proper
methodology and introduction; and with this should be connected
his Theophron, and his ' Gutachteh fiber die Vorbereitung junger
Geistlichen, as also the Provinzialblatter.'
In I79I, soon after the first publication of Herder's Letters (1785),
Niisseifsnitro- *" *^'® ^""^ thorough work by the judicious J. A.,No8-
ductiontp'Trtie- s^lt appeailed, which has been improved by A. H. Nie-
°"^' raeyer, and put into the form of a text-book, that still
' Comp. J. G. Miiller, in the Herder Album (Weimar, 1845), and Bunsen, Hippoly
tus, i, p. 264: "Herder made the transition from Romanic negation to Germanic af
firmation, .and began to build anew. Himself a theologian, lie generalized Semitic
tradition and inspiration into Japhetic science and philosophy. Religion and language
are to him the original manifestations of ' the Divine life in man." Comp. also the
work by Werner, adduced below (aihohgthe monographs).
" In the Sammtliche Werke zur Religion u. Theologie (original ed. by Cotta, Tiib.,
1808), vols, ix and X. ' ' '
' The whole in vol. x of the Religion u. Theologie.

SUCCESSORS OF HERDER. 131
renders useful service.' The Einleitung in die theologischen Wis
senschaften (Leips., 1794, 2 vols.), from the pen of the learned G. J.
Planck, is likewise still esteemed, because of its historical matter
and good judgment, although its methodological value is but small. °
In like manner, the encyclopsedias which have since appeared in
considerable number deserve notice, rather because of single obser
vations of value, or because of the soundness of view displayed in
them, than because of a clear presentation of the edifice of theolog
ical science, or of the connexion existing between its parts. J. Fr.
Kleuker, who was first inspired by Herder, but was afterwards alien
ated from him through a dislike of the rationalizing tendencies of
the centuBy, with which Herder was in sympathy, wrote a Grundriss
einer Encyclopadie (Hamb., 1800, 1801, 2 vols.), in which he sought
to promote the restoration of a theology possessed of vigorous
faith. The strange forms of expression in which he often clothed
his ideas (in other works as well as this) gave him widespread
notoriety as a "foggy brain;" but he must be credited with having
energetically utte^-ed many profound ideas which were subsequently
brought to greater clearness by other minds.'
A higher and more ideal point of view from which to compre
hend theology and encyclopasdia, is occupied by K. Daub in an ar
ticle in the Studien, published by Kreuzer and himself.' To crude
empiricism he opposes a holy enthusiasm for the things of God,
and to mere learning a childlike, contemplative disposition, which
alone is able to penetrate into the mysteries of religious faith. The
writer, influenced by his speculative views, does not, however,
•
' Anweisung zur Bildung angehender Theologen, 3d ed., Halle, 1818, 19, 3 vols.
Niemeyer has expressed his own ,views relating to theological studies and methods of
instruction in the Anti-Wilibald (a memorial, issued in connexion with the jubilee of
G. Ch. Knapp), Halle, 1825 ; in the Zuschrift an Theologie Studierende iiber die Vor
bereitung des theol. Examens u. die Benutzung d. Candidaten-jahre, Halle, 1801 ; in
Grundriss d. unraittelbaren Vorbereituugswissenschaften zur Fuhrung des Predigt^
amtes, Halle, 1803 ; and in the Bibliothek fiir Prediger, which he published in con
nexion with Wagnitz.
" His smaller work, Grundriss der theol. Encyklopjedie, Gott., 1813, is (although
antiquated) better adapted to beginners. Among Encyclopedias of this period comp.
L Wachler, Grundriss einer Encykl. d. theol. Wissenschaften, Lemgo, 1795; J. F. W.
Thym, Theol. Encykl. u. Methodologie, Halle, 1797; J. A. H. Tittmann, Encykl. d.
theol. Wissenschaften, Leips., 1798. With regard to these works comp. Pelt, p. 61.
K. Ch. E. Schmidt, Grundriss, Jena, 1810 (Kantian); Sim. Erhardt, Vorlesungen iiber
Theologie, Erlangen, 1810 (pervaded by Schelling's philosophy); J. E. Ch. Schmidt,
Theol. Encykl., Glessen, 1811.
' Comp. H. Ratjen, J. H. Kleuker, Gott., 1842, Svo.
' Theologie u. ihre Encykl. im Verhaltniss zum akadem. Studium beider, etc., in
Studien, vol. ii,-pp. 1-69.

13i GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPiEDIA.
regard faith simply as belief, but as an objective apprehension
of matters that are too high for ordinary sense. With moral ear
nestness he combats both the clumsiness of obstinate bigotry and
the fickleness of a trifling disposition, and draws with steady hand
the portraiture of the true theologian; but he treats the necessity
for a regeneration of theology by drawing prophetic outlines indic
ative of its future accomplishment, rather than by presenting an
accurate survey of the actual state of the science.
To perform this duty was the work of another mind. Friedrich
Encyclopsedia Schleiermacher was the first to raise encyclopsedia to
madeindepend- independent position, and deliver it from the extra-
ent by Schleler- r r _ ' i ¦ i i
macher. neous material, historical, and bibliographical elements
in which* it was involved, as well as to impress upon it the mark of
the peculiar spirit which began to pervade theological science as a
whole. This work was accomplished in the few pages of the Dar
stellung des theologischen Studiums (Berlin, 1 81 1; Outline of the
Study of Theology, Edinburgh, 1850). The purely formal charac
ter of the book attests an artistic spirit. It is a cartoon drawn by
a steady hand, which only needs the pencil of a Herder to render it
a grand and beautiful picture. While lacking this, it is matter for
gratitude that the later and revised edition of 1830 contains hints,
though few, for an easier understanding of a book which has the
additional importance of having become the key to the entire sys
tem of Schleiermacher's theology.
Encyclopsedia continued to be written in the usua. way, however,
Encyclopaedia even after the Darstellung had appeared. Leonhard
partoTthe^mh Bertholdt's Theologische Wissenschaftskunde, at any
century. rate (Erlangen, 1821-22, 2 vols.), is no model of "archi
tectonic " procedure, however much importance the author may at
tach to that phrase, and however strongly he may urge the correct
principle that " a science should be restricted to itself and not em
brace too much of foreign matter." Preliminary and auxiliary sci
ences occupy two thirds of the space in a work glutted with learned
¦ stuff, while its proper subject is discussed in the remaining third.
The unfinished Encyclopsedia of G. S. Francke, (Altona, 1 81 9,) gives
evidence of greater regard for an organic arrangement of the dif
ferent branches of study; but a "really scientific arrangement"
seem^ to have been an undefined thought with the author, which
was never clearly developed (Pelt, p. 65). K. F. Staudlin's Ency-
klopsediaund Methodologie (Hanover, 1 821) is combined with a his-'
tory of the different theological sciences, and is more especially a
work of historical reference. This is also true of the Enoyklopsedia
und Methodologie by J. T. L. Danz (Weimar, 1832), in which a

SCHLEIERMACHER AND HIS METHOD. 133
new arrangement of the contents and new appellations give evidence
of a reorganizing purpose, but nevertheless suggest the question,
" Did the author understand his ground and object? " It mio-ht be
difficult for a stranger to find his way through "the labyrinth of lit
erary wealth " '
The author of the present work," incited thereto by Schleier
macher, sought in its first edition (Leips., 1833) to so The present
develop the principles of Schleiermacher, with not unim- '""^^ prompt-
portant modifications, that a somewhat empirical mind macher.
might comprehend them, though not as yet familiar with logical
discriminations— which is the case with most persons who approach
the study of theology. His object was to lead on a transition from
the method of the past to that which should be followed in the
future. He sought to combine the practical aim of stimulating and
encouraging with the scientific spirit, in following out which plan
the point and connexion of ideas were not infrequently sacrificed to
perspicuity,' and the entire book received a subjective colouring
that can only be understood from the immediate surroundings of the
author, and from the design with which he taught. He was more
concerned to convey a knowledge of the science than to aid mate
rially toward its further development. But on the first appearance
of his book he saw himself overtaken by the advance of a new
period in the form of an Encyclopsedi,). of the Theological
Sciences, by K. Rosenkranz, Halle, 1 83 1. This work Theological
indicated the fact, which subsequent history has illus- encyclopedia
trated, that the Hegelian tendency considered itself spirit oiHegei-
entitled to the privilege enjoyed by that of Schleier- ianism.
macher, of opening for itself a victorious way through the newly
cultivated regions of theology, and also that speculative philosophy,
which Schleiermacher had separated from theology, was inclined
to involve the latter in the mighty transformation of its character.
The formal work of encyclopsedia was of inferior importance to the
purpose of Rosenkranz however. He was more particularly con
cerned with the contents of theology, especially its speculative con
tents; and these he discussed in the spirit of that school, with life
' Other works are, L. S. Jaspis, Hodegetik, Dresden, 1831 ; R. Konig, Versuch einer
kurzen Anleitung zum Studium der Theologie, Berne, 1830; A. F. Unger, Reden an
kiinstige Geistliche, Leips., 1834; G. K. P. Hessenmiiller, Theol. Propaedeutik, ibid.,
1838, etc.
' The original German work of Hagenbach.
' This probably explains the charge of " rhetorical indefiniteness " raised by Harless,
p. 20, and that of "lack of system," by Pelt, p. 69; but it likewise explains the en
comium spoken by others, and emphasized by Pelt, that it is "a perfect book for
students."

134 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA.
and energy, so that he must be considered a skillful representative
of the Hegelian tendency. In the second thoroughly revised edi
tion (Halle, 1845) Rosenkranz declares that "he has not hesitated
to sacrifice even such developinents of thought in the old edition,
as had, by their novelty and also by the freshness of his youthful
enthusiasm, secured no little favor for the book in its time." In the
language of its author, the work " was written in the consciousness
I) that the Christian religion, as being the religion of truth and lib
erty, is the absolute religion; 2) that Protestantism is not the dis
solving of religion into nihilism, but rather its development into
an affirmative self -consciousness of its rational character; and 3)
that the reconciliation of Christian theology with philosophy is
possible." Other tendencies also became gradually apparent, as, the strictly
Encyoiopffidia orthodox OU the basis of the confessions, in G. C. A.
as treated by jjarless' Theologische Encyclopsedia und Methodologie,
and Pelt. etc. (Niiremburg, 1837, Lutheran), which contains many
excellent ideas, but allows too much of its limited space to the his
torical element; the contrary, rationalistic tendency, in Lobegott
Lange's Anleitung zum Studium der christl. Theologie nach den
Grundsatzen des biblischen (!) Rationalismus, Jena, 1841; and the
mediating tendency, which found a worthy organ in A. F. L. Pelt's
Theologische Encyclopsedia als System, im Zusammenhange mit der
Geschichte der theoiog. Wissenschaft und ihrer einzelnen Zweige,
Hamb., 1843. A rich material, which has been judiciously selected
and intelligently handled, a constant effort to cohibine the variety
of matter into a systematic whole (to which, however, the dry de
velopment of the plan in the department of dogmatics, extending
down to the Hebrew alphabet, would hardly seem to be an aid), a
keen eye for the artistic element in the theological profession, a
warm interest in Christianity, and a sound and liberal judgment,
are advantages to the book that deserve recognition, though they
would unquestionably be heightened by being forced into a nar
rower compass.
While it must be acknowledged that the literature of German
Protestantism is in advance of others, in this as in the other de-
Theoiogicai Partments of theology, it cannot be said that the
ejicyciopffldia Protestants of other lands, and even less the Roman
Francef^'swe- ^iatholics of Germany, have fallen behind in the march
den, and Eng- of recent progress. The Encyclopsedise theologiese epi
tome, by J. Clarisse of Holland (Lugd., Bat., 1832,
1835), still bears the stamp of the age before Schleiermacher; but
the Encyclopsedia of Hofstede de Groot, on the other hand, represents

THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA IN ENGLAND. 135
the more modern tendency of the so-called Groningen school.' An
excellent preliminary work in French was published by H. G. Kien-
len (a German) : Encyclopedic des Sciences de la Theologie Chre-
tienne, Strasburg, 1842. It followed Schleiermacher in the main,
and was afterward republished, with additions, in German, with the
title, Encykl der Wissenschaften der Protestantischen Theologie,
Darmstadt, 1845. A Swedish EncyclopaBdia by the provost H.
Reuterdahl of Lund (1837), likewise follows the principlfis of
Schleiermacher. ¦'
The English, however, have hitherto paid very little attention
to theological encyclopsedia. So little has' been done in this de
partment that M'Clintock and Strong's Cyclopsedia says Theological
with truth that " No book professing to be called En- ™EngiSnd
cyclopsedia of Theology has appeared in English, and America.
no book is more needed, as the English theological literature is al
most wholly neglected by the Germans." (Article Encyclopsedia.)
Since this statement was made, however, a volume on Theological
Encyclopsedia, compiled from the lectures of Dr. M'Clintock to his
students, has been published (New York and Cincinnati, 1873). It
is a posthumous work, and necessarily incomplete. Dr. Henry B.
Smith also had begun, before his death, an Encyclopsedia anii' Meth
odology, but did not live to carry out his purpose. In English lit
erature instruction of this kind is . usually found in treatises on
pastoral theology. Thus handled encyclopsedia holds a very sub
ordinate position. In Bishop Marsh's Course of Lectures on Divin
ity (Cambridge, 1809; London, 1838) an encyclopsedic outline is
given. Bickersteth's Christian Student (London, 1832, 4th edition,
1844) is characterized by a devout spirit, but is unscientific in form."
Doddridge's Lectures on Preaching and the Ministerial Office (Lon
don, 1830, and Andover, 1833) are wholly practicaL
The earliest American work of this type was by Cotton Mather:
The Student and Preacher; Manductio ad Ministerium, etc. ¦' (Pub
lished in London only; 2d ed., 1781.) Some of Tholuck's Lectures
on Encyclopsedia and Methodology are translated by Professor
E. A. Park, in the first volume of the Bibliotheca Sacra. Professor
Shedd, of the Union Theological Seniinary, New York, has pub
lished an essay on the Method and Influence of Theological Studies
(New York, 2d ed., 1878). J. W. Alexander's Thoughts on Preach- •
' Encyclopaedia Theoiogi christiani a Hofstede de Groot et L. G. Pareau, Groningae,
1851, 3d ed.
" Bickersteth conceived of theology as a Divine science. Page 20 : " Theology is,
like the heavens, full of stars, which appear not to the careless spectator, but a dili
gent oontemplator, with suitable helps, will find new worlds of glory in every part."

136 , GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOP./EDIA.
ing contain valuable suggestions upon the studies of the preacher
(pp.. 1684216), although nothing systematic is attempted (New York,
1860)., Professor .Shedd's Homiletics and Pastoral Theology (New
York,!lS78), presents in chap, iii, of the second part, an excellent
outline of a course of study .suitable for a clergyman. James M.
Iloppin, in The Office and Work of the Christian Ministry (New
York,;. 1669), offers good suggestions for theological culture. Most
of these works, however, treat the subject in an incidental way.
A brief review of the progress of Roman Catholic encyclopsedia
remains to be given.
Protestant text-books on encyclopsedia generally have reference
to the academical course of instruction in universities :-
Boman Catho- ...
He encyoiopaj' but Roman Catholic authors give this only occasional
*"*¦ consideration. Much that they have written (espec
ially during the earlier part of the seventeenth century) was de
signed for use in the seminaries for priests and the institutions of
the monastic orders. The historical development of modern Roman
Catholicism affords positive proof that in this as well as other mat
ters thei Jesuits hold the first place. The Italian Jesuit, Ant. Posse-
vin, wrote a Bibliotheca selecta de ratione studiorum (Colon., 1607,
fol.),-whbse arrangement opens a view into the methods of the
order. First stands the cultura ingeniorum, which is favored by
tlie current age (the sixteenth century) more than by any other,
despite its excessively heretical character. Heresy really hinders
true culture, and must be opposed in its very beginning. Special
praise is lavished on the institutions of the order, particularly that
of Salamanca. The second book treats of the Divine history, i. e.,
the holy Scriptures and their study, in connexion with which we
notice that the study of Hebrew is recommended. Jerome and
Augustine should be the principal guides. With reference to the
study of the Bible much that is excellent is said, upon the whole, and
much that recalls to mind the similar works of Reformed theolo
gians in this period.' The third book treats of the scholastic the
ology, whose leading representative is Thomas Aquinas ; and the
same section includes the theologia practica sive de casibus con-
scientiae docendis. Book four deals with Catechetics, sive de juvandis
domesticis fidei. Book five discusses Roman Catholic military (?)
sacerdotal and monastic schools (seminaries), and also treats of
legends, the ritual, and whatever relates to discipline and asceticism.
The sixth and seventh books point out the course to be pursued
with schismatics (Greeks and Russians), and with heretics (Wal-
' Possevin forms a remaritable parallel to Alsted in the Reformed Church, comp.
supra,

ROMAN CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA. I37
denses, Hussites, and Protestants), and the eighth indicates the
mode of combating atheism, that of the Socinians among the rest.
The ninth book has to do with Jews, Mohammedans, and'Pagans in
general, while the tenth and eleventh deal with the Japanese and
other Asiatic nations in particular. The twelfth book, which begins
the second volume, brings us to philosophy and and its relation to
religion and theology, ancient philosophy being derived from Moses".
The philosophies of Plato and Aristotle are then considered, the
latter especially in great detail. Jurisprudence and medicine,
mathematics and history, poetry and painting, occupy the space of
the remaining books, except the last, which finally becomes a letter
writer. This may suffice to indicate the methodically unmethodical
character of the work.'
The learned Benedictine, J. Mabillon, wrote his Traite des etudes
monastiques (Paris, 1691,) in opposition to the ascetic tendency which
the order of Trappists and its founder Armand Jean de Bouthillier
de Ranee ' sought to impress upon the entire system of monastic
orders. The work by Lud. Ellies du Pin, Methode pour etudier la
theologie (1716), which was translated into several languages, had
a more general aim. The publisher of Sarpi, Pierre Frango'is de
Courayer, wrote, in an anti-Roman spirit, a criticism of the theolog
ical method followed by the schools, entitled Examen des defauts
theolo'giques, oil I'on indique Ies moyens de Ies reformer. Amst.
1744, 2 vols. The reform, however, proceeded from Germany, in
this field also. A movement toward increased indepen- German cath-
dence prevailed among German Roman Catholics during ""^ '"°J'^^ '"^
the latter half of the eighteenth century, of which Denina cyciopaBdia.
(1758), Gerbert (1764), Braun (1777), Brandmayer (1783), and Rau-
tenstrauch (1781) were representatives: while Fr. Oberthur, the
learned editor of Josephus, wrote an Encyclopsedia et Methodologia,
(vol. i, Solisb., 1786,) which was long afterward remodelled into
a German text-book (Augsb., 1828, 2 vols.), and which gave him
rank with NSsselt, Planck, and Niemeyer, in the Protestant Church.
A methodology of the theological sciences, especially dogmatic, by
his hand, followed the above work in the same year.^ Nor did the
Roman Catholic Church in Germany seek to resist the influence of
' They who are acquainted with Petri Annati Methodicus theologiae apparatus (1770)
may determine whether it renders more efficient service in these respects.
"Traitd de la saintete et des devoirs de I'etat monastique, 1683. Comp. the mono
graph by F. A. de Chateaubriand, Par., 1844.
'Additional works are by Gmeiner and Leutwein (1786), Wiesner (1788), Sartori
1796), Dohinaver (1807), and Thamer 1809). The influence exerted by Midi. Sailer
in his Beitrage zur Bildung der Geistlichen (1819) and other writings was chiefly
practical.

13(3 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA.
Schleiermacher's method, as appears from the Kurze Einleitung in das
Studium der Theologie, mit Rttcksicht auf d. wissenschaftl. Stand-
punkt u. d. kathol. System, by J. S. Drey (Tiib., 1819 ; comp. Pelt.,
p. 66, sqq.). The philosophical ideas, in H. Klee's Encyclopsedie
(Mayence, 1832) are not thoroughly digested ; but F. A. Stauden
maier in his Encyk. der theol. Wissenschaften, etc. (Mayence, 1834,
2d, 1840) displays a decided talent for speculation, together with
an immoderate propensity to ramble. Staudenmaier resembles Ros
enkranz in regarding encyclopsedia as a philosophy of theology, and
in disregarding the importance of the Methodological element.'
ao„„™f., „„„ Separate contributions to encyclopaedia were furnished by: —
E)6p&ruiir6 coil" r-i /¦
tributions to H. K. Sack, Werth u. Reiz d. Theologie u. d. Geistlichen Standes,
theological en- Berlin, 1814; Fr. Strauss, Glockentone; Erinnerungen a. d. Leben
eines jungen Geistlichen, 3 parts, 7th ed. Leips., 1840.
W. M. L. de Wette, Theodor, oder des Zweifler's Weihe. Berlin, 1822, 28. 2 vols.
(Theodore, or th5 Sceptics' Conversion. Boston.)
E. W. Krummacher, Expeetorationen iiber d. Studium der Theologie, etc. Essen.,
1847. De Wette, Idee uber das Studium der Theologie, edited by A. Stieren. Leips.,
1850. ¦ To these may be added the numerous idealistic romances on ministerial life, e.g.: —
Hase, Des alten Pfarrer's Testament; Erhards, Volkmar's Bekenutnisse ; Tobler,
Gotthold; Planck, Erstes Amtsjahr, etc., which contain hints adapted to 'encyclopsedia.
' Recent Roman Catholic works : A. Genzler, Das Ideale der Wissenschaft, etc.
(Bamb., 1834); A. L. Buchuer, Encyklopa;die u. Methodologie (Sulzb., 1837); and A.
von Sieger, De natura fidei et methodo theologiae ad ecclesiae catholicae theologos
(Monast. Westphal., 1838); concerning which see Pelt., p. 72.

PART n.
SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
THE DEPARTMENTS OF THEOLOGY AND THEIR RELATION
TO EACH OTHER.

SECTION L
DIVISION.
The study of positive theology is required by its nature to con
form to the four leading divisions of Exegetical, Historical, Sys
tematic, and Practical theology, and must be pursued in that order.
As positive theology has for its source the fact of the institution
of the Christian religion (revelation), its beginnings ^^ ^^ ^^
will coincide with that fact, and must be found in the ments of posi-
documents relating to such institution or revelation, "''"theology.
Starting thus from the beginning, it traces the progress of historical
development down tO our own time, and then combines into a
mental picture of the present what history has furnished. It obtains
by this process a clear idea of the connexion running through the
whole, and deduces therefrom the necessary principles for convert
ing theory into practice.'
The division into four departments was generally adopted by the
earlier encyclopsedists, as Noesselt, Thym, Staudlin, Schmidt, and
Planck, although the above order was not always observed ; but
later writers have, for scientific reasons, and with but few excep-
' The above distribution may also be justified in the following manner : The asser
tion is warranted that all knowledge is based either on personal (physical or mental)
observation, or on report and tradition, and is, therefore, either theoretical (philosoph
ical) or historical in its nature. Historical knowledge, however, must be obtained
by investigation, and for the latter acquaintance with languages and philological criti-
cLsm is necessary ; while theoretical knowledge leads to its practical application. In
like manner Christianity is, in its positive character, both a history and a doctrine ;
but its history is based on the Bible, which must, first of all, be exegetically exam
ined ; and its doctrine is not pure knowledge, but practical. The truth of revelation
is to be applied in the Church and the various departments of Church activity, to
which practical theology has regard. The two departments of learning are thus con
fined between two fields of applied art, the exegetical at the beginning, and the prac
tical at the end.

140 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
tions, departed from that arrangement, despite its advantages in a
methodological and practical point of view. Schleiermacher pre-
sehieiermach- ferred to make three departments, and divided the
er's division ol gdence into philosophical, historical, and practical the-
positlve theol- '^ , -, mi j i m
ogy. ology (root, trunk, and crown), ine range ot philo
sophical theology is limited by him to apologetics and polemics ; but
he extends the domain of historical theology so as to include on the
one hand exegesis, and on the other dogmatics and ethics — ^the lat
ter of which would seem more properly to belong to philosophical
theology. Within that domain, however, separate places were
assigned to exegetical and systematic theology, in order that the
special field of historical theology proper might not be encroached
Danz'sdivisiou «pon. Danz attempted still another division, by which
of theology In- he separated the whole of theology into two classes of
to a religious . ', , i-j.i-- ji,
andachurchiy sciences, namely, such as pertain to religion and such
science. g^g relate to the Church. Religious learning is sub
divided into theoretical and practical, the former of which embraces
heuristic (exegetical) and technical theology (systematic theol
ogy and the history of doctrines). Ecclesiastical science is like^
wise either theoretical or practical, the former section including
Church history. Church law, statistics, archseology, etc., while the
latter comprehends the " sciences of Church practice," or such as
relate to the practical work of the Church, embracing polemics,
irenics, liturgies, etc. This method may, at first sight, seem to pre
sent many advantages ; but the difiiculties it involves when reduced
to practice appear to be equally numerous. The separation of the
religious from the Churchly element is of itself fraught with serious
evils, since in actual Christianity the two interpenetrate each other.
Christ founded both religion and the Church, and the Bible is as
important to the Church as to religion. It follows that exegesis,
for instance, is as much an ecclesiastical as a religious science.
Still other objections arise when the method is applied to details.
The history of doctrines and patristics is introduced before acquaint
ance with Church history has been made, though a knowledge of
the latter is necessary to an understanding of the former ; both
practical and historical theology are broken into fragmentary paits,
and the relation between apologetics and polemics is destroyed.
This may suffice to indicate the difficulties of this division in its
practical applications ; and the author has, at all events, failed to
Kosenkranz'g indicate the reasons which governed his action. Rosen-
iorof°posiUve ^^'^^^ approximates more nearly to Schleiermacher, in
theology. , that he likewise divides the entire science into phil
osophical (which he calls speculative), historical, and practical

EXEGESIS A DISTINCT DEPARTMENT. 141
theology, although his speculative theology substantially includes
dogmatics, which term is further extended to embrace apolegetics
and polemics ; but he conflicts with Schleiermacher in assigning the
leading place to systematic, which evidently must grow out of his
torical theology, and thereby opens the way for speculation to dom
inate the whole in the Hegelian fashion. Staudenmaier, too, places
speculative theology at the front, but, singularly enough, puts prac
tical theology in the centre, and makes historical bring up the
rear ; and Zyro is also inclined to give the first place to speculative
theology.' Kienlen and Pelt have, on the other hand, restored the precedence
to historical theology. They adopt the division into three parts —
historical, including exegetical, systematic, and practical theology.
It cannot be denied that in a broad sense exegetical theology may
be properly included under historical, inasmuch as it is the work of
exegesis to determine conditions essentially historical. Reasons why
and even to elucidate the primitive history of Chris- exegetical the-
,. T, !• -IT TT ¦ -, -, ¦ ologyshouldbe
tianity itself. But historical knowledge, considered in a separate de-
itself, is not the only element that engages the attention partment.
of exegetical theology. Exegesis in the proper sense is rather a
certain readiness in the application of knowledge, as Schleiermacher
himself confesses, which is based on scientific principles (hermeneu
tics) belonging, not to the historical, but to the philological, or, in
the widest meaning of the term, philosophical, department. The
historic value of the Scriptures themselves, is not, moreover, merely
the same as that which attaches to other monuments of Christian
and ecclesiastical antiquity. In their character, as documents of in
stitution or revelation, they engross our study in a very different
manner from and to a far greater extent than do other historical
sources. "Nocturna versate manu, versate diurna," applies to them
with entire propriety. They rise, like the primeval mountains,
above all the later formations of theological culture, and like the
eternal granite rocks, they tower far above valley and hill.
It may therefore be allowed that it is proper for Protestant
theology, upon which devolves a special ministry of the word, to
establish a separate department of exegetical theology, and to
assign to the study of the Bible a sufficient, unrestricted place within
the domain of theological learning. The objection that the dis
tinction made between the original and the derived is only relative,"
bears against every classification, for every thing, as we shall see,
is relative. Or if it be said ' that all science is either philosophical
¦ Kritik der bisherigen Encyklopsedie, in Stud. u. Krit. 1837, No. 3.
» Pelt, p. 76. ' Kienlen, p. 13.

143 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA.
or historical, and that every particular science must belong to one
of these categories, we acknowledge that the statement is correct,
Additional rea- ^" ^^^ broad meaning by which exegesis itself becomes a
sons for mak- historical science ; but if practical theology is entitled
separate^^^d^ to a place beside historical and systematic (thetical), al-
partment. though its very name indicates that it is neither purely
historical nor purely philosophical, we may, with equal propriety,
assert the right of exegetical theology to a similar privilege. The
truth is that both exegetical and practical theology are mixed
sciences, which stand related not only to learning, but also to prac
tical skill {Texvr]), not only to knowledge, but also to ability ; and
the fact that these very sciences form the boundary lines of the
study, its beginning and end, points to the practical nature of the
ology as a whole, by which it is distinguished from pure science.
If it should become necessary for purposes of observation to disclose
the organism of theological science, as science simply, and without
reference to practical needs, it would be proper to represent exegesis
as merely an historical auxiliary science, as biblical exegesis is in
fact for biblical theology,' or patristic exegesis for the history of
the Church and its doctrines.
But the Protestant Church justly insists that, as a primary qualifi
cation, every theologian shall be thoroughly familiar with the Bible
and be competent to deal with it, since more than all else, he is to be
a well-grounded servant of the Word (verbi divini minister). This
explains why special chairs of exegesis are every-where established "
and exegetical lectures are delivered, even in Roman Catholic uni
versities, which have always been discriminated from the historical
in the catalogues and in literature.' The combination of the two-
exegesis and history — is impracticable, confusing in a methodolog
ical point of view, and an innovation upon the ordinary usage of
the terms in any language. The division we advocate may, aside
from its practical utility, derive further support from the analogy
of the distribution of the pure sciences, discussed above, where we
have, first, the study of language and history, next philosophy, and
finally professional culture. In the theological field, exegesis cor-
' Pelt., 1. c.
' There was even a time when, in the Refonned Church, theology was wholly resolved
into exegesis. In Basle at least there were but two chairs of theology from the Ref
ormation down to the earlier period of the seventeenth century, viz., of Old and New
Test, exegesis. Comp. Hagenbach, Die theol. Schule Basels u. ihre Lehrer., 1860, 4to.
' Com., for example, Winer's Handbuch d. theol. Literatur. No well arranged
library will class exegetical with historical works ; and no person will, for instance,
place Ernesti upon the same level of merit with Mosheim. Over-keenness is eouiva-
lent to dullness.

THE PLACE OF EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. 143
responds to philology,' historical to history, systematic to philoso
phy, and practical to art." Thus much respecting the continued use
of the ancient " four ruts," which, though worn, should not be held
responsible for the faults of wretched drivers.
SECTION IL
AKEANGEMENT OF THE FOUR DEPARTMENTS.
The greatest diversity [ revails also in the matter of arrangement.
Every person who is not governed by an a priori .xiVQin-
,. .f J, ..", j.^1, V-^"^ Exegetical the-
dice in favor of a prion modes of thought, must see that oiogy the first
to give the first place to systematic theology is utterly *" '"''^®'''
impracticable. The assertion that Church history cannot be mas
tered before the idea has been made clear by speculation,' is almost
sufficient to recall the boy in the fable who desired to wait until the
stream should have passed by, before crossing over. On this plan
there could be no liistory of the world before the world is under
stood 1 Christianity itself would need to be mentally constructed
before it could be examined as it appears in the Scriptures. To
begin with dogmatics would assuredly deliver us again into the
power of scholasticism, from whose control the human mind was
emancipated by the Reformation. The reasons, therefore, which
justify the assignment of a separate department to exegetical the
ology, justify, also, the placing of its study at the head. The the
ologian must begin with exegesis and first of all become acquainted
with the foundations. Upon this principle Protestant theology
must insist, unless it wishes to become untrue to its principles.''
' Philology is likewise a historical science in the wide sense, and that very fact dis
criminates between it and mere linguistics; but the progressive reading of an author
will nevertheless always be considered philological rather than historical. Philologists
and historians are likewise related, but not identical, classes of investigators.
' Individual qualifications likewise lead to distinct results, so that the student who
excels in the study of languages usually becomes a good exegete, and he who has the
historical faculty becomes a Church historian. Philosophical ability will find its
proper field in systematic theology, and a talent for using the vernacular in artistic
description, etc., indicates the coming preacher and liturgist.
' Zyro, p. 694.
* Jerome already expressed this idea in his Coram, ad Jesaiam, " Qui nescit scripturas
nescit Dei virtutem ejusque sapientiam ; ignoratio soripturarum ignoratio Christi est."
It may be said, perhaps, that in order to consider the Bible as attesting the faith of
Christianity, it is essential that it be examined from the Christian point of view, and
that therefore apologetics must be first gone over ; hence that theology as - whole
should begin with apologetics. Regarded merely in its principles, the idea is not bad ;
but how can apologetics be discussed without a previous acquaintance with the mate
rial to which it relates ? Only they who have become interested in the study of the
Bible are capable of deriving profit from the study of apolegetics.

144 SPECI.AL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
The only question that remains concerns the relative positions of
systematic and historical theology; for it is evident that practical
The relative theology should close the course (though Staudenmaier
positionsofsys- places it in the middle). The precedence of system-
w^orteai th"^ atic before historical theology is advocated on the
ology. ground that in point of fact Christianity possessed a
body of doctrine from the very beginning, which, accordingly, is
not an aggregate resulting from the entire course of historical de
velopment, but, on the contrary, assumed a sort of systematic form
at an early period, as the Apostles' Creed sufficiently attests.' It is
also contended that the history of doctrines can only be studied
with proper interest, when it follows upon the study of dogmatics,
and after the nature and true meaning of a doctrine has been appre
hended. With regard to this question every thing depends upon a
separation of Biblical from ecclesiastical dogmatics (infra). We
acknowledge that the former results from exegesis, and may be suc
cessfully studied without a preliminary course of Church history and
history of doctrines ; but it will appear in our discussion of system
atic theology that Biblical dogmatics is simply a preliminary histor
ical branch, and not dogmatics in the proper sense, which latter
Reasons why assumes the existence of Church doctrines as well as
precede *dog- Jf^i^le doctriues, and constitutes the consummation of
matics. the whole. It will also be seen, in connexion with our
treatment of the history of doctrines, that Biblical dogmatics forms
the natural point of transition from historical to systematic theol
ogy. ^ Not until the mind has developed its powers by historical
studies, and has acquired facility in the broad philosophical man
agement of thought, will it be fitted to attempt the study of dog
matics, that demands a robust intellect. The mind that, on the
contrary, begins the study of theology with dogmatics, may be lik
ened to the bird which undertakes to fly before its wings have
All divisions ot grown, or the architect who attempts the erection of a
ogr'^reiative building before its foundations have been laid. But that
only. every division is only relative, and that in every single
, , branch of theological study all the others are involved," even as in a
' Fleck, in a review of Pelt's Encykl., in the Allgem. Kirchen-Zeitung. 1844.
" Exegetical theology involves historical elements (introduction, archseology), and
also doctrinal (criticism, herraenuetics) and practical (practical exposition) ; historical
theology embraces exegetical functions (the study of sources, exposition of ecclesias
tical writers) and the dogmatic compilation of both Biblical and ecclesiastical dogmat
ics, and likewise has outlets leading into the practical field, e. /., through Church an
tiquities into liturgies, or through the history of the constitution of the Church into
ecclesiastical law Systematic theology falls back (in its proof passages) upon exe-

ALL THE DEPARTMENTS CO-RELATED. US
well-tuned musical instrument all the related chords will resound
when any single one is struck, are truths that cannot be too strongly
impressed.' No science has either an absolute beginning or an ab
solute end ; and the suggestion (in § 2) that encyclopsedia should,
in justice, occupy a double place in the theological course, will ac
cordingly apply to any other special study.
The student who is familiar with systematic and practical theology,
and perhaps even with the practical experiences of ministerial life,
as well as with the lessons of personal experience, will apprehend
the Bible in a very different light from that in which the new be
ginner sees its truths — this, too, though he be governed by the'most
sublime " absence of predisposition." The same observation applies
also to Church history, the history of doctrines, etc. We are not,
however, inclined on that account to plant theology on its head, or
to call the branches roots, because roots may be propagated from
them ; the true I'ule is, to apply designations to the departments in
harmony with the features which predominate in them, and to apply
the same method to the settling of the order in which they are to
succeed each other.
gesis, and calls into recollection the history of doctrines and symbolics, besides being
required to treat the body of doctrine in its practical bearings and by its doctrine of
the Church to furnish a sub-basis for practical theology. The latter, finally, is wholly
dependent upon exegesis, on history, and on doctrine. The analogy of nature, which
in Its earlier formations prefigures those of a later age, and in later stages of devel-
" opment repeats the forms of an earlier period, holds good with reference to this sub
ject. It would not be difficult to discover the tendency to fall into four parts in each
of the several branches specified in the text. Each takes the hand of the other ; each
affords an outlook into the other ; and whenever a single branch comes to a living
development, the others are found to be involved , with it and entitled to equal
recognition. ' Without a systematic connexion of ideas and a practical judgment both exegesis
and history must continue to be capita raortua ; while, on the other hand, systematic
and practical theology woiild, without the others, be founded on air.
10

146 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.

CHAPTER L
EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY.

SECTION L
. Exegetical theology embraces every thing that relates to the in-
. terpretation and exposition of the Old and New Testa-
Deflmtion ot ^ „ . '^- , . -it,,
exegetical the- ment Scriptures, and thereiore includes both exegesis
ology. itself, considered as an art, and the auxiliary sciences
which enable us to apply that art. Its results appear in Biblical
theology, which ,may be subdivided into historical and dogmatic
elements (sacred history and Bible doctrines).
Exegetical theology has the Bible fdr its object, for which reason
The Bible the it has been denominated Biblical theology (e. g., by
ge£°theX P^l*^)- '^*^® ^*"^''' however, is simply the result ob-
gy. talned by exegetical processes, the sum total of the gains
secured through the investigations of the student of the Scriptiircs.
Exegesis, in the proper meaning of the term, is the application of a
method (hermeneutics) to existing writings ; ' but for the execution
of its function the aid of an addition3,l philological and critical ap
paratus is necessary, which, in all its extent, is likewise included in
the domain of exegetical theology. The results of exegesis proper
are partly historical and partly dogmatic in their nature ; and even
practical theology depends on it for immediate advantages (the re
lation of the text to the sermon). The study of the Bible cannot be
covered by exegesis alone, for the Scriptures command the entire
range of theological learning, and cannot, accordingly, be forced
within the limits of a special branch for purposes of study. Exe
gesis is simply the key, with which to unlock the sanctuary of Bible
truth. Every thing, however, depends upon a pvoper use of the
' " The term ^E^tiyriral was primarily applied by the ancients to persons who di
rected the attention of curious inquirers to the outwardly remarkable features of a
city or a temple, for which reason they were also called irepniyiiTal ; but more espec
ially to persons of higher dignity, who brought the layman into sympathy with divine
things, and who read the signs in the heavens and the auguries in the sacrificial vic
tim, and also interpreted the oracles." Creuzer, Symbolik, i, p. 15. Comp. Passow's
Wdrterbuch.

THE HUMAN ELEMENT IN THE BIBLE. 147
key, and exegetical theology is concerned to so master its peculiari
ties as to become able to seize upon the treasures of Biblical theol
ogy. The relation of exegetical* to Biblical theology is, conse
quently, that of the journey to the destination, or of labor to its gains.
SECTION IL
OF HOLT SCEIPTUEE OONSIDEEED AS THE OBJECT OF EXEGESIS —
ITS IDEA AND EXTENT.
Comp. the Art. Bibel in Erseh and Gruber's Encyklopsedie (also In a separate reprint, Leips.,
1883), and to Herzog, Encykl.— together wlt(j the corresponding articles, Bibeltext des A. u. N. T.,
Blbeliibersetzungen, etc.; *Eothe, Zur Dogmatik, art. 3, Die hell, Schritt; Holtzmann, Kanon
u. Tradition, Ludwlgsburg, 1859;* Herm. Schaltz, Stellung des christl. Glaubens zur heil.
Schrlft, etc., in Volksbl. I. d. Ref. Kircke d. Schweiz, 1873, Nos. 11-13.
The Bible or the holy Scripture of Christianity (Biblia sacra, to.
fiifiMa ¦&eia, lepd ypattyq, i^da ypa^i]) is a collection of documents re
lating to religion and its history, which date from different periods
and were written by different authors. When conceived as a unit
comprehended under the higher designation of the word of God,
and as concentrating its energies upon a common object in behalf
of religion and the Church, that of giving direction to Christian
faith and life — this collection forms the canon of the Scriptures, in
distinction from the Apocrypha and all other writings of human
origin. The nature of encyclopsedia requires that it should at the begin
ning appropriate to itself certain elements which according to its own
principles belong to the science of Introduction. Its object is to se
cure a proper appreciation of the Scriptures by the stu- Relation or en-
dent who enters upon their study, and to point out the sci- fr^'^^^^'^^"
entific methods appropriate for his work. Sound views Bible.
respecting the Bible itself are first of all to be secured, for the
attainment of which a partial intrusion into the fields of apologetics
and dogmatics will certainly become necessary, though merely in a
general way. It is of the highest importance that both the relig
ious character and the historical nature of the Scriptures should
be examined with both holy zeal and unbiassed judgment, in order
that the reverence due the book of God may not cause its human
side to be overlooked, or that the many and diverse subjects discov
ered from the human point of observation may not lead to the
rejection of its Divine character. Herder, the exponent of the
purely human has demonstrated that in one point of view the Bible
is a human book ; and no inquirer of later times will The human
venture to controvert this human element, which is ap- ^le^to'te^con-
parent in the variety of authors and of dates, in the sidered.
language, in modes of expression, etc. To this must be added the

148 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
reflection that the Bible did not fall from the heavens in its completed-
form, but was gradually collected; and that its different component
parts did not escape the misfortune of alb the written monuments of
ancient times, by which what was genuine became mixed with ele
ments not genuine, and the text in occasional instances was cor
rupted. This human side presents matters of great interest to
scientific investigation ; but such investigation becomes utterly im
possible on the rigid theory of a verbal inspiration of the Scriptures.
The interest taken in philological and historical questions, does
not, however, destroy all regard for the religious and theological
elements, for the Divine character of the Bible, which constitutes
The tie which the ground of its importance to religion and theology.'
binds the hooks ^j^ invariable religious reference to an institution
gether. ' ^ founded by God and designed for the education of the
1 " The Bible, when viewed in its essen-ce, is found to present only a single body of
truth, not, however, in the form of unvarying and formally repeated dead traditions,
which are handed down from age to age, but as displaying the most active fife, since
the difEerent truths continually develop with the progress of time, and assume differ
ent aspects and a more definite character, without becoming a confused mass or com
ing into conflict with each other. The truth, passing through manifold forms, is un
folded from the germ to the fruit on a single plan of development, a series of living
intermediate members receiving what already exists into themselves and carrying it
forward in harmony with their own nature, and transmitting it to their successors for
a similar treatment, until the whole is rounded into completed truth— sthe ripened fruit
produced by the entire tree, which possesses the developed power of germination, in
order to a further development in which its inborn nature shall be reproduced." Tob.
Beck, Einl. in d. System d. christl. Lehre, p. 216. — Tiie religious investigation of the
Bible belongs to the sphere of faith ; and in consequence persons possessed of robust
faith, like Luther, have always expressed the judgment respecting the Bible which
faith is still compelled to repeat, despite every freedom from preconceived views
which scientific inquiry may have produced. " In summa, the holy Bible is the grand
est aud best book of God — full of comfort in every tribulation, for it teaches much of
faith, hope, and love, that is different from what reason is able to see, feel, conceive,,
or learn. And it teaches when misfortune comes, how such virtues are to shine forth,
and that another and eternal life lies beyond this poor, wretched life. ... I beseech and
faithfully admonish every pious Christian not to take offence or be disturbed al the simple
discourses and narratives found in the Bible, and not to doubt its truth, however poor
and silly they may seem to be ; they are yet simply the word, work, history, and judg
ments of the exalted majesty, might, and truth of God. In this book are found the
swaddling-cloths and manger in which Christ has lain, whither the angel also sends
the shepherds ; they are, no doubt, poor and mean swaddling-cloths, but precious is
the treasm*, Christ, which they enfold." Similar remarks by Luther on the Bible are
scattered through his works. Comp. J. G. Mueller, Theophil., p. 236, sgg. The strong
sense of the peculiar character of the Bible and its value above all other books enter
tained by Goethe also, is apparent in many passages of his works. Comp. Aus meinem
Leben, vol. i, book 4, and Farbenlehre, ii, p. 138 : " The Bible owes the great venera
tion, in which it has been held by many nations and generations of the earth, to its
inherent value. It is not merely a national book, but the book for the nations, be-

THE DIVINE ELEMENT IN THE BIBLE. 149
human race, forms the tender spiritual tie holding together the leaves
which in their outward form are but loosely connected, and which,
if torn from the trunk of the theocracy and the historical root reach
ing back into the beginning of things, would cease to be what they
are as parts of this whole. Such reference, however, is far more
definite and apparent in one book than in another, and in some
portions of the Scriptures seems to disappear or become obscure.
It follows, accordingly, that the Bible is still a sacred literature,
not only as distinguished from the profane, if it be „._
•' ^ ^ ' The Bible con-
thought proper to apply that term to all literature stitutes a sa-
which does not come into immediate contact with the '^''^'^ '"^rature.
religious life, but also as distinguished from every other religious,
cause it employs the fortunes of one nation as a symbol of all others, connects its his
tory with the origin of the world, and carries it through the gradations of earthly and
spiritual development in connexion with necessary and accidental events, to the far
thest regions of the most distant eternity. . . The more the centuries increase in
culture the more will the Bible be made in part the foundation of education and in
part an agency in its behalf, not, of course, by conceited persons, but by the truly
wise." Comp. many extracts in Hagenbach, Leitfaden zum christl. Rel.-unterricht,
3d ed. (Leips., 1861), p. 32, sqg. Also Bunsen, Gott in d. Geschichte, i, p. 94. " The
narratives of this book are God's word to mankind. A word in servant's form, of
course ; but this is true of all Divine things that pass over the earth ; it is true of the
Deity itself, as the immutable idea of the common source of being in this world. A
book of ruins, too ; but the ruins are pervaded by a living spirit. A book, moreover,
of humble language ; but in words that are undying, because every human heart bears
witness to them. A. book sweeping through thousands of years, full of apparent con
tradictions, like nature, and man, and the history of our race ; but ever young and in
harmony with itself through the unity of the Spirit which produced it, even as crea
tion is a unit, with all its contrasts, and even by reason of all its contrasts. A book
for sages and yet capable of being understood, like God's nature, by every child,
namely, according to the measure of its understanding. A book written in dead lan
guages, and yet eternally living in the tongues of the nations." Rothe, too, has perti
nent remarks (zur Dogmatik), e. g., p. 225 : "It is precisely through such human and
personal qualities that the Bible receives a freshness and charm that are profoundly af
fecting, and it is precisely this wonderful interplay and commingling of the Divine and hu
man, and still more this constant interpenetration of the two, that the pious soul famil
iar with its qualitiss recognizes as the most eminent characteristic among its peculiar
ities." Also p. 345: "The sacredness and all that constitutes the unique character
of the Bible depend unalterably and altogether upon what it actually is and what it act
ually proves itself to be for him who approaches it in a teachable spirit, and not at all
upon the character given it or the qualities arbitrarily assigned to it by dogmatics.'^
It is not the habit of English scholars to make apology for the form in which
Scripture conveys its truth. From the earliest years of the Reformation a reverence
for the letter and style of the Bible, as in every way worthy of its rich contents, is
observable in English literature. The book is familiariy described as the Great Clas
sic. In Bacon's Advancement of Learning this reverential tone is noticeable in every
reference to Scripture. Barrow makes a special point of the worthiness of the form
of the Bible for the conveyance of a divine message. In his sermon on the Excel-

150 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
and even Christian, literature, which, being only the word of man
as contrasted with the word of God, can only sustain a subordinate
relation to the Scriptures.
The latter distinction, by which sacred is discriminated from
Apocryphal writ- °^^'^^ rcligious literature, furnishes the ground for the
Ings: whysodis- Separation between the canonical and apocryphal writ-
mguis e . jjjgg which is maintained in our Church. The Bible is
termed the canon, and its several parts canonical books,' inasmuch
lence of the Qhristian Religion' he says: "It propoundeth itself in a style and garb
of speech, as accommodate to the general capacity of its hearers, so proper to the au
thority which it claimeth, becoming the majesty and sincerity of divine truth ; it ex-
presseth itself plainly and simply, without any affectation or artifice, without osten
tation of wit or eloquence, such as men study to insinuate and impress their devices
by : it also speaketh with an imperious and awful confidence, such as argueth the
speaker satisfied both of his own wisdom and authority ; that he doubteth not of what
he saith himself, that he knoweth his hearers obliged to believe him : its words are
not like the words of a wise man, who is wary and careful that he slip not into mis
take, (interposing therefore now and then his maybes and perchances,) nor like
the words of a learned scribe, grounded on semblances of reason, and backed with
testimonies; nor as the words of a crafty sophister, who, by long circuits, subtile
fetches, and sly trains of discourse, doth inveigle men to his opinion ; but like the
words of a king, carrying with them authority and power uncontrollable, commanding
forthwith attention, assent, and obedience; this you are to believe, this you are to do,
upon pain of our high displeasure, at your utmost peril be it ; your life, your salvation
dependeth thereon : such is the style and tenor thereof, plainly such as becometh the
sovereign Lord of all to use, when he shall please to proclaim his mind and will to
us." Jeremy Taylor is, in the expression of this reverence, not a whit behind Barrow :
"For the meaning of the spirit of God is not like the wind blowing from one point,
but like light issuing from the body of the sun, it is light round about ; and in every
word of God there is a treasure, and something will be found somewhere to answer
ev6ry doubt, and to clear every obscurity, and to teach every truth, by which God
intends to perfect our understanding." (Sermon on the Minister's Duty in Life and
Doctrine.) Even Coleridge, who says of the theory of verbal inspiration that it
changes the living organism of Holy Writ into a " colossal Memnon's head, a hollow
passage for a voice that mocks the voices of many men," speaks impatiently of the
spirit which disparages the human element in revelation. In his Studies on Homer,
Mr. Gladstone suggests that it is a mistake to bring the Old Testament before the
tribunal of mere literary criticism ; that " we can no more compare Isaiah and the
Psalms with Homer than we can compare David's heroism with Diomed's, and that
we shall most nearly do justice to each by observing carefully the boundary lines of
then- respective provinces." He adds: "All that is peculiar in our conception of
Isaiah or of Jeremiah does not tend so much to make them eminent among men as to
separate them from other men," and this may be said of all the Scripture writers.
Comp. H. Planck, NonnuUa de signiflcatu canonis in eccl. antiqua ejusque .lerie
recte constituenda (Gott., 1820), which contradicts the opinion of^mler and Eieh-
horn that xavuv merely denotes a catalogue of books. Comp. also Nitzsch, System
der christl. Lehre, § 40, sg., and especially Credner, zur Gesch. des Kanons, p. 6, sqq.
Kavuv (corresponding to Heb. nip, a staff, reed) is equivalent to rule, measure, norm.
Holtzmann, 1. o. '"' '

IMPORTANCE OP THE OLD TESTAMENT. 151
as the " Word of God," contained in the Scriptures, is regarded as
the whole of Scripture, and, therefore, as the Divine rule of faith
and practice. As sacred literature stands opposed to profane in the
more extended fields, so the canonical contrasts with the apocryphal
within narrower limits. In the ecclesiastical vocabulary such relio--
lous writings are termed apocryphal as are considered useful and
good, but not pervaded by the peculiar spirit of the theocracy, (the
Old Testament Apocrypha usually appended to the canon) ; ' or such
(like many of the New Testament apocryphal writings) as betray a
tendency foreign to original apostolic Christianity, or at any rate,
are not in thorough harmony with it, and, therefore, not received
as canonical." SECTION III.
RELATION OF THE OLD TO THE NEW TESTAMENT.
The canon of the Scriptures is divided into the books of the Old
and New Testaments {naXaid, Kaivrj dtad^/cri).' The Christian theo
logian is, in that character, to deal primarily with the New Testa
ment as being the immediate source of revelation for the christian theo-
Christian religion; but he is nevertheless required to logians . should
include the Old Testament Scriptures also in the range Testeinent,Md
of his investigations: "why.
' In the ancient Church the Apocrypha were known as libri ecclesiastici. They had
been appended to the Greek version of the LXX, and came into circulation by that
means ; but Jerome wished to have them separated from the canon, while Augustine
advocated their retention. Upon this question the Protestants have taken sides with
Jerome and the Roman Catholics with Augustine. The English and Scottish Churches
urge this distinction more than others, and Insist upon its practical application. In
recent times the question has given rise to disputes upon the Continent also. Comp.
the writings against the Apocrypha by Ph. F. Keerl, Das Wort Gottes u. d. Apokr. des
A. T's, Leips., 1853 ; J. U. Oschwald, Die Apokr. in d. Bibel, Ziirich, 1863 ; and those
for the Apocrypha, by E. W. Hengstenberg, Beibehaltung der Apokr., Berl., 1853,
reprinted from the Evang. Kirchen Zeitung; and R. Stier, Die Apokryphen, etc.,
Brunsw., 1853. Bleek furnishes a scientific and unbiassed discussion of the subject, j
in Stellung der Apokr. des A. T. im christl. Kanon, in Stud. u. Krit., 1853, 2, pp.
26'7-'<54. fhe difference should certainly be recognized in practice ; but the animos
ity which has in recent times contended zealously against the pirculation of these
hooks in connexion with the Bible, cannot be commended.
¦" Comp. G. Brockmann, De Apocryphorum appellatione, Gryph., 1766 ; Gieseler,
Was helsst Apokryphisch ? in Stud. u. Krit, 1829, No. 1, p. 141, sqq. ; de Wette, Einl.
ins A. T., 6th ed., p. 10; Schleiermacher, § 109.
' The word testamentum occurs first in Tertullian, Adv. Marc, iv, 11, who also em
ploys the term instrumentum. Concerning the original signification of dta'3-r/Ki], as
corresponding to the Heb., 0^3 (foedus), and the transition to the idea of "testa
ment" (Heb. ix, 16), see the lexicons. Knapp (of Halle) beautifully says, "We are
to read the Testament, not like the jurist, who criticizes, but like a child that inherits."
Comp. Eylert, Fr. Wilh., iii, p. 325.

152 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
I. Because the monotheistic underlying principle of the New
Testament is grounded in the Old, and its economy (plan of salva
tion) has its preparation in the Old Covenant.
2. Because the modes of thought and expression found in the
Old Testament, furnish the only key for comprehending the New.
3. Because the Old Testament' contains sections whose theocratic
and ideally religious character gives them immediate didactic and
edifying value for the Chi-istiani and possesses for him all the au
thority of Divine revelation.
Opinions have always been divided with regard to the relation
Differentviews ^^ the Old Testament to the New and the value of the
of the value of former to the Christian. The Judaizing (Ebionitish)
ment to the tendency was opposed by certain Gnostics (Marcionites),
Church. -while the Manichseans rejected the Old Testament; and
in the period of the Reformation a zealous opposition to the Law
was manifested by the Antinomians, though this movement was re
pressed. Renewed attention to the Hebrew language served, on
the contrary, to greatly encourage the study of the Old Testa
ment, and the tbeology and Church government of the Reformed
Church especially assumed an Old Testament character. In the
end, oriental and rabbinical learning threatened to overshadow and
smother all other learning. The Socinians, on the contrary, dis
tinguished between Abe Old and New Testaments so far as to con
sider the latter alone as in any proper sense the source of revelation ;
and they were followed by a number of rationalists in the last cen
tury.' Other ratieaalists, however, evinced a strong preference for
the Old Testament, which arose from their Ebionitic point of view.
They preferred to select texts from the book of Proverbs rather
than from the writiaags of Paul; and they rated the morality of the
apocryphal book of Wisdom as high as that of Jesus Christ. But
many strictly orthodox persons likewise devoted themselves prefer
ably to the Old Testament, and especially to its typical sections,
because they found it more congenial to their dispositions to appre
hend " Christ in the Old Testament " through the obscure medium
of types, than in the New, %s there presented in clear conceptions
Schleiermach- adapted to the human mind. The course of Schleier-
ottheoid'TS- ^^-cher, who, in opposition to such extreme ten-
tament. deucies, assigned to the Old Testament a position so
' Thiess, for instance,(in his Anleitung zur Amtsberedsamkeit der Religionslehrer des 1 9
Jahrhunderts, p. 139), asserts that " for the teacher of religion the entire Old Testament
is composed of apocryphal books, from which he may hardly venture to borrow a few
pages "(!); and Sintenis, in Theol. Briefe (Part I) recommended that "the entire Old
Testament be cashiered without mercy " (!). Comp. AugustI, Dogmengeschichte, p. 193.

THE NE'W TESTAMENT IN THE OLD. 153

subordinate, as to barely recognize in it the accidental soil in
which Christianity is rooted, is, as his followers acknowledge,'
simply another extreme founded on a misapprehension of the pe
culiar character of the Covenant ; but it is historically explicable.
The religion of salvation is contained in the Old Testament in
the form of prophecy (in the wide meaning of the term), though
it is apparently bound to the religion of law ; and Luther "in
his time would not limit the Gospel idea to the letter of the New
Testament, but traced it backward through the prophecies of the
Old.' More recent theology, since the time of Schleiermacher, has
made undeniable progress in this direction, though the relation be
tween prophecy and fulfillment is not always clear, and many things
may be shrouded in the gloom of that magical twilight in which a
certain school finds so much pleasure.' ^
It must be conceded in any event that New Testament modes of
thought and expression are inexplicable without the The form of
study of the Old, and that an immense number of pas- ^^"^ l?'^""^"!
. ^, J, ,. „ , '^ thought derived
sages m the former are taken from the latter and refer from the oid.
back to it, even though the inquiry be pushed no further than the
external relations existing between the two. Such passages cannot
be isolated and torn from their proper connexion, but must be ex
amined and comprehended in combination with the whole to which
they belong. But in addition to the peculiar relation sustained by
the Old Testament to the New, there is contained in it so much of
a general and religious nature, in a human- point of view (the relig
ious contemplation of nature, patriotism, ethical wisdom), that this
quality alone possesses a sufficient charm to invite to the diligent
study of its pages. The idea of a Divine training of humanity,
the training of a nation that it may become the chosen people of
God, is so grand and peculiar, as compared with any thing af-
' See Schweizer, Ref. Glaubenslehre, p, 95 ; Pelt, Encyk., p. 129.
^ The relation between the Old and New Testaments has been variously determined
by recent- theologians. Nitzsch's view (System of Christ. Doct., p. 7fl) is that the
New Testament is related to the Old as " completion is to preparation, the removal of
barriers to limitation, the immediate to the mediate." W. Hoffmann, Die gottliche
Slufenordnung im Alten Test., Berlin, 1854, p. 1 : "In comparison with heathenism
the Old Testament possesses a strong consciousness of victory, but it approaches the
coming Christianity with a humiliating consciousness of imperfection.''
' Comp. J. Ch. K. Hoffmann, Weissagung u. Erfiillung im Alten u. Neuen Test.,
Ncirdlingen, 1841^4, 2 vols., and the review of Ebrard in Tholuck's Lit. Anzeiger,
1843, Nos. 16-18. On Old Testament prophetism see the articles by Gueder and
Oehler in Herzog's Encykl, vol. xii ; A. E. Biedermann, Die Propheten des alten Bundes,
in Zeitstimmen aus d. ref. Schweiz, 1860; Tholuck, Die Propheten u. ihre Welssa-
gung'en, Gotha, 1860. In opposition to errors in this field, see Herm. Hupfeld, Die
heutige theosoph. oder mythologische Theologie u. Schrifterklarung, Berlin, 1861.

154 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
forded by the other religions of antiquity, that the study of the Old
Testament becomes one of the highest and most profitable tasks of
science in a general religious and historical point of view.
Furthermore, the connexion between the Old Testament and the
New is vital, for the New Testament has its roots in the Old. It
is one kingdom of God which is the subject of the history in both.
In expressing penitence, joy, and faith, the Psalms touch the deep
est depths of Christian feeling, and the prophecies of Isaiah are by
anticipation evangelical. The Bible can never be rightly studied
unless the two Testaments are comprehended in their unity and
harmony. If the Old Testament is in the New in fulfillment, the
New is in the Old in promise. There is force in the thought of
Archbishop Trench that in a just and reasonable sense all the Old
Testament is prophetic, " that the subtle threads of prophecy are
woven through every part of the texture, not separable from thence
without rending and destroying the whole. All the Old Testament
is the record of a divine constitution, pointing to something higher
than itself, administered by men who were ever looking beyond them
selves to a Greater that should come ; who were uttering, as the Spirit
stirred them, the deepest longings of their souls after his appear
ing, is prophetic; and this not by an arbitrary appointment, which
meant thus to supply evidences ready to hand for the truth of Reve
lation, in the curious tallying of the Old with the New, but prophetic
according to the inmost necessities of the case, which would not suffer
it to be otherwise." ' SECTION IV.
THE OLD TESTAMENT.
The Old Testament embraces the documents relating to the his-
contents of the tory of the Hebrew nation and religion, "down to a
oidTestament. certain period." The books of which it is composed
are generally divided into historical, prophetical, and poetical; but
the division cannot be strictly applied to details.
The Jews divided the sacred books (sypn "13D iffipn "303) into the
Usual Jewish Law (mio), the Prophets (d'XOJ), and the Hagiosrrapha
division of the , J ' "^ r - ," & & f
books. (d'3103). The prophets are subdivided into earlier
(D¦im.<^) and later (o'Jhn.s). The former class included the histor
ical books, beginning with Joshua and ending with Kings ; while
the latter was again subdivided into greater (Isaiah, Jeremiah, and
Ezekiel) and lesser prophets, the latter forming a separate bock.
The Hagiographa included Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Canticles, Ruth,
Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther, Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah, and
' Hulseau Lecture for 1846 ; pp. 86, 86.

DIVISION OP THE OLD TESTAMENT. 155
Chronicles. The inconvenient character of this mode of arranging
and naming is apparent ; ' and the more recent method of division,
in which the Alexandrian Jews led the way, and which ,j,^g Aiexan-
classified the different books as theocratic-historical, the- drian ciassifi-
ocratically inspired (prophets), and didactic and poeti- oid Testament
cal, is therefore to be preferred. It should be remem- "ooks.
bered that such a division can, in view of the entire structure of the
Bible, be only relative, inasmuch as history and doctrine," poetry
and prose,' are combined in manifold ways in a majority of its
books. It is for this very reason that the study of the Bible, and
of the Old Testament in particular, becomes so stimulating and
profitable, as to demonstrate that the Scriptures are no dry and
formally completed system, but a beautiful variegated garden of
God, in which the most diverse trees, herbs, shrubs, and flowers
grow and give forth their fragrance; and above this diversity
hovers, as above the waters on creation's morn, the spirit, peculiar
to the Bible, of theophany and theocracy. A definite physiognomy
looks out upon us from the theophanies, a holy, majestic, and per
sonal will speaks in the law and the prophecies; in the first instance,
the physiognomy and will of a national God, no doubt, but still of
a God who will tolerate no other gods besides, and who, exalted
above all limitation, is sacredly and divinely conscious of possessing
eternally creative power and universal dominion over the world. *
' A deeper reason for it may, however, be discovered ; comp. W. Hoffmann, Gottliche
Stufenordnung im A. T., p. 30, on which, p. 6, the author truly and beautifully observes :
" The Torah, the law or doctrine generally, which is the text and root of all teaching and
learning in matters pertaining to salvation before the time of Christ, constitutes the
foundation of the old covenant, the wonderful, massive substructure, upon which is
grounded the graceful, rich columnar forest of ihe prophets, with its glorious and bold or
naments of sacred poetry, which ornaments are fruit-bearing in their turn. It (the To
rah) is the instituting of the true religion, the most ancient revelation in a human form."
Bunsen hkewise insists, in his Bibelwerk, that the ancient divisions should be retained.
" " It is apparent to all that in the two sections of this important work (the Old and
New Testaments) the historical and the doctrinal elements are intimately combined in
such a way that one aids and supplements the other, as perhaps in no other book."
Goethe, \. c.
° It is assuredly a delicate thread that passes through the Old and New Testament
Scriptures, and especially through sections in which image and reality, history and
poetry, come into contact. Rude hands are rarely able to follow, and much less un
ravel it, without tearing or entangling — without harming either the poetry or the his
tory, which are spun by it into a whole." Herder, Theophron (Werke zur Rel. u.
Theol, X, p. 222, sq.).
* A more unjustifiable statement has probably never been made, than that the Old
Testament God is simply an extra-mundane, abstract God. The very reverse is true.
Nothing can be more concrete than the determinate God of Abraham, Isaac, and
Jacob. Bahr (Symbolik, i, p. 9) is consequently correct when he says, " The underly-

156 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
The leading object of the Old Testament, that of revelation, does
_ ,, ,, not appear from isolated passages, but from the whole
Theleadlngob- rr , , . i /• •,
ject ol the Old of its development; and the present age, because ot its
rae\roughoui mania for investigating separate portions of the canon-
its contents, ical Scriptures, is less capable than its predecessor of
obtaining a comprehensive view of the Divine plan for educating
the race, such as was still possible to Lessing, Hess, Herder, Ha
mann, and Kleuker, though from different points of view. It
is to be hoped, however, that the constructive spirit of a coming
age may, assisted by such preparatory critical labours, be able to
erect the edifice of Old Testament theology with a more certain
hand and in a purer style than was possible to that earlier period
with its more limited historical horizon.' But for an understand
ing of the Old Testament a knowledge of the New is necessary, in
like manner as, on the other hand, the study of the former is impor
tant for the exposition of the latter (comp. sect. 2) ; and since it is
evident, as a general truth, that "the peculiar character of a people
can only be clearly recognized in the closing and crowning period
of its history," it follows that " Jesus Christ is to the understanding
of Israelitish history what Csesar Augustus is to the Roman.'""
SECTION V.
THE NEW TESTAMENT.
While the Old Testament covers a period embracing thousands
The New Test- °-^ years, the new is limited to a generation of men.
ament covers The Old is concerned with the training of a single na-
generation°^oi tion into the character of God's people; while the latter
men. treats of the unique personality of Jesus Christ as the
ing idea peculiar to Mosaism is precisely this, that Jehovah has connected himself
with Israel, and is not separate from the world and inaccessible, but lives and walks
among his people ; and every person who in true earnestness of soul has uttered the
Psalmist's cry, ' Whom have I in heaven but thee ? ' etc., knows also that the Lord is
no abstract being, but a most concrete God, and no philosophy will be able to destroy
the conclusion he has reached."
' A similar hope is expressed by Ebrard in his inaugural. Die Gottmenschlichkcit
des Christenthums (Zurich, 1844), p. lY, where he declares it to be one of the leading
tasks of the theology of our day " to follow out the Divinely human character cf Old
Testament revelation In the spirit of the immortal Herder."
' See Hofmann, Weissagung u. Erfiilling, i, p. 54. Comp. Havernick, Vorlesungen
iiber Theol. d. A. T., p. 18, " The statement may be truthfully made that Christ is the
central feature of the Old Testament, as being the earthly manifestation of personal,
concrete justice and love ; but the distinction must not be overlooked that in the Old
Testament Christ is not immediately presented, but indirectly, by means of occasional
symbols, actions, and words. Nor can the Old Testament be understood without
Christ. Such an attempt will end in reducing it from its proper elevation ; it becomes
a body without a head, disintegrating and destroying itself."

THE SCOPE OP THE NEW TESTAMENT. 15T
Son of God, and of the institution of a society founded on that
personality. The habit of confining the attention wholly to the connexion be
tween the Old and New Testaments, as though they The difference
were simply the two volumes of a single book, the '° '^® scope oi
r,- , , ° , ' the two Testae
Bible, has led to many erroneous conclusions.' The ments.
inquirer who desires merely quantity and variety of matter, will
certainly derive greater satisfaction from the Old Testament than
the New; for it will ever continue to be an important historical
book, a chronicle of the world and its nations, even to persons
who misapprehend its peculiar religious purpose. The New Testa
ment is not of this character. Its vision embraces but few nations
in its range, and is limited to Palestine, Asia Minor, Greece, and
Rome; and the student who desires information relating to those
nations or countries is able to consult authorities of a wholly dif
ferent kind. Every thing in it relates to the manifestation of a
single and wholly unique personality,'' and it offers but little to a
mind that lacks interest in this subject. No prominence is given
to great external events, for even the miracles, with few excep
tions, are of a mild and unimposing character ; but, next to the
person of the Redeemer himself, it is human characters that en-
, gage the attention, and more especially with reference to a defi
nite relation sustained by them to Christ.' The inner man, with
his capabilities and needs, with his subjection to sin and error —
from which he is to be delivered by an act of Divine love — the
Divine love itself, no longer directed upon a chosen nation, but, in
a human person, upon the entire race; the entrance of the Infinite
into the finite conditions of human life, which is conditioned by
the circumstances of nationality and time indeed, but none the less
is superior to such limitations; the might of a new spirit, which,
entering upon the arena of human history, transforms both nature
and conditions; the gathering of a community professing faith in
' Comp. the remark by Tholuck, cited in sect. 2 of this chap., note.
" " The peculiarities of form and contents of the New Testament become clearly
apparent when it is compared with these collections of sacred books (the Old Testament
and the Koran). The religious idea and the historical fact are here combined in the
sino-le phenomenon of ihe entrance of the Deity into human life. All the parts are
collected about a common centre, the historical manifestation of God in Christ. But
this unity is again resolved into-a rich diversity of points of view, from which the doc
trine is illustrated, of historical characters, whose moral beauty does not conceal the
stamp of individuality, and of historical situations, which serve to illustrate the appli
cation of Christian ideas to human life." Clausen, Hermeneutik, p. 28.
^ The Old Testament has, not improperly, been compared to the Iliad, and the New
to the Odyssey.

158 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
the crucified and risen Jesus; the regeneration of individuals into
the likeness of God, and of nations into an (ideal) people and king
dom of God— these form the kernel and the contents of the Gospel
proclamation. The substance of the proclamation is presented under the two
forms of history and doctrine, to which prophecy is appended,
Subdivisions of thus affording an analogy with the Old Testament, in
the New Testa- which a similar distinction between historical, prophet- ~
"octJmef'and ical, and didactic books has been observed ; but this
prophecy. analogy will not hold good in all respects. The dis
tinction between historical and didactic books is likewise faulty
when applied to details. The statement that the Gospels and
the book of Acts form the historical, the Pauline and the gen
eral epistles the didactic, and the Apocalypse the prophetical part,
must be modified by the consideration that didactic elements are
contained in the historical books of the New Testament (the dis-
cdurses of Jesus in the synoptical Gospels ' and John), that histor
ical matter is found in the. epistles (Gal. ii; 1 Cor. xi, 23-25; xv,
3-9, etc.), and that prophecies occur both in the Gospels (Matt.
xxiv) and the epistles (I Thess. v, I, etc.).
Questions relating to the collection of the New Testament
canon belong to the province of Introduction; but it is to be
observed, for the purpose of guarding against the adoption of
The Gospel at partial views, that the Gospel was at first proclaimed
flretprooiahned altogether by living agents and by means of oral
wards written, address ; that the introduction of writing was due
to the necessity of corresponding with distant Churches and in
dividuals, and that it is by reason of the references in them to
communities and individuals that the New Testament writings
acquire a peculiar interest, which, however, is speedily dissipated
by the application of over-hasty dogmatizing principles to their in
terpretation;" that the transmission of historical facts by oral tra-
' Matthew, Mark, and Luke, so called because their modes of presenting the sub
ject, though different, yet resemble each other in admitting of a ready synopsis, while
the fourth Gospel pursues an independent method.
' " An examination of these (New Testament) writings will reveal a feature in which
they differ from all other books that are accounted sacred. No trace of a formal and
solemnly declared revelation by God is indicated by their form, nor, with the single
exception of the Apocalypse, do they claim to have been written at the direct com
mand of God, which is the case in the Old Testament with the writings of Moses and
the prophets. The sacred books of other religions, e. g., the Koran, likewise claim to
be Divine revelations immediately given from heaven. Had it been intended to make
such a book the basis of the Christian commonwealth, no person would have possessed
more absolute iiualitication and authority to compose it than Jesus Christ himself ; but

AUXILIARIES OP EXEGESIS. 159
dition preceded- their circulation in a written form; that the agree
ments and disagreements of the different records with each other
are founded in the circumstances of their origin, and must be ex
plained in harmony with human reason and by scientific methods;
and finally, that the several books composing the New Testament
were not all admitted to the canon and comprehended The New Test^
into a whole at the same time, but that they were °''"®^' '^""'J
' -f not formed at
gradually received (evayyektov, dnoaTokog), opinion be- onetime.
ing in the meantune undecided with regard to the canonicity of
certain of them {dvTtkeyoneva). While admitting such facts, how
ever, it must not be supposed on the other hand, that the canon is
simply an accidental aggregation. It is rather to be regarded as
necessarily determined by its own internal character and so received
by the Church, and as carrying a great idea through the whole of
its empirical form, so that the beginning and the end are linked to
gether like the ends of a chain, Genesis opening with the beginning
of all things and the Apocalypse closing with the end of the world.
The structure of the canon must be examined with an independent
spirit rather than with a mind controlled by any pedantic method;
a principle that should be applied also to the (not chronological)
arrangement of the Prophets and Epistles, and to the seemingly
abrupt transitions from one book to another.'
SECTION VL
SCIENCES AUXILIARY TO EXEGESIS.
Exegetical theology requires, as necessary aids : —
I. A knowledge of the original languages of the Scriptures (phi-
lologia sacra) ; „,,. ^ „
A - -11 • i-iTi-i ^^^ ^™ auxll-
2. An acquaintance with the sciences which deal with jary sciences.
he has not done this. He has chosen instead to deposit with a number of living per
sons the life which he was empowered to convey ; and these persons were likewise not
commissioned nor did they assume to give a written documentary form to the subject
they were to announce to men. They confined themselves to the living word in the
, effort to gather a people, among whom that word should become power, life, and real
ity. The force of circumstances afterward led them to make use of writing, and even
then it was because special conditions and occurrences required attention which could
not be given in person, because the distance between the parties prevented other than
written intercourse," etc. Chr. Hoffmann, Das Christenthum in d. ersten Jahrhun
derten (Stuttgart, 1853), p. 194. Comp. H. Schultz, p. 54.
' The artistic mind of Herder discovered the right principle, here as elsewhere. " I
cannot express the value at which I rate several of the most sharply contrasting books,
all of which are placed together. The three books of Solomon following after the
Psalms, the Psalms after Job, love's tender dove after the bird of wisdom, and in imme
diate succession Isaiah, the eagle, mounting upward to the sun. Here is instruction,
here is human life." Solomo's Lieder der Liebe (AVerke zur Rel. u. Theol., vii, p. 102).

160 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
facts that come into question (Biblical antiquities, geography, phys-
ica sacra) ;
3. A knowledge of the origin and fortunes of the canon and its
parts (Isagogics, Canon).
To these positive, historical, and philological sciences must be
joined an acquaintance : —
1. With the laws which determine the canonicity and authentic
ity of a book as a whole, and also the perfect preservation of the
text in its several parts (integrity) — the science of criticism.
2. With the rules of interpretation — hermeneutics.
The above order of arrangement is founded in methodological
Reasonst rthi ^^^^o^^^- ^^ may be thought that Introduction should
orderof sucees- properly precede all else ; but practice in reading the
Scriptures, involving a knowledge of the languages in
which they were written, is necessary to success in the study of that
branch. A knowledge of physical and historical facts is also re
quired, even though it be limited, at first, to such archseological
notes as the lexicons afford, and its full development into a scientific
character be reserved for a later stage, in connexion with the study
of historical theology. Lectures on Introduction having reference
to the canon as a whole, will possess a proper interest only for
students who have become familiar with separate books of the
Bible, in the way of philological and archseological study; and
a thorough comprehension of the laws of Criticism and Hermeneu
tics is possible to him only who has, to some estent, been engaged
in the work of interpretation. SECTION VH,
THE ORIGINAL LANGUAGES OF THE BIBLE.
The Old Testament Scriptures were originally written in the He
brew language, with the exception of a few sections which were
written in Chaldee. The New Testament Scriptures were written
in Hellenistic Greek.
Chaldee sections, Dan. ii, 4 to the end of vii ; Ezra iv, 8 ; vi, 18 ;
vii, 12-26 ; Jer. x, II.'
It may be regarded as generally conceded that the Greek, and
not the Aramsean, as Bolten and Bertholdt argued, is the original
language of the New Testament; but opinions are still divided
on the question of the original form of the Gospel by St.
Matthew. '^ Concerning the Biblical Chaldee comp. L. Hirzel, De Chaldaismi Bibliciorigine, etc.,
Leips., 1830, 4to. ; F, Dietrich, De Sermonis Chaldaici proprietate, Leips., 1839.

CHARACTER OF THE HEBREW LANGUAGE. 161
SECTION VIIL
THE HEBREW LANGUAGE.
J, J. Wagner, Wlehtlgkelt d. Heb. Sprache Iflr Tlieologen, Bamb. and Wiirzburg, 1806;
W. M. L. de Wette, Auflorderung zum. Stud, der Hebr. Spr. u. Literatur, Jena, 1806 ; W. M.'
Thomson, The Physical Basis of Our Spiritual Language, Bib. Sacra., vol. xxlx, pp. 1-22,
and vol. xxx, pp. 26-187 ; G. H. Whlttemore, Hebrew Language and Lexicography, Bib. Sacra.!
vol. xxlx, pp. 547-553; Articles on Hebrew Language In Kltto's and M'Clintock & Strong's
Cyclopaedias. A knowledge of the Hebrew language is indispensable to the
theologian, not only for the study of the Old Testament, but also
for the New : The necessity
I. Because the New Testament idiom is-partiallv ofaknowiedge
^ •' of Hebrew and
based on that language. the reasons.
2. Because much that is there given in the Greek was original
ly conceived and expressed in the kindred Aramsean dialect, and
accordingly derives its colouring, in different degrees, from that
source. On the word " Hebrew" (whether derived from inr, the ancestor
of Abraham), see the introductions to the grammars of Gesenius
and Ewald. The phrase " Hebrew language " is not found in the
Old Test., the "language of Canaan," Isa. xix, 18, and "Jews' lan
guage," Isa. xxxvi, II, 13, being used instead. The latter expres
sion, however, denotes more particularly the Hebrew dialect spoken
in the kingdom of Judah and in the vicinity of Jerusalem. The
New Testament has the expressions yXibaaa twv 'E/Jpatwv and k0pa-
'ian, John v, 2 ; xix, 13, but as designating the Aramaic vernacular,
in distinction from the Greek.
The Hebrew language possesses a peculiar interest for the pur
poses of pure knowledge alone ; but it engages the at- characteristics
tention of the philologist only as it is a member of °' Hebrew.
the larger family of languages known as the Semitic.^ The for-
' This term has come into use since the days of Schlozer and Eichhom, as
being more thoroughly descriptive than Jerome's phrase, "the Oriental languages."
The latter embraces the entire East, while the Semitic languages are indigenous to
hither Asia, and confined to Palestine, Syria, Phoenicia, Mesopotamia, Babylonia, Ara
bia, and Ethiopia. They are divided into three principal branches, 1. The Aramaean
(Syria, Mesopotamia, and Babylonia), subdivided into West and East Aramaic (Syriac
and Chaldee); 2. The Hebrew (Palestine and Phoenicia) from which the Punic was
derived ; 3. The Arabic, with which the Ethiopic is a cognate branch. The Samaritan
was a mixture of Hebrew and Aramsean. It has been found, however, that the term
Semitic is likewise neither sufficiently exact nor exhaustive (comp. Gesenius, Gesch.
d. Hebr. Sprache u. Schrift, p. 6), and some writers (e. g., Havernick, Einl., i, 1, p. 93)
have again adopted the term "Oriental." Recent authors have suggested that "hith
er-Asiatic" or "Syro-Arabio" be substituted for either, to designate this family of
Iangua''e3. J. G. Miiller (wer sind die Semiten u. mit welchem Recht spricht man von
°11

163 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
mation and character of this language, so essentially unlike Greek
and Latin, its being written from right to left, its wealth in
guttural letters, the facts that, strictly speaking, it has but three
leading vowels, and that the root-word is usually a verb and is ab
most invariably composed of three consonants, its peculiar modes of
conjugation, of forming cases, etc., and its simple syntax, are feat
ures which impart to it a special charm,' but also to some extent,
increase its difficult character. A knowledge of Hebrew is conceded
to be necessary for the interpretation of the Old Testament ; but it
is likewise indispensable to the exegesis of the New, for the reasons:
A knowied 3 1- That en tire sections (citations) from the Old Testament
of Hebrew in- can Only be properly understood after being compared
tb?eSso°f with the original; 2. That the New Testament itself, to
the New Testa- use Luther's expression, " is full of the Hebrew mode of
"*°'' speaking; " ' that though the number of assumed Hebra
isms has been greatly reduced since Winer's thorough investiga
tions, the significations of New Testament words and their combina
tions are largely to be explained from the Hebrew (e. g., the words
C7dpf, Kapdia, anXdyxva,, anXayxvi^eadai, ff/iepfia, and the phrases trpdao)-
¦nov Xaiifidveiv, TrpoauTrov wpdf TrpoacoTtov, kvumov tov deov, etc.) ; 3. That
expressions in the discourses of our Lord, as given in the Greek text
of the Gospels, need to be translated back into the Aramasan dialect
then current among that people, in order to be correctly understood —
a principle that is not sufiiciently regarded, the ordinary method in
New Testament exegesis being to ascertain simply the Greek ety
mon. It appears from the above that a knowledge of Hebrew is
Semit. Sprachen? Basle, 1860, 4to.) returns to the expression, "language of Canaan,"
and accordingly regards the Hebrew as a Hamitic language ; but he observes that
"however evident the matter maybe, the term Semitic has become too thoroughly
established in the learned and cultivated world to be easily set aside."
¦ " Injucundum videtur idioma latino fastui et graecanicae effeminationi, sed idioma
est et sanctum et sacris Uteris necessarium maxime, cujus ignoratio multas haereses et
errores invexit." Oecolampadius Hedioni (Epp. Oecol. et Zwinglii, Basle, 1536, sq)
fol. ^2. " The Hebrew language is full of the soul's breath; it does not resound,
like the Greek, but it breathes, it lives." Herder, Geist, d. hebr. Poesie, i, p. 28.
With reference to the relation of the Semitic languages to those of the Indo-Ger-
manic (Aryan) nations, see Bertheau, p. 613, and also with regard to their relation to
the later, so-called rabbinical, Hebrew.
' " It has therefore been justly said that the Hebrews drink at the fountainhead,
the Greeks from the streamlets that issue from the fountain, but the Latins from the
puddles. The Hebrew is the best and purest language ; it does not beg, and wears its
own colours. It is more simple, indeed, than others, but majestic and glorious, direct
and of few words, which, however, involve much that is below the surface; so that
none other is capable of imitating it." Comp. Herder's Briefe das Stud, der TheoL
betreffend, iv, p. 144.

HISTORY OF HEBREW LEARNING. 163
an indispensable qualification for the theologian ; but it does not
follow, as certain of the older writers imagined, that a good He
braist must necessarily be a good theologian.' The terminology of
Christianity is clearly not confined within the limits of the Hebrew
tongue ; and as Christianity itself has grown beyond the Old Testa
ment Judaism, so it has developed a new language for its own use,
and has infused a new spirit into Hebraistic forms, which a defunct
Hebraism cannot explain, for which the Hebrew simply affords a
basis, and which must- be wholly apprehended from its own idea.
SECTION IX.
HISTORICAL SKETCH OP THE STUDY OF HEBREW.
The older theology held that the Hebrew was the primitive
language, the sacred language employed by God and The study ol
the angels, which existed alone until others were added ^veraTages'oi
in the confusion of tongues at Babel." Recent in- the church.
quiries have shown that the Hebrew language was not perfected
before the time of David, and have given rise to different opin
ions concerning the language of the Canaanitish and Phoenician
tribes that occupied Palestine before the immigration of the
Abrahamidse. The importance of the Hebrew language for the
Christian theologian, so generally conceded in our day, was not
always recognized. The primitive Christians generally made use
of versions, particularly the Alexandrian by the LXX. Origen and
Jerome (the latter especially) were distinguished for their knowledge
of Hebrew, while Augustine was deficient in this regard. During
the middle ages Hebrew was almost wholly neglected by Christians ;
though a learned acquaintance with the language was preserved to
some extent, after it ceased to be a spoken tongue, among the Jews
(Talmudists, Masorites). The school of Tiberias was especially
• famous ; and Jerome among others, was instructed by Palestinian
Jews. The Alexandrians, however, devoted less atten- ^ ^^ ^^_
tion to the ancient language of their people (Philo). Be- brew in the
tween the eighth and ninth centuries grammatical stud- '^'^'^^^ ^^^'¦
ies were greatly neglected by the Jews likewise, until they were
revived by the Spanish Jews (in the time of the Moorish suprem-
' Wliile Luther strongly recommends the study of the Hebrew, he yet writes (against
Erasmus, who prided himself on his knowledge of languages), " Vides, quod non ideo
quispiam sit Christianus vere sapiens, quia Graecus sit et Hebraeus, quando et beatus
Hieronymus quinque Unguis monoglosson Augustinum non adaequarit " — to J.' Lange,
in de Wette, Briefe, Sendsohreiben, etc., i. No. 29, p. 52.
' This view has been defended in recent times by Father Hy. Gossler, in Die heil.
Schrift in ihrer Ursprache (Lippstadt, 1850). The author asserts that "no accurate
Hebrew grammar can be found outside the (Roman CathoUc) Church ! " — P. 16.

164 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYOLOPiEDIA.
acy). The twelfth century produced a number of prominent rab
bins, among others David Kimchi.
The knowledge of Hebrew among Christians was renewed by the
aid of Jewish teachers. At the close of the fifteenth and the begin
ning of the sixteenth centuries Ellas Levita, by birth a German Jew,
was teaching in Italy, where his doctrine of the modern origin of
the vowel signs in Hebrew drew upon him persecution from his co-re
ligionists, though Christians also regarded his teaching as heretical.
Such prejudices were not favourable to impartial grammatical stud
ies. The renewed study of Hebrew in the Christian world, however,
with which the Reformation is (partially) involved, is closely con
nected with the 80-called renaissance of learning. Nicholas Lyra,
in the fourteenth century, applied his limited knowledge of He-
Reuchiin the ^""^^ *° *^^ interpretation of the Scriptures ; but the
restorer of He- proper impulse was given by Reuchlin, who must be
brew learning. coiigi(jei.ed the restorer of the study of Hebrew among
Christians. His three books De Rudimentis Hebraicis, prefaced by
the Exegi monumentum acre perennius of Horace, appeared in the
year 1506. He was followed by J. Boschenstein, Seb. Mtlnster (f in
1552), the two Buxtorfs. John B.," the elder, professor at Basle from
I59I, (f 1629,) wrote a Thesaurus linguse sacrse, a grammar, 1605, and
a lexicon Hebr. et Chald., Basle, 1607 ; John B., the younger, (f I6d6),
disputed on the age of the vowel-signs at Saumur with Louis Capel-
lus. They were succeeded by Drusius (f 1616), Schickard (f 1635),
Glassius (f 1666), Vorstius (f 1676). In the middle of the seven
teenth century the method cf the demonstrative philosophy, corre
sponding to the scholastic temper of the time, came into promi
nence, being represented more especially by Danz (1696) in Ger
many and by Jac. Alting (f 1679) in the Netherlands. A new influ
ence was exerted by Albert Schultens at Franecker and Leyden
(f 1750), who consultedthe Arabic and traced Hebrew words back to
Arabic roots, but carried the method to excess. About the mid
dle of the eighteenth century J. D. Michaelis prosecuted the
study of Oriental languages over a broader field and aroused an
interest in others also for such pursuits. Gesenius (f 1842), hav
ing been preceded by Hezel (1777), Vater (I797-I8I4) and Weck-
herlin (1191, sqq.), was the first to adopt a settled and clear method,
which still has decided adherents, though a more systematic mode,
based on the nature of the language and complete in itself j has been
attempted particularly by Ewald. This latter scholar has brought
to the study of Hebrew philosophical analysis, and a wide compar
ison of kindred languages.
The first great English lexicographer of Hebrew and its cognate

PIELPS TO THE STUDY OF HEBREW. 165
languages was Edmund Castell. He published his Lexicon Hepta-
glotton in two volumes folio, London, 1669. A Hebrew, Chaldee,
and English Lexicon was published (London, 1840) by Samuel Lee,
Professor of Arabic in the University of Cambridge. This import
ant work is quoted with approbation by Gesenius. The Hebrew
Lexicon of Gesenius has been translated into English and repub
lished in England and America. The edition by Dr. Robinson
(Boston, 1836, and subsequently) is considered "the best full He
brew Lexicon extant in our language." The compendious Hebrew
and Chaldee Lexicon of Davies has been revised and republished
by Dr. Edward C. Mitchell, of Chicago (Andover, 1859). Flirst's
Hebraisches und Chaldaisches Handwortei'buch iiber das Alte Testa
ment has been edited in English by Dr. S. Davidson (London, 1867).
Professor Moses Stuart, of Andover, Mass., published m I82I a He
brew Grammar, with a copious Syntax and Praxis (Andover, octavo).
Isaac Nordheimer, Professor of Hebrew in the University of New
York, published a Hebrew Gramniar distinguished for its jDhilo-
sophical treatment of the subject (1838, 1842, 2 vols., Svo). Pro
fessor Lee is also the author of a Grammar of the Hebrew Language
([London, 3d ed., 1841). The Hebrew Grammar of Horwitz (Lon
don, 1835) is well approved by scholars. The Hebrew Grammar of
Gesenius, on the basis of the revisions of Rodiger, Kautz-sch, and
Davies, has been issued by Dr. Edward C. Mitchell (Andover, 1880).
Professor W. H. Green, of Princeton, is the author of an excellent
Hebrew Grammar (3d ed.. New York, 1876).

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE.
1. Hebrew Grammars and Chrestomathies.
Ball, C. J. The Merchant Taylor's Hebrew Grammar. The Formal Principles of
Hebrew Grammar, as understood by modern Scientists, stated in a manner suited
to beginners. 8vo. London, 1882.
Bickel, Gustavus. Outlines of Hebrew Orammar. Revised by the author and An
notated by the translator, S. I. Curtlss, .Ir. Leipzig, 1877.
Bissell, Edward Cone. A Practical Introductory Hebrew Grammar. Svo, pp. 134.
Hartford. 1891. (A principal aim of this work, according to the author, has
been to furnish the student, while engaged in the study of the grammar, a suffi
cient vocabulary to enable him on finishing it to read the historical books of
the Bible at sight.)
Bowman, T. A New, Easy, and Complete Hebrew Course; containing a Hebrew
Grammar with copious Hebrew and English Exercises strictly graduated; also
a Hebrew-English and an English-Hebrew Lexicon, designed for the purpose of
self-lnstrnotion as well as for use in Schools and Colleges. In two Parts.
Part I, Regular Verbs. Svo, pp. 208. Part II, Irregular Verbs. Svo, pp. 423.
Edinburgh, 1882.

166 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
Craik, Henry. Principia Hebraica. The Principles of Hebrew Grammar. In 24
large folio Tables. Folio. London, 1882.
Crawford, F. J. Horas Hebraiose. 16mo, pp. 191. London, 1868. (Hebrew pre
fixes.)
Davidson, Andrew Bruce. Introductory Hebrew Grammar. 4th ed., Svo, pp. viii, 198.
Edinburgh, 1880.
Davies, Beiijiimin. Gpsenius's Hebrew Grammar. Translated from Rbdiger's Edi
tion. Thoroughly Revised and Enlarged (1883), on the Basis of the Latest Edi-,
tion of Prof. B. Kaulzscli, D.D., and from other recent Authorities, by Edward
C. MItcheU, D.D. With full Subject, Scripture, and Hebrew ludexes. Svo.
Andover.
Deutsch, Solomon. A Key to the Pentateuch Explanatory of the Text and the
Grammatical Forms. Part I. Genesis. Svo. New York, 1871.
Deutsch, Solomon. A New Practical Hebrew Grammar, with Hebrew-English and
English-Hebrew Exercises, and a Hebrew Chrestomatliy. Svo. New York,
1868.
Driver, S. R. A Treatise of the Tenses in Hebrew and some Other Syntactical Ques
tions. 2d ed. Oxford, 1881.
Ewald, Heinrich. Introductory Hebrew Grammar. Translated by J. F. Smith.
Svo, pp. 279. London, 1870.
Ewald, Heinrich. Syntax of the Hebrew Language of tlie Old Testament. From
the Stii German ed. Svo, pp. viii, 32.S. Edinburgh, 1879.
Green, W. H. Elemeutary Hebrew Grammar. 12mo, pp. viii, 194. 2d rev. ed.
New York, 1872. (New edition, thorouglily corrected, 1890.)
Green, W. H. A Hebrew Chrestomatliy, or Le-sons in Reading and Writing Hebrew.
Svo, pp. vi, 261. New York, 1866.
Harper, W. R. Elements df Hebrew by an Inductive Method. 6th ed. Rewritten.
Chicago 1885. (Part I treats of Ortliography; Part II, of Etymology; then
follow Paradigms.)
Harper, W. R. Inlroductoiy Hebrew Method and Manual. 2d ed. Rewritten.
phicago, 3 885. (The method of this book is Inductive; the reading lessons are
from Genesis, cliaps. i-vill.)
Jones, A. D. The Elements of the Hebrew Language. Svo, pp. 163. Andover.
Kallsch, M. M. A Hebiew Grammar with Exercises. In two Parts. Svo, pp. xv,
374, and xvi, 324. London, 1862-63.
Kennedy, .Tames. Introduction to Biblical Hebrew, presenting graduated instruc
tion in the Language of the Old Testament. Svo. London, 1888.
Leathes, Stanley. Practical Hebrew Grammar, witli the Hebrew Text of Genesis
i-vi, and Psalms i-vi. Grammatical Analysis and Vocabulary. Post Svo.
London, 1868.
Mitchell, Alexander. The Book of Jonah. Analyzed, Translated, and the Accents
named ; being an Easy Introduction to the Hebrew Language. Svo. London,
1882.
Mitchell, Edward C. A Concise Statement of the Principles of Hebrew Grammar.
For the Use of Teachers. Svo, paper. Andover.
Mitchell, Edward C. Hebrew Introduction. An Elementary Hebrew Grammar and
Reading Book. Containing, I. Grammatical Notes; II. Exercises in Reading
Hebrew; HI. Selections from Scripture, with Notes ; IV. Tables of Paradigms.
Svo. Andover.
Mitchell, H. G. Hebrew Lessons. A book for beginners. Square 12mo, pp. 164.
Boston, 1884. (These lessons comprise the most common words of the

HELPS TO THE STUDY OP HEBREW. 167
language, and are supplemented by selections from the historical books of the
Bible.)
Miiller, August. Outlines of Hebrew Syntax. Translated and Edited by James
Robertson, M.A., D.D., Professor of Oriental Languages in the University of
Glasgow. Svo. Glasgow, 1882. (Dr. Robertson has given an excellent trans
lation of the original, which appeared in 1878. He has also added copious
Indexes.)
Nordheimer, Isaac. A Critical Gram;nar of the Hebreiv Language. 2 vols., Svo,
pp. 212, 379. New Yori<, 1842.
Nordheimer, Isaac. A Grammatical Analysis of Selections from the Hebrew Scrip
tures, with an Exercise in Hebrew Composition. Svo, pp. xii, MS. New
York, 1838.
Strong, James. Epitome of Hebrew Gramniar. Svo, pp. 80. Published by the Au
thor, at Madison, N. J., 1875.
Stuart, Moses. Course of Hebrew Study for Beginners. - Vol. II. Boards. Andover
1830. '
The Study of the Ht-brew Vowel Points. Parts I, II. A series of Exercises in
very large Hebrew type, printed upon writing paper, witli space between the
lines for tlie addition in manuscript of Vowel Points and Accents. 4to. Lon
don, 1882.
Tregelles, Samuel P. Heads of Hebrew Grammar. Fp. Svo, pp. viii, 126. London,
1852.
Tregelles, Samuel P. Hebrew Reading Lessons. Svo, pp. vi, 70. London.
Vibbert, W. H. A Guide to Reading the Hebrew Texts; for the Use of Begiuners.
12mo, pp. viii, 67. Andover, 1852.
Wolf J. R. A Practical Hebrew Grammar. Svo, pp. xiv, 204. London, 1852.
2. Hebrew Lexicons.
Brown, Francis ; Driver, S. R. ; Briggs, Charies A. A Hebrew and English Lexicon
of the Old Testament. Based on the Lexicon of Gesenius, as translated by Ed
ward Robinson. Part I. Svo, pp. 80. Boston and New York, 1891.
Davidson, B. The Analytical Hebrew and Clialdee Lexicon, consisting of au Alpha
betical Arrangement of every Word and Inflection contained in the Old Testa
ment Scriptures, precisely as they occur in the Sacred Text. 2d ed., 4to, pp.
877. London, 1882.
Davies, Benjamin. A Compendious and Complete Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon to
the Old Testament; wilh an English-Hebrew Index. Carefully revised by E.
C. Mitchell. Svo, pp. xxxii, 752. Andover, 1879.
Fuerst, Julius. A Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon to the Old Testament. 3d ed.
Improved and Enlarjred. Transhited by Samuel Davidson, D.D. Royal Svo,
pp.1547. London, 18C7. Improved and enlarged, 1871.
Gesenius, William. Hebrew Lexicon. Translated and edited, with Additions and
Corrections, by S. P. Tregelles. 4to. London, 1846-52.
Ge-enlus, William. A Hebrew and English Lexicon to the Old Testament, includ
ing the Biblical Chaldee. Translated by Edward Robinson. 20tli ed., Svo, pp.
ix, 1160. New York.
Harper, W. R. Hebrew Vocabularies. Svo, pp. 125. Chicago, 1882. (The object
of this book is to enable the student to acquire quickly a sufBoient Hebrew
vocabulary for working purposes. Part I contains a list of verbs occurrlno-
25-5000 times, arranged in five subdivisions. Part II, nouns occurring
25-5000 times. Part III, verbs occurring 25-5000 times acoordino- to tlieir

103 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
signification. Part IV, nouns arranged according to their signifioatlun.
Part V, Prepositions, Adverbs, Conjunctions, and Interjections. Part VI,
Enghsli words, with their most common Hebrew equivalents.)
Hellmuth, J. Biblical Thesaurus; or, A Literal Translation and Critical Analysis of
every Word In the Oiigiual Languages of the Old Testament, with Explanatory
Notes in Appendices. London, 1884.
Potter, Jos. L. An English-Hebrew Lexicon, being a complete Vferbal Index to
Gesenius's Hebrew Lexicon, as Translated by Prof. Edward Robinson. Svo.
Boston, 1872.
Robinson, Edward. A Hebrew and Englisli Lexicon of the Old Testament, includ
ing the Biblical Chaldee. From the Latin of William Gesenius, with correc
tions and large additions, partly furnished by the author in manuscript and
partly condensed from his larger Thesaurus. 3d ed. Boston, 1849.
Wilson, William. An Englisli-Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon and Concordance, by
Reference to the Original Hebrew. 2d ed. Carefully revised. 4to. London,
1866. 3. Other Semitic Languages.
Berlin, George. Abridged Grammars of the Languages of the Cuneiform Inscrip
tions. 12mo, pp. 116. London, no date. (Contains a Sumero-Akkadian Gram
mar; also Assy ro- Babylonian, Vannic, Medic, and Persian Grammars.)
Birch, S. Egyptian Texts. Svo, pp. vi. 111. London, 1877. (Part I contains texts
transliterated and translated; Part II, texts transliterated.)
Clarke, John C. C. The Origin and Varieties of the Semitic Alphabet, with Speci
mens. 2d ed. Svo, pp. 18, with an addendum of twenty tables. Chicago,
1884. (An historical study, originally published in the Bibliotheca Sacra of
1874, under the title of History in Alphabets.)
Cowper, B. Harris. The Principles of Syriac Grammar. Translated and Abridged
from the work of HofEmann. London, 1858.
Delitzsch, Friediicli. Tlie Hebrew Language Viewed in the Light of Assyrian Re
search. Svo, pp. 71. London, 1883.
Delitzsch, Friedrich. Assyrian Grammar, with Paradigms, Exercises, Glossary, and
Bibliography. Translated by A. R. S. Kennedy, B.D. 12mo, pp. 366. Lon
don and New York, 18S9. (The Introduction gives a short history of the As
syrian excavations and of the deciphering of the inscriptions; the following
sections to page 61 treat of the written characters ; then follow in order the Assyr
ian Phonology, Morphology, and Syntax. A Chrestomatby, Glossary, and a
Literature of Assyrlology complete the book.)
Luzzatto, S. D. Grammar of the Biblical Chaldaie Language and the Talmud Babli
Idioms. Translated from the Italian, and largely renewed by J. S. Goldam-
mer. New York, 1876.
Renouf. P. Le Page. An Elementary Grammar of the Ancient Egyptian Language,
in the Hieroglyphic Type. Svo, pp. iv, 66. London, 1875.
Riggs, Ellas. A Manual of the Chaldee Language, containing a Chaldee Grammar,
chiefly from the German of G. B. Winer; a Chrestomatby consisting of selec
tions from the Targums, and including Notes on the Biblical Chaldee. 4th ed.
New York, 1858.
Sayce, A. H. An Assyrian Grammar for Comparative Purposes. 12mo, pp xvi,
188. London, 1872. (In this book the cuneiform characters are transliterated
into Roman. It Is more descriptive than analytical.)
Sayce, A. H. An Elementary Grammar with full Sylliibary, and Progressive Read
ing Book of the Assyrian Language, in the Cuneiform Type. 2d ed. Svo, pp.

HELPS TO THE STUDY OF HEBREW. 169
xvi, 131. London, 1875; 2d ed. without date. (The flrst forty-eight pages
of this book are given to the Syllabary; then follows an account of the As
syrian nouns, numerals, pronouns, verbs, prepositions, and conjunctions. Ap
pended are reading lessons, analyzed by the author.)
Sayce, A. H. Babylonian Literature. Lectures delivered at the Royal Institution.
12mo, pp. 86. Svo. London, 1877.
Sayce, A. H. Lectures on the Assyrian Language and Syllabary. Svo, pp. viii,
157. London, 1877. (The topics treated in these Lectures are the Syllabary,
Assyrian Phonology, the Pronoun, the Verb, Assyrian Syntax, Affinities of
Assyrian, and the Origin of Semitic Culture.
Schrader, Eberhard. The Cuneiform Inscriptions and the Old Testament. Trans
lated (with Additions and Corrections) from the Second German Edition, wilh
an Introductory Preface by Rev. 0. C. Whltehouse, M.A. London. (Deals
separately with every passage capable of illustration from tlie cuneiform in
scriptions.)
Smith, George. History of Sennacherib. Translated from the Cuneiform Inscrip
tions. Edited by A. H. Sayce. Quarto, pp. 182. London, 1878.
Smith, R. Payne. Thesaurus Syriiicus. Oxonii e typographeo Clarendoniano,
Fol. 1868-83. (Six Fasciculi as far as page 2256 have been published. Will
be completed in two vols. Fasciculi I to V make the first vol.)
For other works on the Semitic dialects, see note at foot of page 170.
THE EEMAINING SEMITIC DIALECTS.
A familiar acquaintance with other Semitic languages is neces
sary for a learned examination of the Hebrew, and for the exposi
tion of certain parts of the Old Testament, and is useful in many
respects to the New Testament exegete and the scientific theolo
gian; but it cannot be required that every Christian theologian, as
such, should possess it to its full extent.
On the importance of treating the Hebrew in connexion with
other Semitic dialects compare the preceding section. ^ knowledge
At this point, however, scientific philology must serve of the chaidee,
the purposes of theology; and for such purposes a thor- awc^s^fui to
ough acquaintance with the Hebrew, as facilitated by the theologian.
the lexical and grammatical labors of other minds, is fully adequate.'
There always will and must be individuals whose inclinations and
talents will urge them onward in the path of inquiry; but here
again " one thing will not do for all," and it is certainly more de
sirable that a definite knowledge of the Hebrew be secured than
that too many studies be engaged in at the same time. The chief
interest for Old Testament exegesis attaches to the Chaldee, which,
however, has been incorporated with Hebrew lexicology (by Ge-
' Tlie Christian theologian cannot choose otherwise than to make Christianity the
central object of his studies. This Is historically rooted in the Bast (though we
should scarcely term it a purely Oriental phenomenon); but its true home and de
velopment have been found in the West.

170 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
senius), in so far as it enters into the language of the Bible. The
Syriac is useful for the study of the Syriac version (the Peshito), .
and also for New Testament exegesis, besides being an available
help for the Church historian (comp. Ecclesiastical philology, infra).
This applies also to the Arabic, aside from its philological value for
comparison with the Hebrew. In this way, however, the circle
might be infinitely extended, for it cannot be denied that, on the
one hand the Rabbinical, on the other the Oriental languages in their
further manifestations through the Indian (Sanscrit and Prakrit),
the Old Persic (Zend-language), the Chinese, etc., will also yield
fruit which possesses value. Our concern is, however, primarily
with what may be justly required, and this is and must continue to
be the Hebrew,' together with the language of the New Testament
originals. SECTION X.
THE HELLENISTIC-GEEEK LANGUAGE — THE ORIGINAL LANGUAGE OF
THE NEW TESTAMENT SCKIPTUEES.
E. Eeuss, articles flellenlsten und Hellenlstisches Idiom In Herzog's Encykl., v, p. 701, sgg.
While an acquaintance with Hebrew is requisite for the study of
the Old Testament and also of the New, it is yet not sufficient, even
' Comp. Schleiermacher, Darstellung, etc., § 131. With regard to the necessary
aids for the study of the Chaldee, Syriac, and Arabic comp. Danz, Encykl, p. 184-190,
and Winer, Handbuch der theol. Lit. p. 124, sg. (2 ed., 1838^0; 3d ed., 1842). Val
uable aids for the study of the Syriac are, the grammars by Uhlemaiin (Berlin, 1829
2d ed., 1857) and A. G. HofEmann (Halle, 1827; revised ed. by A. Merx, ibid., 1867),
and the chrestomathies by Roediger (Halle, 1838) and Kirsch (publ. by Bernstein
Leips., 1836-41); for the Samaritan, Uhlemann (Leips., 1837); for the Chaldee Bux-
torf (Lexicon chald., etc., Leips., 1866), Levy (Chald. Worterbuch, 2 parts, Leips.,
1867-68), Winer, Grammatik (2d ed., Leips., 1842) and Lesebuch (1825, 2d ed., 1864),
Jul. Fuerst, (Leips., 1835, 2d ed., 1864), Luzzatto (Elementi grammaticali, Padova,
1865, German by Kriiger, Breslau, 1873), and the chrestomatby by Kaerle, 1852; for
the Arabic, Tychsen (Gott., 1823), Ewald (Leips., 1831 and 18S3), Schier (Grammaire
Arabe, Paris, 1849), C. P. Caspari (Leips., 1859), Freytag's Arabic-Latin Lexicon
abridged ed. for beginners, (Halle, 1837, 4to.) and the chrestomathies by Kosegarten
(Leips., 1828) and Arnold (Halle, 1853)/, for the Phoenician, Schroder, Die Phonicische
Sprache (Halle, 1869); for the Coptic, the grammars by Schwartz (1860) and Uhle
mann (Leips., 1853.) On the Semitic languages generally see Ernst Renan, HIstoire
gfeerale et systdme compart des langues Sfaiitiques, Paris, 1855, 2d ed., 1863, vol. i.
Other works are: Longfield, Introduction to Chaldee (London, 1859); Riggs, Man
ual of the Chaldee Language (New York, 1858); Davidson, Analytical Hebrew and
Chaldee Lexicon (London and New York) ; Uhleman, Syriac Grammar, translated by
Hutchinson (New York) ; Henderson, Syriac Lexicon to the New Testament (London
and New York) ; Nichols, Samaritan Grammar, (London and New York) ; Catafego,
Arabic Dictionary (London and New York) ; Wright, Arabic Grammar (London and
New York). All of Bagster's Elementary Arabic, Chaldee, Samaritan, and Syriac
books are useful.

THE EXPOSITORS OF HELLENISTIC GREEK. 171
when supplementing a knowledge of classical Greek, to meet the
demands of the New Testament exegete, whose work requires in ad
dition that attention should be given to the elements of language
which mediate between the two and upon which the phraseolvjgy of
the New Testament is based.
The New Testament was written in Greek ; but it is now gener-
The ianguai;e ally conceded that the language of its authors is not pure
Tesfament'^not Gr^'^ek in either a lexical or grammatical view.' This,
pure Greek. however, is merely a negative statement ; and the mere
collecting of Hebrew fragments yields no profitable result. The
recognition of the Hebraistic character of the language of the New
Testament would naturally cause many expressions, such as a " con
suming fire," a " child of death," etc., to be explained as Hebraisms,
which occur in all languages as figurative forms of speech. The
"essential thing required is that the transition from the Hebrew to
the Greek (from the Oriental to the Occidental) mode of thought
and speech be clearly apprehended, a subject which directs attention
to the Alexandrian period as being the point of transition between
The New Tes- the East and the West. The ordinary Greek (koivtj)
fZa\u^tbe of ^^^ later periods forms the basis of New Testament
later Greek. idiom, which, bovjrever, receives a peculiar colouring
from the admixture of Jewish-Hellenistic elements, for which
reason it will be found profitable to study especially the Alex
andrian version of the Old Testament (the LXX), the Apocrypha,
Philo, and Josephus, in addition to authors who employ the common
dialect (Polybius, Plutarch, Artemidorus). It is to be remembered,
however, that as the New Testament opened a new spiritual world
to view, it was also obliged to create a specifically Christian lan
guage, and that many expressions (e. g., dprjvr] vfilv, etc.) possessed
a larger and deeper meaning in the Christian than in the ordinary
usage. Three elements are consequently to be distinguished in the
language of the New Testament,'' the Greek, the Jewish, and the
' Simple as this matter is, an erroneous conception of the doctrine of inspiration
has led to much controversy, concerning which see Moms. Acroas. herm. T. I. ; Winer,
Grammatik, § 1. "The presumption of a former age that no imperfection can be
acknowledged in the New Testament language because the Scriptures came forth from
the Holy Ghost, has, itself being false, led to the adoption of erroneous maxims which
unhappily still exist and exert their influence." Schleiermacher, Herraeneut., p. 131.
Examples of such influence are afterward given. The work by Joachim Jungius on
the original language of the N. T. (1637, republished by Geffeken in 1863) affords a
recent illustration.
* " The Hellenistic idiom in the Jewish period and sphere bore the character of a slav
ish translation; in the Christian it became independent and entered into the formation
of a language, without on that account renouncing its nativity." Reuss, 1. c.

173 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
Christian (comp. the first paragraphs of de Wette's Einleitung and
Schleiermacher's Hermeneutik, p. 27). A different meaning, too,
was acquired by Greek words in the New Testament, from that
which attached to them in the classical language, e. g., j^^^ meaning
TOTravo^poffvvj/.AMWijZi^yjWhich the ancient Grecian would Ei^en in the
understand to signify baseness of disposition (comp. current°ereek
TaTTsivo(j)povelv in Arrian's Epict.), and the petition in words.
the Lord's prayer, d(j)eg rj/uv to, dcpeiXruia-^a r/iMibv (Matt, vi, 12),
which he would regard as a request for the remission of a pecuniary
debt. The language of the New Testament varies, moreover, with
the different writers. Some Hebraize more than others New Testa.
—Luke and the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews least "^°' ,?'««''
^ , . . - varies with the
of all — some possess greater facility in the use of the cur- writers.
rent Greek (St. Paul) than others (Peter and James), and in the
specifically Christian field each of them employed a class of words
which harmonized with his own modes of thought (Xdyog, ^mj, tpibg
with St. John, moTig, SiKaioovvr], xdptg with St. Paul, marig with St.
James, in a meaning different from that of St. Paul, etc.). Such
differences, furthermore, are not confined to the lexical department ;
the grammatical form, both in etymology and syntax, also varies in
many respects from the classical forms, e. g., Luke xxiv, 15, eyevero
kv TW biiiXdv aiiTOvg ical av^rjTelv, where the Greek would require
the genitive absolute, or Luke xx, 1 1, npoae-9eTo nifiijiai, (nS»S «]Dv)
for trdXiv enefiijiev, etc. The use of the prepositions kv, etc, tcard, is
a further illustration (e. g., bi Ik niaTeug, for ol maTsvovreg, etc.).
Brief Historical Sketch.
The first to bring together the grammatical peculiarities of New
Testament diction was the philologist Solomon Glas- History of the
sins (t 1656) of Jena, in his Philologia sacra. Cas- exposition of
per Wyss, Professor of Greek at Ztlrich (f 1659), NewTestament
followed with his Dialectologia sacra (1650), in which *^™^''-
still greater attention was bestowed on the peculiarities of the
New Testament. George Pasor, Professor of Greek at Franecker
(f 1697), published a small lexicon of the New Testament, and
left a grammar which was published by his son, Matthias, pro
fessor at Groningen. Pasor continued to be the standard during
an extended period, in which only isolated attempts at observation
were made. Ph. H. Haab attempted to provide a suitable work
in his Hebr.-griechisch. Grammatik f. das N. T., Ttib., 1815, but
without success. Winer established New Testament grammar on
scientific principles, and elevated it to the rank of a theological

NEW TESTAMENT LEXICONS AND GRAMMARS. 173
and philological science, since when praiseworthy researches, includ
ing special branches, have been made. A translation of Winer was
made from the first edition by Professors Stuart and Robinson
(Andover, 1825). A translation of the seventh edition revised by
Ltlnemann has also been issued by Professor J. Henry Thayer (An
dover, 1869). The same American editor has prepared a revised
translation of Alexander Buttmann's Grammar of New Testament
Greek (Andover, 1873). Thomas Sheldon Green is the author of a
brief Grammar of the New Testament (London, 1862). Professor
Stuart, of Andover, prepared a Grammar of the New Testament
Dialect which is deserving of honorable mention (Andover; also in
Clark's Biblical Cabinet, Edinburgh, 1835). Planck's Sacred Phi
lology and Interpretation was translated by Professor Samuel H.
Turner, of the Protestant Episcopal Seminary, of New York (repub
lished in Clark's Biblical Cabinet, Edinburgh, 1834). Dr. Edward
Robinson's Greek and English Lexicon of the New Testament, orig
inally based on Wahl's Clavis, but recast and made an original
work, carefully traces the differences between classical and New
Testament usage. But most valu.ible for the student is Cremer's
Biblico-Theological Lexicon of New Testament Greek (3d English
ed., Edinburgh, 1880). It traces the words which are distinctive
of the New Testament from the classics to the Septuagint, and
thence on " till they reai-h the fullness of New Testament thought."
1. Greek Gramnuirs.
Butlmann, Alexander. A Grammar of the New Testament Greek, with numerous
Additions and Corrections by the Author. By J. H. Thayer. Svo pp. xvi, 474.
Andover, 1873.
Gary, George L. An Introduction to the Greek of the New Testament. 12mo, pp.
72. Andover, 1879; 2d ed., 1881.
Curtius, George. Principles of Greek Etymology. Translated from the German,
with the sanction of the author, by A. S. Wilkins and E. B. England. 2 vols.
London, 1876.
Greek New Testament, Hand-Book to the Grammar of, with Vocabulary aud the
chief New Testament Synodymes. Svo. London.
Greek Students' Manual, The, containing: I. A Practical Guide to the Greek Testa
ment. II. The New Testament, Greek and English. III. A Greek and English
Lexicon to the New Testament. F'cap, Svo, pp. 676. London, 1868.
Green, Thomas Sheldon. A Treatise on the Grammar of the New Testament, em-
bracing observations on the literal interpretation of numerous passagek. New
ed., 12ino, pp. 244. London, 1862. (Eighty-two pages, or fully one third, are
devoted to the usage of the New Testament writers in respect to the article.)
Hatch, Edwin. Essays in Biblical Greek. Svo, pp. 293. New York, 1889. (The
discussion of the Greek of the Septuagint is the stronger part of the book.)
Jelf, W. B. A Grammar of the Greek Language. 3d ed., enlarged and improved.
2 vols., Svo, pp. 517, 700. Oxford, 1861.

174 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOP.^DIA.
Middletoii, Thos. F. The Doctrine of the Greek Article, applied to Die Criticism and
Illustration of the New Testament. New ed., Svo. London, 1855.
Simcox, William Henry. The Language of the New Testament. 16mo, pp. xii, 226.
New York, 1889. (This book is not precisely a Grammar of New Testament
Greek. It aims '¦ to indicate the points wherein the language of the New
Testament differs from classical aud even post-classical usage." It treats of the
characteristics of New Testament Greek In forms or inflections and in syntax.)
Stuart, Moses. A Grammar of the New Testament Dialect. Svo, pp. 312. Ando
ver, 1846.
TroUope, Willinm. A Greek Grammar to the New Testament, and to the Common
or Hellenic Diction of the Later Greek Writers. Svo, pp. 257. London, 1841.
Winer, George Benedict. A Grammar of the Idiom of the New .Testament; pre
pared as a Solid Basis for the Interpretation of the New Testament. 7lh ed.,'
enlarged and Improved. By Dr. Gottlieb Liinemann, Professor of Theology at
the University of Gottingen. Revised and Authorized Translation. Svo, pp.
744. Andover. 2. Greelc Lexicons.
Analytical Greek Lexicon to the New Testament, The. 4to, pp. 490. London, 1868 ;
also New York.
An Etymological Vocabulary of All the Words in the Greek New Testament. Svo,
pp. 224. London, 1882.
A Practical Guide lo tho Greek New Testament. Designed for those who have no
knowledge of the Greek language. Svo. London, 1882.
Creraer, Hermann. Biblico-Theological Lexicon of the New Testament Greek.
Translated from the 2d German ed. 4to, pp. viii, 603. Edinburgh, 1878 ;
3d Enghsh ed., 1880. ^
Greenfield's Greek Lexicon to the New Testament. Svo. London, 1882.
Liddell, H. G., and Scott, Robert. A Greek-English Lexicon. 7th ed., revised and
augmented throughout with the co-operation of Professor Drisler. New York,
1883.
Robinson, Edward. A Greek and English Lexicon to the New Testament. New
ed., royal Svo, pp. xii, 804. New York, 1878.
Sohleusner, J. P. Novus Thesaurus Phllologlco-Critlcus, sive Lexicon In LXX. et
Reliquos Interpretes Graeoos, ac Scriptores Apocryphos Veteris Testamentl, etc.
2 vols., Svo. Glasguae, 1824.
Sophocles, E. A. A Greek Lexicon of the Roman and Byzantine Periods. From
B. C. 146 to A. D. 1100. 4to, pp. 1202. Boston, 1870.
Thayer, John Henry. A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament, being
Grimm's Wllke's Clavis Novl Testament!. Translated, Revised, and Enlarged.
Royal Svo, pp. 726. New York, 1887. (Grimm's Wllke's Clavis Novl Testa
mentl was pronounced by English critics as " unequaled " and " invaluable.''
Professor Soliiirer says : " It is not only unquestionably tho best among existing •
New Testament Lexicons, but, apart from all comparison, it is a work of the
highest intrinsic merit." Professor Thayer in his preface thus speaks of the
scope of his book : " Primarily, it is intended to satisfy the needs and to guide
the researches of the average student, although the specialist will often find it
serviceable.") 3. Greek Synonymes.
Tillman, John Aug. Henry. Remarks on the Synonymes o^ the. New Testament,
elc. 2 vols., 16mo, pp. 265, 281. Edinburgh, 1837.

BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 175
Trench, R. C. Synonymes of the New Testament. 12mo, pp. 250. New York,
1854. 2d part, 12mo, pp. 214, 1866. 9tli ed., Svo, pp. xxx, 405. London, 1880.
(Not the least valuable part of Trench's first volume Is its Preface. ''There are
few things," he writes, "which we should have more at heart than to awaken
in our scholars an entliusiasin for the gramranr and the lexicon. We shall have
done much for those who come to us for theological traUiiiig If we can persuade
them to have these continually in their hands ; If we can make them believe that
with these and out of these they may be learning more, obtaining more real and
lasting acquisitions, such as will form part of the texture of their own minds
forever, than from many a volume of divinity studied before its time.")
Webster, William. Syntax and Synonymes of the Greek Testament. Svo. London,
1864. SECTION XL
THE PRACTICAL SCIENCES AUXILIARY TO EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY 
BIBLICAL AECHJJOLOGY.
Comp. Schleiermacher, § 140, sqq. ; Herzog, Encykl., 1, p. 411.
A knowledge of the historical, physical, geographical, statistical,
, and politico-economical conditions under which a work
The scope ot r
Bibiicat archae- was written IS the indispensable means for any expla-
°'°^^- nation of its matter intended to be at all exhaustive, in
like manner as grammatical proficiency is necessary for the inter
pretation of its language. For this reason the range of Biblical
studies includes a scientific investigation of the liistory of the Jew
ish people and their relations to other nations, the constitution of
their State, their politico-economical and ecclesiastical arrangements,
etc., the geogi'aphy of Palestine and other Eastern countries as well
as of all countries referred to in the Bible, and the natural products
of these regions, together with the corresponding industries and the
manner of life and the customs of their inhabitants. All of this is
comprehended under the vague title of Biblical arohasology — a
branch which is, in one point of view, preparatory to exegesis, but
in another results from exegesis.
It may be held that the science of language is itself a branch of
archaBology; for it certainly belongs to archseology to
chffioiogy too ascertain the spoken and written language of a people.
narrow. j^^ ^^ inverse direction archasology must be included in
the domain of language, inasmuch as the lexicon is obliged to explain
a multitude of terms by means of archseological and geographical
inquiries (proper names, technical terms, e. g., 7riX, n3T- \Tp, nnj?0,
etc.). Strictly speaking, however, the term archseology is too nar
row, because raatteis relating to physical geography and natural
liistory (physica sacra), with all else of a similar nature, are not
included in archEeological inquiry. The manners and customs

176 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. '
of the East have, moreover, undergone so little change in many
respects, that descriptions of travel in our own day frequently
throw light upon statements of the Bible ; and this feature likewise
cannot be assigned to the departmentof historical archseology, but
must be classed with statistical and ethnographical knowledge.'
Biblical archseology, on the other hand, includes more than Jew-
Arciiseoiogyin- ish and Hebrew antiquities. It cannot even be restrict-
than*^ Hebrew ®^ ^^ ^*® researches to the East alone, especially as re-
antiquities. gards the New Testament, for whose exposition it is
necessary that " the historical apparatus should embrace a knowledge
of the spiritual and civil conditions of all the regions in and for
which the New Testament Scriptures were composed." ' This in
volves a thorough familiarity with the state of the Roman world
from Augustus to Domitian, and of the state of the Jewish people
in this period, Josephus being the principal source for the latter
information. A broader inquiry would include the range of ideas
prevalent at this time, though it cannot always be determined
whether ideas, drawn, for instance, from the rabbins, were actually
current in the time of Christ, or belong to a later age instead. In
this directiouiarchseological inquiries lead back, as Schleiermacher
has remarked, to the domain of apologetics.
The Old Testament must always be the principal source for Bib
lical Archaeology,* and consequently the science is compelled to
move in a kind of circle, archseological knowledge being needed for
a thorough understanding of the Bible, while that knowledge re
ceives further additions from a profounder study of the Scriptures.
The Bible thus becomes at one time the object and at another the
means of archseological research, while this research is sometimes a
preparation for exegesis and again its result. Archseology may
consequently be reckoned among the auxiliaries to exegetical theol
ogy, or be classed as a product of exegetical studies with historical
theology, in proportion as one or the other point of view prevails.
ciassiflcation -^ ™ore careful distribution of the material of archse-
of the material ology will Warrant its classification under:
chseoiogy-ge- 1- The geography of the Bible (on its importance to
ography. Biblical exegesis, comp. the work by Furrer under that
' Comp. de Wette's Bibl. Arohaeol., § 1 and 2, where reference is also made to the
still more extended meaning of the word apxatoWoyla in Josephus and Dion. Halicar.
Gesenius defines Biblical Archaeology to be " the science which makes us acquainted
with the natural and social conditions of the peoples among whom the Scriptures orgin-
ated and to whom they relate," (Hall., Encykl., x, 74), which is still correct in an
empirical point of view.
« Schleiermacher, § 141. ' % 143, note. * Schleiermacher. § 141, note.

SUBDIVISIONS OF ARCHAEOLOGY. 177
title, Ziii-ich, 1871). The geography of Palestine' forms its cen
tral feature, but it is not confined to Palestine. It begins
historically with the country in which the sources of the Eu
phrates and the Tigris are situated, the Asiatic highlands in the
region of Ararat), and extends, in the Old Testament, over Egypt,
Arabia, Mesopotamia, Assyria, Babylonia, and Persia." New
Testament geography extends its range farther into the West,
the incidents of the New Testament record being located in Asia
Minor, Macedonia, Greece, and Italy (Rome), in addition to those
of which the scene was in Judea, Samaria, and Galilee. Topogra
phy, the description of remarkable places, especially of Jerusalem
and the temple, forms a special element of this geography, for the
study of which the records of ancient and modern travel render
valuable aid.
2. The Natural science of the Bible (Physica sacra), which is
most intimately connected with its geography. The Natural science
importance of securing a vivid idea of the natural (geo- "' '"^ ^"''^•
ological, topographical, and climatic) conditions of the country is
heightened by the fact that the religious thought of the Hebrews
was closely related thereto, and that the most important features of
revelation connect themselves with the natural scenery of the
Orient. Man is an object of natural science, in the whole of his
physical constitution, in proportion as he is moulded by natural con
ditions. This applies, among the rest, to the entire subject of dis
eases and their peculiar form in the East (leprosy). In proportion,
however, as man becomes superior to nature and assumes a social
character, the physical and anthropological element will become
subordinate to the ethnographical. Hence : —
3. Biblical Ethnography, the description of manners and customs,
first of Eastern peoples, and then of the ancient world Bibitcai Eth-
in general. This involves the study (1) of man's rela- nography.
tion to nature (agriculture, herding cattle, hunting, and fishing) and
' This name was primarily applied to the country of the Philistines, in the south
western part of Canaan ; but it was subsequently given to the entire region embraced
between the Jordan, the Mediterranean Sea, and Ml. Lebanon. Canaan (tJ?J3), derived
from the fourth son of Ham, Gen. x, 6, was the older designation ; and it was also
called the "land of Jehovah," the "land of promise," the "pleasant land." In later
periods the name Judea denoted the entire country. The expression, " land of the
Hebrews" (DHDyn TIS) occurs but once in the Bible, in Gen. xl, 15, and the designa
tion was not common until after the time of Josephus (^ 'E/3pa/uv ;t:aipa). For addi
tional information see J. G. Miiller, Die Semiten in ihrem Verhaltniss zu Chamiten
und Japhetiten, Gotha, 1872.
' In strictness, the extreme western limit would be the ancient Tarshish (Tartessus) ;
but this appears only as an isolated point.
13

178 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
of his modes of preparing the raw materials provided by nature for
his use (dwellings, clothing, ornaments, food, utensils, handicrafts,
navigation, etc.) ; and (2) man's relations to Society (social customs,
marriage, domestic life, general intercourse ; journeys, hospitality,
relations with strangers, war, and slavery).' Inasmuch, howeveij,
as such relations of ordinary life were, among the Hebrews, regu
lated by the law of the Theocracy, it becomes necessary to examine:
' 4. The Biblical (Mosaic) legislation and political constitution
o.' . .*,, with which the codes of laws and the constitutions of
structure or the ^ ^ ^
Hebrew com- the Other nations embraced within the range of the
monwea . Scriptural records are to be compared (the Roman law,
consequently, in connexion with the New Testament). The consti
tution of the theocratic State and its laws, were, moreover, intimately
connected with the system of worship, so that in this point of view
also the religious feature forms the central object of theological
study ; and Biblical archaeology must accordingly give a prominent
place to: —
5. The sacred institutions of the Hebrews (sacra) in comparison
The religious ^^*^ *^^ Other religions of antiquity as mentioned in
institutions of the Bible. Many writers have limited the idea of Bib
lical archseology wholly to this branch of antiquities.
It is usually subdivided into (I) The sacred places (the tabernacle,
the temple, and, later, the synagogue); (2) the sacred seasons (the
Sabbath, the new moons, the Hebrew feasts); (3) sacred and
theocratic persons, the judges, prophets, priests, Levites, scribes;
and (4) sacred usages, circumcision, sacrifice, anointings, purifica
tions, ceremonies, etc. The religions of non-Israelitish peoples and
their polytheistic and nature-worship (worship of animals in Egypt,
the worship of Baal, Astarte, and Moloch, witchcraft and divina
tion) must receive special attention inasmuch as the Israelites were
constantly exposed to their influence. For the study of the New
Testament the Grseco-Roman mythology is likewise important.
Finally, the worship having taken art into its service (music and
poetry among the Hebrews) and the religion having developed a
theology, at becomes necessary to give attention to: —
6. The sciences and arts of the Hebrews and the nations with
Artandscience whom they came into contact. For the interpretation
and"^ '^related °* *^® poetical sections of the Bible it is especially ira-
peopies. portant that the nature of Hebrew poetry and music be
' For this inquiry also travels are especially valuable. " You will find the reading
of travels in the East, in which the life, manners, and customs of the nomads are de
scribed, and from which conclusions respecting these earlier times of innocence and
strength may Be drawn, to be the best commentary." Herder, Briefe, No. 3, p. 42.

HISTORY OF BIBLICAL ARCH.-EOLOGY. 179
understood. The development of theology among the later Jews
into Phariseeism and Sadduceeism, and into the Alexandrian phi
losophy of religion (Philo),' belongs more appropriately to the
history of Bible doctrines, but is nevertheless entitled to a place in
this department also."
The real task .of the Biblical archaeologist will be to combine all
these threads into an organic whole, through which runs the prin
ciple of a higher intelligent life ; to represent the Biblical matter
both in its development in time and in its extension in space, as
contrasted with contemporary ethnical facts, and thus to bring be
fore the mind of the inquirer a living picture in which the lights
and shadows are accurately disposed.'
HISTORICAL SKETCH.
The history of archseology is rooted in the science itself. A circle
.. „.u is involved at this point. The Bible is the most ancient
History of Bib- r , , • i- i_
Ileal archiBoi- source for Hebrew and the related archaeologies of the
°^' East, and yet the exposition of the Bible requires ar
chseological knowledge. We become acquainted with the Bible
'Opp. ed. Mangey (Lond., 1742), 2 Tom. ; Pfeiffer (Eri., 1785-92, 1820) 5 Tom.; Ed.
Tauchnitziana (Lips., 1851-53), 8 Tom. English version in Bohn's Ecclesiastical Library
(Lond., 1854). Comp. J. G. MuUer, Textkritik der Schriften des Philo, Basle, 1839, 4to.
' The Talmud (from ID?, tlie doctrine), a collection of Jewish traditions, becorhes a
rich, though confused, source at this point. It consists of two parts, the Mishiia, dat
ing in the second century A.D., and the Gemara, formed in the third centui-y. The
Babylonian Talmud, which was completed as late as the sixth century, must be dis
tinguished from the Jerusalem. On the editions comp. Winer, Handb. der Lit. i, p.
623, and M. Pinner, Compend. des hierosolym. u. babyl. Talmud, with preface by Bel-
lermann, Berl., 1832. Lightfoot, Schoettgen, Surenhusius, Wetstein, Meuschen, Danz,
and others, have made extracts from the mass of the rabbinical literature. Comp.
Winer, Chrestomathia talinudica et rabbinica, Leips., 1822 ; F. Nork, Rabbin. Quellen
u. Parallelen zu N. T. Scriftstellern, Leips., 1839. Concerning the later Judaism see
J. A. Eisenmenger, Entdecktes Judenthum, Frankf., 1700, 2 vols., 4to, ; A. F. Gfriirer,
das Jahrhundert des Hells, Stuttg., 1838, 2 vols. ; S. Griinwald, Glaubens und Sitten-
Lehre des Talmud. Heilbronn, 1854.
' George remarks. In his work. Die Jiidischen Feste, pp. xii-xiv (see below. Litera
ture), " The tendency still prevails to regard Biblical Archaeology as a gamer into
which the separate grains may be brought, without attemping to combine them into a
scientific whole, to which every individual object will sustain a definite and necessary
relation. . . . Archaeology is the science which first opens to our view the real life of
a people, by placing before our eyes its conditions in all the different periods and sit
uations of its history. Its oflSce is to point out all the features in that life in their neces
sary connexion, and thereby to explain one in the light of the others and each one in
its principles. It is, so to speak, the interior of the various phenomena, which spring
from it as from a root. It is the complement of history, to which It stands related as
the soul to its body, since it presents to view the conditions from which may be de
duced the phenomena in the life of a people recorded by history."

180 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA.
through the Bible. In addition to the Bible, mention must be made
of Josephus, the son of a Jewish priest (born A. D. ,^^ ancient
37) and a Pharisee, an eye-witness and participant in writers on ar-
the Jewish war (A.D. 70). He wrote a history of his "^^"^"s^-
nation, extending down to the close of Nero's reign, in twenty
books — Antiquitates Judaicae ; and also described the Jewish wars
in seven books, besides treating of other matters.' For acquiring a
knowledge of the country the study of Herodotus, Strabo (ii, 16),
Ptolemy, Dio Cassius, Pliny (Hist. Nat., v, 13-19), Diodorus Sicu-
lus, and others, is also useful. The beginnings of Bible geography
were laid bv the Christian Church historian Eusebius (in .^ .,
.' ^ Eusebius the
the fourth century) in his work Ilept Tottikoov 'Ovn/iaTUV first of Biblical
ev T^ ¦Beta Tpa<lyy. This work was known only in the geographers.
translation by Jerome: Onomasticon urbium et locorum Scripturae
Sacrae, until the Jesuit Bonfr5re publi.ibed it in 1659 (later editions
by Clericus, 1707, Larsowand Parthey, 1862, Lagarde, 1870). The
itineraries of Christian pilgrims are not without historical import
ance, though they contain much fabulous matter (the oldest is the
Itinerarium Burdigalense, dating since 333), and this is especially
true of the statements' by crusaders, e. g., William of Tyre, James
de Vitri, etc. (the whole published in Bongars. Gesta Dei per
Francos, Hanover, 161 1, 2 vols.). The journey of Rabbi Benjamin
of Tudela (1I60-II73), a Spanish Jew, has again commanded at
tention in recent times (published in Hebrew and English by A.
Asher, London and Berlin, 2 vols.). A more critical character be
longs to works of the sixteenth century. The Roman Catholic priest
Chr. Adrichomius (f 1585), among others, published a description
of Jerusalem in the time of Christ and a Theatrum terrae sanctae,
with maps (Col. 1590), and the Reformed theologian S. Bochart
(f.I667) laid the beginnings for a Bible geography in his Phaleg
et Canaan, (1646, 1674) and of a Biblical natural history in his Hiero-
zoicon (Lond., 1663, 1690). These were followed by the works of
H. Reland (f 1 718), Antiquitates sacrae veterum He- Geographical
braeorum (Traj., 1708 and often), and Palaestina (1714); *f^Slf tSe
J. D. Michaelis, Spicilegium geographiae Hebr. (1769, i8th century.
1780), Mosaisches Recht (I770-I775, 6 vols.) and others. The
numerous and predominantly scientific Travels, begun more than a
century ago and still continued, have afforded much valuable in
formation. Of such works those by Berggren, Buckingham, Cha-
' Editions by Havercamp (Amst!, 1726, 2 vols., fol.), Oberthiir (Leips., 1782-85,
3 vols.), Richter (Leips., 1825-27), Dindorf (Par., 1845-47, 2 vols., ed. Tauchnitziana
Leips., 1850), Bekker (Leips., 1855-56, 6 vols.); also translated into English by
Whiston, various editions.

LITERATURE OF BIBLICAL ARCH.^OLOGY. 181
teaubriand, Clarke, Hasselquist, Joliffe, Maundrell, Niebuhr, Po-
cocke, Prokesch, Richardson, Seetzen, Shaw, Volney,' etc., belong
Writers on sa- more Or less to an earlier period. Of more recent works
otfhfiSn! ^« notice, J. E. Burckhardt, Reisen in Syrien u. Palaes-
tury. tina (with notes by Gesenius, Weimar, 1822-24, 2 vols.);
A. Lamartine, Voyage en Orient, 1832-33 (Paris, 1835); G. H. v.
Schubert, Reise in d. Morgenland (ErL, 1838-40, 3 vols.); E. Rob
inson, Biblical Researches, etc. (2d ed., 1856, 2 vols.). Physical Ge
ography of the Holy Land (1865); Tischendorf, Reise in den
Orient (Leips., 1846, 2 vols.); Lynch, Narrative of Exploring Expe
dition to the Dead Sea (1849; 9th ed., 1854); and Official Report
of expedition (1852, 4to.); Ph. Wolff, Reise, etc. (Stuttgart, 1849);
F. A. Neale, Eight Years in Syria and Palestine (Lond., I85I, 2 vols.).
G. H. van Senden, Het heilige Land, (Gorinch., 1 85 1); Gossler, Pil-
gerreise nach Jerusalem (Paderb., 1852); J. S. Schiferle, Reise ins
h. Land (Augsb., 1852, 2 vols.); F. J. Gehlen, Wanderung n. Jerusa
lem, (Mttnst., 1853); J. Hilber, Pilgerreise ins heil. Land (Inn-
spruch, 1853); Plitt, Skizzen einer Reise n. d. heil. Lande (Carls-
ruhe, 1853); Schulz, Reise ins geL Land 3 ed., Muhlheim, 1855);
F. A., Strauss, Sinai u. Golgatha, etc. (7 ed., Berl., 1857); Tobler,
Denkblatter aus Jerus. (St. Gall, 1853) and Dritte Wanderung n.
Palaest. (1859); K. Graul, Reise n. Ostindien, Part i, Palestine
(Leips., 1854); de Saulcy, Voyage autour de la mer morte (Par.,
1853, 2 vols.); Delessert, Voyage aux villes maudites, etc. (Par.,
1853); M. Sachs, Stimmen vom Jordan (Berl., 1854); Leibetrut,
Reisen.. d. Morgenl, etc. (Hamb., 1854, new ed., 1858); Thomson,
The Land and Book (1880 ; new ed., revised) ; Van de Velde, Journey
through Syria and Palest. (1854, 2 vols.); RorofF, Reise n. Palaest.
(Leips., 1862, 2 vols.); Bovet, Voyage en terre Sainte (4 ed.. Par.,
1864); Furrer, Wanderungen durch Palaest. (Zurich, 1865); Lud-
wig, Bethlehem in the Summer of 1864 (Berne, 1865); Petermann,
Reisen in den Orient (Leips., 1865); Mac^do, Pelerinage aux lieux
saints (Paris, 1867); Riggenbach (Balse, 1873); Dean Stanley, Sinai
and Palestine (London, 1853; New York, 1870); E. H. Palmer, The
Desert of the Exodus (London; also New York, 1872); J. L. Por
ter, Handbook for Syria and Palestine, (last London ed., 1875);
Lieuts. Conder and Hitchen, Survey of Western Palestine: Memoirs
of its Topography, Orography, Hydrography, and Archseology;
' Comp. Paulus, Sammlung der merkwiirdigsten Reisen in den Orien., Jena, 1792-94,
7 vols. Continued by Rink (Konigsberg, 1801); Winer, Handb. d. theol. Lit., p. 151.
For New Test, times see the imaginary journey, Helens Wallfart nach Jerusalem, 109
Jahre vor der Geburt des Herrn, by Fr. Strauss, Elberfeld, 1820-23, 4 vols — an imi
tation of the Voyage du jeune Anacharsis en Grece.

182 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
6 vols., 4to; 3 vols, yet to appear (London, 1881). See also (^uar-
tei-ly Statements of Palestine Exploration Fund, London; also the
Egyptological and Assyriological researches of Bonomi, Botta, Bup-
sen, Brugsch, Fergusson, Grotefend,- Layard, Lepsius, Rawlinson,
Reinisch, Unger, Seyffarth, Vaux, Geo. Ebers (Aegypten u. d.
Biicher Mosis, etc. (vol. i, Leips., 1868), Schrader, Die Keilschriften
u. d. Alte Testament (Giessen, 1872), Smith, and others. The
Phcenician studies of Movers, Renan (1864), and others, and the
numerous reports by missionaries stationed in the East, are likewise
valuable in many respects. (Comp., too, the Ausland and the differ
ent geographical magazines.)
Concerning the recently discovered "Moabite stone" recording
the triumphs of the Moabite king Mesha (ninth century B. C.)
comp. the works by Noldeke, Schlottmann, Kanipf, Ginsburg, and
others. ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE.
1. Hebrew Antiquities.
Benisch, A. Judaism Surveyed ; a Sketch of the Rise and Development of Judaism
from Moses to our Days. 12mo. London, 1874.
Bissell, B.C. Biblical Antiquities: A Hand-Book. Svo, pp. 420. Philadelphia, 1 888.
Conder, Francis R. A Hand-Book to the Bible. Being a, guide to tlie study of
the Holy Scriptures, derived fioni ancient Monuments and modern Exploration.
Svo. London, 1879; 2d ed , 1880.
Cox, F. A. The Manners and Customs of the Israelites in relation to their Religion
and Civil Polity. 12nio. London, 1852.
De Costa, B. F. The Moabile Stone. Svo. New York, 1871.
Ewald, Heinrich. The Antiquities of Israel. From the German. Svo, pp. 398.
London, 1876.
Freeman, James M. Hand-Book of Bible Manners and Cusloms. 12mo, pp. 515.
New York, 1874.
Ginsburg, C. D. The Moabile Stone: a Fac-simile of the Original Inscription, with
an English Translation, and an Historical and Critical Commentary. 4lo. Lon
don, 1871.
Jahu, John. Biblical Archaeology. From the Latin. 5tli ed., Svo, pp. xii, 573.
New York, 1859.
Jamieson, Robert. Eastern Manners, Old and New Testament. New ed., 2 vols.,
12mo. Edinburgh, 1859.
Joseplius, Flavins, Works of. Translated by William Whiston, A.M. Many edilions.
Keil, Cart P. Manual of Biblical Archieology. With Alterations and Additions fur
nished by the author for the Unglish Translation. Translated from the German
chiefly by Rev. Peter Christie. EJiled by the Rev. F. Crombio, D.D. 2 vols.,
Svo, pp. 482, 404. Edinburgh, 18S7. (This Is a very comprehensive work,
The topics discussed are : I. The Scene of the Biblical History. II. Tho Religious
Relations of the Israelites. III. Tlie Social Relations of tlie Israelites. Under
these heads all the details of Hebrew life, private and public, are presented.)
King, J. Moab's Patriarchal Stone ; being an account of the Moabite Stone. Svo.
London, 1878.

LITERATURE OP BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 183
Madden, F. \V. History of Jewish Coinage and of .Money in llie Old and New Testa
ments. Wilh 254 Kngravings of nil ihe .Tewisli Coins mentioned in tlie Bible.
Svo, pp. 373. London, 1864; 2d ed., Boston, 1881.
Maimouides, Rabbi. Tlio Laws of tho Hebrews relating to tlie Poor and the Stranger.
Translated by James W. Peppercorn. Svo. Loudon, 1841.
Mlchaeiis, J. D. Commentaries on tlie Law of Moses. 4 vols., Svo. London, 1814.
Pierotti, E. Customs and Traditions of Palestine, illustrnting the Manners of I ho
Aiicleut Hebrews. Translated by T. (5. Bonney. Svo, pp. 288. London, 1 864.
Rawlinson, G. Historical lllustraiions of tlie Old Testament. Willi Additions by
Prof. H. B. Hackett. 16mo, pp. 237. Boston, 1874.
Snowdeii, J. R. The Coins ot the Bible and its Money Terms. ISmo. Pliihidelphia
1864. '
The History of the Hebrew Commonwealth, from the Earliest Times to the Destruc
tion of Jerusalem, A. D. 72. With a continuation to the time of Adrian. 3d
ed., Svo, pp. xvi, 592. Oxford, 1840.
Townley, James. The Reason of the Law of Moses. With Notes, Dissertations,
and a Life of the Aullmr. 8vo, pp. 451. London, 1827.
Van Lenuep, H. J. Bible Lauds: Their Modern Customs aud Manners Illustrative
of Scripture. New York, 1875.
Warburlon, William. The Divine Legation of Moses Demonstrated. 3 vols., Svo,
pp. 526, 518, 512. London, 1846.
Wines, E. C. Commentaries on the Laws of Ancient Hebrews. Svo, [ip. 640. New
York, 1852. 2. Christian Archceology.
Bennett, Charles W. Christian Arohasology.' With an Introductory Notice by Dr.
Ferdinand Piper, of Beriin. Svo, pp. xvi, 558. New York, 1888. (Dr. Bennett
was a pupil of Piper. The divisions are : Book I. The Archseology of Chrihtian
Art. II. The Archaeology of the Constitution and Goveriiiuent of the Church.
III. The Sacraments and Worship of the Early Church. IV. The Archseology
of Christian Life. Tho Appendix contains a full hterature of tlie subject.) ,:,
Bingham, Joseph. Origines Ecelesiastlcse; or, Antiquities of the Cliristian Church.
10 vols., Svo. Oxford and London.
Coleman, Lyman. Ancient Christianity Exemplified io the Private, Domestic, Social,
and Civil Life of the Primitive Olirlstians, and in the Original Institutions, OfBces,
Ordinances, and Rites of the Church. Svo, pp. 643. Philadelphia, 1853. (An
excellent and scholarly book.)
Hatch, Edwin. The Organization of tlie Eariy Christian Cliurclies. Svo, pp. xxviii,
216. London, 1881.
The student should also consult freely Smith and Clieetham's Dictionary of the History
Institutions, and Antiquities of the Christian. Church. 2 vols., Svo. London.
3. Biblical Natural History.
Abbott, Gorliam. Scripture Natural History. 12mo. Boston.
Bennett, J. R. Diseases of the Bible. 12mo, pp. 144. London, 1888.
Calcott, Maria. Scripture Herbal. Svo, pp. 568. London, 1842.
Harris, T. M. The Natural History of the Bible. Svo. London, 1820.
Knight, A. E. Bible Plants and Animals. London, 1890.
Kurtz, J. H. TJie Bible and Astronomy. An Exposition of the Biblical Cosmology
and its Relations to Nalur.al Science. 12rao. Philadelphia, 1861.
Mitchell, 0. M. Astronomy of the Bible. 12mo, pp. 322. Now York, 1863.

184 SPECIAL THt;OLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
Ciborn, Henry S. Pluuls of tlie Holy Land, with ilieir Fruits and Flowers. Svo.
Pbiladelpliia, 1860.
Tri-itram, II. B. Tlie Land of Israel: a Journal of Travels in Palestine undertaken
with Special Reference lo its Physical Character. 2d ed., Svo, pp. 871. Lon
don; 1866.
Tristram, H. B. The Natural History of the Bible; being a Review of the Physical
Geography, Geology, aud Meteorology of the Holy Land; wilh a Description of
Every Animal and Plant Mentioned in Holy Scripture. London, 1867; 2d eil..
1869; also New York.
Wood, J. G. Bible Animals: being a Description of Every Living Creature Men-
tioned in the Scriptures. Svo, pp. 652. New York, 1869.
4. Biblical Geography.
Arabia.
Burton, Sir Richard Francis. Tlie Land of Midian Revisited. 2 vols., Svo. London,
1879.
Burton, Sir Richard Francis. Personal Narrative of a Pilgrimage to El Medina and
Mecca. 3 vols., Svo. Loudon, 1855; 3d ed., 1879.
Lowth, Geo. T. The Wanderer In Arabia ; or. Western Footsteps in Eastern Tracks.
2 vols., ]2mo, pp. 724. London, 1855.
Palgrave, W. G. Journey through Central and Eastern Arabia. 2 vols., Svo. Lon
don, 1869.
Taylor, B. Travels in Arabia. New York, 1874.
Armenia.
Ouraon, Robert. Armenia ; a Year al Erzeroum. 12mo, pp. xiv, 226. New York,
1854.
Smith, Eli, and Dwight, H. G. 0. Researches in Armenia, with a visit to llie Nesto-
rlaii and Chaldean Christians of Oroomiah. 2 vols., 1 2ino, pp. 679. Boston, 1830.
Soulhgate, Rev. Horatio. Narrative of a Tour through Armenia, Kurdistan, Persia,
and Mesopotamia, wilh an Introduction and Occasional Observations upon the
Condition of Mohammedanism in those Countries. 2 vols., 12mo, pp. 334, 366.
New York, 1840.
Wheeler, C. H. Ten Years on the Euphrates ; or. Primitive Missionary Policy Il
lustrated. ]2mo. Boston. Asia Minor.
Hamilton, William J. Researches in Asia Minor, Poutus, aud Armenia. 2 vols.,
Svo, pp. 1069. London, 1842.
Leake, W. M. A Journal of a Tour In Asia Minor, with Comparative Remarks on the
Ancient and Modern Geography of that Country. Svo, pp. 391. London, 1824.
Van ilicnnep, H. J. Travels in Little-Known Parts of Asia Minor. 2 vols., Svo..
London, 1870.

Assyrian Discoveries ; an Account of Explorations and Discoveries on the Site of
Nineveh, during 1873 and 1874, with Illustrations. Svo, pp. xvi, 461. New
York, 1875.
Friiser, J. Baillie. Mesopotamia nnd Assyria. 12ma, pp. 376. Edi' burgh, 1847.
Smith, George. The Chaldean Account of Genesis. Svo, pp. xvi, 319. New York,
1876.

LITERATURE OF BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 185
Babylon. '
Budge, E. A. Wallis. Babylonian Life and History. Svo. London, 1814. ^ (Gives
the results of the study of cuneiform inscriptions.)
Newman, John P. Thrones and Palaces of Babylon from Sea to Sea. Svo, pp. 455.
New York, 1876. Chaldea.
Loftus, William K. Travels In Chaldea and Suslana. Svo, pp. 436. New York,
1857. Crete.
Postlcthwalte, E. Tour in Crete. ]2mo. London, 1868.
Skinner, J. E. H. Roughing it in Crete in 1867. Svo. London, 1867.
Cyprus.
DI Cesnola, Louis P. Cyprus; its Ancient Cities, Tombs, and Temples. A Narra
tive of Researches and Excavations during Ten Years' Residence in that Island.
Svo, pp. -xix, 456. New York, 1878.
Lolier, Franz von. Cyprus. Historical and Descriptive, from the Earliest Times to
the Present Day. Svo, pp. vii, 324. New York, 1878.
Damascus.
Porter, J. L. Five Years In Damascus; with Travels to Palmyra, Lebanon, and
other Scripture Sites. 2 vols., Svo. London, 1855.
Dead 'Sea.
De Saulcey, L. F. J. C. Narrative of a Journey Round the Dead Sea and In Bible
Lands. 2 vols., 12mo, pp. 968. London, 1854.
Lynch, W. F. Narrative of the United States Expedition to the River Jordan and
the Dead Sea. Svo, pp. 516. Philadelphia, 1848.
Desert and the Exodus.
Bartlelt, W. H. Forty Days in tlie Desert on the Track of the Israelites; or, a
Journey from Cairo to Mount Sinai and Pelra. New ed., Svo. London, 1867.
Brugsch Bey, Henry. The True Story of the Exodus of Israel. Edited by Francis
H. Underwood. 12mo, pp. 260. Boston, 1880.
Field, Henry M. On the Desert, from Egypt through Sinai to Palestine ; a Journey
in the Track of the Israelites ; with a brief Review of Recent Events in Egypt.
Svo. New' York, 1883.
Foster, Charles. Israel In the Wilderness. 12mo, pp. 319. London, 1865.
Palmer, E. H. The Desert of the Exodus ; Journeys on Foot in the Wilderness of
the Forty Years' Wanderings. Svo. pp. 470. New York, 1872.
Trumbull, H. Clay. Kadesh-Baruea: Its Importance and Probable Site, with the
story of a hunt for it, including Studies of the Route of the Exodua, and the
Souihern Boundary of the Holy L.and. Svo. New York. 1884.
Egypt.
Bartlelt, W. H. The Nile Boat; or. Glimpses of the Land of Egypt. ]2mo, pp.
2:«. New York, 1851.
Brown, Robert Hanbury. The Favvlm and Lake Moerls. With Illustrations and
Map. Liirge 4lo. London, 1892.

18J SPECIAL THSOLOSICV-L ENCYCLOPEDIA.
Budge, Ernest A. Wallis. Tho Dwellers ou the Nile; or. Chapters on the Life,
Literature, History, and Cusloms of the Ancient Egyptian-^. Svo. London,
1885; new ed., 1888.
Bunsen, Ernest de. Ej^ypt's Place in Universal History. New ed., 5 vols., Svo.
London, 1867.
De Leon, Edwin. The Khedive's Egypt ; .or, the Old House of Bondage under New
Masters. 12mo, pp. 435. New York, 1877.
Mdwards, Amelia B. Pharaohs, Fellahs, and Explorers. Svo, pp. xix, 325. New
York, 1892. (Among the topics treated are: The Explorer in Egypt; The
Burled Cities of Ancient Kgypt; Portrait Painting in Ancient Egypt ; Ej.'ypt
the Birthplace of Greek Decorative Art; the Hieroglyphic Writing of Ancient
Egypt, ele.)
Egypt Exploration Fund, Memoirs of. 1. The Store City of Pitliom and the Roiilo
o£ the Exodus, by Edouard Naville. 2. Tanis, Part I, by W. IL Flinders Pelrij.
3. Naukratis, Part I. by W. M. Fl iiders Petrie. 4. Tanis, l^art II, by W. M.
Flinders Petrie ; with chapters by A. S. Murray and F. LL, Griffith. 5. Goshen,
by Edouard Naville. 6. Naukratis, Part II, by Ernest A. Gardner. App-ndix,
by F. LL. GrifBth. 7. The City of Onlas, and the Mound of the Jew, by
Edouard Naville. 8. Bubaslls, by Edouard Naville. Quartos, pp. 31, 54, 95,
25, 84, — , 116, 71 ; with Appendices of Pla'cs.
Galloway, W. B. Egypt's Record of Time to the Exodus of Israel, Critically Inves
tigated. London, 1869.
Hannan, Henry M. A Journey to Egypt and tho Holy Land in 1869-70. Pp. xii,
331. Philadelphia, 1873.
Jones, J. Foulkes. Egypt in its Biblical Relations and Moral A=pect. Svo, pp. viii,
326. London, 1860.
Kliinzinger, C. B. Upper Kgypt. Us People and its Products; with a Prefatory
Notice by Dr. Geo. Suhweinfurtli. Svo, pp. xv, 408. New York, 1878.
Lane, E. W. An Account ¦ f the Mann-rs and Customs of the Modern Egyptians.
2 vols., 16mo, pp. XX. 418; viii, 429. London, 1836; 5th ed , enlarged, 1871.
Lepsius, Ric. Discoveries in Egypt, Ethiopia, and the Peninsula of Sinai, 1842-45.
Edited, with Notes, by K. R. H. Mackenzie. Svo, pj>. 471. London, 1858.
Lindsay, A. W. C. Letters on Egypt, etc. Boston and New York.
Maspero, G. Life In Ancient Kgypt and Assyria. Prom the French. 12ino, pp.
XV, 376. New York, 1892. (This book Is abundantly illustrated.)
Osburii, William. The Monumental History of Egypt as Recorded on the Ruins
of her Temples, Palaces, and Tombs. 2 vols., Svo, pp. 461, 643. London,
1854. (This work is profusely Illustrated.)
Osburn, William. Isr.iel in J'lgypt; or. Genesis and Exodus. 2d ed., ]2mo. Lon
don, 1856.
Palmer, William. The Egyptian Chronicles; with a Harmony of Sacred and Egyp
tian Chronology. 2 vols., Svo, pp. 1053. London, 1861.
Perrot, Georges, and Chipiez, Charles. A History of Art in Ancient Egypt. Pro
fusely Illustrated. Translated and Edited by Walter Armstrong. 2 vols., royal
Svo, pp. xvi, 444. London. 1883.
Rawlinson, George. Egypt and Babylon from Sacred and Profane Sources. Pp.
vii, 329. New York, 1885.
Schaff, Philip. Through Bible Lands : Notes of Travel in Egypt, tho Desert, and
Palestine. 12ran, pp, 413. New York, 1879.
Sharpe, Samuel. The History of Egypt from the Earliest Times till the Conquest by
the Arabs, A. D. 640. 2 vols., Svo, pp. 628. London, 1846; 5th ed., 1870.

LITERATURE OF BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 187
Taylor, W. C. Illustrations of the Bible from the Monuments of Egypt. 12mo, pp.
xvi, 200. London, 1838.
Wilkinson, J. Gardner. Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians. New ed.,
revised and corrected by Samuel Birch, LL.D. 3 vols., Svo, pp. xxx, 510; xii,
515; xl, 528. London, 1878.
Zincke, F. Barham. Egypt of the Pharaohs und the Khedive. Svo. London,
1871. Epliesus.
Wood, J. T. Discoveries at Ephesus. New ed., 4to. London, 1876.
Greece. i
Baird, Henry M. Modern Greece; a Narrative of a Residence and Travels in tliat
Country. 12mo, pp. xii, 380. New York, 1 850.
Wordsworth, C. Greece, Pictorial, Descriptive, and Historical. Svo. Boston.
Jerusalem.
Barclay, J. T. The City of the Great King; or, Jerusalem as it was, as it is, and as
it Is to be. Svo, pp. 647. Philadelphia, 1858.
Bartlelt, W. H. Walks about the City and Environs of Jerusalem. Svo. London,
1852.
Palmer, E. H., and Besant, Walter. Jerusalem: tlie City of Herod and Saladln.
Svo. London, 1871.
Pierotti, E. Jerusalem Explored ; Ancient and Modern. Translated from the Fcench
by T. G. Bonney. 2 vols., folio. London, 1864.
Thrupp, J. F. Ancient Jerusalem ; a new Investigation into the History, Topog
raphy, and Plan of the City, Environs, and Temple. Svo, pp. 428. London,
1855.
Warren, Captain, and Wilson, Colonel Sir C. The Recovery of Jerusalem. Svo.
London, 1871-1876:
Warren, Charles. Underground Jerusalem ; an Account of Some of the Princlpiil
Difficulties Encountered in its Exploration, and the Results Obtained. Svo, pp.
579. London, 1876.
Warren, Sir Charles, and Conder, Claude Reignler. Jerusalem. The Survey of
Western Palestine. 4to, pp. 542. London, 1,884. (This is one of the volumes
issued under the auspices of the Palestine Exploration Fund. As originally
published it was accompanied by a portfolio of drawings. The first paper con
tains historical notices of the extant remains of the city.)
Williams, George. The Holy City. Historical, Topographical, and Antiquarian
Notices of Jerusalem. 2d ed. 2 vols., Svo, pp. 601, 629. London, 1849.
Wilson and Warren. The Recovery of Jeru.«alem. A Narrative of Exploration and
Discovery in the City and Holy Land. Svo, pp. 459. New York, 1871.
Lebanon.
Burton, R. F., and Drake, C. T. Unexplored Syria. Visits to the LIbanus, the Anli-
Libanus, the Northern Libanus, elc. 2 vols., Svo. London, 1872.
Macedonia.
Walker, U. A. Macedonia to the Albanian Lakes. Svo. London, 1864.
Mesopotamia.
Fraser, .7. Baillie. Travels in Koordlstan and Mesopotamia. 2 vols., Svo. Edinburgli,
- 1840.

188 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
Moab.
Conder, Captain C. R. Heth and Moab: Explorations In Syria in 1881 and 1882. Svo.
London, 1883; 2d ed., 1885.
Merrill, Selah. East of the Jordan. A Record of Travel and Observation in the
Countries of Moab, Gilead, and Bashan, during the years 1875-1877. With Il
lustrations and a Map. With an Introduction by Prof. RoswcU D. Hitchcock,
D.D., President ol Union Theological Seminary. Svo, pp. 549. New York,
1881.
Tristram, H. B. The Land of Moab : Travels and Discoveries on the East Side of
the Dead Sea and the Jordan. Svo, pp. 416. New York, 1873.
Nineveh.
Fergusson, J. The Palaces of Nineveh and Persepolis Restored ; an Essay on An
cient Assyrian and Persian Architecture. . Svo, pp. 384. London, 1851.
Layard, A. H. Nineveh and its Remains. 2 vols., Svo. London, 1848-49; also 1867.
Layard, A. H. Discoveries among the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon, with Travels
in Armenia, Kurdistan, and the Desert. Second Exploration. Svo, pp. 586.
New York, 1853.
Rich, C. J. Narrative of a Residence on the Site of Ancient Nineveh. 2 vols., Svo.
London, 1836.
Smith, George. Assyrian Discoveries : Explorations and Discoveries on the Site of
*fineveh, 1873, 1874. Svo. New York, 1875.
Vaux, W. S. W. Nineveh and Persepolis. A Historical Sketch of Ancient Assyria,
etc. 2d ed., 12mo, pp.444. London, 1850; new ed., 1855.
Palestine.
Bartlett, W. H. The Footsteps of our Lord and his Apostles in Palestine, Syria,
Greece, and'Italy. Svo. London, 185,6; new ed., 1862.
Buchanan, Claudius. Christian Researches in Asia. 12mo, pp. 275. Philadelphiaj
181.3.
Burt, N. C. The Land and its Story ; or, The Sacred Historical Geography of Pal
estine. Svo. New York, 1869.
Conder, Claude Relgnier. Tent Work in Palesthie. A Record of Discovery and
Adventure. Published for the Committee of the Palestine Exploration Fund.
With Illustrations by J. W. Whymper. 2 vols., Svo, pp. xxvi, 381 ; viii, 352.
London, 1878.
Conder, Lieutenant Claude R., and Kitchener, Lieutenant H. H. Survey of Western
I Palestine. Memoirs of the Topography, Orography, Hydrography, and Arohteol- '
ogy. Edited with additions by E. N. Palmer, M.A., and Walter Besant, M.A.
For the Committee of the Palestine Exploration Fund. 3 vols., 4to, pp. 420,
445, 450. London, 1881-1883. (The text of this important work Is composed
of the field notes of the two explorers, printed without change. The additions of
the editors, printed in small type, are drawn from Robinson, Stanley, Renan,
Tristram, and other travelers.)
Dixon, William H. The Holy Land, with Illustrations. 3d ed., 2 vols., Svo. Lon
don, 1867.
Dulles, John W. The Ride Through Palestine, in 1879, by Seven Presbyterian Cler
gymen. Illustrated. 12mo, pp. 528. Philadelphia, 1881.
Field, Henry M. Among the Holy Hills. ]2mo. New York, 1884.
Gelkie, Cunningham. The Holy Land and tho Bible. A Book of Scripture Illustra
tions gathered in Palestine. 2 vols., Svo, pp. 656. New York, 1890.

LITERATURE OF BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 180
Hull, Professor Edward. Mount Seir, Siual, and Western Palestine, being a Narnitivo
of a Scientific Exploration. Maps and Illustrations. Svo. London, 1885.
Hull, Professor Edward. The Survey of Western Palestine. Memoirs, etc., witli
special reference to the Jordan-Arabah Depression and the Dead Sea. 4to.
London, 1886.
Keith, Alexander. The Land of Israel, according to the Covenant with Abraham,
Isaac, and Jacob. 12mo. New York, 1851.
Kinglake, W. Ebthen; or. Travels in the East. New ed., ]2mo. London, 1871.
Le Strange, Guy. Palestine unijer the Moslems. A Description of Syria and the
Holy Land, from A. D. 650 to 1500. Translated from the works of the Mediae
val Arab Geognaphers. Svo, pp. xxii, 604. London, Palestine Exploration
Fund, 1890. (The list of Arab geographers quoted reaches twenty-four
names.)
Macleod, Norman. Eastward: Travels in Egypt, Palestine, and Syria. 3d ed., Svo.
London, 1872.
Merrill, Selah. Galilee in the Time of Christ. With an Introduction by A. P. Pea-
body. ISmo, pp. 159. Boston, 1881.
Rawlinson, G. Bible Topography. 12mo, pp. 141. New York, 1887.
Ridgaway, Henry B. The Lord's Land: A Narrative of Travels in Sinai, Arabia Pe-
tra, and Palestine, from the Red Sea to the Entering In of Hamath. Svo, pp.
744. New Yoi-k, 1876.
Ritter, Carl. The Comparative Geography of Palestine and the Sinaitic Peninsula.
Translated and adapted to tho use of Biblical Students, by W. L. Gage. 4 vols.,
Svo, pp. 451, 418, 396, 410. Edinburgh, 1866.
Robinson, Edward. Biblical Researches in Palestine and in the Adjacent Regions.
A Journal of Travels In the Year 1838. 2 vols., Svo, pp. xxx, 614 ; xiv, 600.
Boston, 1868.
Robinson, Edward. Later Biblical Researches in Palestine and in the Adjacent Re
gions. A Journal of Travels in 1852. New Maps and Plans. 2d ed., Svo,
pp. xxx, 664. Boston, 1871.
Sage, W. L. Palestine, Historical and Descriptive ; or, the Home of God's People.
Fully Illustrated with 150 Engravings and Maps. Svo, pp. 560. London, 1887.
Sandie, George. Horeb and Jerusalem. Pp.417. Edinburgh, 1864.
Schumacher, Gottlieb. Northern Ajlftn, within the Decapolis. Translated by
Guy Le Strange. 12mo, pp. xii, 207. Palestine Exploration Fund, London,
1890.
Stapfer, Edmond. Palestine in the Time of Christ. Translated by Annie Harwood
Holraden. 12mo, pp. xii, 528. New York, 1888. (The material is classified in
two books: L The Social Life. IL The Religious Life.)
Thayer, Alexander Wheelock. The Hebrews and the Red Sea. 16mo, pp. 140. An
dover, 1883.
Thomson, W. M. The Land and the Book; or. Biblical Illustrations drawn from
¦ the Manners and Customs, the Scenes and Scenery, of the Holy Land. 2 vols.,
Svo, pp. 560, 614. New York, 1859. New ed., in 3 vols.
Tillotson, John. History of Palestine and the Holy Land. Illustrated with 350 En
gravings and Maps. With a History of the Crusades, compiled by W. and R.
Chambers. Svo. New York, 1S75.
Tristram, H. B. The Topography of the Holy Land. A succinct account of all the
places, rivers, and mountains of the Land of Israel mentioned in the Bible, so
ifar as they have been identified, together with their modern names and historical
references. .8vo. New York, 1878; London, 1872.

190 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCL6pEDIA.
Western Palestine, The Survey of. Special papers on Topography, Archaeology,
Manners, Customs, by Wil.-on, Warren, Conder, Kitchener, Palmer, George
Smith, Chester, Clermont, Ganneau. Ediied by Walter Besant. 4to, pp. 362.
London, 1881. (These papers are reprints from the Quarterly Statement of the
Palestine Exploration Fund. The information contained in them is of great
value.)
Wright,- Thomas. Early Travels in Palestine, comprising the Narratives of Areulf,
Willlbald, Bernard, Saewulf, Sigurd, Benjamin of Tudela, Sir John Mandeville,
De la Brocquiere, and Maundrell. 12mo, pp. 548. London, 1848.
(See also the Quarterly Statements of the Palestine Exploration Fund, issued from
the society's office, 1 Adam Street, Adelphi, London, W. C.) "
Persia
Bassett, James. Persia. The Land of the Imams. A Narrative of Travel and Resi
dence, 1871-1885. 12mo, pp. 343. New York, 1886. (There is a valuable
Bibliography of the subject at the end of the volume, containing about seventy-
five titles.)
Loftus, William K. Travels and Researches in Chaldea and Susiana. Svo, pp. 436.
New York, 1857.
Wagner, M. Travels in Persia and Georgia. 3 vols., Svo. London, 1856.
Phcenicia.
Phoenicia and Israel. A Historical Essay. London, 1S71.
Samaria.
Mills, John. *Nablus and the Modern Samaritans. 1 2mo, pp. xii, 335. London,,] 864.
Shelaby, Jacob Esh. Notices of the Modern Samaritans. Svo, pp. 55. London,
1855. Siven Churches.
Cathcart, M. The Seven Churches of Asia. 4to. London, 1869.
Tristram, TL B. The Seven Golden Candlesticks. Svo. London, 1871.
Sinai.
Bartlett, S. C. From Egypt to Palestine through Sinai, the Wilderness, and the South
Country. Svo, pp. 555. New York.
Gaussen, L. From Egypt to Sinai. The Exodus of tho Children of Israel. 12mo.
London, 1869.
Stanley, Arthur P. Sinai and Palestine in Connection with their History. Svo, pp.
Iv, 535. New Y"ork,, 1857. New Edition, with Maps and .Plates. Pp. 641.
New York, 1883. 4. Hebrew Poetry and Music.
Carhart, J. Wesley. The Poets and Poetry of the Hebrews. New York, 1865..
Herder, J. G. The Spirit of Hebrew Poetry. From tlie German. 2 vols., 12ino,
pp. 293, 320. Burilngton, Vt., 1833.
Hutchinson, Enoch. The Music of the Bible ; or. Explanatory Notes upon all the
Passages of the Sacred Scriptures relating to Music. Svo, pp. 513. Boston,
1864.
Lowth, R. The Sacred Poetry of the Hebrews. London and Andover. Many ed.
Taylor, Isaac. The Spirit ofHebrew Poetry. Svo, pp. xvi, 347. London, 1861.

THE SCOPE OF INTRODUCTION UNSETTLED. 191
SECTION XII.
BIBLICAL ISAGOGICS. (Introduction. Canonics).
Comp. nav. Schulz, Review of Eichhom 's and de Wette's Glnleitungen In Stud. u. Krit, 1829,
No. 3, pp. 570-72 ; Hupfeld, Begriff u. Methode der sog. Bibl. Einl., Marb., 1844; Kudelbach, Be
griff der N. T. Theologie u. Isagoglk, in his Zeitschrilt, 1848, 1 ; Baur, Die Einl. In das N. T. als
theol. Wissensch. in Theol. Jahrbb., 1850-51 ; Delitzsch, Begriff u. Methode der sog. Biblischen
u. Insbeson. A. T. Einleitung, In Tbomaslus and Hotmann's Zeitschr. liir Prot. a. Kirche, xxviii,
No. 3; ErI., 1854, p. 133, sgg.; Hahn, in Herzog's Encykl., iii, p. 786, sgg. (s. ». Einl. ins A. T.);
Articles Biblical Introduction in M'Clintock 4 Strong's Cyclopsedia, vol. Iv, p. 830, and Kitto's
CyclopaBdia, vol. Ii, p. 27 ; Brooke Foss Westcott, Introduction to the Study of the Gospels ;
Henry Alfo^d, How to Study the New Testament.
The Bible is a body of writings which originated in different
periods and under various circumstances and conditions, which were
from different authors, and were gradually collected ,j^^ objects of
into a whole; and it is consequently necessary for a a history of the
proper appreciation of its character that the origin and ''^°°"
fortunes of the entire collection and also of its several parts be
understood. To afford this knowledge is the office of the history
of the canon or the science of Biblical Introduction (Isagogics in
the limited sense), which is divided either into Introduction to the
New or to the Old Testament, or into general and special. General
introdnction discusses the origin and progress the establishing of
the canon, the history of manuscripts, editions, versions,
f 4.1. -u 1 a • 4. : c • 1 • 4. .3 Introduction is
revisions ot the holy ocriptures, etc. Special introdnc- either general
tion, on the other hand, inquires, in partial connexion """ ^p^"''*''-
with criticism, into the authenticity and integrity of the several
writings, and deals, in addition, with the history of their authors
as such, the design, plan, form, and style of their works, and finally
with the date, place, and circumstances in which the writings were
composed. The idea of Introduction itself is vague, and opinion is still di
vided with regard to its importance and extent as a The scope and
Biblical science. De Wette denies that Introduction umits ot intro-
^, ..... ductlon noi;
IS a science m the proper sense, and views it as a mere precisely de-
aggregation of preliminary > knowledge, which lacks '«'''^°«<'.
both " a true scientiiic principle and a necessary connexion of its
parts ; ' but in more recent times scholars (e. g., Schulz, Credner,
' De Wette, Einl. § 1. Schleiermacher (Herm. u. Krit., p. 379) observes in a similar
spirit that the so-called N. T. Introduction is " a science that has no limits whatever,
and into which anything that is desired may be thrown. A going back to principles
is wholly out of the question in such a case. . . . But it is pertinent to ask, ' Are there
no such principles ? ' " Comp. p. 36 ; " N. T. introduction is not properly a constitu
ent part of the organism ot theological science, but it is practically useful for both
the beginner and the master, because it facilitates the bringing together upon a single
point of all the inquiries that are involved." Scholz, a Roman Catholic writer on in-

192 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA.
Reuss, Hupfeld) have directed attention to the necessity for a sift
ing of 'the material to be treated by Introduction, and also for the
application of principles to such treatment. The indefinite char
acter of the word " introduction " ' will be apparent to every mind.
At the bottom, all that our treatment of encyplopa^dia has touched
upon or shall hereafter discuss, relating either to fhe Bible itself or
to the aids necessary for its interpretation, may be included under
Introduction to the Bible ; and, in point of fact, the Hebrew and
New Testament languages, archeology, hermeneutics, etc., have
been thus disposed of in some instances. Some writers have accord-
Thename"ca^ iigly preferred to lay aside this indefinite term, and the
nonics" pro- name canonics has been proposed as a substitute." 0th-
poaedasasub- /,¦, t-> \ i r . ,.
stitute for •¦ In- ers (like Reuss) have exchanged it for the name "Ilis-
troduotion." ^^^^ ^f ^j^^ jj^j^ ggriptures of the Old and New Tes
taments." The vague idea of introduction is certainly confined with
in wholesome limits in one direction by this method ; but in another
direction the present science of introduction is extended to cover a
field that lies beyond the bounds of introductory matter, since the
later fortunes of the Bible — the dissemination of the sacred writ
ings, the history of their employment and their exposition — are in
cluded.
troduetion, likewise speaks of it as being simply an aggregation of multifarious mat
ters, in connexion with which the important feature is that they be " conveniently dis
tributed." He divides introduction into criticism, hermeneutics, and archieology (see
pp. 1 and 2). Comp. Delitzsch, 1. c, "Every science is an organism; but the term
organic applies only to what is not simply a means for promoting an object external
to itself, but is itself a whole, an object to itself, in which the individual with its pe
culiarities is lost in the idea pf the whole, and only that is an instrument (organ)
which aids the development of the whole in its identity with itself. The so-called in
troduction lacks this organic character. It is not without idea and aim, but it lacks
the immanent, self-developing idea, the principle of teleological self -reference, which
is necessary to a science."
' The name is first employed by Adrian, a writer probably of the fifth century, in
the small hermeneutical work elaayuyr) cif ruf i?e/af ypaiui^; afterward by Cassiodorus
(in the sixth century), and later in the Middle Ages. In Germany Michaelis first used
it in connexion with the N. T., and Eichhom with the 0. T. Comp. Hahn in Herzog's
Encykl., iii, p. 727, sgg.
' Zyro, in Stud. u. Krit., 1837, No. 8, considers canonics to be merely a branch of
isagogics. In his view, the latter comprehends everything that is necessary for the
interpretation of the Scriptures, i. e., 1. the nature and importance of the Bible, to
gether with its history (canonics) ; 2. its compass, or the genuineness of its matter (crit
icism) ; 8. its language and contents (hermeneutics). He then divides canonics into
two parts, in abstracto, in which character canonics unfolds the nature of the Scrip
tures under the forms of authenticity, credibility, and genuineness, and canonics in
eonereto, or what is usually termed introduction in the more limited sense, which is
again divided into general and special or into Old aud New Testament canonics. Comp.
Pelt, Encykl, p. 121,

GENERAL AND SPECIAL INTRODUCTION. 193
It will not be denied that great interest attaches to such an
all-sided historical knowledge respecting the Bible ; but methodo
logical considerations require nevertheless that what is introductory
to the study of Scripture (the history of its origin and the collection
of its parts into a canon), and what relates to the further history of
the already completed collection of the Scriptures, should be kept
apart. Only the former, though likewise historical in its nature,
is an exegetical auxiliary science, because it affords a correct posi
tion to the exegete from wliich to operate ; while the latter must
be assigned to the department of Church history and the his
tory of literature, and may be reserved for a later stage of theo
logical study. It does not appear to us a matter which the sci
ence need be ashamed of, that the "reader of the introduction
Bible" (i. e., the student) must before all "be well- PaX'Stiry"^
grounded in historical knowledge in order to correctly the canon and
understand and properly appreciate the Bible as a whole
and in its parts ; " ' but such preliminary knowledge needs a careful
discrimination of its elements among themselves, and a proper dis
tribution of its parts in the organism of the sciences. If, in har
mony with this principle, the grammatical and archseological ele
ments be excluded, and a distinct place be assigned to hermeneutics,
there will be left only what is generally denoted by the still current
name of introductory science, namely, the history of the canon
(within the limits hitherto assigned to it) and criticism. These
may not be wholly separated from each other, for the history of the
canon is not to be a mere review, but history involving the discus
sion of principles — criiical history; in which connexion it may be
remembered that what is now called introduction was formerly
known as critica sacra or histoire critique du V. et N. T. (Richard
Simon). This does not forbid, however, that criticism as such,
i. e., the whole of the science of critical principles, should consti
tute a distinct branch of study, as does hermeneutics, which em
braces the theory of interpretation. The science of introduction is
thus confined to critical and historical inquiry concerning the books
of Scripture and their collection into a canon, instituted for pur
poses of exegesis.
The division into Old and New Testament introduction results
from the nature of the case ; but the relation of general Relation of
to special introduction is more difiicult to determine. ^faT™\rodSt
The usual method is to begin with the general (the col- aon.
lection of the canon, history of the text, versions, etc.), and to sup
plement this with introductions to the several books ; but the oppo-
¦ The words of Hupfeld, p. 8.
Id

194 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
site course may be adopted with Reuss, and the^ origin of the
different books discussed, so that the formation of the canon from
its first beginnings to its final completion is presented in a genetic
view. In the latter case, however, the special introduction would
need to be very brief and to steadily approach its object, as is the
case with Keuss, the more extended discussion being reserved for
the exegesis of the books. Here, again, the intervention of the
different sciences comes into view. Introduction provides the
point of view from which the exegete is to regard the Bible ; but
the progress of exegesis reacts upon introduction and alters the po
sition of isagogics.
Encyclopsedia is concerned with the material of introduction only
in so far as it is necessary to give preliminary information with
regard to its general character. The question concerning the period
„,,,.. in which the formation of the canon was first under-
Perlod 01 the
first formation taken, is Connected with the inquiry respecting the time
of the canon, -yyjjyjj ^j^g ^j.j ^f .writing was invented. It is certain
that the canon as a whole appears for the first time after the cap
tivity. The traditional view that Ezra (B.C. 478) and Nehemiah
(2 Mace, ii, 13) took measures for collecting the different books, has
been doubted by the criticism of recent times.' The first to receive
a completed form was probably the Pentateuch, and to this the
other books were added in various collections and at different
times. The earliest constituents of the New Testament canon were
the Pauline epistles, which were written as occasion required
(those to the Thessalonians being the oldest); and to these were
gradually added the (catholic) epistles of other apostles, togeth
er with the written memorabilia of the life of Jesus (Gospels),
the latter being probably first in point of time. The ancient Church
knew of but two collect;ions, the evayyiXiov and the dnooToXog (ac-
The New Test- cording to the assumption which has become current
uiTear^chriJ^ since the time of Semler, though it is not fully estab-
tian Church. lished)." The former ¦included the four Gospels, which
had already been distinguished from the spurious gospels and recog-
' Comp. Leyrer's art. in Herzog's Encykl., xv, p. 296, sgg. A reference to an al
ready completed canon cannot, of course, be looked for in the canonical books them
selves. The apocryphal Book of Wisdom, however (not later than B.C. 180), affords
proof that a collection of sacred writings existed (chap, xlv-xlix), though it cannot be
shown that the entire canon, as we possess it, is intended ; for this purpose a formal
catalogue would be required.' The first to furnish a list (of twenty-two books) was
Josephus (contr. Ap. i, 8), from whom the tradition referred to in the text is also
derived. " Pelt, p. 144, under reference to Orelli : Selecta patrum capita ad cia7iyjinK7;v sacra
pcrtin, p. 1, 11, sg., note. Comp. Landerer in Herzog's Encykl., vii, p. 270, sqq.

LITERATURE OP BIBLICAL INTRODUCTION. 195
nized by the Church, and the latter embraced the apostolic epis
tles and the Book of Acts. Opinion was long divided with regard
to the Apocalypse and certain of the catholic epistles, and a distinc
tion was made between bfioXoyovfieva and dvTiXeyofieva and voda
(Euseb., n. E. iii, 25) as late as the fourth century. The first class
included the four Gospels, the Book of Acts, the fourteen Pauline
epistles,' and I Peter and I John; to the second were assigned the
2d ep. by Peter, 2 and 3 Jolin, James, and Jude; and the third was
limited to the Apocalypse, though many classed it among the writ
ings whose authenticity was acknowledged (comp. the canon of
Origen in Euseb., vi, 25, and that of Eusebius himself, ibid., iii, 25,
as also the somewhat divergent so-called Muratorian canon of
Milan, in Kirchhofer, Quellensammlung, p. I, sqq. ; also Westcott
on the Canon of the New Test., p. 184, sqq., and Harman's In
troduction, pp. 428-438). The canon of the New Testament
as it now stands was gradually formed by the actions of councils
(comp. Canon Laodic, 364, and the canon of the third council of
Carthage in 397). This may suffice to enable the beginner to under
stand the relation of the early Christian Church to the canon, and to
demonstrate to him that the former had already attained to a high de
gree of independence (" sine charta et atramento." — Irenseus) before
the canonical boundaries of the letter of the Bible had been definitely
fixed." But this by no means involves the conclusion that the canon
is a mere accident ; the religious disposition will still recognize its
providential, though not necessarily miraculous, character.
ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATUEE.
1. Introduction to the whole Bible.
Angus, Joseph. The Bible Hand-Book: An Introduction to the Study of the Sacred
Scripture. 12mo, pp. 727. Philadelphia, 1865.
Bissell, E. Cone. The Historic Origin of the Bible: A Hand-Book of Principal
Facts from the best recent authorities. Svo. New York, 1873.
Briggs, Charles Augustus. Biblical Study : Its Principles, Methods and History,
together with a catalogue of Books of Reference. 4th ed., Svo, pp. xv, 506. New
York, 1891. (The author aims "to present a guide to Biblical Study for the
' Including that to the Hebrews, though its Pauline character is denied by some
churches. 'Comp. Schleiermacher, § 104, sqq.; Goethe, p. 140, "The Bible itself— and this
receives too little attention — exerted almost no influence in the cJder times. The
books of the Old Testament had scarcely been collected, and the nation in which they
originated was utterly dispersed. The latter alone formed the nucleus about which
its members gathered and still gather. The books of the New Testament had
scarcely been brought together before Christendom divided into endless differences
of opinions. And thus It appears that people do not busy themselves with the work
so much as about the work."

196 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPJSDIA.
intelligent layman as well as the theological student and minister of the Gospel."
Each department of Biblical Study is treated historically, and the doctrine of
the Bible is developed from the standpoint of the Westminster Confession. A
valuable feature of the work is the extensive Bibliography of the subject, both
directly referred to In the body of the book, and arranged topically in a cata
logue at the end.)
Cosin, John. Soholastical History of the Canon of the Holy Scriptures. London,
1657. In Vol. Ill of his Works. Oxford, 1849.
Davidson, Samuel. The Canon of the Bible : Its Formation, History, and Fluctua
tions. 3d ed. London, 1S80.
Ewald, Heinrich. Old and New Testament Theology. Translated from the German
by T. Goadby. Svo, pp. 458. Edinburgli, 1888. (Although Ewald was
opposed to Rationalism, he placed both the Scriptures and the doctrine of Rev
elation upon a scientific basis, subjecting everything contained in them to the
test of experience. He makes Revelation a great historical development, an
evolution of which Christ is the result and issue. The history of Israel
finds Its consummation in Christianity, and is for the inheritance and redemp
tion (jf ull men.)
Ewald, Hfinrich. Revelation: Its Nature and Record. Translated from the German
by the Rev. T. Goadby. Svo, pp. 482. Edinburgh. 1884. (The three parts of
the book are. The Nature of the Revelation of the Word of God; Revelation In
Heathenism and In Israel; Revelation in the Bible.)
Fairbairn, P. The Typology of Scripture Viewed in Connection with the Whole Series
of the Divine Dispensations. 5th ed., 2 vols., Svo, pp. 420, 484. New York, 1880.
Gaussen, L. The Canon of the Holy Scriptures. Examined in the Light of History.
Prom the French, by Ed. N. Kirk. ]2mo, pp. x, 46S. Boston, 1863.
' Given, John James. The Truth of Scripture in Connection with Revelation, In
spiration, and the Canon. Svo, pp. 370. Edinburgh, 1881.
Harman, Henry M. Introduction to the Study of the Holy Scriptures. Svo, pp. 798.
New York, 4th ed., 1884.
Hitchcock, Roswell D. A New and Complete Analysis of the Holy Bible. The
Old and New Testaments arranged by subjects on the basis of M. Talbot, with
Indexes and Tables by N. West. With Cruden's Concordance, revised by J.
Eadle. Svo. New York, 1870.
Home, Thomas Hartwell. An Introduction to the Critical Study and Knowledge of
the Holy Scriptures. 2 vols., 8vo, pp. 464, 493, and 198. Philadelphia, 1841.
Thirteenth English edition, with the aid of Ayre and Tregelles. 4 vols., Svo.
London, 1872.
Ladd, George T. The Doctrine of Sacred Scripture. A Critical, Historical, and
Dogmatic Inquiry Into the Origin and Nature of the Old and New Testaments.
2 vols., pp. 783, 778. New York, 1883. (Holds that the Christian consciousness
is the judge of what In the Bible is and is not the word of God. A very valuable
work, which, however, takes some questionable positions.)
Lenonnant, Francois. Tlie Beginnings of History, according to the Bible and the
Traditions of Oriental Peoples, from the Creation of Man to the Deluge. Trans
lated from the second French edition, with an Introduction by Francis Brown, As
sociate Professor in Biblical Philology, Union Theological Seminary. Svo,
pp. xxx, 588. New York, 1883.
Lightfoot's Horse Hebraioie et Talmudlcae. 4 vols., Svo. London, 1880.
Robson, John. The Bible: Its Revelation, Inspiration, and Evidence. Svo. London,
1883.

LITERATURE OP BIBLICAL INTRODUCTION. 197
Ethers, Heury. The Superhuman Origin of the Bible. Inferred from itself. Svo,
pp. 4J5. New York, 1874.
Stowe, C E. Origin and History of the Books of the ¦ Bible, both Canonical and
Apocryphal. Ia Two Parts. Part I, The New Testament. Svo, pp. 583.
Hartford, 1867.
Townley, James. Illustrations of Biblical Literature, exhibiting the History and
Fate of the Sacred Writings from the Earliest Period to the Present Century,
2 voISt Svo, pp. 602, 604. New York, 1847.
2. To the Old Testament.
Bartlett, Samuel 0. Sources of History In the Pentateuch. Six Lectures delivered
In Princeton Theological Seminary, on the Stone Foundation, March, 1882.
(Includes an excellent treatment of evolution and creation, and a. treatise upon
tlie early documents.)
Biiinie, William. The Psalms: Their History, Teachings, aud Use. London, 1870.
Birks, T. R. The Pentateuch and its Anatomists; or, The Unity and Authenticity of
the Books of Moses Vindicated. 12mo. Londou, 1869.
Bleek, Johannes. An Introduction to the Old Testament. Translated by G. H.
Venables. 2 vols., Svo, pp. 967, new ed. London, 1875.
Cowles, Henry. The Pentateuch in its Progressive Revelations of God to Men. Pp.
414. New York, 1874.
Cross, J. A. Introductory Hints to English Readers of the Old Testament Svo.
London, 1882.
Curtiss, Samuellvea. The Leyitical Priests: aContribution to the Criticism of tlie Pen-
tateiffih. With Preface bj Dr. Delitzsch. 12mo, pp. xxix, 254. Edinburgh, 1877.
Davidson, SamueL Au Introduction to the Old Testament, Critical, Historical, and
Theological 3 vols., Svo. Loudon, 1862.
Davison, John. Diseourses on Prophecy. In-which are considered its Structure,
Use, and Inspiration. Svo. Loudon, 1870.
Delitzsch, Franz. Messianic Prophecies. Translated from Manuscript Lectures by
S. Ives Curtlsa. 12mo. New York, 18B1.
De Wette, W. M. L. A Critical and Histoiical Introduction to the Canonical Script
ures of the Old Testament Translated and enlarged by Theodore Parker. 2 vols.,
Svo, pp. 517, 570. Boston, 1843.
Driver, S. R. An Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament 2d ed., Svo,
pp. xxiil, S43. Kdinburgh and New York, 1892. (The contents and structure
of the several books are treated from the standpoint of advanced criticism.)
Elliott, Charles. A Vindication of the Mosaic Authorship of the Pentateuch. 16mo,
pp. 233. Cincinnati and New York, 1884.
Ewald, Heinrich. The History of Israel. Translated and Revised. 5 vols., Svo.
London, 1869-18JI. (Discusses the formation of the Old Testament Canon.)
Fairbairn, P. Prophecy, Viewed in Respect to its Distinctive Nature, its Special
Eunetion, and Proper Interpretation. 2d ed., Svo. New York, 1866.
Gloag, James Paton. Tlie Messianic Prophecies. Btdrd Lectures for 1879. 12mo,
pp. 368. Edinbursh, 1879.
Godet, F. Biblical Studies on the Old Testament. Edited by W. H. Lyttleton.
Cloth, Svo. New York and London, 1875.
Green, W. Henry. Moses and the Prophets. Svo. New York, 1883. (Includes
reviews of Prof. Kuenen and Dr. W. Robertson Smith.)
Havernick, H. A. Ch. A Historico-Critical Introduction to the Pentateuch. From
the German. Svo, pp. 450. Edinburgh, 1850.

198 SPECLAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOP.^DIA.
Havernick, H. A. Ch. A General Historico-Critical Introduction to the Old Testa
ment From the German. Svo, pp. 389. Edinburgh, 1852.
Hengstenberg, E. W. Dissertations on the Genuineness of Diinitl, and the Integrily
of Zechariah. Translated from the German. Svo. Edinburgh, 1858.
Hengstenberg, B. W. Dissertations on tho Genuineness of the Pentateuch. Prom
the German. 2 vols., Svo, pp. 462, 543. Edinburgh, 1847.
Herder, J. G. The Spirit of Hebrew Poetry. Translated from the German by
James Marsh. 2 vols. Burlington, Vt.,, 1833.
Jehovah and Elohim in the Pentateuch, On the Use of, as Consistent with, and Con
firmatory of, its Mosaic Authorship. By H. T. Svo. London, 1869.
Keil, Karl P. Manual of Historico-Critical Introduction to the Canonical Scriptures
of the Old Testament Translated by M. Douglas. 2 vols., Svo, pp. 545, 444.
Edinburgh, 1869.
Euenen, A. The Prophets and Prophecy in Israel. Translated from the Dutch by
the Rev. Adam Milroy. London, 1877.
Leathes, Stanley. The Structure of the Old Testament ; a Series of Popular Essays.
16mo, pp. 198. Pliiladelphia, 1873.
M'Donald, Donald. Introduction to the Pentateuch. 2 vols., Svo, pp. 487,489. Edin
burgh, 1861.
Murray, Thomas C. Lectures on the Origin and Grawtli of the Psalms. 12mo.
New York, 1880. ,
Norton, Andrews. The Pentateuch and its Relations to the Jewish and Christian
Dispensations. 12mo. London, 1870.
Oehler, G. P- Theology of the Old Testament. Translated by Sophia Taylor. Svo,
pp. 497. Edinburgh, 1875.
Orelli, C. Von. The Old Testament Prophecy of the Consummation of God's King
dom Traced in its Development Translated by Rev. J. S. Banks. Svo, pp.,
472. Edinburgh, 1885. (Part first treats of prophecy in relation to Israel as a
nation; part second of prophecy as the' herald of the, new birth of God's king
dom and the secui^ity for its future consummation,)
Phelps, Austin. Studies in the Old Testament.. 12mo, pp. 333. Boston, 1879'.
Porter, J. L. The Pentateuch and the Four Gospels : a Statement of our Lord's Tes
timony to the Mosaic Authorship^ Historic Truth, and the Divine Authority o#
the Pentateuch. 12mo. London, 1865.
Pusey, B. B. Daniel the Prophert Nine Lectures delivered in the Trinity Sdiool of the
University of Oxford. Svo, 3d ed. Oxford, 1 869. (Alms to invalidate the theo
ries of Prof. Robertson Smith by testing their consistency with other scriptural
statements.)
Quaney, John. Genesis and its Authorship. Two Demonstrations: I. On the Iiiii.
port of the Introductory Chapters; II. On the Use of the Names of God in tbfi
Book of Genesis. Svo. London and Edinburgh, 1866.
Ryle, Herbert Edward. The Canon of the Old Testament ; an Essay on the Gradual
Growth and Formation of the Hebrew Canon of Scripture. London andNew
York, 1892. (Written from the standpoint cf the new school of Old Testament
, critics.)
Smith, B. Payne. Prophecy a Preparation for Christ. Bampton Lectures for 1869.
12mo, pp. 397. Boston, New York, and Cincinnati, 1870.
Smith, W. Robertson. The Old Testament in the Jewish Church. Twelve Lectures
on Biblical Criticism. 12rao, pp. 441. New York, 1881. (Denies the historical
validity of much of the Pentateuch. Reviewed at length by Prof. W. Henry
Green in Presbyterian Review for January, 1882, pp. 108-156.)

LITERATURE OF BIBLICAL INTRODUCTION. 199
Smith, W. Robertson. The Prophets of Israel and their Place in History, at tlie
close of the Eighth Century B. C. Svo. New York, 1882.
Stearns, 0. S. Introduction to the Books of the Old Testament, with Analyses
and Illustrative Literature. 12mo, pp. 148. Boston, 1888. New ed., 1892.
(The Literature given on each book is not exhaiisllvu hut helpful. In addition
to the analyses the principal difiScullies are pointed out. A brief list of desira
ble commentaries Is also given.)
Stebbins, Rufus P. A Study of the Pentateuch for Popular Reading, Being an In
quiry Into the Age of the so-called Books of Moses, with an Introductory Examina
tion of Recent Dutch Ti eories, as represented by Dr. Kuenou's "Rehgijnof
Israel." 12mo, pp. 233. Boston, 1881. (The aim of the author is to show th;it
the Pentateuch is of the Mosaic age and of Mosaic autliorship, directly or
indirectly.)
Stuart, Moses. Criticiil Histury and Defense of the Old Testament Canon. 12mo.
Revised ed,, pp. 422.- Andover, 1 872.
Taylor, Isaac. The Spirit of Hebrew Poetry. Svo. New York, 1802. With a bio
graphical Introduction by William Adams.
Watts, Robert The Newer Criticism and the Analogy of Faith. A Reply to Prof.
W. Robertson Smith. Svo. Edinburgh, 1881.
Wellhausen, Julius. Prolegomena to the History of Israel, with a reprint of the
article "Israel" from the Encyclopaedia Britanuica. Translated from the Ger
man, under the author's supervision, by J. Sutherland Black and Allan Men-
zies, with Preface by Prof. W. Robertson Smith. Svo. Edinburgh, 1885. (A
destructive critic : holds that '' Moses is the originator of the Mosaic constitu
tion in about the Siime way as Peter is the founder of the Roman hierarchy.")
Williams, Rowland. Tlie Prophets of Israel and Judah during tho Assyrian Em
pire. Svo, pp. 450.. L ndon, ISGG.
Wright, W. The Book of Jonah, in Four Oriental Versious, namely, Chaldee,
Syriac, Ethiopic, and Arabic; with Glossaries. Svo, pp. xii, 148. London, 1857.
3. To the New Testament.
Abbott, Edwin A., and Rushbrooke, W. G. The Common Tradition of the Synoptic
Gospels in the Text of the Revised Version. 1 Gmo, pp. xxxi.x, 156. Londou, 1884.
Abbott, Ezra. The Authorship of the Fourth Gospel. Svo, pp. 104. Boston, 1880.
Alexander, .loseph A. Noies nn tlie New Testament Literature and Ecclesiastical
History. 12mo, pp. 319. New York, 1873. New ed., 1875.
Alford, Henry. How to Study the New Testament. First Section, The Gospels
and Acts. Second Section, The Epistles. Third Section, Tho Epistles of Jolm
and the Revelation. 3 vols., 12mo. London, 1865-1869.
Bleek, Friedrich. An Introduction to the New Testament. From the Second Edi
tion of the German. 2 vols., Svo, pp. 900. Edinburgli, 1869-1870.
Burgon, John W. Tlie Last Twelve Verses of the Gospel According to St. Mark
Vindicated Against Recent Critical Objectors and llstabllshed. Svo, pp. 334.
Londou, 1871.
Charteris, A. H. The New Testament Scriptures: Their Claims, History, and
Authority; being the Croall Lectures for 1882. Svo, pp. 227. London,
1882 ; New York, 1 883. (A well written, popular work.)
Charteris, A. H. A Collection of Early Testimonies to the Canonical Books of the
New Testament, Based on Kirchhofer's Quellensammlung. Svo. Edinburgh,
1880.
Conder, Josiah. Literary History of the New Testament Svo, pp. 624. London, 1845.

200 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
Conybeare and Howson. The Life and Epistles of St. Paul. 2 vols.,; also 2 vols.
in one. 12mo, pp. 556. New York, 1869.
Curiiss, Samuel Ives. The Date of our Gospels in the Light of the Latest Criticism.
ISmo, pp. 76. Chicago, 1881. (A review of Judge Waite's "History of the
Christian Religion to the Year 200 ;" aud also a lecture based on Norton's "Gen
uineness of the Gospels.")
Davidson, D. Connection of the Sacred and Profane History, from the Close of the
Old Testament History till the Establishment of Christianity. 3 vols. In one.
12mo. New York, 1857. New ed,, 24mo. London, 1868.
Davidson, Samuel. An Iiiiroductiou to the Study of the New Testament. 3 vols.,
Svo, pp. 458, 495, 688. London, 1851.
Dods, Marcus. An Introduction to the New Testament 5th ed., 16mo, pp. 247.
New York, 1892. (In discussing the synoptic problem the author joins issue
with Canon Wtstcott's hypothesis of an antecedent oral gospel, favoring the
double-source theory of Holtzmann. The work is an admirable specimen of
concise and accurate writing.)
Ebrard, J. H. A. The Gospel History. A Critical Investigation In Support of the
Historical Character of the Gospels. Translated by James Martin. Svo, pp.
602. Edinburgh, 1863.
Evans, Howard Heber. St. Paul tho Author of the Last Twelve Verses of the Second
Gospel. 16mo, pp. 83. London, 1886. (Rationalistic.)
Farrar, F. W. -The Messages of the Books: Being Discourses and Notes on the
Books of the New Testament. Svo. London, 1884 ; also New York.
Fisher, George P. The Beginnings of Christianity, with a View of the Roman
World at the Birth of Christ. Svo. New York, 1 877.
Gloag, Paton J. Introduction to the Pauline Epistles. Svo, pp. 488. Edinburgh
and New York, 1874.
Godet, P. Studies In the New Testament 12mo, pp. 398. New York, 1877.
Gregory, D. S. Why Four Gospels? or. The Gospel for All the World. 12mo, pp.
348. New, York and Cincinnati, 1880.
Howson, John S. The Metaphors of St. Paul, and Companions of St. Paul. With an
Introduction by H. B. Hackett 2 vols, in one, 16mo, pp. v, 91, 211. New
York, 1872.
Hug, John Leonard. An Introduction to the Writings of the New Testament From
the German. 2 vols., Svo, pp. 529, 682. London, 1827.
Huttoii, Richard H. The Historical Problems of the Fourth Gospel. In Essays,
Theological and Literary. 2 vols. London, 1871.
Kelly, Wm. Lectures Introductory to the Study of the Gospels. 12mo. London,
1867.
Kelly, Wm. Lectures Introductory to the Study of the Acts, the Catholic Epistles,
and the Revelation. ]2mo. London, 1870. '
Kelly, Wm. Introduction to the Study of the Epistles of Paul. 12mo. London,
1869.
Lardner, Nathaniel. The Credibility of the Gospel History. 5 vols. London, 1838.
Less, Godfrey. The Authenticity, Uncorrupted Preservation, and Credibility of the
NewTestament Translated by R. Kingdom. Svo. London, 1864.
Lewin, Thomas. Fasti Sacri ; or, A Key to the Chronology of the New Testament
Svo, pp. 429. London, 1865.
Lewin, Thomas. The Life and Epistles of St. Paul, with Numerous Illnstrationa,
finely engraved on wood; Maps, Plans, etc. 2 vols., 4to, pp. xxxiv, 414; xxii,
487. London, 1878.

LITERATURE OF BIBLICAL INTRODUCTION. 301
Martin, James. Origin and History of the New Testament 2d ed., 16mo. London,
1S72.
McWhorter, Geo. C. A Popular Hand-Book of the New Testament. 12mo, pp. 295.
New York, 1864.
Michaelis, J. D. Introduction to the New Testament. Translated, with Notes, etc.,
by Herbert Marsh. 6 vols., Svo. London, 1823.
Mill, William H. Observations ou the Attempted Application of Pantheistic Prin
ciples to the Theory and Historic Criticism of the Gospel. Edited by B, Webb.
2d ed., Svo. Cambridge, 1855.
Mitchell, B. C. The Critical Hand-Book. A Guide to the Study of the Authenticity,
Canon and Text of the Greek New Testament. Illustrated by Diagrams, Tables,
and a Map. 12mo, pp. 151. Andover, 1880.
Monod, Adolphe. St Paul Five Discourses. From the French, by J. H. Myers.
New ed., 12mo. Andover, 1876.
Nast, Wm. The Gospel Records. Their Genuineness, Authenticity, etc. 12nio,
pp. 373. Cincinnati, 1878.
Norton, Andrews. The Evidence of the Genuineness of the Gospels. Abridged ed.,
12mo, pp. 584. Boston, 1867.
Reuss, Edward. History of the Sacred Scriptures of the New Testament Trans
lated from the Fifth Revised and Enlarged German Edition, with Numerous
Bibliographic additions by Edward L. Houghton, A.M. Edinburgh, 1884.
2 vols. Boston. (The distribution of tho matter of this work is masterly. Book I
presents the history of the origin of the New Testament writings. Book II,
history of the collection of the writings — the canon. Book III, history of the
preservation of the writings — the text. Book IV, history of the circulation of
the writings— the versions. Book V, history of the theological use of the
writings, a history of exegesis,)
Roberts, Alexander. Discussions of the Gospels. Part I, on the Language used by
our Lord. Part II, on the Original Language of Matthew's Gospel. Svo, pp.
571. Cambridge and London, 1864. (Argues that Jesus spoke Greek.)
Salmon, George. A Historical Introduction to the Study of the Bocks of the New
Testament 4tli ed., Svo. London, 1890. (Strongly apologetic.)
Sanday, Wm. The Gospels in the Second Century. An Examination of the Critical
Part of a Work entitled "Supernatural Religion.'' Svo. London, 1876.
Sanday, Wm. The Authorship aud Historical Character of the Fourth Gospel con
sidered In reference lo the Contents of the Gospel itself. A Critical Essay.
Cloth, Svo. London, 1872.
Schaff, Philip. A Companion to the Greek Testament and the English Version,
with Fac-simile Illustrations of MSS. and Standard Editions of the New Testa
ment Pp. xxi, 618. New York, 1883. 3d ed. revised, 1888. (Included are
chapters on the language of the New Testament ; manuscripts of the New Testa
ment; the ancient versions; patristic quotations; textual criticism,^; the printed
Greek text; the Authorized Version; the Revised Version. There are also
appendices containing a list of printed editions of the Greek Testament; fac
similes of standard editions of the Greek Testament; a list of English and
American revisers ; list of American changes adopted by the English committee ;
adoption of the revision by the Baptists; with indexes of Scripture passages
explained and of subjects.)
Scrivener, F. H. Six Lectures on the Text of the New Testament, and the Ancient
MSS. which contain it. Crown Svo, pp. 216. Cambridge, London, 1875. (This
work is a more popular presentation of some of the chief topics discussed by

203 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
Dr. Scrivener in his Introduction to the Criticism of the New Testament The
principal MSS. and versions of the New Testament are described in tlie flrst four
lectures, and some important passages in the Gospels and Epistles are examined
in the remaining two, the entire series being " chiefly addressed to those who
do not read Greek."
Tischendorf, Constantine. Origin of the Four Gospels. Translated by William L
Gage. 16mo, pp. 287. Boston, 1868.
Tischendorf, Con.stantine. When were our Gospels Written ? An Argument; with a
Narrative of the Discovery of the Sinaitic Manuscript. 16mo. New York, 1867.
Toy, Crawford Howell. Quotations in the New Testament, Svo, pp. xiv, 321. New
York, 1884. (Takes the position that " the quotations in the New Testament
from the Old Testament are never made immediately from the Hebrew, but
always from the Greek or the Aramaic version.")
Tregelles, S. P. Canon Muratorianus. The Earliest Catalogue of the Books of the
New Testament Edited, with Notes, and a Fac-simile of the Manuscript in the
Ambrosian Library at Milan. 4to. London, 1868.
Upham, Francis W. Thoughts on the Holy Gospels : How they 'carae to be in
Manner and Form as they are. 12mo, pp. 378. New York and Cincinnati, 1881.
Weiss, Bernhard. A Manual of Introduction to the New Testament Translated
from the German by A. J. R. Davidson. 2 vols., Svo. Vol. I, pp. xv, 420 ;
vol. II, pp. xl, 426. New York, 1889. (After discussing the history and present
state of the science of Introduction with special reference to the Tiibingen ,
school. Dr. Weiss treats, in part flrst, of the origin of the Now Testament canon,
tracing its development from the earliest apostolic epistles until the close of the
canon in the West. In part second he takes up the history of the New Testa
ment writings In detail, flrst considering the Pauline Epistles, with an appendix
on the Epistle to the Hebrews. The Revelation of John, the Catholic Epistles,
and the Historical Books follow in turn, the synoptical question, and that of the
oldest source, as well as the Johannean question receiving consideration. A
comprehensive history of the New Testament text is given in the final appendix,
in which the author treats of the preservation of the text, of manuscripts, ver
sions, the printed text, and the philological elaboration of the text.)
Westcott, Brooke Foss. The New Testament in the Original Gree}c. Introduction
and Appendix. 12mo, pp. xxxii, 324. Appendix, pp. 188. New York, 1882.
Westcott, Brooke Foss. A General Survey of the Canon of the New Testament.
4th ed., 12mo, pp. Ivl, 587. London, 1875. (A most valuable work, which
discusses in three periods tho evidences for the authority of the canon of the
New Testament The Introduction notices the difficulties which affected the
formation of the canon. In the flrst period, 70-170 A. D., citations from the
canonical books, not necessarily by name, or uses of their language by tlie
apostolic fathers, and the Greek apologists are noticed; tlie early versions are
described, and also the uses of the language of the canonical writings by the
early heretics. In the second perioil, 170-303 A. D., the testimonies of the
churches to the acknowledged and the disputed books, and also the testimony
of heretical and apocryphal writings are brought forward. In the third period
— 303-397 A. D. — we have presented the testimonies of the age of Diocletian
and of the age of Councils. To all this is added tlie raedlaival and the sixteenth
century view of the canon. The discussion is carried forward with the cautious
thoroughness which is characteristic of Bishop Westcott.)
Westcott, Brooke Foss. Introduction to the Study of the Gpspels; with Historical
and Explanatory Notes. 12mo, pp. 476. Boston.

LITERATURE OF BIBLICAL INTRODUCTION. 203
Whately, Richard. Difficulties in the Writings of the Apostle Paul and other parts
of the NewTestament Prom^the Sth London edition. 12mo, pp. 376. Andover,
1865.

Besides the works above noticed there are numerous periodicals devoted to the
illustration of the Bible which are important for the student The following list
makes no pretensions to completeness, but may be found useful ; some of the peri
odicals are exclusively devoted to criticism and exposition.
BiWia. The monthly representative of the Englisli Exploration Fund. New York
and London,
Christian Thought. New York. The Bi-monthly organ of the American Institute of
Christian Philosophy, which is devoted to the "Study of the Relations Between
Science and Religion."
Expository Times. Edinburgh. (Designed to record the results of the best study of
the Bible in our times.)
Hebraica. Chicago. A Quarterly Journal in the Interests of Semitic Study. Edited
by the Staff of the Semitic Department of the University of Chicago.
Journal of Biblical Literature. Boston. Published by the Society of Biblical Lit
erature and Exegesis, whose object is " to Stimulate the Critical Study of the
Scriptures."
Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archasology. London. (This society com
prises the leading biblical scholars of Great Britain and the Continent.)
Texts and Studies of the Cambridge University. Edited by J. Armitage Robinson.
(These studies are devoted to Biblical and Patristic Literature. Vol. I Contains
the Apology of Aristides ; Vol. II, A Study of the Codex Bezas. The studies
are not issued at stated times.)
Tiie Biblical World. Chicago. A Monthly Journal, devoted to the Bible and Bib
lical interests. (This is a continuation of the Old and New Testament Student.)
The Critical Review of Theological and Philosophical Literature. Edited by Pro
fessor S. D. P. Salmond. Edinburgh. (Devotes much space to Criticism and
Exposition.)
The Expositor. London.
The Thinker. London and New York. A Monthly Magazine of Christian Litera
ture and Review of World-wide Christian Thought. (In 1892 it absorbed the
Magazine of Christian Literature.)

204 SPECLA.L THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
/ SECTION XIH.
BIBLICAL CRITICISM.
J. S. Semler, Abhandlung von f reier Untersuchung des Kanon, Halle, 1771-75, 4 vols. ; Jod.
neringa, Ueber d. rechten Gebrauch u. Mlssbrauoh d. bibl. Kritik, from the Dutch, by Beckhaus,
Offenbach, 1S04; P. Hitzlg, Begriff der Kritik, am A. T. prakti-sch erOrtert, Heidelberg, 1831;
M. Drechsler, Die Unwissenschaftlichkeit Im Geblete d. Kritik, etc., Leips., 1837; G. A. Hault,
oienbarungs^laube u. Kritik d. bibl. Gesehichtsbucher, am Beispiele d. B. Josua In ihrer noth-
wendigenEinheit dargethan, Stuttg., 1843; G. L. Hahn, Gegenwartlgen Stand d. N. T. Kritik,
Breslau, 1848 ; Ebrard, In Herzog's Encykl., s. v. Kritik ; B. B. Edwards, Certain Erroneous
Methods and Principles of Biblical Criticism, Bib. Sacra., vl, p. 185 ; Kltto's Cyclopaedia,
vol.1, p. 487.
Biblical Criticism operates on the historical ground opened to
The objects our view by the study of isagogics. Its task is, to
bTS^tl determine, on the one hand, the authenticity of the
Criticism. Scriptures as a whole ; on the other, the uncorrupted,
character (integrity) of single passages or the entire text, and also
to restore the true reading where it has been lost or crowded out.
It conducts its work on scientiiic principles, and makes use of avail
able historical monuments and of the evidence afforded by internal
marks in the writings themselves under examination.
No pious mind need be startled by the phrase "Biblical Criti
cism,'" as though it implied a purpose to criticise and force the
text. Of such criticism there has been no lack ; but here no criti
cism of the contents, whether historical or dogmatical, is intended,
but simply an examination into the authenticity of the text as it
exists, either in its parts or as a whole. At the first glance even
such inquiry may seem to couflict with the reverence we owe to the
Bible, though this reverence itself, when more correctly under
stood, invites to conscientious investigation of the Scriptures." The
thought that God has always watched over the Bible, is, in this gen
eral form, the presumption of a pious consciousness, which may be
' " It is very difficult to conceive of this word (criticism) as denoting a real unity in
the technical meaning which has been attached to it." Schleiermacher, Herm. u. Kritik
(at the beginning) ; comp. his Abhandl. iib. Begriff u. Eintheilung der philolog. Kritik
in Akadem. Reden u. Abhandlungen (Sammtl. Werke zur Phil., vol. iii, p. 38) ; and
also Rothe, Zur Dogmatik, p. 310: "There assuredly exists a criticism that springs
from the full confidence of faith as well as one that takes its rise in doubt ; and the
former is inborn with Christian piety, at least with that of the evangelical type. God
has not made, and did not intend to make, the task a trifling one for us. He gives
nothing whatever to man in its finished state ; all his gifts are imparted in such a way
as to abundantly tax human energy — ^this for the reason that we are human. This
applies also to the Scriptures ; and if we consent to undertake the labor imposed on
us by God and subject the Bible to historical criticism, it does not follow that we
thereby exalt ourselves above and constrain it, but rather that we are sincerely en
deavoring to learn its true meaning."
' Upon this point comp. esp. Hauff, supra, p. 19, sgg.

THE BIBLE A PROVIDENTIAL BOOK. 205
sustained at the bar of science, and even finds its justification at the
hands of science. But to decide beforehand how God should have
watched, what things he must have guarded against The Bible prov-
to prevent the 'Bible from becoming a book like other identiaiiy
books, is an arrogant assumption equal to that of ra- ^'l^'^'^^f' I^*
tionalistic criticism in the other direction. It is an man vicissi-
historical fact to which we are, in all humility, to as- ^^^^'
sent, that God has chosen to permit the Bible to pass through the
same human processes by which other written monuments have
been and are being tested. This will be apparent to every person
who has looked with an unprejudiced eye into the history and for
tunes of the canon.'
It is doubtless true that (in recent times, especially) criticism has
been often employed for perverse and even frivolous Bjbucai cnti-
ends," and rarely has a book been subjected to so much cism, though
abuse as has the Bible ; but it is by no means wise to ed, stiii of
oppose uncritical to hypercritical arbitrariness. Only a ^reat value.
strictly scientific procedure, unbiassed by dogmatic preconceptions
of any kind, will naieet the demands of the case.' While it is true
' Comp. Herder, Briefe?, N&. 1, "B'amsh the last remains of the leaven of the opin
ion that this book is unlike other books in its outward form and matter, so that, for
instance, no various readings can occur in it, because it is a Divine book. Various
readings do occur (and yet but one can be the correct reading) — this is fact, not opin
ion. . . . Whether a person who makes a copy of the Bible thereby becomes at once a
faultless God ? ... No parchment acquires a firmer nature because it bears the Bible,
and no ink becomes thereby indelible." Similiariy, Eichhom, Einl. ins. A. T., p. 57,
sy. (2d ed.), "Every person who censures the Biblical scholar, or even sighs with
pious anxiety because he examines one book after another of the Old (or New) Testa
ment for this purpose, applying critical exactness and judicial strictness to his work^
must either remain unacquainted with antiquity and profane literature, together with
the processes? employed in that field, or be so extremely weak in mental powers as to
fail to see the serious consequences resulting from the neglect of such tests, as well as
the invincible host of doubts which can only be driven from their entrenchments by the
proposed (i e., critical) method."
" It must be admitted, however, that complaints upon this point have been exagger
ated, as, for instance, by Drechsler, who is governed by the idea that " every assault
upon the genuineness of a Scriptural book is at the same time an attack directed
against the belief in salvatioh through Christ."— Page 12, etc. ; comp. Hauff, p. 255.
' "Every person is sufficiently protected against the arbitrary tendencies of his own
nature who enters on the investigation animated by a sincere love of truth, and against
the arbitrariness of others by the liberty to test assertions and arguments made by
them," Hauff, p. 45 ; " It is the especial task of our age to place this department
of theology (criticism) in a new and clearer light, to provide new fundamental con
ceptions and a new basis for this science, since the old has become decayed and un
serviceable " Hahn, p. 7 ; " I am convinced that in order to renew the Christian faith
we need, not less, but more, investigation," Bunsen, Hippolytus, i, 88 ; " On its bright
side, criticism is the self-rejuvenating element of the Church as a whole, the boast of

20G SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCI/OPJSDIA.
that the authenticity of many a book or -single passage has been
doubted because it gave discomfort to the critic's subjectivity, it
yet appears, from the history of criticism, that genuine critics, while
abstaining from all passion, have brought within the range of their
researches matters having no immediate -connexion with the faith,
and have given them the most conscientious consideration, and that
upon the whole, and on the large scale, their judgment has been con
trolled by other than predetermined dogmatical reasons. How can
a dogmatical system derive advantage from the fact that the ac
count of the adulterous woman (John viii) is assigned to a different
Gospel; that a doxology (Rom. xvi) is assigned to a different place;
or even that the genuineness of Second Peter is by some surrendered?
Not a single Bible truth is thereby deprived of its support. Criti-
The objection cism has also been frequently denounced as paltry, and
that Biblical jt may doubtlcss Surprise the layman or the beginner
Criticism IS •' . . ^ ¦' °
often paltry. that extensive investigation should be made into the
transposition of a word, or concerning a particle, which might seem
to exert no immediate influence on the meaning. Precisely this
devotion to the letter of the Scriptures (which was cultivated "for
the glory of Jesus Christ" by the pious Bengel) constitutes, with
all its apparent dryness, the finest flower of scientific earnestness
and the most effectual restraint upon recklessness, while, on the
contrary, uncritical ignorance, which, for instance, would, in order
to possess an additional proof-text, retain passages like I John v, 7,
though known to be not genuine, is rendering but poor service to
the interests of piety. The glory of science is this, that it presses
onward in the course marked out by an incorruptible love of truth,
without yielding to the power of outside influences.
SECTION XIV.
CONDITIONS or CANONICITY.
The claim of a book to be canonical is only partially established by
the acknowledgment of its genuineness; but the canonical char
acter of the Bible certainly depends on the integrity of the, separate
passages contained in it, and consequently on^the purity of the text.
bookiaud^T' '^^ ^°^^ spurious (spurius, vodog) is, in its hnrshest
sages to be de- nicaning, applied to works intentionally ascribed to
Bibii!^f criu- '^° ^"*^^^* "*^i* ^lio"i t^ey <iid not. originate ; aud a
cism. number of such works was known to the early Church,
the evangelical Church and theology ; on the darker side, criticism has, by its deform
ity, filled one of the most pungent pages in the history of the Protestant Church."
J. P. Lange, Das Apostol. Zeitalter, I, p. 9 ; comp. also the Periodisirung der krit
Operationen in der evangel. Kirche, p. 10, by the same author.

GROUNDS OF CANONICITY. 207
bearing the names of Peter, James, Thomas, etc., and seeking to
intrude themselves into the canon, from which they were, however,
subsequently rejected as apocryphal.' In this instance the denial
of genuineness ^ involved the loss of canonicity also. But the ques
tion of genuineness may relate to more than the canonicity of a
book. The admission that a book possesses the highest title to a
place in a collection of sacred and even Divinely-inspired books,
does not necessarily preclude inquiry into the propriety with which
it is attributed to the author to whom tradition or the inscription
(of later date than the work itself) ascribes it. It will hardly do,
however, to claim inspiration for a book whose very first sentence
is a forgery. If the pastoral epistles, for example, are not Paul's,
then some one has palmed off a deception in his name, and they are
not deserving of respectful consideration. It will be useless to
argue that, though written under false pretences, they may be
yet canonical, although this concession has very unwisely been
made. The greatest caution is, therefore, required at this point. The
good name of the Bible would be damaged seriously by the assump
tion of well-meant imitations of apostolical productions ; for such an
hypothesis throws a very equivocal light upon the question of the
integrity of the Biblical writers, and attributes to them arts which
can hardly be made to consist with the character of sincere dis
ciples of Christ. Fortunately, the results of the destructive crit
icism applied to the authorship of New Testament books are not
yet so well established as its originators would persuade them
selves they are. Criticism finds here a proper field for a frank dis
cussion of the reasons for and against, by which means the questions
involved can be brought to a final settlement ; but let the thought
that it might possibly become necessary even to give up one book
or another cause no alarm in advance, as though our salvation
' The N. T. Apocrypha has been published by J. A. Schmid, Pseudo-Nov. Test,
Helmst, 1809, 4to. ; J. A. Fabricius, Cod. Apocryphus N. T., Hamb., 1719, 3 vols.;
C. Ch. L. Schmid, Corpus vet. Apocryph. extra Biblia, Hadam., 1805 ; J. C. Thilo, Cod.
Apocryphus N. T., etc., torn, i. Lips., 1832 (incomplete); Tischendorf, Evangelia
Apocrypha, Lips., 1853; same. Acta Apostol. Apocrypha, 1851, and Apocalypses
Apocryphae, Lips., 1866 ; K. W. Borberg, Bibliothek der N. T. Apocryphen, Stuttg.,
1840-41, 2 vols. J. P. Kleuker, Die Apocryphen des N. T., Hamb., 1790; Nitzsch, De
Apocr. Evv., etc., Viteb., 1804, 4to. ; Arens, De Evang. Apocryph., etc., Gott., 1836, 4to. ;
Tischendorf, De Evangg. Apocryph., origine et usu, Hague, 1851, (prize essay). See
also Hone's Apocryphal N. T., Lond., 1820, and N. Y., 1849, Svo., and Abp. Wake's
Apost Fathers, Lond., 1830, and Hartford, 1834, Svo.).
' The word has reference solely to the authorship of a book, and not to its fitness
to rank as canonical.

208 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
depended on such a contingency ; unlikely as that contingency
may be.'
The principle applies to the Old Testament as well. Let it
be proven that certain Psalms were not composed by the royal
singer himself, but merely ad modum Davidis — would this de
stroy their religious worth? We should no more exclude them
from the canon, than we would exclude from the hymn book a beau
tiful poem by an unknown author of the seventeenth century, con-
corning which we learn that it has been erroneously attributed to
Paul Gerhard. Is ^he description of God's servant in Isa. liii less
applicable to Christ on the supposition that Isa. xl-lx was written
by another (later) than Isaiah, a deutero-Esaias? ' Who, moreover,
would find the book of Job to be less impressive because its author
is unknown ? Even Pope Gregory I. was able to form a more in
dependent judgment upon this question than many Protestants liv
ing ten centuries later. It follows that the canonicity of a book
may be maintained, even when its authorship is left in doubt, pro
vided the book itself contains nothing that conflicts with the nor
mal character' of the theocracy in the Old, or of the Gospel in the
New, Testament. But should criticism extend its investigations to
the question of canonicity also ? If so, to what extent ? That it did
so in the ancient Church is a matter of fact, and it is to the exer
cise of Such criticism that we owe the rejection of apocryphal writ-
' A very correct and much more intelligent view than that entertained by many
pious people of to-day was advanced by Richard Baxter (died 1691) in his work De
casibus conscientiae, T. iii, p. 1 74 : " Non est ad salutem necessarium, ut quis credat
singulos libros aut versus Scripturae esse canonicos aut scriptos per spiritum Dei. Si
Uber aliquis periret aut in dubium vocaretur, v. g. epistola Judae, non inde sequeretur,
una cum ipso omnem veram fidem spemque salutis perituram." Comp. also Episcopli
Institut. iv, 1. " It must become evident at some time," says J. L. Riiokert, Theologie,
i, Leips., ISBl, Pref., p. 4, " that all the results of criticism may be acknowledged, and
a thoroughly independent mode of thinking may be followed, without destruction to
the Christian character. It must become evident that Christian faith and volition do
not depend upon our judgment respecting this or that particular book." Even Kahnis
(Dogmat.), occupying the strict confessional ground of Lutheranism, has asserted his
right to an independent position with regard to the canon ; comp. his Zeugniss v. d.
Grundwahrheiten d. Protestantismus gegen Dr. Hengstenberg, Leips., 1862.
" Umbreit (Prakt. Comm. zum Josaia, p. 308) beautifully observes, " The auroral
light of grace and salvation breaks forth from the joyously animated discourses which
are appended to the book of Isaiah in a well-ordered succession. We hear the voice
of one of the greatest prophets at the close of the Babylonish exile. M>en though his
name is not Isaiah, his high importance is apparent from every word proclaimed by
him. . . . Well may we term him (this anonymous) the evangelist of the old covenant,
for no one of the prophets has declared like him the glad tidings of the day-star from
on high." The thorough discussions in relation to Daniel, which Bunsen places in the
mouth of his Hippolytus, ii, p. 296, sgg., are very similar.

REASONS FOR TEXT CRITICISM. -OIJ
ings. Whether the exclusion of such writings was absolute, or
whether the boundary line between canonical and apocryphal is'
still in dispute, is a different question. The recognition of a dis--
tinct class of dvnXeyofitva, and the distinction between proto- and
deutero-canonical writings are of themselves evidence that such crit
icism was exercised. The Reformation asserted in its own behalf
this right of the ancient Church,' and more recent times have like
wise recognized it as a right and so employed it. We readily admit
that the common feeling of the Church is not likely to consent that'
the slightest alteration in the canon be attempted, and cannot eY<3,n-
desire it for ourselves ; ^ but the right of judgment must be con
ceded and science must steadily respect it. However unlikely it
may now be that at this late day books will be excluded from the
canon by general consent, it is yet more unlikely that the changes in the '
canon w ill receive any addition or be enriched by the eanonuniikeiy..
incorporation with it of such writings as were formerly not knowtf •
at all or were misunderstood.'
It is not the genuineness of the sacred writings alone, however,
that engages attention, but their integrity as well ; and the lat
ter is even more directly necessary to the canonical reception of
a book than the former. Whole books or extended paragraphs, as
well as particular expressions, or even single adjectives, partic,les, .
etc., may have slipped into a completed work or bave been attached
to a revered name, whether by a designed insertion (interpolation)
or through mistake, by which, e. g., a marginal note (gloss) written
by a later hand was transferred to the text. The text may, more-
o.ver, have become corrupt in places or be defective by reason of the
carelessness or inexperience of copyists, or for other reasons to be
discussed in connexion with introduction itself (faded characters,
abbreviations, absence of di^-isions between words, etc.). That-
' Comp. Luther's criticisms of the Epistle of St James and of the Apocalypse. With
this comp. the opinion of L. Osiander (1614): In eo autem erratum est, quod epistolam
Jacobi et Judae et posteriores duas Joannis inter canonica scripta numerant, quae
soripta non longe post apostolonim tempora non pro scriptis canonicis habita sunt . . .
Recte autem omissa Apocalypsis ; ea enim non est Joannis Apostoli, sed cujusdam
Joannis Theoiogi, et multa habet adeo obscura et perplexa, ut non multi dextro in
ejus lectione versari queant — in Spittler, Ueber d. 60 Laod. Kanon, p. 16. This cita
tion is not designed as an approval of such opinions in themselves, but simply as a
proof that independent views respecting the elements of the canon may consist with a
decided faith in the Divine nature of Christianity.
« Comp. Schleiermacher, § 114, sg.
' Discoveries made up to the present time (e. g., of a lost letter by Paul to the Cor
inthians) have not, however, been sufficiently attested. But comp. Schleiermacher,
§ in. 14

210 Sl^ECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
such things have occurred is, as Herder observes, not supposition,
but fact.' Who can even assure us that, despite the great number
of MSS. of the Scriptures, none of which reach back to the time of
the original founding, the original form of expression was not lost
here and there, and that- this could not have been the case at a very
early period, perhaps at the time when the first copy was made from
the autograph?
Upon the purity of the text depends the internal value and char
acter of our Biblical canon. It may be said that as a book may be
canonicali, though found to emanate from another than the reputed
author, even so a single passage, e. g., 1 John v, 7, may be allowed
Apuretextm- to stand in the Bible if it does not contradict the
dispensable., analogia fidei. Reverence for the Bible, however, re
quires that every thing within our power be done to secure it in a
form of the highest attainable purity, though the nature of the
case is such as to prevent more than an approximate accomplish
ment of the task. SECTION XV.
CRITICAL METHODS.
Criticism is, according to its objects, divided into external and
internal, and, according to its results, into negative and positive.
A further distinction is sometimes made between the criticism of
books and that of words or texts •,' but the two cannot easily be
kept apart, though they are employed on different objects— the
former being more concerned with the authenticity of entire books
or separate paragraphs, the latter with the genuineness and purity
of ^ the text (comp. the preceding §). It is usual, though inappro
priate, tO' designate the criticism of sections and books the higher,
and that of words and separate passages the lower criticism.' Not
less misleading is the usage of others, who endeavor to include in
the higher criticism what we would, more appropriately, term the
internal, and in the lower criticism what we characterize as the
external.' The truth is that the business of the critic deals with
' " The evidence which lies on the surface long ago destroyed all the prejudices
which formerly prevailed on this subject."— Schleiermacher, g 116. To this we add,
"Ought, at least, to have destroyed them." Wetstein, Proleg., p. 4, adduces a note
worthy example from the Aldine ed. of the LXX, in Gen. xliv, which reads ol Mpunai
airijv, instead of ol 6voi airHv (Dn'',7lbn). The MS. had Hvoi instead of bvoi, which was
taken for an abbreviation of HvSpuiroi, and in this way asses were transformed into
"®"' 'Danz, p. 210. ' Schleiermacher, § 118. Note.
^ * Some writers apply the phrase, "the lower criticLsm," to the genuineness, etc., of
single letters and words, and that of "the higher criticism " to entire books and sec
tions. Schleiermacher has, however, forcibly demonstrated the mechanical and un
tenable character of this distinction. Comp. Herm. u. Krit., p. 267 ; comp. 277.

OBJECTS OF INTERNAL CRITICISM. 211
various combinations which are all equally important, but which
are sometimes directed toward the external, historical, empirical,
and sometimes toward the internal and psychological side. We
accordingly give the name of external criticism to that External criti-
which seeks to demonstrate the authenticity and genu- cism defined.
ineness of a book, and also to discover the true readings from exist
ing facts, viz. : from existing testimonies taken from Christian an
tiquity, from MSS. versions, etc. This is by no means to be de
nominated a lower criticism, as if it were contrasted with anoth
er kind, which might proudly claim a higher place, or even disre
gard its existence, but rather constitutes the necessary basis of all
critical procedure, unless we intend to build on air. But this ex
ternal application of the so-called critical apparatus is not alone
sufficient ; for on the one hand that apparatus is itself subject to
higher critical conditions, since the age and the importance of MSS.
versions, etc., must first be ascertained,' and on the other hand the
most perfectly constructed critical apparatus cannot accomplish
everything. It is necessary that internal criticism be brought in to
complement the other. In this way conclusions may be „
. ^ , . , , . . « . "^ , The office of
arrived at respecting the authenticity ot a written work, interna] crio-
even though the testimony from external sources be '**°''
indefinite or conflicting, or though no such testimony exist — the
means employed being comparison with other works by the same
author (e. g., the Ep. to the Hebrews compared with the acknowl
edged writings of St. Paul, the Apocalypse with the gospel and the
epistles by St. John, 2d with Ist Peter and with discourses in the
Acts by the same apostle), the collocation and estimating of histor
ical conditions (e. g., in connexion with disputed predictions in the
prophets), and finally the careful observation and comparison of the
language in any particular period, its grammatical forms, figures of
speech, etc. Upon the question of integrity the disturbance of the
natural connexion caused by an interpolated passage (I John v, 7-8)
may be sufficient to arouse the suspicion of spuriousness, even before
the authority of MSS. is appealed to ; or with regard to the choice
between different existent readings an important influence may be
exerted, in addition to that exercised by the external superiority of
some particular MS., by the internal relation of the passage to the
whole connexion. It also becomes possible occasionally to show by
internal criticism how a false reading could have originated, and
' In this regard compare the different critical systems by Bentley, Mill, Bengel, Wet
stein, Griesbach, Hug, Matthaei, Scholz, Lachmann, Tischendorf. At this point crit
icism and introductory science interpenetrate each other. See Schleiermacher, § 120;
de Wette, Einl., § 37, sgg.

212 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOP.a:DIA.
not rarely is it compelled to decide whether the preference is to be
given to an easy or a more difficult reading ; for while it is certain
that words have been changed because they were not understood in
such a sense or such a connexion, it is equally certain that many a
difficult reading was introduced into the text by ill-timed jiolishing
or thoughtless want of care on the part of copyists.
To discover the proper bounds to be observed betwieen external
carefully fixed and internal criticism in their application, is conceded
limits to be set ^ ^ difficult. Great care is certainly required in con-
to internal cnt- • T_- i? T_ 1
icism. nexion with the latter, and much mischiet has ah-eady
been caused by its use ; but we cannot on that account give an un
qualified assent to the idea that the critic's work should be of a
purely mechanical nature, and that the authority of MSS. should
alone be allowed to decide.' Harmonious activity of the intellect
ual powers, the combination of external with internal circumstances,
comprehension and judgment, doetrina and ingenium, must go hand
in hand in this pursuit. Who will deny that even the earliest and
best codices were exposed to accidents, the very thing which the
keen scent of criticism, certainly a natural endowment which is to
be ennobled by learning, is to discover when possible ? Above all
arbitrariness and accident, however, stands science, combined with
liberty and a higher necessity. SECTION XVL
POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE CEITICISM.
The negative criticism endeavours simply to ascertain and cast out
Negative and what is spurious as a whole or in part ; while the posi-
cism; functions ''^^^ criticism seeks, with reference to authenticity, to
of each. discover the real authors of anonymous and pseudony
mous works, and with reference to integrity to restore the text to
its original condition. The former, when sufficient external evi
dence is wanting, is done by hypothesis, the latter by conjecture.
It is generally more easy to determine with certainty that a work
was not written by the author to whom tradition has attributed it,
than to discover who the real author was ; and it is likewise more
easy to arrive at the conclusion that a passage has been corrupted
or mutilated than, at a definite result in settling the true reading.
Positive criticism receives occasional aid from external helps, how
ever, even though they be not wholly adequate. Thus, e. g., the
testimony of Tertullian (De pndic. c. 20) led many to adopt the
' Comp., e. g., Rettig's notice of Lachmann's N. T. m Studd. u. Kritt, 1832, No 4.
Baur (contra Thiersch et al.) has said much that is worthy of note, in opposition to
pure mechanism in critical processes.

POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE CRITICISM. 213
theory that the Epistle to the Hebrews was written by Barnabas.
Sometimes, however, hypothesis puts forth claims, based solely upon
possibilities, as in the case of Eichhorn's assumption of a primitive
Gospel, and in many other in.stances of recent times. The claim
of hypothesis upon our approval is even less authoritative in the
latter class of cases ( j. e., of appeal to bare possibilities)
than in the former, and many writers have accordingly cies of critical
forsaken the way of hypothesis, as being entirely too '>5T>otheses.
uncertain, and have ceased altogether from making use of the so-
called positive criticism; bolder inquirers, however, still continue
to employ it.' Similar considerations apply to conjectures relating
to the readings. A former age was entirely too prone to apply
conjecture, at first in the department of profane, and subsequently
also in that of sacred, literature ; but they are likewise wrong who
unconditionally reject conjecture, for it is known that conjectures
have occasionally been confirmed by readings that were afterward dis
covered. While therefore it may be advisable in general to insist
upon the rule that " whatever of correct results may be obtained in
the way of conjecture must be supported by facts connected with
the history of the text," the rule must yet be so modified as not to
forbid conjectural attempts in needful cases."
' Comp. Hitzlg, supra. The positive criticism is especially recommended by Hahn ;
understanding thereby not a criticism which so dreads negation as to cling with firmer
grasp to the traditional, but that which conquers the negative, and which by concen
trating its attention upon its object— the several books of the Bible and the cir-
cumstances of history— assigns to such books their definite and assured historical
place. « Schleiermacher, §§ 119 and 121, and Kritik, p. 291 : "The canon that the divina-
tonal process (conjecture) is to be allowed only where documentary aids are wanting
or even that when the latter are not wanting, the right to employ conjectural processes
does not exist, the best that manuscripts afford being all that we are authorized to
ask-this canon does not apply absolutely, and may not even be assumed, because the
interests of hermeneutics would suffer loss thereby." But see p. 312, and comp.
Herder. " Conjecture, in the critical sense, resembles the scalpel of the surgeon It
may unfortunately become necessary and beneficial, but only terribly necessary, terri
bly advantageous ; and the wretch who plays and whittles with it, cuttii^ away at pleas
ure, now an ear, now an eye, now a nose, that does not suit his fancy— but mutilates
himself." Specimens of vain conjecture are given by Herder in the Appendix to the
Briefe zweener Briider Jesu (Werke z. Rel. u. Theol., viii, p. 291). Similarly, Luoke,
Divmatorial criticism involves a dangerous element, and is least of all the concern
of everybody ; but it is needed for complementing the theological science of the canon."
(Stud. a. Krit., 1834, No. 4, p. 267). Comp. Rosenkranz, Encykl., p. 121, sgg. ; de
Wette, Einl., § 59. j < f , -ii

214 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

SECTION XVII.
THE BELATION OP CRITICISM TO EXEGESIS.
Although criticism is, in its idea, distinguished from exegesis,
... . ^. assuming; the relation of an auxiliary to the latter, it
Relattonofcrit- => . , . . i- i •
icism to exe- can yet be conceived of in reality only in connexion
^^^' witl the functions of interpretation ; for an interest in
criticism must be aroused, and a sense lor it be quickened, by ex
egesis. The two sciences must accordingly be conceived of as con
tinually acting upon each other, and therefore as conditioning and
aiding each other.
Nothing is more hurtful, and nothing has done more to damage
Mis hiet d criticism in the estimation of pious people, than the ill-
by dabblers in timed and Superficial dabbling with it of persons who,
criticism. before having properly read a single book in the Bible,
or having been tested in the work of exposition, undertake to deal
exclusively with the surface results of criticism, and swear by them
as though they were established facts — who pronounce their dictum
about the Bible without being well read in the Bible, or having
learned anything of value from it. How frequently has a taste
for the Bible been destroyed at the outset by forcing upon the no
tice of young men such oracular decisions of criticism, before they
had become well acquainted with the sacred text ! If it is highly
unpedagogical to trouble pupils who have not thoroughly read an
ode of Horace or an oration by Cicero, with criticism in connexion
with the explanation of the classics, it is nothing less than sin to
disgust young theologians with the study of the Bible from the be
ginning, or, what is worse, to lead them to cultivate a foolish self-
conceit, by means of depreciatory criticisms. It might therefore
be sufficient for the beginner at first if he were to make himself
acquainted with the tasks which criticism is to perform, leaving the
practical employment of its operations for a later time, when he
shall have become familiarly acquainted with his Bible, and shall
have tasted somewhat of its positive contents, even having refreshed
and nourished his soul thereby. This is possible, however, only
in the rugged way of a thorough exegesis. Critical virtuosity, as
Criticaiandex- Schleiermacher terras it, is to be attained only as the
egeticai skui result of practice ;' and exegetical virtuosity is its neoes-
praotioe. sary prerequisite, although rieither of them can attain
to its completion without the aid of the other. Such reciprocal ac
tion between exegesis and criticism is self-evident, however. If tho
choice of a reading affects the interpretation, or, rather, if it pro-
' Schleiermacher, § 122, sq.

HISTORY Oir CRITICISM. 21,7
vides the matter for interpretation, it is conversely true that the
correct explanation of a passage throws needed light upon the vari
ous readings which exist, so that, not unfrequently, a more accurate
comprehension of the connexion inclines us to readopt a reading
which we had rejected, or to reject one which we believed ourselves
obliged to hold, before the pas.sage itself was understood. The
authenticity of a book and the acknowledgment of its
author may likewise be affected, and suspicion against exegesis act on
the book itself be excited, by the misunderstanding of ®^ °^^^^'
a, passage, while a profounder apprehension of the writer's spirit
and of the situation may restore its genuineness. Conversely, a
superficial knowledge respecting the authenticity of a book may al
lay all questionings, while a thorough examination of the matter
may excite doubts warranted by the facts, and call for a more ex
haustive discussion of the points in doubt. It will thus be seen
how necessary it is, first, in every case, and before the judgment
has been formed, to have regard to the results obtained by others,
and in this way to employ in reading the Bible a text as critically
cmrect as may be possible; but, second, while making use of the
best critical aids at command, to preserve unbiassed the keenness of
our own mental vision in the work of interpretation.
HiSTOEY OF CeITICISM.
To provide the history of criticism fully is the task of Intro
duction. The text of the Old Testament, upon which „ . , . ,
' r Historical
the copyists expended conscientious care (the syna- sketch of Bib-
gogue-rolls), engaged the attention first of all of the "''*' Criticism,
Masorites, Jewish scholars, whose principal school '"'® *^''*°''"**-
flourished at Tiberias in the beginning of the sixth century. They
compared the codices, noted the various readings, (Keri and Chetib,)
and even anxiously numbered the words and syllables. To them
we likewise owe the vowel-signs, pointings, etc. Among Christians,
meritorious services were rendered by Origen (f 254), who com
pared the Greek versions of the LXX, of Aquila, Theodotion, and
Symmachus with the Hebrew original (Hexapla) ; and by .lerome,
who improved the existing Latin version (Itala) and published a
version of his own (Vulgata), which soon came into general use and
acquired ecclesiastical authority in the Western Church. The prej
udices which this man, usually so anxiously cautious, was compelled
to encounter in connexion with this work, are well known. The
"two-legged asses," as he terms his opponents, even went to the
length of calling him falsarius, sacrilegus, corrupter sanctarum
Scripturarum ! The New Testament was gradually collected. The

21C SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
originals are no longer extant. The most ancient MSS. do not reach
back further than the fourth century. An inclination to adulterate
the text was apparent at au early 'day, against which the Church was
obliged to guard. -Copies were made, in the first instance, for the
use of Churches, and " without any philological supervision." It
was reserved for science in later ages to divide the different codices,
according to their age (Uncials and Cursives), or according to the
countries in which they originated (Oriental and Occidental), into
families and recensions. The most important MSS. of
MostJmportant .--,,ai -i - r i\ •
MS8.oitheNew the Ncw Testament are, Ihe Cod. Alexandrinus (A) m
Testament ^.j^^ British Museum at London ; the Vaticanus (B) at
Rome ; the Codex Regius (Parisiensis) ; also the Cod, Ephraem Syr.
(a palimpsest) at Paris (C); and the Codex Cantabrigiensis (D).
To these must be added, as of highest importance, the Codex Si-
naiticus {a), discovered by Tischendorf in- 1 85 9 and published in
1862; 6omp. Stud. u. Krit., I860, 4; 1802, I, 4; 1864, 3 (by Wies-
eler); Gott. Gelehrt. Anzeigen, 1860, No. 177; Prot. Kirchenzei
tung, 1862, No. 50; Zaracke's Centralbl., I860; Literaturbl, 1863,
No. 69; Hilgenfeld's Zeitschr., 1864, I, and *Volbeding: Constantin
Tischendorf, 1862; Tischendorf, Die Sinaibibel, etc., 1871. See
also article on Sinaitic Manuscript in M'Clintock and Strong's Cy
clopaedia, and Harman's Iiitroductinn, Appendix. This Codex is
distinguished not only by its age (T'isehendorf assigns it to the for
mer half of the fourth century, which is, however, already denied
by others) but also by its completeness, even the Epistle of Barn;i-
bas, in the Greek text, and the Shepherd of Hermas being included
in it.
But little was done for criticism during the Middle Ages. Al-
^,..,. , ^ ,., cuin, about A. D. 802, improved the Vulgata based on
Biblical Critl- ' . .^ ^ ' °
cism In the the translation of Jerome, by the command of Charle-
Middle Ages, magne. New revisions were undertaken by Lanfranc
in the eleventh century and Cardinal Nicholas in the twelfth. At
about this time the Correctoria biblica appeared (concerning which
see De Wette, Einleitung, p. 108, sq.). The work of Cardinal Hugo
de St. Caro in the thirteenth century, who divided the Bible into
chapters, was rather mechanical than critical. The division of the
New Testament into verses was not performed until the sixteenth
century, when Robert Stephens devised the present arrangement.
The undertaking of the Cardinal Ximenes, shortly before the Refor
mation, was, on the other hand, a magnificent conception, to which
we owe the so-called Complutensian Polyglot, which was followed
by those of Antwerp, Paris, and, London, being critical collocations
of the text and versions after the manner of Origen. A rich bib-

THE RATIONALISTIC CRITICISM. 217
lical apparatus was given in the prolegomena to the London Poly
glot (also published separately) of Brian Walton (f 1661). The
first critical edition of the New Testament was issued „
by Erasmus (Basle, 1516) at nearly the time when the tion of the New
Complutensian Polyglot was completed. Testament.
All this work was text criticism; but the Reformation called
into life a universal spirit of inquiry. Luther permitted himself to
form independent opinions respecting various parts of the Scrip
tures, though he was rather infiuenced by subjective feeling than
by scientific considerations. The progress of an unbiassed criticism
was long hindered afterward by the strictness with which the Prot
estant Church clung to the principle of adherence to the letter of
Scripture, and to the idea of inspiration connected with that prin
ciple. - The Reformed Formula Consensus raised even the inspira
tion of the vowel-points into a dogma! A new critical impulse
was given, on the other hand, to the Roman Catholic Church in
the seventeenth century by Richard Simon, who expressed inde
pendent views, among other things, with regard to the composition
of the Pentateuch, etc. (In relation to him see Bernus, Richard
Simon et son histoire critique du vieux Test., Lausanne, 1869.) The
dogmatists of both Churches were, however, unceasing in their
efforts to fill up the way which he had opened, to use Lessing's ex
pression, " with floods of rubbish constantly renewed." The criti
cism of the text likewise came to an end, after the age had become
accustomed to regard the textus receptus of the sixteenth centui-y
as an authority. A new interest in it was excited by Revival of Bib-
the English scholars Fell, Mill, Bentley, and Kennicott f^'^ig^g'j^'^^';"
(the latter in Old Testament criticism). When Wet- tury.
stein, having been encouraged by Bentley, was preparing his critical
edition of the New Testament, about the middle of the eighteenth
century, he was exposed to severe attacks of opposition (comp.
Hagenbach in Illgen's Zeitschr. f. hist. Theologie, 1839, I) ; but
Bengel nevertheless undertook to perform in behalf of orthodox
theology what Wetstein had begun in sympathy with a more scep
tical habit of thought. While these scholars confined their efforts
more particularly to the department of text-criticism, Semler, on
the other hand, after the middle of the eighteenth century, excited
numerous doubts with regard to the genuineness of entire books
in the Bible by his Free Examination of the Canon. Beginning
With Semler begins the period of independent re- ^^^ ^Tiona"-
search in this field, but also of abuse and subjective arbi- istic criticism.
trariness. Sober science, however, continued to pursue its assured
course in the midst of such fluctuations. On the one hand, diplo-.

318 RPEOL'^L THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA.
matic text-criticism continued to gain in settled principles and in
historic ground through paleographic researches which were steadi
ly prosecuted, through the comparison of MSS;, etc., and various
systems were developed in this direction, upon which the processes
of criticism rest. (The labours of Hug, Griesbach, Schulz, Scholz,
Lachmann, Tischendorf.) On the other hand, inquiry was more in
telligently directed toward the several parts of the Old and the
New Testament canon. Single books in either Testament were at
first attack.ed, without the recognition of any definite principle, but
rather under the influence of the personal impressions of critics;
but the investigation gradually secured firmer points of connexion
with historical facts. The inquiry has been chiefly directed upon
the Pentateuch, the Books of Chronicles, the Prophets, (the second
part of Isaiah, Daniel.) the Psalms, and the writings of Solomon in
the Old Testament, and the Gospels, (their origin and relation to
each other,) the Pastoral epistles and the second epistle to the Thessa
lonians, the epistle to the Hebrews, Second Peter, and the Apocalypse
in the New. Such fragmentary operations do not cover the whole
ground that has been gone over, however; but after the latest spec-
The TubinKen ulative (Tubingen) school, Baur, Zeller, Schwegler, et
tendency critics, al., had attempted an historical construction of Chris
tianity from its principles, it involved the entire canon of the Neiv
Testament books in the critical process of disintegration connected
with that attempt, assigning most of them to a later date, and, at
the same time, charging them with subserving tendencies which
are not always reconcilable with the purity of purpose belonging
to an apostle. It can be confidently affirmed that despite the bold,
though often widely divergent, conclusions of the more recent
critics, (Hilgenfeld, Volckmar, Holsteri, Overbeok,) genuine science
can still hold an assured footing for a further advance in the service
of truth.
The leadership in biblical criticism was successfully maintained
by English scholars in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries for
eighty years (I657-I737). The fifth volume of Brian Walton's
London Polyglot contained the text of the New Testament in six
languages, with a large collection of various readings. He did not,
however, undertake to form a revised text. Bishop Fell (1625-
1686) added much to this stock of critical material, and was besides
the friend at d patron of Dr. John Mill (1645-1707.) Thirty la
borious years were spent by Mill on his Greek Testament. He re-
collated all the codices used by Walton for the London Polyglot,
and accumulated a mass of readings from many sources, which he
exhibits in his prolegomena. " Of the criticism of the New Testa-

EDITIONS OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 219
meat in the hands of Dr. John Mill," says Scrivener, " it may be
said that he found the edifice of wood and left it marble." Rich
ard Bentley (1662-1742) projected a revision of the text of the
New Testament, which he never completed. We can readily con
jecture what his extraordinary critical sagacity would have accom
plished in this field. From the time of Bentley little was done by
English scholars in New Testament criticism for more than a hun
dred years. Samuel Prideaux Tregelles issued from 1857 to 1872 his
Greek Testament from the most ancient MSS. and from ancient
versions. Tregelles bases his text on a small number of manuscripts.
Frederick Henry Scrivener has contributed a valuable Introduction
to the Criticism of the New Testament (Cambridge, I86I, 1874).
Messrs. Westcott and Hort hav.e, since the appearance of the revised
English Testament, published a text which had been long in prepa
ration, and also a companion volume containing an appendix and'
introduction to their work. Although the revisers of the English
Testament have not attempted "to construct a continuous and
complete Greek text," the text adopted by them has been published
by their secretary, E. Palmer. (Oxford, 1881.)
ENGLISH AND AMBEICAN LITEEATUEE.
1. Critical Editions of tlie Old Testament in Hebrew.
An Interlinear Hebrew-English Psalter. The Book of Psalms . in Hebrew, viHh a
closely literal English Translation under each word. Svo, pp. 240. London,
1822.
Davidson, Samuel. Revision of the. Hebrew Text of the Old Testament. Synopsis
of Eeaduigs, Revised from Critical Sources. Svo, pp. 234. London, 1882.
Hahn's Hebrew Bible. New ed. Revised by Isaac Leeser and Joseph .Taquett.
Svo. Philadelphia.
Hebrew and English Psalms. The Hebrew Text of Van der Hooght, with the Au
thorized Translation of 161 1. In parallel columns. Svo, pp. 100. London, 1882.
Hebrew Psalter. 32mo. Andover, 1864.
Hughes, Joseph. The Prophecy of Joel. The Hebrew Text printed Metrically,
with a New English Translation and Critical Notes. Svo. London, 1882.
Letteris, Myer Levi. The Hebrew Bible, Revised and Carefully Examined. With a
Key to the Masoretic Notes. , Svo, pp. 1404. New Yorli, 1872.
Modern Polyglot Bible in Eight Languages. Giving the Hebrew Text, the Septuagint,
and the Vulgate, and a Series of the best European Translations. To whicli
is added the Peshito-Syriae New Testament, with Tables of the various Readings
of the Hebrew, the Septuagint,, the Greek, and Syriac New Testaments, elc.
Crown folio, 2 vols. London, 1882.
Dvnn "ISD, Tlie Book of Psalms in Hebrew and English. Arranged in Parallel
isms. Andover, 1862.
The Hebrew and English Scriptures of the Old Testament. Consisting of the Orig
inal Hebrew Text, and the Authorized Enghsh Version. With Appendices and
Clavis to the Masoretic Notes. 4tn, sm.all. London, 1882.

220 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
The Hebrew Bible of the Polyglot Series. The Text after Van der Hooght. Also
the various Readings of the Samaritan Pentateuch. Svo, pp. 635. London,
1882.
Walton's Polyglot, Biblia Sacra Polyglotta. Edidit Brianus Waltonus. 6 vols.,
folio. With Castell's Lexicon Heptaglotton, Hebrew, Chald., Syr., Samar., etc.
2 vols., folio. Together, 8 vols., folio. 1657-69.
Wright, C. H. H. The Book of Genesis in Hebrew ; with a Criticiilly Revised Text,
various Readings, and Grammatical and Criiical Notes. Svo. London, 1859.

2. Critical Editions of the Septuagint.
Hexaglot Bible; comprising the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments in
the Original Tongues: together with the Septuagint, the Syriac (of the New
Testament), the Vulgate, the Authorized English and German, and the most
approved Prench Versions, arranged in parallel columns. Vols. I, 11, III (to
be completed in 6 vols.). 4to. London, 1871-73.
.Lagarde, Paulus de. Librorum Veteris Testament! Canonicorum pars' prior Graece,
Fauli de Lagarde studio et sumptibus edita. Large octavo, pp. xvi, 544. Got-
tingae, 18S.B.
Septuagint Text, with Variorum Readings. 5 vols., folio. L.-mdon, 1880.
Swete, H. B. The Old Testament in Greek According to the Septitagint. Edited by
the Syndics of the University Press. 5 vols, Svo. Vol. I, pp. 1-827. Cam
bridge, 1887.
The Greek Septuagint. With an English Translation in parallel columns. 4to.
London, 1882.
,Tlie Septuagint According to the Vatican edition. Together with the real Septua
gint Version of Daniel and the Apocrypha, including the Fourth Book of Mac
cabees, and an Historical Account of the Septuagint and the Principal Texts in
whicli it is Current. Svo, pp. 958. London, 1882.
The Septuagint Version of the Old Testament. Tables ot the Various Readings of
the Alexandrine Text, and the Septuagint, According to the Vatican Text. Svo,
pp. 689. London, 1882.
Tischendorf, Constantinus. • Vetus Testamentum Graece Juxta LXX. Interpretes.
Svo. Leipsic, 1869.
Vetus Testamentum, Ex Versione Septuaginto. Interpretum — post Grabe et Lee Ed.
J. J. Breitinger 'Turigi Helvetiorum, 1730-32. 4 vols, 4tp. (" This edition is a
correct reprint of Dr. Grabe's edition, to which are added, at the foot of the
page, the various readings of the Roman or Vatican editions and of three man
uscripts belonging to the library of the Academy of Basle. The beauty of its
typography and its paper and its 'critical value concur to render tliis edition
highly esteemed ; it is consf quently both scarce and dear. Michaelis pro
nounces it to be the best edition of the LXX. ever printed, that is, up to his
time." Home, Introd. p. 723.)
Vetus Testamentum, Graece. Juxta LXX. Interpretes. Pp. 1088. Oxford, 1859.
(Gives the Hebrew and Greek Texts in parallel columns.)
Vetus Testamentum, Graece Juxta LXX. interpretes. Textus Vatic. Rom. emend, ed.
argum. et locos N. T. parallel notavit, lect var. sub]., comment, isag. prstexuit
Const, de Tischendorf. (Edition VI.) I'rolegomena rec. Nestle. 2 vols.
- 1880.
Vetus Testamentum Graecum, cum. yariis Loctionibus, edidit Robertus Holmes et
Jacobus Parsons, Oxonii, 1798-1827. 5 vols, folio. (" This is a beautifully ex-

CRITICAL EDITIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 221
ecuted edition of the Septuagint. The Pentateuch and Prophecy of Daniel
were completed by Dr. Holmes, but the remainder of the work was done by Mr.
Parsons, who executed it in the same learned and accurate manner. There are
many practical hindrances to the advantagemis use of the edition. Tlie author
ities are not clearly expressed, and even the Alexandrian MS. is coinmouly
quoted only amongst the printed editions.^')

3. Editions of tlie Vulgate.
The Latin Bible. Biblia Sacra Vulgata Editionis Sixti V. et Clementis VIII. Svo,
pp. 773. London, 1882.
The Vulgate New Testament, compared with the Douay Version of 1582. Parallel
columns. Small 4to. London, 1882.

4. Critical Editions of the New Testament.
Abbot, Ezra. Novum Testamentum Graece ad autiquissimos testes denuo recen-
suit apparatum criticum apposuit Constantinus Tischendorf; editio octava
critica maior. Volumen iii. Prolegomena Scripsit Casparus Renatus Gregory.
Pars Prior. Svo, pp. vi, 440. Leipzig and New York. (Contains Life of
Tischendorf, a catalogue of his publications, the laws observed by him in con
structing the text, the form and history of the text and the uncial manuscripts.)
Alford, Henry. The Greek Testament, with a Critically Revised Text ; a Digest of
various Readings, etc, and a Critical and Exegetical Commentary. '^ 4 vols.,
Svo, pp. civ, 924 ; Ixxxvii, 723 ; cxxix, 435 ; cclxxxviii, 750. London, 1868.
Alford, Henry. Greek Testament with English Notes. Abridged by B. H. Alford.
Svo. London, 1869.
Bagster's Critical New Tes'ament, Greek and English, containing the Greek Text of
Scholz, with Readings, both Marginal and Textual, ot Griesbach, and variations
of Stephens, Beza, and the Elzevir. 16mo, pp. 624. New York, 1868.
Bagster's Large Print Greek Testament, with various Readings from Griesbaeh,
Scholz, Lachmann, and Tischendorf, and References to Parallel Passages. Svo,
London.
Bloomfield, S. T. The Greek Testament with English Notes, Critical, Philologica]
and Exegetical. 2 vols., Svo, pp. 629, 631. Philadelphia, 1868.
Buttz, Henry A. The Epistle to the Romans in Greek, etc. With References to
the New Testament Grammars of Winer and Buttmann. Svo, pp. 42. New York,
1876.
Cambridge Greek Testament. Ex Editione Stephani Tertia, 1550. 12mo. Cam
bridge.
Codex Vaticanus. Novum Testamentum Graece ex Antiquissimo Codico Vatioano
edidit Angelus Maius S. R. E. Card. Ad fidem Editionis Romanae Aocuratius
Impressum. Svo, pp. 502. London, 1859.
Cowper, B. H. Codex Alexandrinus, H KAINH AIAOHKH, etc. Ad Fidem Ipsius
Codicis Denuo Accuratius edidit. Svo. London, 18G6.
Dobbin, Orlando T. The Codex Montfortianus. A Collation of this Celebrated MS.
throughout the Gospels and Acts, with the Greek Text of Wettstein, and with
certain MSS. in the University of Oxford. Svo, pp. 280. London, 1882.
Fairbairn, P. The Pastoral Epistles ; the Greek Text and Translation. Svo, London,
1874.

222 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
Gebhardt, Oscar de. Novum Testamentum Graece: recensionis Ti^chehdorfianae
ullimae textum cum Tregellesiano et Westcottio-Hortiano Contulit, etc. Svo,
pp. xii. 492. Lipsiae, 1881. Also New York.
Green, T. S. The Twofold New Testament. A newly-formed Greek Text, wilh
new Translation into English. In parallel columns. 4to, pp. 466. London,
1882.
Grinfleld, E. W. Novum Testamentum Graecum, Editio Hellcnistica. Scholia,
Hellenistica in Novum Testamentum. 4 vols., Svo. London, 1843-1848.
Hahn, A. Greek Testament, edited by E. Robinson. 12mo, pp. 536. New York,
1842. New and enlarged edition, 1873.
Hall, Isaac H. American Greek Testaments. A Critical Bibliography of the Greek
New Testaments as Published in America. Pp. 82. Philadelphia, 1883.
Hansen, E. H. The New Testament. The most Ancient MSS. of the Original
Greek, printed in parallel columns, with a Collation of the Sinaitic Codex. 3
vols., Svo. London, 1880.
Hitchcock, Roswell D. The New Testament of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ
Translated out of the Greek; being the version set forth A. D. 1611, Compared
with the Most Ancient Authorities and Revised A. D. 1881, with the Readings
and Renderings Preferred by the American Committee of Revision Incorporated
into tlie Text. Nevv York, 1881.
Leigh, Edwin. The Sinai and Comp-irarive New Testament. The Authorized En
glish Version ; with Introduction and various Readings from the Three Most
Celebrated MSS. of the Original Greek Text, by Constantine Tischendorf; with
the various Readings so inserted in the Text that the whole Scripture according
to either the Sinai, 'Vatican, Alexandrian, or the Received Greek can be read
by itself, while the Variations are all Compared with Facility. New York,
1881.
Major, J. R. Tlie Gospel According to St. Mark, in the Original Greek, with a Di
gest of Notes from various Commentators. 16mo. London, 1871.
New Testament, Griesbach's Text, with the various Readings of Mill and Scholz,
Marginal References, and Parallels, and a Critical Introduction. 12mo, pp. 650.
London, 1859.
Novum Testamentum. Graece et Latine. Car. Lachmannus recensuit, Phil. Bult-
mannus graecae lectionis auctoritates apposuit. 2 torn. Bcrolini, 1832-50.
Novum Testamentum Textus Stephanici, A. D. 1550. Accedunt variae Lectiones
editionum Bezae, Elzeviri, Lachmannii, Tischendorfii, et Tregellesii. Curante
P. H. Scrivener. ISmo. Cambridge, 1872.
Scrivener, F. H. An Exact Transcript of the Codex Augiensis, a GraecoLiitiu MS.
of St. Paul's Epistles, etc., etc. With a Critical Introduction. Svo. Cambridge,
1859.
Scrivener, P. H. A Full Collation of the Codex Sinaiticus, with the Received Text
of the New Testament; to which is Prefixed a Critical Introduction. 16mo.
London, 1867.
Scrivener, P. H. Bezae Codex Cantabrigiensis, being an exact copy, in ordinary
typo, of the celebrated Uncial Gracco-Latin MS. of the Four Gospels and Acts,
etc., etc. With a Criticfll Introduction, etc. Svo. Cambridge, 1864.
Scrivener, F. H. Novum Testamentum Graecum. ISmo. New York.
Stuart, C. E. Textual Criticism of the New Testament, for English Bible Students.
2d ed. Revised and Corrected. The Authorized Version Compared with Crit
ical Texts. Svo. Loudon, 1882.
The Apoehryphal New Testament. Being all the Gospels, Epis'les, and other Pieces

CRITICAL EDITIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 233
now Extant Attributed in the First Four Centuries to Jesus Christ, His Apos
tles, and their Com{)anions, and not Included in the New Testament by its C(mi-
pilers. Svo. Now York, 1884.
The Apocryphal Gospels, Acts, and Revelations. Translated by Alexander Walker.
Svo, pp. xxiv, 547. Edinburgh, 1870. (This is Vol. XVI of the Ante-Nicene
Christian Library. It contains translations of twentj'-two Apocryphal Gospels,
thirteen Apocryphal Acts of the Apostles, and seven Apocryphal A pocalyp,ses,
together witli Intniduotion and Indexes.)
The Codex Zacynthius. Edited by S. P. Tregelles. Folio. London, 1882.
The English Hexapla. Six Translations of the New Testament: Wiclif, LSSO; Tyn-
dale, 1554; Cranmer, 1539 ; Genevan, 1557; Anglo-Rhenish, 1582 ; Authorized,
1611, arranged in parallel columns, beneath the Original Greek Text by Scholz.
With a History of English Translations and Translators. London, 1841.
The Englishman's Greek New Testament. Giving the Greek Text of Stephens,
1550: With various Readings of Elzevir, 1624, Griesbach, Lachmann, Tischen
dorf, Tregelles, Alford, and Wordsworth ; with an Interlinear Literal Translation.
To which is added the Authorized Version of 1611. Crown Svo. London, 1882.
The Greek Testament. With Criiioal Appendices. Lloyd and Sanday. 12mo, pp.
XX, 199. Oxford, 1889.
The Greek Te.«tament. With the Readings adopted by the Revisers of the Author
ized Version. 16mo, pp. 560. Oxford, 1881.
The ^few Testament. Greek and English, in parallel columns. Edited by J. Schole-
field. New Edition, with Miirgiucd References, by Dr. Scrivener. 16mo. Lon
don, 1880.
The New Testament in the Original Greek. The Text Revised by B. F. Westcott
and P. J. A. Hort, with Introduction and Appendix by the Editors. 2 vols.
Cambridge and New York, 1881-82.
The New Testament in the Original Greek. The Text Revised by Brooke Foss
Westcott, D.D., Canon of Peterborough and Regius Professor of Divinity, Cam
bridge, and Fenton John Anthony Hort, D.D., Hnlsean Professor of Diviniiy,
Cambridge. American Edition, with an Introduction by Philip Schaff, D.D.,
LL,D., Professor in Union Theological Seminarj', New York, President of the
American Bible Revision Committee. 12mo, pp. 580. New York, 1881.
The New Testament of Our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ, Translated out of the
Greek; being the version set forth A.D, 1611, Compared with the Most
Ancient Authorities, and Revised A. D. 1881. Oxford, 1881.
Tregelles, S. P. A Collation of the Critical Texts of Griesbach, Scholz, Lachmann,
and Tischendorf, with the Received Text. Svo, pp. 96. London, 1882.
Tregelles, S. P. The Greek New Testament, edited from Ancient Authorities.
5 parts, 4to. London, 1879.
Wordsworth, Christopher.: The New Testament in the Original Greek. With Notes
and Introductions. 2 vols., Svo. London. 1866,
Wordsworth, John. Old Latin Biblical Texts : No. 1. The Gospel Accbiding to St.
Matthew, from the St. Germain MS. (g. 1), now numbered Lat. 11,553 in the
National Library at Paris. Oxford. 1883.
5. Tlie Johannean Controversy.
Abbot, Ezra. The Aiithor-ihip of the Fourth Gospel. External Evidences. Svo,
pp. 104. Boston, n 880. (This essay has been pronounced by critics to be the
best exhibition of the external evidence for the genuineness of John's gospel
yet written. T$ a candid reader it will be conclusive.)

224 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
Abbot, Peabody, and Lightfoot, E,s.says by. The Fourth Gospel. Evidences Kxternal
and Internal, of its Joliannetin Authorship. Svo, pp. 171. New York, 1891.
(A collection by Dr. Peabody of three important essays on the subject, one of
them his own. Bishop Lightfoot's essay deals with the internal evidence, and
was published in 1890, only a short time before his death.)
Bleek, Friedrich. An Introduction to the New Testament, Translated by William
Urwick. 2 vols., Svo, pp. 448, 426. Edinburgh, 1869, 1870.
Brettsclineider, Karl Gottlieb. Pi-obabilia de evangelii et epistolarum Joannis apos
toli indole, et origine, etc. Svo, pp. xvi, 224. Leipzig, 1820. (Dr. Brettsclineider
opens the question of the genuineness of John's gospel, and refers it to the
judgment of scholars. The grounds of his doubt are stated at length. A long
controversy followed in Germany ihepubHcaiion of the Probabilia. In his Dog
matic (published in 1828) he admits that sufBcient proofs of the genuineness
and authority of John's gospel had been called out by his book, and that the
case was settled for him.)
Davidson, Samuel. An Introduction to The New Testament. 3 vols., Svo. Vol. I.
The Four Gospels. Pp. xxvi, 430. London, 1848. (In this earlier edition Dr.
Davidson decides for the authenticity of the fourth gospel, and argues the case at
great length: see Vol. I, pp. 203-313. Subsequently he changed his opinion, and
in the edition of 1868 denied the authenticity of this gospel.)
De Pressense, Edward. Jesus Christ, His Times, Life, and Work. Translated by
Annie Harwood. Second Edition, 12mo, pp. xx, 496. New York, 1868.
(Chapter IV of Book I examines the sources of the History of Jesus Christ.
The authenticity of the fourth gospel is defended.)
Evanson Edward. The Dissonance of the Four Generally Received Evangelists, and
the Evidence of their Authenticity E.xamincd, Svo. Ipswich, 1792. (Evanson is
considered to be tlie originator of the Johannean controversy. Ho maintained
that the fourth gospel was written by a Platonist of the second century. He was
answered by Doctor Joseph Priestley, and David Simpson. To these Evanson
replied in " A Letter to Dr. Priestley's Young Man; with a Postscript cncern-
ing the Rev. D ctor Simpson's Essay in answer to Evanson's Dissonance and
Volney's Ruins." ' London, 1794. He was also answered by Thomas Falconer
in the Bampton Lectures for 1810 (published in 1811). A sketch of the Ufe of
Evanson appears in the Gentleman's Magazine for 1805, pp. 1073, 1074, and also
an additional sketch in the same volume, pp. 123:3-1236,)
Falconer, Thomas, ot Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Certain Principles in Evan-
son's Dissonance of the Four Generally Received Evangelists Examined, in
Eight Discourses, delivered before the University of Oxford in the year 1810.
Svo, pp. 400. Oxford, 1811. (These are the Bampton Lectures for the j-c-ir
named. The author, Mr. Falconer, says that in " 1807 a canon of the New Tes
tament was published according to the selection of Mr. Evanson in his Disso
nance.")
Fisher, George P. Essays on the Supernatural Origin of Christianity, with special
reference to tho Theories of Renan, Strauss, and the Tiibingen school. 8vn. pp.
xxxviii, 620. New York, 1870. (Chapter II treats of the Genuineness of the
Fourth Gospel ; Chapter V, of Baur on the Origin of Catholic Christianity; Chap
ter VI, of tho Mythical Theory of Slriiiiss.)
Hemphill, Samuel. The Diatessarnn of Tatian. A Harmony of the Pour Gospels,
Compiled in the Third Qimner of the Secotid Century. Now first edited in nn
English Form, with Introduction and Appendices. Svo, pp. xxxi, 78. London,
18S8, (The object of this book is to show that the Cominentnry of Ephraem

THE JOHANNEAN CONTROVERSY. 225
the Syrian, on a certain harmony of the gospels, is in fact a commentary on
Tatian's Diatessaron. To prove this a comparison is made, passage by passage,
of the Commentary as rendered into Latin, and edited by Moesinger, with the
Arabic and Latin versions of the Diatessaron, published by Ciasca, one of the
Vatican Librarians.)
Hutton, Richard Holt. The Historical Problems of the Fourth Gospel. An essay,
theological and literary. Vol. 1, essay vi. (The historical credibility of the
Gospel is maintained.)
Leathes, Stanley. The Witness of St. John to Christ. The Boyle Lectures for 1870,
with an Appendix on the Authorship and Integrity of St. John's Gospel, and
the Unity of the Johannine Writings. Svo, pp. xxii, 368. London, Oxford,
and Cambridge, 1870. (The discussion in the Appendix is almost wholly con
fined to the internal evidences of the Johannean authorship. This is copious,
however, extending from p. 267 to p. 332.)
Lightfoot, J. B. Essays on the Work entitled Supernatural Religion. Reprinted
from the Contempm-ary Review. Svoy pp. 324. Londou and New York, 1889.
(Severe in its criticism of Supernatural Religion, but rich in learning. The
topics, after the Introduction, are : the Silence of Eusebius, the Ignatian Epis
tles, Polycarp of Smyrna, Papias of Hierapolis, the Later School of St. John,
the Churches of Gaul; Tatian's Diatessaron.)
Luthardt, Christopher Ernst. St. John, the author of the Fourth Gospel. Trans
lated by Caspar Rend Gregory. Svo, pp. viii, 369. Edinburgh, 1875. (This is
a new edition, much enlarged, of the original work of Dr. Luthardt, published in
Niiremberg, 1852-53. It handles the subject in a masterly manner. Dr. Greg
ory has appended the literature of the controversy, German and English, to the
extent of four hundred and ninety-one titles.)
Mackay, R. W. The Tiibingen School and its Antecedents. A Review of the His
tory and Present Condition ot Modern Theology. 12rao, pp. xv, 390. London
and Edinburgh, 1863. (A thorough-going follower of Baur. The book gives a
history of the Tiibingen school, and an outline of its arguments.)
Moe^nger, Georgius. Evangelii Concordantis Expositio; Facta a Sancto Ephrafmo,
Doctore Syro. Svo, pp. xii, 290. Venice, 1876. (A rendering into Latin, from
the Armenian, of the Commentary of Ephraem Syrus on Tatian's Diates
saron. The version from the Armenian was made in 1841 by Anchor, a
Mechitarist Father of a Monastery near Venice, but its publication was long
delayed.)
Norton, Andrews. Evidences of Ihe Genuineness of the Gospels. 3 vols, Svo.
1572. Cambridge, 1846-1848. ^
Present Day Tracts on the Higher Criticism, by R. Payne Smith, A. B. Bruce, Henry
Wace, F. Godet, J. S. Howson. 16mo. Religious Tract Society, London. (Dr.
Brnce's Essay is on Baur, and his History of the Origin of Christianity; Dr.
Godefs on the Authorship of the Fourth Gospel.)
Sanday, William. The Gospels in the Second Century. 12mo. London, 1876.
(Unfortunately this excellent work is almost wholly out of print. It argues
strongly for the genuineness of John.)
Schenkel, Daniel. The Character of Jesus Portrayed; a Biblical Essay. Translated
by W. H. Fiimess. 12mo, 2 vols., pp. xxvi, 279, and iv, 359. Boston, 1866.
(Doctor Schenkel concludes that " tlie apostolic origin of the fourth gospel can
not be fully established by any external evidences." He considers the internal
evidence as still more decisive against its genuineness. See vol. I. Introduction
Chapter II.)
15

226 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOP-SIDIA.
Strauss, David Frederick. The Life of Jesus Critically Examined. Translated from
the Fourth German Edition. Svo, 3 vols., pp. 423, 454, 446. London, 1846.
(Strauss holds that there is no sufficient evidence that Jolm wrote the fourth
gospel,)
Supernatural Religion. An Inquiry into the Reality of Divine Revelation. 3 vols.,
8vo, pp. xcviii, 486. 479, 613. London, 1879. Sixth edition. (An anonymous
publication. The author denies the possibility of a revelation attested by mira
cles. He denies also the authenticity of the fourth gospel, and argues that its
peculiarities render the supposition that it was written by the apostle John in
credible. The ancient references to supposed citations from this gospel are
examined with great fullness. See part III, vol. II, pp. 249-479.)
Tatiani Evangeliorum Harmonic, Arabice. NUno Primum Ex DupUci Codice Edidit,
Kt Translatione Latina Donavit P. Augustinus Ciasca. 4to, pp. xv, 108.
(After p. 108 follows the Arabic Version; the whole is concluded with a double
pajie photograph of so much of one of the two manuscripts. This is a reproduction
in print of the Arabic Version of Tatian's Diatessaron, with a Lai in translation of
the Arabic added by Ciasca, one of the Vatican hbrarians. The preface traces
the history of the Arabic Version. One glance suffices to show that the fourth
evangelist of Tatian's Harmony is John.)
Van Oosterzee, J. J. John's Gospel : Apologetical Lectures. Translated, with addi
tions, by J. F. Hurst. 12mo, pp. xiv, 256. Edinburgh, 1869. (The first lecture,
pp. 1-57, discusses the authenticity of this gospel. There is also added a brief
table of the apologetical 1 terature.)
Watkins, William Henry. Modem Criticism Considered in its Relation to the Fourth
Gospel. Being the Bampton Lectures for 1890. Svo, pp. xxxix, 502. London,
1890. (A most valuable contribution to the history of the Johannean contro
versy. The testimonies to the genuineness of John's gospel furnished by the
writers of the first four centuries arc exhibited ; this !,¦< followed by a review of
modern criticism, doubt, and defense from Evanson to the critics of our own
time.) •
6. Synopses and Harmonies^
Abbott, Lymau, and Gilmore, James R. The Gospel History, Life of Jesus, Woven
from the Texts of His Original Biographers, the Four Evangelists. New revised
ed. ]2mo, pp. 840. New York, 1 888.
Alexarder, Wm. Lindsay. . The Connection and Harmony of the Old and New Tes
taments. 12mo. London, 1853.
Andrews, Samuel J. The Life of our Lord upon Earth. Considered in its Histor
ical, Chronological, and Geographical Relations. Svo, pp. xxiv, 624. New
York, 1868. (A harmony of the gospels wilh each other and with contempo
rary history.)
Buck, D. D. The Closing Scenes of the Life of Christ, Being a Harmonized Com
bination of the Four Gospel Histories of the Last Year of the Saviour's Life.
12mo, pp. 293. Philadelphia, 1869.
Buck, D. D. Our Lord's Prophecy, and its Parallels throughout the Bible, Harmon
ized and Expounded : comprising a review of the common figurative theories
of interpretation, with a particular examination of the principal passages relat
ing to the second coming of Christ, the end of the world, the new creation, the
millennium, the resurrection, thf judgment, tlie conversion iv d restoration of the
Jews, and a synopsis of Josephus's History bt the Jewish war. Svo, pp. 472.
Nashville, 1857.

SYNOPSES AND IIARMONIEG. 227
Calvin, John. A Harmony of Matthew, Murk, and Luke. Translated by Rev. W.
Pringle. 3 vols., Svo. Edinburgh, 1845.
Clark, George W. A New Harmony of the Four Gospels in English, according to
tho Common Version. 12mo, pp. 365. New York, 1870.
Foley, George C. An Outline Harmony of the Four Gospels. With Brief Notes.
New York, 1890.
Fuller, J. M. The Four Gospels, arranged in the form of a Harmony from the Text
ot the Authorized Version; with four maps. 12mo. New York, 1875.
Gardiner, Frederick. A Harmony of the Four Gospels in Greek, according to the
Text of Tischendorf, wilh a Collation of the Textus Receptus and of the
Texts of Griesbach, Lachmann, and Tregelles. Revised ed., Svo. Andover, 1882.
Gardiner, Frederick. A Harmony of the Four Gcspels in English, according to the
Authorized Version. Svo, pp. 287. Andover, 1871.
Gardiner, Frederick. Diatessaron. The Life of Our Lord in the Words of the Gos
pels. 16mo, pp. 259. Andover, 1871.
Genung, George F. The Fourfold Gospels. 12mo, pp. US. Boston, 1891.
Greswell, Edward. Dissertations upon the Principles and Arrangement of a Har
mony of the Gospels. 2d ed., 4 vols., Svo, pp. 618, 654, 708, 930. O-xford,
1837.
Haley, John W. An Examination of the Alleged Discrepancies of the Bible. With
an Introduction by Alvah Hovey. Svo, pp. xii, 473. Andover, 1882.
Macknight, James. Harmony of the Gospels with Paraphrase aud Notes. 2 vols.,
Svo. London, 1819.
Moon, G. Washington. The Monograph Gospel, being the Pour Gospels Arranged in
One Continuous Narrative in the Words of Scripture, Without Omission of Fact
or Repetition of Statement. New improved od. 24mo, pp. vi, 307. New York,
1887.
Pago, .V. M. New Light from Old Eclipses ; or. Chronology Corrected, and the Four
Gospels Harmonized, by. the Rectification of Errors in the Received Astronom
ical Tables ; with an Introduction by Rev. J. H. Brooks, D.D. Svo, pp. xv, 590.
St. Louis, M ., 1889.
Pierson, Arthur T. One Gospel; or, the Combination of the Narratives of the Four
llvangelists in one Complete Record. New York, 1890.
Pitteriger, W. The Interwoven Gospels, the Four Histories of Jesus Christ Blended
into a Complete and Continuous Narrative in the Words of the Gospels. 12mo.
New York, 1889.
Robinson, Edward. A Harmony of the Four Gospels in Greek, according to the
Text of Hahn; newly arranged, wilh Explanatorj' Notes. Svo. Boston, 1868.
Robinson, Edward. Harmony of the Four Gospels in English. 12mo. Boston, 1868.
Rushbrooke, W. G. Synopticon. An Exposition of the Common Matter of the
Synoptic Gospels, with Appendices. London, 1880.
Strong, James. Harmony of the Gospels in the Greek of the Received Text, for the
use of Students and Others. 12mo, pp. 406. New York, 1854.
Strong, James. Harmony and Exposition in English. Svo, pp. 569. New York,
1852.
Stroud, Wm. A New Greek Harmony of the Four Gospels, comprising a Synopsis
and a Diatessaron ; together with an Introductory Treatise, and Numerous Ta
bles, Indexes, and Diagrams. 4to, pp. 602. London, 1853. 2d ed. 1868.
Taylor, William M. The Life of Our Lord in the Words of the Four Evangelists.
Being the Four Gospels Arranged in Chronological Order, and Interwoven to
Form a Continuous Narrative. ISmo, pp. 203. New York, 1877.

228 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
The Gospels Consolidated. The Four Gospels Consolidated into one Continuous
Narrative. 4to. London, 1882.
The Treasury of Scripture Knowledge. A Selection of more than 500,000 Scripture
References and Parallel Passages ; together with a Harmony of the Four Evan
gelists. Svo. London, 1882.
Tischendorf, Constantine. Synopsis Evangelica. IV. Evang. ordine chronolog. con-
einnavit, brev. comment, illnstr. 4th ed. Leipsic, 1878.
Wiesler, Karl. Chronological Synopsis of the Four Gospels. Translated by E.
Venables. Svo, pp. 459. London, 1864.
7. Helps to the Study of Criticism.
Abbott, Ezra. Tho Authorship of the Fourth Gospel, and Other Critical Essays.
Edited by J. H. Thayer. Svo, pp. 501. Boston, 1888. (Some of the "other
critical essays " arc : "The Comparative Antiquity of the Sinaitic and Vatican
Manuscripts of the Greek Bible," "Westcott and Hort's edition of the Greek
Testament," " The New Testament Greek Text," " The Reading ' Only-begotteo
God,' in John i, 18," etc. They are marked by Dr. Abbott's accuracy and
thoroughness of investigation.)
Allen, T. W. Notes on Abbreviations in Greek Manuscripts ; wilh eleven pages
of facsimiles, by photolithography. Svo, pp. 40. Ncw York, 1889.
Barrett, Richard. Synopsis of Criticisms upon those Passages of the Old Testament
in which Modern Commentators have differed from the Authorized Version.
5 vols., Svo. London, 1847. ^
Birks, F. R. Essay on the.Right Estimation of Manuscript Evidence in the Text of
the New Testament. London, 1880.
Boardman, Curtiss, and Scott, Professors of Chicago Theological Seminary. Current
Discussions in Theology. Vol. I. Introductory. Svo, pp. 218. Chicago.
Boyce, W. B. The Higher Criticism of the Bible. A Manual for Students. 12mo,
pp. xxi, 473. London, 1881.
Briggs, Charles A. Biblical Study. Its Principles, Methods, and History. Together
with a Catalogue of Books of Reference. 12mo. New York, 1883.
Burgon, John W. The Last Twelve Verses of the Gospel according to St. Mark Vin
dicated against Recent Criiical Objectors and Established. Svo. Oxford, 1871.
Carpenter, William. Popular Lectures on Biblical Criticism and Interpretation.
Svo, pp. X, 446. London, 1829.
Crowfoot, J. R. Observations on the Collation in Greek of Curgton's Syriac Frag
ments of the Gospel. 4to. London, 1872.
Davidson, Samuel. A Treatise on Biblical Criticism, exhibiting a Systematic View
of that Science. 2 vols., Svo, pp. 463, 484. Boston, 1853.
Dingle, Edward. How Readest Thou 1 The First Two Chapters of Genesis Consid
ered in Regard to the Direct Text. 12mo, pp. 79. London, 1886.
Gerard, Gilbert. Institutes of Biblical Criticism ; or. Heads of the Course of Lect
ures on that Subject, read in the University of King's College, Aberdeen. Svo.
Boston, 1823.
Ginsburg, C. D. Tho Massorah. Compiled from Manuscripts Alphabetically and
Lexically Arranged. Vol. L Aleph-Jodh. London, 1880. Vol. II, 1883. A
third volume is to follow.
Girdlestone, R. B. Synonyms of the Old Testament ; their Bearing on Chriatian
Faith and Practice. London, 1871.
Girdlestone, R. B. The Foundations ot Biblic-il Studies in Old Testament Criticism.
2d ed., 12mo, pp. xix, 215. London, ISDl.

HELPS TO THE STUDY OF CRITICISM. 229
Green, Thomas S. A Course of Developed Criticism on Passages of the New Testa
ment materially affected by various Readings. Svo, pp. 202. London, 1882.
Hammond, C. B. Outlines of Textual Criticism applied to the New Testament.
(Clarendon Press Series.) 16mo, pp. 146. Oxford, 1872.
Hatch, Edwin. Essays in Biblical Greek. These Essays comprise the author's lect
ures on the Septuagint delivered as Grinfleld Lecturer at Oxford. They discuss
the Value and Use of the Septuagint; the meanings of selected words and
psychological terms; quotations from' the Septuagint, and the text of the books
of Job and Ecclesjastes. Svo, pp. x, 293. Oxford, 1889.
Horsley, Samuel. Bibhcal Criticism : or, the First Fourteen Historical Books ot the
Old Testament; also the First Nine Prophetical Books. 2d ed., 2 vols., Svo, pp.
484, 511. London, 1845.
Ladd, George T. What is the Bible? An Inquiry into the Origin and Nature of
the Old and New Testaments in the Light of Modern Biblical Study. 1 2mo.
New York, 1888.
Levita, Elias. The Massoretli lia-Massoreth, being an Exposition of the Massoretic
Notes on the Hebrew Bible, or the Ancient Critical Apparatus of the Old Testa
ment in Hebrew. With an English Translation and Critical and Explanatory
Notes, by C. D. Ginsburg. London, 1867.
Marsh, Herbert. Lectures on Criticism and Interpretation of the Bible, with Two
Preliminary Lectures on Theological Study and Theological Arrangement
Newed. Svo, pp. x, 511, 16. Cambridge, 1828.
Miller, Edward. A Guide to the Textual Criticism of the New Testament. 12mo.
pp. 147. London, 1886. (The topics disciis.sed are : The history of textual
criticism, the school of extreme textualism and its rival, history of the tradi
tional texts, the materials, and principles of criticism.)
Milligan, William, and Roberts, Alexander. The Words of the New Testament, as
Altered by Transmission and Ascertained by Modern Criticism. 12mo, pp.
262. Edinburgh, 1873.
Moss, J. J. Criticism, Exegesis, and Interpretation of Scripture References. Svo,
pp. iv, 261. Cincinnati, 1887.
Porter, J. S. Principles of Textual Criticism. Svo. London, 1848.
Roberts, Alex. Companion to the Revised Version of the English New Testament.
12mo, pp. viii, 213. New York, 1881.
Rushbrooke, W. G. Synopticon. Au Exposition of the common matter of the
Synoptic Gospels, with Appendices. London, 1880.
Sargent, Frederick. A Compendium of Biblical Criticism on the Canonical Books
ofthe Holy Scriptures; Revised and Enlarged. Svo. London, 1871.
Schaff, Philip. Companion to the Greek Testament and English Version. New
York, 1883.
Scott. James. Principles of New Testament Quotation, Established and Applied to
Biblical Criticism, and especially to the Gospels and the Pentati uch. 2d ed.,
12mo, pp. xi, 169. Edinburgh, 1877.
Scrivener, F. H. Lectures on the Text of the New Testament and the Ancient
MSS. Which contain it. Crown Svo. New York. 3d ed., London, 1883.
Scrivener, P. H. A Plain Introduction to the Criticism of the New Testament. 3d
ed. Cambridge, 1883. (The author begins with a discussion of the importance of
textual criticism as applied to the New Testament, and the value of its results.
He answers the charge that it tends to unsettle Scripture, maintaining the op
posite. Then follow a description and treatment of the uncial MSS., the cur.
sive MSS., and Lectionaries of the New Testament. The Ancient Versions and

230 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
patristic citations receive due attention, and a full account is furnished of the
eariy printed and later critical editions. The canons of interiial evidence and the
limits of their legitimate use are clearly defined. A brief but comprehensive
history of the text is given ami the recent views of comparative criticism are
discussed, as well as the peculiar character and grammatical form of the dialect
of the New Testament, One of the most valuable features of the work is the
author's direct application of the priuciples laid down by him, to the criticism
of fifty selected passages taken from all parts ot the New Testament.)
Stuart, C. E. Textual Criticism of the New Testament for English Students. ISmo.
London, 1861.
Stuart, Moses. Critical History aud Defence ot the Old Testament Canon. ]2mo,
pp. 454. Andover, 1871.
Tregelles, S. P. An Account of the printed Text of the Greek New Testament ;
with Remarks upon its Revision upon Critical Principles. Svo, pp. 374. London,
1854.
Turpie, David M'C. The Old Testament in the New. A Contribution to Biblical
Criticism and Interpretation. Svo, pp. 279. London. 1868.
Warfield, Benjamin B. An Introduction lo the Textual Critic-ism of the New Testa
ment. 12mo, pp. 225. London, 1 886.
8. Concordances.
A Handy Concordance to the Septuagint, Giving Various Readings from the Codices
Vat., Alex., Sin., and Ephr. ; wilh an Appendix. London, 1889.
Brown, John. A Concordance to the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testa
ments. A new ed,, carefully revised by Samuel Ives. Thick 24mo. London,
1867.
Butterworth, Rev. J. A New Concordance to the Holy Scriptures. Being the Most
Comprehensive and Concise of Any Before Published. Svo. Boston, 1821.
2d American ed.
Companion to the Bible, and Supplement to the Comprehensive Commentary ; being
a Concordance to the Holy Scriptures. Royal Svo. Phdadelphia, 1854.
Cruden, Alexander. A Complete Concordance to the Holy Scriptures. Royal Svo.
New York, 1871. Condensed ed. Svo. Boston.
Davidson, B. Hebrew Concordance ofthe Hebrew and Chaldee Scriptures. 2 vols.,
royal Svo. London, 1882.
Eadie, John. An Analytical Concordance to the Holy Scriptures; or, the Bible Pre
sented under Distinct and Classified Heads or To;.ics. Royal Svo. Boston, 1 862.
Eadie, John. A New and Complete Concordance on the Basis of Cruden. Crown
Svo. London, 1870.
Eastwood, J., and Wright, W. Aldis. The Bible Word-Book : A Glossary of Old
English Bible Words. ISmo, pp. 564. London, 1866.
Englishman's, The, Greek Concordance of the New Testament. Being an Attempt
at a Verbal Connection between the Greek and the English Texts. 4to, pp.
482. New York, 1879.
Englishman's, The, Hebrew and Chaldee Conoordanoa of the Old Testament. 2 vols.,
royal Svo. London, 1866.
Henderson, William. A Dictionary and Concordance of the Names of Persons and
Places, and of Terms which occur in Scripture. Svo, pp. 689. Edinburgh and
New York, 1869.
Hudson, Charies F. A Critical Greek and English Concordance of the New Testa
ment. Prepared under the direction of Horace L. Hastings, Revised and Com-

CONCORDANCES. 231
pleted by Dr. Ezra Abbott, Boston, 1870; also 1S83. (Compact, convenient,
and peculiarly interesting from the fact thai no "copy'' of it was prepared!
the author, also a practical printer, having set up the material as he com
posed it.)
Schmidt, ErastuSi A Greek Concordance to the New Testament. A Concordance
of the Words of the Greek New Testament, with their Context. Svo, pp. 283.
London, 1882.
Strong, James. The Exhaustive Concordance to the Bible. Together with a Com
parative Concordance of the Authorized and Revised Versions, Including the
American Variations. Also Brief Dictionaries of the Hebrew and Greek Words
ofthe Original, with References to the English Words. 1 vol., 4to. New York,
1893.
Student's Concordance to the Revised Version of 1881. New York, 1883. (Shows
changes in all words referr.d to.)
Thoins, John Alexander. A Complete Concordance to the Revised Version of the
New Testament; Embracing the Marginal Readings of the English Revisers as
well as those ofthe American Committee. Svo., pp. 532. New York, 1882.
Wigram, G. V. The Hebraist's Vade Meeum ; a first attempt at a Complete Verbal
Index to the Hebrew and Chaldee Scriptures. London, 1867.
Wigram. G. V. The Englishman's Hebrew and Chaldee Concordance of the Old
Testament. Being an Attempt at a Verbal Connection between the Original
and the English Translations. 2 vols , Svo. London, 1843.
Young, Robert. Analytical Concordance to the Bible. Every word in al| liabetical
order, with Hebrew or Greek Original. Edinburgh and New York, 1881.
Young, Robert. Twofold Concordance to the New Testament. Concordance to the
Greek NewTestament, Exhibiting Every Root and Derivative, with their Several
Pri fixes and Terminations in all their Occurrences, with the Hebrew Originals
of which they are Renderings in the LXX. Together with a Concordance and
Dictionary of Bible Words and Synonyms. Also a Concise Concordance to
Eight Thousand Changes of the Revised Testament. 4to. Edinburgh, 1884.
9. Biblical Dictionaries cmd Cyclopaedias.
A Dictionary of Christian Biography, Literature, Sects, aud Doctrines. Being a con
tinuation of "The Dictionary of the Bible." Edited by William Smith, D.C.L.,
LL.D., and Henry Wace, M.A., Professor of Ecclesiastical History in King's Col
lege, London. 4 vols., Svo. London, 1875. (A worlf of the greatest value to
the student ; it embodies the results of the latest discovery and research.)
A Religious Encyclopajdia ; or, Dictionary ot Biblical, Historical, Doctrinal, and
Practical Theology, Based on the Real-Encyclopadie of Herzog, Plitt, and
Hauck. Edited by Philip Schaff, D.D., LL.D. ; associate editors. Rev. Samuel
M. Jackson, M.A., and Rev. D. S. Schaff. .3 vols., Svo. New York, 1887,
with Supplementary Volume. (The latest edition is in four volumes of equal
size. )
Abbot, Lyman. A Dictionary of Religious Knowledge. New York, 1875.
Addis, W. E., and Arnold, Thomas. A Catholic Dictionary, containing some account
ofthe Doctrine, Discipline, Rites, Ceremonies, Councils, and Religions Orders of
llie Catholic Church. 2d ed., Svo. London, 1884.
Ayre, John. The Treasury of Bible Knowledg. Being a Dicliona' y of the Books,
Persons, Places, Events, etc., in the Holy Scriptures. ISmo. New York,
1866.

232 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
Barnum, Samuel W. A Comprehensive Dictionary of the Bible. Abridged from
.Smith, wilh Additions. Svo, pp. 1219. New York and Londou, 1868.
Benhaiii, Rev. W., editor. The Dictionary of Religion: An Encyclopsedia of Chris
tian and other Religious Doctrines, Denominations, Sects, Hpresies, Ecclesiasti
cal Terms, History, Biography, etc. 4to, pp. 1148. New York, 1887. (Treats
of ecclesiastical history and doctrine, of the religions of the ancient and modern
world, and also the persons connected therewith.)
Blunt, John H. A Dictionary of Doctrinal and Historical Theology. By various
Writers. Royal Svo. Philadelphia, 1870.
Blunt, John H. A Dictionary of Sects, Heresies, Ecclesiastical Parties, and Schools
of Religious Thought. Royal Svo. Philadelphia, 1874.
Brown, John. A Dictionary of the Bible, etc Svo. London, 1868.
Cassell's Bible Dictionary. Illustrated wiih nearly six hundred Engravings. 2 vols.
in one. 4to, pp. 1159. London, 1869.
Darling, James. Cyclopjedia Bibliographica : a Library Manual of Theological and
General Literature, and Guide to Books, etc. 2 vols., royal Svo. Vol. I,
Authors; columns, 3,338. Vol. II, Subjects, Holy Scriptures; columns, 1,920.
London, 1854-59.
Davidson, D. Pocket Biblical Dictionary, Condensed from Calmet, Brown. Clarke,
Jones, and the mosl Recent Sources of Information. New ed., 24ino. London,
1868.
Eadie, John. A Biblical Cyclopaidia ; or. Dictionary of Eastern Antiquities, Geography,
, Natural History, Sacred Annals, etc. 13th ed., Svo, pp. viii, 690. London, 1870.
Encyclopjedia of Religious Knowledge ; or. Dictionary of the Bible. Theological,
Religious, Biographical, elc. Royal Svo. Philadelphia, 1870.
Fairbairn, P. Tho Imperial Bible Dictionary. Historical, Biographical, Geograpliictd,
and Doctrinal, etc. Illus. 2 vols., royal Svo, pp. x, 1007, 1151. London, 1866.
Farrar, John. A Biblical and Theological Dictionary ; Illustrative of the Old and
New Testaments. 3d ed., 12mo, pp. 663. London, 1852.
Fausset, A. R. The Englishman's Critical and Expository Bible Cyclofaidia.
Illustrated. 4to. London, 1878.
Freeman, James. Iland-book of Bible Manners and Customs. 12mo, pp, 515. New
York, 1874.
Ilerzng's Protestant, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Encyclopjedia ; with Additions!
by J. H. A. Bomberger, assisted bj' distinguished Theologians ot various Denom
inations. 2 vols., royal Svo. Philadelphia, 1858-60. (This translation was
never completed.)
Ingli,-!, James. The Bible-Text Cyclopsedia: a Complete Classification of Scripture
¦' Texts in the form of an Alphabetical Index of Subjects. Post Svo, pp. 528.
Loudon, 1861. New ed., 1865.
Journal of Sacred Literature. Edited by Drs. Kitto, Burgess, etc. The Five Siries
complete. 40 vols., Svo. London, 1848-60.
Kitto, John. A Cyclopajdia ot Biblical Literature. Edited by W. L. Alexander.
3 vols., Svo, pp. 872, 876, 872. Edinburgh, 1862-66.
Marlindale, Miles. Dictionary of the Holy Bible, revised and corrected by Rev.
Joseph Benson. Svo, pp. 631. New York, 1823.
M'Clintock and Strong. Cyclopsedia of Biblical, Theidogical, and Ec lesiastical Lit
erature. 10 vols., Svo. New York, 1867-80. With Supplempnt in 2 vols. 1887.
Pchaff, Philip. A Religious Encyclopaedia; or. Dictionary of Biblical, Doctrinal,
and Practical Theology. 3 vols., Svo, New York, 1882. (The Soliaff-Herzog
Rncyclopa'dia noticed above.)

BIBLICAL DICTIONARIES AND CYCLOPEDIAS. 283
Schaff, Philip. A Dictionary of the Bible, including Biography, Natural History,
Geography, Topography, Archseology, and Literature. Pp. 960. 5tli ed. Phila
delphia, 1890,
.Smith, William and Cheetham, Samuel. A Dictionary of Christian Antiquities, com
prising the History, Institutions, and Antiquities of the Christian Church from
Ihe Time of the Apostles to the Age of Charlemagne. 2 vols., Svo. London,
1875. (A most valuable work.)
Smith, William. Dictionary of the Bible. American ed. by Hackett and Abbot.
4 vols., Svo. New York, 1867-70. The same Abridged. 1 vol., Svo. Boston,
1865.
Staunton Wm. An Ecclesiastical Dictionary, containing Definitions of Terms per
taining to the History, Ritual, Discipline, Worship, Ceremonies, and Usages ot
the Christian Church. Svo. New York, 1861.

234 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.

SECTION XVIIL
HERMENEUTICS.
G Seyffarth, iiber Begriff, Anordnung und Umfang der Hermeneutik des N. T. (Lpz. 1824),
worait Jedoch zu verglelchen die Recens. in Winers und Engelhai'dts Journal Bb. 4. S. 324 II.
A Tholuck fiber den Mangel an Ueberelnstlmmung unter den Auslegern des N. T. (theoL
Studien und Krltiken Jahrg., 1832, S. 325). Planck's Safired Philology and Interpretation, trans-
lated by Turner ; Kltto's Cyclopedia, vol. 11, p. 20. For a very lull history and bibliography,
see Terry's Hermeneutics, Part III.
Biblical Hermeneutics treats of the principles on which Scripture
is to be explained. These principles are, upon the whole, the same
Dednition of that apply to any work of human origin, and Hermen-
Hermeneutios. eutics, as a theological science, differs from the science
in its general (philosophical and philological) character simply with
regard to the object upon which it is employed. In this connexion
the peculiarly religious character of the Bible certainly demands
recognition. Hermeneutics from epfirivevu) (which is to be traced back to the
Hermes of the ancients') is, in Schleiermacher's language, an art-
doctrine ; " for the complete understanding of a discourse or writ
ing is a work of art, and requires a technical apparatus." ' It
Distinguished Stands in an inverted relation to rhetoric, in so far as
from rhetoric, ^j^q latter is dependent on logic ; for while the logical
part of rhetoric furnishes the laws by which our thoughts are to be
connected, arranged, and presented, Hermeneutics teaches how to
apprehend the given discourses or writings of another person, and
how to follow and interpret them. In proportion as the logically
ordered thinking in a discourse or book becomes clear, as it will
when the matter to be imparted is developed before the mind of
the hearer or reader in a well-arranged style, will the need of ex
planation and of an art of explanation be small ; for which reason,
e. g., purely mathematical lectures need no hermeneutics if defini
tions are first understood. But when the logic is hidden in the dis
cussion, and when the words do not represent mere formulas and
figures (the expression of magnitudes), but are, according to the
nature of the subject under consideration, the not fully adequate
signs of a profoundly apprehended original, when they are the
bearers, borrowed from the world of sense, of ideas which are in
visible, there arises the need of an interpreter who shall know
how to trace back to the original idea the letter which was first
correctly apprehended through the mechanical processes of gram
mar, and who shall thus restore the written or spoken word, so
' See Creuzer, Symbolik, i, pp. 9-15 : 365 sgg. ; ii, p. 617.
0 Schleiermacher, § 132.

PECULLARITIES OP BIBLE LANGUAGE. 235
that it becomes for the reader or hearer what it was to the
writer or speaker from whom in the freshpess of its originality it
emanated. For this reason the ancients already joined divination to her
meneutics ; and this likewise indicates why an exposition according
to rules of art is more necessary with poets, epigrammatists, and
poetizing philosophers, than with simple prose-writers.' Works,
moreover, that belong to a distant age, and are written causes which
in a language which has itself passed through many his- "emacs "neSs^
torical vicissitudes, are more likely to engage the atten- sary.
tion of hermeneutics than writings and discourses belonging to our
own times, whose meaning is more apparent to us by reason of their
nearness. And, lastly, the allusions contained in a discourse or
writing will need a key to their interpretation, in proportion as they
bear upon individual matters, which is especially the case in episto
lary compositions. If we apply these considerations to the Bible,
it will appear that it needs the art of hermeneutics in each of
these regards. Few books, in the first place, in the form of expres
sion, fall so much behind their wealth of contents, and .p^g reasons
few, accordingly, belong so fully to the class of pregnant why the Bible
,, ^_ _ - i_ (* 1166(13 C9>r6 ID,
writings, as do these modest envelopments ot supreme its interpreta-
ideas. Luther strikingly likens them to the swaddling- 'i""-
clothes in which the Christ-child lay, and the great Reformer
was led to use the expression that the words in Scripture are not
merely "written words, but living words," whence it becomes a
frequent necessity to read between the lines. But the Bible at the
same time shares with all works of antiquity, including the less
pregnant also, the fortune of having been written in times, and
among a people, into whose circumstances we must enter and live,
and in languages with whose spirit and expression we must become
familiar, if we desire to accurately understand what is written.'
' " There is no lack of examples in our own experience of an author's mind being,
«. g., exalted to such an intuitive penetration of its object as to be enabled to speak
of it with an unusual pregnancy of word and meaning which his own reflection is un
able to resolve into details ; it even happens that when he descends from his intuitive
center-point to his ordinary level of thought, hia own work will appear like a strange
object, respecting the development of whose meaning he finds as much. difficulty as
do others." — J. T. Beck, Enil. in das Syst. d. Chr. Lehre, p. 253. An example is found
in Hamann.
'^ " He who would interpret, needs, by drawing as near as may be possible, to de
scend to the condition of the first readers and hearers." — Lutz (Hermeneutic). " Pour
ne pas errer sur le sens que nous appelons exterieur, 11 taut avoir une idee precise de
la langue des auteurs, je veux dire de la valeur des signes et des formes de cette
tangue, compares aux formes et aux signes correspondants de notre propre langue.

236 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
How thoroughly individual, too, is the Bible, never dealing in ab
stract generalities, always singling out the concrete instance, the
special condition and its needs, the disposition and mode of culture
of persons and communities ! ' How natural, then, that we should
seek to obtain a key ! This can be no magic key, however, which
some angel must bring down from the third or the seventh heaven,
or whose possession is restricted to a sacred caste ; but, generally
The key to Speaking, the same art has its application here, which
the Bible to be ^^gj ]t»e employed, according to the natural laws of a
found in her- r j ' <=> ^
meneuties. historico-logical method of estimating the past, upon
every work that requires explanation. This art belongs to the
higher department of the science of language, of philology, and
hence of applied philosophy.
Biblical her- I* i® ^ theological science merely in its special appli-
meneutics a cation to this object," for every rule established by the-
erai herme- ological hermeneutics for the exposition of the Script-
neutics. ^j.gg must -be based upon the general principles of her
meneutics or deducible from them, and all that can be done in the
interest of the Bible is that such principles be properly applied.
Arbitrary departure from them, or making so-called " exceptions to
such rules," is never beneficial. When the latter course is fol
lowed the proper inference is that the general law itself has not
been apprehended, or that confusion or a misconception is in
volved. Should a one-sided, scanty legislation confine the inter
pretation of the Scriptures to the purely external meaning of the
letter so exclusively as, while considering the notation of the let
ter (the grammar), to forget the notation of the spirit, should it
designedly seek to blot out the individuality and originality of an
author, in order to put in the place of the forms which reveal a rich
fulness of ideas, the vaguely outlined shadows of abstract common
places, it will of course be exposed to the danger of seeing those
who are not content with such meagre fare forsake its school and
submit themselves to the impression of an undefined feeling. This
is a result the more likely to come to pass because of the failure
En d'autres termes, 11 taut savoir i quel taux il faut prendre le mots principaux, qui
reviennent le plus souvent et entrent dans le passages Ies plus importants." — VInet
(Homiletique), p. 124.
' Comp. Schleiermacher, § 135 : " The explanation of the New Testament Scriptures
is especially difficult, both on account of the nature of their contents, and by reason
of external conditions."
' Schleiermacher, § 137, sg. It is evident that within this specifically biblical her-
meneuties, another and yet more special (Old and New Test., Pauline, Johannean, etc.)
may be conceived of and wrought out. Comp. ib., § 136.

WHO IS THE COMPETENT INTERPRETER? 237
of such teachers to instil the scientific principles sought at their
hands. If hermeneutics has regard to the deeper psychological fea
tures of the writers to be explained, whether they occupy the field
of poetry, philosophy, or religion, and if it establishes as the lead
ing principle that he only is competent to correctly appreciate an
author whose mind possesses elements related and analogous to that
author's, or, at least, who has learned how to think himself into the
mental state of his author,' it certainly has also the right to require
an unconditional submission to its rules on the part of the expositor
of the Bible. All the wanderings of the so-called allegorical in
terpretation find their excuse in narrow hermeneutics, whether of
the orthodox or the rationalist letter, and may be corrected and
finally laid aside by the application of the true science of spiritual
exposition." The science of hermeneutics could not be formed before frequent
Experiments in interpretation had been made, and such
practice had resulted in the more or less conscious ap- growth of her-
plication of the laws of interpretation which were de- '"«'^^"*"^-
veloped in the way of practical exposition. Even then it remained
" an aggregate of separate, often valuable and praiseworthy, obser
vations," ' rather than a systematic art, " whose precepts would con
stitute a system resting upon clear principles deduced from the
'nature of thought and of language." This experience belongs
alike to general and biblical hermeneutics.
' " Who will the poet understand must journey into poet-land." Luther already
observed that the Eclogues of Virgil are thoroughly plain to him alone who has lived
with shepherds, and that he alone can properly understand Cicero's epistles "who has
served twenty years in a first-class regiment." Lutz observes shnilarly (in Herme
neutik), " The contents (of the Scripture) are understood only by him who apprehends
and values them in the spirit of one who is saved by Christ and out of interest for
the Christian Church." Comp. also Schenkel, Dogmatik, i, p. 32'7, and Krauss, Be-
deutung des Glaubens fiir die Schriftavslegung.
" Diestel (infra), p. 778, justly observes, in opposition to one-sided tendencies in
exegesis, that only an all-sided illumination can do justice to the object to be ex
plained. He designates (1) the rational, (2) the historico-philosophical, and (3) the
religious principles, as elements which must interpenetrate each other in any truly
theological method of investigation. At the same time we are to remember that " an
absolute knowledge of the religion of the people of God will continue to be a far-off
goal that twinkles in the distance, so long as human development shall continue ; and
in the same measure, even as Christianity likewise can never be exhausted, and the
knowledge of it, in its depth and fulness can only represent a constant approxima
tion toward the highest ideal."
'Schleiermacher, Outline of Theology, §,133. See also the succeeding paragraphs
to § 140 inclusive.

233 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE.
1. Hermeneutics.
Alexander, Archibald. Principle of Design in the Interpretation of Scripture.
Biblical Repertory and Princeton Review for July, 1S45. '
Aplhorp, East. Discourses on Prophecy. Warburtonian Lectures. 2 vols., Svo.
London, 1786. (One of these lectures is on the Canons of Interpretation,)
Arnold, Thomas. Sermons chiefly on the Interpretation of Scripture. New ed.
London, 1878.
Barrows, E. P. A New Introduction to the Study of the Bible. Part IV. Biblical
Interpretation. Svo. London.
Blunt, J. H. Key to the Knowledge and Use of the Holy Bible. Svo. London,
1873. 16mo. Philadelphia, 1873.
Bosanquet, S. R. Interpretation ; being Rules and Principles assisting to the Read
ing and Understanding ot the Holy Scriptures. 12mo. London, 1874.
Briggs, Charles Augustus. Biblical Study; its Principles, Methods, History, etc.
12mo. New York, 1883, 1891. (Chapter x discusses " The Interpretation ot
Scripture.";
Campbell, George. The Four Gospels, with Preliminary Dissertations. 4 vols., Svo.
Boston, 1811. (Dissertation IV is on the right method of proceeding in the
critical examination of the New Testament.)
Cellerier, J. E. Biblical Hermeneutics, chiefly a Translation df the Manuel D'Her-
meneutique Biblique, par J. E. Cellerier. By Charles Elliott and William J.
Harsha. Svo. New York, 1881.
Conybeare, J. J. An Attemptto Trace the History and to Ascertain the Limits ot
the Secondary and Spiritual Interpretation of Scripture. Bampton Lectures for
1824. 12mo, pp. xii, 331. Oxford, 1824.
Conybeare, W. D. An Elementary Course of Lectures on tho Criticism, Interpreta
tion, and Leading Doctrines ofthe Bible. 12mo. London, 1836.
Davidson, Samuel. Sacred Hermeneutics Developed and Applied ; including a His-
'tory of Biblical Interpretation from the Eariiest of the Fathers to the Reforma
tion. Svo, pp. 760. Edinburgh, 1843.
Dixon, Joseph. A General Introduction to the Sacred Scriptures in a Series of Dis
sertations, Critical, Hermeneutical, and Historical. 2 vols., Svo. Dublin, 1852.
, 2 vols, in one, Svo. Baltimore, 1853. (A Roman Catholic work.)
Dobie, David. A Key to the Bible, being an Exposition ot the History, etc., ot Sa
cred Interpre a:ion. 12mo. New York, 1856.
Doedes, J. J. 'Manual of Hermeneutics for the Writings of the New Testament.
Translated by G. W. Stegman, Jr. 12mo, pp. 134." Edinburgh, 1867. (Part
First of this Manual is a " Review of the Different Exegetical Schools wliioU
have exercised an Influence on the Interpretation of the Now Testament."
Part Second Discusses the " Theory of the Exegesis of the Now Testament."
Under this head come the Grammatical Interpretation, the H'storioal Interpre
tation, and the Dogmatical Interpretation.)
Dungan, D. R. Hermeneutics: A Text Book. 1 2rao, pp. xv, 4C0. Cincinnati, 1888.
Ellicott, C. J. Scripture and its Interpretation. One of the E=says in Aids to Faith.
Replies to Essays and Reviews. Svo. London, 1 863.
Elliott, C, and Harsha, W. J. Biblical igermeiieuticsj Ncw York. (A translation
ofthe French Work ot Cellerier, noticed above.)

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE. 239
Ernesti, J. A. Elementary Principles of Interpretation. Translated from the Latin
aud Accompanied by Notes, from Morus, Beck, Keil, and Henderson. Edited by
Moses Stuart. 4th ed. Andover and New York, 1842. (This is Ernesii's most
important theological work ; in it he explains tho system of grammatico-historical
interpretation, now universally adopted. The priuciples of Biblical interpreta
tion are set forth by h m, in a series of a phorismatic paragraphs.)
Fairbairn, Patrick. Hermeneutical Manual; or. Introduction to the Exe.etical
Study ot the New Testament. Svo, pp. 492. Edinburgh, 1858. Philadel
phia, 1859.
Fairbairn, Patrick. Prophecy Viewed in Respect to its Distinctive Nature, Special
Function, and Proper Interpretation. Svo. New York, 1866.
Fairbairn, Patrick. The Typology of Scripture ; Viewed in Connection with the
Whole Series of Divine Dispensations. 5lh ed., 2 vols., Svo, pp. 504, 555. Ed
inburgh, 1870. New York, 1877.
Farrar, Frederick W. History of Interpretation : Bampton Lectures for 1885. Svo.
London, 1880.
Home, Thomas Hartwell. Introdnction to the Study of the Holy Scriptures.
2vols., Svo. Philadelphia, 1841. 13th. ed., 4 vole., Svo. London, 1872. (Partll,
Vol. I, treats of interpretation.)
Immer, A. Hermeneutics ot the New Testament. Translated from the German, by
Rev. Albert H. Newman. With Additional Notes and Full Indexes. New ed.
Crown Svo, pp. 413. Andover.
Irons, W. J. The Bible and its Interpreters. Miracles and Prophecies. 2d ed.
London, 1869.
Jones, Wm. Course of Lectures on the Figurative Language of the Scriptures. 8vo.
London, 1789. (Also in Vol. IV of Theological and Miscellaneous Works.
1810.)
Jowctt, Benjamin. On the Interpretation of Scripture. One ofthe Essays in Essays
and Reviews, by Eminent English Churchmen. Svo. London, 1861.
Lamar, J. S. The Organon ot Scripture; or, the Inductive Method of Biblical Tnlcr-
preiation. 12mo. Philadelphia, 1860.
Lee, Samuel. The Study of the Holy Scriptures. Svo. London, 1830. (Contains a
dissertation on the interpretation of prophecy.)
Macknight, James. Concerning the Right Interpretation of the Writings in whch
the Revelations of God are Contained. _(Essay VIII, appended to his Transla
tion nnd Commentary on the Apostolic Epistles. Many eds.)
' Moithind, Chas. The Apostles' School of Prophetic Interpretation, with its History
to the Present Time. Svo, pp. 472. London, 1849.
Maitland, S. R. Eight Essays on the Mystical Interpretation ot Scripture, etc. Svo.
London, 1852.
Marsh, Bishop Herbert. Lectures on the Criticism and Interpretation of the Bible,
with the History ot Biblical Interpretation. Svo. Loudon, 1828, 1838,1842.
M'Clell.and, Alexander. Manual of Sacred Interpretation,, for tho Special Benefit of
Junior Theological Students. 12mo. New York, 1842.
M'Clelland, Alexander. A Brief Treatise on tho Canon and Interpretation of the
Holy Scriptures. New York, 1850. (Above book enlarged.)
Muenscher, Jos ph. Manual of Biblical Interpretation, 1 Gmo, pp. 318. Gambler,
Ohio, 1865.
Pareau, Jfilm Henry. Principles of Iiiterpretai ion of t!;e Old Testament. Trans
lated by Patrick Forbes. 16mo, 2 vols., pp. 302, 344. Edinburgh, 1835.
(This excellent Manual forms a p,irt of Clark's Biblical Cabinet,)

240 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
Pierce, B. K. The Word of God Opened. Its Insp'ration, Canon, aud Interpretation
Considered and Illustrated. New York, 1868.
Planck, G. J. Introduction to Sacred Philology and Interpretation. Trans'ated
from the Original German by Samuel H. Turner. Edinburgh, 1834. 16mo, pp.
288. New York, 1834.
Sawyer, Leicester A. The Elements of Biblical Interpretation ; or, an Exposition of
ihe Laws, by which the Scriptures arc capable ot being Correctly Interpreted.
12mo. New Haven, 1836.
Scott, J. Principles of New Testament Quotation Establislved and Applied to Bib
lical Science. Edinburgh, 1875.
Seller, G. F. Biblical Hermeneutics ; cr, the Art of Scripture Interpretation. Prom
the German. Svo. London, 1835.
Smith, Jolm Pye. Principles ot Interpretation as Applied to the Prophecies of Holy
Scriptur -. London, 1829. 2d ed., 1831.
Spurgeon, C. II. Commenting and Commentaries. Two Lectures Addressed to the
Students of the Pastor's College, . . . together with a Catalogue of Biblical Com
mentaries and Expositions. 12mo. New York, 1876. ,
Stuart, Moses. Hints on the Interpretation of Prophecy. 12mo. Andover, 1842.
Terry, M. S. Biblical Hermeneutics ; a Treatise on the Interpretation of Scripture.
Svo, pp. 787. New York, 1883.
Tholuck, Augustus. On the Use of the Old Testament in tho New, and especially
in the Epistle to the Hebrews. Translated by J. B. Ryland. Vol. XXXIX of
Biblical Cabinet. IGmo. Edinburgh, 1842.
Tholuck, Augustus. Hints on the Interpretation of the Old Testament. Translated
by R. B. Patton. Vol. II of Edinburgh Biblical Cabinet. ]6mo. Edinburgh,
1833.
Turner, S. H. Thoughts en the Ori, in. Character, and Interpretation of Scriptural
Prophecy. 12mo. New York, 1860.
Turpie, David M'C. The Old Testament in the Ncw. A Contribution to Biblical
Criticism and Interpretation, etc. Royal Svo. London, 1868.
Van Mildert, William. An Inquiry into the General Principles of Scripture Inter
pretation. Bampton Lectures for 1814. Svo. Oxford, 1815. 3d cd. London,
1838.
Wemyss, Thomas. A Key to the Symbolical Langnago of Scripture, etc. 16mo,
pp. 520. Edinburgh, 1835.
Winthrop, Edward. Premium Essays on the Characteristics and Laws of Prophetic
Symbols. 12mo. Now York, 18G0.
Whitaker, William. On the Interpretation of Scripture. Cambridge, 1849.
Whitby, Daniel. Dissertatio de SS. Scripturarum Interpretatione secundum Patrum
Commentaries. Svo. London, 1714. (Elicited by the Arian Controversy.)
Whittaker, John William. A Historical and Critical Enquiry into the Interpretation
oif the Hebrew Scriptures. London, 1819.
Wickes, William. nOX 'DJ>t3. A Treatise on the Accentuation ofthe eo-called Poet
ical Books of the Old Testament — Psalms, Proverbs, and Job. With an Appen
dix containing a Treatise, assigned to R. Jehuda Ben-Bil'am, on the same subject
in tho Original Arabic. Svo, pp. xii, 120. Oxford, 1881. (.According to the
author the design of the accents was to fix tlio modulation. The full lists of
both the prose and poetical s'gns or accents arc given, but the accentuation is
limited to the poetical books.)
Wordsworth, C. On the Interpretation of Scripture. An Essay in reply to Essays
and Reviews. Svo. London, 1862.

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE. 241

2. Inspiration.
Alexander, Archibald. Evidences ot the Authenticity, Inspiration, and Canonical
Authority of the Holy Scriptures. 12ii;o, pp. 308. Philadelphia.
Alwell, W. E. Pauline Theory of the Inspiration of the Holy Scriptu.es. Svo.
London, 1878.
Bagley, Benjamin. An Essay on Inspiration. Svo. London, 1707. 2d ed., 1708.
Bannerman, James. Inspiration: the Infallible Truth and Divine Authority of the
Holy Scriptures. Svo, pp. 595. Edinburgh, 1865.
Barry, William. Au Inquiry into the Nature and Extent of the Inspiration ot the
Apostles and other Writers of the New Testament. Svo. London, 1797. 2d
cd., 1822.
Baylee, Joseph. Verbal Inspiration the True Characteristic of God's Holy Word.
Svo. Lond n, 1870.
Boyle, W. R. A. The Inspiration of the Book of Daniel, and other Portion.? of Script-
'ure. Svo. London, 1863.
Burgon, JobnW. Inspiration and Interpretation; Seven Sermons Before the Univer
sity of Oxford. Svo. London, 1874.
Calamy, E. The Inspiration of the Holy Writings of the Old and New Testament
Considered and Improved. Svo. London, 1710.
Carson, Alexander. The Theories of Inspiration of the Rev. Daniel Wilson, Rev.
Dr. Pye Smith, and Rev. Dr. Dick. Proved to be erroneous, wilh Remarks on
tlie Christian Observer aud Eclectic Review. ]2mo, pp. 223. Edinburgh, 1830.
(The author holds that " the Bible as originally given is divine in every word.")
Coleridge, Samuel Taylor. Confessions of an Inquiring Spirit. 16mo, pp. 129. Bos
ton, 1841. (Also in his collected w^orks.)
Cirrtis, S. F. The Human Element in the Inspiration of the Sacred Scriptures.
12mo, pp. 386. New York, 1867.
Eewar, Daniel. Divine Revelation : its Evidences, External, Internal, and Collateral.
Together with its Canonical Authority and Plenary Inspiration. 2d od., Svo.
London, 1859.
Dick, John. An Essay on the Inspiration of the Holy Scriptures. 4tli ed., 8vo.
Glasgow, 1840.
Doddridge, Philip. A Dissertation on the Inspiration of tJie New Testament, etc.
In works. Vols. IV and VIII.
Elliott, Charles. A Treatise on the Inspiration of the Holy Scriptures. Edinburgh
and New York, 1877.
Findliiy, Robert. The Divine Inspiration of the Holy Scriptures asserted by St.
Paul, 2 Tim. iii, 16. London, 1803.
Fowle, P. W. The Reconciliation of Religion and Science, being Essays on Immor
tality, Inspiration, Miracles, and the Being ot Christ. Svo. London, 1 882.
Garbett, E. God's Word Written : the Doctrine of the Inspiration of Holy Scripture
E.xplaiued .nnd Enforced. 12mo, pp. 365. Boston, 1867.
Gaussen, S. R. L. Theopneusty; or, the Plenary Inspiration ofthe Holy Scriptures.
From the French, by E. N. Kirk. 12mo, pp. 343. New York, 1842.
Given, Jolm James. Truth ef Scripture in Connection with Revelation, Inspiration
andlheCanon. Edinburgh, 1881.
Haldane, J. A. The Inspiration of the Scriptures. 12rao. Boston..
Hannuli, J. The Relation between the Divine and the Human Element in the
Scriptures. Bampton Lectures for 1863, Pp. xix, 364. London, 1863.
16

242 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
Henderson, Ebenezer. Divine Inspiration ; or, the Supernatural Influence exerted in
the Communication of Divine Truth, elc. 8vo. London, 1836. 4th ed., 1852.
(A work highly commended for impartiality.)
Hinds, Samuel. An Inquiry into the Proofs, Nature, and Extent of Inspiration, and
into the Authority of Scripture. Svo. Oxford, 1831.
Hopkins, Theodore. The Doctrine of Inspiration; an Outline Historical Study.
Pamphlet. Svo, pp. 106. Rochester, 1881.
Home, Thomas Hartwell. Introduction to the Study of the Holy Scriptures. Svo
2 vols. Philadelphia, 1841. (The opening chapters,, iv to vi, both inclusive,
treat of inspiration.)
Horton, Robert F. Inspiration and the Bible. An Enquiry. ]2mo, pp. x, 256.
London, 1888.
Jamieson, Robert. The Inspiration of the Holy Scriptures. Baird Lectures for
1873. 12mo. Edinburgh, 1874.
Lee, William. The Inspiration of the Scriptures. Its Nature and Proof. Svo, pp.
478. New York, 1876.
Lewis, Tayler. The Divine Human in the Scriptures. 12mo, pp. 400. New York,
1860. (Holds that the language ot the Bible is, in a certain sense, inspired, and
yet rejects verbal inspiration.)
Liber Librorum: its Structure, Limitations, and Purpose. 16mo, pp. 232. Now
York, 1867. (Holds that reason enlightened by the Spirit is the verifier of rev
elation,) I
Lord, Eleazer. The Plenary Inspiration ot the Holy Scriptures. 12mo. New York,
1858. (Takes an extreme view.)
Lord, Eleazer. Inspiration not Guidance nor Tuition ; or, the Plenary Inspiration
of the Holy Scriptures. Secoud Series. 12mo, pp. 331. New York, 1858.
Lord, Eleazer. The Prophetic OfBee of Christ as Related to the Verbal Inspiration
ofthe Holy Scriptures. 12mo, pp. 154. New York, 1859.
Lowth, Wm. A Vindication of the Divine Authority and Inspiration ofthe Writings
of the Oldand New Testaments. Svo. Oxford, 1692. (An answer to Le Clerc.)
Mahan, Milo. Palmonii; or, the Numerals of Scripture a Proof of Inspiration. A
Free Inquiry, 12mo. Now York, 1863.
Manly, Basil. The Bible Doctrine of Inspiration Explained and Vindicated. 12nio.
New York, 1888.
M'Caiil, Alexander. Testimony to the Divine Authority and Inspiration of the
Holy Scriptures, as Taught by the Church of England. 12mo. London, 1862.
M'Leod, Alexander. View of Inspiration. 12mo. Glasgow, 1827.
Moore, James Lovell. Inspiration of the Now Testament. Svo. London, 1793.
Morell, J. D. The Philosophy of Religion. 12mo, pp. 359. New York, 1849.
(Chapter vi treats of inspiration.)
Noble, S. Plenary Inspiration of the Scriptures Asserted. Svo. London, 1856.
Owen, John. The Divine Original and Plenary Inspiration of Scripture. Works,
Vol. IX. Philadelphia, 1871.
Price, Jacob Embury. The Book Divine ; or. How Do I Know the Bible is the Word
of God? New York, 1889. (Prepared for popular use.)
Rennell, Thomas. Proof cf Inspiration ; or, Grounds of Distinction between llio
New 'Testament and the Apocryphal Now Testament. Svo. London, 1822.
Rowe, C. A. The Nature and Extent of Divine Inspiration. Svo, pp. 439. London,
1864.
Ryle, John Charies. Bible Inspiration. Its Reality and Nature. 2d ed. London,
1883.

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE. 343
Scott, Thomas. • .A vindication of the Divine Inspiration of the Holy Scriptures and
of the Doctrines Contained in tliera ; being an answer to the two parts of Mr. T.
Paine's Age of Reason. ISmo, pp. 202. London, 1797.
Smith, J. A. The Spirit in the Word: or. Letters to a Bible Class on the Canon of
Scripture and its Interpretation. 16mo. Chicago, 1865.
Spring, G. The Bible not of Man ; Divine Origin of Scripture drawn from the Scrip
tures themselves. 12mo. New York, 1847.
Wakefield, Gilbert. An Essay on Inspiration : Considered Chiefly with respect to
the Evangelists. Svo, pp. 49. Warrington and London, 1781. (Lays down
the proposition that all that is necessary for the validity of any relation of facts
is — a sound understanding — competent information and integrity of heart.)
Warington, George. The Inspiration ot Scripture; its Limits and Effects. 16mo,
pp. 284. London, 1867.
Whytehead, Robert. The Warrant of Faith : or, a Hand-book to the Canon and In
spiration of the Scriptures. 12mo. London, 1854.
Woods, Leonard. Lectures on the Inspiration of the Scriptures. 12mo. Andover,
1829.
Wordsworth, Christopher. On the Inspiration of Scripture ; or, the Canon ot the
Oldand New Testaments and the Apocrypha, Svo, pp. 447. London, 1851.

244 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
SECTION XIX.
EXEGESIS.
' Exegesis, as an art product, accomplishes that for which herme
Deflnition of neutics, the theory, lays down the rules, and toward
exegesis. which the Other auxiliary sciences direct their efforts,
namely, the exposition of holy Scriptures, based on comprehen.sion
of the languages and antiquities involved.
Reference must be made for the sake of clearness to tlie terms
in cornmoii use, though in this as in many other instances the usage
is arbitrary. The words kpnTjveia and i^rjyrjaig have at bottom the
Di tl 1 h d s^"^® meaning ; but exegesis has come to denote the
from herme- action of the expositor himself, and hermeneutics the
cs. theory of the art of exposition.
Tn the broad sense of the term, exegesis includes both the inter-
inciiides both pretation and the explication of St-ripture. The former
1 iterpretatton of these confines its endeavors solely to the apprehend-
tion. ing of facts narrated by an author, or of doctrines pre;
Rented by him, in a purely objective light; while the latter brings
them into relation with other facts or doctrines, or possibly with
the judgment of the expositor himself with respect to the facts as
stated, or the doctrines as presented. Mere interpretation will, ac
cordingly, be less susceptible to influence from the individual views
of the expositor than explication, which is more open to the infu
sion of elements derived from his subjectivity. The former cor
responds to translation, and is its authentication; the latter finds its
expression in paraphrases.
We follow the accepted usage, though it might well be reversed,
since the expositor in fact does nothing more than simply explain
the meaning and throw light upon what is dark, while the inter
preter still further subdivides and spreads out the matter that has
been explained.' Thus it is said of a preadher that he knows how
to interpret a text when he not only clears up what is dark to the
mind, but when he at the same time develops in every direction
what has been made plain, for the purpose of a fuller understand
ing of it. In the terminology of the science, however, the words
have come to bear the above signification. The work of the inter-
' Comp. Eberhard, Synon. Handworterbuch, s. v. erklaren, auslegen, deuten, p. 101 ;
Ast, p. 184: "To explain is to develop and lay doivn the meaning; for explanation
presumes understanding and rests upon it, since only what has been rightly conceived
and comprehended, what is understood, can be imparted and explained as such to
others."

predispos.t;on not always prejudice. 24,-)
pres is ended when the author's meaning has been simply stated,'
e. a., when it has been shown that he records a mir- „. , .,
'' ' . . The functions
acle, or that he teaches a certain doctrine. The com- of the inter-
mentator, however, goes further, seeking to understand ae^^ommen-
how the author came to narrate and teach as he does, tator distin-
He compares him with himself^ with his contempora
ries, with the spirit of the time in which he lived (historical, as
contrasted with merely grammatical exposition), and he finally
brings practically what he has ascertained into connexion with
the sum total of tlie facts possessed. This will indicate the extent
to which it is possible to speak of pure objectivity in connection
with exegesis. Interpretation must certainly remain independent
of every existing dogmatical system," and it has become interpretation
increasingly so in recent times. " Rationalism especially should be inde-
has ceased to dispose of miracles, by perverting them, dogmatical sys-
in the way of an exegesis framed to favor its system. •*"'*•
It would even appear that the negative tendency of the present
day finds, in connection with its so-called avoidance of predisposi
tion, a special pleasure in placing a greater burden in this respect
on the biblical writers than is admitted to belong to ^he so-caiied
them by an unprejudiced exegesis, in order, however, avoidance of
it must be admitted, to afterward throw overboard the sition" aprej-
whole, as being without substance and meaning. But ^^'^•
this very absence of predisposition is governed by a prejudice, that
of "modern culture," and this has its influence upon exposition,
even though the interpretation may not be affected thereby. In
stead of quietly, and with unbiassed spirit, entering upon the sub
ject in hand, the exposition assumes a hostile attitude toward the
writer at the beginning, and treats him with injustice. The school
which occupies the purely grammatical and historical point of ob
servation, and abstains from judging at all, avoids such impas
sioned courses, and its position is certainly more worthy of respect
' On the distinction between sense, signification, and understanding, see Schleier
macher, Hermeneutik, p. 41.
" " To ascertain the contents of Scripture in obedience to the accepted views of the
Church remains, despite all exceptions and provisos, a dishonest procedure from the
outset, by which we have before we seek, and find what we already have." — Meyc,
preface to Krit.-exeget. Handb., 2 ed., p. 12, sg. " Seek to discover the real meaning
of your author by the use of all proper means at your command ; lend him noiliiiig
that is yours, but take nothing from what is his. Never insist upon what he should
say, but never be alarmed at what he does say." — Riickert (see Rheinwald, Repn-t.
1839, 5. p. 97). Comp. Kling in Stud. u. Krit., 1839. Bengel cries to the expositor
of the Scriptures, in similar language, " Non timide, non temerc," and adds the
counsel, " Te totum applica ad textum et totum textum applica ad te."

240 special theological ENCYCLOPEDIA.
in both a moral and a scientific light. But is it satisfactory?
Does not the ultimate and really scientific profit consist
po™tiSi''essen- in transforming what learned industry has discovered
tiai to the jjj^ ^ possession of the mind? Why concern myself
Tight interpre- r . i • . j t, j
tation of the about an a,uthor who is nothing to me, and who confers
^""®' nothing upon me, and with whom I am not inwardly
conscious of being in any wise connected ? As only a poetic intel
lect is capable of interpreting a poet, so is a religious disposi
tion the only one that can apprehend and understand a religious
writer, or, more particularly, only a Christian intellect can cor
rectly render a Christian author. And as. the letters of an ab
sent member of the family are understood in their profoundest
meaning at home, while the stranger finds in them a mere surface
matter too tedious for consideration, so is it with these writings of "
The s irit of *^® sift conferred by love divine.' The exegete will
the true exe- accordingly reveal the bottom of his heart in the man-
^®'®" ner in which he explains his author, and his subjectivity
will be a disturbing element so long only as it remains out of har
mony with the key tone of the spirit of the Bible." This does not
imply that the exegete must, from the first, make an unconditional
surrender of his own thoughts. He should retain suflicient men
tal independence and freedom from prejudice to properly esti
mate the personal peculiarities of his author, and whatever may
belong to his individual culture, his relations to his age, etc. He
may, in one respect, occupy a position above his author, while in
another he must be subordinate to him. Here, too, a living inter-
' " Verily I say unto you that Lord Byron would, with a scanty knowledge ot the
Hebrew language, have given a rendering of the chief penitential psalm of David
(the Sfty-first) superior to that of many of the most celebrated grammarians.'' Um
breit (Review of Tholuck's Comment zu d. Psalmen, in Stud. u. Krit., 1845, 1, p.
177). ^ " He who lacks a profound apprehension and a living conception must, with every
degree of technical skill for interpreting Nature or the holy Scriptures of the New as
well as the Old Testament that he may possess, remain a bungler who gnaws away at
the shell and never penetrates to the intellectual heart in which the idea sparkles in
its everlasting truth." Umbreit in Stud. u. Krit., 1882, No. 3, p. 656. Usteri (Comm. Uber
d. Brief, an d. Galater, p. vi) expresses a similar opinion : " It appears to me that the
grammatico-historical principle is merely the conditio sine gua non, or the negative rule
of interpretation ; the positive task of the exegete seems to me to require, so to speak,
chat he should sink himself wholly into the spirit of the author, in order that the
picture drawn in the Scripture, with its accessories of time and place, may afterward
be held up before the reader's eye in the light of his researches in language and
matters of fact." Comp. Billroth, Comm. zu d. Briefen a. d. Corinther, p. v. ; Liicke
in Stud. u. Krit., 1834, 4, pp. 769-71 ; Schleiermacher, Herm., p. 50; Bunsen, tfo««B
iJ. Geschichte, p. 122, sgg. ; Krauss, supra.

THE application OF EXEGESIS. 247
action, a sympathetic yielding to the spirit of the work, and an
incorporation of the results of the inquiry with what before existed,
are needed to further the exposition.' It is apparent, as a general
truth, that exegesis is not finished at one effort. He who complete exe-
reads an author for the tenth time, and the hundredth ^^f^ '^f^J^^:
. ent on spiritual
time, will explain him otherwise than he who reads but growth.
once." Such multifarious intellectual activity in the work of exegesis,
such harmonizing of the grammatico-historical with the higher, ideal,
and sympathetically religious interpretation, has been termed panhar-
monic interpretation, (Germarus), and subsequently the name pneu-
matic has come into favor (Beck). The word is of no importance;
but our age largely feels and acknowledges that while the human
standpoint must be .retained in the explaining of the human ele
ment in the Scriptures (which will ever be the necessary barrier
against all the perversions of superstition), the Holy Spirit himself
must in the final instance be the real interpreter of his words, the
angelus interpres who opens for us the meaning of the Bible.'
SECTION XX.
THE APPLICATION OF EXEGESIS.
The application of the Scriptures finally should carefully be
distinguished from both the interpretation and the „ .
" . . r Scnpture,when
exposition ; for while it is based upon the former, it interpreted, to
yet belongs, according to its nature, to a ditterent de- appued!*^'"^^^
partmeiit — the practical.
The holy Scriptures were at first explained for devotional pur
poses — the Old Testament by the writers of the New, and both
the New and the Old by the Church fathers, although some among
the latter already began to distinguish between practical and sci
entific exposition. It is still the office of exegetical study to pro
duce fruit for the benefit of the Church, of the exegysis of the
schools to serve the exegesis of the pulpit, a principle practical exe-
often overlooked from a spirit of scientific supercilious- gesis the re-
ness. But is scientific exegesis to govern itself from the entitle.
' So Liicke also speaks of a mental disposition on the part of the exegete to jm-
mm-se himself in, and to emerge from, the spirit of the work he seeks to explain
Comp. Herm. Schultz, Uber doppelt., Schriftsinn, {Stud. u. Krit., 1866, 1, p. 37). ,
'Thus Luther boasts that he had read the Bible through twice a year for several
years, and that he had each time beaten off a few more fruits from its branches and
twigs. ,
° According to Luther (comp. Liicke's Supplement to Neander in his N. T. Herme
neutik), or, according to Flaccius, "In order that God himself should remain the
supreme Lord and Judge in all controversies and debated questions." In Pelt, p,
175.

248 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
outset by the demands of the pulpit, so as to accept from the start
the idea that the interpretation which will best promote the work
of edification is the true one ? Or is a special kind of interpreta
tion (with Kant '), the churchly-practical (or, in his language, the
moral), to be established beside the scientific in such a way that both
shall remain independent of each other ? Neither of these. Prac
tical exegesis must result from scientific, and a conscientious
preacher will present no interpretation to the people which cannot
be scientifically justified. Such an interpretation could lay no
claim to the title " moral," but would be thoroughly immoral, like
every thing that is not of the truth. The preacher should, how
ever, bring the truth of Scripture to bear in every direction
upon the religious needs of the age and congregation. He should
Process b.v eliminate, from the inimediate surroundings in which
which exegesis j^ j found bv the exegete, the passage of Scripture
Is made prac- ¦' ,, t ?•, i-
tioai. upon which his remarks are based, and without doing
violence to its original meaning, should endeavor, now to generalize
its teaching, and again to apply it to the most individual and spe
cial matters, so as to transform what is outwardly and historically
given into a picture of inward states, and into an exponent of the pres
ent situation; for what was said to the Churches at Rome, Corinth,
Philippi, etc., is still said by the Spirit to the Churches of to-day.
It would, however, be a serious confounding of different de
partments for scientific exegesis to apprehend the statements im
mediately in their subjective application to human conditions," as
1 Religion innerlmlb d. Grenzen d. blossen Vernunft, Konigsb., 2 ed., 1794, p. 168,
sgg. ; per contra, Rosenmiiller's Bemerkungen, ErI., 1794.
^ This applies especially to the Old Test., where it is the task of exegesis to appre
hend the writer from out of his own age, and to comprehend even the so-called Mes
sianic sections in their immediate historical surroundings. While it furnishes the
threads which lead over into the New Test., it must yet refer their connection to other
branches, and never should " Old Test, exegesis in its known scientific and artistic
limitations be confounded with the retrogressive Christian inquiries which have their
starting-point in the New Testament," (Umbreit, stipra, against v. Meyer and his
school). A different view in Kurtz, Gesch. des Alten Bundes, p. 8 : " The nature of
prophecy is entirely misunderstood when its principal importance is found in the
service it renders to Christianity — in which, of course, all prophecy comes to its ful
filment — by attesting its divine origin. Christianity would be in an unfortunate pre
dicament, were it still unable to dispense with the attestation derived from the actual
fulfilment of predictions, and it would be even worse for prophecy were it to remain
without meaning and significance until hundreds or thousands of years should have
passed away. , Prophecy is designed — every other signification is secondary and sub
ordinate to this — to open up the understanding of the present, its position and its duty,
not only the immediate present in which it was first given, but also every subsequent
present (?) to the, extent to which the latter has substantially the same basis, the same
needs, and the same task."

RELIGIOUS EARNESTNESS IN EXEGESIS. 249
the preacher is authorized to apprehend them, or for the preacher
to timidly content himself with the most immediate and apparent
meaning of the letter.' The scientific expositor may likewise
explain the writer to the edifying of his hearers; but this is assur
edly not done by entering upon edifying observations, or by con
structing a patchwork of passages taken from ancient and modern
ascetics. He must rather proceed by a quiet stating and unfolding
of the sense of Scripture which confines itself within self-imposed
limitations, and in this he resembles and excels the mathematician,
who is able, by the cogency of his proofs, even to excite the feelings
of persons Avho attentively follow his demonstration. Hints rela
ting to the further practical development may be given in connec
tion with scientific exegesis," but ihe practical work, in the proper
sense, and for homiletical purposes, belongs to practical theology.
It follows, accordingly, that interpretation, exposition, and appli
cation, reach over into a further theological field, the interpreta
tion into history, exposition into dogmatics, and application into
practical theology. SECTION XXI.
THE METHOD OP APPLYING EXEGESLS.
In the carrying forward of exegesis it may be handled either
cursorily or st atedly. Both modes of instruction are to be united.
The use of learned commentaries will be of real value commentaries
to him only who has tried his own powers in the way not to be too
of exposition ; for too many aids rather confuse than '"""'
guide aright, and the beginner needs to be on his guard against
relying upon the authority of others as greatly as against a mis
taken striving after originality. A moral and religious earnest
ness when approaching the holy Scriptures, and a mind decidedly
devoted to the cause of the Bible and Christianity, will be the
most efficient aids to preserve him from error and to secure that
self-renunciation without which no work of real greatness can be
accomplished. ¦Rosenkranz, Encykl, 1 ed., p. 12.5: "The distinction between popular and scien
tific exposition lies in the reference to the original limitation of the sense. The
former must be governed by the principle of treating the sense of Scripture in as
fruitful and manifold a way as is admissible : it may freely make every addition to
the text that it will bear, avoiding only what is strained and directly perverted. The
latter, on the otfier hand, is to ascertain the sense of Scripture which it was origin
ally designed to bear." Comp. Vinet, Homiletics, pp. 146, ff- who distinguishes
between amplification and paraphrase, so that the former would be suitable for prac
tical use, but not the latter. Comp., too, Hagenbach, Pref. to Festpredigten, Basle,
1830, ix-xi.
" De Wette, Prakt. Erklurung der Psalmen.

230 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
Before entering upon theology the student should have read his
Bible through many times, and especially the New Testament,
while the more important parts should have been perused in the
, „ oriffinal. Private reading should be also regularly
The student's ». ,,., , i-ii-i j-
self-training in continued while the course or theological study is pur-
exegesis. mied ; for we are to live in the Scripture, as it were to
arise and lie down in it. Thus only can we receive living impres
sions from it; while if it be regarded solely as the object of purely
scientific inquiry it will remain external to our minds, and not be
inwardly assimilated with our being. Let, furthermore, the thought
be banished, that it is necessary from the beginning to intrench
one's self behind a wall of commentaries. This has the appearance
of greater thoroughness than is warranted by the truth, and it often
becomes impossible to see the forest because of the mass of trees.
It is better to practice the loriting of translations of the section to
be explained, and it may be well even for instructors to precede or
follow their expositions with an English or Latin translation.
The latter will be more suitable in proportion as the version par
takes of the nature of a paraphrase, the former (•«. e., the writ
ing by the student,) as it is confined to a mere verbal rendering,
which itself needs further explanation. It will be also useful to
look up and compare the parallels adduced in connection with
the lecture, and carefully to compare the quotations in the New
Testament from the Old with the original and the LXX. before
entering upon the use of commentaries. It is a grave error to
suppose that the task of exegesis is confined to the selection of one
from among the different versions which already exist, rather than
to engaging in personal investigation and examining with an inde
pendent eye.'
When, however, additional helps are emoloved it will still be
Additional advantageous to consult those chiefly which, after the
teips to self- manner of the scholiasts, afford grammatical and liis-
training. torical aid (Schoettgen, Lightfoot, Grotius, Wolf, Ben
gel), and only subordinately those which develop the writer's train
of thought in his peculiar fashion." The latter should form the
' In harmony with this, Melanchthon, Postille II, 626, already counsels, " Amate doc
trinam et scripta Pauli et saepe legite ; id magis proderit, quam si legatis raagnos
acervos commentariorum. Qui ordinem observat in Epistolis Pauli et saepe relegit,
plus discit, quam qui multos evolvit commentarios." Gausseniu^ diss. 1, p. 26:
" Atque illud est, quod soleo studiosis usque ad fastidium inculoare, ut ad commen
tarios non adeant, quin prius illis aqua haereat neque ultra possint in loci examine
proprio remigio pergere."
' " Caeterum, cum commentarios dico, eos intelligo, qui soripturam brevibus ad
sensum literalem accommodatis observationibus illustrant; non qui occasione scrip-

HISTORY OF INTERPRETATION. 2,)1
crown of the industrious research. On the other hand, the false
ambition to construct new and independent expositions will be less.
prevalent where the number already extant is not known (if
known it could now excite nothing more than a desire to add an
other one to the many already in existence), and the confirmation
given by an apj^roved exegete, who is afterward consulted, to the
results obtained by our own independent effort, will only serve to
increase our satisfaction. This does not mean, however, that in
every instance the sujjport of some learned authority is necessary
to warrant confidence in the explanation arrived at by independent
effort; for we must, as Protestants, admit that hew expositions,
that is to say, such as are more thoroughly sustained by the lan
guage and historical data, are always possible, in proportion as
philology and historical studies advance among us, although dis
trust of our owTi powers of observation, which cannot be too
highly recommended, should lead us in such matters to apply the
strictest and most searching tests. In this regard, too, a straight
forward, simple disposition is often able to discover the best
method.' Woe to him who converts the Bible into a medium for
exhibiting bis vanity ! To him truth in its pureness will certainly
not be disclosed, even though he should succeed in extracting some
particulars which cover him with an ephemeral distinction. But
blessed is the exegete by whose side, as by that of the picture of
St. Matthew, the evangelist, the angel stands with a face of infan
tile innocence and unprejudiced acceptance of the truth!
Sketch op the History of Inteepeetation.
Comp. Diestel, siipra.
The exposition of the Bible, as has already (sec. xx) been.remarked,
was at first intended to meet a practical want. It was yjrst exposi-
of primary importance to master the contents of the sa- ^™^ "'^noiiy
cred books. To settle their original form, and distinguish practical.
turae suas, quas locos communes vulgo vocant (ihre Dogmatik) in medium protru-
dunt, quibusque adeo libri sacri non tam sunt commentariorum argumentum, quam
praejudiciorum loci quidam atque indices."— Gaussenius 1, 1, p. 27.
' " Certe, quemadmodum vina, quae sub primam calcationem molliter defluunt, sunt
suaviora, quam quae a torculari exprimuntur, quoniam haec ex acino et cute uvae
ahquid sajiiant, similiter salubres admodum et suaves sunt doctrinae, quae ex Scrip-
turis leniter expressis emanant, neo ad controversias . . . trahuntur."— Baco Verul.
de augmentis scientiar. IX, p. 488. Sam. Werenfels, in the Dissertation mentioned
below, likewise warns against those who rather seek their argutiolas, allegoriolas,
allusiunculas, etc., in the Scriptures tlian the direct and simple meaning. The sim
ple lay-mind occasionally finds the true goal more readily than the vision of the
learned exegete befogged with the vapors of the school.

252 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
the consciousness of the time of their origin from that of a 'later
period was reserved to become the task of a subsequent reflective
age. (Comp. Rothe, Zur Dogmatik, p. 186, sqq.) But after the
Jews, particularly those of Alexandria, became acquainted with
the wisdom of the Greeks, they were, above all, concerned to show
that the divine, with which they believed themselves here also to
be in contact, was grounded in the Scriptures, and to discover the
germs of a profound gnosis beneath its humble guise ; on the other
hand, their Palestinian brethren held fast to the historical inter
pretation. The former tendency led to the allegorical method,'
Else of the which must be regarded as a stage in the natural de-
aiiegoricai velopment of the history of Bible exposition, rather
terpretation!" than as the arbitrary invention of certain persons.
When Christianity had been introduced into the world, and the
prophecies and expectations of former times had thus been realized,
it was natural that an age, yet wholly under the influence of the
mighty impression which the appearance of Christ had left behind,
should find the Messinh everywhere in the Old Testament, and
should discover traces of his being in the most incidental matters.
"The brighter and more glorious the light which Jesus shed over
the Old Testament at large and as a whole, for the Israelites who
had learned to believe in him, the more confident were they that
every particular in the sacred book, however dark, would receive
light from the same source." (Rothe, p. 196.) Every red cord
became a type of the blood that was shed, and every thing that
even remotely resembled a cross was held to prefigure the cross on
Calvary. (Comp. Barnabas, Justin Martyr, et al.) This was the
case even before Origen (f A. D. 254). He was not the discoverer
Origen the of the allegorical interpretation, but the first among
legorioai'toterl Christians" to raise it into a canon, and to assign to it
preters. a place approved by science, beside the grammatico-
historical method. The contrast between the allegorical and the
grammatico-historical methods now became apparent, and Origen
sought to harmonize this contrast. He taught a threefold sense in
' The word iiXXriyopuv, from iMm and Ayopeiieiv, is found in Gal. iv, 24 (part):
" The most hurtful diversion in this direction is tlie cabalistic interpretation, which,
in the effort to find every thing in every thing, turns to particular elements and their
signs." Schleiermacher, Hermeneutik, p. 28. It likewise originated among the Jews
after the captivity (the book Sohar), and passed over from them to the Christian
world. Coinp. Z. Frankel, Einfluss d. Palaest. Exegese auf d. Alexandr. Hermeneutik,
Leips. 1851, and Hirschfeld, Die Halachische Exegese, Berl. 1840 ; Die Hogedische
Exegese, Berl., 1847.
' Among the Jews, Philo had previously made a conscious distinction between the
esoteric and the exoteric sense.

MIDDLE AGE EXEGES:S. 253
Scripture (answering to the body, soul, and spirit in man) — the
literal, the moral, and the spirituaL Whatever cnnnot „_ , .„
. '. ' r Origen s three-
be justified by the letter, as derogatory to the honor loid sense of
of God and the Bible, is to be explained allegorically. Scripture.
The anagogical and the tropological are related to the allegorical
(with reference to which further particulars are given in connection
with the history of hermeneutics). This Origenistic-Alexandrian
hermeneutics was opposed in the fifth century, however, ,p|,g 5^,001 oi
by the more sober school of Antioch, whose representa- Antioch.
tives, as opposed to the fanatical Cyril, were Diodorus of Tarsus,
Theodore of Mopsuestia, John Chrysostom, Ephraem Syrus, and
Theodoret. From this, time the historico-theological method, which had
been employed at an earlier date, however, was cultivated side
by side with the allegorical. Among Latin teach- „,„
' " " The exegesis
ers Jerome and Ambrose were distinguished in exege- of the Latin
pis ; while Augustine owed his fame less to exegetical ^^'^*"^-
learning and precision than to the originality and depth of intel
lect with which he dominated his age. He, too, was partial to al
legorizing, and held to a fourfold sense in Scripture. Gregory the
Great (f,604), the Bishop of Rome, was allied to Augustine. In-
depi-ndent research now gradually began to give way before the
authority of the Church, and in proportion as people became accus
tomed to believe the Gospel through the Church, the traditional
and churchly method of interpretation became general, and must
be considered another stage in the development. Nearly all the
expositors during the Middle Ages held to this method. MiddieAgeex-
Collections pf what good things and less good things esesis.
had been said by the Church teachers about the Scriptures (aelpai,
catenae patrum) ' constituted the generally accepted authorities ;
and, besides these, the mystics especially practised a fanciful alle
gorizing. The neglect of the study of the Bible and ignorance of the orig
inal languages deprived scholastic theology of an assured Scrip
tural basis. Importance attaches, however, to the Jewish Old Testa
ment expositors in the Middle Ages, especially after the eleventh
century, e. g., the rabbins Jarchi, Aben Ezra, David and Moses Kim
chi, Maimonides (R. Mose Ben Maimon, abbreviated Rambam),
aid others. Christian exegesis likewise began to appear after the
study of Hebrew had been renewed among Christians through the
influence of Nicholas Lyra (f 1340), Laurentius Valla (f 145V), and
Reuchlin (f 1522), and after the spread of Greek literature conse-
' On these exegetical collections see Herzog, Encykl., iv, p. 282, sgg.

',Jj4 special THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
quent upon the capture of Constantinople .(1 453). The stability of
a traditional and Church interpretation, and the arbitrariness of a
fanciful allegorical method, were again threatened by a sober, taste
ful, and philologically grounded exegesis as developed by Erasmus,
which was adopted by the more intelligent minds of the century;
but a still broader range was given to exegesis by the
Eeformation Reformation. Luther directed attention to the deeper
on exegesis. elements of the Scriptures, and prepared the way for
the spiritualizing (pneumatic) mode of interpretation. His posi
tion as a tianslator of the Bible for the people is unique (Comp.
note 9, infra. — Drs. M. Lutheri exegetica opera latina, curaverunt
J. M. Irmischer et Hy. Schmidt, vob xxii, Prancof., 1860); but it
should be remembered that he was aided by the more exact lin
guistic learning of Melanchthon and others. Zwingle, whose clas
sical training was of great value to him, proceeded with a more
measured pace; but Calvin (see Tholuck, Veriri. Schriften, part 2)
was distinguished above all others for exegetical keenness and pre
cision. His pupil, Theodore Beza, proved a not unworthy associate
in this work.
The study of the Holy Scriptures was prosecuted, upon the
Reformed whole, more generally in the Reformed Church than
and Lutheran in the Lutheran, the latter giving larger attention
exegess. ^^ systematic theology; and Lutheran exegesis, more
over, again became dependent on the confessional teaching of the
Church, thereby contradicting the principles of Protestantism; "for
it is a fundamental proposition in the writings of the reformers
that the interpretation of the Scriptures is independent of the dic
tum of the Church and of all human authority whatsoever." (Clau
sen, Hermeneutik, p. 230.) The orthodoxy of the Reformed
Churches likewise was exposed to the danger of establishing a
The Eemon- settled exegesis ; but the Remonstrants (Arminians)
strants - Gro- who had Come out of the Reformed Church, and among
them especially Grotius, advocated the grammatico-
historical principle, though often with a regard for facts that was
but one sided. In opposition to that principle Cocceius defended
the doctrine that a pregnant meaning lies everywhere in the Scrip
tures, which was applied with special fulness in the search for Mes
sianic features in the Old Testament. Sam. Werenfels, on the
other hand, developed very sound hermeneutical principles in hia
Ernesti, the re- '"'"^'^ "^^ scopo interprets, printed in the Opuscula.
exTesfs^"""'' Ernesti (f IV81) is regarded in the German Lutheran
Church as the restorer of a grammatical and historical
method of interpretation, independent of dogmatics. The adher-

DE WETTE, GESENIUS, AND WINER. 2od
ents of this method continually increased in numbers; it recom
mended itself to the spirit of the times, which yearned for emanci
pation from the yoke of orthodoxy. That spirit itself, however,
succeeded only too speedily in enlisting the services of exegesis in
its own behalf, and proceeded to vaunt its expositions Riseof neciog-
as timely in proportion to their shallowness. Neology icaiexegesis.
— whether because it retained a remnant of respect for the author
ity of Holy Scripture, or because of fraudulent intentions — had
long accustomed itself to find its system taught in the Bible.
Miracles and mysteries, a number of which had been unnecessarily
explained into the Bible by a former age, were now explained out
of it and interpreted away by every conceivable art, often in oppo
sition to the most explicit language. The rationalists were not
alone liable to this charge, however, for the supernaturalists, acting
in the interests of apologetics, understood how to fit much of the
Bible to their views, and in point of fact taught the rationalists this
lesson (false and impracticable attempts at constructing harmonies).
Kant endeavoured to restrain such indecorous behav- Kant's separa-
iour by severing scientific (theological) from practical icTrom'^etwcai
(ethical) interpretation. The Church, however, could exegesis.
not long support this unnatural separation, which, as has already
been observed, even depends upon an immoral principle. The age
strove to effect a reconciliation between science and life. The
rationalistic school was purged by the influence of thorough exe
getical studies, and the loose methods of procedure in vogue were
ended by a thorough philological discipline, such as Rise of the
De Wette and Gesenius introduced in the Old Testa- ^^^°' ^°^ ^^
ment field, and Winer in the New. The conflict of senius.
parties was relegated to the domain of dogmatics and the philoso
phy of religion, and the territory occupied by exegesis became
neutral ground. The neutrality could not, however, be observed
with entire strictness, for reasons developed above. The orthodox
party again directed attention to the underlying sense of Scripture,
which was not, however, to be ascertained by the setting aside of
grammatical and historical facts, but by ascending to a loftier and
more far reaching point of view. A glance over the exegetical
literature of the most recent decades will, in fact, reveal a gratify
ing progress in this regard, even though there has been no lack of
errors and deplorable lapses into the devious courses of fonner
times. '
'See articles on Interpretation in Kitto's Cyclopsedia, and the Biblical and Theo
logical Cyclopaedia of M'Clintock - and Strong; also title "Interpretation," in Index
of the Bibliotheca Sacra, p. 116.

350 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE.
1. Commentaries on the Whole Bible.
Calvin, John. Commentaries. 45 vols. Edinburgh ; Calvin Trans. Society.
Clarke, Adam. The Holy Bible, containing the Old and New Testaments. Tlie
Text carefully printed from the most correct Copies of the present Authorized
Translation, including the Marginal Readings and Parallel Texts, with a Com
mentary and Critical Notes. 6 vols., Svo, pp. 884, 829, 902, 865, 920, 1070.
New York, 1832.
Cowles, Henry. Commentary on the Whole Bible. 17 vols., 12mo. New York,
1866-83. (A noteworthy feature is the incorporation in the Appendix ot
essays on special topics, such as the Atonement, Inspiration, Future Punish
ment, and the Premillennial Advent )
Jeiiks, Wm. The Compreliensive Commentary on the Holy Bible, containing the
Text of the Authorized Version; Scott's Marginal References; Matthew Henry's
Commentary, condensed, etc. 6 vols., Svo. Supplement with Cruden's Con-
cordance. Philadelphia, 1848.
Lange, John Peter. A Conmentary on the Holy Scriptures, Critical, Doctrinal, and
Homiletical, with Special Reference to Ministers and Students, Translated from the
German and Edited with Additions, Original and Selected, by Philip Schaff, in
Connection wilh American Divines of Various Evangelical Denominations. 25
vols., Svo. New York, 1867-82. Genesis, wilh a General Introduction to the
Old Testamen", by J. P. Lange, Translated with Additions by Tayler Lewis and
A. Gosman; Exodus, by C. M. Mead; Leviticus, by P. Gardiner, with General
Introduction by H. Osgood; Numbers, by J. P. Lange, Translated and Enlarged
by Samuel T. Lowrie and A. Gosman ; Deuteronomy, by P. W. J. Sliroeder, Trans
lated and Kiilarged by A. Gosman ; Joshua, by F. R. Fay, Translated, with Ad
ditions, by George R. Bliss ; Judges and Ruth, by Paulus Cassel, Translated,
with Additions, by P. H. Steeiislra ; .Samuel, by C. P. D. Erdmann, Translated,
Enlarged, and Edited by C. H. Toy and J. H. Broudus; Kings, by K. C. W.
F. Bahr — Book I, Translated and Enlarged by Edwin Harwood ; Book II,
Translated and Enlarged by W. G.' Sumner ; Chronicles I and II, by Otto
Zockler, Translated, Enlarged, and Edited by James G. Murphy; Ezra, by Fr^
W. Schultz, Translated, Enlarged, and Edited by diaries A. Biiggs; Nehemiah,
Tran,<!lated by Howard Crosby ; Esilier, by Fr. W. Schultz, Translated, Enlarged,
anl Edited by James Strong ; Job, A Rhytlimical Version, wilh an Inlrodnetion
and Annotation by Tayler Lewis ; A Commentary bj' Otto Zockler, Translated
from the German, with Addition.a, by L. J. Evans, together with an Introduc
tory Essay nn Hebrew Poetry by Philip Soliaflf; Tlie Psalms, by Carl Bernliard
Moll, Translated, with Additions, by C. A. Briggs, John Forsyth, J. B. Ham
mond, and J. F. McCurdy, with a New Metrical Version of the Psalms and Philo
logical Notes by T. J. Conant ; Proverbs, by Otto Zockler, Translated by C. A.
Aiken ; Ecclesiastes, by 0. Zockler, Translated by Wm. Wells, with Additions
and a New Metrical Version by Tayler Lewis ; The Song of Solomon, by 0.
Zockler, Translated, with Additions, by W. H. Green ; Isaiah, by C. W. E.
Naegelsbach, Translated, with Additions, by Samuel T. Lowrie and Dunlop
Moore; Jeremiah, by C. W. E. Naegelsbach, Translated and Enlarged by S. R-
Asbury; Lamentations, by C. W. K. Naegelsbach, Translated and Enlarged by
W. H. Hornblower ; Ezekiel, by F. W. J. Scliroedor, Translated, Edited, and
Enlarged by Patrick Fairbairn and William Findlay, aided by Thomas Crerar

LITERATURE OF EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. 237
and Sinclair Maiison; Daniel, Translated, Edited, and Enlarged by James Strong;
The Minor Prophets, Hosea, Joel, and Amos, by Otto Schmoller, Translated, with
Additions, by James B. McCiirdy, .Tohn Forsyth, and Talbot W. Chambers,
respectively ; Obadiah, Jonah, and Micah, by Paul Kleinert, Translated, witli
Additions, by Charles Elliott ; Haggai, by James E, McCurdy ; Zechariah, by
T. W. Chambers ; Malachi, by Joseph Packard ; Index to the 14 vols, on the
Old Testament by B. Pick; Matthew, vvilli » General Introduction to the New
Testament, byj. P. Lange, Translated, wilh Additious, by Pliilip Schaff; Mark,
by J. P. Lange, Revised from the Edinburgh Translation, willi Additions by W.
G. T. Shedd; Luke, by J. J. Van Oosterzee, Translated, with Additions, by Philip
Schaff and Charles C. Starbuck; John, by J. P. Lange, Translated by E. D.
Yeomans and Evelina Moore, with Additions b;.- E. R. Craven and PhUip Schaff ;
Acts, \). G. V. Lechler and Charles Gerok, Translated, with Additions, by C. F.
Schaeffer; Romans, by J. P. Lange and F. R. Pay, Translated by J. F. Hurst,
Revised and Enlarged by P. Schaff and M. B. Riddle; Corinthians, by Christian
F. Kling, Translated, with Additions, by D. W. Poor ; Galalians, by Otto
Schmoller, Translated by C. C. Starbuck, with Additions by M. B. Riddle ;
Pliilippians, by Karl Braune, Translated and Enlarged by H. -B. Hackett;
Ephesians and Colossiaiis, by Karl Braune, Translated and Enlarged by M. B.
Riddle; Thessalonians, by Auberlen and Riggenbach, Translated, with Additions,
by John Lillie; Timothy, by J. J. Van Oosterzee, Translated, with Additions,
by E. A. Washburn and E. Harwood ; Titijg, by J. J. Van Oosterzee, Translated,
with Additions, by George E. Day ; Philemon, by J. J. Van Oosterzee, Trans
lated, with Additions, by H. B. Hackett ; Hebrews, by , Carl B. Mull, Translated,
with Additions, by A. C. Kendrick; James, by J. P. Lange, J. J. Van Oosterzee;
Peter, by P. F. C. Fronmiiller; John, by Karl Braune; Jude, by P. S. C. Fron-
miiller, all translated, with Additions, by Isidor Mombert; The Revelation of
John, by J. P. Lange, Translated by Evelina Moore, Enlarged and Edited by
E. R. Craven ; together with Alpliabelical Index to the ten vols, on the New
Testament by John H. Woods.
Nicoll, W. Robertson. The Kxposilor's Bible. A Series of Expository Lectures on
all the Books of the Bible. Svo. 30 vols. New York, 1891-92. Genesis, by
Marcus Dods; Exodus, by G. A. Chadwick; Leviticus, by S. H. Kellogg;
Judges and Ruth, by R, A. Watson ; I and II Samuel (in 2 vols.), by W. G.
Blaikie; Job, by R. A. Watson; Psalms, by A. Maclaren; Proverbs, by R. F.
Horton ; Ecclesiastes, by Samuel Cox ; Isaiah (in 2 vols.), by G. A. Smitli ; Jere
miah, by C. J. Ball ; Matthew, by J. Monroe Gibson ; Mark, by G. A. Chadwick ;
Luke, by Henry Burton ; John (in 2 vols.), by Marcus Dods; Acts (in 2 vols.),
by G. F. Stokes; I Corinthians, by Marcus Dods; Galatians, by G. G. Findlay;
Ephesians, by G. G. Findl.iy ; I and II Thessalonians, by James Denney; Pas
toral Epistles, by A. Plummer; Colossians and Philemon, by A. Maclaren;
Hebrew.', byC. T. PMwards: Jamesand Jude, by A. Plummer; Epistles of John,
by W. Alexander; Revelation, by William Milligan.
Perowne, John J. S. The Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges. 27 vols.,
1 6mo. London. (.4. series of commentaries ou the books of the Bible.)
Poole, Matthew. Annotations upon the Whole Bible. 3 vols., royal Svo, pp. 1030,
1008. New York, 1880.
Spence, H. D. M., and Exell, Joseph S. The Pulpit Commentary. London and New
York, 1880-92. 28 vols., Svo. Genesis, by T. Whitelaw, with an Introduction
to the Study of the Old Testament by W. F, Farrar, and an Introduction to the
Pentateuch by H. Cotterill ; Exodus, by G. Rawlinson ; Leviticus, by Fred.
17

258 SPECIAL I'HEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
Meyrick; Numbers, by R. Witherbolhara ; Deuteronomy, by W. L. Alexander;
Joshua, by J. J. Lias, and an Introduction to the Historical Books by A. Plum
mer; Judges, by A. C. Hervey; Ruth by .Tames Morrison ; land II Samuel,
by R. Payne Smith; I and II Kings, by Joseph Hammond; I and II Chronicles,
by P. C. Barker; Ezra, Nehemiah, and Ksiher, by G. Rawlinson; Job, by G.
Rawlinson; Proverb.',, by W.J, Deuiie ; Isaiah, by G. Rawlinson; Jeremiali, by
T. K. Cheyne; Ezekiel, by E. H. Plumptre ; Hosea, by J. W. Deaiie ; Joel, by S. J.
Given; Matthew, by J. R. Lumby ; Mark, by E. Bickersteth ; Luke, by Canou
Spence ; John, by H R. Reynolds ; Acts, by A. C. Hervey : Romans, by James
Morrison ; I and II CorinthiHus, by W. F. Farrar ; Ephesians, by W. G. Blaikie:
Pliilippians, by J. J. S. Perowne ; Colossians, by G. G. Findlay ; I and II Thes
salonians, by P. J. Gloag ; I arid II Timothy, by E. H. Perowne ; Titus, by J. S,
Howson; Philemon, bj' S. J. Eales; Hebrews, by A. B. Bruce; James, by W.
F. Moulton ; I and II Peter, by David Brown ; I, II, and III John, by A. Plum
mer ; Revelation, by A. Plummer.
The Apocrypha of the Old Testament, wiili Historical Introductions, a Revised Trans
lation, and Notes, Criiical and Explanatory, by E, 0. Bissell.
The Holy Bible according to the Authorized Version (A. D. 1611). With an Explan
atory and Critical Commentary and a Revision of the Translation, by Bishops and
other Clergy ot the Anglican Church, Edited by F. C. Cook, M.A., Canon of Ex
eter. 10 vols. London and New York, 1871-81. Genesis, by E. H. Browne;
Exodus, chapters i-xix, by F. C. Cook, and chapter xx to the end, by Samuel
Clark; Leviticus, by Samuel Clark; Numbers and Deuteronomy, by T. E.
E-ipin; Joshua, by T. E. Espin; Judges, Ruth, and Samuel, by Arthur Hervey;
First Kings, by George Rawlinson ; Second Kings, Chronicles, Ezra, Neliemiali,
and Esther, by George RawUnson; Job, by P. C. Cook; Psalms, by G. H. S.
Johnson and C. J, Elliott; Proverbs, by E. H. Plumptre; Ecclesiastes, by W. T.
Bullock; Song of Solomon, by T. L. Kingsbury; Isaiah, by W.Kay; Jeremiah
and Lamentations, by R. Payne Smith; Ezekiel, by G. Curry; Daniel, by H. J.
Rose and J. M. Fuller; The Minor Prophets, by E. Huxtable, F. Meyrick, R.
Gandell, Samuel Clark, F. C. Cook, and W. Drake ; Matthew, by II. Longueville
_ Mansell ; Mark, by F. G. Cook; Luke, by W. Basil Jones and P. C. Cook, with
a General Introduction by Wm. Thompson ; John, Introduction, Commentarj-,
and Critical Notes, by B. F. Westcott ; Acts, Introduction by F. C. Cook, Com
mentary and Critical Notes by W n. Jacobson ; Romans, by E. H. Gifford ; Corin
thians, by Evans dnd Joseph Waite ; Galatians, by J. S. Howson ; Ephesians,
by F. Meyrick ; Philippians, by J. Gwynn ; Colossians, Thessalonians, and Phile
mon, by Wm. Alexander ; Timothy and Titus, by H. Wace and Jolm Jackson ;
Hebrews, by W. Kay ; James, by Robert Scott ; John, by Wm. Alexander ;
Peter and Jude, by J. B. Lightfoot and J. R. Lumby ; Revelation, by Wm. Lee.
Whedon, D. D. A Commentary on tho Old and New Testaments. Intended for
Popular Use. 13 vols., 12mo. New York, 1866. Old Testament not yet
complete.
Wordsworth, Christopher. The Holy Bible, in the Authorized Version. With Notes
and Introduction. New ed. 7 vols., Svo. London, 1864-72.
2. Commentaries on the Old Testament.
Barry, Alfred. The Parables ofthe Old Testament. Svo. London, 1889.
Ellicott, 0. J. An Old Testament Commentary for English Readers. By Various
Writers. Edited by C. J. Ellicott, D.D., Lord Bishop of Gloucester and Bristol.
6 vols., 4to. London, 1 882-84.

LITERATURE OF EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. 259
Hengstenberg, E. W. Christology of the Old Testament and a Commentary on
the Messianic Predictions. 4 vols., Svo, pp. 523, 474, 410, 410. Edinburgh,
1854-59.
Hunter, P. H. After the Exile : A Hundred Years of .lewisli History and Literature.
Part I. The Close of the Exile to the Coming of Ezra. Edinburgh and London.
1890.
Keil, C. F., and Delitzsch, F. Biblical Commentary on the Old Testament. 25 vols.,
Svo. Edinburgh, 1864-78.
Murphy, James G. Critical and Exegetical Commentaries, with New Translations.
4 vols., Svo. Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Psalms. London and Andover, 1863
and years following. 3. Commentaries on ihe New Testament.
Alford, Henry. New Testament for English Readers ; containing the Authorized
Version, with a Revised English Text, Marginal References, and a Critical and
Explanatory Commentary. New ed., 4 parts, or 2 vols,, Svo. London, 1868.
Barnes, Albert. Notes, Explanatory and Practical, on the New Testament, De
signed for Sunday-school Teachers and Bible Classes. 25th ed., revised and
corrected. 11 vols., 12mo. New York, 1859.
Bengel, John Albert. Gnomon of the New Testament. 3d ed., 5 vols., Svo. Ed
inburgh, 1860. Also 2 vols., Svo. Philadelphia, 1874.
Butler, J. G. The Bible-Reader's Commentary. The New Testament in Two
Volumes. The Text Arranged in Sections; with Brief Readings and Complete
Annotations, selected from the "Choice and Best Observations" of more than
Three Hundred Eminent Christian Thinkers of the Past and Present. Pp. 685,
831. New York, 1879.
Chrysostom, John. Homilies on the New Testament. Svo. Oxford, 1848.
Doddridge, Philip. The Family Expositor ; or, a Paraphrase and Version of the
NewTestament. Svo, pp. 1242. London, 1829. New ed., 1862.
EUicolt, C. J. A New Testament Commentary for English Readers, by various
writers. 3 vols. London, 1877-79. 6th ed. New York, 1884.
Meyer, H. A. W. Commentary on the New Testament. An American Edition,
wilh Preface, Notes, and Introduction by several Eminent American Scholars.
11 vols., Svo. New York, 1890. Matthew, Edited by George R. Crooks; Mark
and Luke, Edited by M. B. Riddle ; John, Edited by A. C. Kendrick ; Acts, Edited
by William Ormiston; Romims, Ediied by Timothy Dwight; I and II Corinthi
ans, Edited by T. W. Chambers; Galatiins and Ephesians, Edited by Henry E.
Jacobs ; Pliilippians, Colossians, I and II Thessalonians and Philemon, Edited
by Timothy Dwight ; I and II Timothy, Titus, and Hebrews, Edited by Timothy
Dwight ; James, I and II Peter, I, II, and III John, and Jude, Edited by Tim
othy Dwight ; Revelation, Edite,d by Henry E. Jacobs.
Olshausen, Hermann. Biblical Commentary on the New Testament. First American
ed., by A. C. Kendrick, to which is prefixed Olshausen's Proof of the Genuine
ness of the Writings cf the New Testament, translated by D. Fosdick, Jr.
6 vols., Svo, pp. 621, 624, 615, 586, 624, 624. New York, 1858.
Riggs, Elias. Notes on Difiicult Passages of the New Testament. 12nio, pp. 269.
Boston, 1889. (Where a definite decision cannot be made he states fully the
grounds of decision and doubt.)
Schaff, Philil». A Popular Commentary on the New Testament, by English and
American Scholars of Various Evangelical Denominations. In 4 vols., royal
Svo. Profusely Illustrated. New York, 1878

260 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
The International Revision Commentary on the New Testament. Based on the Re-
visedVersion of 1881. By English and American Scholars, and Members of
the Re vision. Committee. Ediied by Philip Schaff, D.D., LL.D. An Abridged
Edition of the Editor's "Popular Commentary." (A valuable work.)
4. Parables and Miracles.
Belcher, T. W. Our Lord's Miracles of Healing, Considered in Relation to Some
Modern Obiections and to Medical Science, wilh Preface by Archbishop Trench.
12mo. London, 1872. 2d ed., revised. London, 1890.
Bourdillon, Francis. The Parables of our Lord Explained and Applied. 12mo.
London, 1886; also New York.
Bruce, A. B. The Miraculous Element in the Gospels. A Course of Lectures on
the " Ely Foundation," delivered in Union Theological Seminary. Svo, pp. 391.
New York, 1886.
Bruce, A. B. The Parabolic Teaching of Christ: a Systematic aud Critical Study of
the Parables of our Lord. Svo, pp. 515. New York : London, 1 882. (The para
bles are arranged in three groups: (1) " Ttieoretic parables containing the general
truth concerning the Kingdom of God ; (2) the Evangelical parables, setting forth
the divine goodness and grace as the source of salvation and the law of Christian
life ; (3) the Prophetic parables, proclaiming the righteousness of God, as the
Supreme Ruler, rewarding men according to their works.'')
Drummond, D. T. K. The Parabolic Teaching of Christ ; or, the Engravings of the
New Testament. Svo., pp. 440. New York, 1855. (The book is divided into
six parts, namely: The parables relating to the kingdom ot darkness; those re
lating to the person and character of Christ ; the salvation of the sinner ; the re
ception and progress of the Gospel; the dispensation of the Gentiles ; the second
coming of Christ.)
Goebel, Siegfried. The Parables of Jesus : a Methodical Exposition. Translated by
John S. Banks. Edinburgh, 1883; also New York, 1883.
Greswell, E. B. D. Exposition of the Parables and other Parts ofthe Gospels. 5 vols.,
Svo. Oxford, 1834-35. (A work of great learning, famous in its day.)
Laidlaw, J. The Miracles of our Lord. Expository and -Homiletic. London,
1890.
Lisoo, F. G. The Parables of Jesus Explained and Illustrated. From the German
by the Rev. P. Fairbairn. 16mo, pp. 406. Edinburgh, 1848. (The train of
thought contained in each parable is pointed out with great clearness.)
Lonsdale, John G. Exposition of the Parables. Intended Chiefly for the Use of
Teachers in Elementary Schools. 16mo, pp. 138. London, 1S55. (Where the
text occurs in more than one Gospel it is arranged in parallel columns.)
Nevin, Alfred. The Parables of Jesus. ]2mo, pp. 503, Philadelphia, 1881.
Richey, Thomas. The Parables of the Lord Jesus, according to St. Matthew. Ar
ranged, Compared, and Illustrated. Svo, pp.405. New York, 1888.
Roberts, Arthur. Sermons on our Lord's Parables. Preached to a Village Congre
gation. 12nio, pp. 290. London, 1860.
Steinmeyer, F. L. The Miracles of our Lord, in Relation to Modern Criticism.
Translated from the German, by L. A. Wheatley. Svo, pp. 274. Edinburgh,
1875. (The miracles are divided into four groups : Miracles considered as signs
of the kingdom of heaven ; as symbols ; as witnesses of the power of the king
dom of heaven ; miracles as prophecies.) ¦•
Taylor, William M. The Parables of our Saviour Expounded and Plustrated. Svo.
New York, 1 886.

LITERATURE OF EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. 261
Trench, Richard Chenevix. Notes on the Miracles of our Lord. Svo, pp. 375. New
York, 1852, and in other editions.
Trench, Richard Chenevix. Notes on the Parables of our Lord. Svo, pp. 425. New
York, 1850, and other editions. (The explications of the Parables are beauti
fully conceived aud as beautifully expressed.)
S. Commentaries on Particular Books.
1. Old Testament.
(a)' The Historical Books.
Ainsworth, Henry. Annotations on the Five Books ot Moses, the Psalms, and the
Song of Solomon. Folio. London, 1 639. (One of the Brownists who was com
pelled to seek a rufuge in Holland. His annotations have been much quoted
by scholars.)
Alford, Henry. TheBookot Genesis and Part of the Book of Exodus; a Revised
Version, wilh Marginal References and an Explanatory Commentary. Svo.
London, 1872.
Birks, T. R. The Exodus of Israel : Its Difiieulties Explained and its Truths Con
firmed. Svo. 1863.
Busli, George. Notes, Critical and Practical, on the Book of Genesis. Designed as
a General Help to Biblical Reading and Instruction. 26th ed., 2 vols., 12mo,
pp. xxxv, 338, 444. New York, 1863. Also on Exodus, Leviticus, Joshua,
Judges, and Numbers, the whole with Genesis in S vols.
Calvin, John. Commentaries on the First Book ot Moses, called Genesis. Translated
from the Original Latin, and compared with the French Edition. By John King.
2 vols. Edinburgh, 1847-50.
Davidson, A. B. Lectures, Expository and Practical, on the Book of Esther. Edin
burgh, 1859.
Haley, John W. The Book of Esther. A New Translation, with Critical Notes,
Excursuses, Maps and Plans, and Illustrations. Svo, pp.200. Andover, 1885.
Hervey, A. C. The Books of Chronicles in Relation to the Pentateuch and the
" Higher Criticism." New York, 1892. 12mo, pp. 175.
Howard, Henry E. J. The fiooks of Exodus and Leviticus according to the Version
ot the LXX. Translated into English, with notices of its omissions and inser
tions, and .with notes on the passages in which it differs from oiir Authorized
Translation. 12mo, pp. 408. Cambridge, 1867. (The exegesis is brief but
scholarly.)
Jacobus, M. W. Notes on the Book of Genesis. 2 vols., 12mo, pp. 304, 256.
New York, 1866. Also on Exodua.
Kalisch, M. M. Historical end Critical Commentary on the Old Testament, with a
New Translation. Vol. I, Genesis; Vol. II, Exodus; Vols. Ill and IV, Levit
icus. London, 1858-72.
Lumby, J. R. The First and the Second Book of Kings. With Introduction and
Notes. 12mo, pp. 310. London, 1887.
Murphy, J. G. A Critical Commentary on the Book ot Genesis, wilh a Translation.
With a Preface by J. P. Thompson, D.D. Svo, pp. 535. Andover, 1866. Also
on Exodus, pp. 385, and Leviticus, pp. 318, both Svo.
Watson, P. The Book ot Genesis a True History. Svo. London, 1892. (Deals
with questions raised by the Higher Criticism.)
Wright, C. H. H. Book of Ruth in Hebrew. With Grammatical and Critical Com
mentary. Svo. London, 1864.

203 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
(6) The Poetical Books,
Alexander, Joseph Addison. The Psalms, Translated and Explained. 6th ed., 3
vols., pp. xvi, 436, 349, 316. New York, 1866.
Augustine. Exposition of the Psalms. Translated, with Notes. 6 vols., Svo. Ox
ford, J. H. Parker, 1S4S.
Barnes, Albert. Notes, Critical, Illustrative, and Practical, on the Book of Job.
With a New Translation and an Introductory Dissertaliou. 2 vols., 12mo, pp.
cxxvi, 311, 384. New York, 1857. New ed., 1881. Also on Psalms, 2 vols.,
12mo.
Barry, Alfred. The Parables of the Old Testament. 12mo, pp. 264. London and
New York, 1889. (Classifies the Old Testament Parables as (1) Parables of
narrative; (2) Riddles and .symbolic visions; (3) Proverbs; (4) FigOrative
poetry.)
Bradley, G. G. Lectures on the Book of Job, delivered in Westminster Abbey. Svo,
pp. 333. New York, 1888.
Bridges, Charles. An Exposition of the Book of Ecclesiastes. 12mo, pp. 319.
Loudon, 1860. (Considers Solomon to be the author without any doubt.)
Bridges, Charles. Exposition of Psalm cxix, as Illustrative of tlie Character and
Exercises ot Christian Experience. Svo, pp. 303. New York, 1849.
Calvin, John. Commentaries on the Psalms of David. 3 vols. London, 1840.
Cheyne, T. K. The Origin and Religious Contents of the Psalter in the Light of
Old Testament History and the History ot Religions. With an Introduction and
Appendices. (This volume contains the Bampton Lectures delivered before the
University of Oxford by the author in 1889. He take.s the extreme view that
the entire Psalter, with the possible exception of Psalm xviii. is post-exilian.)
Coles, Abraham. A New Rendering of the Hebrew Psalms into English Verse, with
Notes, Critical, etc., and an Historical Sketch of the French, English, and Scotch
Metrical Versions. 12mo. pp. Ixviii, 296. New York, 1888.
Cox, SamueL ^ Commentary on the Book ot Job, with a Translation. Svo. Lon
don, 1880.
Cross, J. A. Notes on the Book of Psalms. 12mo. London, 1888.
Davidson, A. B. A Commentary on ,Tob, Grammatical and Exegetical, with a Trans
lation. Svo. London, 1862. Also 12mo. London, 1884.
Ewald, Heinrich. A Commentary on the Book of Job. Translated from the German
by J. F. Smith. Svo. London, 1882.
E wald, Heinrich. A Commentary on tho Psalms. Translated by E. Johnson. Svo,
2 vols. London, 1880.
Gilbert, G. H. The Poetry of Job. 16mo, pp. iv, 224. Chicago, 1889. (The trans
lation is rhythmical, followed by an analysis.)
Ginsberg, C. D. The Song ot Songs ; with a Commentary, Historical and Critical. 4to.
London, 1857. (The work of a famous rabbinical scholar.)
Ginsburg, Christian 0. , Koheleth, or Ecclesiastes ; translated with a Commentary.
Svo. London, 1857.
Gregory the Great. Magna Moralia, On the Book of Job, Translated with Notes and
Indices. 4 vol., Svo. Oxford, 1848.
Griffis, W. E. The Lily Among Thorns. A Study of the Biblical Drama entitled
" The Song of Songs." Boston, 1890.
Hamilton, .lames. The Royal Preacher, Lectures on Ecclesiastes. London, 1865;
also New York.
Hapstone, Dalman. The Ancient Psalms in Appropriate Metres : A Strictly Literal

LITERATURE OF EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. 363
Translation trom the Hebrew, with Explanatory Notes. Svo, pp. 316. Edin
burgh, 1867. (The notes, though not full, are suggestive.)
Hengstenberg, E. W. Commeniary on the Psalms. 4tli ed., 3 vols., Svo, pp. 539,
479, 647. Edinburgh, 1860. Also on Ecclesiastes, wilh Appended Treatises;
Svo, pp. 448. Edinburgh, 1860.
Hibbard, F. G. The Psalms Chronologically Arranged, with Historical Introductions.
Svo. New York, 1856.
Home, George. A Commentary ou the Book of Psalms, with an Introductory Essay
by Edward Irving. Glasgow, 1860 ; New York, 1849, (A much-prized devo
tional commentary whicli has appeared in many editions. The first was pub-
hshed in 1771 in 4to.)
Ker, John. Tiie Psalms in History and Biography. Svo. Edinburgh, 1886 ; New;
York, 1888. (Not a commentary, yet illustrative of the meaning and applica
tion of the Psalms.) .
Malan, C. S. Original Notes on tho Book of Proverbs, Loudon, 1890.
Meyer, F. B. The .Shepherd Psalm. 16nii). New York, 1890.
Neale, J. M,, and Litlledale. R. P. A Commentary on the P,-alms, from the Primitive
and Mediaeval Writers, and from the various office books and hymns of the Roman,
Mozarabic, Ambrosian, Galilean, Greek, Coptic, Armenian, and Syrian Rites. 4
vols., Svo. London, 1860-74.
Noyes, G. R. A Translation ot Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Canticles, with Explana
tory Notes. 12mo. Boston, 1846. Also a volume of the Psalms. Boston,
1876.
Perowne, J. J. Stewart. The Book of Psalms; a New Translation, with Introduc
tion and Notes, Critical and Explinatory, New ed., 2 vols., Svo., pp. 634, 477.
Andover, 1876.
Plumptre, E. H. Ecclesiastes; or, the Preacher, with Notes and Introduction.
Cambridge, 1 881.
Spurgeon, Charles H. T.,e Treasury ot David: containing Original Expositions of
the Book of Psalms. 7 vols., Svo. New York, 1880.
Stuart, Moses. A Commentary on the Book of Proverbs. 12mo, pp. 432. New
York, 1852. Also on Ecclesiastes. 12mo. Andover, 1864.
Tholuck, Augustus. A Translation and Commentary on the Book of Psalms, for the
Use ot the Ministry and Laity of the Christian Church. Translated from the
German by J. Isidor Mombert. ]2mo, pp. xv, 497. Philadelphia, 1858.
Umbreit, D. F. W. A New Version of the Book of Job, with Expository Notes. 2
vols., 12mo. Edinburgh, 1836-37.
Van Dyke, H. The Story ot the Psalms. 12mo, pp. vi, 259. New York, 1887.
(.Analyzes eighteen of the most familiar Psalms. Gives also a list of works
consulted.)
Vincent, Marvin R. Gates into the Psalm Country. 12mo. New York, 1878. New
ed., 1883.
Withington, Leonard. Solomon's Song. Translated and Explained. 12mo, pp. 339.
Boston, 1861.
Wright, C. H. H. The Book cf Koheleth, commonly called Ecclesiastes, Considered
in Relation to Modern Criticism and to the Doctrines of Modern Pessimism;
with a Critical and Grammatical Commentary and a Revised Translation. The
Donnellan Lectures for 1880-81. Svo, pp. xxiv, 516. London, 1882.
Young, Loyal. A Commentary on the Book of Ecclesiastes. With Introductory
Notices by the Rev. A. T. McGill and the Rev. M. W. Jacobus. Svo, pp. 276.
Philadelphia, 1865.

264 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.

:(c) The Prophetical Books.
A Oommemtairy on the Soak of Banied. by Jephet Ibn Ali, the Karaite. Edited and
Translated by D. MargoulioHith. PartllL Vol. I of Semitic Series. Oxford, 1890.
Alexander, Joseph Addison. The Prop'iecies of Isaiah. Translated and Explained.
2 vols., Svo. New York, 1847. Revised ed., pp. 507, 482. 1869.
Auberien, Carl A. Tlie Prophecies of Daniel and the Revelation of St. John
Viewed in their Mutual Relation. Svo. Edinburgh, 1856.
Barnes, Albert. Notes on Isaiah. 2vols., 12mo. New York, 1881. Also on Dan-
itL 1 vol., 12mo. New York.
Burroughs, Jeremiah. An Exposition of the Prophecies of Hosea. 4 vols. London,
1643-51 ; Edinburgh, 1863. (One ofthe oldPuritan divines, the friend and asso
ciate of Greenhill. The commentary is a collection of expository discourses,
and lliough now over two hundred years old is still held in high esteem.)
Cheyne, T. K. The Prophecies of Isaiah. A New Translation, with Commentary
and Appendices. In two volumes (bound in one). 3d ed., revised. Vol. I, pp.
310; Vol. II, pp. 315. New York, 1884.
Ewald, Heinrich. Commentary on the Prophets of the Old Testament. Translated
from the German by J. F. Smith. 5 vols., Svo. London, 1876-81.
Fairbairn, Patrick. Ezekiel and' th^ Books of his Prophecy. An Exposition. 2d
ed., Svo, pp. 512. Edinburgh, 1851.
Fairbairn, Patrick. Jonah's Lite, Character, and Mission. ]2mo. Edinburgh, 1849.
Greenhill, William. Exposition of Ezekiel. 5 vols., 1645-67. Revised and Cor
rected by James Sherman. Svo. Edinburgh, 1863. (A work by one of the old
Puritan divines, and full of good matter.)
Henderson, B. The Book of the Prophet Jeremiah, and that of the Lamentations.
Translated from the Original Hebrew. Wilh a Commentary, Critical, Philologi
cal, and Exegetical Svo. London, 1851 ; Andover, 1868.
Henderson, B. Commentaries, Critical, Philological, and Exegetical. Translated
from the Original Hebrew. 3 vols. The Books of the Twelve Minor Prophets ;
Jeremiah and Lamentations ; Ezekiel. Svo. Andover, 1845, 1860.
Hengstenberg, E. W. The Prophecies of Ezekiel Elucidated. Translated by A. C.
aud J. G. Murphy. Svo, pp. 545. Edinburgh, 1869. Also on Daniel. 1 vol.,
Svo. Edinburgh.
KaUsoh, M. M. Bible Studies. Part I, The Prophecies of Balaam ; Part II, The Book
of Jonah. Svo. Loudon, 1878.
King, John. Lectures upon Jonah. Oxford, 1600; Edinburgh, 1864.
Lowe, W. H. The Hebrew Students' Commentary on Zechariah, Hebrew and the
LXX. Svo. London, 1 882.
Lowth, Robert. Isaiah. A New Translation, with a Preliminary Dissertation and
Notes, Critical, Philological, and Explanatory. 2d ed. Lindon, 1779.
Moore, T. V. The Prophets of the Restoration ; or, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi.
A New Translation, wilh Notes. Svo, pp. vii, 408. 1856.
Pocock, Edward. Commentary on Hosea. Oxford, 1685. On Joel, Micah, and
Malachi. Oxford, 1691. (A work by the greatest Oriental scholar ot his gener
ation.)
Pusey, E. B. Daniel, the Prophet. Nine Lectures delivered in the Divinity School
of the University of Oxford. With Copious Notes. 2d ed., Svo, pp. 755. Ox
ford, 1868.
Pusey, E. B. The Minor Prophets, with a Commentary, Explanatory and Practical,
Pp. 427. New York, 1886. Also complete in 1 vol., 4to. London.

LITERATURE OF EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. 265
Rainolds, John. The Prophecies of Obadiah Opened and Applied. 4to. 1613.
Original pubhshed in three parts. Edinburgh', 1864.
Smith, R. Payne. The Authenticity and Messianic Interpretation of the Prophecies
of Isaiah Vindicated, in Sermons, before the University of Oxford. Svo. London,
1862.
, Workman, G. C. The Text^ of Jeremiah; oi', a Critical Investigation of the Greek
and Hebrew, wilh the Variations in the LXX. retranslated into the Original and
Explained. With an Introductory Notice by Franz Delitzsch. Edinburgh,
1889.
Wright, C. H. H. Zechariah and his Prophecies. 12mo, pp. Ixxv, 614. Bampton
Lectures for 1878. London, 1879.
Wright. C. H. H. The Fifty-third Chapter of Isa'ah According to the Jewish Inter
preters. Texts edited from printed books and MSS. by Ad.-Neubauer; transla
tion by S. R. Driver and Ad. Neubatier. With an introduction to the transla
tions by E. B. Pusey. 2 vols. Oxford, 1876-77.
II. The New Testament.
(a) Gospels and Acts.
Alexander, Joseph Addison. The Gospel According to Matthew Explained. 12mo,
pp.460. New York, 1867. Also Mark. 1 vol., 12mo. New. York, 1874.
Alexander, Joseph A. The Acts of the Apostles Expounded. 3d ed. 2 vol's., 12mo.
New York, 1867.
Arnot, William. The Church in the House. A Series of Lessons on the Acts of the
Apostles. New York, 1891. 12mo, pp. xii, 464.
Aquinas, Tlioma.s. Catena Aurea. Commentary on the Four Gospels, Collected out
of Works of the Fathers. 4 vols. Oxford, 1844.
Baumgarten, M. The Acts of the Apostles ; or. The History ot the Church in the
Apostolic Age. From the German. 3 vols., Svo, pp. 457, 459, 383. Edinburgh,
1854. (A work of rare merit.)
Bliss, George R. Commentary on the Gospel of Luke. Svo. Philadelphia, 1885.
(The fourth volume of the "Complete Cotnmentary of the New Testament," pre
pared under the general editonship of Alvah Hovey, D.D.)
Broadus, J. A. Commentary on the Gospel by Matthew. Svo, pp. 664. Philadel
phia, 1887.
Carpenter, J. E. The First Three Gospels: their Origin and Relations. London, 1890.
Clark, George W. Notes on the Acts of the Apostles, Explanatory and Practical.
12mo, pp. 415. Pliiladelphia, 1892.
Gloag, P. J. A Commentary, Exegetical and Critical, on the Acts of the Apostles.
2 vols., Svo, pp. 439, 456. Edinburgh, 1870.
Godet, F. A Commentary on the Gospel of St. John, with a Critical Introduction.
From the French. 3 vols., pp. 462, 413, 366. Edinburgh, 1877.
Godet, F. A Commentary on the Gospel of St. Luke. Translated from the French
by E. W. Shalders and M. D. Cusin. 2 vols., Svo. London, 1875.
Hackett, H. B. A Commentary on the Original Text of the Acts of the Apostles.
Newed., revised and greatly enlarged. Svo, pp. 480. Boston, 1866. (A judi
cious and sensible exposition.)
Hengstenberg, E. W. Commentary on the Gospel of St. John. 2 vols., Svo, pp. 480,
541. Edinburgh, 1865.
Lindsay, Thomas M. Tho Gospel of St. Luke, with Introduction, Notes, aud
Maps. 2 vols, Svo. Edinburgh, 1887.

266 SPECIAL THEOI,OGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
Lindsay, Thomas, M, The Acts of the Apostles, with Notes. 2 vols. Svo. Edin-
ourgh, 1884-85; also New York.
Lulhardl, C. E. St. John's Gospel Described, and Explained according to its
Pecuhar Character. Svo, 3 vols. Edinburgh, 1878. (Luthardt has divided his
work into two parts : 1. The charanterization ot John's Gospel. 2. The Exposi
tion. Under 1 he discusses the integrity, the language, the narration, the design,
the arrangement and construction and the authorship ofthe fourth go.«pel.)
Maurice, Frederick Deni.son. The Gospel ot St. John. A Series of Discourses.
Svo. London, 1867.
Nast, William. A Commentary ou the Gospels ot Matthew and Mark; Critical,
Doctrinal, and Homiletical, etc. Svo., pp. 760. Cincinnati, 1864.
Page, Thos. B. The Acts ofthe Aposllos. being the Greek Text as revised by West
cott and Hort, with Explanatory Notes. 12mo, pp. 270. London and New
York, 1889. (Clear and simple.)
Robinson, C. S. Studies in Mark's Gospel. 12mo, pp. 299. New York, 1888.
(Delivered as Sermons.)
Sears, E. H. The Fourth Gospel tho Heart of Christ. SdEdition. 12mo,pp.551. Bos
ton, 1873. (The book is divided into four parts, namely : the historical arguments ;
the historic materials; the private ministry of Jesus; the Johannean theology.)
Sloman, W. A. The Gospel according to St. Matthew. Gretk Text of Westcott
and Hort. Introduction and Notes by W. A. Sloman. London, 1890.
Stier, Rudolph. The Words of the Lord Jesus. Translated from tho 2d Re
vised and Enlarged German Edition. 9 vols., Svo, pp. 425, 4 29, 642, 484, 521,
522, 513, 460, 505. Edinburgh, 1855-58.
Tholuck, August. Commentary on the Gospel of John. Translated from the Ger
man by Charles P. Krauth. Svo, pp. viii, 440. Philadelphia, 1859.
Tholuck, August, Commentary on the Sermon on the Mount. Translated from the
4th Revised and Enlarged German Edition by R. L. Brown. Svo, pp. 451.
Edinburgh, 1869.
Thomas, David, flie Acts of the Apostles. London, 1890.
Tittman, K. C. Sacred Meditations; or, an Exegetical, Critical, and Doctrinal Com
mentary on the Gospel ct St. John. 2 vols., pp. 398, 474. Biblical Cabinet,
Edinburgh, 1844.
Trench, Richard Chenevix. The Sermon on the Mount. An Exposition Drawn from
the Writings of St. Augustine. Wilh an Essay on his Merits as an Interpreter
of Holy Scripture. 3d eil., enlarged. Svo. London, 1869.
Trench, Richard Chenevix. Studies in tho Gospels. Svo, pp. vii, 326. New York, 1872.
Van Oosterzee, J. J. John's Gospel: Apologetical Lectures. Translated with Ad
ditions by J. F. Hurst. 12mo, pp. xiv, 250. Edinburgh, 1869.
Vaughan, Charles J. Lectures on the Acts. Svo, 3 vols. London, 1864.
Weidner, Revere F. Commentary on the Gospel of Mark. Embracing the Author
ized Version of 1611 and the Revised Version of 1881. 12mo, pp. 309. Allen-
town, Pa., 1881. (Has both the Authorized and the Revised Versions, jilaced
on opposite pages, and also a harmony.)
Whitelaw, T. The Gospel of St. John : an Expo-sition, Exegetical and Homiletical ; for
the use of Clergymen, Students, and Teachers. Svo, pp. Ixi, 464. New York,
1888. (The treatment is arranged under the following headings: 1. Authen
ticity. 2. Authorship. 3. Composition. 4. Purpose. 5. Plan.)
Williams, J. Studies in the Book of Acts. Svo, pp. viii, 178. New York, 1888.
Wright, Arthur. The Composition of the Four Gospels. 12mn, j-p. vii, 176. ¦ Lon
don, 1890.

LITERATURE OF EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. 267
(6) The Epistles and the Apocalypse.
Abbott, Lyman. The Epistle gf Paul the Apostle lo the Romans. With Notes and
Comments. Svo, pp. 230. Map and Illustrations. New York, 1888. (The
first fourteen pages summarize Paul's life.)
Abbot, T. K. Short Studies on St. Paul's Epistles to the Romans, Corinthians,
Galatians, etc. 12mo. Dublin, 1892.
Adam, John. An Exposition of the Epistle ot James, with an Appendix of Disser
tations Svo, pp. 448. Edinburgh, 1867, 1871.
Adams, Thomas. Commentary on the Second Epistle of Peter. New ed., revised.
Imperial. Svo. London, 1862. (FiiU of rich matter.)
Airay, Henry. Lectures upon the Whole Epistle of St. Paul to the Philippians
London, 1618; Edinburgh, 1864.
Alexander, W. The Epistles of St. John. Twenty-one Discourses, with Greek
Texts, Comparative Versions aud Notes, chiefly Exegetidal. 12mo, pp. xvi, 309,
New York, 1889. (Expositor's Bible.)
Arnold, A. N., and Ford, D. B. A Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans. Svo,
pp. 328. Philadelphia, 1889.
Bagge, Henry T. J. St. Paul's Epistle to the Galatians. The Text Revised and
Illustrated by a Commentary. Intended principally for the Use of Ministers and
Students of Theology. Svo, pp. xvii, 234. London, 1856.
Bassett, F. T. The Catholic Epistle of St. James. With a Revised Text aud Trans
lation. Svo. London, 1876.
Bayne, Paul. An Entire Commentary upon the Whole of the Epistle of Paul to
the Ephesians, Handling the Controversy of Predestination. London, 1618,
1643; Edinburgh, 1866.
Beet, Joseph Agar. A Commentary on St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans. Svo,
London, 1877. 5th Edition. London, 1885, also New York. (The author, a
British Wesleyan, takes issue with Augustine and Calvin on predestination and
irresistible grace. The comments are brief, but to the point.)
Beet, Joseph Agar. A Commentary on St. Paul's Epistle to the Corinthians. Lon
don, and New York, 1882. Small Svo, pp. 542. (The Commentary is " judicious,
clear, devout, candid, and well written.")
Beet, Joseph Agar. A Commeniary on St. Paul's Epistle to the Galatians. London,
and New York, 1885.
Benson, R. M. An Exposition of St. Paul to the Romans. 12mo, pp. 656. London,
1892.
Boise, James R. The Epistles of Saint Paul written after he became a prisoner.
With explanatory notes. 12mo, pp. 189. New York, 1887.
Boise, James R. Four of the Earlier Epistles ot the Apostle Paul, namely. First and
Second Thessalonians, First and Second Corinthians. 12mo, pp. 197. New York,
1890. (Tlie notes are brief, and rigidly exegetical.)
Calvin, John. Commentaries on the Epistle of Paul to the Romans. Translated and
Edited by John Owen. Svo, pp. 592. Edinburgh, 1849.
Candlish, Robert. The First Epistle of John Expounded. 2vols., 12mo. Edinburgh,
1870. Also on Ephesians. Ed. 1875.
Chalmers, Thomas. Lectures on Romans. 4 vols., Svo. 1827. Edinburgh, 4 vols.
12mo, 1854.
Delitzsch, Franz. A Commentary on the Epistle to'the Hebrews. Translated from the
German by T. L. Kingsbury. 2 vols., Svo, pp. xii, 401, vii, 492. Edinburgh, 1870.
Deems, Charles F. The Gospel of Common Sense. Sermons on the Epistle of James.
Svo. New York. 1889.

268 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
Durham, James. A Commeniary upon the Book of the Revelation. Glasgow, 1658.
New ed., 4to. Glasgow, 1788.
Diisterdieck, Frederick. Critical and Exegetical Handbook to the Revelation ot
John. Translated and Ediied by Henry E. Jacobs. Svo. New York, 1886.
Eadie, Jojin. A Commentary on the Greek Text of the Epistle of Paul to the Ephe
sians. 3d ed., pp. Iv, 493. Edinburgh and New York, 1883. (This Commen
tary has been followed by others from the same author on Colossians, Philip
pians, Galatians, aud Thessalonians.)
Edwards, Thomas Charles. A Commentary on the First Epistle to the Corinthians.
Svo, pp. xxxix, 491. London, 1885. (An excellent work, especially the linguis
tic parts, with, however, a marked tendency to abstract philosophizingi)
Ellicott, Charies J. Critical and Grammatical Commentaries on St. Paul's Epistles.
Svo, 5 vols. Galatians, Ephesians, Thessalonians, Philippians, Colossians, Phi
lemon, Pastoral Epistles. Andover, 1883.
Elliot, E. B. Horae Apoealypticae ; or, a Commentary on the Apocalypse, Critical
and Historical, elc. New ed., 4 vols., Svo. ' London, 1869.
Fairbairn, Patrick. The Pastoral Epistles. Greek Text and Expository Notes. 12mo,
pp. ix, 451. 1876. '
Farrar, F. W. The First Epistle to the Corinthians. Exposition by the Venerable
Archdeacon Farrar and Homilies by various Authors. London, 1883.
Forbes, John. Analytical Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans, tracing the
train of thought by Parallelism. Svo. Edinburgh, 1868.
Gebhardt, Hermann. The Doctrine of the Apocalypse, and its Relation to the Doc
trine of the Gospel and Epistles of John. Translated from the German by J. S.
Banks. 2 vols.,' Svo. Edinburgh.
Glasgow, James. The Apocalypse Translated and Expounded. Svo. Edinburgh, 1862.
Godet, F. A Commentary on St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans. Translated from
the French by Rev. A. Cusin, M.A., Edinburgli. Vol. I, Svo, pp. 446; Vol. II,
pp. 434. Edinburgh; New York, 1880.
Godet, F. Studies in the Epistles. Translated by Annie Harwood Holmden. New
York, 1889. (Chronological in order and exegetical in style. Inclines to the
opinion that Silas wrote Hebrews.)
Godet, P. A Commentary on St. Paul's First Epistle to the Corinthians. 2 vols.,
Svo. Edinburgh, 1890.
' Gouge, William. Commentary on the Whole Epistle to the Hebrews. 2 vols, folio.
London, 1655. 3 vols. Edinburgh, 1867. (A member ot the Westminster
Assembly of Divines ; the Commentary has been held in high estimation for its
learning and pious spirit.)
Gould, E. P. A Commentary on the Epistles to the Corinthians. Svo, pp. 226.
Philadelphia, 1888.
Haldane, Robert. Exposition of the Epistle to the Romans, wilh Remarks on the
Commentaries of Macknight, Stuart, and Tholuck. Svo, pp. 752. New York, 1870.
Hengstenberg, E. W. The Revelation of St. John Expounded for those who Search
the Scriptures. Translated from the Original by Patrick Fairbairn. 2 vols.,
Svo, pp. 487, 508. Edinburgh, 1861-62.
Hodge, Charles. Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans. New ed,, revised and
in great measure rewritten. Svo, pp. 716. Philadelphia, 1856. Also on Ephe
sians, First and Second Corinthians. 3 vols., 12mo.
Hutchison, John. Lectures, chiefly Expository, on St. Paul's First and Second
Epistles to the Thessalonians. With Notes and Illustrations. Svo, pp. vii, 369.
Edinburgh, 1884.

LITERATURE OF EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. 269
.Tenkyn, William. An Exposition of the Epistle of Jude. 2 vols., 4to, 1052;
Revised and Corrected by James Sherman. Svo. London, 1839. (One of the
Puritan divines who suffered for Christian liberty.)
Kendrick, A. C. A Commentary on the Epistle to the Hebrews. Philadelphia, 1890.
Leighton, Robert. A Practical Commentary on the First Epistle General of Peter ;
with a Brief Memoir of the Author. 2 vols. Philadelphia, 1864. (One ot the
English Classics.)
Lightfoot, J. B. St. Paul's Epistle to the Galatians. A Revised Text, with Intro
duction, Notes, and Dissertations. Svo. London, 1865; 7th ed., 1881. (The
touch ot a master is visible on every page of this Commentary. Besides the
Exposition there are three Dissertations: 1. On the Origin of the Galatian Peo
ple, 2. The Brethren of the Lord, 3. St. Paul and the Three.) Also on Philip
pians, Colossians, and Philemon. 2 vols., Svo. London and New York.
Lillie, John. Lectures on the Epistle of Paul to the Thessalonians. Svo, pp. 685.
New York, 1860. Also ou First and Second Peter. Svo, pp. xi, 536. New
York, 1869.
Lincoln, W. Lectures on the Book of Revelation. 12mo, pp. 450. New York, 1889.
Lowrie, Samuel T. An Explanation ot the Epistle to the Hebrews. Svo, pp. 640.
New York, 1884.
Liicke, Fried. Commentary on the Epistles of St. John. 12mo. Edinburgh, 1837.
Liinemann, Gottlieb. Critical and Exegetical Handbook to the Epistles of St. Paul
to the Thessalonians. Translated from the 3d German Edition by Rev.
Paton J. Gloag. Svo. Edinburgh, 1880. (In Meyer's Critical and Exegetical
Commentary on the New Testament.)
Luther, Martin. Commentary on St. Paul's Epistle to the Galatians. Svo, pp. 575.
^ Ncw York, 1845.
Macplierson, J. Commentary on St. Paul's Epistle to the Ephesians. Svo, pp. 442,
Edinburgh, 1892.
Manton, Thomas. A Practical Exposition on the Epistle of James. London, 1651.
Revised and Corrected, London, 1842.
Neander, Augustus. The Epistle of Paul to the Philippians. Practically Explained.
Translated from the German by Mrs. H. C. Conant. 12mo, pp. xvii, 123. New
York, 1851. Also on James and First John. 2 vols., 12mo.
Given, John. Exposition of Hebrews. 4 vols,, folio. London, 1668. Edited by
W. A. Goold. 7 vols. Edinburgh, 1850-1855. (One of the greatest of the
Nonconformists and the friend of Cromwell.)
Philippi, F. A. A Commentary on St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans. Translated from
the Third Edition by J. S. Banks. 2 vols,, Svo, pp, 421, 429. Edinburgh, 1879.
Phimmer, J. F. The Pastoral Epistles. First and Second Timothy, Titus. (The
Expositor's Bible.) 12mo. New York, 1890.
Pond, Enoch. The Seals Opened ; or. The Apocalypse Explained. 12mo, pp. xi, 211.
Portland, 1871.
Pridham, Arthur. Notes aud Reflections on the Epistle to tire Ephesians. ]2mo,
pp.338.' London, 1854. (Expository and devotional.)
Robertson, Frederick W. Expository Lectures on First and Second Corinthians.
12mo. London, 1870. Also Now York, ISSl.
Sadler, M. F. The Epistles of St. Paul to the Galatians, Ephesians, and Philippians.
With Notes, Critical and Practical. Svo. London, 1889.
Sadler, M. F. The Epistles of St. Paul to the Colossians, Thessalonians, and Timothy,
with Notes. Svo. London, 1890. (A continuation of his series of Commenta
ries on the gospels and other Pauline epistles.)

270 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
Shedd, William G. T. A Criiical and Doctrinal Commentary on the Epistle of St.
Paul to the Romans. Svo, pp. 439. New York, 1879.
Smith, Justin A. Commentary on the Revelation. In Consultation with Professor
J. R. Boise, D.D. Svo. Pbiladelpliia, 1884.
Stanley, A. P. The Epistles of St. Paul to the Corinthians, wilh Critical Notes and
Dissertations. New ed., 2 vols., Svo, pp. 356, 434. London, 1862. 4th ed., 1876.
Steiger, Wilhelm. Exposition of the First Epistle of Peter. Translated by Dr. Fair
bairn. 2 vols., ISmo. Edinburgh, 1836.
Steward, George. The Argument of the Epistle to the Hebrews. A Posthumous
Work. Svo. Edinburgh, 1872,
Stuart, Moses. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans.
3d ed. Edited and Revised by R. D. C. Robbius. 12mo, pp. 544. Andover,
1851. New ed., 1876.
Stuart, Moses. A Commentary on the Apocalypse. 2 vols., Svo, pp. x, 504, iv, 504.
Andover, 1845. London, 1846. Followed by other edilions.
Summers, T. 0. The Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Romans in the Authorized
Version. Wilh a New Translation and Commentary. 12mo, pp. 276. Nash
ville, Tenn. 1881. (A good Arminian Commentary on Romans.)
Tholuck, Augustus. Commentary on the Epistle to the Hebrews. Translated by
James Hamilton. 2 vols., Svo. Edinburgh, 1842. New ed., 1869.
Tholuck, Angus' us. Expositions of St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans; wilh Ex
tracts from the Exegetical Works of the Fathers and Reformers. Translated
from the Original German by Robert Menzies. 2 vols., Svo. Edinburgh, 1848.
Trench, R. C. Commeniary ou the Epistles to the Seven Churches in Asia. 12mo,
pp. 312. New York 1867.
Vaughan, C. J. Lectures on the Revelation of St. John. 4th ed., 2 vols., Svo.
London, 1875.
Vaughan, C. J. St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans. The Greek Text, wilh English
Notes. 3d ed., enlarged. Also on Philippians. 1 vol., 16mo. London, 1880.
Wardlaw, Ralph. Lectures on Romans. 3 vols., Svo. London, 1861.
Warren, Israel P. The Book of Revelation. 12mo. New York, 1887. (Finds the
key to the book in the first verse, '¦ Things which must shortly come to pass.")
Westcott, Brooke Foss. The Epistles of St. John. The Greek Text, wilh Notes
and Essays. Svo, pp. Ivi, 360. London, 1883. (Most masterly in the exposi
tion of the Greek text.)
Westcott, B. F. The Epistle to the Hebrews. The Greek Text with Notes and Essays.
New York, 1890. 6. The Apocrypha.
Bissell, Edwin Cone, The Apocrypha of the Old Testament; with Historical Intro
ductions, a Revised Translation and Notes, Critical and Explanatory. Svo, pp.
680. New York, 1880.
Churton, W. R. The Uncanonical and Apocryphal Scriptures. Being the Addi
tions to the Old Testament Canon which were included in the ancient Greek and
Latin Versions. The English Text of the Authorized Version, together with the
additional matter found in the Vulgate and other Versions. Introductions to the
Several Books and Fragments, Marginal Notes, and References, and a General
Introduction to the Apocrypha. Svo. London, 1884.
Deane, W. J. The Book of Wisdom. The Greek Text, the Latin Vulgate, and the
Authorized English Version, with an Introduction, Critical Apparatus and a
Commentary. 4to. Oxford, 1881.
Lawrence, R. The Book of Enoch the Prophet. Svo. Oxford, 1838.

LITERATURE OF EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. 271
Neubauer, A. The Book of Tobit. A Chaldee text, from a unique MS. in the Bod
leian Library, with other Rabbinical Texts, English Translation and the Itala.
Cr. Svo. Oxford, 1878.
Schodde, George H. The Book of Enoch : Translated from the Ethiopic, with In
troduction and Notes. 12mo, pp. 278. Andover, 1882.
7. The Talmud.
Barclay, Joseph. The Talmud. Svo, pp. 389. London, 1878. ^ (The book contains
selections from the Mishna, transhiled with explanations from various sources.
The topics selected are such as the Sabbath, Passover, Tabernacles, Sanhedrin, etc.)
Hershon, Paul Isaac. Treasures of the Talmud. Being a Series of Classified Sub
jects in Alphabetical order from " A " to " L," Compiled from the Babylonian
Talmud, and Translated by Paul Isaac Hershon. With Notes and Indexes, and
Introductory Notice by Canon H. D. M. Spence. Svo. London, ISSl.
Jastrow, M. A Dictionary of the Targumim, the Talmud Babli, and Yerushalmi and
the Midrasliic Literature in Twelve Parts. 4lo. New York, 1888.
Pick, B. The Talmud : Wlial It Is, and What II Knows About Jesus and His Fol
lowers. 16mo. Ncw York, 1888.
Schwab. Moses. The Talmud of Jerusalem. Translated for the First Time. Vol.1.
Berakhoih. 4to. London, 1885.
8. The Revised Version of the English Bible.
Bassett, Fr. T. An Examination of Some of the More Important Texts in the New
Testament that Relate to the Deity of our Lord Jesus Christ. Svo. London,
1883. (Passes criticism on the revisers for hot admitting iiovoyevijg Qe6( into
the text, John i, 18, charging them with Arianism.)
Beckett, Edmund. Should the Revised New Testament be Authorized ? Pp. 194,
cr. Svo. London, 1882. (An adverse criticism )
Burgess, H. Revision ofthe Holy Scriptures; an Argnmentagainst Objectors. Svo. 1857.
Burgon, John William. The Revision Revised. Pp. 549, Svo. London, 1883. (Avery
vigorous attack on the Revised Greek Text as well as the English version of it.)
Buttz, Henry A. The Revised Version of the New Testament. (An article in the
Methodist Quarterly Review, of April, 1881, in which the changes originating in
the criticism of the Greek Text, those arising out of conformity to the present
state of grammatical knowledge, and those springing from the growth of the
English language, are discussed.)
Cook, F. C. The Revised Version of the First Three Gospels Considered in its
Bearings upon Ihe Record ot our Lord's Words and of Incidents in His Life.
Svo, pp. 250. London, ) 882. (By the editor of the Speaker's Commentary.)
Ellicott, C. J., and Palmer, Eilwin. The Revisers and the Greek Text of the New
Testament Company. Pp.79. London, 1882.
Goodwin, Daniel I!. Notes on the Late Revi.'^ion of the New Testament. Pp. 212.
Svo. New York, 1883. (Though the author objects to many renderings he gen
erally approves of ihe changes in the text itself.)
Humphry, W. G. A Commentary on the Revised Version of the New Testament.
Svo, pp. xxi, 474. London, 1882.
Kennedy, B. H. The Ely Lectures on the Revi.sed Version of the New Testament.
Pp. x;«i, 165, Svo. London, 1881. New ed. 1888.
Lee, Alfred. Cooperative Revision of the New Testament. Svo. New York, 1881.
(Bishop Lee was a Member of llie American Company of Revisers, and gives in
his work a valuable resume of the chaufjes his fellow-members suggested.)
Leary, T. H. L. A Criiical Examination of Bishop Lightfoot's Defense of the Last
Pelition in the Lord's Prayer. Pp. 23. London, 1882.

272 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
Lightfoot, J. B., Trench, R. C. Ellicott, C. J. The Revision of the English Version
of the New Testament. With an Introduction by Philip Schaff. Pp. xlix, xix,
195, 193, 178, 12mo. New York, 1878.
Malan, S. C. Seven Chapters of the Revision of ISSl Revised. London, 1881-82.
Milligan, William, and Alexander Roberts. The Words of the New Testament as
altered by Transmission and Ascertained by Modern Criticism. Pp. 262, Svo.
Edinburgh, 1873,
Moon, George Washington. The Revisers' Engl'sh, etc.; a series of criticisms show
ing the Revisers' Violations of the Laws of Language. 12mo, pp. 145. Lon
don, 1881. 2d ed. 1883.
Newcome, Archbishop Wm. An Attempt Toward Revising our English Translation
of the Greek Scriptures, or, the New Covenant of Jesus Christ, etc. 2 vols,
Svo. Dublin, 1809. (This work was first printed in 1796.)
Newth, Samuel. Lectures on Bible Revision. Svo. London, 1881.
Nicolson, W. M. Classical Revision of the Greek New Testament. Tested and
Applied on Uniform Principles, etc. Pp. 149, Svo. London, 1878.
Nicholson, E. B. Our New Testament. An Explanation of the Need and a Criticism
of the Fulfillment. Pp. 80, Svo. London, 1881. (The author's criticism is
generally favorable, but he urges further revision.)
Osborne, W. A. The Revised Version of the New Testament. A Critical Commen
tary with Notes upon the 'fext. Pp. 200, Svo. London, 1S82. (What the au
thor calls " light inaccuracies or inconsistencies " are objected to; otherwise his
criticism is generally favorable.)
Philalethes. The English Bible and our Duty with Regard to it. Svo. Dublin, 1857.
Riggs, Elias. Suggested Emendations of the Authorized English Version of the Old
Testament. 12mo, pp. 130. Andover, 1873.
Riggs, Elias. Suggested Modifications of the Revised Version of the New Testa
ment. 12mo, pp. 94. Andover, 1883.
Roberts, Alexander. Companion lo the Revised Version of the New Testament.
With a Supplement by an American Reviser (P. Schaff ) on the Anglo-American
Revision. New York, 1881. Pp.117. 3ded., 12mo. 1885.
Samson, G. W. The English Revisers' Greek Text shown to be unauthorized, except
by Egyptian copies discarded by Greeks. Pp. 132, 16ino. Cambridge (Mass.), 1882.
Short, Charies. The New Revision of the King James Revision of the 'New Testa
ment. Several articles in ihe American Journal ef Philology, 1881-82. (In the
second paper the author makes a careful and minute examination ot the revision
of Matthew's gospel.)
Smith, G. Vance. Texts and Margins ofthe Revised New Testament Affecting The
ological Doctrine. Pp. 51. London, 1881.
Trench, Richard Chenevix. On the Authorized Version of tho New Testament, in
Connection with Some Recent Propoi3als for its Revision. 12rao. Pp. 188. Lon
don and New York, 1858.
Vaughan, C. J. Authorized or Revised : Sermons on Some of Ihe Texts in whicli the
Revised Version Differs from the Authorized. Svo. London, 1882. (A plea
for the new version.)
Westcott, Brooke Foss. Some Lessons of the Revised Version of the New Testa
ment. Several Articles in The Expositor for 1887. (This is a valuable series of
papers in defense of the Revised Version written by one of the most learned of
the English Committee of Revisers.)
Young, Robert. Contributions to a New Revision, or a Critical Companion to the
NewTestament. Pp. 390, 16mo. Edinburgh, ISSL

SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 273

CHAPTER n.
HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.

J. G. Dowling, Introduction to the Study of Ecclesiastical History, London, 1838 ; H. J. Boy-
aards, Oratio de theologia hlstorlca cum sacri codicis exegesi rite conjuncta, Utrecht, VSH! : A. P.
Stanley, Lectures on the Study of Ecclesiastical History. London, 1857.
The scriptural material for history and doctrine, which is brought
to light and restored to its pure state by exegetical theology, be
comes the very foundation of historical theology. The latter in
cludes both the biblical elements (Sacred History) and their devel
opment in the Church (Church History and History of Doctrines).
It, accordingly, reaches back into exegetical theology, and forms,
at the same time, the bridge for passing over into systematic
theology. In contrast with modern encylopaedists, we prefer to separate
exegetical from historical theology. But this is only relative. The
work of the exegete is historical in the broad sense of searching for
required sources ; but this is certainly a merely preliminary histor
ical task. The exegete may be likened to the miner Relations of
who descends the shaft in order to bring into the light exegetSaith^
of day the gold of pure scriptural truth, while the his- oiogy.
torian resembles the artificer who melts the masses down, and gives
them their form and impression. The process of separating the
gold from the material in which it is held, e. g., the presentation of
the body of doctrine apart from the ideas of the age in which it
originated, is also the work of exegesis, although this constitutes the
line at which exegetical theology transfers its material to historical.
This, too, is the point at which the researches coincide which have
generally been prosecuted in distinct and separate fields of inquiry.
The exposition of the Gospels, for instance, is an exegetical, not a
historical, task, while a critical representation of the life of Christ,
upon the basis of the Gospel records, is a historical work, which
the exegete will regard as the point at which his labours terminate.
Here, as everywhere else, the one must aid the other. Historical
theology extends likewise into the pre-Christian, or Old Testament,
element. 18

274 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
Biblical archseology is an important aid to exegesis, and, at the
Biblical arcbse- Same time, an historical science. The exegete needs
ology related it in order to understand the Bible, for which reason
sis and church some acquaintance with this branch is to be required
history. ^nd presupposed when he enters on his work. But in
asmuch as it is the task of history to represent the life and spirit
of the Israelitish people, historical theology is also entitled to lay
claim to the service of archseology as a product of exegesis. Dis
putes of this sort about boundaries may, however, be reconciled
very peaceably, and serve merely to prove the elastic nature of the
organism of science.' And while biblical archseology, separately
considered, has been treated in a former section as an exegetical
aid, it will, on the other hand, be proper for us to class the biblical
history as a whole — which, of course, involves the archseology as
well — with the general organism of historical theology.
SECTION L
SACEBD HISTORY.
Sacred history, like the Bible itself, is divided into Old and New
The place of Testament, and constitutes the point of transition from
sacred history, exegetical into historical theology. Hence, what has
been said with regard to the Bible in general has its particular ap
plication to this subject.
This is the place for historical criticism, involving not merely
the question whether the book which claims to be a source is de
rived from the author in whose name it appears, but also the further
inquiry whether the author, known or unknown, has aimed to write
actual history, and in what way he has executed his plan. The
propriety of historical criticism, when applied to the books of the
Bible, is, doubtless, open to graver doubts from the standpoint of
supernaturalism than ci-iticism of the text. But the necessity for
it will be seen in the fact, that we must guard against its abuse by
recognizing the spirit and object of the Bible history, its super
human and divine plan, and its development under the conditions
of time. He who derives his standard of measurement directly
from the history of revelation itself, will naturally decide otherwise
than will he who applies the foreign standard of ancient or modern
wisdom. ' This, too, with reference to the reminders by Pelt (review of the 2d ed.), in
Bruns and Hafner's Repertorium, xiv, 8, p. 268.

HISTORY OF THE ISRAELITISH NATION. 275
SECTION H.
HISTOEY OP THE ISRAELITISH NATION.
W. Hoffman, Die gOttUche Stufenordnung Im A. Test. Berl., 1854 ; tGfrBrer, TTrgeschlehte des
menschl. Geschlechts, Sehaffliausen, 1855 ; Pressel In Herzog Encykl., xvii, p. 245, sqq.. Art. Volk
Gottes ; J. H. Kurtz, History of the Old Covenant, 3 vols., Philadelphia, 1859 ; S. Sharpe, History
of the Hebrew Nation and its Literature, London, 1872 ; A. P. Stanley, Lectures on the History
ol the Jewish Church, 3 vols., New York, 1866-77; H. H. Mllman, History of the Jews, 3 vols..
New York, 1882.
The history of the nation from which the Founder of Christianity
came forth to be the Saviour of the world, is of equal value for the
Christian theologian with the general study of the Old periods of He-
Testament. The following are the periods of principal brew history.
religious importance subsequently to the primitive period — from
Adam to Abraham.
I. The Patriarchal Age, being the period of the earliest revela
tion from God — from Abraham to Moses.
2. The period of founding the theocracy and subduing the land
by the theocratic leaders — from Moses to Samuel.
3. The further development of this theocracy under the law, and
the theocratical institutions of the priesthood, the sovereignty, and
the prophetic order, considered both in their positive and their
negative features — from Samuel to Solomon, and thence to the
Captivity. 4. The periods of disintegration under the influence of foreign
rulers and foreign customs, and of transition to a new period dur
ing and after the Captivity.
The history of Israel, in the strict sense, begins with the head of
the race, and his emigration to Canaan. But the records of pre-
Abrahamic times are included, as preliminary history, within the
circle of Old Testament historical studies. The difficulties touched
upon in exegetical theology, with reference to the age of the his
torical documents that have been preserved to our time, and their
trustworthiness, are also felt in the historical treatment. The prin
cipal difficulties attach to the earliest periods. "We have not hesi
tated to designate them as the time of the earliest _,_ ,,
Difficulty con-
revelations, because we share, with HaufE,' the convic- nected -with
tion, that a belief in revelation does not only admit of, ®"'^ period.
but absolutely requires, criticism of the historical books of the
Bible. If the divine and the human, wondferfully interpenetrating
each other, impress us anywhere, it is when we are meditating
upon these oldest of all histories, for whose examination we need,
' Comp. his work, cited above, and the Introd., by K. A. Menzel, to his Staats u.
Religionsgesch. der Eonigreiche Israel u. Juda, Breslau, 1S53, pp. Sf.

376 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
in harmony with this thought, minds open to childlike copceptions,
and religiously and poetically inclined, and a judgment and under
standing prepared for an unprejudiced investigation, and sometimes
accessible, among other things, to historical discussion." Where
either of these exists alone, where we apply only the belief in
stilled by the lessons of childhood, and seek to retain this in its
naive directness at the cost of historic truth, or where, perverted at
ssit I *^^ outset by the so-called modern enlightenment, we
freedom from approach the sacrcd narratives in order to exercise our
prejudice. pedantic skill upon them, the result will be that our
judgment will be speedily formed, since we will either literally ac
cept every thing without examination, or reject every thing with
out understanding it. In no age has there been so much talk of
myths as in our own. Every people, like every individual, has its
childhood history, and we can no more expect to find purely histor
ical reminiscences without the golden thread of poesy, in the prim
itive history of nations in general, than .we can suppose that the
recollections of an individual can reach back with entire accuracy
into the twilight in vs^bich poetry and fact are intermingled with
each other.'' The important thing in this connection, is, that the
ideas of legend and myth be clearly fixed. There is no need of be
ing frightened at a word. What does /itMof signify ? It is applied
Meaning of ^o narrative and legend as well as to fable and poem.
myth. ]3ijt the ancients, already, distinguished between logo-
graphs and mythographs,'' and modern science has in like manner
distinguished between historical and philosophical myths (myths
proper), so as to make the former actually historical legends (Xoyoi),
even though conceived and developed in a poetic spirit, while the
latter contain simply doctrines or views clothed in historic garb, or
presented in the guise of history. It is a well-known fact that a
' Comp. Bunsen, Gott in der Gesch. (Part ii, Bibel, Leben, u. Weltgeschichte), p,
101 : " I assert, that by its internal unity, and the truth of its monotheistic conscious
ness, this book (the Bible and its history) has controlled the consciousness of the
world, including its noblest tribes, during many centuries ; it has realized the noblest
hopes of mankind and authenticated its holiest anticipations, such as in moments of
serious consciousness you feel arising in yourself." Also Pressel, supra: "If the
gods of heathen nations are simply the reflection of the national spirit, Israel, on the
other hand, is, in its character as the covenant people, an organ for the erection of the
kingdom of God, a product of the grace of God."
" " Go back," says Herder, " in connexion with historical writings, to the infancy
of the world, to the poverty and needs of the writers. In this poor hovel God dwells ;
to this childhood the Father speaks." Theophron, Werke x, p. 317.
'See Creuzer, Hist. Kunst d. Griechen, (Lpz., 180S), pp. 40 and 173, where the
ancients are quoted.

HISTORY OP THE ISRAELITISH NATION. 277
controversy exists as to whether historic facts or philosophical
doctrines in natural history underlie heathen mythology itself. But
the same question has been raised with reference to the Bible, and
we are not at liberty to set it aside without investigation. The
distinction between legend and myth is important even for the Old
Testament history. The former is more nearly related to actual
history than the latter ; for the legend, even when poetically col
ored, contains a historical kernel, while the kernel enclosed within
the myth is always a dogma instead of history, a religious concep
tion in historic garb. The task of the historian will, accordingly,
differ as he deals with myths or with legends. In the case of the
myth, it is needful, from the outset, to ignore the historical germ,
in the usual acceptation of the word, and to seize upon
the dogmatic germ, which, indeed, presumes a recogni- tween myth
tion of the historic state of things. In dealing with the *° ^^*° '
legend, however, the attempt must be made to strip off the cover
ing which was gradually formed about the historic germ, and to
extract that germ, so far as possible, from the enveloping shell.
Some critics have gone to the length of including all the older his
tory of Israel among myths, so as to leave bijt little of the historical
element beyond the theocratic idea that the Israelitish Israelites the
nation was the people of God, and was described as people of God.
such in a series of symbolical images.' But even this extreme ap
plication of the myth idea is decidedly different from the ruthless
transforming of the sacred histories into nature myths, which over
looks every religious feature, and by which we are asked, with
Nork," to find astronomical emblems; or, with Daumer and Ghil-
lany,' even the worship of fire and Moloch, in the purely human
narratives of the Bible.
Such unnatural mythologizing of history into nature, however,
rectifies itself. The healthy historic spirit rejects it. But so much
the more meritorious is theeffort, made in the way above indicated,
to distinguish between myth and legend by means of a thorough
examination.* If the results of such inquiries are not always at
' Thus de Wette, in his Beitrage.
" Vergleichende Mythologie, etc., Lpz., 1836, and several other works by this writer.
' Comp. Rheinwald, Repertorium, 1 844. Daumer has since done penance, however,
and has " returned " into the bosom of the Roman Catholic Church.
' George, Mythus u. Sage ; Vers, einer wiss. Entwicklung dieser Begriffe u. ihres
Verhaltnisses zum christl. Glauben, Berlin, 1837. "Legend and myth diverge in
different directions ; the former gives the appearance, and from this we argue back
to the idea ; in the latter, on the contrary, the idea is given, and the appearance is
deduced therefrom." P. 11. On the distinction in certain cases, which is none the
less relative only, and on the difficulty of always determining the character of a nar-

278 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
once apparent, they yet lead into the right way, and toward the
ultimate goal. It is not necessary that we should at once think of
fraud and deceit when poetry, especially of a religious
cessariiy fraud sort, is mentioned. This is possible only to a worldly-
and deceit. ^ige, petrified understanding, which is incapable of
suspecting the existence of any higher form of truth in poetry,
while it is the special work of the latter to represent, if not bare
and tangible realities, yet the highest form of truth.' However, the
greatest prudence is necessary, on the other hand, and it is a question
whether the word " myth," which always has a reference to the point
of view occupied by heathenism, ought to have been transferred at
all to the territory of the Bible.'' The theological standpoint is that
which regards the Bible narratives as sacred history, as compared
with profane. Every thing contained therein, whether it be poetry,
tradition, or actual history, relates to a single grand idea, which
creatively controls the whole, but which does not remain merely an
Nature ol bib- abstract theory, but moves through this history and he
lical narrative, comes concrete in it, celebrating its consummation at
the end in the Revelations of the New Covenant. The student who
overlooks this feature misconceives the fundamental character of
the history, whose peculiarity lies in the fact that this is not his
tory, whose limitations are fixed by its own nature, but, as one writer
beautifully observes,' it is " the history of God from a human point
rative, comp. ibid., pp. 13, 14. With reference to the New Test., see 0. Bagge, Prin-
cip. des Mythus im Dienst d. christl. Position, Lpz., 1865 ; comp. also Immer, infra,
p. 24 : " Myth and legend, often passing over into each other, have this in common,
that both have sprung from the unintentionally poetizing spirit of the people, and
contain, in confused mixture, both idea and history. .If the two are to be distin
guished from each other, the myth will designate an idea that has become embodied
history in the mouth of the people, and legend a history which has become involved
with ideal elements in the fancy and traditions of the people."
' " The idea of the unconscious (naive) must necessarily be retained, unless it is de
sired to wholly abandon the ground of myths and legends." It is by this feature that
that field is distinguished from that of "intentional deception and fiction." George,
supra, p. 15; comp. also Hauff in the work referred to above, passim. It is, how
ever, apparent that the highest, i. e., the essentially religious, ideas, are represented
precisely by myths (in case the designation be adopted), while the purely historical
can claim to be religiously significant only in a secondary way. Comp. Genesis with
the Books of Kings, Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah. Which is the more distmct-
ively religious ?
' Comp. Schenkel, Dogm., i, p. 807, sg. (referring to Ewald). A similar idea holds
true of the word oracle as applied to the prophets. The phrase " scriptural myth "
has also been suggested, in order to avoid the analogy of the heathen myth.
' J. G. Mueller, Theophil, p. 246. Augusti, too, was accustomed to describe Israel
itish history as an uKaS Weybjievov in the history of the world. Hegel entertained dif
ferent views of Jewish history at difEerent times, as may be seen in Rosenkranz,

HISTORY OF THE ISRAELITISH NATION. 2W
of view, and the history of man from the divine point of view.". It
accords, upon the whole, with the laws of human development, that
the earlier history of a people should bear a partly legendary and
partly mythical, or epical, character, to a greater extent than the
later, which falls within the province of historical writings proper.
The old economical and pedagogical idea, according to which God '
condescended to the level of human ideas, and entered Growth in sa-
into the childish apprehensions of men, in order to at- o^d history.
tract them to himself, needs only to be rendered scientifically intelli
gible, from a genuinely theistic point of view, in order to approve
itself as the only tenable one in the practical field. This by no
means excludes a true pragmatism, which takes the human element
into account, and treats it with due historical recognition of its im
portance, but simply provides for it a proper basis and the neces
sary higher aims. LITERATURE.
I. EAELIEK HISTORIES.
The sources for Israelitish history are the historical books of the
Bible, including the historical Apocrypha. For the post-exilian
period the First Book of Maccabees is especially important. In
addition, we have Josephus (comp. Archseology), who is a valuable
authority for the period extending from the close of that covered by
biblical sources down to bis own time. Philo's Life of Moses has
little historical value, because of its allegorical tendency. Among
non-Jewish writers, the Grecian authors Herodotus, Strabo, and
Diodorus Siculus, and the Roman Justin and Tacitus,* deserve
mention ; also the Egyptian Manetho (B. C. 280 ?), whom Josephus
cites and controverts, and upon whose existence and trustworthiness
opinions are still divided. Eusebius, among the Christian fathers,
treated Israelitish history, in the first books of his Ecclesiastical
History and the Praep. Evangelica, and others followed in his foot
steps. A critical treatment was inconceivable in connection with
the theory of an exact and minute verbal inspiration, and was first
introduced by Spinoza (Tractatus theologico-politicus), Richard
Simon, Clericus, and others. There are other works, more or less
critical and pragmatical, by Buddseus (1726), Humphrey Prideaux
(I7I5, 1718), Shuckford (1723-38), Holberg (1747), and Lange
(1775), supplemented in our times by more critical works.
Leben Hegels, p. 49, where it will also appear how " it violently repelled him, and
again, engrossed him, and gave him life-long trouble as a dark riddle " (!).
* Comp. J. G. Mueller In Stud. u. Krit., 1843, and P. C. Meier, Judaica seu veterum
scriptorum profano um de rebus judaicis fragmenta, Jena, 1832.

»80 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE.
I. HISTORY OF ISRAEL.
Atwater, Edward E. History and Significance of the Sacred Tabernacle of the He
brews. Illustrated. 12mo. New York, 1875.
Budge, Earnest A. Tlie History of Esarhaddon, Translated from tlie Cuneiform In
scriptions upon Cylinders and Tablets in the British Museum. 8vo. London
and Boston, 1881.
Delitz,ich, Franz. Messianic Prophecies. Lectures. Translated from the Manu
script by Samuel Ives Curtiss, Professor in Chicago Theological Seminary. Svo,
pp. 124. Edinburgh and New York, 1880.
Ederslieim, A. History of tlie Jewish Nation after the Destruction of Jerusalem by
Titus. Svo. Edinburgh, 1856.
Edersheim, A. The Temple, its Ministry and Services as they were in the Time of
Christ. 12mo. London, 1874.
Ewald, Heinrich. The History of Israel. Prom the German. Svo, 5 vols, pp. xxvii,
423; viii, 450; ix, 332; viii, 324; viii, 520. London, 1867-1874, (Ewald's
original is in seven volumes. Learned and laborious, independent and even
dogmatic in judgment, Ewald has produced a work which will long be a stand
ard.)
Geiger, Abraham. Judaism and its History. Translated from the German by Mau
rice Mayer; with an Appendix, "Renan and Strauss." 12mo, pp. viii, 343.
London, 1865.
Hengstenberg, E. W. History of the Kingdom of God Under the Old Testament.
Translated from the German. Svo, 2 vflls, pp. xi, 469; xlvii, 407. Edinburgh,
1873.
Huidokoper, Frederic. Judaism at Rome. B. C. 76 to A, D. 140. Svo, pp. xiv,
588. New York, 1876.
Humphrey, E. P. Sacred History from the Creation to the Giving ofthe Law. Svo,
pp. xiii, 540. New York, 1888.
Hunter, P. H. After the Exile. A Hundred Years of Jewish History aud Litera
ture. Part I. The Close of the Exile to the Coming of Ezra. Svo. Edinburgli
and London, 1890.
Knappert, J. The Religion of Israel. A Manual. Translated by Richard A. Arm
strong. ]2mo, pp. 283. Boston, 1878.
Kuenen, A. The Religion of Israel. Translated from the Dutch by A II. May.
Svo, 3 vols. London, 1875. New edition, 1882.
Kuenen, A. The Prophets and Prophecy in Israel. Translated from the Dutch by
A, Milroy, with an Introduction by J. Muir. Svo. London, 1877. (Kuenen
belongs to the advanced school of liberals in Old Testament criticism.)
Kurtz, John Henry. Sacrificial Worship of the Old Testament. Svo. Edinburgh,
1863.
Kurtz, John Henry. Manual of Sacred History. A Guide to the Understanding of
the Divine Plan of Salvation, According to its Historical Development. Trans
lated from the sixth German editian, by Charles P. Schaeffer. Third edition.
12mo, pp. XX, 436. Philadelphia, 1857.
Lenormant, Fran9o5s. The Beginnings of History, According to the Bible and the
Traditions of Oriental Peoples, Irom the Creation -of Man to tho Deluge. Trans
lated from the second French 'edition, with an Introduction by Francis Brown
Svo, pp. xxx, 588. New York, ISSii,

HISTORY OP THE ISRAELITISH NATION. 381
Maurice, Frederick Denison. Patriarchs and Lawgivers of the Old Testament.
Nineteen Sermons on the First Lessons, etc. Second edition. Svo, pp. xiv, 466.
London, 1855.
Maurice, Frederick Denison. Prophets and Kings of the Old Testament. Twenty-
seven Sermons. Svo. London, 1855; also New York. Second edition. 12mo,
pp. xi, xxxii, 347. London, 1867.
M'Caul, Alexander. The Old Paths : a Comparison of the Principles and Doctrines
of Modern Judaism with the Religion of Moses and the Prophets. Svo. Lon
don, 1837.
Michaelis, J. D. Commentaries on the Law of Moses. Svo, 4 vols. London,
1814.
Mills, Abraham. The Ancient Hebrews ; with an Introductory Essay concerning
the World Before the Flood. 12mo, pp. vii, 443. New York, 1856.
Mihiian, H. H. The History of the Jews, from the Earliest Period down to
Modern Times. 12mo, 3 vols., pp. viii, 509 ; vii, 497 ; vii, 479. New York,
1864. (This is a revised edition, and forms one of the most convenient
manuals.)
Montefiore, C. G. Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion as illustrated by
the Religion of the Ancient Hebrews. The Hibbert Lectures for 1892. Svo,
pp. xxiv, 576. London and Edinburgh, 1892.
Nutt, J. W. A Sketch of Samaritan History, Dogma, and Literature. Svo. Lon
don, 1 874. (This book forms the introduction to the Fragments of a Samaritan
Targum.)
Nutt, J. W. Records of the Past, being English Translations of the As
syrian and Egyptian Monuments, Published under the Sanction of the So
ciety of Biblical Archeology. 12 vols. London, 1878. Also a second series
in 6 vols.
Eaphall, Morris J. Post-Biblical History of the Jews, from the Close of the Old
Testament till the Destruction of the Second Tem(le. 12mo, 2 vols. pp. 405,
486. New York, 1866.
Rawlinson, George. The Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World. Svo,
4 vols. Loudon, 1867. Second edition. Svo, 3 vols., pp. xxi, 590 ; vii, 580 ; viii,
567. New York, 1873. (This work comprises the history, geography, and an
tiquities of Chaldea, Assyria, Babylonia, Media, and Persia. It is the standard
in this department of study.)
Rawlinson, George. History of Ancient Egypt. Svo, 2 vols. London, 1881.
Riehm, Ed. Mes-ianic Prophecy. Translated from the German by J. Jefferson.
Svo. Edinburgh, 1875.
Schrader, Eberhard. Tlie Cuneiform Inscriptions and the Old Testament.
Translated from the second enlarged German edition, with additions by
Owen C. Whltehouse. With a map. Svo, 2 vols. London and Edinburgh,
1885.
Shiiw, Duncan. The History and Philosophy of Judaism ; or, A Critical and Philo
sophical Analysis of tlie Jewish Religion. Svo. Edinburgh, 1787. (A reply
to Hume,)
Sime, James. The Kingdom of All-Israel : Its History, Literature, and Worship.
Svo, pp. 621. Loudon, 1883. (A defense of tbe genuineness and antiquity of
the Pentateuch.)
Smith, George. The Hebrew People ; or, The History and Religion of the Israelites)
from the Origin of the Nation to the Time of Christ. Svo, 2 vols. London,
1850.

283 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
Smith, George. The Chaldean Account of Genesis. Containing the Description of
the Creation, the Fall of Man, the Deluge, etc., from the Cuueiforni Inscriptions.
New edition, Svo. London, 1880; New York, 1876.
Smith, George. Assyrian Discoveries : An Account of Explorations and Discoveries
on the Site of Nineveh, duriug 187ii and 1874, with lUusi rations. New edition.
Edited by A. H. Sayce. Svo, pp. 461. London, 1880. Now York, 1875. (Mr.
Smith's story Is well told, and the additions contriLiiited by him to our knowl
edge are important.)
Smith, George. The Assyrian Eponym Canon, from the Deatli of Solomon to Nebu
chadnezzar, containing Translations of the Documents, and an Account of the
Evidence on the Comparative Chronology of the Assyrian and Jewish King
doms, from the Death of Solomon to Nebuchadnezzar. Svo. London, 1875. (Mr.
A. H. Sayce says that this book is indispensable for the student of the Bihle.)
Smith, Thornley. History of Moses, viewed in Connection with Egyptian Antiqui
ties and the Customs of the Times in which he Lived. 12mo, pp. 300. Edin
burgh, 1860.
Smith, Thornley. Zaphnath-Paaneah ; or. The History of Joseph, viewed in Connec
tion with Egyptian Antiquities and the Customs of the Times in whicli he Lived.
12mo, pp. viii, 267. London, 1856.
Smith, William. The Old Testament History, from the Creation to the Return ofthe
Jews from Captivity. Svo. London, 1865. 12mo. New York, 1869, 1871.
Smith, W. Robertson. Tho Prophets of Israel and their Place In History, to the Close
of the Eighth Century B. C Eight Lectures. Svo, pp. 444. Edinburgh, 1882 ;
also New York. (Sequel to the Old Testament in the Jewish Church. Treats
the topics with great freedom. His position is that of the most advanced ciitics.)
Stanley, A. P. Lectures on the History of the Jewish Church. 3 parts. Svo, pp. xl,
572. Seventh edition. New York, 1877. (Very readable, even if not very
critical.)
Strauss, Frederick. The Pilgrimage to Jerusalem : a Picture of Judaism in the Cen
tury which Preceded the Advent of our Saviour. 2 vols. Bo.stou, 1825.
Whitelaw, Thomas. Patriarchal Times. Svo, pp. 309. London, 1887.
Wilkins, A. Phoenicia and Israel. A Historical Essay. Svo. London, 1871.
Wines, E. C. Commentaries on the Laws of the Ancient Hebrews, with an Introduc
tory Essay on Civil Society and Government. Svo. New York, 1853. New
edition, 1869. (A work which has been highly commended.)
II. BIBLICAL CHARACTERS.
(Anon.) The Greatest of the Prophets (Moses), by the author of " Essays on the
Church." 12mo, pp. 340. London, 1875.
Allen. R. Abraham : His Life, Times, and Travels. Svo. London, 1875.
Beecher, Henry Ward. Bible Studies. Covering the Early Books of the Old Testa
ment from Genesis to Ruth. Svo, pp. 438. New York, 1893.
Blaokie, William G. David, King of Israel: the Divine Plan and Lessons of his
Life. London, 1860.
Blunt, Henry. Lectures on the History of Elisha. Eourth edition., 12nio, pp. xl,
285. London, 1842.
Blunt, Henry. Eight Lectures upon the History of Jacob. Delivered during Lent,
1828, at the Church of St. Luke, Chelsea. Eleventh edition. l-2ino, pp. 204.
London. 1835.
Bum, Samuel Cllft. The Prophet Jonah. Svo, pp. x, 302. London, 1880.
Candlish, Robert S. Scripture Characters. Svo, pp. viii, 367. London, 1857,

HISTORY OF THE ISRAELITISH NATION. 283
Chandler, S. A Critical History of the Life of David. Svo, pp. xiv, 688. Oxford,
1853.
Cheyne, T. K. Jeremiali: His Life and Times. 12mo, pp. 205. New York, 1888.
(Men of the Bible Series.)
Deane, W. J. Abraham : His Life and Times. 12mo, pp. 179. New York, ISSS.
(Men of the Bible Series.)
Deane, W.J. Samuel and Saul : Thgir Lives and Times. 12mo, pp. 213. New York,
ISSS. Also volumes on Daniel, David, and Joshua. (Men ofthe Bible Series.)
Driver, S. R. Isaiah : His Life and Times. 12mo, pp. 214. New York, 1888.
(Men ofthe Bible Series.)
Duncan, William C. The Life, Character, and Acts of John the Baptist ; and the Re
lation of his Ministry to the Christian Dispensation. Based upon the "Johannes
der Taufer " of L. von Bohden. 12mo, pp. viii, 261. New York, 1853.
Dykes, J. 0. Abraham, the Friend of God : a Study of Old Testament History.
Svo. London, 1877.
Farrar, P. W. Solomon: His Life and Times. 12mo, pp. 217. New York, ISSS.
(Men of the Bible Series.)
Floy, James. Old Testament Characters Delineated and Illustrated. 12mo, pp. 355.
New York, 1866.
Gilfillan, George. The Bards of the Bible. 12mo, pp. xxi, 378. New York, 1851.
Gould, S. B. Legends of the Patriarchs and Prophets and Other Old Testament
Characters. Svo, 2 vols. London, 1872.
Gregory, Alexander. The Patriarch Jacob, aud Some of the Lessons of his Life.
12mo, pp. viii, 356. London, 1878.
Hastings, Frederic, Obscure Cliaracters and Minor Lights of Scripture. 12mo, pp.
284. New York, 1885. (Mostly on persons of the Old Testament.)
Hills, 0. A. Companion Characters. A Series of Studies In Bible Biography. Svo,
pp. 308. New York, 1883.
Hood, The Vicountess. Sketches of Female Scripture Characters. 16mo, pp. 210.
London, 1854. (Discusses Eve, Rebecca, Miriam, Ruth, the Shunammlte woman,
Esther, the sisters of Bethany, the Virgin Mary, Judith.)
Houghton, Ross C. John the Baptist, the Forerunner of our Lord ; His Life and
Work. 12mo, pp. v, 372. New York, 1889.
Hunter, Henry. Sacred Biography; or. The History of the Patriarchs. Svo. New
York, 1844.
Hunter, P. H. The Story of Daniel : His Life and Times. Svo. Edinburgh, 1884.
Kellogg, A. H. Abraham, Joseph, and Moses in Egypt. Svo, pp. 160. New York,
1887.
Kempe, John Edward. Job : a Course of Lectures preached in the Parish Church of
St. James, Westminster, on the Fridays in Lent, A. D. 1855. ISmo, pp. v, 182.
London, 1855.
Kempe, John Edward. Elijah : a Course of Lectures preached In the Parish Church
of St. James, Westminster, on the Fridays in Lent, A. D. 1862. ISmo, pp. viii,
162. London, 1862.
King, B. E. Ezra and Nehemiah. Examples for Priests and Laymen. 32mo. Lon
don, 1878.
Krummacher, F. W. Elijah the TIslibite. Pp.310. London and New York, 1852.
Krummacher, F. W. David, King of Israel. Translated by Marston. Pp. 540. Lon
don, 1867.
Long, John Marshall. Gideon and the Judges. 12mo, pp. xii, 201. New York,
1888. (Men of the Bible Series.)

384 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
Macduff, J. R. Tire Prophet of Fire ; or. The Life and Times of Elijah, with their
Lessons. Svo, pp. Ix, 351. London, 1864.
Macduff, J. R. The Healing Waters ; or. The Story of Naaman. Au Old Testament
Chapter on Providence and Grace. 12mo. London, 1873.
Martin, H. The Prophet Jonah: His Character and Mission to Nineveh. Svo
Edinburgh, 1817.
McCausland, D. The Builders of Babel Svo., London, 1871 and 1874.
McCullagh, Archibald. The Peerless Prophet ; or, The Life and Times of John the
Baptist. 16mo, pp. 146. New York, 1888.
Meyer, F. B. Abraham ; or. The Obedience of Faith. 12mo, pp. vi, 205. New York
and Chicago. 1893. (Also volumes on Joseph, Moses, and Elijah.)
Meyer, F. B. Israel : A Prince with God. The Story of Jacob Retold. 12mo, pp.
180. New York. (Concise and suggestive.)
Milligan, W. Elijah : His Life and Times. 12mo, pp. viii, 205. New York, 1888.
(Men of the Bible Series.)
Morris, J. W. Sacred Biography, Chronologically Arranged ; or. Lives of All the
Principal Persons Mentioned in Scripture : forming a Connected History of the
Old and New Testament. Svo, 2 vols., pp. 544, 645. London, no date.
Oxenden, A. Portraits from the Bible. Vol. I, Old Testament Series ; Vol. H,
New Testament Series: 12mo. London, 1871.
Pearse, Mark Guy. Elijah, the Man of God. 12mo, pp. 120. New York, 1892.
Raleigh, A. The Story of Jonah. Svo. London, 1866.
Rawlinson,. George. Moses : His Life and Times. 12ino, pp. 206. New York,
1888. (Men of the Bible Series.)
Rawlinson, George. The Kings of Israel and .ludah. 12mo, pp. 238. New York,
1888. (Men of the Bible Series.)
Rawlinson, George. Ezra and Nehemiah : Their Lives and Times. 12mo, pp. 182.
New York. (Men of the Bible Series.)
Reade, Charles. Bible Characters. 12mo, pp. ii, 106. New York, 1889. (Realistic
studies of Nehemiah, Jonah, David, and St. Paul.)
Scott, W. A. The Giant Judge; or. The Story of Samson, the Hebrew Hercules.
12ino, pp. xviii, 324. San Francisco, 1859.
Smith, Thornley. The History of Joshua, viewed in Connection with the Topography
of Canaiin and the Customs of the Times in which he Lived. Fifth edition.
12mo, pp. xiv, 285. Edinburgh, ISSl.
Smith, Thornley. The Prophet of Sorrow ; or. The Life and Times of Nehemiah.
12mo, pp. XX, 298. London, 1875.
Steel, Robert. Samuel the Prophet and the Lessons of His Life and Times. 12mo,
pp. 452. London, 1860. (Gives a hst of works referred to.)
Stowell, Hugh. Lectures on the Character of Nehemiah. Second edition. Svo, pp.
xi, 326. London, 1855.
Symington, A. M, The Story of Esther the Queen. Svo. London, 1878.
Taylor, William M. David, King of Israel: His Life and its Lessons. Svo, pp. 443.
New York, 1875. (Also volumes on Moses, Elijah, Daniel, and Ruth.)
Tomklns, H. G. Studies on the Times of Abraham. 4to. London, 1878.
Tuck, Robert. Revelation by Character. Hlustrated from Old Testament Lives.
12mo. New York, 1893.
Tuck, Robert. The Age of the Great Patriarchs from Adam to Jacob. Svo, 2 vols.
London, 1880-1.
Vandyke, Joseph S. Through the Prison to the Throne. Illustrations of Life from
the Biography of Joseph. Second edition. 12mo, pp. 245. New York, 1884.

THE LIFE OP CHRIST. 385
Vandyke, Joseph S. From Gloom to Gladness: Illustrations of Life from the Biog
raphy of Esther. 12mo, pp. xii, 269. New York, 1883.
Wharton, M. B. Famous Women of the Old Testament : a Series of Popular Lec
tures delivered in the First Baptist Church, Montgomery, Ala. (Eve, Sarah
Rebekah, Rachel, Miriam, Ruth, Deborah, Jephtha's Daughter, Delilah, the Witch
of Endor, Hannah, Abigail, the Queen of Sheba, Jezebel, the Woman of Shunem,
and Esther.) 12mo, pp. viii, 318. New York, 1889.
Wlllett, William M. The Life and Times of Herod the Great, as Connected Histor
ically and Prophetically with the Coming of Christ. 12mo, pp. x, 384. Phila
delphia, 1860.
Wiseman, Luke H. Men of Faith; or, Sketches from the Book of Judges. Svo.
London, 1870.

SECTION HL
THE LIFE OF CHRIST.
J. Oh. Doederleln, De hist. J. tenendse tradenseque necessitate ac mode, Progrr. 1-lv, Jena,
1783-88 (also In the Opusc. theol., Jena, 1789). On the different tendencies in harmony with
whicti, and for which, the biographer of Jesus may labor, comp. Bertholdt's Krit. Journal,
vol. V (1816), No. i, pp. 235-245. Comp. infra, ttie American Literature on the Life of Jesus.
The life of Christ, as the Son of God, is to be regarded as the
central glory of Scripture history, in which all the rays chrisfs life the
of former historical manifestations of God are concen- centre of his-
trated, and from which they again radiate, to extend *°''^"
over the whole history of the Church.
Should the life of Christ be regarded as a special branch in the
course of theological science? Should it not, rather, shine forth
from all the other branches ? It results from the exegesis of the
Gospels, stands at the head of Church History, and is the very soul
of apologetics, dogmatics, ethics, and practical theology.' But for
this very reason, it is essential that we gain as satisfactory a view
of this life as possible. This involves grave difiiculties, of course;
for the Gospels do not furnish, as is conceded by the most evangel-
' "The life of Jesus is the central point of a newly rising light for the history of
Christianity." Ammon, Fortbildung d. Christenthums zur Weltrellgion, I, p. 133. "The
life of Jesus reconciles all the interesti of speculation, the religious feeling and his
tory. It presents to our notice a personality, for the possession of which heaven and
earth are in dispute, but which may not be exclusively assigned to either; which con
sists of fragments and elements which are transmitted to us by tradition and docu
mentary records, and which, nevertheless, cannot be made to fit into our moulds;
which is conceived as the type of every human being, and yet appears under circum
stances and in situations such as ours are not now and never can be." Ibid., iv,
p. 277, sq. " The life of Jesus Is a biography which flows out, as does no other, into
a large and extended history of nations and even of the world. It describes an indi
vidual life, but the life of a character who is, antecedently, in the exaltation of his self-
consciousness and in his spiritual might, a symptom of the world's history, and truly a
new stage in the development of the human spirit, and who, in the next place, be-

386 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
ical scholars,' a minute and complete biography, but only memor
abilia (d-no\i,vr][i.oveviiaTa), which, moreover, while partially coinci
dent, yet diverge from each other in their relations and points of
view. John, the most confidential friend of Jesus, said at last :
" There are also many other things which Jesus did, the which, if
they should be written every one, I suppose that even the world it
self could not contain the books that should be written." Hence it
becomes necessary to subject the Gospel narratives to criticism, as a
preliminary measure. Here, again, exegetical and philological crit
icism turns over its work to the investigations of historical criticism.
The former deals only with the authenticity of the Gospel records,
as belonging to the canon, and with their relation to each other,
while the latter inquires into the credibility of the sacred writers
„ ., ... themselves. There is no ground for alarm at such
Negative cntl- o
clam no ground criticism, since, by the judgment of strictly orthodox
or arm. theologians, both these writings and their contents fall
within the range of the same historical criticism to which all his
torical monuments are subject." It may even be admitted that dis
crepancies occur in the Gospels, but that does not necessitate the
conclusion that the Gospel, as a whole, contradicts itself. It would
therefore be, not piety, but frivolous opposition to God's order, to
came, by the labors of a brief career, the creator of a new and higher cosmos, whose
world days are to be reckoned by thousands of years, and are to be measured by the
circumference of the earth." Keim, Gesch. Jesu v. Nazara, I, p. 1, and the passage
from Origen, De princ, 4, 5, quoted there.
' By Hess, for instance, in the Leben Jesu.
'^ Ebrard, Kritik d. evang. Geschichte, i, p. 2 : " It follows, from the nature of the
case, that a photographic picture of the Saviour could not be given at all ; for a per
fect representation of the Saviour in a single picture, was impossible, in view of his
universal character and the unavoidable narrowness with which he would be appre
hended by the consciousness of a single observer, and, consequently, in the representa*
tion of a single writer. The entire Christ could only be presented to view by a number
of descriptive pictures, the whole combined so as to oblige the observer to view them
as a unit., God would not deprive us of this combined view. That is to say, he would
not take from us the personal, scientific reconstruction of his image, upon the basis
of a historical investigation of the several representations of Christ which are con
tained in the New Testament. The application of historical criticism to the Bible is
certainly an infinitely complicated and wearisome task, and one that can ever be only
approximately completed. But much has been gained when the task has been defi
nitely devolved upon, and honestly recognized by, theology, in the spirit of renouncing
all unbelieving fear." Rothe, Zur Dogmatik, p. 808 sg. Comp. also Immer, Die Ge-
schichts-quellen des Lebens Jesu (Lecture at Berne) in the Prot. Vortrage, V, 7, Ber
lin, 1878, p. 28 ; "All research into the sources of the life of Christ can have no other
end than to free the pure and concrete image of Jesus from the scattered traits in
which it is enveloped, without which work tho influence emanating from him, and tn»
results originating with him, are inconceivable."

THE LIFE OF CHRIST. 387
refuse to see this fact, and to seek to avoid such critical labor under
the questionable plea that damage to the Christian faith criticism nec-
must result from such an undertaking. The only essen- ^erstand* the
tial consideration at this point is, that criticism should Gospels.
occupy the proper point of view. In recent times it has been urged
that an entire absence of predisposition is necessary. This is im
possible in any absolute sense, for even they who make this de
mand have prepossessions ; for example, as to the possibility or im
possibility of miracles. But a developed doctrine of Christ (Chris
tology) is not to furnish the rule of procedure, any more than dog
matics may be allowed to govern exegesis.
The life of Jesus is matter for history only in so far as it is defi
nitely human. The unprejudiced study of that life must, and will
of itself, lead to the recognition of its divine element, but it must
not be postulated d priori in dogmatic forniulse, or imposed upon
the history.' The student who makes the life of Jesus an object of
scientific investigation will, nevertheless, enter upon it with a cer
tain amount of preconceptions. He knows what life it is which is to
be studied. But the sacred awe ' with which he enters on his task
can in no way harm historical impartiality; on the contrary, a
spiritual and vivid treatment of any life, as well as that of the
Saviour, is impossible without it.^ It is as impossible to comprehend
' Comp. Hase, Leben Jesu, § 14.
" Comp. the confessions of Lavater and Anna Maria v. Schurmann, in the preface
to Neander's Life of .Jesus. " The life of the Christian," remarks the latter, " is
the best biography of Jesus."
' " The enumeration of outward fortunes in a career is unintelligible and dead with-
" out an apprehension or idea of the individual life itself, from which, as the innermost
point in the life, all externalities may be explained." Hase, Life of Jesus (Bost. ed.),
p. 21. " The self consciousness of Jesus of Nazareth must be clearly before the eyes
of the Christian, as an actual historical fact which is to explain a true philosophy."
Bunsen, Hippolytus, i, p, xliii. " The personality of Jesus stands before us as the con
necting link between two worlds. It stands between the two developments of the old
and the new worlds, not as an effect of the old world, but as its consummation ; not as
V. mere harbinger of the new, but as its enduring type, and as a fountain of life to
mankind through the Spirit." Ibid., Gott in der Gesch., p. 60 ; comp. p. 100. " He
was man. He was neither Jew nor Greek, prince nor priest, rich nor mighty, but.
In contrast with them all, a man. He lived and died for mankind. But for this very
reason he is called, and is the image of, the Son of God, as none other before or
after him. His mortal, finite being had truly become a likeness of God, a divine nature."
" The real centre in the life of Jesus lies in his consciousness. It is, however, by no
means merely the idea of the unity of the divine and human natures that constitutes the
peculiarity of his consciousness, for such an idea was present in a hazy form in both
Plato and Aristotle. It is rather the consciousness of a real union of the Divine and
human natures in his person in absolute energy, so that in this consciousness are united
not only the fulness of the Deity with the fulness of his own inner life, but also the

388 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
the life of the Saviour by refusing to measure it by its own rule, and
to trace each one of its expressions back to our own need of salva
tion, as it is to understand the life of a mother who sacrifices herself
for her children, where the only conception of greatness is that be
longing to conquerors or artists. Something that is immeasurable
will still remain in this unique personality. Besides, while the dis
tinction between a historical and a real Christ is wholly inadmissible
on the plan oi absolutely separating between them, and connecting
them only in outward form, as though by accident, it is yet certain
that when we resolve the life of Jesus into its separate elements,
and follow it step by step, or trace it feature by feature, we often
find ourselves required to supplement, from the idea, matters for
which no definite historical data can be found. However, this
must not be an arbitrary idea, constructed and introduced into
the subject by ourselves, but it is rather one to be gained as
the sum of historical inquiry. As Scripture explains Scripture,
The lite of Je- ®° *^°^® *^^ ^'^^ '^^ Jesus as a whole explain the
susitaownex- separate features in that life. The life of Jesus con-
p na on. tains its own measure — the absolute measure of the
Deity glorifying itself in human nature. The attributes which
constitute the peculiar character of Christ are not, therefore, to be
at once excluded from the range of historical inquiry as transcend
ing the bounds of human conditions, and impossible, but must be
taken into account in the development of his humanity. Unless
this be done, the picture will crumble in our hands, and we shall
obtain only an inadequate and Ebionitic fragment, instead of a
thoroughly human and really historical portrait. We cannot, and
should not, remove the picture of Christ from the golden canvas
upon which it has been painted, not by the fancy of men, but by
the finger of God, even though we attempt to follow the lines of
the drawing by historical methods, and seek to arrange them, so
Spiritual sym- far as may be possible, by the application of critical
rf*for°co^ect processes. In this work the critical effort to combine
criticism. must be aided by the insight which belongs to the con
genial spirit of a religious disposition.
entire dealing of God with the entire history of his being, yea, the Deity with human
ity.'' J. P. Lange, Gesch. d. Kirche, i, p. 349. Comp. Kliefoth, Einl. in d. Dogmen-
gesch., p. 39. Karl Ritter has also expressed himself well in opposition to an un-
spiritual and atomistic treatment of the life of Jesus ; " His entire life lies open and
clear before us like a charming landscape, with no cloud to interrupt the rays of light,
which, without the tedious explanations of an uninvited guide, we comprehend with
sacred joy at every step, upon which we stroll in pleasure, and the heart bounds with
exalted premonitions. This place soon becomes our home, and upon it we could desire
to live in joy and sadness until we die." Lebensbild von Kramer, vol. i, p. 282 sq.

THE LIFE OF CHRIST. 380
The portrait of Christ as outlined in the New Testament writings
was compared, even before a mythical interpretation was thought
of, to a torso, upon which the imagination of successive centuries
has wrought its improvements.' The comparison is unjust, inas
much as the torso lacks the essential feature, the countenance ; and
it is precisely the countenance that shines forth in the Gospels,
with genuinely human lineaments, from the surrounding glory of
the Deity, while the complete outlining of the members of the
body, as with paintings of the old German school, is either want
ing, or at least leaves much to be desired in the drawing. But the
case is here as it is with every other human and historical counte
nance, which differs greatly in accordance with the different points
of view from which we regard it, or with the light in which differ
ent painters apprehend it. Christ seemed different to Differentviews
the world of the Middle Ages from what he does to the »' cubist.
world of our time. Zinzendorf, Herder, Schleiermacher, and others,
each, in his own way, arrived at a different conception of him.
This, however, need by no means frighten us from attempting to
solve the problem, nor force us to accept the alternative of " either
investing the Jewish Messiah with all the attributes which the the
ology of the Jews ascribes to him, or of furnishing a natural history
of the Prophet of Nazareth, such as Venturini wrote." " For both
are caricatures, the original for which is yet, even approximately,
to be discovered. Still less are we authorized to dispense with any
historical Christ, and to search for the Redeemer of the ...
1111-1 ¦ r Absurdity ol
world solely in the region of myths, on the ground that the mythical
some things cannot be explained and fitted with cer- ^^^'"'^¦
tainty into the framework of history. This would be to render
the inexplicable yet more inexplicable, since Christianity without a
historical Christ would remain an incomprehensible riddle, and the
Church of Christ a historical monstrosity. The proper course is,
while making use of historical criticism, with other agencies, "to
have confidence in God and in the truth, which is much nearer to
us than we think, and cheerfully expect that assured and certain
results will, in the end, be realized through such investigations." '
'Kahler, Supranaturalismus und Rationalismus, p. 117.
'¦' See Rohr's Krit. Predigcrbibl., vol. 18, No. 1, p. 13. Comp. Briefe uber den Rsr
tionalismus, p. 26 sgg.
^ Ammon, supra, i, p. 136.
19

390 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
SECTION IV.
HISTORY OF THE BIOGBAPHIES OF JEStTS.
Biographical effort began in the early centuries with an external
collocation of sources, ' and this method continued to be employed
down to Bengel. The productions of the Middle Ages were " with
out criticism, fantastic, and legendary, and consisted chiefly in works
for entertainment and devotion." " The old Saxon harmony of the
Gospels, entitled "Heliand," is, however, of great importance for
the history of civilization and literature,' and with this should be
compared that of the Weissenburg monk, Otfr|ed, of the ninth
century." In other regards, " the life of Christ was represented in
the 'passion-plays' in the most literal sense, through the aid of
sculpture, painting, and the dramatic art."^ The dogmatic ele
ment still predominated after the Reformation. It was not until
after the Thirty Years' War that " the manifestation of Christ was
intensely studied 'for its own sake." The theology of Herrnhut
forms the leading agency in this "worship of Jesus," which now
began to be manifested in hymns and prayers. People became ac
customed to regard Jesus as the concrete God, sometimes irrespect
ively of his relation to the Trinity, and his history was a history
of God, in which character it yielded Klopstock the material for
epical treatment. Rational reflection, which felt itself called to
consider the human element iii a human point of view, asserted its
claim in opposition to this undeniably monophysite tendency.
The attack by the Wolfenbiittel Fragmentist, in nil and the fol
lowing years, forced apologetics into this human method of appre
hending the psychology of Jesus and of estimating the moral bear
ings of his plan. The critical and pragmatical treatment of the
life of Christ dates, accordingly, from this time ; that is, from the
time modern ideas became established. This method has resulted
X.. . T in making of the life of Jesus a subordinate branch of
Life of Jesua a <=' j j x,
separate his- theological study, SO that what is now under.stood by
torical study, ^j^^^^ phrase is certainly a " modern idea." ' Foremost in
this period were the apologetic and somewhat rational representa-
' Monotessaron, Harlnpnia, Synojteis. Comp. Hase, Life of Jesus, p. 20. ' Jbid.
'Editions of Hayne (2d ed.), Paderborn, 1S7S, and Sievers, Halle, 1878. Trans
lated by Simrock, 2d ed., Elberfeld, 1866; and-by Grein, Cassel, 1869.
*The "Christ," edited by Kelle, Ratisbon, 1856-59, 2 vols. Translated by the
same, Prague, 1870.
' Rosenkranz, Leben Hegels, p. 60.
* Strauss, Leben Jesu fiirs Volk, 1864, p. 1.

HISTORY OP THE BIOGRAPHIES OF JESUS. 391
tions of Reinhard and Hess.' The divine was separated from the
human, so far as was possible, and attention was called to the dif
ference between the Johannean view and that of the synoptics.
Herder, for instance, viewed the life of the " Son of God " and of
the " Son of Man " in accordance with these two distinct points of
view. There was no lack of coarse reactions, however, in connexion
with the humanizing process, and rude hands tore away the tender
screen which had preserved the picture of the Lord from being
profaned. "Natural histories of the Prophet of Nazareth" were
published by Bahrdt, Venturini, and, later, by Langs- p^^^^j^ ^.
dorf, and it became a favorite employment to draw tween Christ
parallels between Socrates and Christ, often to the dis
advantage of the latter. This, certainly, grew out of an utter mis
understanding of the personality of either. Others, like Paulus
and Greiling, acting from good intentions, sought to eliminate the
miraculous from the life of Jesus, in order to recommend him as a
wise and humane teacher to a conceited age that was inclined to
make a mock of him. The later theology, beginning with Schleier
macher, again took up the ideal element in Christ, and sought to
prove it in his historical manifestation. Schleiermacher himself, in
this spirit, but with independent criticism, in 1819, and again in
1832, delivered lectures on the life of Christ. These lectures were
not published until their author had been dead thirty years, but
they were nevertheless timely, though no longer adequate to com
plete the argument in all its details. Hase proceeded in a method
similar to that of Schleiermacher, in prosecuting the task of show
ing " how by divine appointment, through the free act of his spirit
and the interference of his age, Jesus of Nazareth became the
Redeemer of the world."
These various attempts were at once neutralized by Strauss, who
cut the knot with the sword, not, indeed, by denying strauss' Lif e of
that a Jesus had lived, but by reducing his historical ¦'^^"*-
existence almost to a historical nullity, since he recognized in the
Gospel records only a mythical expression of ideas, unconsciously
and innocently invented by the infant community of Christians, as
influenced by the extant prophecies of the Old Covenant. This
work was designed to preserve the poetically speculative truth of
the ideal Christ, but its tendency was to dissolve him into air, like
an unsubstantial image in the clouds. The hypothesis of Strauss
' See the titles of the works below, and comp. Hase, supra, and Ammon, Fortbild
ung d. Christenthums zur Weltrellgion, vol. iv, p. 166 sgg. It is remarkable that
Hess received the impulse to treat tbe life of Jesus from Hiddletou's Biography of
Cicero.

393 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
was modified by Weisse, ' who sought to discover the mystery of
the life of Jesus, in part, by introducing the higher biology of mag
netism, and other factors, but rejected, on the mythical hypoth
esis, what could not be forced into this magic circle. Bruno Bauer,
finally, passed beyond Strauss, claiming to find not harmless poetry,
but designed inventions, in the descriptions of the evangelists.
The Jew, Salvador, regarded the life of Jesus from the standpoint
oi modern Jewish enlightenment, but retained the historical per
sonality of Jesus, reducing it, of course, to that of a simple Jewish
reformer and demagogue.
All of these negative efforts resulted simply in a more thorough
investigation of the subject under discussion. Not only were num
berless works issued in reply to Strauss, but the life of Jesus itself
was studied with a universal breadth of inquiry that could only be
productive of gain to science, even though inquirers occupied very
diverse points of view, and were influenced by very various pre
possessions." We refer also to the Dutch works of Meijboom, Van
Oosterzee, and others. Bunsen announced, prospectively, a new
" Life of Jesus," but it never appeared." Ewald's History of Israel,
on the other hand, entered on the life of Jesus with the fifth volume,
the author expressly designating it the " Life of Christ," and treat
ing it as such, making use of independent criticism upon details,
but preserving the sacred contents as a whole. This has influenced
the character of his representations also, in which Strauss was un
able to find more than a " deafening volume of words and phrases."
Riggenbach's lectures present the portrait of the " Lord Jesus " in
a simple manner, their tendency being apologetic, and harmonizing,
combined, however, with the steady aim to do justice to the ques
tions raised by science by a thorough examination of details.
A period of cessation and quietude now seemed to open, which
itenan. was suddenly disturbed by the publication of the Life
of Jesus by Renan, in France, through which an agitation was pro
duced that equaled the one caused by Strauss thirty years before.
Numerous editions and translations have placed it upon the same
level with the most recent productions of the lighter literature of
France for the great world of readers, which it is designed to
reach. The science of Germany could not rest satisfied with the
' " The numerous lives of Jesus of the better class represent a new dedication of the
theological temple, which, it is to be hoped, will not speedily be brought to a close. . . •
But it will be necessary to remain patient if the variegated merchandise of ordered
or fabricated works connects itself with the dedication." J. P. Lange, Pref. to Leben
Jesu, pp. iii, iv.
" Preface to Hippolytus, p. xlix.

HISTORY OF THE BIOGRAPHIES OF JESUS. 293
work, though in it the learning of the Orientalist vied with the cap
tivating rhetoric of the fine writer to warp the judgment of senti
mental amateurs. Schenkel, who had expressed the opinion that
the great theme could only be adequately treated upon German soil,
now came to the front with his Character of Jesus Portrayed,
which had been in preparation during an extended period. Simul
taneously with this work Strauss published, not a new edition of
his former work, but a new revision, adapted for the people. In
this, as in the other work, the criticism of sources comes into play,
combined with the appropriation of the negative results obtained
by other laborers in this field. An enormous number of replies
and treatises in opposition to the works of Strauss, Schenkel, and
Kenan were written by scholars in both the Roman Catholic and
Protestant communions; so that we again stand in the midst of a
crisis, which was introduced by those works. How far we are from
having reached the end may be seen from the fact that the opin
ions of the latest writers are entirely diverse upon the question of
the early character of sources (the original Matthew and Mark);
but it may be said, in the meantime, " In magnis voluisse sat est."
Time must show to what extent the work' by Keira, which is now
concluded, will have contributed to the advancement ofthe inquiry.
It has, at any rate, taken an important step toward the goal for
which the efforts of science were directed from the vantage ground
secured by its former progress. But when shall the time come
that the Church, no longer being in conflict with the results ob
tained by science, but rather delivered from prejudice thereby,
shall see the face of the Lord in its purity and its greatness, in the
combined historical dignity and divine glory, which are not be
stowed on him by us, but wliich are his from the beginning and are
secured to him for all eternity ?
ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE.
I. LIFE OP CHKIST.
1. General.
Abbott, Lyman. A Life of Christ Pounded on the Pour Gospels and Illustrated by
Reference to the Manners, Customs, Religious Beliefs, and Political Institutions
of His Times. 12mo, pp. 3.54. New York, 1882.
Anderson, John. The Life of Christ From the Cradle to the Cross, in which the
Words and Works of Our Lord are Considered in Connection with Time and
Place. Svo. London, 1874.
Andrews, Samuel J. The Life of Our Lord Upon the Earth; Considered in its His
torical, Chronological, and Geographical Relations. Svo, pp. 624. New York,
1862. (A list of the works cited is given. A new and wholly revised edition
appeared in 1891.) Svo, pp. xxvii, 651.
Beecher, Henry Ward. The Life of Jesus Christ. 2 vols., Svo, pp. 510,  . New

394 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
York, 187 1, 1890. (Vol. II appeared after Mr. Beecher's death. Only eight chap
ters were completed. The Life is fiuished by a selection from the sermons of
the author.)
Blunt, Henry. Lectures Upon the History of Our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ.
3 vols., 12mo, pp. 293, 307, 249. London, 1835. Same, 1 vol., 12mo, pp. 360.
Philadelphia, 1857.
Bonaventure, St. The Life of Our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ. With the Life
of the Author, taken from tlie Rev. Alban Butler's Lives of the Saints. 12mo,
pp.312. Dublin, 1840. (A Roman Catholic Life.)
Clark, M. B. Sterling. The Scripture History of Our Blessed Lord and Saviour Jesus
Christ. Arranged to Illustrate His Divinity, .Doctrine, and Mission. 16mo, pp.
135. New York, 1860.
Clarke, James Freeman. Life and Times of Jesus as Related by Thomas DIdymus.
New edition. 12mo, pp. 13, 448. Boston, 1887. (The first edition appeared
In 1881.)
Clodd, Edward. Jesus of Nazareth : Embracing a Sketcli of Jewish History to the
Time of His Birth. 12mo, pp. 380. London, 1880.
Conder, E. R. Outlines of the Life of Christ : A Guide to the Study of the Chronol
ogy, Harmony, and Purpose of llie Gospels. ]2mo. London, 1881.
Crosby, Howard. Jesus : His Life and Work as Narrated by the Four Evangelists,
Svo, pp. 551. New York, 1871.
Deems, C. P. Jesus. Svo, pp. 756. New York, 1868. (Popular.)
Delapryme, Charles. The Life of Christ. An Eclectic Gospel from tlie Old and New
Testaments, Arranged on a New Principle wilh Analytical Tables. Second
edition. Svo, pp. 215. London, 1SG5.
De Pressense, E. Jesus Christ : His Times, Life, and Work. Svo, pp. 560. Lon
don, 1866. (Indirectly a reply to Renan.)
De Pressense, E. The Redeemer: A Sketch of the History of Redemption. Trans
lated from the second edition by Rev. J. H. Meyers. 12mo, pp. 412. New
York, 1867.
Drew, G. S. The Son of Man : His Life and Ministry. Svo. London, 1875.
Eddy, Zachary. Immanuel; or. The Life of Jesus Christ Our Lord from His Incar
nation to His Ascension.' Introduction by R. S. Storrs, Jr. Svo, pp. 756.
Springfield, 1871. (Popular.)
Edersheim, Alfred. Jesus the Messiah. An Abridged Edition of " The Life and
Times of Jesus the Messiah." Svo, pp. 645. New York, 1890.
Edersheim, Alfred. The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah. 2 vols., Svo, pp.
xxxi, 695, 822. London and New York, 1884. (Rich In its illustrations from
the author's stores of rabbinical learning.)
Ellicott, 0. J. Historical Lectures on the Life of Our Lord Jesus Christ; being tlie
Hnlsean Lectures for the Year 1859, with Notes Critical, Historical, and Explan
atory. Svo, pp. 382. Boston, 1862.
Ewald, H. The Life of Christ. Edited by Octavlns Glover. Svo. Edinburgh, 1873.
(This is the fifth volume of the History of the People of Israel.)
Fairbairn, A. M. Studies in the Life of Christ. 12mo, pp. 359. New York, 1882.
(The author calls them in the preface " attempts at orientation.")
Farrar, P. W. The Life of Christ. 2 vols., Svo, pp. 480, 616. New York, 1874.
(Many subsequent editions have appeared, both in this form and in one volume.
Popular in its style.)
Fleetwood, John. The Life of Our Blessed Lord and Saviour .lesus Christ, and the
Lives and Sufferings of his Holy Evangelists and Apostles. With an Introdnc-

HISTORY OF THE BIOGRAPHIES OF JESUS. 395
tion to the American Edition. Svo, pp. 541. Philadelphia, 1863. (This is a
coudensed edition.)
Furness, W. H. Jesus. 12mo, pp. 223. Philadelphia, 1871. (Designed for popular
use.)
Gelkie, Cunningham. The Life and Words of Christ. 2 vols, in one. Svo, pp. 670.
New York, 1891.
(Jreg, Samuel. Scenes From the Life of Jesus. Sec'ond edition. Svo. London,
1869.
Gurney, Augustus. The Home Life of J(!sus of Nazareth. 12mo, pp, 200. London,
1871.
Hamilton, James. Lessons from the Great Biography. 12mo, pp. 319. New York,
1857. (Begins with the preexistcuce of Christ.)
Haiiiia, William. Our Lord's Life on Earth. 6 vols., 12uio. New York, 1870.
(Popular.)
Hase, Carl. Lite of Jesus. A Manual for Academic Study. Translated from the
German of llie Third and Fourth Improved Editions by .lames Freeman Clarke.
12mo, pp. 267. Boston,, 1860. (Quite a bibliography of German and English
works appears at the end of the book.)
Hawels, H. R. The Picture of Jesus the Master-. 12mo, pp. 271. New York,
1886.
Haygood, A. G. The Man of Galilee. 12ino, pp. 156. New York, 1890. (Dis
cusses and answers the mythical theory in a popular way.)
Johnstone, J. Boston. The Life of Jesus Christ. Arranged from the Four Gospels
into Cue Connected Narrative, with Chronological and Biographical Notes. Svo.
London, 1875.
Jones, Joel. Jesus and the Coming Glory. Svo, pp. 584. Philadelphia, 1865.
Keim, Theodore. The History of Jesus of Nazara, Considered in its Connection
with the National Life of Israel, and Related in Detail. Translated. Vol. I.
Svo, pp. 386. London, 1873.
Kirke, Edmund. The Life of .Tesiis According to His Original Biographers. With
, Notes. Second edition, revised. 12mo, pp. 297. Boston, 1871.
Krebs, J. M. The Private, Domestic, and Social Life of Christ. 32mo. Philadelphia,
1849.
Lange, J. P. The Life of the Lord Jesus Christ. A Complete Critical Examination
of tho Origin, Contents, and Connection. of the Gospels. Edited with Additional
Notes by the Rev. Marcus Dods. 6 vols., Svo, pp. 437, 449, 490, 434, 432, 487.
Edinburgh, 1864. A new edition. 4 vols., Svo. Philadelphia, 1864.
Malleson, F. A. Jesus Christ: His Life and Work. 12mo, pp. xii, 375. London,
1880.
Mercier, L. Outlines of the Life of Our Lord Jesus Christ. 2 vols., Svo. London,
1875.
Naville, Ernest. The Christ. Seven Lectures. Translated by T. J. Despres. 12mo,
pp. 247. Edinburgh, 1880.
Neander, Augustus. The Life of Jesus Christ in its Historical Connection and His
torical Development. Translated from the Fourth German Editiou by John
McClintock and Charles E. Blumenthal. Third edition. Svo, pp. 450. New
York, 1851. (Designed as an answer to the mythical view of Strauss.)
NIeoll, W. R. The Incarnate Saviour: A Life of Jesus Christ. 12mo, pp. 388.
Edinburgh, 1881. *"
Patton, W. Jesus of Nazareth: Who Was He, and What Is He Now? 12mo, pp.
320. New York, 1879.

396 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
Plumptre, E. H. Chiist and Chrlstendo-n. The Boyle Lectures for 1866. Svo, pp.
378. London, 1867.
Reid, John. Clirist and His Religion, l^rac, pp. 331. New York, 1892.
Renan, Ernest. Life of Jesus. Translated by E. Wilbour. 12mo, pp. 376. New
York, 1870. (An arbitrary reconstruction of the historical material.)
Row, C. A. The Jesus of the Evangelists : His Historical Character Vindicated.
London, 1868 ; also New York.
Salmoud, G. Life of Christ. 16mo, pp. 107. New York, 1888.
Sanderson, Joseph. Jesus on the Holy Mount. 12mo, pp. 278. New York, 1869-
(The Transfiguration and Its lessons.)
Schaff, Dr. P., and M. Napoleon Roussel Tho Romance of M. Renan and the Christ
of the Go.<pels. Three Essays. 12mo, pp. 239. New York, 1868. (Designed
as replies to Renan.)
Southgate, Henry. Chrlstus Redemptor ; being the Life, Character, aud Teachings
of Our Lord. Illustrated in Many Passages from the Writings of Ancient and
Modern Authors. 4to. London, 1875.
Stalker, James. The Life of Jesus Christ. New and revised edition. 12mo, pp.
16ff. New York, 1891. (Brief, analytical, and helpful.)
Strauss, D. P. The Life of Jesus for the People. Authorized Translation. Second
edition. 2 fols., Svo, pp. xxll, 440, iv, 439. London, 1879.
Strauss, David Friedrich. A New Life of Jesus. 2 vols., Svo, pp. 440, 439. Lon
don, 1865.
Taylor, Jeremy. Life of Our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ. A Revised Edition,
with Notes by the Rev. Robert Philip ; also the Lives, Acts, and Martyrdoms
of the Holy Apostles of Our Saviour, to which are added Lives of the Two
Evangelists St. Mark and St. Luke by William Cave. 4to, pp. 705. London, 1840.
Vallings, J. P. Jesus Christ the Divine Man: His Life and Times. ]2mo, pp. 226.
New York, 1891. (Men of the Bible Series.)
Ware, Henry, Jiin. The Life of the Saviour. Tenth edition. ]6mo, pp. 272
Boston, 1850.
Weiss, Bernhard. The Life of Christ. Translated by M. G. Hope. 3 vols., Svo, pp,
393, 403, 428. Edinburgh, 1 884.
Wickes, Thomas. The Son of Man. 12mo, pp. 382. New York, 1868. (A brief,
simple narrative.)
Wright, Paul. The New and CompleteLlfe of Our Blessed Lord and Saviour Jesus
Christ, that Great Example as well as Saviour of Mankind. 2 vols., Svo, pp.
480, 498. Trenton, 1810. The same, 1 vol., 4to, pp. 385, Schenectady, 1814,
and other editions. (The work of an English Churchman.)
Wyld, G. Life, Teaching, and Works of tho Lord Jesus Christ. Second edition.
Svo. London, ISSS.
Wynne, F. R. Fragmentary Records of Jesus of Nazareth. 12mo, pp. 142. Lon-
• don, 1888. (An examination of the New Testament records.)
2. Devotional.
Balferii, W. P. Glimpses of Jesus; or, Christ Exalted in the Affections of His
People. From the Second London Edition. 12mo, pp. 259. New York, 1861;
also Lessons from Jesus. 12mo. London, 1872.
Battersby, Charles. The Gift of the Father; or, Thoughts for the Weary. ISmo,
pp. 122. New York, 1867. t>
Bonar, A. A. The Gospel Pointing to the Person of Christ. 16mo, pp. 155. New
York, 1878.

HISTORY OF THE BIOGRAPHIES OF JESUS. 397
Cave, Harriet. Stories of Christ the Lord, with Illustrations. 12mo, pp. 114. New
York. (Designed for the young.)
Cutts, E. L. A Devotional Life of Our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ. 12mo, pp.
7, 563. New York, 1882. (A series of studies.)
Griswold, Rufus W., editor. The Life of the Saviour, by the Poets and Painters.
12mo, pp. 240. Philadelphia, 1845.
Hall, Joseph. Contemplations upon the Remarkable Passages in the Life of the
Holy Jesus. 4to. London, 1680.
Lowrie, J. M. A Week with Jesus ; or. Lessons Learned in His Company. 12mo,
pp. 360. Philadelphia, 1866.
Owen, John. Person and Glory of Christ, with the Author's Life, by A. Thompson.
Svo, pp. 494. New York, 1852.
Welles, Albert. The Life of Jesus the Messiah. A Sacred Poem. Illustrated. 4to,
•pp. SS. New York, 1874. Another in 4to. New York, 1875. Not paged.
Wesley, Samuel. The Life of Our Blessed Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ. An
Heroic Poem. In ten books, with sixty copper plates. 4to, pp. 349. London,
1693.
Winslow, Octavius. Emmanuel; or. The Titles of Christ, Their Teaching and Con
solation. ISmo. Philadelphia, 1869.
II. THE PERSON OF CHRIST.
1. General.
Bruce, Alexander B. The Humiliation of Christ in its Physical, Ethical, and OEncial
Aspects. The Sixth Series of the Cunningham Lectures. Second editiou. Svo,
pp. 457. New York, 1892. (Has an especially fine treatment of the Kenosis.)
Dorner, James. History of the Development of the Doctrine of the Person of Christ.
Translated by W. L. Alexander, with Notes by D. W. Simon. 5 vols., Svo, pp.
467, 544, 456, 462, 502. Edinburgli, 1863. (The standard work on the subject.)
Glover, 0. Doctrine of the Person of Christ : an Historical Sketch. Svo. London,
1875.
Goodwin, H. M. Christ and Humanity, with a Review, Historical and Critical, of the
Doctrine of Christ's Person. Svo. London, 1875.
Plumer, W. S. The Rock of Our Salvation : a Treatise Respecting the Nature, Person,
Office, Work, Sufferings, and Glory of Jesus Christ. 12mo, pp. 519. New York,
1867.
Pope, W. B. The Person of Christ. The Fernley Lecture for 1871. Svo, pp. 168.
London, 1871.
Schaff, Philip. The Person of Christ the Miracle of History, with a Reply to Strauss
and Renan, and a Collection of Testimonies of Unbelievers. 12mo, pp. 375.
New York, 1866.
Scott, W. A. The Christ ofthe Apostles' Creed; the Voice of the Church Against
Arianism, Strauss, and Renan, with an Appendix. Svo, pp. 432. New York,
1867.
Smith, John Pye. The Scripture Testimony to the Messiah. An Inquiry, witli a view
to the Satisfactory Determination of the Doctrine Taught in the Holy Scriptures
Concerning the Person of Christ, etc. 2 vols, in three. Svo, pp. 472, 810.
London, ISIS.
Van Oosterzee, J. J. The Image of Christ as Presented In the Scripture. An In
quiry Concerning the Person and Work of the Redeemer. Translated by Rev.
M. J. Evans. Svo. London, 1875.

398 HISTORICAL THEOEOGY.
2. Tlie Hiimanity of Christ.
Chadwick, John While. The Man Jesus. A Cbiirse of Lectures. 12mo, pp. 258.
Boston, 1881. (Unitarian.)
Crooker, Jos. H. Jesus Brought Buck : Meditations on the Probk-ni of Problems.
16mo, pp. 3, 214. Chicago, 1888. (Unitarian.)
Ecce Homo : A Survey of the Life and Work of Jesus Christ. 12iiio, pp. xiv, 355.
Boston, 1870. (Said to be written by Professor J. R. Seeley.)
Gladstone, W. E. Ecce Homo. 12rao, pp. 201. London, 1868. (A review and
criticism.)
Logan, A. S. Jesus in Modern Life. 1 2mo, pp. 299. Philadelphia, 1888. (From
the standpoint of Renan and Strauss.)
3. The Divinity of Christ.
Abaddle, Jas. The Deity of Jesus Christ Essential to the Christian Religion. A
Treatise on the Divinity of Our Lord Jesus Christ. Revised by Abraham Booth.
]6mo, pp. 336. London.
Burton, Edward. Testimonies of the Ante-Nicene Fathers to the Divinity of Christ.
Secoud edition, with Considerable Additions. Svo, pp. 489. Oxford, 1829. (The
work of a great scholar.)
Buslinell, Horace. God In Clirist. Three Discourses Delivered at New Haven,
Cambridge, and Andover, with a Preliminary Dissertation on Language. 12mo,
pp.356. Hartford, 1849. (The Second Discourse is upon tlie divinity of Christ,
and is an attempt to reconcile Unitarianism and orthodoxy. This book was
much discussed upon Its first appearance.)
Cowell, Benjamin. The Deity of Christ Proved by Several Hundred Texts of Holy
Scrlp'ture: Collected, Compared, and Arranged ih a Familiar Manner, by a Pres.
byter of the Church of England. First American from the Second London
Edition. With a Preface, Notes, and Appendix. 16mo, pp. 159. Providence,
1833. (The first edition appeared in 1712, the second in 1729.)
Ecce Deus. Essays on the Life and Doctrine of Jesus Christ ; with Controversial
Notes on " Ecce Homo.'' 12mo, pp. 363. Boston, 1867. (Written by Joseph
Parker, of London.)
Fletcher, J. A Rational Vindication of the Catholic Faith ; being the First Part of
a Vindication of Christ's Divinity. Inscribed to ilie Rev. Dr. Priestley. Left
Imperfect by the Author, and now Revised and Finished at Mrs. Fletcher's Re
quest, by Joseph Benson. I2mo, pp. 222. Hull, 1788.
Hindmarsh, Robert. A Seal Upon the Lips of Unitarians, Trinitarians, and All
Others who Refuse to Acknowledge the Sole, Supreme, and Exclusive Divinity
of Our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ. Containing Illusi rations of One Hun
dred and Forty-four Passages in the Four Evangelists and the Apocalypse, in
Proof that Jesus Christ is the Supreme and Only God of Heaven and Earth.
12mo, pp. 335. Boston, 1859,
Holden, ^George. The Scripture Testimonies to the Divinity of Our Lord Jesus
Christ Collected and Illustrated. Svo, pp. 460. London, 1820.
Liddon, Henry P. The Divinity of Our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ. Svo, pp,
776. London, 1867. Bampton Lectures for 1866. (A standard work on the
subject.)
Parson,», Theophilus. Deus Homo, God-man. Fourth edition. 12mo, pp. 466.
Philacfelphia, 1870.
Simpson, Davis. A Plea for the Deity of .Tesus and the Doctrine of the Divinity;
being a Chronological View of What is Related Concerning the Person of Clirist,

HISTORY OF THE BIOGRAPHIES OP JESUS. 399
etc. With a Memoir of the Author and the Spirit of Modern Socinianism Exem
plified, by Edward Parsons. Svo, pp. 612. London, 1812.
TurnbuU, Robert. Theophany ; or. The Manifestation of God in the Life, Character,
and Mission of Jesus Clirist. 12mo, pp. 239. Hartford, 1849. (Part II, Chapter
il, discusses the divinity of Clirist).
Waterland, Daniel. A Vindication of Christ's Divinity ; being a Defense of Some
Queries Relating to Dr. Clarke's Scheme of the Holy Trinity In Answer to a
Clergyman in the Country. 3d ed. 12mo, pp. 494. London, 1720. (Waterland
leads the great host of English defenders of Christ's divinity.)
Week-s, Robert D. Jehovah-Jesus : The Oneness of God ; the True Trinity. 1 2mo,
pp. 140. New York, 1876. (Argues that the Son is identical with the Father
and the Holy Ghost.) 4. Personal Appearance of Christ.
Heaphy, T. The Likeness of Christ; being an Inquiry into the Verisimilitude of the
Received Likeness of Our Blessed Lord. Edited by Wylle Bayliss. 4to.
New York, 1886.
III. CHRIST AS EVIDENCE OF THE TRUTH OF HIS RELIGION.
Alexander, W. L. Christ and Christianity : a Vindication of the Divine Authority
of the Christian Religion Grounded on the Historical Verity of the LIfd of
Christ. 12mo, pp. 314. New York, 1864. (Part II, chapter I, is an argument
from the personal character of Christ as presented by the evangelists.)
Bayne, Peter. The Testimony of Christ to Christianity. 12mo, pp. 200. Boston,
1862.
Cairns, John. Christ the Central Evidence of Christianity. New York, 1883.
Sadler, M. F. Emmanuel ; or. The Incarnation of the Son of God the Foundation of
Immutable Truth. Svo, pp. 434. London, 1867.
Saint-Martin, Menard. A Defense of Jesus Christ. Translated by Paul Cobden.
12mo, pp. 182. Cincinnati, 1868.
Ullmann, 0. The Sinlessness of Jesus an Evidence for Christianity. Translated
from the Sixth German Edition. 12mo, pp. 323. Edinburgh, 1858. (The best
work on the subject.) IV. THE CHARACTER OF CHRIST.
Bernard, H. N. The Mental Characteristics of the Lord Jesus Christ. 12mo, pp, x,
314. New York, 1888.
Broadus, John A. Jesus of Nazaretli. Three Lectures Before the Young Men's
Christian Association of Johns Hopkins University In Levering Hall. 3d ed.
12mo, pp. 105. New York, 1890. (Chapter i is on " His Personal Character.")
Bushnell, Horace. The Character of Jesus. ]2mo. New York, 1888. (Frora^
" Nature and the Supernatural.")
Gulzot, M. Meditations on the Essence of Christianity. Translated from the
French. 12mo, pp. 356. New York, 1865. (The title of Meditation viii is
"Jesus Christ According to the Gospel.'')
Hughes, Thomas. The Manliness of Christ. 12mo. London, 1879; Boston, 1880.
(A suggestive essay.)
Jesus, His Opinions and Character. The New Testament Studies of a Layman.
12mo, pp. viii, 471. Boston, 1883.
Lefroy, William. Pleadings for Christ; being Sermons, Doctrinal and Practical.

300 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
12mo, pp. 386. London, 1878. (Sermon xxii is on " The Divine Manliness of
Jesus.")
Macduff, J. R. The Mind and Words of Jesus. 16mo, pp. 126. New York, 1876.
Meredith, E. P. The Prophet of Nazareth; or, A Critical Inquiry into the Pro
phetic, Intellectual, and Moral Character of Jesus Christ, e o. London, 1864.
Plumer, W. S. The Person and Sinless Character of Our Lord Jesus Christ. 12mo
pp. 127. New York, 1676.
Schenkel, Daniel. The Character of Jesus Portrayed. A Biblical Essay. With an
Appendix. Translated from the Third German Edition, with Introdnction and
Notes, by W. H. Furness. 2 vols., 12mo, pp. 2'79, 359. Boston,- 1866.
Swinney, J. Oswald. The Second Adam ; or, God's Ideal of Man, Manifested in the
Being, Character, Life, and Death of the Son of Mary, Who is Made Potent in
God's Hand for the Recovery of the Race. 16mo, pp. 151. St. Louis, 1879.
(Chapter vi treats of the character of Christ.)
Winslow, Octavius. The Sympathy of Christ with Man: Its Teaching and Its Con
solation. 12mo, pp. 426. New York, 1870.
Young, John. The Christ of History : an Argument Grounded in the Facts of His
Life on Earth.; 12mo, pp. 260. New York, 1 855. (Book Third treats of " The
Spiritual Individuality of Christ.")
V. CHRIST AS TEMPTED.
Barrett, George S. The Temptation of Christ. 12mo, pp. 243. London, 1884.
(Treats of the possibility, necessity, reality of the temptations, and then of the
temptations themselves.)
Carter, T. T. The Passion and Temptation of our Lord. A Course of Lectures.
Svo, pp. 132. London, 1863.
Farmer, H. Au Inquiry into the Nature and Design of Christ's Temptation in the
Wilderness. Svo. London, 1761.
Fish, H. C, and Poor, D. W., editors. Select Discourses by Adolphe Monod, Krum
macher, Tholuck, and Julius Miiller. Translated from the French and German
with Biographical Notices, and Dr. Monod's Celebrated Lecture on the Delivery
of Sermons. 12mo, pp. 408. New York, 185S. (Monod and Krummacher dis
cuss the temptation of Christ.)
Goodwin, H. Christ in the Wilderness. Four Sermons Preached before the Uni
versity of Cambridge in the Month of February, 1855. 12mo. London, 1866.
Macleod, N. The Temptation of Our Lord. 16mo. Londnn, 1873.
Mill, W. H. Five Sermons on the Temptation of Christ Our Lord in the Wilderness,
12mo. London, 1875.
Monod, Adolphe. Jesus Tempted in the Wilderness. Three Discourses. 16rao, pp.
117. London, 1854.
Wiseman, Luke H. Christ in the Wilderness ; or. Practical Views of Our Lord's
Temptation. 12mo, pp. 326. London, 1857.
VI. THE WORK AND INFLUENCE OF CHRIST.
1. General.
Bell, W, An Inquiry into the Divine Missions of John the Baptist and Jesus Christ
Svo. London, 1761; 2d ed , Svo, London, 1796.
Blaikie, William G, The Public Ministry and Pastoral Method of Our Lord. 8vo,
pp. V, 347. New York, 1883.

HISTORY OP THE BIOGRAPHIES OP JESUS. 301
Fox, W. J. Christ and Christianity. Sermon on the Mission, Character, and Doc
trine of Jesus of Nazareth. 12mo, pp. 263. Boston, 1833.
Randolph, T. A View of Our Blessed Saviour's Ministry and the Proofs of His
Divine Mission. 2 vols., Svo. Oxford, 1874.
Steane, Edward. The Doctrine of Christ Developed by the Apostles. A Treatise
on the Offices of the Redeemer and the Doxology of the Redeemed. Svo, pp.
461. Edinburgh, 1872.
Stevenson, George. A Treatise on the Offices of Christ. 12mo, pp. 316. Now York,
1838.
Young, John. The Christ of History. See iv. (Book Second, The Work of Christ
Among Men.) 2. Christ as an Example.
k Kempis, Thomas. Imitation of Christ. From the Latin by Payne. With an In
troductory Essay by Thomas Chalmers. Edited by Howard Malcolm. A New
Edition, with the Life of the Author by C. Ullmann, D.D. 12mo, pp. 283.
Boston, 1873. (Over two hundred editions of this work have appeared in the
English tongue.)
Brooks, Arthur. The Life of Christ in the World. Sermons. 12mo, pp. 360. New
York, 1887.
Brooks, Phillips. The Influence of Jesus. The Bohlen Lectures. 1879. 12mo, pp.
274. New York, 1880.
Jones, Harry. The Perfect Man ; or, Jesus an Example of God^y Life. 12mo, pp.
161. Boston, 1869.
Mempriss, Robert. Christ an Example for the Young, as Exhibited in the Gospel
Narrative of the Four Evangelists. Svo. London, 1874.
Stalker, James. Imaj!;o Christi: The Example of Jesus Christ. With an Intro
duction by William M. Taylor. 12mo, pp. 332. New York, 1889.
Turnbull, Robert. Christ In History; or. The Central Power Among Men. 12mo,
pp. 540. Boston, 1854,
Williams (Bishop), John. The World's Witness to Jesus Christ. The Power of
Christianity in Developing Modern Civilization. Bedell Lecture, 1881. ]2mo,
pp. 79. New York, 1882. VII. CHRIST AS TEACHER.
Bascom, John. The Words of Christ as Principles of Personal and Social Growth.
12mo, pp. 220. New York, 1884.
Furness, W. H. The Veil Partly Lifted and Jesus Becoming Visible. 12mo, pp.
301. Boston, 1864. (The last chapter treats of the genesis of the Gospel's and
their credibility.) *
Harris, John. The Great Teacher; Characteristics of Our Lord's Ministry. With an
Introductory Essay, by H. Humphrey. 12mo, pp. 420. Boston, 1843.
King, Wm. Thoughts and Suggestions on the Teaching of Christ. Svo. London,
1875.
Mackintosh, Robert. Christ and the Jewish Law. 12mo, pp. 302. London, 1886.
Mercer, A. G. Christ and His Teachings. Sermon. Svo, pp. iii, 326. New York,
1889.
Newcomb, Wm. Observations on Our Lord's Conduct as a, Divine Instructor, and
on the Excellence of His Mental Character. Svo, pp. 425. London, 1782.
Charieston, 1810. Oxford, 1853.
PItzer, A. W. Christ the Teacher of Men. 12mo, pp. 219. Philadelphia, 1877.

303 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
Power, Philip B. The "I Wills of Chrst;" Being Thoughts Upon Some of the
Passages iu which the Words " I Will " are Used by the Lord Jesus Christ.
12mo, pp. 395. New York, 1863.
Vaughan, Charles J. Chariicterlsiics of Christ's Teaching. Svo. London, 1875.
Walker, A. H. Christ's Christianity; being the Precepts and Doctrines Recorded
in Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, as Taught by Jesus Christ. Analyzed and
Arranged According to Subjects. 12mo, pp. 178. New York. 1882.
VIII. CHRIST AS THE SUBJECT OF PROPHECY.
Alexander, William. The Witness of the Psalms to Christ and Christianity. The
Bampton Lectures for 1876. Svo, pp. 312. London, 1877.
Baron, David. Rays of Messiah's Glory; or, Christ in the Old Testament. 12mo,
pp. 274. London, 1886.
Briggs, Charles A. Messianic Prophecy, the Prediction of the Fulfillment of Re
demption Through the Messiah. A Critical Study of the Messianic Passages of
the Old Testament in the Order of their Development. Svo, pp. 519. New
York, 1886.
Brown, E. Harold. The Fulfillment of the Old Testament Prophecies Relating to
the Messiah In the Person, Character, and Actions of Jesus of Nazareth. Svo,
pp. 113. Cambridge, 1836.
Frey, J. S. C. A Course of Lectures on tho Messiahship of Christ. 12mo, pp. 300.
New York, 1 844.
Gordon, Robert. Christ as Made Known to the Ancient Church; An Exposition of
the Revelation of Divine Grace as Unfolded in the Old Testament Scriptures.
4 vols., pp. 519, 539, 504, 528. Edinburgh, 1854.
Hengstenberg. Christology of the Old Testament and a Commentary on the
Messianic Prediction. Translated from the German by Rev. Theodore Meyer.
Second edition. 4 vols., Svo, pp. 523, 474, 450, 460. Edinburgh, 1863.
Howarth, Henry. Jesus of Nazareth, the Christ of God. Hulsean Lectures, 1837.
12rao, pp. 205. Cambrid<:e, 1837. (Aims to show that Jesus was the Messiah
prophesied of in the Old Testament.)
Kidd, G. B. Christophany. The Doctrine of the Manifestations of the Son of God
Under the Economy of the Old Testament. Edited by Orlando T. Dobbin.
Svo, pp. 833. London, 1852.
Leathes, Stanley. The Religion of the Christ. Its Historic and Literary Develop
ment Considered as an Evidence of its Origin. The Bampton Lectures for 1874.
Svo, pp. 352. London, 1874.
Linton, H. P. Christ in the Old Testament ; or, The Footsteps of the Redeemer as
ReiTealed in Types, In Prophecy, in Sacrifice, and in Personal Manifestation,
from the Creation to His Birth.- Svo. London, 1875.
MacWhorter, Alexander. Yaveh Christ; or. The Memorial Name ; with an Introduc
tory Letter by N. W. Taylor. 16mo,pp.l79. Boston,1857. (.4n attempt lo prove
that the name Yaveh has reference to Christ everywhere in the Old Testament,)
Sohindler, Solomon. Messianic Expectations and Modern Judaism. Introduction
by M. J. Savage. ]2mo, pp. 290. Boston, 1886. (Jewish.)
Smith, R. Payne. Prophecy a Preparation for Clir'.st. Bampton Lectures for 1869.
12mo, pp. 397. Boston, 1870. Svo, pp. 415. London, 1869.
Stanton, V. H. The Jewish and the Christian Messiah. A Study in the Eariiest
History of Christianity. Svo, pp. 399. Edinburgh, 1886. (Gives a brief list of
books on the subject, principally German.)

HISTORY OP THE BIOGRAPHIES OF JESUS. 303
Thompson, W. H. Clirist in the Old Testament. Svo, pp. 477. New York, 1888.
Trench, R. C. Christ the Desire of All Nations; or. The Unconscious Prophecies
of Heathendom. Svo, pp. 123. London, 1846. (Hulsean Lectures for 1846.)
Wlllett, W. M. Messiah. Svo, pp. 442. Boston, 1874.
IX. CHRIST AS KING.
Maurice, Frederick D. The Kingdom of Christ. London. 3 vols., Svo, 1S3S; and
.2 vols., Svo, 1842; also 1 vol., Svo. New York, 1843.
Pinnock, W. H. Christ Our King; His Life and Ministry the Foundation of His
Kingdom and the Ordinances of His Church. Svo, pp. 454. London, 1876.
Ramsay, Wm. Messiah's Reign ; or. The Future Blessedness of the Church and the
World. 12mo, pp. 247. Philadelphia 1857.
Sabin, John E. The Kingship of Jesus. 12mo, pp. 354. London, 1832.
Taylor, D. T. Tlie Voice of the Church on the Coming and Kingdom of the
Redeemer; or, A History of the Doctrine of the Reign of Christ on Earth.
Second edition. 12mo, pp. 4C6. Peacedale, R. I., 1855.
Whately, Richard. The Kingdom of Christ Delineated in T«-o Essays on Our Lord's
Own Account of His Person and the Nature of His Kingdom, and on the Con
stitution, Powers, and Ministry of a Christian Church as Appointed by Himself.
Prom the second London edition, with Additions. I2mo, pp. 298. New York,
1843.
Williams, Solomon. Christ the King and Witness of Truth, and the Nature, Excel
lency, and Extent of His Kingdom as Founded in Truth, and Only Promoted by
It. In Several Discourses. 12mo, pp. 151. Boston, 1744.
X. Christ's passion and last days.
1. Christ's Passion.
Baird, W. The Passion of Jesus ; A Series of Sermons. Svo. Loudon, 1863.
Buddlcom, R. P. Emmanuel on the Cross and in Gethsemane. 12mo, pp. 224.
New York, 1 844.
Charnock, S. Christ Crucified. ISmo. London, 1837.
Cooper, C. D. The Last Days of Our Saviour. The Life of Our Lord from the
Supper in Bethany to His Ascension Into Heaven in Chronological Order and in
the Words ofthe Evangelists. ]6mo, pp. 105. Philadelphia, 1867.
Diirer, Albert. The Passion of Our Lord Jesus Christ Portrayed. Edited by Henry
Cole.' 4to. London, 1870.
Gould, S. Baring. The Passion of Jesus. First Series. Seven Discourses for Lent.
12mo, pp. 99. New York, 1885.
Hanna, Wm. The Last Day of Our Lord's Passion. 12mo, pp. 379. New York,
1863.
Hartley, Sherman. Lessons at the Cross ; or. Spiritual Truths Familiarly Exhibited
in their Relations to Christ. With an Introduction by G. W.'Blagden. 12mo,
pp. 274. Boston, 1852.
Krummacher, F. W. The Suffering Saviour ; or. Meditations on the Last Days of
Christ. 12mo, pp. 474. Boston, 1857.
Little, W. J. Knox. The Witness of the Passion of Our Most Holy Redeemer. 12mo,
pp. 173. New York, 1884.
Molyncaux, Capel. Gethsemane. Lectures Delivered in Lock Chapel in Lent, 1854.
12mo, pp. 210. London, 1854.
Nebelin, Charlotte Elizabeth. Gethsemane ; or. Meditations and Prayers on the Last

304 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
Hours of the Sufferings and Death of Our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ.
Translated from the German. Edited by Mrs. Colin Mackenzie. l2mo, pp. 200.
Boston, 1870.
Schaufider, W. G. Meditations on the Last Days of Christ ; together with Eight Medi
tations on the Seventeenth Chapter of St. John. 12mo, pp. 439. Boston, 1853.
Steinmeyer, F. L. The History of tho Passion and Resurrection cf Our Lord. Con
sidered in the Light of Modern Criticism. Translated by T. Crerar and Alex
ander Cusin. New edition. Svo, pp. 398. Edinburgh, 1S79.
Stevenson, John. Christ on the Cross. An Exposition of the Twenty-second
Psalm. 12mo, pp. 345. New York, 1846.
Stout, A. P. The Trials and Crucifixion of Christ. 12mo, pp. 158. Cincinnati, 1886.
Stroud, Wm. (M.D.). A Treatise on the Pli sIcal Cause of the Death of Christ and
its Relation to the Principles and Practice of Christianity. ]2mo, pp. 608.
London, 1846. (Argues that Christ died literally of a broken heart.)
The Sufferings of Christ. By a Layman. 12mo, pp. 328. New York, 1845.
Tholuck, A. Light from the Cross ; Sermons on the Passion of Our Lord. Transr
lated from the German by R. C. Lundin Brown. Second edition. 12mo, pp.
304. Edinburgh, 1S59.
Tyler, Bennett. The Sufferings of Christ Confined to His Human Nature. A Reply
to a Book, Entitled the Sufferings of Christ, by a Layman. 1 2mo, pp. 233. Hart
ford, 1847.
Veith, J. E. Words of Enemies of Christ During His Sacfed Passion. Translated
from the German by Rev. E. Cox, D.D. 16mo. London, 1855.
Watson, Alexander. The Seven Sayings on the Cross; or. The Dying Christ Our
Prophet, Priest, and King. Sermons. Svo, pp. 147. London, 1848.
Williams, Isaac. The Gospel Narrative of Our Lord's Passion, Harmonized with
Refieotlons. Prom the third London edition. Svo, pp. 181. Negr York, 1846.
2. Christ's Hesv/rrection.
Krummacher, P. W. The Risen Redeemer : The Gospel History from the Resur
rection to the Day of Pentecost. Translated from the German by John T.
Belts. 12mo, pp. 298. New York, 1863.
Landels, Wm. The Sepulcher in the Garden; or, the Buried and Risen Saviour.
',2mo, pp. 355. London, 1866.
Milligan, William. Thef Resurrection of Our Lord. Second Edition. Svo. London,
1884. First edition. Svo, pp. xiii, 304. Londqn, 1880.
Morrison, Charies R. The Proofs of Clirist's Resurrection : from a Lawyer's Stand
point. Svo, pp. 155. Andover, 1882.
West, Gilbert. Observations on the History and Evidence of the Resurrection of
Jesus Christ. Svo, pp. 445. London, 1747.
Westcott, Brooks Foss. The Revelation of the Risen Lord. 12mo, pp. 199. Lon
don, 1881. (A supplement to the author's Gospel of the Resurrection.)
3. Tlie Forty Days.
Braidman, G. D. Epiphanies ofthe Risen Lord. 12mo, pp. 289. New York, 1879.
Hanna, Wm. The Forty Days After Our Lord's Resurrection. 12mo, pp. 316.
New York, 1860.
Mcberly, George. The Sayings of the Great Forty Days Between the Resurrection
and Ascension, Regarded as tiie Outline of the Kingdom of God, in Five Dis
courses, with an Examination of Mr. Newman's Theory of Development. From
the second London edition. 12mo, pp. 273. Philadelphia, 1850.

HISTORY OF THE BIOGRAPHIES OF JESUS. 305
XI. CHRIST'S SECOND ADVENT.
Benson, J. Four Sermons on the Second Coming of Christ and the Future Misery
of the Wicked. 18mo, pp. 119. New York, 1799.
Bonar, Horatius. The Coming and Kingdom of the Lord Jesus Christ; being an
Examination of the Work of the Rev. D. Brown on tlie Second Coming of the
Lord. 12mo, pp. 462. Kelso, 1849.
Brown, David. Christ's Second Coming; Will it be Pre-Millenial 7 Second edi
tion. 12mo, pp. 499. Edinburgh, 1849.
Crosby, Alpheus. The Second Advent; or. What do the Scriptures Teach Respect
ing the Second Coming of Christ, etc. ]2nio, pp. 173. Boston, 1850.
Lord, D. N. The Coming and Reign of Christ. 12mo, pp. 430. New York, 1860.
Rankin, John C. The Coming of the Lord. ]2rao, pp. S3. New York, 1885.
Warren. Israel P. The Parousia ; a Critical Study of the Scripture Doctrines of
Christ's Second Coming ; His Reign as King ; the Resurrection of the Dead ;
and the General Judgment. 12mo, pp. 394. Portland, Me., 1884.
XII. CHRIST AS MEDIATOR.
Goodwin, Thomas. Christ the Mediator, Set Forth and Illustrated According to
Holy Scripture. In Six Books. Revised .and reconsidered by Robert Hawker.
Svo, pp. 627. Plymouth, 1819.
Gray, James. The Mediatorial Reign of the Son of God ; or. The Absolute Ability and
Willingness of Jesus Christ to Save All Mankind, Demonstrated from the Scrip
tures, ia which an Attempt had been Made to Rescue the Gospel Call from False
Philosophy. Svo, pp. 448. Baltimore, 1821.
Symington, W. Messiah, the Prince; or,"" the Mediatorial Dominion of Jesus Christ.
12mo, pp. cviil, 354. New York, 1881.
XIII. CHRONOLOGY AND GENEALOGY OF CHRIST.
Benson, C. The Chronology of Our Saviour's Life; or, an Inquiry Into the True
Time of the Birth, Baptism, and Crucifixion of Jesus Christ. Svo, pp. 343.
Cambridge, 1819.
Caspari, C. E. A Chronological and Geographical Introduction to the Life of Christ.
Translated by M. J. Evans. Edinburgh, 1876.
Hervey, Arthur. Genealogies of our Saviour from Matthew and Luke. Svo. Lon
don, 1853.
Jarvis, S. P. A New Inquiry Into the True Dates of the Birth and Death of Jesus
Clirist. Svo. London, 1844.
Selden, J. Theanthropos ; or, God Made Man. A Tract Proving the Nativity to be
on the 25th of December. 16mo. London, 1661,
See also Strong's New Harmony and Exposition of the Gospels (New York, 1852)
Appendix I, pp. 7-24 ; and Lewin's Fasti Sacri (Loudon, 1865) Chap. II,
p. xxili, and p. 115.
XIV. JUDAISM IN THE TIME OF CHRIST.
Hausrath, A. The Times of Jesus. Translated by C. T. Poyntlng. Svo. London, 1878.
Merrill, Selah. Galilee iu the Time of Christ. With an Introduction by Rev. A. P.
Peabody. 12mo, pp. 159. Boston, 1881.
Sciihrer, Emil. A History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ.
Translated by Sophia Taylor and Rev. Peter Christie. 3 vqIs., Svo, pp, 379,
327, 386. Edinburgh, 1885.
30

306 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.

SECTION V.
THE APOSTLES.
Life of the Apostles and the Founding of the Church, Article "Apostolisches Zeitalter," In
Pelt, Herzog's Encyclopsedie, vol. 1.
The life of the persons by whom the doctrine of the kingdom of
God in the world was introduced is connected with the life of
Jesus. Here, there is less interest in the Twelve, several of whom
are known to us only by name, than in the men and their coadjutors
who were most successful in this work of founding the Christian
community. Among these Paul is preeminent by reason of his
character, teaching, and deeds.
Concerning the wider and more limited meanings of the word
dnoaroXog, see the New Testament. A comparison of the history
of the apostles by Luke with the list of tbe apostles in the Gospels
(Matt. X, 1-4) will reveal to most inquirers the fact, that the sacred
narrative leaves us in tlie dark with regard to tbe history of a
majority of tlie Twelve. Of these, Peter, James, and John are
prominent, even in the Gospel record.^i, and we have relatively more
information respecting them than others, although the last days
of both Peter and John lie beyond the limits of the canon, and fall
within the realm of tradition. This applies still more fully to the
work of other apostles. A new period of deS-elopment evidently
begins with Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles, who, sup
ported by Timothy, Sylvanus, and Titu.i, not only ex
tended Chnstianity to the furthest o:itward limits, but, together with
John, also developed its profound internal character, and furnished
the greatest and movst important contribution toward the doctrinal
canon of the New Testament. He became the founder of a body of
doctrine, not theoretically, but out of his inmost experience, and
through the revelation which, according to his own testimony, was
imparted to him.' He was tbe firstfrnits of those in whom the
grace of (lod in Christ was glorified, and in whom the Gospel was
demonstrated to be the jiower of God. The exposition of the book
of Acts and the Pauline epistles is, of course, the work of exegetical
theology. But this is merely a work preliminary to the history,
while, to combine the work of the apostles into a single picture, be
longs strictly to the department of historical science. At this point
we stand on the boundary line between sacred and Church history.
Though the latter cannot exclude the history of the apostolic age,
' Comp. *H. Paret, Paulus u. Jesus, Observations on the Relation of Paul and his
Teaching to the Person, tho Life, and tho Teaching of the Christ of History, in
Jahrb. fiir Deutsche Theologie.

THE APOSTLES. • 307
yet it needs a broader foundation than it there finds. For this
reason the apostolic age, like the life of Jesus, has re- The apostolic
ceived a separate treatment in theological literature. ^parlte"treat
Peculiar difficulties attach to this treatment, however, ment.
because recent criticism has endeavored to shake many points in
the primitive history of Christianity, as found in the apostolic his
tory by Luke, and in the apostolic epistles, and has sought to ex
plain, by later events, the history of the older heresies, and what
has been regarded as belonging to primitive times. Much that the
Church regarded as belonging to the " apostolic age " was in this
way classed under the "post-apostolic." The destructive works
upon the apostolic history emanating from the Tubingen school, like
the Life of Jesus, by Strauss, have called forth confutations which
have fully established the historical validity of the original documents
of Christianity. Fresh discoveries of works, long supposed to be lost,
have also proved the substantial accuracy of the dates assigned by
the Church to the books contained in the New Testament canon.

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE.
1 . General Apostolic History.
Biiiimgarten, M. The Acts of .the Apostles; or. The History of the Church in the
Apostolic Age. Translated from the German by A. J. W. Morrison. Svo, 3
vols, pp. iv, 457, 459, 383. Edinburgh, 1854. (A work of rare excellence;
the apostolic history is treated with fullness of learning and in a reverent
spirit.)
Bruce, A. B. The Training of the Twelve; or. Exposition of Passages In the Gos
pels Exhibiting the Twelve Disciples of Jesus under Discipline for the Apostle-
ship. Svo, pp. 539. Edinburgh, 1871. (A fourth edition has been issued.)
Cave, William. Antiquitates Apostoliofe; or. The History of Christ and the Apos
tles. To which are added Lives of the two Evangelists, St. Mark and St. Luke.
With an Introductory Essay by Henry Stebblng. Svo, 2 vols. London, 1836.
De Pressense, Edmond. The Early Years of Christianity. The Apostolic Era.
From the French, by Annie Harwood. 12mo, pp. 536. New York and Cincin
nati, 1S79.
Farrar, P. W. The Early Days of Christianity. Svo, pp. xvii, 664. London and
New York, 1S82. (The author describes the purpose of this work to be "to set
forth, in their distinctivo characteristics, the work and the writings of St.
' Peter, St. James, St. Jude, St. John, and the Author of the Epistle to the He
brews.")
Maurice, Frederick Denison. Lectures on the Ecclesiastical History of the First and
Second Centuries. Svo, pp. xii, 401. Cambridge, 1854. (Tho first half of the
book Is devoted to apostolic history. Some of the topics of lectures are: The
New Society in Jerusalem, Samaria, and Syria ; The Churches in Gentile
Cities, etc.)
Neander, Augustus. History of the Planting and Training of the Christian Church
by the Apostles. Translated by J. E. Ryland. 12mo, 2 vols., pp. xxxi, 408;

308 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
XX, 381. Edinburgh, 1842. Also in Bohn's Ecclesiastical Library. (One of
Neander's choicest works.)
Schaff, Philip. History of tlic Christian Church. Vol. I. Apostolic Christianity,
A. D. 1-100. Svo, pp. xiii, 871. New York, 1886. (This is a revision and
enlargement of the author's Apostolic Church History, first published in English
in 1853. In the fullness of its treatment ( f its topics it leaves little to be desired.)
2. Paul and John.
Baur, Fred. Ohr. Paul the Apostle of Jesus Christ, Translated by Allan Menzies.
Svo, 2 vols. London, 1873-75.
Blunt, Henry. Lectures upon the History of St. Paul, delivered dnring Lent, at the
Church of the Holy Trinity, Upper Chelse-a. Philadelphia, 1839.
Butler, C. M. St. Paul in Rome. Lectures delivered in the Legation of the United
States of America, in Rome. 12mo. Philadelphia, 1865.
Conybeare, W. J., and Howson, J. S. The Life and Epistles of St. Paul. Svo, 2 vols.,
pp. 459, 556. New York, 1863, and often. (After more than forty years since
Its first publication, this Is still one of the best works on St. Paul.)
Davies, G. S. St. Paul in Greece. (In the " Heathen World and St. Paul " Series.)
16mo. London, no date.
Dickson, W. P. St. Paul's Use of the Terms Flesh and Spirit. The BainJ Lectures
for 1883. Glasgow, 1883. (The Appendix of more than one hundred pages
contains quotations from important writers on the subject.)
Dodd, Philip Stanhope. A View of the Kvidenoe Afforded liy the Life and Mln'stry
of St. Peter to the Truth ofthe Christian Revelation. London, 1837.
Farrar, F. W. The Life and Work of St. Paul. Svo, pp. 781. New York, 1880.
Freemantle, W. B. Prom Athens to Rome. Six Lectures on St. Paul's Visit to the
Chief Cities of the Roman Empire. 12mo. London, 1869.
Howson, John S. The Character of ^t. Paul. (Hulsean Lectures.) Svo. London,
1 864 ; New York, 1873.
Howson, John S. Scenes from the Life of St. Paul, and their Religious Lessons.
Svo. London, 1866.
Howson, John S. The Metaphors of St. Paul and Companions of St. Paul. 16mo,
pp. 91, 211. New York, 1872. (Two little books in one, and full of good
matter.)
Irons, J. W. Christianity as Taught by St. Paul. To which ia Added an Appendix
of the Continuous Sense of St. Paul's Epistles, with Notes and Metalrgomena.
Svo, pp. 543. Oxford, 1870. (Bampton Lectures for 1870.)
Lee, Alfred. The Life of the Apostle John, in a Series of Practical Disconrses.
New York, 1852.
Lewin, Thomas. The Life and Epistles of St. Paul. 4to, 2 vols., pp. 414, 487. Fourth
edition. London, 1878. (The author describes this and his "Fasti Sacri" as
twin works. Both are of much value to the student of early Christianity.
Illustrations have been carefully gathered from the best sources, and study ,
has been supplemented by visits to the spots which were the scenes of the
great apostle's ministry.)
Macdonald, James M. The Life and Writings of St. John. Edited, with an Intro
duction, by J. S. Howson. Svo. London and New York, 1877. Second edition,
1880.
Macduff, J. R. St. Paul at Rome ; or. The Teaching, Fellowship, and Dying Testi
mony of the Great Apostle in the City of the Csesars. 12tno. London, 1871,
1876.

THE APOSTLES. 309
Macduff, J. R. The Footsteps of St. Paul. Svo, pp. ix, 41€. Edinburgh,
1855.
Macduff, J. R. Footsteps of St. Peter. 12rao. 1876.
Malleson, P. A. The Acts and Epistles of St. Paul. Svo. London, 1881.
Merivale, Charles. St. Paul at Rome. (In the " Heathen World and St. Paul " Series.)
16nio. London, no date.
Paley, William. Horas Paulinas ; or, The Truth of the Scripture History of St. Paul
Evinoed. New York, 1851, et passim.
Pask, B. P. The Apostle of the Gentiles. A Handbook of the Life of St. Paul.
¦Special Notes on Ephesus, by T. J. Wood. 12mo, pp. U81. With Maps. Lon
don, no date.
Paul of Tarsus. An Inquiry into the Times aud the Gospel of the Apostle of the
Gentiles. ByaGraduate. Svo, pp. 378. London, 1872. {"The writings of, St
Paul are treated as human compositions only.")
Pearson, Bishop John. Annales Panllni. Works. Aiso translated and published
by J. M. Williams. 12nio. Cambridge, 1S25, '2«, '28. <A book greatly
esteemed by English theologians.)
Pfleiderer, Otto. The Influence of tlie Apostle Pawl ou the Development of Chris
tianity. Translated by J. Frederic Smith. Hibbert Lectures, 1885. Svo, pp.
238. New York, 1885. (The divisions are; L The First Church and Conver
sion of St. Paul. IL The Doctrinal Teaching of St. Paul. III. The Conflict of
the Apostle to the Gentiles with Jewish Christians. IV. The Reconciliation of
Paulinism and Jewish Cliristianity. V. Paulinlsm and Gnosticism. VI. Paul-
inism and the Church.)
Pfleiderer, 0. Paullnisoj : a Contribution to the History of Primary Christian The
ology. Translated. Svo, 2 vols. London, 1877.
Plumptre, E. H. St. Paul in Asia Minor and at the Syrian Antioch. (In the
"Heathen World and St. Paul" Series.) 16mo, pp. 191 London, no date.
Map.
Eenan, Ernest. St. Paul. Translated from the French by Ernest Lockwood. 12mo,
pp. 422. New York, 1869. (This book has all the charm of Renan's style,
but its treatment of the sources is arbitrary, and its conclusions are worthless.
"According to my opinion," says the author, "Paul should even occupy a posi
tion-beneath Francos d'Assisi, and the author of the Imitation.")
Robinson, George. St. Paul in Damascus and Arabia. (In the " Heathen World
and St. Paul" Series.) ]6mo, pp. 180. London, no date. Map.
Shakespeare, Charles. SL Paul at Athens; Spiritual Christianity in Relation to Some
Aspects of Modern Thought. Svo. With a Preface by Canon Farrar. New
York, 1879.
Smith, .lames. The Vovage and Shipwreck of St. Paul, with Dissertations on the
Life and Writings of St. Luke, 'arid the Ships and Navigation of the Ancients.
Fourth edition. Revised and Corrected by Walter E. Smith, with a Preface
by ihe Bishop of Carlisle, and Memoir. 12mo. London, 1880.
Stalker, James. The Life of St. Paul. ]2mo, pp. 183. New York, 1888. (Concise
and clear. The Hints at the end of the book are valuable and suggestive.)
Tate, James. The Horse Paulinae of William Paley, Carried out and Illustrated in
a Continuous History of the Apostolic Labors and Writings of St. Paul, on the
Basis of the Acls. Svo, 2 vols., pp. 202, 219. London, 1840.
Tholuck, Aug. The Life, Character, and Style of the Apostle Paul. In Selections
from German Literature (pp. 1-72). Translated by B. B. Edwards and E. A.
Park. Svo, pp. iv, 472. Andover, 1839.

310 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.

SECTION VI.

THE HISTOEICAL POEM AND DEVELOPMENT OP THE DOCTEINE OP THE
BIBLE.
BIBLICAL DOGMATICS AND THE BLSTOEY OP DOCTRINES.
T. D. Bernard, The Progress of Doctrine in the New Testament (Bampton Lect. for 1864),
Lond., 1864 ; James Donaldson, A Critical History of Christian Literature and Doctrine, from tbe
Death of the Apostles to the Nicene Council, 3 vols., Lond., 1864r-66; Robert Rainy, DeUvery
and Development of Christian Doctrine (Cunningham Lectures), Edlnb., 1874.
Bible doctrine, like sacred history, results from exegesis, and,
like sacred history, furnishes the means for its further historical de
velopment. Inasmuch, however, as the contents of this study are
systematic and did'actic in their nature, i^ is found that the bound
aries of exegetical, historical, and systematic theology here cross
each other, but in such a way as to make the historical element the
most important.'
Biblical dogmatics' is the intellectuaf bond which unites exeget
ical, historical, and dogmatical studie.s, the focus where the various
rays are collected. On this account it fonais^ in many respects, a
luminous point in theological study. The position from which it is
B'bii d regarded is of importance. If, without reference to
matics a theo- Systematic development, it be considered simply as a
logical centre, collocation of proof texts in behalf of dogmatics, it be
comes the immediate fruit of exegesis; and, in point of fact, only
an accomplished exegete is fitted to work in the field of biblical
dogmatics. But if it be regarded as combined into a system, as
governed by any leading idea, it will approach the positive science
of dogmatics itself. Between these two operations, however, is a
third, namely, the task of eornprehending the revelation of the
Bible itself as a historical fact in connexion with the spiritual de
velopment of mankind in other directions. In this way we come
' Schleiermacher, Danz, and Rosenkranz regard it as a historiciil science. Comp.
Gabler, p. 183 sqq.
''The name "Biblical Theology," which is preferred by some (^umgarten-Criisius,
Havernick, and, more recently, H. Schultz), is evidently either too broad, if the term
theology be taken in the modern sense of a collection of the theological sciences, or
too narrow, if it be taken to mean merely the doctrine concerning God. Comp. de
Wette, Bibl. Dogra., and Danz, p. 301, note 1. The term pogmatics may also be
found to be too limited in its meaning; as Havernick says, "The fundamental ideas
of ethics must also be Included." Beck's expression, "The biblical science of doc
trine," would, accordingly, be the mosl appropriate. But so long as the ethical ideas
alone are involved, and are not developed into a system of biblical ethics, the phrase
Biblical Dogmatics may appropriately be retained. On the inadequ.icy of the term
dogmatics in general, see later, on Systematic Theology.

HISTORICAL FORM OF THE BIBLE. 311
to occupy the ground of history. Biblical dogmatics is thiie simply
the internal side of sacred history. The representation of the life
of Jesus requires a representation of his doctrine, or, better, of
his divine and human consciousness, and his relation to the world
and the bistoi-y of mankind as conditioned by that consciousness,
just as a proper conception of the idea that moved and deter
mined his entire life is the npioTov mvovv of Christian dogmatics in
general.' Life and doctrine dissolve into each other with Jesus as with none
of our mortal race. The life of an apostle, too, cannot Relation otufe
be given in any other way than by placing before our and doctrine.
eyes his inner life, as it was determined by intercourse with Jesus
or by familiarity with his teaching.* The history of doctrines
issues from Church Histoiy, and becomes a separate branch of it.
In tlie same way the material for the hi,>*toi'y of doctrines which is
contained in the Bible can be utilized for the purposes of historical
examination. Thus wc acquire a juxtaposition of biblical doctrine
as a point of departure for the history of Christian doctrines; with
the difference, however, that it is not yet wrought out in scientific
form, and is not a complete body of dogmatic ideas. These doc
trines are rather jDliable substances, possessing the capacity for life,
and include the germs of ethical as well as of dogmatical develop
ment, in accordance with which the systems of faith and morality
in the Bible are chiefly given in combination.
A largely systematizing treatment, or a purely historical and
' genetic procedure, may prevail iu this regard, however, according
as the contents of biblical doctrine are apprehended as a whole,
thus constituting the doctrine of the Old and New Testaments; or
are divided, to correspond with different times and persons, thus
forming the doctrine of Hebraism, of the later Judaism, of Jesus
and the apostles; or, with a still closer reference to persons, fornn-
ing the teaching of Paul, of John, and others. Each of these is
given, so far as possible, in its genetic development, which holds
good especially of the Pauline system of doctrines.' The more
flexible the treatment of biblical dogmatics becomes in this regard,
' On the pecuIlardifHculties of tfiis task, see Schirmer, pp. 51-55. Should the first
Gospels, or St. John, furnish the type?
''How St. Paul attained to his theology, and what is the relation of his teaching
and that of the other apostles to the teaching of Jesua, are Important inquiries in this
' connexion. See the treatise by Paret, referred to above.
'An analogous arrangement is possible in connexion with the Old Testament also, '
e. g., the religion of Abraham, Mosaism, the religion of David, Solomon, Isaiah, etc.
The Individual element is less prominent In the Old Testament, however, being lost in
the theocratic. Cnmp, Schirmer, p. 50.

312 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
and the more the material which has crystallized into ideas is
brought irfto its original flowing condition, the more
Flexible treat- f .,, . . , i • j i ¦ n
ment of biblia closely Will it approximate the history ot doctrines, and
cal dogmatics, ^j^g j^Qj.y decidedly will it fall within the historical field.
But if the leading object be to represent, iu its internal connexion,
and as the foundation of ecclesiastical doctrine, the substance of
Bible teaching as developed through exegetical ' and historical in
quiry, biblical dogmatics will partake more largely of the nature
of systematic theology. It will be distinguished from dogmatics
proper, however, by confining itself entirely to the beginning, i. e.,
to the primitive Bible times, without in any way intruding upon
ecclesiastical development.
A certain view exists which designedly ignores such develop
ment, so that the history of doctrines becomes .an article of luxury,
and chooses to know no other than biblical dogmatics. This opinion
will be examined hereafter, in connection with the history of doc
trines. We may observe here, however, that in assigning this posi
tion to biblical dogmatics the aim is not to degrade it to a mere
historical science, which could only be said witli propriety if history
were understood to designate what is antiquated. It is, on the
other hand, our intention to lift it out from the rigid trammels of
the letter into the living organism which forms the subject of his
torical inquiry. We do not, however, ac -ept the view which holds
that what was original is inferior and imperfect, and needs to be
purified and elevated into the character of a higher w^isdom.' The
biblical doctrine, on the contrary, although by no means finished
and complete in itself, and certainly needing to be explained in har
mony with its historical development, continues to retain its normal
dignity. The task of biblical dogmatics will be to so present this
doctrine in its original vitality and its univeri^al bearings upon the
well-being of mankind, that the eternal and ever applicable idea of
the God-given truth shall clearly and powerfully shine through the
temporal veil of conceptions.'
' In exegesis the leading object is to recognize the tendency of the subjectivity
and individuality in the original form ; in dogmatics we seek to discover the identity
and truth of the matter. The unity of both tendencies, accompanied with a steady
consciousness of their diversity, must thore'bre be the governing idea in biblical dog
matics. Usteri, Entwickl. d. Paulin. Lehrbegr., 4th ed., Pref., p. vii.
"Comp. Strauss, Glaubenslehre, i, p. Ill, and Schelling, Methode des akad. Studi
ums, p. 191 sqq.
' Very much that is valuable on the idea and method of this science may be found
in Havernick, Bibl. Dogmatik, p. 1 sqq.

HISTORY OP BIBLICAL DOGMATICS. 813

SECTION VII.
HISTOEY OF BIBLICAL DOGMATICS. ,
This science really began with the Reformation,' for it was the
Reformation that delivered the whole of the science of dogmatics
from its scholastic fetters, aud established it on the Bible. But
biblical dogmatics was yet united with ecclesiastical by the Re
formers Melanchthon and Calvin ; and when, in the seventeenth
century, scholasticism again intruded itself into dogmatics, it was
found necessary to remain contented with mere observations, as in
Vitringa, or, so far as biblical dogmatics as distinguished from
ecclesiastical was concerned, with expositions of Scripture texts, as
in Seb. Schmidius, Collegium Biblicum, Argent., 1671-76; Hulse-
mann, Vindiciae S. S. per loca classica systematis theoL, Lips.; 1679;
Majus, Theologia prophetica, Francof., 1710; and Baier, Analysis et
Vindicatio illustrium S. S. dictornm, Altorf, I7I9. Spe- Pietism.
ner's pietism, at the close of the seventeenth and the
beginning of the eighteenth centuries, again aroused a feeling for the
restoration of the simple teaching of the Scriptures, but particularly
with reference to its practical rather than its scientific aspects.
Theologia Biblica was understood to signify a popular pre
sentation of the system of belief. It is remarkable that rationalism
became the agency for turning back the current into the proper
channel, its tendency in opposition to ecclesiastical orthodoxy caus
ing it to labor for the separation of the Bible doctrine ii'om that of
the Church, and to endeavor to present it in its purity. In this
effort it took away, however, the brightest of the peculiar orna
ments of doctrine, so that the thinning out process of rationalizing
abstraction left only the caput mortuum of a supposed rational doc
trine. J. G. Semler publis.hed his historical and critical collections
on the "so-called proof passages of dogmatics" (Halle, 1764-68)
in this spirit, and Gabler wrote the work mentioned above with a
like aim. The supernaturalists of ' that century saw themselves
compelled, in the interests of a positive belief in the Bible teaching,
to recognize the distinction between biblical and ecclesiastical doc
trine. The elder Tubingen school (Storr, Flatt, Bengel, Eider TuWn-
Steudel) took the lead in this direction. The Biblical ge^ school.
Theology of G. T. Zachariae (five parts, the last by Vollborth, Gott.,
' This does not deny that biblical theology, in the wide sense, has its origin in
common with that of theology in general ; for the " fathers of Alexandrian Christianity
were essentially biblical theologians ; " comp. Nitzsch, g. 220, where attention is also
called to the services of Erasmus, in whose works " the most valuable outlines of a
Theologia Biblica are contained."

314 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
1771-86), for instance, was written from the orthodox point of
view; while Hufnagel's work (Erl.,, 1786-89) was composed in the
interest of rationalism. Ammon, L. Bauer, and Bretschneider were
likewise more or less in sympathy with the latter tendency. Con
cerning Kaiser, de Wette, Baumgarten -Crusius, vou Colin, Vatke,
and Bruno Bauer,, and also with regard to the more recent develop
ment of this science in general, comj). Havernick, Bibl. Dogm., 2d
ed., p. 8, sqq., and Nitzsch, supra.

' AMERICAN AND ENGLISH LITERATURE OF BIBLICAL DOGMATICS.
Alexander, W. Lindsay. A System of Biblical Theology. Svo, 2 vols.- Edinburgh,
ISSS. (A work which has taken a high rank.)
Beck, J. T. Outlines of Bibhcal Psychology. Translated from the Third German
Edition, 1S71. Svo. Edinbur,.<h, 1S77.
Bernard, T. D. The Progress of Doctrine in the New Testament. Svo, pp. xx, 265.
London, 1S64. (The Bampton Lectures fur that year.)
Bruce, A. B. The Kingdom of God ; or, Christ's Teaching According to the Synop
tical Gospels. Fourth edition. Svo. Edinburgh, 1S90.
Candlish, James S. The Kingdom of God, Biblically and Historically Considered.
Svo, pp. 423. Edinburgh, 18S4.
Cave, Alfred. The Scriptural Doctrine of Sacrifice and Atonfemeut. Svo. Edinburgh,
1S77 ; also Revised Editian.
Delitzsch, Franz. System of Biblical Psychology. Translated by R. E. Wallis.
Second edition. Svo, pp. xvi, 5S5. Edinburgh, 1867.
Ewald, Heinrich. Old and New Testament Theology. Translated from the Gorman
by Thomas Goadby. Svo, pp. viii, 458. Edinburgh, ISSS. (Selected out of
the author's Die Lehre der Bibel von Gott.)
Ewald, Heinrich. Revelation,, its Nature and Record. Translated by Thomas
Goadby. Svo. Edinburgh, 1SS4. (This is the first volume of Ewald's great
w-ork. Die Lehre der Bibel von Gott.)
Fairbairn, Patrick. The Revelation of Law in Scripture. Considered with respect
both to its own nature and to its relative flace in successive dispensations.
Svo, pp. 484. Edinburgh, 1868.
Gebhardt, Hermann. The Doctrine of the Apocalypse, and its Relation to the Doc
trine of the Gospel aud Epistles of John. Translated from the German by
J. Jefferson. Svo, pp. xvi, 424. Edinburgh, is7S.
Haupt, Erich. The First Epistle of John. A Contribution to Biblical Theology.
Translated, 'with an Introduction, by W. B. Pope. Svo, pp. 3S5. Edinburgh,
1879.
Ladd, Professor G. T. The Doctrine of Sacred Scripture, Old and New Testament.
Svo, 2 vols. Edinburgh, 1882. (A critical, historical, and dogmatic inquiry
into the origin and nature of the Old and New Testaments.)
Laidlaw, John. Tlie Bible Doctrine of Man. Edinburgh, 1877.
Oehler, Gustav Frederick. Tljeology of the Old Testament, A Revision of the
Translation in Clark's Foreign Lllirary, with the Additions'of the Second Ger
man Edition ; an Introduction and Notes by George E. Day. Svo. New York,
1S83.

HISTORY OP BIBLICAL DOGMATICS. 315
Schmid, G. F. Biblical Theology of the New Testament. Translated from the
Fourth German Edition, by G. H. Venables. Tliird edition. Svo, pp. 552.
Edinburgh, 1882.
Schmucker, S. S. An Elementary Course of Biblical Theology. Translated from
the Work of Professors Storr and Piatt. Svo, -pp. xvi, 605. Andover and New
York. Second editiun. 1836. (This translation by Professor Schmucker was the
pioneer iu the Dulled States of all works in this department of Theology.)
Van Oosterzee, J. J. The Theology of the New Testament. Translated from the
Dutch by M. J. Evans. Svo. London, 1874^-86; also New York.
Weidner, R. F. Biblid'iil Theology of the Old Testament. 12mo. Philadelphia,
1886. (This Is vol. il ofthe author's Theological Encyclopsedia,)
Weiss, Bernhard. Biblical Theology of the New Testament. Translated from the
Third Revised Edition by Rev. David Eaton, M.A. 2 vols. Edinburgh, 18S2-S3.
Vol. i, pp. 4S9; vol. ii, pp. 450. (Thorough, critical, evangelical.)

316 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
SECTION vm.
CHURCH HISTORY.
J. Jortln, The Use and Importance of Ecclesiastical History. Pp. 405-454 of vol. vll of Works,
Ijond., 1772 ; Herder's Adrastea, Werke zur Phllosophle u. Gesch., x, p. 170 ; J. G. Mueller, Ideen
iib. Stud. d. Kirchengeschichfe, In his Reliquen alter Zeiten (Lpz., 1803-6, 4 vols.) ii, p.' 1 sqq. ;
A. H. Niemeyer, Die hohe Wichtlgheit u. d. zweckmHsslgste Methode eines fortgesetzten Studi
ums der Religions- und Klrchengeschlchte fiir praktlacbe ReUglonsIehrer, In the preface to
Fuhrman's Handw6rterbuch der Klrchengeschlchte, Halle, 1826; r. F. Rosegarten, Studium
Plan u. Darstellung der Klrchengeschlchte, Reval, 1824 ; K. Ullmann, Stellung des Kh-chenhis-
torlkers In uns. Zeit, in Stud. u. Krit., 1829, No. 3, p. 667 ; J. A. H. Tittmann, Behandlung d.
Klrchengeschlchte, etc.. In Illgen's Zeitschr. 1. hist. Theologie, 1, 2, (per contra Gieseler in Stud.
u. Krit., 1833, No. 4, p. 1139) ; Schleiermacher, S 149-194 ; Daub, Zeitschr. f . spec. Theologie, 1836,
vol. 1. No. 1 ; 0. W. Niedner, Zeichnung des Umfangs f . d. nothwetidigen Inhalt allgem. Gesch.
d. Christl. Religion, In Stud. u. Krit., 1853, No. 4, pp. 787-905 ; Hagenbach In Herzog's Encykl.
s. V. Ktrchengesohichte, vol. -vll, p. 622 sqq.
Philip Schaffl, What Is Church History? A Vindication ol the Idea of Historical Development,
Phila., 1846 ; W. G. T. Shedd, Lectures upon tbe Philosophy of History, Andover, 1856 ;  Na
ture aud Influence ol the Historic Spirit in Theology, Essays, pp. 53-120, N., T., 1877 ; E. C.
Smyth, Value of the Study of Church History in Ministerial Education, Andover, 1874; A. P.
Stanley (Dean), Three Introductory Lectures on the Study of Ecclesiastical History, OxI., 1867.
The central point of historical theology is Church History. It is
the history of the outwardly visible community within whose limits
the kingdom of God, which Christ founded, is manifested, and at
tains to its ultimate development.
Church history is certainly dependent npon our conception of the^
real nature of the Church.' But a completed doctrine of the Church
' On the meaning of 'enKkriaia (?rip mj?) comp. Gieseler, Ch. Hist, § 1 ; Bret
schneider, Systemat. Entwicklung aller in d. Dogmatik vorkommenden Begriffe (4th
ed., 1841), p. 749 ; Jacobson, Individualitat des Wortes u. Begriffes Kirche (in ibid.,
Kirchenrechtl. Versuchen, I, 68-125). The word "church" (Germ, kirche) has been
derived from to KvpiaKov fi nvpiaK?/, curia, from the Celtic cyrch or cyloh (central-point,
place of assembly), and from the Teutonic kieren, koren, or kiesen (to choose), sup
posed to have been connected with the Latin circus or with keliku (a tower), etc.
Comp. Wackemagel, Alt d. Worterbuch, and Gravell, Die Kirohe : Ursprung u. Be
deutung des deutscben Wortes (Gorlitz, 1856) ; for the. derivation of KvpioQ comp.
Grimm, deutsches W. B., v, p. 790 ff.
" There can," says Trench, " be no reasonable doubt that ' church ' is originally from
the Greek, and signifies ' that which pertains to the Lord,' or ' the house which is the
Lord's.' But here a difficulty meets us. How explain the presence of a Greek word
in the vocabulary of our Anglo-Saxon forefathers ? for that we derive the word medi
ately from them, and intermediately from the Greek, is certain. What contact, direct
or indirect, was there between the languages to account for this f The explanation is
curious. While the Anglo-Saxons and other tribes of the Teutonic stock were almost
universally converted by their contact with the Latin Church in the western provinces
of the Roman Empire, or by its missionaries, yet it came to pass that before this
some of the Goths on the lower Danube had been brought to the knowledge of Christ
by Greek missionaries from Constantinople ; and this word Kvpiaicri, or church, did,
with certain others, pass over from the Greek to the Gothic tongue ; and these Goths,
the first converted to the Christian faith, the first, therefore, that had a Christian
vocabulary, lent the word in their turn to the other German tribes, among others to

CHURCH HISTORY. 81/
is no more to precede Church history than a doctrine of the person
of Christ should form the introduction to a life of Je- History to pre-
sus. It is, indeed, impossible to ascertain the nature of cede doctrine.
the Church in any other way than through its history. No great
progress can be made by the adoption of the abstract notion of a
religious association, whose origin is, perhaps, conceived after the
analogy of Rousseau's Social Contract.' It will, accordingly, be nec
essary to start out, with Gieseler, with the statement that "the
Church is a particular and historically given conception," which
must not be generalized into that of a religious society. To speak
of the Church relations of the Jews, Mohammedans, and Hindus is
inexact, and the expression, "the Christian Church,"
is, properly taken, a tautology, or derives its signifi- not merely a
cation from the contrast to the more specific concep- ^'"'^ ^'
tions of Catholic and Protestant, or of Romish, Spanish, and Ger
man Churches.
Some writers, such as Stolberg, have extended the idea backward
into the Old Testament. But it would be equally proper to include
Old Testament Christology in the life of Jesus. Nor does the life
of Jesus belong within the range of Church history, which has its
beginnings at the point where the circle of the earliest disciples
begins to extend beyond the limits of a private association, and
where a congregational organization is introduced. Hence Church
history commences, strictly, as early as the apostolic period, but
not until after the departure of Jesus from the earth. For this
reason a maiorit-v of scholars regard the dav of Pente- „ , , ,.
•' •' . 11. Pentecost the
cost following ascension as the birthday of the Christian beginning of
Church. ' The apostolic period, at the same time, can *'"' ^'"'™''-
only be considered the substructure upon which the edifice of the
visible Church is reared, or the root from which the mighty tree
our Anglo-Saxon forefathers ; thus it has come round by the Goths from Constanti
nople to us. The passage most illustrative of the parentage of the word is from
Walafrid Strabo (about 840), who writes thus : ' Ab ipsis autem Graecis Kyrch A Ky-
rios — et alia multa accepimus. Sicut domus Dei Basilica, i. e. Regia A Rege, sic etiam
Kyrica, i. e. Dominica k Domino nuncupatur. Si autem quaesitur, qui occasione ad
nos vestigiatiae : graecitatis advenerint, dicendum prtecipu^ k Gothis, qui et Getse, cum
extempore, quo ad fidem Christi perducti sunt, in GrsBcorum provinciis commorante,
nostrum, i. e. theotiscum sermonem Labuerint.' " Study of Words, pp. 79-81, N. Y.,
1854. 'Comp. Locke: "A church I take to be a voluntary society of men, joining them
selves together of their own accord, in order to the public worshipping of God, in such
a manner as they judge acceptable to him and effectual to the saving of their souls."
Works, vol. ii, p. 145, Lond., 1761. For the insufficient and unhistoriciil nature of
this view, comp. C. H. Weisse, Reden iiber die Zukunft der evangelischen Kirche,
Lpz., 1849, p. 29 sgg.

318 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
grows, with branches interlacing like an involved network. If
the Church be regarded as a complex organization of communities,
and if for that very reason it be again distinguished from those
communities, it will be apparent that Church history, in the strict
sense, begins where the external union of such communities has
already been consolidated.' But the idea of the Church must be
defined with respect to its nature, as well as its range through
time and space, and, at this point, care is needed to guard against
both a false idealism and a superficial empiricism. The correct
view, by which the external and internal, visible and invisible, are
apprehended in their proper connexion and correlation, but are
likewise distinguished from each other, and according to which
Church history has to do with the actualization of the kingdom of
God in time and under determinate relations of time and place,
Th Ch h is ®*^"*1^ midway between the purely social and abstract
notaione social notion and the strictly theocratic view. For, according
or theocratic. ^^ ^^^ social view, the Church is merely an association
of accidental origin, analogous to an insurance company, while the
theocratic conception represents the Church as absolutely Divine
even in its outward manifestation. The social form, which takes
its shape under the influence of apparently accidental occurrences,
consti,tutes the body of the Church, while the idea which is devel
oped in harmony with the laws of spiritual freedom, and there
fore by an inward necessity, is its soul." Church history is re
quired to estimate both according tQ their true value, because
they would otherwise represent a life that is neither a corpse nor a
ghost.' SECTION IX.
HISTOEICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHURCH.
The Church, like every other phenomenon endowed with life, has
an external or bodily, and an internal or spiritual, side to its nature.
The Church '^^^^^ Cannot be sundered from each other, though they
both external may be separated to a certain extent, and severally
treated with particular attention. In this way the dif
ferent, but constantly interacting, departments of church life come
into being, which determine the arrangement of the material of
Church history, both with regard to the logical rubrics under
' Rothe fixes the beginning of Church history as late as the destruction of Jerusa
lem ; see his Anfange der christl. Kirohe.
"Schleiermacher, § 61.
'Concerning the relation of the ideal to the historical Church, see Schweizer,
Glaubenslehre, p. 18,3 sg.

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT. 319
which it is to be placed and the more independent artistic com
bination and connexion of the matter itself.
Christianity entered the world, and was compelled to assume re
lations toward it. So, too, was the world required to enter into
relations with Christianity. Christ himself had compared the king
dom of God to leaven which leavens the whole lump, and to a
mustard seed which should develop into a wide-spreading tree.
The expansive element is contained in the nature and the destina
tion of Christianity — the Church must grow. In the first stages of
the life of an individual the outward growth is more noticeable,
and calculated to excite remark ; and Church history has, similarly
and most naturally, to deal, in its earliest periods, with the exten
sion of Christianity. By the side of the expansion. Expansion and
however, we must trace the history of the limitation of Limitation.
Christianity — the persecutions — even as the shadow moves along
with the person. For our Lord had even foretold that his Church
would be obliged to suffer persecution.
The two elements cannot be torn asunder, since the extension of
the Church often gave rise to persecution, while the latter, being
overruled by God, aided ih the extension. The blood of the martyrs
was the seed of the Church. Christianity struck its roots into the
world, however, in proportion as its outward extent increased, and
its growth involved, as well, the strengthening of the body of the
Church. This must be regarded as the necessary condition of the
life of the Church, although it seems to be connected with the d.an-
ger of unduly emphasizing the body, and reducing the Church to
the level of the world. To trace this incorporating process, and with
it the course of partial secularization which it involves, is the task
of the history of the constitution of the Church. But, constitution of
in connexion with this, we must give attention to the the church.
relations of the Church to the State, especially when, under Con
stantine, the latter became Christian; and to the internal social
conditions of the Church itself, such as the separation of the clergy
from the laity, gradations of rank among the clergy, the develop
ment of the hierarchy, morbid excrescences, divisions or schisms in
the Church, and such special phenomena in connexion with its life
as monasticism, the vita canonica. But within this body, composed
as it is of numerous members, for whose study an acute eye is cer
tainly necessary, the soul of the life of Christianity unfolded itself,
being partly carried forward and partly hindered by the Thesoui-iiieof
body. So, Church History, as a branch of theological the church.
study, is first of a-11 to fix its attention upon the soul. The soul-life
of the Church, moreover, as manifested in worship, doctrine, and

320 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
customs, is not only bound organically to the bodily element by
numerous ties — for the history of the constitution of the Church
holds an unmistakable relation of interaction to the history of wor
ship and of doctrine — but it surrounds itself with a separate body.
Worship seeks expression in various forms of art, and doctrine
assumes the form of dogma, more or less fully developed, while
both are determined by the spirit of special times and peoples, and
by the degree of culture which has been attained by any particular
age. It is, of course, true that Christian teachings and customs
have superseded the old and replaced it by the new ;
ditions super- but they have also been determined and modified from
seded. ^j^^^^ .^^^^ direction. The history of worship, doctrine,
and customs, is, therefore, connected with the general history of
civilization, in like manner as the history of the constitvition stands
related to ordinary political history.
No one side of the life of the Church can be thoroughly compre
hended apart from the other. It would, therefore, be improper to
treat Church history in the form of rubrics constructed on a merely
external and logical plan, like the drawers in a sideboard. On the
contrary, the richer the manifestation of that life is at certain poii'ts
where it pulsates, the more impossible is it to enforce such a divis
ion. This is illustrated by the Reformation, which forces its way
through all such limitations, with their superscriptions, by includ
ing in its scope at once the constitution, worship, doctrine, and life.
Advantage of -^" arrangement of the material in the form of extended
groupings. groupings, by which means, at times, one feature of the
life of the Church may be brought into prominence, and at other
times another, admits of great diversity in the shadings of the rep
resentation, and is, for this reason, certainly preferable, in an artistic
point of view, to the abstract mode of treatment by topics.'
It should not be forgotten, however, in the interests of metho
dology, that the storing away of the material in the memory is
facilitated by the arrangement in tabular rubrics, and thnt the
artistic treatment can be profitably employed only where a knowl
edge of the facts of history already exists." It will be sufficient if,
in connexion with the rnbrical arrangement, we continually observe
A necessary *''® dependence of the several departments upon each
change ol ru- Other, and direct attention to the links of the organic
''"^" chain. The rubrics, moreover, will be required to
change their titles and relation to each other with the change of
' Comp. the works of Henke, Spittler, Hase, Schleiermacher, etc.
' Warnings have, 'ti'ith propriety, been raised against too much cutting up of the
material ; comp. Fricke, Lehrb. der Kirchengesch., Part I, Pref., p. ix", and § 9.

DIVISION INTO PERIODS. "01
times. It would, for example, be highly improper to .".ssign the lead
ing place in connexion with later times to the extension of Christian
ity, whose place has, in the course of progress, been removed from
the centre to the circumference, while the foreground is occupied by
the Church itself, whose outward form was, in the Middle Ages,
conditioned by the papacy with its hierarchy. At the time of the
Reformation, teaching, or dogma, again comes into the foreground.
Such changes of scenery are positively necessary in order to avoid
that fatal monotony of style which prevents the presentation -from
producing the proper impression. However, material cannot be ar
ranged under such categories alone. Sometimes individual churches,
in which the Christian spirit has taken on a peculiar stamp, such as
the Church of Africa, Alexandria, Antioch, Rome, Gerfhany, or
Slavonia, demand a separate treatment. Sometimes great and ex
citing events, that shake the entire Church, and the world itself,
break through the framework of established rubrics, and claim a
special treatment. This applies, for example, to the history of the
Crusades and the Reformation. A mode of arrangement that
regulates itself according to the nature of the material will, conse
quently, become necessary, and in such plan the division with re
gard to time, or into periods, demands special attention.
.SECTION X.
DIVISION I.NTO PERIODS.
The categories according to which the rich material of , Church
history i? distributed, whatever may be their character^ will be
crossed by the lines of chronological division. The measure of
these lines is found in those epochal events which have an import
ant bearing upon the whole of the history, but not in the external
symmetry of plan, or in occurrences of subordinate importance for
the Church. '
The division by centuries has, since Mosheim, been almost uni-
. versally given up. The principle of outward symme- The- centuriai
try, which certainly cannot be justified on scientific division wrong.
grounds, lay at its basis. But it cannot be denied, on the other
hand, that the beginning of a new century, for example, the eigh
teenth, occasionally introduces an epoch.' The special point at
' To divide a historical representation by centuries is connected witlf inconvenient
consequences. Events are not brought sharply to a close with any of them ; the life
and actions of mankind reach over from one to another. But all the reasons which
govern any method of arrangement are based simply on some preponderating feature.
Certain influences appear prominently in a certain century, without suggesting a de
sire to mistake the preparation for them, or to deny the future consequences they
may have produced. — Goethe, Farbenl, ii, p. 169.
21

322 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
which the epoch that introduces a new period is to be assumed can
hardly be definitely fixed, an approximation being the most that
can ordinarily be secured. While Schleiermacher remarks that " the
epochal points of chief importance are always such as not only pos
sess equal value for the functions of Christianity, but are also im
portant to historical development outside the Church,'" and the
principle is correct in the main, attention may yet be called to tlie
idea that distinct stages of development may be apparent in one
field sooner than in the other, and that, therefore, the epochs of
Church history can scarcely be identical with those of the history
of the world.
The dependence upon theology, to which the latter was subjected
in former days, may account for the custom of regarding certain
great phenomena in the religious sphere, particularly the introduc
tion of Christianity and the Reformation, in the light of epochs in
the history of the world as well. Indeed, they certainly are such
to the profounder researches of history into the past, though not to
the immediate historical percejJtion." The influence of Christianity
, . , upon the history of the world did not become apparent
Influences of r' j i i
christianitynot until much later, at the time of the overthrow of the
immediate. Roman Empire in the West. This event, therefore, is
better suited to be made an epoch in secular history than the
immediate appearance of Christianity in the world, although the
latter constitutes the most natural beginning of Church history.
A similar idea will apply to the Reformation. The political
transformation of Europe, which was doubtless directly promoted
by the religious, revolution, delayed its appearance in the world of
phenomena until the Peace of Westphalia. The latter, accordingly,
possesses greater significance for political history than does Ihe
Reformation, while, in importance to Church history, it is inferior
to the Reformation. In like manner, other and- evdn religious
events, for example, the appearance of Mohammed, occur, and form
epochs in the sphere of secular history, which yet have but a sub
ordinate importance for Church history as such, however grave may,
have been the consequences that reacted upon the fortunes of the
Church. An agreement of opinions will always be most readily
secured with reference to epochs in connexion with which the fac
tor that m#uld8 a period ' is most prominently displayed. These,
therefore, are epochs in the full breadth of the word.
'§ 166.
' Christianity is, no doubt, the hinge between the Old and the New World, but the
hinge Itself has a breadth — of centuries !
' The distinction between epoch and period is assumed to be from secular history.

DIVISION INTO PERIODS. 323
In this sense the adoption of Christianity by Constantine, and the
connected introduction of that faith to be the state relig- -what consti-
ion, unquestionably constitutes an epoch, although it may '"'** '^^ epoch.
be difficult to decide what year should begin the new period — A. D.
306, 312, or 325. With equal certainty Gregory VII. forms a strik
ingly noticeable feature in the history of the development of the
papacy, and hence of the institution with which the character of the
Church of the Middle Ages is involved. Nor will it escape the eye
of the observer that the period from Gregory VII. to the Reforma
tion embraces three stages — the progress of the papacy to the time
of Innocent III. ; its hold upon the elevation attained, to Boniface
VIII. ; and its subsequent decline, which may also be dated from
the removal of the papal chair to Avignon at a somewhat later day,
down to the period of the Reformation.'
Finally, none will deny that the division of the Church in the
sixteenth century forms an epoch in the treatment of ^^^ Reforma-
Church history from both a Roman Catholic and a Prot- tion a umver-
estant point of view, although the Council of Trent, ^ "»<*"•
rather than the Reformation, will be the turning point in the for
mer case." It will prove more difficult to find, on the other hand,
one or more resting places — excepting Gregory the Great and Char
lemagne, who are commonly assumed — between Constantine and
Gregory VII. that would be equally acceptable to all persons. It
is likewise difficult to fix an epoch between the Reformation and
our own time, though all are compelled to acknowledge that a crisis
intervened after the Thirty Years' War, and again during the first
decades of the eighteenth century. It is difficult, however, to con
nect these with some single event of marked prominence, in
asmuch as a multitude of factors co-operated to bring about
the revolution in the character of that time. It follows that the
settling of definite epochs will remain subject to a certain amount
of fluctuations, which, however, involves no loss to science when
the points upon which the whole must turn are clearly appre
hended. ' To overlook the wholly diverse nature of these two courses of development, and
the epochal effect of the removal of the chair to Avignon, is to misunderstand the
principal features in which the life of the Church pulsates. — ^Rettberg, Pref. to vol.
vii. of Schniid's Kirchengesch, p. vii. It is not easy to say why Gregory VII, should
not himself present a suitable beginning for a new period. — ^Fricke, i., p. 12.
' It is apparent how very different the periodizing of the history of the Reforma
tion must be when regard is had to the Reformation in Germany alone from what it
would become when that of other lands is also treated. It is usual to conclude the
history of the Reformation with the religious Peace of Augsburg (1555), but this
forms a real conclusion only for the German branch of ecclesiastical history.

334 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
SECTION XI.
PKOPER TREATMENT OF CHUECH HISTOKY.
The requirements for a thorough and profitable treatment of
Church history, are:
I. An impartial recognition of the facts secured by the inves
tigation of extant sources and documents. This is historical cri^
icism. 2. Unbiassed estimation of the historical material in harmony
with the law of the lower and higher causality. This we may call
historical pragmatism.
3. A living interest in Christianity, and a disposition to value its
manifestations according to the Christian standard. This is relig
ious fervour or enthusiasm.
I. It is evident that what has been indicated above can be re
quired only of this study in its finished state. This holds good es
pecially of the study of sources,' which can be required of the
beginner only in limited measure, and in connexion -with which the
labours of others must in any case prepare his way. Every theo
logian should, nevertheless, engage in the study of sources in some
directions, even though not. intending to make a specialty of Church
history, with a view to quicken the historical faculty, and become
able to estimate the labours of others in this field.
The criticism to be employed on sources is twofold. In one re-
Twofoid critl- spect it coincides in function with exegetical criticism,
cismofsources. ^s it deals with the authenticity and integrity of the
historical monuments which it designs to use. It is governed by
the same laws. To this philological criticism, however, is added
that of real history. The question arises, whether the authority to
whom we appeal could, in view of all his personal traits, his char
acter, culture, and outward circumstances, have stated the truth,
and whether he intended to state it ? The examination must be
impartially conducted, and the worth or worthlessness of the
source as a whole, together with the truthworthiness of each state
ment in particular, be determined accordingly. Care must be
taken, however, not to make the goal in this inquiry absolute truth,
but relative, and not to apply the measure of our requirements to
the earlier ages. A report based on the clear statements of a
Difference In trustworthy witness is termed reliable, while one that
reports. lacks Such complete confirmation is doubtful, unsup
ported, and possibly even suspicious. A correct historical judg
ment will guard against both a hypercritical or skeptical tendency,
' Comp. Schleiermacher, §§ 156, UI, 184, 190.

TRE.VTMENT OP CHURCH HISTORY. 32,T
and such an uncritical direction as amounts to a blind belief in
authorities and legends.
2. By the side of criticism stands pragmatism. To simply fur
nish approved narratives of facts, without any elaboration or add
ing of personal opinions, is the work of merely a good chronicler.'
The mission of the historian is of a higher character, for history is
a living, connected whole. The past is mirrored in the present,
and contains within itself the germs of the most distant future.
Every particular thing is the product of its age, which is itself
determined by the co-operation of many individual elements. Nor
can it be denied that national characteristics and constitutions, cli
mate, and various other things, exert an influence over the subjec
tive life, and that these, in turn, have a reflex influence upon the
objective life.
It follows that an endless chain of causes and effects runs
throflgh the whole of history, that is, through the de- Eeciprocai in-
velopment of the moral world in time as through that fluences.
of the physical world in space. To follow this chain, to ascertain
and comprehend, both the forces of attraction and of repulsion, ac
cording to the laws of social polarity, is the task of historical philos
ophy, or historical pragmatism. We postulate a twofold Twofold law of
law of causality, however, a lower and a higher, a mediate causality.
and an immediate. Every concrete fact appears to us, in part, as the
product of outwardly traceable, mechanical causes. But it must be
remembered that the causal element is itself the effect of other causes,
and that the new product contains within itself that causative power
which will produce still further effects. But underneath all the vari
ous causes, mutually sustaining and supporting as they are, must lie
a primal force, in which they find their absolute and positively ulti
mate base. In a true study of history each of these features will
receive due recognition. The tendency to an atomistic mode of
treatment must be limited and complemented by the dynamic, in
order that no feature be in any way exaggerated. To lead back
every, thing to known, accepted, and historical causes, and deduce
the most exalted matters from inferior antecedents, or explain the
original by what has been made or has come into being, what is
spiritually necessary and free by what is accidental and arbitrary —
in one word, to 'explain life by death, is belittling, and devoid at
once of taste and spirit.
This would become apparent if the attempt were made to explain
'On the distinction between chronicle and history, see Schleiermacher, §§ 152,
154. Upon the whole subject, compare Gervinus, Grundziige der Historik, Leip.,
1S37.

336 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
the spread of Christianity in the first three centuries simply on the
ground of the political and financial condition of the Roman State,
the pecuniary difficulties of certain emperors, the excellent charac
ter of the Roman roads throughout the realm, and other lesser
factors, or the Reformation as resulting merely from an insig
nificant quarrel between Augustinian and Dominican monks, or
Congregationalism from a personal grievance of Brown, or Meth
odism from John Wesley's individual disapprobation of Oxford
formality. For it is true, in appearance only, that what is greatest
not rarely springs from what is least, since what is mathematically
small is yet dynamically great. The oak comes only from the
True value of acorn. External and apparently accidental causes
obscure causes, ghould not be Overlooked and neglected, however, any
more than they should be overrated. To endeavour to trace
back every thing to a single, mysterious, primal cause, to the disre
gard of' intermediate links, is to transform history into an exhausted
garden, a magic lantern, out of which only disconnected, puzzling
shapes arise, just to vanish again by a mere turn of the hand. "A
shallow mind," says Herder, "finds and connects nothing in history
but facts; a perverted mind seeks for miracles in it." The truth
lies here, also, in the golden middle.'
The moral estimate to be formed of persons and their actions, is
likewise dependent on a correct pragmatism in the mode of treat
ment. Here, again, two extremes must be avoided. An atomistic
Extremes to be pragmatism is usually ready to apply the measure of
avoided. moral perception belonging to its own time to every his
torical phenomenon, and in this way to be dictatorial over history.
It scents fraud and base and dishonourable intentions everywhere, or
it rejects, as being silly and fanatical, everything that does got corre
spond with its ideal of good reason. On this method the mediaeval
manifestations of the papacy and monasticism, especially, receive
rough treatment, and doctrinal controversies assume the character
of simply hateful quarrels. This method has no apprehension of
the existence of the profounder impulses of the human spirit which
are displayed under these fanciful forms. It lacks the elevation of
soul that is needed to lift it out of its personal prejudices, and to
' There was a time — it can scarcely be termed fully past — when people found pleas
ure in explaining history, even in its most important points of change, out of mere
bliiid, accidental occurrences. This was termed the philosophical method. In our
days many have fallen upon a directly contrary method ; and this, too, is denominated
the philosophical method. — Reuchlin, Geschichte von Port Royal, p. 54. Comp. Ger
vinus, supra, p. 69 sq. In more recent times Gfrorer has come to occupy this ground
in part.

TRE.VTMENI OF CHURCH IIISTOUY. 327
enlarge the individual consciousness until it becomes commensurate
with that of the human species.'
The contrast to this narrow habit of observation is formed by
that sublime objectivity which, in entire abnegation of self, abstains
from expressing any moral judgment, and looks down from its
speculative watch-tower upon the evolutions of the world-spirit as
upon a divine drama. History thus becomes a merely natural
process, -without the suj)eradding of any moral element. Between
these two extremes, the one of which is involved in the nature of
deism and the other in that of pantheism, is the ground Upon which
' proceeds the truly theistic method of historical research, xhe theistic
whose principle is that history moves in the sphere of method. .
freedom, though guided by a Providence which binds and controls
all the threads of progress. This real history, therefore, also lies
in the sphere of a higher necessity — a necessity which cannot, of
course, be established by us on a priori principles, but may yet be
apprehended by that keen sensibility which improves under the
process of quiet observation.
It is said that "history is the tribunal of the world." But we
should probably find that the necessary documents for any real
and practica] application of the idea are wanting to us. God has
reserved the judgment for himself; and for this reason our judgment
should be exercised sparingly. The rule by which, in Church his
tory, we are to estimate the different phenomena connected with
the Church, can only be the word of God. This is the „ ,,
' . •' _ God s word the
canon by which we are to judge of every further stage standard of
of development in the Christian life. In connexion J'^'^sment.
with every new appearance we are to inquire, " How is it related
to the idea of Christianity, as laid down in the New Testament?"
This should not be construed to mean, however, that every spe
cial form of the Christian life which does not thoroughly resemble
that of the apostolic Church is to be rejected. Such a view would
I
' Hence, ,Neander, speaking with reference to the Crusades, says : " The lowest place
is occupied by cold reason, which, more than other judges, denies the native nobility
of human nature, and looks with aristocratic pity upon such times ; not because it is
governed by enthusiasm for the truly real, but because only that seems real to its judg
ment which is the lowest of all that appears, and because precisely what is most beau
tiful in this connexion is regarded by it as only fancy — namely, labour and daring
expended for things whose only value lies in the bosom of mankind." — Der heil. Bern-
hard (1st ed.), p. 210. "It is usual to say,'' observes a Roman Catholic writer, "that
the chest makes the orator. It may be said, in a higher sense, that the heart makes
the historian ; truth does not rest on criticism alone, but much more on the determina
tion to love it, even when its language is not pleasant." — Hist. pol. Blatter fiir das
kathol. Deutschland, 1S54, No.- 8, p. 654.

328 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
be the death of all history, whose very nature requires develop
ment. The developed life is related to the original like the plant
to the germ. The life of the germ, however, passes over into the
The principle plant ; and the principle of Christianity must similarly
must'"be^e"ver ^® traceable in every manifestation, any phase of church
present. life being morally justifiable only in so far as that prin
ciple can be made to appear. Wherever this principle is lacking,
or has been perverted into its contrary, the existence of a morbid
state cannot be mistaken, though there are many different degrees
in the malady. An entire institution in the Church, for instance
the papacy, may, with all its consequences, appear to deserve re
jection' from the standpoint of pure apostolical Christianity, as be
ing itself morbid and the product of morbid conditions, without
compelling the conclusion that the history of the popes is, for that
reason alone, a history of antichrist. On the one hand, it will be
necessary to consider the papacy itself in its historical relation to
the Christian world under its Germanic form, as the counterpoise
to barbaric wilfulness and boorishness ; and, on the other, to esti
mate the different popes by the measure of the papal idea, which
will at all events reveal a wide chasm between a Gregory VII. and
an Alexander VI.
It is also possible " for a historian to defend the mediaeval popes,
and, at the same time, to be a determined opponent of the persons
who desire the restoration of the papacy of the Middle Ages for
our own times.'" The same applies to monasticism, from which
the Reformation itself came forth, while the historical Reformation
differs from a mere abstract theory of doctrinal improvement by
reason of the fact that Luther passed through this very vital expe
rience of the mediaeval Church, upon which he was subsequently
called to exert a reformatory influence. A comforting feature in
Remedies in hi®*°^'y ^^^^ i^^ *^6 ^^^^ that error, even where it is most
even a corrupt obdurate, is yet manifested only as an excrescence upon
'^^' the truth, and that even a corrupt age contains within
itself, though unconsciously, the remedies upon which a later time
will lay hold with a more untrammeled judgment.
History thus becomes the teacher of the present, but only in the
entirety of its development, though it may be said, with greater
accuracy, that the present thus results from history. Hence it
must be regarded as a gross abuse to make history subservient to
so-called interests of the times and to personal preferences, in such
' Mohler, Kleine Schriften, i, p. 16. A striking example is found in Voigt in his
treatment of Gregory VII. ; comp. his Antwort an den Bischof von La Bochelle, June
21), 1S29, (in pref. to 2d ed.)

TREATMENT OF CHURCH HISTORY. S30
way as to compel it to yield either ideals with which to dazzle the
uninformed, or caricatures with which to excite their fears.' His
tory is thus reduced to the character of an armory to which every
combatant resorts for the weapon needed in any special emergency;
and what they term " the spirit of the times," which they thus call
up, according to their belief is not rarely " the spirit of the gentle
men themselves." '
3. Our third requirement, the moral and religious disposition, is
for this reason closely connected with the preceding: re- „ ,
,•' , r o Moral and re
marks. It was during an extended period considered ugious disposi-
the highest -wisdom of historical pragmatism to insist *'™'
that the historian should belong to no religion, and that, therefore,
the best Church History is that which displays the least affection
for its object, and, at the same time, evinces no preference for any
current tendency of thought — hence, which is distinguished by its
lack of colour and animation. We recall attention, at this point, to
our remarks on the objective tendency in exegesis. It is doubtless
true that prejudice iu any direction is damaging to free Damage from
historical vision. The historian should be Superior to prejudice.
the appeals of party interest. , But this does not imply that he
should neither have convictions nor express them. If such convic
tions do not amount merely to a clinging to blind prejudices, but
are, instead, the fruit of intellectual effort, they may find expres
sion, and naturally will, and ought to be, avowed, in proportion as
they are living convictions. The person who possesses an enthusi
asm for art, and has been initiated into the mysteries of its life, will
surely be more competent to write its history than one Best historians
who stands far aloof from it. Moreover, as a rule, the ^j^j^ ^^^""^^
best history of a people will be furnished by him who pie.
lias lived and felt with that people, and has been penetrated with a
'Schleiermacher, § 155, note: "An excited, egoistic interest, and, consequently,
every partial tendency, is a most potent influence to pervert the historical vision in
the scientific sphere, as in common life." Comp. Ullmann, p. 611 : " In an age that
Is agitated by the spirit of partisanship, nothing is so likely to mislead as the tempta
tion to make historical inquiry, among other things, subserve the demands of party
aud the interests of the day, because fame aud advantage may be thus secured, for
the moment; at least, if not permanently. But where this is the case, the thorough
and comprehensive study of sources will possess no great value." " The introduction
of present interests into historical labours," says Rauke, "generally results in hinder
ing the independent performance of such undertakings" (Pref. to Engl. Geschichte,
p. xi). Ranke, no doubt, follows his objective tendency to an extreme, with reference
to ecclesiastical contrasts as well as other matters. He writes history "in the placid
frame of n painter of fancy pictures." See the review iu the Augsburg Allgem,
Zeitung, supplement, .345, 1S60.

P.W HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
recognition of its most sacred interests — such as Tacitus, Moser,
J. von Mttller, Macaulay, Palacky. The objection might be raised;
indeed, that, for example, on this principle, the history of Islam
could be best treated by a Mohammedan, and that of Judaism by a
Jew. W^e must acknowledge the force of this reply, in so far as
the Christian inquirer into history who would know and describe
those religions as they are in their inmost being, will be required to
enter personally into the life of Mohammedanism or Judaism, so as
to reproduce them from within himself. It only remains to inquire
whether such reproduction be possible; and at this point frequent
errors have, unquestionably, taken place. Often, too, has the nar
row spirit of Cliristian ecclesiastical historians prevented them from
forming a correct estimate of the conditions of heathendom. For
christiamty not this, however, Chr-istianity must not be blamed. Where
nSw'chmcb ^^'^ latter has attained to its highest development, it
history. can be said with propriety that the Christian "proves
all things." For the most independent and unprejudiced repre
sentation of a lower condition is always executed from a higher
level. Indeed, the really moving principle of the lower
understood by State can be thoroughly apprehended and understood
the higher. by him only who occupies the higher leveL' The man
ner in which the Christian may apprehend and elaborate Judaism
and Mohammedanism differs greatly from the treatment which the
Jew or Mohammedan is able to accord to Christianity, or even to
his own religion, to which he stands related as a dreamer. The
" veil of Moses " is on their faces. The real character of such in
stitutions is apparent only to the awakened and sober research of
Christendom. The further elucidation of this question belongs to
apologetics. We do not assert that certain branches of Church
history are beyond the capacity cf persons who have no sympathy
with the vital principle of Christianity, or who are even in antagon
ism with it. But the efforts of such inquirers must be restricted
either to the mere collecting of material or to narrow criticisms,
while that which really gives movement and life to history remains
concealed from their vision. This was emphatically the case with
Gibbon. Life, in its inmost relations, is disclosed only to him who loves,"
' Upon this point we coincide with Mohler (Kleine Schriften, ii, p. 2S4), the only
difference being that he considers Roman Catholicism as constituting the highest stage,
while we assign that character to Protestantism. Which of these latter is better
qualified to understand the other, is, of course, a question of time, upon which, how
ever, our own opinion is formed.
' Marcus Aurelius was a good and also an intelligent man, but he was no more able

METHOD OP CHURCH HISTORY. 331
while it is doubtless true that the eye of a cold observer, or of a
foe, will be keener to discover faults and frailties than that of love,
which is often blind to such traits. Such blindness, however, is
checked by the cultivation of the true Christian spirit, ™_  , .
. •' . . r ) The Christian
which IS a spirit of truth. In this spirit, and in the spirit both lov-
measure in which it has been received into us, the im- '"* ^'^ ¦''^''
age of the Church is most accurately reflected, not, indeed, without
spot or wrinkle, but exactly as it is, and with all its lights and
shadows. The cold spirit of worldly wisdom catches upon the con
cave mirror of its really hollow head and heart only the caricature
of the original picture, while it remains itself unknown.'
SECTION XII. ,
METHOD OF CIIUECH HISTOEY.
It is impossible, in view of the wide extent of Church History, to
give equal attention to all the noteworthy factors within its do
main. For this reason the relation of the general to the particular
will be determined by the degree of theological interest which at
taches to a given matter. Every scholar who desires to work suc
cessfully upon details will need to possess a general and
systematic acquaintance with the whole field in its must be under-
synchronous relations, in order to which the study of ''°°^"
tables, or, better, the construction of them, will become necessary.
to conceive of the spirit that brought the martyrs to the stake, and strengthened them
there, than a person absolutely devoid of speculative ability is able to comprehend
Spinoza's ethics. — Kliefoth, Einl. in d. Dogmehgesch, p. 174.
' Gieseler says ; " The ecclesiastical historian must renounce party interest, as well
as prejudices arising from the peculiarities of his time. On the other hand, he can
not penetrate into the internal character of the phenomena in Church history without a
Christian, religious spirit, because no spiritual manifestation that is foreign to our
habits can be apprehended with historical correctness without being reproduced In the
imagination of the inquirer. Only such inquiry can discover where the Christian
spirit is (entirely wanting, where it is only used as a mask, and what other spirit has
taken its place. Nor will it fail to recognize its presence, even though finding expres
sion under forms of manifestation that are strange to our eyes." — Church History,
American edition, vol. i, pp. 23, 24. Comp. also Schleiermacher, § 193, and Fricke,
Lelu'buch der Kirchengesch, i, § 1. Thiersch makes it the great task of Church his
tory " to recognize what, in the course of events, was natural development, what was
human guilt, and what, in consequence of man's sin, supernatural interference." He
continues : " Church history rises to the character of « true and real theological sci
ence only when it connects the whole of the past with the present, and traces the
progress of events from the beginning of the Church to our day, in order thus to re
veal the work of the Church that now is, to lay a foundation for the understanding of
our own times, and open a conjectural view into the future of the Church." (Vorles
ungen iiber Protestantismus und Katholicismus, vol. i, p. 138 sq. Erlangen, 1846.)
Comp. also Ullmann, in the Preface to the 3d ed. of Neander, Church History.

332 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
But, from this whole, the Protestant theologian will be able to select
those particular sections in which the Church was either predomi
nantly engaged in the course of healthful development, or was
returning to such state, involving, of course, the leading features of
the history of its decline and degeneration during the Middle Ages,
and also, as a necessary connecting link, the grand outward form
assumed by the Church of that period.
Every scholar should, moreover, be especially acquainted with
the history of the Church, and the Reformation, and Protestantism,
in his own country; and, since the universal' derives animation and
clearness only through its details, it follows that the study of spe
cial features is to be recommended as being particularly fitted to
stimulate and shape the mind.
The field of Church history is infinite in its extent,' and there is,
consequently, no limit to the labours of the Church historian. The
studeiit, however, who is preparing for ordinary service in the
Church, the theologian in a general way, can only be required " to
be familiar with so much of this infinite material as is necessary to
his independent participation in the government of the Church."
To this end the general history of the Church, which furnishes him
Necessity of with the needed outline, is first of all necessary." Ev-
generai history. gj.y scholar should be SO familiar with this as to leave
no gap in the progress of centuries of development which he can
not fill with the names about which its principal reminiscences
cluster. The fixing of this synchronistic syllabus in the mem
ory, by the use of tables, is indispensable, the entering upon par
ticulars being nothing more than a planless digging and grubbing
unless such a picture of the whole has been impressed on the
mind. Nor is the mere picture all that is necessary. The outline must
be filled in, and made to live — a feature that should not be made to
depend on accidental circumstances. No general decision can be
rendered as to whether the history of the Church is more important
in its ancient, its intermediate, or its modern periods. It is easy to
see that the intermediate history will sustain a different relation to
both the ancient and the modern, according to the Protestant or
the Roman Catholic view. But it would be unhistorical, and ultra-
Protestant as well, to argue that we might dispense with the his
tory of the Middle Ages and the hierarchy as beyond the limits of
the Church. If it be regarded simply as a history of the decline
and corruption of the Church, it would be important to understand
it for that very reason. But it is more than this. It connects the
' Schleiermacher, § 184. « Schleiermacher', §§ 91, 186, 181.

METHOD OF CHURCH HISTORY. 333
various threads in many ways, however much it severs and entan
gles them in other respects; and it is necessar-v that such „
Ncc6ss3,rv to
points of connexion be recognized, and that the Roman underutand
Catholicism of the Middle Ages be apprehended in its ^^^^ ''^^^¦
principles, a work that is possible only when some acquaintance
with the details pf the material of history has been secured. It
would, nevertheless, lead away from the goal at which the Protes
tant student of theology aims in the study of Church History, if
special attention were directed, for instance, upon the details of the
history of the popes and religious orders, or of the Romish ritual —
as has been done in Hurter's Innocenz III.' — while only a rapid
survey is taken of the Reformation and the history of more recent
times, or too great brevity is exercised while treating the ancient
Church. The latter and the history of the Reformation, with the
events resulting from it, constitute, therefore, the real soil of the
Protestant Church, upon which the Protestant theologian should
by all means be at home, even though he may not ignore the Middle
Ages. The relation might almost be compared with that of the
study of the Old Testament to that of the New, in the department
of exegesis.
To the above we must add the Church history of the student's
native land. Every one ought to possess a more inti- Necessity otac-
mate knowledge of the founding and extension of Chris- quaintance
tianity in his own country, and be more familiarly history of"our
acquainted with the history of its ecclesiastical institu- °^'' country.
tions, and especially of Protestantism within its bounds, than will
be possible to him from general history alone. In this direction
private studies will become necessary to supplement the instruction
received in the theological seminary.
It is further necessary that just proportions be observed in the
extent of treatment accorded to the different departments in the
life of the Church. Protestants are inclined to discuss the history
' Comp. § 14, and Schleiermacher, §§ 154 and 191. We would direct attention to
the fact that, in the study of Church history in general, the leading object is not a
mere knowledge of details and the cramming of the memory — not merely conception,
but perception. Comp. Roth (in Gelzer's Prot. Mon. Blotter, 1851, Dec, p. 364): " The
objective history of the Church may be learned from lectures or books, and is an ob
ject of conception ; but the subjective history requires perception, as does scarcely
another study. If the latter be taken as the object of conception merely, it will afford
no nourishment to the mind. Is there anything more discouraging than an examina
tion at which the candidate expresses his opinion respecting Augustine, Bernard of
Claiiwaux, or Abelard, in the precise terms which he copied from the respective lec
tures ? " It appears, then, that to stimulate — be the subject what it may — remains
the principal object of the historical lecture.

334 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
of teaching with greater thoroughness than the history of constitn-
Protestant em- tions and worship. For a long time they neglected
hlTtor"" "of ^^^ history of art altogether, though it has now been
leachmg. properly restored by Hase, Piper, Hemans, and North-'
cote to a place in the organism of Church History. The history of
heresies should be treated in such way as to give prominence to the
principal tendencies represented by the several heresies, and avoid
distracting the gaze by dwelling too greatly upon unimportant de
tails. At the same time, the danger incident to the generalizing
process, of becoming superficial, and obliterating what is peculiar
in any particular instance, should not be overlooked. It will, ac
cordingly, be useful to pursue, at times, a thoroughly specific and
particular question down to its last threads, and this not only for
him who devotes himself professionally to the study of. Church
History, but for every person who desires to arrive at a clear
and living apprehension of the facts of ecclesiastical history in
general. This leads us to monography, and, more immediately, to biogra-
Necessity of pl^y- It is not only greatly instructive, but also truly
monogriaphy. refreshing and edifying, to enlarge one's own limited
life by the process of entering thoroughly into the life of an age,
or even of an individual and his inmost soul, until, so to speak, we
breathe, think, and feel with him, look with his eyes upon the outer
World, and travel, preach, and suffer with him. Let it be admitted
that a momentary partiality is likely to result from this process.
It will yet be most readily removed by a later absorption into a
contemporaneous character of different type, by which means a new
metempsychosis is passed through, and by a different road. An in
creased interest will also be obtained by studying, side by side, two
antagonizing personalities, which appear to have been raised up in
order to complement each other, like the two poles of the phy.sical
world; by explaining each by comparison with the other; and by
constructing, in a psychological way, the history to which they give
movement and life from such personal factors.
For illustration, let Bernard of Clairvaux be placed beside Arnold
Necessity of of Brescia, Anselm beside Abelard, Erasmus beside
parallels. Hutten, Luther beside Zwingli, Calvin beside Castellio,
Knox beside Cranmer, and Bossuet beside Fiinelon. Such parallels,
if drawn by the hand of some Christian Plutarch, would necessar
ily be highly suggestive. In connexion with this subject it is im
portant, however, that the law of mutual interaction be not over
looked, by which each age is seen to bo the product of the spiritual
and personal forces that exert a controlling influence upon it, while

HISTORY OF CHURCH HISTORY. 305
tTjiey, in turn, are the product of their age, having been rootedin a
long, extended past. It is equally improper to say that men make
history, and to regard them as being merely the expression and hu
man image of the prevalent spirit of their time. Every person is
the child of his time; but it is not given to every one to become the
father of a new generation.
While biography is undoubtedly a most valuable study for the
developing theologian,' it yet does not exhaust the task of monog
raphy. The description of special forms of ecclesiastical life, for
example, of Port Royal in the seventeenth century, and the pursuit
of special tendencies of mind down to their ultimate details, such
as monasticism, mysticism, and other vagaries, is, likewise, highly
instructive and invigorating, provided the particular subject be not
treated as a dry curiosity, but in its connexion with the entire de
velopment of the life of the Chiirch."
The Histoey of Chuech History.
* F. C. Baur, Epochen d. kiichl. Geschichtsschreibung, Tub., 1S52 ; Ter Haar, His-
toriographie der Kerkgeschiedenis, part i, Eusebius to Laurentius Valla ; part ii, Flac
cius to Semler, Utrecht, 1870-71. John G. Dowling, New Introduction to the Critical
Study of Ecclesiastical History, Attempted in an Account of the Progress, and a Short
Notice of the Services, of the History of the Church, Lond., 1838. Philip Schaff,
What isChiirch History? Phila., 1846.
The origin of the Church itself furnishes the necessary condition
for the origin of its history, and every monument of the life and
work of the Church is, directly or indirectly, a source for that his
tory. The construction of a historical represent;! tion could not be
undertaken before some time had elapsed, that is to say, before
ground had been gained upon which to rear the structure of Church
history. The first work of this kind was furnished bv
Eusebius, to A. D. 324, who availed himself, however,
of the labours of an earlier writer, Hegesippus, about A. D. 160.
Editions of Eusebius were pubhshed by Valesius, Paris, 1659 sqq.,
and Reading, Cant., 1720; manual edition by Heinichen, Leips.,
1827-39, 4 vols.; and by Burton, including Vita Constantini, 1838.
Later editions have been by Schwegler, 1852; Lammer, 1859; and
Dindorf, 1867. With regard to his trustworthiness, compare the
' Fricke says : " Every person is an individual mirror of his time. But the great
spirits of any age are those who are most pure, clear, and prophetic. It should never
he forgotten, however, that both for the purposes of conception and representation,
they are only important as being the especially prominent expression of the common
mind of their respective times, which ought always to be apprehended," p. 6.
' Upon this point compare, especially, Ullmann in the Preface to Treohsel, History
of Early Antitrinitarians.

336 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
works of Moeller, I8I3, Danz, 1815, Kestner, I8I7, Reuterdahl,
1826, Rienstra, 1833, and Baur, 1834.
Eusebius was succeeded by Socrates, Sozomen, Theodoret, and th'=!
Arians, and by Philostorgius in the fifth century, and Theodorus and
Evagrius in the sixth. Concerning the first three, compare Hdz-
hausen, 1825. The Arians are fonnd in the editions by Reading
and Valesius.
The Latin Church was less prominently engaged than the Greek
Latin histo- during the first period in writing Church history. Men-
rians. jJqjj sjiould, however, be made of Rufinus, the trans
lator of Eusebius, Sulpicius Severus at the beginning of the fifth
century, Cassiodorus and Epiphanius (Tripartita History) in the mid
dle of the sixth, and Gregory of Tours at its close. In the Middle
Ages the following chroniclers in the West are prominent, besides
the Byzantines (collected by Niebuhr, 1828 sqq., 46 vols.) — Syncel-
lus, Theophanes, and Nicephorus, in the fourteenth century; Jor-
nandes (550), Gregory of Tours (died 595), the Venerable Bede
(died 735), Paul Warnefried (died 795), Haymo of Halberstadt
(died 853), Anastasius (died 886), Hermannus Contractus (died
1054), Lambert of Herzfeld (died 1077), Sigbert of Gemblours
(Gamblacensis, died II 12), Adam of Bremen (died about 1076), and
still others. Besides these are many martyrologists and legend
writers, who are generally uncritical and deficient in the qualities
belonging to the historian.
The influence of the Reformation was less immediately effective
Reformation of upon Church history than upon exegesis. It wa? not
OTurcThiTtOTy ""^'1 af*^'' t^^ religious Peace of Augsburg, when the
than exegesis, storms were in part over, that a number of Lutheran
theologians at Magdeburg, headed by Matthias Flacdus (Illyricus),
undertook a diffuse history of the Church, arranged by centuries,
and, at the same time, under rubrics. This is the Magdeburg Cen
turies, 1559-74. ' The work consisted of thirteen folio volumes,
each of which covered a century. The German edition is by Count
Mttnnich, Hamburg, 1855. Compare Twesten's Matthias Flacius,
Berlin, 1844, pp. 16, 17. In opposition to the Centuries, Csesar
Baronius published Ecclesiastical Annals (12 vols., Rome, 1588-
1607) extending to 1 198; other editions, with continuations, have
also been issued from a Romish point of view.
For a long time afterward Church history was cultivated simply
in the interests of denominational parties. Of Lutherans, the more
prominent writers were Kortholdt, Ittig, Cyprian, Buddaeus, Weiss-
mann, and Pfaff. Among the Reformed we may mention Hospin-
ian, Turretin, J. Hottinger, Jablonsky, and others. Of Roman

HISTORY OF CHURCH HISTORY. 337
Catholics we enumerate Natalis (Noel), Alexander, Fleury, Bos
suet, and Tillemont. To these names might be added _ . .,
' ° , Denomlnatlon-
those of members of the order of St. Maur in France, ai character of
who rendered useful service by publishing editions of ^^ ^ '^'
the Church Fathers, and by the investigation of special portions of
Church history. The mystic Gottfried Arnold endeavoured to
give an impartial attitude to Church history by taking the part of
the hitherto despised heretics and sectarians, in his History of the
Church and of Heretics, published in 1699, and frequently since.
But his impartiality became partiality in their behalf. The great
Mosheim, who died in 1755, was the first to succeed in „ . . ^.
' ' . Mosheim the
obtaining for Church history the character of an inde- reformer of
pendent science, and from his time Gottingen became ?^'''^'""''^'"''y-
the seat of ecclesiastical historiography.' Special departments of
Church history were industriously cultivated by Chr. Wilhelm Fr.
Walch, who tiled in 1784, and by his father, Joh. Georg Walch,
of Jena, who died in 1775.
Semler made use of criticism that was carried to the extent of scep
ticism, but " without any capacity to appreciate the peculiar condi
tions of earlier times," '' or a single trace of historical art. At this
time the influence of modern views also began to make itself felt,
giving rise to the pragmatical method of writing history. We
must regard G. J. Planck, of Gottingen, as the chief representative
of this tendency. L. T. Spittler wrote a manual which is thought
ful, though evincing a rather worldly judgment, and devoted to the
service of the enlightenment of the age. By its perspicuous ar
rangement, however, it affords a clear view of the field. Schrockh's
work, in forty-five volumes, furnishes a rich wealth of material, and
is written from the standpoint of moderate orthodoxy. The ra
tionalistic idea of Church history, by which it becomes predomi
nantly the history of human folly, finds expression in Henke.
Schmidt, of Giessen, retraced the way to that purely objective pos
ition which requires indifference as the primary and cardinal virtue
of history. Danz and Gieseler, in their text-books — the latter fur
nishing a more judicious and comprehensive selection — led the stu
dent back to the sources, by accompanying the text step by step with
extended quotations from the original authorities. Gieseler, espec
ially, has added the most thorough elucidations of difficult points.
This pre-eminently learned treatment was followed by the or
thodox and emotional method of Neander, who made
it his object to present the history of the Church upon
the basis of learned inquiry, "as a speaking demonstration of the
' Compare F. Luecke, De Joanne Laurentio Moshemio, Gott., 1837. " Hase.
23

338 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
divine power of Christianity, as a school of Christian edification,
doctrine, and warning, for all who are willing to hear." ' While bis
glance was almost exclusively directed to tbe internal side of eccle
siastical events, in oi-der to ascertain their religious importance, the
rich mind of Hase reflected, in all its features, the image of the
times which, by his artistic skill, he outlines in glowing colours for
such persons as are already somewhat familiar with the subject.
Geuricke, occupying the position of a prejudiced denominational
polemic, employed the rich material, which had to some extent been
borrowed from other writers, for the purpose of a defence of Luther
anism, accompanied with unjust insinuations against the Reformed
Church views. A similar, though more independent, disposition
characterizes the work of Kurtz, which is distinguished, however,
by the richness of its material. Schleiermacher has left a valuable
work behind him in his Church History. It, liowever, lays no claim
to completeness, and is rather a magnificent sketch in the spirit of
the author than a work of history. Baur lias given the results of
his critical inquiries and combinations from the standpoint of a defi
nite, philosophical theory, in a series of descriptions of the several
periods, which have lately been combined into a whole.
In the Roman Catholic Church various tendencies likewise come
into view. Jansenism found its organs, and .also the Illuminati of
the reign of Joseph II. of Austria (1765-90), both being in oppo
sition to the method of writing history in support of nltramontan-
isra. Stolberg's Church History came to an end with the year 530,
and was continued by Kerz to the year 1300, and by Brisch.ar to tbe
present time. Among later works, those by Katerkainp, Ritter
Locherer, D(jellinger, Annegarn, Reichlin-Meldezg, and Alzog are
of principal importance.
ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE OF CHURCH HISTORY.
I. GENEEAL CHtJECH HISTOEY.
Allen, Joseph Henry. Christian History in its Three Great Periods. 1 Grno, 3 vols.
Boston, 1883. (This book contains the Fragments of Christian History, published
by the same author in 1880.)
Alzog, John. A Manual of Universal Church History. Translated from the ninth
enlarged and improved German edition, and edited and brought down to tbe
present time by F. J. Pablsch and Thomas S. Byrne. .1 vols. I. Early Church
History. II. 'The Middle Ages. III. To the Present Time. Svo, pp. xiii, 776 •
XV, 1096; xiv, 1090. Cincinnati, 1874-78. (Tlie best Roman Catholic Church
history that wo have in English dress.)
Blackburn, W. M. History of the Christian Church, from its Origin to the Present
Time. Svo, pp. viii, 719. Cincinnati, 1879.
' Hagenbach, Neander's Verdlenste und KlrchenKeschlchte, In Stud. u. Krit., 1851, No. 2; o
Krabbe, Aug. Neander, Hamb., 1852 ; Ullmann, Pref. to the 3d ed. of Neander's Church History!

LITERATURE OP CHURCH HISTORY. 339
Butler, 0. M. An Ecclesiastical History, from the 1st to the 19th Century. Svo,
2 vols. Philadelphia, 1868-72.
Campbell, George. Lectures on Ecclesiastical History. New edition. Svo, pp. 458.
London, 1840.
DoUlnger, John Joseph Ignatius. Manual of Church History. Translated from Dr.
Dollinger'sun&Dlshed Handbook of Christian Church History, 1833, and Manual
of Church History, 1836, by Edward Cox. Svo, 4 vols. London, 1840-42.
Dowling, J. G. An Introduction to the Critical Study of Ecclesiastical History.
London, 1848.
Gieseler, John C. L. Text-Book of Church History. 5 vols. Bonn, 1824-56. Best
edition, translated by Henry B. Smith. 5 vols. New York, 1857-80. (Giese-
ler's citations from the original texts are of the utmost value.)
Guericke, H. E. F. Handbook of Church History. Translated, in part, by W. G. T.
Shedd. Svo, 2 vols., pp. xvi, 433; viii, 160. Andover, 1857 and 1870. Vol. I,
to A. D. 590. Vol. II, to A. D. 1073.
Hardwick, Charles. A History of the Christian Church. 12mo, 2 vols. Vol. I,
Middle Ages, with Maps constructed for the Work, by A. Keith Johnson.
Vol. II, The Reformation. Cambridge and London, 1861-65.
Hase, Charles. A History of the Christian Church. Translated from the German
by C. E. Blumenthal and C. P. Wing. Svo, pp. xxlv, 720. Mew York, 1855-70.
(A tenth edition of the original appeared in 1877.)
Hitchcock, R. D. The True Idea and Uses of Church History. New York, 1856.
Hurst, John Fletcher. Short History of the Christian Churcli ; with Maps. Svo,
pp. xxxv, 672. New York, 1893. (Very full on the Reformation and post-
Reformation periods, this section covering the space from p. 195 to p. 642.
Tlie tables and indexes add much to Its value.)
Hurst, J. P. Outlines of Church History. 12mo. New York, 1884.
Index to Neander's General History of the Christian Religion and Church. Svo,
pp. 239. Boston, 1881.
Jennings, A. C. A Manual of Church History. Svo, 2 vols. Vol. I, From the
First to the Tenth Century. Vol, II, From the Tenth to the Nineteenth Cen
tury. London, 1887, 1888; also New York.
Jones, W. Tlie History of the Christian Church, from the Birth of Christ to the 18th
Century; including History of the Waldenses and Alblgenses. Svo, 2 vols.,
pp. XV, 483; vii, 492. London, 1826.
Kurtz, John Henry. Text-Book of Church History. Translated, with Corrections
and Additions. Svo, 2 vols. Philadelphia, 1860, 1881. (The ninth edition of
the original appeared in 1885 in 2 vols., 4 parts. This manual has a high stand
ing in Germany.)
Lawrence, E. Historical Studies. Svo, pp. 508. New York, 1876. (Contents:
The Bishops of Rome ; Leo and Luther ; Loyola and the Jesuits ; Ecumenical
Councils; The Vaudols; The Huguenots ; The Church of Jerusalem; Domiulc
and the Inquisition ; The Conquest of Ireland; The Greek Church.)
Matheson, G. Growth of the Spirit of Christianity from the First Century to the
Dawn of the Lutheran Era. Svo, 2 vols. Edinburgh, 1877.
Milner, Joseph. The History of the Church of Christ, Continued by the Rev. I.
Mllner. New edition. Revised by Thomas Grantham. Svo, 5 vols. London,
1794-1809, and often after. (This is more a history of the good men of the
Christian Church than a Church history in the proper sense. It has, however,
been frequently reprinted. It has been continued to a later date by several
writers, among others from 1530 to the eighteenth century, by Stebbing.)

340 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
Moffatt, James C. Church History In Brief. 16mo, pp. 492. Philadelphia, 1888.
Mosheim, John Lawrence. Institutes of Ecclesiastical History, Ancient and Modern.
Translated from the Latin, with Copious Additional Notes, Original and Selected,
by James Murdock. Svo, 3 vols. New York, 1854. 3 vols, in one. Svo, pp.
470, 485, 506. Now York, 1881.
Neander, J. Augustus W. General History of the Cliristian Religion and Church.
Translated from the German by Joseph Torrey. Svo, 5 vols. Boston, 1S54.
12mo, Svols. London and New York, 1861. Tweltli edition. Boston, ISSl.
(In the preface to his first edition Neander describes his purpose to be the exhibi
tion of " the history of the Church of Christ as a living witness of the divine
power of Christianity, as a school of Christian experience, a voice sounding
through the ages, of instruction, of doctlne, and of reproof for all who are dis
posed to listen." In this spirit he has performed Ids task.)
Palmer, William. A Compendious Ecclesiastical History, from the Earliest Period
to the Present Time. American Edition, with Preface and Notes, by Bishop
Whittingham, of Maryland. ]2mo. 1S62.
Robertson, James Craigle. History of the Christian Church. Svo, 4 vols. Vol. I,
A. D. 64-590. Vol. II, A. D. 590-1122. Vol. Ill, A. D. 1122-1303. Vol. IV,
A. D. I,'i03-1517. London, 1854-75.
Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church. Christianus sum : Christiani nihil
a me alienum puto, A new edit'on, revised and enlarged. Vol. I, Apostolic
Christianity, A. D. 1-100, pp. S71. Now York, 1882. Vol. 11, Ante-Nicene Chris
tianity, A. D. 100-325, pp. 877. Vol. Ill, Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity,
A. D 311-600, pp. 1049. New York, 1884. Vol. IV, Mediseval Cliristianity,
A. D. 590-1073, pp. 799. New York, 1 SS6. Vol. VI. The German Reforma
tion, A. D. 1519-1530, pp. 755. New York, ISSS. (Volume V has been de
ferred, and Vol. VII is announced as in press. Of t'.ie great merit of this His
tory it is needless to speak.)
Schaff, Philip. General Introduction to Church History, Bibliotheca Sacra, Vol.
VI, 1849, p. 409 (pp. 33) ; and Progress ot Church History as a Science, Bib.
Sac, Vol. VII, 1850, p. 54 (pp. 37).
Schaff, Philip. What is Church History? A Vindication of the Idea of Historical
Development. 12mo, pp. 128. Philadelphia, 1846.
Smith, Henry B. History of the Church of Christ in Chronological Tables. With
Two Supplementary Tables upon the Church in America, and an Appendix Con
taining the Series of Councils, Popes, Patriarchs, and other Bishops, and a Fnll
Index. Folio, pp. 92. New York and London, 1875. (A most valuable work
of reference.)
Smith, H. B. Nature and Worth of the Science of Church History. Andover, 1851.
In Bibliotheca Sacra, Vol. VIII, 1851, p. 412 (pp. 30).
Stanley, A. P. Christian Institutions : Essays on Ecclesiastical Subjects. (Bap
tism and the Eucharist, Absolution, Ecclesiastical Vestments, the Basilica, the
Clergy, the Pope, the Litany, the Roman Catacombs, the Creed of the Early
Christians, the Lord's Prayer, the Coimcil and Creed of Constantinople, the
Ten Commandments.) Svo. London, 1881; fourth edition, 1884; also 12mo.
New York.
Stanley, A. P. Three Introductory Lectures on the Study of Ecclesiastical His
tory. Svo. Oxford, 1857. Republlslied as an Introduction to the American
Edition of the Author's History of the Eastern Church. New York, 1873.
Waddlngton, George. History of the Church, from the Eariiest Ages to the Refor
mation. Svo, 3 vols., pp. xi, 460; vlll, 433; x, 437. London, 1841.

LITERATURE OF CHURCH HISTORY. 341
n. SPBCIAL CHURCH HISTOEY.
1. Tlie Ancient Period.
Aristides, The Apology of, from a Syriac Manuscript Preserved on Mount Sinai.
Edited with an Introduction and Translation by J. Rendel Harris. With an
Appendix Containing the Main Portion of the Original Greek Text, hy J. A.
Robinson. 12mo, pp. iv, 118, 32. 1S91. (This imporlaut contribution to our
knowledge of early Cliriatiauity is published as one of the Cambridge " Texts
and Studies.")
Backhouse, K., and Tylor, C. Early Church History to the Death of Constan
tine. With a Biographical Preface by Dr. Hodgkin. Svo, pp. 314. London,
1892.
Baur, Ferd. Christ. The Christians and the Christian Church of the First Three
Centuries. Tubingen, 1853. Trauslatied by A. Menzies. 8>vo, 2'yols., pp. 256,
300. London, 1879.
Burton, Edward. Lectures Upon the Ecclesiastical History of the First Three Cen
turies. Svo, 2 vols. Oxford, 1833 ; also 1845.
Butler, Alfred J. The Ancient Coptic Churches of Egypt. Svo, 2 vols. Oxford,
1885. (An accurate account of the present state of the buildings, antiquities,
and ritual of the Coptic Church, " based on observations and experiments made
with pencil, measuring-tape, rule, and compass.")
Cave, William. Priiruiti.ve Christianity ; or, The Kellgion of the Ancient Christians In
tbe First Ages of the Gospel. Svo, pp. xiv, 464. Revised edition. Oxford,
1S40. (An old work frequently reprinted )
Cave, William. Lives of the Most Eniiueut Fathers of the Church that Flourished
in the First Four Centuries. 2 vols. 1683. Revised edition In 3 vols. Oxford,
1840.
Chrystal, James. Authoritative Cliristianity. The First fficumenical Council, Ita
Undisputed Remains, with an Euglish Translation. Svo, pp. xvi, 483. Jersey
City, 1891.
Colman, Lymau. Ancient Christianity E.vempllfied in the Private, Domestic, Social,
and Civil Life of tlie Primitive Christians, and in the Original Institutions,
OfBces, Ordinances, and Rites of the Church. Svo, pp. 645. Philadelphia,
1853. (An excellent manual by no means out of date.)
Cooper, B. H. The Free Church of Ancient Christendom and its Subjugation under
Constantine. 12 mo, pp. 400. London, no date.
Dale, Alfred William Wiuterslow. Tlie Synod of Elvira, and Christian Life in the
Fourth Century. A Historical Essay. "Nisi Dominus, aedificaverit Domum
in vanura laboraverunt qui aedificant earn." Svo, pp. xxviii, 354. London,
1882.
De Soyres, J. Montanism and the Primitive Church. A Study in the Ecclesiastical
History of the Second Century. Hulsean Prize Essay, 1877. Svo, pp. 163.
London, 1878.
DoUlnger, .loliann Josepli Ignaz. The First Age of Christianity. Translated by
H. N. Oxenham. Svo, 2 vols. London, 1866.
DoUinger, J. J. I. Hippolytus and Callistus ; or. The Church of Rome in the First
Half of the Third Century. In German, 1853. Translated by Alfred Plummer.
Svo, pp. 360. Edinburgh, 1876.
Donaldson, James. A Critical History of Christian Literature and Doctrine from
the Death of tlie Apostles to the Nicene Council. Svo, 3 vols., pp. 319, 344, 305.

343 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
London, 1866. (Vol. I discusses the Apostolic Fathers ; Vols. II and III, the
Apologists. So much light has been thrown upon ancient Christianity by
recent discoveries that the concltisions of Dr. Donaldson at various ppints must
be modified.)
Duff, David. The Early Church. A pistory of Christianity iu the First Six Cen
turies. Svo, pp. viii, 623. Edinburgh, 1891.
Early Christian Literature Primers. I. The Apostolic Fathers and the Apologists
of the Second Century. II. The Fathers of the Third Century. III. The Post-
Nicene Greek Fathers. IV. The Post-Nicene Latin Fathers. Edited by George
A. Jackson. 16mo. New York, 1883-84. (These httle manuals form a good
introduction to ancient Church history.)
Eliot, Samuel. History of the Early Christians. Svo, 2 vols., pp. 393, 417. Lon
don, 1853. (Through the reign of Justinian.)
Etheridge, J. W. The Syrian Churches : Their Early Histoiy, Liturgies, and Liter-
aKure. With a Literal Translation of the Four Gospels, from the Peshito, etc.
12mo, pp. 53S. London, 1846. (Contains an extended notice of the Nestorians
and several of the Syrian sects.)
Eusebius Pamphilus. Cliurcli History. Translated, with Prolegomena and Notes, by
Arthur C. McGifEert. Large Svo, pp. x, 632. Oxford, London, and New York,
1890. (This is the best edition of Eusebius. It is one of the volumes of the
Nicene and post-Nicene Fathers of the Church, edited by Philip SchafE and
Henry Wace.)
Fisher, G. P. The Beginnings of Christianity, with a View oPtlie State of the Roman
World at the Birth of Christ. Svo, pp.«li, B91. New York, 1877.
Greek Ecclesiastical Historians (The) of "the First Six Centuries of the Christian
Era : Eusebius, Socrates, Sozomen, Theodoret, and Evagrius. 6 vols. Londou,
1843-47.
Guericke, Henry E F. The Ancient Church, Comprising the First Six Centuries.
Translated by William G. T. Shedd, D,D., with a Preface by the Translator, a
Chronological Table, an Index, and a Series of Questions. Svo, pp. xvi, 433.
Andover, 1857 and 1870.
Hatch, E. The Organization of the Early Christian Chnrehes. Bampton Lectures
for 1880. Svo, pp. 216. Oxford and Cambridge, ISSl. (A work of great
originality, and destined to modify the prevalent theory of the Church's first
organization.)
Hefele, Charies Joseph. A History of the Councils of the Church, from the Original
Documents. Translated by Henry Natcombe Oxenham. Svo, 3 vols., to A. D.
451; pp. xi, 502; xvi, 603; xii, 480. Edinburgh, 1882, 1883. (One of the
great works on the early Church councils.)
Heurtley, C. A. A History ofthe Earlier Formularies of Faith of the Western and
Eastern Churches; to which is added an Exposition of the .Athanasian Creed.
Svo, pp. 162. London, 1692.
Hinds, Samuel. The Rise and Early Progress of Christianity. 12mo, pp. xv, 397.
London and Glasgow, 1860. (Originally a contribution to the Encyclopsedia
Metropolitana. Jolm Henry Newman contributes to the volume an essay on
ApoUonius of Tyana.)
Hitchcock, Roswell D., and Brown, Francis. Teaching of the Twelve Apostles.
Svo, pp. cxv, 85. New York, 1885. New edition, revised, aud greatly
enlarged.
Jackson, Samuel M. Lipsius on the Roman Peter Legend. In the Presbyterian
Quarterly and Princeton Review, Now York, 1876, p. 265, sqg.

LITERATURE OF CHURCH HISTORY. 343
Jackson, F. J. History of the Christian Church from the Earliest Times to the
Death of Constantine, A. D. 337. With Chronological Tables, Index, etc, Svo,
pp. 346. Cambridge, 1881.
Jeremie, J. A. History of the Cliristian Church in tlie Second and Third Centuries.
Small Svo. London, 1852. (Originally published in the Encyclopsedia Metrp-
politana.)
Julian the Emperor. Containing Gregory Nazianzen's Two Invectives and Libanius's
Monody, with Julian's Extant Theoso-phical Works. Translated by C. W.
King. 12mo, pp. 280. New York, 1888.
Kaye, Bishop John. Ecclesiastical History of the Second and Third Centuries. Illus
trated irom the Writings of Tertullian. Svo. London, 1845.
Kaye, Bishop John. Some Account of the Council of Nica^a, in Connection wilh the
Life of Athanasius. Svo, pp. vii, 306. Londou, 1853. (A work by one of the
learned English bishops.)
Killen, W. D. The Ancient Church : Its History, Doctrine, Worship, and Constitu
tion Traced for the First Three Hundred Years. A New Edition, Carefully
Revised, with a Preface, by John Hall, D.D. New York. Original edition in
Svo. London, 1859.
Kiug, C. W. The Gnostics and their Remains, Ancient and Medlajval. Containing
Illustrations of Gnostic Art and Symbols. Svo, pp. 466. London, 1864. (The
second edition. New York and London, 1887, contains a bibliography of Gnos
ticism, by Joseph Jacobs.)
Lameon, Alvan. The Church ofthe First Three Centuries ; or. Notices of the Lives
and Opinions of Some of the Early Fathers, with Special Reference to the Doc
trine of the Trinity; Illustrating its Late Origin and Gradual Formation. Svo,
pp. 352. Boston, ISOO.
Lightfoot, J. B. St. Clement of Rome. An Appendix Containing the Newly
Recorded Portions. With Introductions, Notes, and Translations. Svo,
pp. vii, 223-470. Lou'lon, 1877. (This work is a supplement to the
author's edition of St. Clement Is.sued in 1869, and was made necessary by
the publication of the Bryeniiios Manuscript In 1875, The title of the
earlier work is St. Clement of Rome: Tlie Two Epistles to the Corinthians.
A Revised Text, etc. The Appeudix necessarily supersedes much of the first
edition.)
Lightfoot, J. B. The Apostolic Fathers. Part II, St. Ignatius and St. Polycarp.
Revised Texts, 'with Introductions, Notes, Dissertations, and Translations. Svo,
2 vols., pp. 740, 1117. London, 1885. (The genuineness of the seven Ignatian
epistles of the shorter form is accepted, and Cureton's Syriac form is rejected,
in so far as it claims to he the representative of the original Ignatius. A work
of great value to the student of Church history.)
Lundy, John P. Monumental Christianity; or. The Art and Symbolism, of the
Primitive 'Church as Witnesses and Te&chers of the One Catholic Faith and
Practice. 4to. New Y irk, 1S76. Now edition, enlarged, illustrated, pp. 453.
1882.
Mahan, Milo. A Church History of the First Seven Centuries. Second edition.
Svo. New York, 1878. (This is an enlarged edition of the same author's
Church History of the First Three Centuries.)
Maitland, Charles. The Church in the Catacombs. A Description of the Primitive
Church of Rome. Illustrated by Its Sepulchral Remains. Svo, pp. 396. Lon
don, 1847. (Contains many copies of the Inscriptions.)
Mansel, Henry Longueville. The Gnosiic Heresies of the First and Second Cen-

344 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
furies. With a Sketch of the Work, Life, and Character of the Author, by the
Eari of Carnarvon. Edited by J. B. Lightfoot. Svo, pp. xxxii, 288. London,
1875. (Rich in matter and lucid in style.)
Mason, A. J. The Persecutions of Diocletian. Hulsean Prize Essay, 1874. Svo,
pp.370. London, 1876. (A defense of Diocletian.)
Maurice, F. D. , Lectures on the Ecclesiastical History of the First and Second Cen
turies. Svo, pp. 401. Cambridge and London, 1854.
Merivale, 0. Four Lectures on Some Epochs of Early Church History. Svo. Lon
don, 1879.
Milman, Henry Hart. The History of Christianity from the Birth of Christ to the
Abolition of Pag.auism In the Roman Empire. 12mo, 3 vols., pp. 485, 478, 507.
New York, 1866.
Moehler, Wilhelm. History of the Christian Church, A. D. 1-600. Translated from
the German by Andrew Rutherford. 8-vo, pp. xii, 545. London and New
York, 1892.
Mommsen, Theodor. Roman Catao mbs. In the Contemporary Review, Vol. XVII
(1871), pp. 160-175.
Mosheim, J. L. Historical Commentaries on the State of Christianity During the
First Three Hundred and Forty-five Years of the Christian Era. Vol. I, Trans
lated by S. VIdal. Vol. II, Translated by James Murdoch. Svo, pp. 537, 512.
New York, 1852.
Newman, J. H. The Arians of the Fourth Century. Tliird edition. ]2mo, pp. 478.
London, 1871.
Norlhoole, J. Spencer. Epitaphs of the Catacombs; or, Christian Inscriptions in
Rome During the First Four Centuries. Svo, pp. xl, 193. London, 187S. (The
author has studied the Catacombs themselves, but has taken his inscriptions
mainly from Do Rossi.)
Northcote, J. S., and Brownlow, W. R. Roma Sotterranea. SvQ, pp. 368. London,
1879. Illustrated.
Parker, John Henry. The Archseology of Rome. Illustrated. Svo. London and
Oxford, 1877.
Roberts, Alexander, and Donaldson, James. The Ante-Nicene Fathers. Transla
tions ofthe Writings of the Fathers down to A. D. 325. American Reprint of
the Edinburgh Edition. Revised and Chronologically Arranged, witli Brief
Prefaces and Occasional Notes, by A. Cleveland Coxe, D.D. Vol. I, Apostolic
Fathers — Justin M'lrlyr, Irenseus. Svo, pp. 602, double columns. Buffalo,
1887. (This entire series of eight volumes, edited by Bishop A. Cleveland Coxe,
is issued by tlie Christian Literature Publishing Company. A ninth volume is
added, containing a bibliographical synopsis and a general index. The best
edition in English of the Ante-Nicene Fathers.)
Schaff, Philip. A Select Library of the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christ
ian Church. Svo, double columns. New York, Christian Literature Company,
1887-90. (The first series, beginning wiih Augustine and closing with
Chrysostom, is in fourteen volumes. The second series begins with Eusebius ;
of this, five volumes have been Issued, the last on Gregory of Nyssa. Of the
Church Fathers this Is the best edition iu English.)
Semisch, Charles. Justin Martyr: His Life, Writings, and Opinions. From the
German, by J. E. Ryland. 16mo, 2 vols., pp xx, 348; vl, 3S7. Edinburgh,
1843. (Semisch is an auihority contiiiimlly quoted. His examination of the
works of Justin is of the most minute and painstaking kind.)
Socrates. Ecclesiastical History ; from the Accession of Constantine, A.D. 305, to the

LITERATURE OP CHURCH HISTORY. 345
Thirty-eighth Year of Theodosius II, Including a Period of 140 Years. With the
Notes of Valesius. 12mo, pp. 449. London, 1853.
Stanley, A. P. Sermons and Essays on the Apostolic Age. Svo, pp. 384. Oxford,
1848.
Stanley, A. P. Lectures on the History of the Eastern Church, with an Introduc
tion on the Study of Ecclesiastical History. Svo, pp. xxiv, 551. New York,
1862. New edition. New York, 1884. (Not very critical but brilliant.)
Taylor, Isaac. Ancient Christianity and the Doctrine of the Oxford " Tracts for the
Times." Fourth edition, with a Supplement. Svo, 2 vols. Loudon, 1844. (A
polemic against the Oxiord Movement.)
Taylor, W. C. History ofChristianity; from its Promulgation to its Legal Establish
ment In the Roman Empire. Svo. Oxford, 1844.
Tyrwhitt, R. St. John. The Art Teaching of the Primitive Church; with an Index of
Subjects, Historical and Emblematic. 12mo, pp. 382. London, no date.
UUman, Carl. Gregory of Nazlanzum. A Contribution to the Ecclesiastical History
ofthe Fourth Century. Translated by G. V. Cox. 16mo, pp. xvi, 317. Lon
don, 1851.
Uhlhorn, Gerhard. The Conflict of Christianity with Heathenism. Edited and
Translated, with the Author's Sanction, from the Third German Edition, by
Egbert C. Smyth and C. J. H. Ropes. 12mo, pp. 508. New York, 1879. (An
indispensable book for the student of early Christian history.)
Uhlhorn, Gerhard. Christian Charity in tlie Ancient Church. Svo, pp. 424. New
York, 1883. (Thorough In its historical treatment and unusually original.)
Watson, P. The Ante- Nicene Apologies : Their Character and Value. Svo, Cam
bridge, 1870. (A Hulsean Prize Essay.)'
Withrow, W. H. The Catacombs of Rome, and their Testimony Relative to Primi
tive Christianity. 12mo, pp. 560. New York, 1874.'
Wordsworth, Chr. A Church History to the Council of NIcsea, A. D. 325. Svo,
pp. 481. New York, 1881. (Anglo-Cathollc.)
Wynne, T. R., Barnard, J. H., and Hemphill, S. The Literature of the Second Cen
tury. 12mo, pp. 270. London and New York, 1891.
2. Mediwval Period.
Allen, Joseph Henry. Chrfstian History In Its Three Great Periods. Second Period,
The Middle Age, Svo, pp. 316. Boston, 1883.
Balmes, James. European Civilization : Protestantism and Catholicism Compared In
their Effects on the Civilization of Europe. Svo, pp. 452. London, 1S49 ;
also Baltimore. Sixteenth edition. 1850. (Indirectly a reply to Gnizot's History
of European Civilization. The topics of Chaps, xxxlv-xxxvlii are " Tolerance In
Matters of Religion," "The Right of Coercion,'' and "The Inquisition in Spain.")
Bright, William. Chapters of Early English Church History. Second edition.
Svo, pp. XV, 476. London, 1888. (Tlie period covered by this history extends
from the fourth to the eighth ceutury.)
Bryce, James. The Holy Roman Empire. 12mo, pp. xxvii, 479. New York, 1880.
Seventh edition, 1887. (Mr Bryce has treated the relations between the Papacy
and Empire during the Middle Ages more clearly than any other historian has
done.)
Comba, Emile. History of the Waldenses of Italy, from their Origin to the Refor
mation. Translated by T. E. Comba. Svo, pp. 345. New York, 1889.
Cox, (Sir) G. W. The Crusades. Svo. Loudon and New York, 1878. (A good
book for the general reader, and exceedingly weU written.)

346 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
Crelghton, Mandell. A History of the Papacy During the Period of the Reforma
tion. Svo, 4 vols., pp. xxili, 453; xx, 555; xvi, 307; xii, 314. London, 1887.
(These four volumes contain the preliminary history, and cover the period from
1378 to 151 7. Vol. I treats of '' The Great Schism of the Council of Constance."
Vol. II, " The Council of Basel and the Papal Restoration." Vols, III and IV,
"The Italian Princes, 1464-1518." It is the author's purpose to extend the-
history to the Council of Trent. The relations of the Papacy with Germany and
Italy are treated with the greatest fullness )
DoUlnger, J. J. I. Fables Respecting the Popes of the- Middle Ages, together with
" Dr. DoUlnger's Essay cm the Prophetic Spirit and the Pi'opliecles of the Christian
Era. Translated by Alfred Plunuiier, with' Introduction and Notes- by H. B.
Smith. r2mo, pp. xii, 463. New York, 1872.
Duruy, Victor. The History of the- .Middle Ages. Translated by E. N. and M. D.
Whitney. With Notes and Re'visimis by George Burton Adams. 12mo, pp.
XV, 588. New York, 189il. (Thiis is the foremost in quality of the recent works
on the Middle Ages. Durmy's treatment of history is always masterly.)
Eglnhard. Life of Charlemagne-. From the Original Text, by Samuel Epes Turner.
New York, 1877. Harper'* Half Hour Series.
Emerton, Ephraira. An lutrodiuctloii to the Study of the Middle Ages (375-814).
12mo, pp. xviii, 268. Boston, 1888-. (An excellent manual, and provided with
helpful maps, one of llieni showing the Church centers in Europe in the time of
Charlemagne.)
Freeman, Edward A. Historical Essays. First Series. Third edition. Svo, pp. vi,
406. London, 1 875. (The essays relating toithe Middle Ages are : St. Thomas of
Canterbury, Edward III, The Hefly Roman, Empire, The Franks aud the Gauls,
Frederick I, King of Italy, Frederick II, Emperor Cliarles the Bold.)
Freeman, Edward A. The Chief Periods of European History. Six Lectures. Svo,
pp. ix, 250. London, 1886. (The essays relating to the Middle Ages are;
Rome and the New Nations, The DIvkiedi Empire, Survivals of Empire. Of
special interest to the student of history i? the last essay. The World Rome-
less.)
Geffeken, Heinrich. Church and State: Their Relations Historleally Developed.
Translated by Edward Fairfax Taylor. Svo, 2 vols., ppi xvii, 553; x, 531.
London, 1877. (Chap, vii. Vol. I, treats of the PajSal Primacy; Chap, viii. The
Empire and the Papacy ; Chap. Ix, Triumph and Meridian of the Papacy ; Chap.
X, Decline of the Mediaeval Church. The work is one of high authority ; the
point of view is Protestant.)
GlUett, E. H. The Life aud Times of John Huss ; or. The Bohemian Reformation of
the Fifteenth Century. Svo, pp. 632, 651. Boston, 1863. New York. (The
best life of Huss yet to be had In English, though superseded on various points
by the later monographs.)
Gosselln, Jean E. Auguste. The Power of tho Popes During the Middle Ages. An
Historical Inquiry Into the Origin of the Temporal Power of the Holy See.
Translated by the Rev. Matthew Kellcy. Svo, 2- vols., pp. xxxvi, 342; xv, 411.
London, 1853. (A work by a French abb6. It discusses two points: 1. The
orlgiu of the temporal sovereignty of the Holy See. 2. The authority claimed
by the Popes over temporal princes, and Its grounds. The book should be read
in connection with other works.)
Gray, G. Z. The Children's Crusade. ]2mo. London, 1871 ; New York, 1S72.
Gulzot, Francis. General History of Civilization in Europe, from the Fall of the
Roman Empire to the French Revolution. 12mo, pp. 316. New York, 1S50,

LITERATURE OP CHURCH HISTORY. 347
and many other editious. (No work of Gnizot's has been so much read as this.
Lectures II, V, VI, X deal with the Christian Church In the Middle Ages.)
Gulzot, Francis. The History of Civilization, from the Fall of the Roman Empire
to the French Revolution. Trunslated by William Hazlitt. 12ino, 4 vols.
in two, pp. 416, 424, 414, 391. (The first volume comprises the History of
Civilization already noticed ; the remaining three volumes relate to the History
of Civilization In France. The reign of Charlemagne and the feudal system are
presented with great fullness.)
Hallam, Henry. The State of Europe Duriug the Middle Ages. Svo, pp. viii, 568,
double columns. New York, 1857. (A standard work, but since its first publi
cation great progress has been made iu the study of mediseval history.)
Hardwick, Charles. A History of the Christian Church, Middle Age. With four
maps. Svo, pp. xv, 481. Cambridge, 1853. (An excellent manual, with very
ample citations from authorities.)
Hodgkin, Thomas. Theodoric the Goth, the Barbarian Champion of Civilization.
Svo, pp. xvi, 442. New York, 1891. (The story of the Ostrogothic migrations
and of the struggle between Arianism aud Catholicity in Italy is delightfully
told.)
Hodgkin, Thomas. Italy and Her Invaders. Svo, 4 vols., pp. 408, 672, 727, 798.
Oxford, 1880-85. (Vol. I treats of the Vislgothic invasion ; Vol. II, of the inva
sion of the Huns and Vandals ; Vols. Ill and IV, of the Ostrogothic kingdom.
Though not drawn wholly from original sources, this work embodies the results
of modern research.)
Hook, Walter Farquhar. Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury. Svo, 11 vols.
London, 1861-75. (The first five volumes of this standard work are devoted
to the pre-Reformation period.)
Joyce, James Wayland. England's Sacrcd Synods. A Constitutional History of the
Convocations of the Clergy from the Earliest Records of Christianity in Great
Britain to the date of the Promulgation of the Present Book of Common Prayer.
Svo, pp. 751. 1855.
Lacroix, Paul. Works on the Middle Ages. Imperial Svo, 5 vols. London, 1880.
New York. (Vol. Ill is entitled " Military and Religious Life in the Middle
Ages and at the Period of the Renaissance.")
Lea, Henry C. Studies in Church History. The Rise of the Temporal Power, Beu-
eflt of Clergy, Excommunication. Svo, pp. xvi, 516. Philadelphia, 1869.
Lea, Henry C. Superstition and Force. Essaj'S on the Wager of Law ; The Wager
of Battle ; The Ordeal ; The Torture. Svo, pp. xii, 480. Philadelphia, 1870.
(President Adams says of this book : " It is by far the most complete and satis
factory account we have in English of what may be called the methods' of ad
ministering injustice in the Middle Ages ; " and in this estimate every reader
will concur.)
Lea, Henry C. A History of the Inquisition of the Middle Ages. Svo, 3 vols.,
pp. xiv, 5S3; x, 586; ix, 736. New York, ISSS. (This is the most complete
history of the Inquisition In the English language. It has all the author's char
acteristics, thoroughness of investigation, impartiality, and clearness of sta,te-
ment. Mr. Lea regards the Inquisition " as a natural evolution of the forces at
work in the thirteenth century.")
Lea, Henry C. Historical Sketches of Sacerdotal Celibacy in the Cliristian Church.
Svo, pp. XX, 601. Boston, 1884. (Largely from the original documents.)
Llorente, D. Jean Antolne. The History of the Inquisition of Spain from the Time
of the Establishment to the Reign of Ferdinand VII. Composed from the

348 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
Origlual Documents In the Archives of the Supreme Council, and from those of
Subordinate Tribunals of the Holy OfBce. Svo. London, 1826; also Philadel
phia, 1843. (Llorente was secretary of the Spanish Inquisition.)
Maitland, S. R. The Dark Ages. A Series of Essays, Intended to Illustrate the
State of Religion and Literature in the Ninth, Tenth, Eleventh, and Twelfth
Centuries. Fifth edition. Svo, pp. xvi, 558. With an Introducliou by Fredenick
Stokes. London, 1890. (A series of essays originally contributed to the
British Magazine. They discuss the Dark Ages in a sympathetic spirit. The
topics are all well chosen, and are treated In an lntere,»tiiig manner.)
Michaud, J. F. History of the Crusades. Translated from the French by W.
Robson. ] 2mo, 3 vols,, pp. xxvi, 509, 493, 558. New York, 1881. (A history
X by a French academician, who devoted twenty years to his investigations.
The original is said to be much superior in style lo the English transla
tion.)
Milman, Henry Hart. History of Latin Christianity; Including that of the Popes
to the Pontificate of Nicholas V. 12mo, S vols., pp. 554, 551, 525, 556, 530,
539, 570, 561. New York, 1881. (Scholarly and very readable.)
Mombert, Jacob Isidor. A History of Charles the Great (Charlemagne). Svo, pp.
xl, 564. New York, 1888.
Montalembert, The Count de. The Monks of the West, from St. Benedict to St.
Bernard. From the French. Svo, 3 vols., pp. xii, 515; x, 549; viii, 471.
Edinburgh and London, 1867. (Montalembert is an ardent admirer of monasti
cism, and not only writes the history of the system as it was in the Middle Ages,
but makes an eloquent plea for it.) ,^
Murphy, John Nicholas. The Cnair of Peter; or. The Papacy Considered in its In
stitution, Development, aud Organization, and in the Benefits which, for over
Eighteen Centuries, it has Conferred on Mankind. Svo, pp. x, 574. London
and New York, 1883. (From the Roman Catholic point of view.)
Pears, Edwin. The Pall of Constantinople, Being the Story of the Fourth Crusade.
Svo, pp. xiii, 413. London and New York, 1886. (Mr. Pears alms to show
that the Fourth Crusade made the subsequent incursion of the Turks into Europe
an easy task.)
Pennington, Arthur Robert. Epochs of the Papacy. From its Rise to the Death of
Pope Pius IX in 1878. Svo, pp. xiv, 496. London, 1881. (The first half of
this book Is devoted to the mediseval history of the Popes. The treatment is
popular, but it has the advantage of presenting the entire life of the Papacy in
one view.)
Porter, Whitworth. A History of the Knights of Malta ; or. The Order of St. John
of Jerusalem. Revised edition. Svo, pp. 744. London, 1883.
Relcliel, Oswald J. The See of Rome In the Middle Ages. Svo, pp. xxxv, 669.
London, 1870. (Takes a sympathetic yet Protestant view of the Middle Ages.
The book Is enriched with English translations of some Important documents,
for example. Magna Cliarta, the statute of Prsemunire, and the statute of
Provisors,)
Rule, William H. History of the Inquisition, from its EstabUshment in the Twelfth
Century to its Extinction in the Nineteenth. Svo, 2 vols., pp. xii, .367 ; iv, 360.
London, 1874. (Dr. Rule lived in Spain, and has investigated frr himself. The
tone of his work is controversial, but It is written with great ability.)
Sohweinltz, Bishop De. The History of the Church Known as the Unitas Fratrum,
or the Unity of the Brethren; Foijnded by the Followers of John Huss, the
Bohemian Reformer and Martyr. Svo, pp. vi, 692. Bethlehem, 1885. (Based

LITERATURE OP CHURCH HISTORY. 349
on the latest researches of Bohemian scholars. The book contains a literature
ofthe most important sources of information.)
Shephard, John G. The Fall of Rome and the Rise of the New Nationalities. Svo,
pp. X, 797. London and New York, 1861. (A good book for the student.)
Snow, Abbot. St. Gregory the Great : His Work and His Spirit. Svo, pp. 390.
London, 1892. (In Heroes of the Cross Series.)
Stephen, Sir James. Essays in Ecclesiastical Biography. Svo, pp. xvi, 663. Lon
don, 1875. Essay I is on Hlldebrand, and II on St. Francis of Assisl.)
StlUe, C. J. Studies in Mediseval History. Second edition. 1 2mo, pp. 474. Philadel
phia, 1888. (The discussiou is largely ou the ecclesiastical side of the history.)
Stubbs, William. The Constitutional History of England, In Its Origin and Develop
ment. Svo, 3 vols. Oxford, 1880. (This learned and in some respects incom
parable work treats mediseval history mainly on its secular side; but Vol. II
discusses the political relations of Wycllf ; and Chap, xix. Vol. Ill, is on " The
Clergy, the King, and the Pope.")
Stubbs, William. Select Charters and Other Illustrations of English Constitutional
History. From the Earliest Times to the Reign of Edward the First. 8vo, pp. xll,
552. Oxford, 1888. (Among other documents is to be found Magna Charta, in its
Latin text. The Appendix contains some of the modern English Charters, such
as the Petition of Rigfit, the Habeas Corpus Act, etc. For the ecclesiastical
as well as the secular history of England in the Middle Ages this book is in
valuable.)
Sybel, H. von. History and Literature of the Crusades. Ediied by Lady Duif
Gordon. ]2mo, pp. viii, 356. London, 1861. (Part I Is the History of the
Crusades ; Part II, The Literature of the Crusades, and contains a critical account
of the original authorities.)
Townspnd, W. J. Great Schoolmen of the Middle Ages. An Account of their
Lives and the Services they Rendered to the Church and the World. 1 2mo,
pp.361. London, 1881. (A sketchy book, but interesting.)
Trench, Richard C. Lectures on Mediseval Church History. Svo, pp. vll, 439. New
York, 1878. (Eloquently written.)
TroUope, T. Adolphus. The Papil Conclaves, as They Were and as They Are.
Svo, pp. xviii, 434. London, 1876. (.Mr. TroUope aims to trace the causes
which led in the Middle Ages to the establishment of the conclave, its modifica
tions, and its methods In more modern times.)
Vaughan, Roger Bede. The Life and Labors of St. Thomas of Aquin. Svo, 2 vols.,
pp. xxii, SOS; xiv, 928. London, 1S72. (This is by far the fullest and best
account of Thomas Aquinas accessible In our language. Each volume has its
own Index. An abridged edition was published by Canon Vaughan in 1875.)
ViUemain, M. Abel Fran90's. Lre of Gregory the Seventh. Preceded by a Sketch of
the History of the Papacy to the Eleventh Century. Translated by James Baber
Brockley. Svo, 2 vols., pp. vll, 400 ; viii, 357. London, 1874. (A work by one
of the first of French historians. The antecedent history of the Papacy Is dis
cussed in six periods ; then, beginning with the Othos, the struggle of the Papacy
for temporal supremacy is traced.)
Williams, Folkstone. Lives of the English Cardinals, including Notices of the Papal
Court, from Pope Adrian IV to Thomas Wolsev. Svo, 2 vols., pp. x, 484;
iv, 543. London, 1868. (The period covered is from the twelfth to tho sixteenth
century. The account of Cardinal Wolsey is particularly full.)
Worsfold, J. N. The Vaudols of Piedmont : A Visit to their Valleys. With a
Sketch of their History to the Present Date. Svo. London, 1873.

350 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
3. The Reformation.
(1) Forerunners of the Reformation.
The commemoration in 1884 of the five hundredth anniversary of the death of John
Wiclif led to a great revival of interest in this forerunner of the Reformation.
Recent Wiclif literature is, therefore, abundant. Fur the fullest information
npon Wiclif 's opinions the student Is referred to his English works in 3 vols.,
edited by Thomas Arnold (London, 1869-71), and to his Latin works, now in
course of publication under the direction ofthe Wyclif Society of England. Of
these latter seventeen volumes have already appeared. Mr. F. D. Matthew,
who has given so much time and scholarly labor to the publication of the Latin
works, has edited " The English Works of Wyclif, Hitherto Unprlnted." In
this volume he has Included all that was omitted by Mr. Thomas Arnold in his
collection ofthe reformer's English writings. (Svo, pp. 572. London, 1840.)
Buddensleg, Rudolf. John Wioklif, Patriot and Reformer. Life and Works. ISmo,
2 vols. London, 1884.
Bonuechose, Emil De. The Reformers Before the Reformation. The Fifteenth Cen
tury. John Huss and the Council of Constance. Translated from the French
by Campbell Mackenzie. 12mo, pp. xxxvi, 375. London, no date.
Burrowes, Montagu. Wicllfs Place in History. Three Lectures Delivered before
the University of Oxford in ISSl. 12mo, pp. 135. London, 18S4. (The titles
of the lectures are : 1. The History and Present S'ate of the Wiclif Literature.
2. Wicllfs Preparation. 3. Wicllfs Work and His real Place as a Reformer.)
Barbery, Matthias. The Pretended Reformers ; or, A True History of the German
Reformation. Founded upon the Heresie of John WIckliffe, John .Hus.s, und
Jerome of Prague. Made English from the French Original, with an Introduc
tory Preface. 12mo, pp. xxvi, 93. London, 1720. (Earbery was a Presbyter
of the Church of England. This book stirred up John Lewis to publish hia
" History of the Life and Sufferings of John WIckliffe." The original French
author, according to Lewis, is Varillas.)
Foxe, John. Acts and Monuments of Martyrs. Svo, 8 vols. London, 1843-49 ;
also 8 vols., London, 1853. Also an American Edition in 1 vol., pp. 1082.
(Useful for Its account of Wichf. Of Foxe Professor Burrowes says : " Of aU
his services, none is greater than the revival of a knowledge of Wiclif. Now,
for the first time, the main outlines of the reformer's career became a part of
English history.")
GlUett, E. H. The Life and Times of John Huss ; or. The Bohemian Reformation in
the Fifteenth Century. Svo, 2 vols., pp. xx, 632 ; xiii, 686. (But little has been
done in English for the memory of Huss. Dr. GiUett's Life is from original
documents, and is the best we have.)
Gilpin, William. Lives of John Wicllff and of the Most Eminent of his Disciples,
Lord Cobham, John Huss, Jerome of Prague, and Zlsca. Second edition. Svo,
pp. 272. London, 1766.
Hodgson, William. The Lives, Sentiments, and Suflfi'rings of Some of the Reformers
and Martyrs Before, Since, and Independent ot the Lutheran Reformation.
12mo, pp. 465. Philadelphia, 1867. (A very serviceable compilation.)
Hook, Walter Farquhar. Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury. Svo, 11 vols.
London, 1865. (In Vol. IV, Chaps, xii, xiii, xv, xvi, there is an account of
Wiclifa ecclesiastical and political life.)
Le Bas, Charles Webb. The Life of Wiclif. 16mo, pp. xvlli, 395. Now York, 1832.

LITERATURE OP CHURCH HISTORY. 351
(One of the volumes of Harper's Family Library, but originally published in
London, 1832.)
Lechler, Professor Gotthard. John Wiclif and his English Precursors. Trans
lated from the German by Peter Lorimer. Svo, 2 vols., pp. xvi, 352 ; vii, 387.
London, 1876. (Lechler's work is the best aocouut of WicUf thus far written.
It is a reverent and diligent study of the life of the Enghsh reformer from the
original documents. The opinions of Wiclif are exhibited with much detail.
A revised edition in one volume has been Issued by the Religious Tract Society
of Londou.)
Lewis, John. The History of the Life aud Sufferings of the Reverend and Learned
John Wlcliff, D.D., Warden of Canterbury Hall, etc. Together with a Collection
of Papers Relating to the said History, never before Printed. Svo, pp. xxvi,
405. London, 1720. (This is the eariiest formal English Life of Wiclif. Ills
a curious fact that it is written in part as a confutation of an impeachment of
Wlolirs fame by an English clergj'man. A new edition was issued at Oxford
in 1820. See Earbery.)
Loserth, Johann. Wiclif and Huss. Translated by H. J. Evans. Svo, pp. xiii, 366.
London, 1884. (The purpose of Professor Loserth is to show that the important
tlieological treatists of Hubs, especially the tractate on the Church, are taken
verbally as well as substantially from the writings of Wiclif.)
Ollphanl, Mrs. The Makers of Florence : Dante, Giotto, Savonarola, and their City.
Svo, pp. XX, 422. Londop, 1891. (Mrs. Oliphaut tells the story of Savonarola's
sufferings eloquently.)
Pennington, Arthur Robert. Preludes to the Reformation: From Dark to Dawn In
Europe. Svo. London, 1886.
Pennington, A. R. Jolm Wyclif: His Life, Times, and Teaching. 12mo. London,
1884. (A Life by one of the scholarly Euglish Churchmen of our time.)
Rule, W. H, Savonarola. With Events of the Reign of Pope Alexander VI. 16mo.
London, 1855. (An excellent Life. Dr. Rule cites passages from Savonarola's
own account of his prophetic gift.)
Shirley, Walter W. Fasciculi Zizanlorum Magistri Johannis Wyclif cum Tritico.
Svo, pp. 644. Oxford, 1858. (Professor Shirley has prefixed an account of
Wyclif to this work.)
TroUope, T. Adolphus. A History of the Commonwealth of Florence, from the
Earliest Independence of the Commune to the Fall of the Republic in 1531.
Svo, 4 vols., pp. 430, 486, 471, 591. London, 1865. (Vol. Ill, Chap, iv, and Vol.
IV, Chaps. V to viii, both inclusive, treat of the life and career of Savonarola.)
UUman, C. Reformers Before the Reformation, principally in Germany and the
Netherlands. Translated by Robert Menzies. Svo, 2 vols., pp. 416, 643.
Edinburgh, 1877. (The life of Wessel is especiaUy full.)
Vaughan, "Robert. Life and Opinions of John De Wicliffe, D.D. Illustrated prin
cipally from his Unpublished Manuscripts, etc. Svo, 2 vols. 1828. Second
edition, 1831-32. An abridged edition in 12mo, 1843. (Vaughan preceded
Lechler, and has done much to revive the Interest in Wicllfs life and work. He
is the foremost of the English biographers.)
Vaughan, Robert. John De Wycliffe. A Monograph, including an Account of the
WycUffe Manuscripts. 4to. London, 1854.
ViUarl, Pasquale. Life and Times of Giralomo Savonarola. Translated by Lihdi
VlUarl. Svo, 2 vols., pp. 349, 439. New York, 1890. (Though not a Protes
tant, ViUarl writes aympathetioally of Savonirola. His life of the martyr is the
best we have.)

352 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
Watkinson, W. L. John Wyoklif. Svo. London, 1884.
WUson, John Laird. John Wycliffe, Patriot and Reformer. A Biography. 12rao.
New York, 1884. (Popular, but exact, and from best sources of information.)
Wray, James Jackson. Jolm Wyclif. A Quincentenary Tribute. Svo. London,
1884. (2) General History of the Reformation.
Fisher, George P. The Reformation. Svo, pp. xxxiv, 620. New York, 1875. (For
the English-speaking student the best condensed history of the Reformation
attainable.)
Hardwick, Charles. A History of the Christian Church during the Reformation.
Svo. London, 1836. Second edition, by F. Proctor, 1865. Third edition, by W.
Stubbs, 1873.
Hauser, Ludwig. The Peri.id of the Reformation, 1577-1648. 12mo. London and
New York, 1874. (Treats with great ability the Reformation on Its political
side, and has an especiaUy full treatment of the Thirty Years' War.)
Merle D'Aubign6, J. H. History of the Great Reformation In the Sixteenth Century
in Germany, Switzerland, etc. 12mo, 5 vols. New York, 1844, and many
editions. (The most popular of all the histories of the Reformation ; earnest
and animated in style, but not regarded by critics as always exact.)
Merle D'Aubign^, J. H. History oi the Reformation in Europe in the Time of
Calvin. 12mo, 8 vols. New York, 1878-79; also London, 1864-78. (This
work has all tlie characteristics of the author's History of the Reformation in
Germany. It Is ardent, eloquent, and popular.)
Kanke, Leopold Von. History of the Reformation in Germany. Svo, pp. xviii, 'b45 ;
iv, 540. London, 1845. (The period covered by these two volumes extends
from 1486-1528 A. D. A third volume appeared in 1847. Much attention is
given to the political relations of Germany with other continental Slates during
the Reformation period.)
Seebohm, Frederic. Bra of the Protestant Revolution. 12mo, pp. xv, 250. Lon
don, 1874. (In "Epochs of Modern History.")
Waddlngton, George. A History of the Reformation on the Continent. Svo, 3 vols.,
pp. 439, 402, 403. London, 1841. (There is much valuable matter in Wad-
dington's history not readily found elsewhere.)
(3) Leaders of the Reformation.
Bersier, Eugene. Collgny. The Earlier Life of tho Great Reformer. Translated
by Annie Harwood Holmden. ]2mo, pp. xxxvi, 351. London, 1884. (The
narrative closes with the year 1562, ten years before the death of the admiral.)
Blackburn, WiUiam. WiUiam Parel and the Story of Swiss Reform. ISmo.
Philadelphia. 1866.
Blackburn, WiUiam. Admiral Coligny and the lilse of the Huguenots. 12mo,
2 vols. Philadelphia, 1869.
Blackburn, WUliam. John Cilvin in Paris and the Little Flock that he Fed. ISmo.
Philadelphia, 1865.
Demaus, R. WiUiam Tyndale. A Biography. A Contribution to the Early History
of the English Bible. Revised by Richard Lovett. SvOj pp. 468. London
(Religious Tract Society), 1886.
Drummond, Robert B. Erasmus: Ills Life and Character as Shown in his Corre
spondence and Works. Svo, 2 vols. London, 1873. (The Athenseun says of
this work that it " gives a pretty full picture of the scholar as he lived and
labored for the advancement of learning.")

LITERATURE OP CHURCH HISTOEY. 353
Dyer, Thomas H. The Life of John Calvin, Compiled from Authentic Sources, and
Particularly from His Correspondence. 12mo, pp. xi, 458. New York, 1850.
(Dyer is no eulogist of Calvin, but has, nevertlieles.s, written an impartial history.
His book shows much care in investigation 'and statement.)
Gulzot, M. St. Louis and Calvin. 12mo, pp. vi, 362. Pliihidelphia, no date. (The
essay on Calvin ia one of Gulzot's best; his delineation of Calvin's ecclesiastical
system is especiaUy clear.)
Hare, Charles Julius. A Vindication of Martin Luther. Svo, pp. 308. London,
1854. (This is a masterly refutation of the charges brought against Luther by
Hallam, Sir William Hamilton, and Newman.)
IlazUtt, William, Translator. The Table Talk of Martin Luther. With a Memoir
by Alexander Chalmers. 12roo, pp. oil, 390. London, 1890.
Henry, Paul. The Life and Times of John Calvin, the Great Reformer. Translated
from the German by Henry Stebblng. Svo, 2 vols., pp. xxvi, 519 ; vl, 456. Lon
don, 1849. (This is accepted as the standard life of Calvin. It Is wholly Inar
tistic, but the sources of information have been carefully examined.)
Jortin, John. The Life of Erasmus, with Remarks on his Works, -dto. 2 vcOs., pp. 630,
750. London, 1758, 1760. (This is "the learned and juaiclous Jortin,'' as he was
called by Ills contemporaries. The chief interest of this Life Is to be found in the
letters of Erasmus, which are'never dull reading ; otherwise it is a very moderate
performance. The second volume contains specimens of the handwriting of some
of the leaders of the Reformation, among the rest Calvin and Zwingle.)
Kdstlin, Julius. Life of Lnther, with lUustrations from Authentic Sources. Translated
fmm the German. ]2mo, pp. x, 587. New York, 1891. (Mr. Froude says of this
book Hint " it leaves Utile to be desired." Professor Kostlin is also the author of
a large work : Martin Luther, h-s Life and Writings, published in 1875 In 2 vols.)
Ledderhose, Frederick. The Life ol Philip Melancihon. Translated from the Ger
man by G. F. Krotel. ]2mo, pp. xii, 364. Phlladelpbia. 1805.
Rae, John. Martin Luther: Student, Monk, Reformer. With Six lUu-lralioiis.
Svo, pp. xiii, 486. London, 1883.
Sears, Bariias. The Life of Luther. With Special Reference to its Earlier Periods
and the Opening Scenes of the Reformation. Svo, pp. 528. Philadelphia, 1850.
(American Sunday School Union.)
Strauss, D. Ulrich Von Hutten ; His Life and Times. Translated from the Gertnan.
12mo, pp. xiv, 386. New York, 1874.
Taylor, WilUam M. John Knox. 12mo, pp. viii, 211. New Vork, 1886. (A brief
sketch ; but " no material fact has been omitted, and nothing recorded for which
ample authority could not be given." — Preface,)
Tulloch, John. Luther and Other Leaders of the Reformation: Luther, Calvin,
Latimer, Knox. Second edition. Pp. xi, 413. Edinburgh, 1860.
Worsley, Henry. The Life of Martin Luther. Svo, 2 vols.^. pp. xvi, 396; viii, 419.
Loiidon. (If this work only had an index it would be admirable, for it tells
the story of Luther's life in a charming way.)
There i;j a striking Essay on Luther In Carlyle's Hemes and Hero Worship; also
an Essay on Luther in Stephen's Ess.ays in Ecclesiastical History. Fronde's
Short Studies on Great Subjects also contain a study of.Lutlier.
(4) Tlie ReformnMon According to Countries.
Bohemia :
KrasinskI, V. Sketch of tlie Religious History of the Slavonic Nations. Bohemia.
Svo, pp. 24-118. Edinburgh, 1851.
23

354 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
Pesoheck, C. A. Reformation and Anti-Reformation in Bohemia. Svo, 2 vols., pp.
443, 442. Londou, 1825. (Volume I treats of the Reformation ; Volume II of
the antl-Reformalion.) England :
Blunt, J. H. The Reformation of the Church of England ; ita History, Principles,
and Results (A. D. 1514-47). Svo, 2 vols. London, 187S. (Argues for the
continuity of the Church of England, aud holds that the Reformation was a
"readjustment.")
Burke, S. H. Men and Women of the English Reformation, from the Days of Wolsey
to the Death of Cranmer. Svo, 2 vols. London, 1871.
Burnet, G. Tbe History of the Reformation of the Church of England. Revised and
Corrected by Rev. E. Nares. Large Svo, 4 vols. New edition, 7 vols. London,
1865. (A celebrated history ; one that has been sharply attacked and strenu
ously defended.)
Gelkie, C. The English Reformation: How it Came About, and Why We Should
Uphold It. Svo, pp. 512. New York, 1879. (Affirms with much emphasis the
anti-sacerdotal character of ihe Protestant Reformation,)
Heylyn, P. Ecclesia Restaurata; or, The History ofthe Reformation ofthe Church
of Kngland, with the Life of the Author, by John Barnard. Svo, 2 vols., pp.
302, 496. London, 1849. (Very strong against the Presbyterians and Puri
tans. Heylyn was a violent partisan.)
Massingberd, F. C. History of the English Reformation. 12mo, pp. 525. London,
1866.
WiUiams, J. Studies on the English Reformation. 12mo. New York, ISSl.
Prance :
Agnew, D. C. A. Protestant Exiles from France in the Reign of Louis XIV ; or. The
Huguenot Refugees and their Descendants in Great Britain and Ireland. 4to,
3 vols. London, 1871.
Baird, Charles W. History of the Huguenot Emigration to America. Svo, 2 vols.,
pp. xix, 354; xi, 448. New York, 1885. (By the brother of Henry M. Baird.
It opens to view a part of French- American history hitherto imperfectly under-
,-<tobd.)
Baird, Henry M. The Huguenots and Henry of Navarre. Svo, 2 vols., pp. xxii,
458 ; xvii, 525. New York, 1886. (Like the other great work of Professor
Baird on the Huguenots, this is written in clear style, and with a careful study
of the original sources.)
B.'iird, H. M. History of the Rise of the Huguenots in France. .Svo, 2 vols., pp.
577, 681. New York, 1879. (A work of great value to the student.)
Browning, W. S. A History ot the Huguenots. Svo, 3 vols. London and Philadel
phia, 1845.
D'Aumale, M. Le Due. History of the Princes de Cond^ In the XVItli and XVIIth
Centuries. From the French, by Robert Brown Borthwick. Svo, 2 vols., pp.
xiv, 411 ; xiii, 448. London, 1872.
Delmas, Louis. The Huguenots of La Roclielle. A Translation of "The Reformed
Church of La Rochelle." An Historical Sketch, 1870. Translated from the
French by George L. CatUn. 12mo, pp. xiv, 295. New York, 1880.
Felice, G. De. History of the Proiestants of France. From the commencement of
the Reformation to the Present Time. Translated from the French. Svo
2 vols., pp. xliv, 373; xii, 339. London, 1853. (The work of a divir.itv pro
fessor at Montauban.)

LITERATURE OF CHURCH HISTORY. 355
Hanna, WiUiam. The Wars of the Huguenots. 12mo, pp. 344. New York, 1872.
Hanna, W. Wycliffe and the Huguenots. Svo. Edinburgh, 1860.
Hanna, W. Wars of the Huguenots. Svo. Edinburgh, 1871.
Lee, Mrs. H. F. The Huguenots in France find America. Svo, 2 vols. Boston,
1S52.
Martyn, W. C. A History -fif the Huguenots. 12mo, pp. 628. New York, 1866.
Poole, Reginald Lane. The Huguenots of the Dispersion, a,t the Recall of the Edict.
12mo, pp. viii, 208. London, 1880. (This book is chiefly concerned with the
migration of the Huguenots to varioua countries of Europe; their migration to
America is noticed very briefly.)
Quick, John. Syuodicou in Gallia Reformata; or. The Acts, Decisions, Decrees, and.
Canons of the Seven Last National Synods of the Reformed Churches in France.
Collected and composed out of the original Manuscript Acts of those Councils.
Folio, 2 vols., pp. 523. 596. London, 1692. (The record begins with the year
1559. Of the importance of this work it is not necessary to speak.)
Smedley, Edward. History of the Reformed Religion In France. 16mo, 3 vols., pp.
398, 366, 350. London, 1834. (Professor Smyth, in his lectures on Modern
History, speaks highly of this work.)
Smiles, SamueL The Huguenots in France After the Revocation of the Edict of
Nantes. With a Visit to the Country of the Vaudois. Svo, pp. xll, 430. New
York, 1874.
Smiles, S. The Huguenots : Their Settlements, Churches, and Institutes In England
and Ireland ; with an Appendix Relative to the Huguenots In America. Svo,
pp. xll, 448. "New York, 1868.
Weiss, C. History of tho Prench Protestant Refugees, from the Revocation of the
Edict of Nantes to our Day. 2 vols. New York, 1854.
White, H. The Massacre of St. Bartholomew. Preceded by a History of the Relig
ious Wars in the Reign of Charles IX. Svo, pp. xv, 497. New York, 1868.
(The author has gathered the materials of his history from original manuscript
sources. His book is well written.)
Germany:
Hagenbach, K. R. History of the Reformation in Germany and Switzerland, Chiefly.
From the fourth German edition. Translated by Evelina Moore. Svo, 2 vols.,
pp. vii, 422; xn, 436. Edinburgh, 1879. (Written in the calm, judicial spirit
which characterizes Hagenbach. His statement of the relative merits of Luther
and Zwingli is especially valuable.)
Pennington, A. R. God in the History of the Reformation in Germany and England,
and in the Preparations for It. Svo. London, 1869.
Sleidan, John. The General History of the Reformation of the Church from the
Errors and Corruptions of Rome. Begun in Germany by Martin Luther. From
the year 1617 to the year 1556. With a Continuation to the Council of Trent,
1662. From the Latin. Folio, pp. 638, 100. London, 1689. (Sleidan is the
authority most quoted by Robertson in his Life of Charles V.)
Wace, Henry, and Buchheim, C. A. The First Principles of the Reformation ; or.
The Ninety-five Theses and the Three Primary Works of Dr. Martin Luther.
With Theological and Historical Introductiona. Svo. pp. Ixxxviil, 245. , London.
(The three primary works of Luther are : The Address to the German Nobility,
Concerning Christian Liberty, and the Babylonian Captivity of the Church.
These documents are of the greatest value to the thorough student of the
Reformation.)

356 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
Holland:
Brandt, Gerard. The History of the Reformation in and abottt the Low Countries:
From the Beginning of the Eighth Century down to the Famous Synod of
Dort, Inclusive. Folio, 4 vols., pp. 481, 590, 492, 563. London, 1720. (Brandt
is the chief Arminian authority for the history of the struggle between the
Arminians and the Calviniats of Holland. Volume I is occupied with the estab-
hshment of Protestantism in the Low Countries; the remaining three volumes
treat of the Arminian Controversy.)
Martyn, W. 0. The Dutch Reformation : A History of the Struggle in the Nether
lands for Civil and Religious Liberty in the Sixteenth Century. 12mo, pp. S23v
New York, 1868.
Motley, J. L. The Rise of the Dutch Republic. Svo, 3 vols., pp. 579, 582, 664.
New York, 1879. (Motley teUs the story of the deliverance of Holland from
Spain with the enthusiaam of a lover of religious and civU liberty.)
Motley, J. L. History of the United Netherlands, from the Death of William the
Silent to the Twelve Years' Truce, 1609. Svo, 4 vols., pp. 632, 563, 599, 632.
New York, 1879.
Motley, J. L. The Life and Death of John of BaTneveld, Advocate of Holland. With
a View of the Primary Cansea and Movementa of the Thirty Years' War. Svo,
2 vols., pp. 389, 475. New York, 1879.
Italy :
Comba, Emilio. History of the Waldenses of Italy from their Origin to the Reforma
tion. Translaled from the Author's Revised Edition, by TeoflJo E. Comba. Svo,
pp. 357. London, 1889. (This book contains much important information not
otherwise accessible.)
Dinwiddle, W. Times Before the Reformation, with an Account of Fra Girolamo
Savonarola, the Friar of Florence. Svo. New York, 1880.
McCrle, T. Progress and Suppression of the Reformation in Italy in the Sixteentli
Century; with a Sketch of the Reformation in the Orisons. Svo, pp. ix, 434.
Edinburgh and London, 1827; also Philadelphia, 1856.
Monastier, Antolne. A History of the Vaudois Church, from ita Origin; and ofthe
Vaudois of Piedmont, to ihe Present Day. 12mo, pp. xii, 432. London, 1S48.
Muston, Alexis. The Israel of the Alps. A Complete History of the Waldenses
and their Colonies. Prepared for the Great Part from Unpublished Documents.
Svo, 2 vols., pp. xxx, 478; xvi, 540. London, 1875.
Stoughton, John. Footprints of Italian Reformers. Svo, pp. vi, 395. London, 1 881.
Slrack, C. Renata ot Este, a Chapter from the History of the Reformation in France
and Italy. Translated by Catherine E. Hurst. 12mo. Cincinnati, 1873.
Todd, James Henthorne. The Waldenslan Manuscripts Preserved iu the Library of
Trinity CoUege, Dublin. With an Appendix. Svo, pp. xiv, 242. Oxford and
Cambridge, 1865.
Young, M. The Life and Times of Aonio Palearlo; or, A History of the Italian
Reformers In the Sixteenth Century. Illustrated by Original Letters and Un
edited Documents. Svo, 2 vols., pp. xiv, 588; xi, 650. London, I860.
Scotland :
Cook, G. History of the Reformalion in Scotland. Second edition. Svo, 3 vols.,
pp. xvi, 339; xii, 420; cii, 316. London, 1819.
Hetherington, W. M. History of the Church of Scotland from the Introduction of
Christianity to the Period ofthe Disruption, 1843. Seventh edition. Svo, 2 vols.
pp. viii, 602, 676. Edinburgh, 1852.

LITERATURE OP CHURCH HISTORY. 857
Keith, R. History of Affairs in Church and State in Scotland from 1527 to 1568.
Svo, 2 vols. London, Ifi44-S0. (Tlie first edition appeared in folio, Edinburgh,
1734,)
Knox, John. The History of the Reformation of Religion within the Realm of
Scotland. Together wilh the Life of John Knox, the Author. Taken from the
'Original Manuseripts in the University Library of Glasgow. Folio, pp. Ivi, 488.
Edinburgh, 1732. (This is John Knox's own account of the Reformation in
Scotland. David Buclianan's Preface is also prefixed.)
Lorimer, Peter. John Knox and the ClHireh of Enghmd : His Work in her Pulpit,
and hia Influence .upon her Liturgy, Anticles, and Parties. Svo, pp. xii, 317.
London, 1875. (This work is founded ujion some important papers of Knox
never before pubUshed.)
Kogers, Charles, -fiaclal Life iu 'Scotland. From Eariy to Recent Times. Svo,
3 vols., pp. 416, 418, 484. Edinburgh, 1884. (The bnUt of Vol. II is devoted
to the illustration of Scotch ecclesiastical affairs and Church discipline. On
the period'-of the Reformation these chapters are full)
Scott, /. Moffat The Martyrs of Angus, and Mearns. 12mo, pp. 296. London,
1885. (An account ofthe sufferings of Stratoun, Wishart, and Myln.)
Stanley, A. P. Lectures on the History ofthe Church 6f Scotland. Svo, pp. ilv, 203.
, New York, 1872.
Taylor, William M. J'ohn Knox. 12mo, pp. viii,217. New York, 1886. (Cliapter
X treats of the reeonetrAiction of the Scotch Church, in tiie s'lxteenth ceutury —
1560.)
The Tercentenary Book. Commemoratlive of tiie Completion of the Life and Work pf
John Knox, of the Huguenot Martyrs of France, and tlie Establishment of Pres
bytery in Englatid. 4to. Philadelpliia, 18J3.
.Spain-:
Charles, E. The Martyrs of Spain and tlie Libeiators of HoUaod. 12mo. London,
18&1.
De Castro, Senor Den A-dolfo. The Spanish Protestants and their Persecution by
Philip IL A Historieal Work. Translatxjd irom the Original Spanish by
Thomas Parker. l'2mo, pp. Ixiv, 386. London, 1851.
MeCrie, T. History of the Progress and Suppression of the Reformation in Spain iu
the Sixteenth Century. Svo, pp. vill, 424. Edinburgh, 1829. (This is intended
by the author as a sequel to his history of the Progress and Suppression of the
Reformation in Italy.)
Prescott, W. H. History of the Eeign of Philip IL 3 vole., pp. 618, 610, 476.
Boston, 1865.
Sweden :
Anjou, L. A. The History of the Reformation in Sweden. From the Swedish by
Henry M. Mason. 12mp, pp. x, 668. New York, 1859. (The period embraced
by this history extends to the Coun<fll of Upeala, A. D. 1593.)
Butler, C. M. The Reformation in Sweden ; Its Rise, Progress, and Crisifl, and its
Triumph under Charles IX. 12mo, pp. iv, 259. New York, 1883.
Switzerland :
Blackburn, William M. William Farel and the Story of the Swiss Reformation.
12mo, pp. 360. Edinburgh, 1867. (A book by an American author, reprinted.
See Leaders ofthe Reformation.)

358 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
Christoffel, R. Zwingli ; or. The Rise of the Reformation in Switzerland. A Life of
the Reformer, with Notices of his Times and Contemporaries. Svo, pp. vii,
462. Edinburgh, 1860.
The Slava:
KrasinskI, Count Valerian. Sketch of the History of the Slavonio Nations. Svo,
pp. viii, 332. Edinburgh, 1851.
(5) 3746 Cmmier-Reformatiim.
Beard, Charles. Port Royal: A Contribution tO' the History of ReU^oti and litera
ture in France. Svoj 2 Vols. London, 1873.
Bossuet, J. B. The History of the Variations of the Protestant Churches. Trans
lated from the last French edition. Svo, 2 voJs., pp. 43.2, 424. Dublin, 1829.
Buckley, Theodore A. The Canons and Decrees of the Council of Tl-ent. Literally
translated into Ei^lish. 12mo, pp. xxili, 399. Londom, 1851.
Buckley, Theodore A. A History of the Council of Trent, CorajMled from a Compar
ison of Various Writers; with a Clironological Summary. 12mO( pp. xxxi, 549.
London, 1852.
Bungener, L. F. History of th& Council of Trent. From the French. Edited by
Jolin McClintock. 12mo, pp. xiii, 546. New York, 1855.
Campbell, Arabella. The Life of Era Paolo Sarpi, Theologian and Counselor of
State to the Moat Serene Repablic of VenicOr and Author of the History of th&
Council of Treat. From original MSS. Svo, pp. vii, 253. London, 1869.
Carlyle, Thomas. Essay on Jesuitism in '¦ Latter-day PampMets." Svo. London.
Coxe, Wm. History of the House of Austria from the Foundation of tlieMonarchy by
Rudolph of Hapaburgh to the Death of Leopold II., 121S-1 792. Fonrth edition.
]2mo, 3 vols., pp. xvi, 528 ; xll, 522; viii, 592. London, 1889. Also. Vol. IV.
Fl'om the Accession of Francis I. to the Revohitiom of 18481 Translated from
the German. 12mo, pp. cxxvii, 468. London, 1889.
Davirignac, J. M. History of the Society of .Tesus from its Fbiindalion to the
Present Time. Translated by James Clements. SvO; two volumes in one, ppi
xvii, 421, 399. Baltimore, 1878. (On the Koman Catholic side. The history
is brought down to the generalship of Father Beckx (ISSS-lSt)^^ An appendix
gives some account of the work of the Jesuits in the Unifed States.)
Gardiner, Samuel Rawsoa TlieTliirty Years' War, 1618-1648. 16mo.. NewYoi'k,
1874. (Valuable for its account of the results of the war.)
Gindely, Anton. History of the Thirty Years' War. Translated by Andrew Ten
Brook. Svo, 2 vols. New Yoric, 1884. (Dr. C. K. Adams considers this the
best history of war that we have.)
Hughes, Thomas. Loyola and the Educational System of the Jesuits. 12mo, ppi
ix, 302. New York, 1892. (.\. very thorough treatment.)
Macaulay, Thomas Bablngton. Jesuitism. , Essay on Ranke's History of the Popes,
in his CoUeeted Essays.
Michelet, M. J., and Quinet, M. E. Jesuits and Jesuitism. Translated by G. H.
Smith. 8Vo, pp. 55, in double columns. London, 1846. (These lectures were
delivered in 1843, when Michelet and Quinet were professors In the CcJl^e de
France. Their delivery excited a hot controversy, during which many publi
cations appeared on either side.)
Neale, J. M. History ofthe So-called Jansenist Cliurch of Holland, with a Sketch
of its Earlier Annals, and some Account of the Brothers of the Common Life.
Svo, pp. X, 411. Oxford, 1858.

LITER.1TURE OF CHURCH HISTORY. 359
Parkman, Francis. The Jesuits in North America in the Seventeenth Ceutury.
Twenty-ninth edition. 12mo, pp. Ixxxlx, 463. Boston, 1891.
Polano, Pietro Soave (Father Paul Sarpi). The History of the Council of Trent.
Translated by Nathaniel Brent. 4to, pp. 889. London, 1676. (Of great value
as an origlual authority.)
Rankc, Leopold. The History of the Popes. Their Church and Stale in the Six
teenth and Seventeenth Centuries Translated by Walter Keating Kelly. Svo,
pp. 519, douWo columns. New York, 1845. (Ranku says in his preface, the
" period of reeonsti uctioii of a mixed spiritual and tempordl power, ita renova
tion aud Internal reform, Its progress and decline, it Is my purpose lo portray,
at least in outline.'' Fur the history of the Counter-Reformation this Is one of
the indispensable books.)
Schiller, J. F. The History of the Thirty Years' War. Translated by A. J. W.
Morrison. 12mo. New York, 1846. ^
Stelnmetz, Andrew. History of the Jesuits. Svo, 3 vola., pp. xii, 510, 514, 636.
London, 1848.
Stephen, Sir James. Loyola. See essay on, in Essays iii Ecclesiastical Biography.
Svo, pp. 663. London, 1875.
Taylor, Isaac. Loyola and Jesuitism in its Rudiments. Svo. London, 1849, 1850,
1863. 12rao, pp. iv, 416. New York, 1852.
Tregelles, S. P. The Jansenists : Their Rise, Persecutions by the Jesuits, and Exist
ing Remnant. 12mo, pp. 98. London, 185'. (The story of the struggle between
the Jansenists and the Jesuits is a part ot the record of the Counter-Reformation.)
Trench, Richard C. Gustavus Adolphus, and Other Lectures on the Thirty Years'
War. Svo, pp. 114. London, 1865.
Ward, A. W. The House of Austria in the Thirty Years' War. Two lectures,
with notes and illustrations. Svo. London, 1869.
Waterworth, J. The Canons and Decrees of the Sacred and (Ecumenical Council of
Trent, Celebrated under the Sovereign Pontiffs Paul HL, Julius III., and Pius
IV. Svo, pp. ccxiii, 326. London, 1848. (The text of the canons and
decrees is preceded by valuable essays on the history of the CouncU.)
4. Protestantism in tlie Seventeenth Century.
Adair, Patrick. A True Narrative of the Rise aud Progress of the Presbyterian
Church in Ireland, 1623-1670. Introduction and notes by W. D. Killen.
12mo, pp. xxxvi, 334. Belfaat, 1866.
Adams, Charles Francis. Three Episodes of Massachusetts History. The Settle
ment of Boston Bay. The Antinomlan Controversy. A Study of Church and
Town Government. 12nio, 2 vols., pp. vi, iv, 1067. Boston, 1893. (The his
tory of the movement under Anno Hutchinson Is discussed at some length.)
Bacon, Leonard. The Genesis of the New England Churches. 12mo, pp. xiv, 485.
New York, 1874.
Bangs, Nathan. The Life of James Armlnlus. Copied from his life and writings,
as published by Mr. James Nichols. ISmo, pp. ix, 288. New York, 1843.
Brandt, Casper. The Lite of James Arminiiis, D.D. Translated from the Latin by
John Guthrie. With au Introduction by Thomas 0. Summers. 12mo, pp.
xxviii, 405. NashvlUe, Tenn., 1857. (.Another translation of Brandt appears
in the first volume of the English edition of his works published at London in
1825. This does not appear In the American editions of Armlnlus.)
Brown, John. John Bunyan: His Life, Times, and Work. Svo. London, 1885;
also 1888. (The most complete life of Bunyan.)

360 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
Burrage, H. S. The Anabaptists of Switzerland. 16mo. Philadelphia, 1882.
Calder, Frederick. Memoirs of Epiacoplus, the Celebrated Pupil of Armlnlus, to which
Is added a brief account of the Synod of Dort. 1 2mo, pp. 47 8. New York, 1 837.
Craighead, J. G. Scotch and Irish Seeds in American Soil. The Early History of
the Scotch and Irish Churches, and Iheir Relation to the Presbyterian Church
of America. 12mo, pp. 348. Philadelphia, 1878.
Dexter, Heury Martyn. The Congregationalism of the Last Three Hundred Years
as Seen in its Literature. In Twelve Lectures. With a. Bibliographical Ap
pendix. Svo, pp. xxviii, 716, 326. New York, 1880. (The first seven lectures
give the history of the earlier Congre^ationaUsm In the sixteenth and seven
teenth centuries.)
Ellis, George E. The Puritan Age and Rule in the Colony of the Massachusetts
Bay, 1629-1685. Svo, pp. xix, 576. Boston, 1888.
Goodwin, John A. The Pilgrim Republic : An Historical Review of the Colony of
New Plymouth. Svo, pp. xii, 662. Boston, 1888.
Gough, John. A History ot the People Called Quakers. From their First Rise to
the Present Time. I'imo, 4 vols., pp. x, 546, 557, 526, 573. London, 1789-90.
Grey, Zachary. An Impartial Examination of the Second Volume of Mr. Daniel
Neal's History of the Puritans. Svo, pp. 434. L( ndon, 1736.
Grey, Zachary. An Impartial Examination ofthe Third Volume of Mr. Daniel Neal'a
Histoiy ofthe Puritans. Svo, pp. 404, 143. London, 1737.
Grey, Zachary. An Impartial Examination of the Fourth Volume of Mr. Daniel
Neal's History ofthe Puritans. Svo, pp. 427, 176. London, 1739.
Hall, Edwin. The Puritans and Their Principles. Third ed. Svo, pp. xiii, 440. New
York, 1847.
Hetherington, Wm. History of the Westminster Assembly of Divines. 12mo, pp.
xii, 311. New York, 1 843.
Hunt, John. Religious Thought in England. From the Reformation to the End
of the Last Century. Svo, 3 vols., pp. xxxi, 471 ; xxix, 468 ; xxv, 445. London,
1873. (The progress of English religious thought in the seventeenth century
wUl be found In the first volume and the first half of tho second. This work ia
important for the student of English theology.)
Iviiney, Joseph. A History ot the English Baptists: Including an Investigation of
the History of Baptism in England from the Earliest Period to which it can be
Traced to the Close of the Seventeenth Century. Svo, 4 vols., pp. viii, 572 ; xii,
620, 614; viii, 623. London, 1830. ,
Lalhbury, Thomas. A History of the Non-Jurors. Their Controversies and Their
Writings. Svo, pp. x, 530. London, 1845. (Thia hiatory covers the period
from 1688 to 1788.)
Maddox, Isaac. A Vindication of the Government, Doctrine, and Worship of the
Church of England. Established In the reign of Queen Elizabeth; against the
injurious refieotlons of Mr. Neal, in his late History of the Puritans. Together
with a detection of many false quotations and mistakes in that performance.
Svo, pp. 362. London, 1733.
Mant, Richard. History of the Church of Ireland, from the Reformation to the
Revolution, with a Preliminary Survey from the Papal Usurpation in the
Twelfth Century to its Lpgal Abolition In the Sixteenth. Large Svo, 2 vols.
pp. 809, 844. London, 1845.
Mather, Cotton. Magnalla Christi Americana ; or. Ecclesiastical History of New
England from 1620 to 1698. Wilh notes and translations by Robins aud Robin
son. Svo, 2 vols., pp. 6'16, 682. Hartford, 1853.

LITERATURE OF CHURCH HISTORY. 361
Mitchell, Alexander F. The Westminster Aaaembly, its History and Standards,
being the Baird Lecture for 1882. 12mo, pp. xxiil, 519. London, 1883.
Neal, Daniel. The History of the Puritans or Protestant Non-Conformists from the
Reformation to the Deatli of Queen Elizabeth. A new edition, revised by
Joshua Touhnln. Svo, 5 vols., pp. 572 ; xxv, 600; xiv, 560 ; xxiil, 552; xiii, 488.
Boston, 1817. (Vol. V brings the narrative down to 1688,) Also Svo, 3 vols.
London, 1837. And with notes by J. 0. Choulos. Svo, 2 vols. New York,
1863.
Overton, J. H. Life iu the English Church, 1660-1714. Svo, pp. xiv, 376. London,
1885.
Stoughton, John. History of Religion in England. From the Opening of the Long
Parliament to the End of the Eighteenth Century. 12mo, pp. 528, 497, 504,
454, 464, 475. New York, 1882. (The seventeenth century history closes with
Volumo V, on the Church of the Revolution. Volume VI treats of the eight
eenth century.)
Sydney, Wm. Connor. Social Life in England from the Restoration to the Revolu
tion, 1660-1690. 12mo, pp. 463. New York, 1892.
TuUoch, John. Rational Theology aud Chri-tian Philosophy in the Seventeenth
Century. Svo, 2 vols., pp. xiii, 463. 500. Edinburgh and London, 1872. (This
book is an effort to describe the theology ofthe moderate men during the time
of the struggle between the English Church and the Puritans. The flrst volume
is devoted to Falkland, Hales ot Eton, ChiUlngworth, Jeremy Taylor, and SlUllng-
fleet; the second volume to the Cambridge Platonists. (The position of Dr.
Tulloch ia Indicated by a single sentence of his preface : " The days of Augus
tinian dominance are forever ended.")
Uhden, H. F. Tho New England Theocracy: A History of the Congregationalists in
New England lo the Revival of 1740. Translated from the German by H. C.
Conant. 12mo, pp. 303. Boston, 1858.
Wagstafif, Wm. R. A History of the Society of Friends : CompHed from its Stand
ard Records and other Sources. Svo, pp. Ivi, 400. New York, 1845.
Wakeman, Henry OfSey. The Church and the Puritans, 1570-1660. 12mo, pp. x,
208. New York, 1886. (Epochs of Church History Series.) \
Warren, William P. In tho Footsteps of Arminius. A Delightsome Pilgrimage.
12mo, pp. 62. New York, 1888.
Young, Alexander. Chronicles of the PUgrlm Fathers of the Colony of Plymouth
from 1620 to 1628. 12mo. Boston, 1841.
5. The Evangelical Revival of the Eighteenth Century.
The connexion between the EvangeUcal Revival of the last century and German
Pietism is important for the student of modern Church history. As far as we are
aware there is no biography iu English of Spener, but there are English biogra
phies of Zinzendorf. It is well known that in his early years Zinzendorf was under
the training of his grandmother, the Baroness von Gersdorf, a friend of Spener, and
her daughter. By them his Christian character -was formed and a pietistic direction
given to his life. Through the renewed Moravian Church and its representatives
John Wesley was led to the adoption of the views which he spent long years in
propagating. There Is a Life of Peter Bolder, John Wesley's instructor, by Rev. J.
P. Lockwood, London, 1868; also of Bishop Spangenberg, whom Wesley met in
Georgia, by Charles T. Ledderhose, London, 1855; and a Life of Zinzendorf by
Spangenberg, Londou, 1838.

362 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
(1) General Woi'lcs.
Abbey, Charles J., and Overton, John H. The English Church in the Eighteenth
Century. Svo, 2 Vols., pp. xix, 621 ; xiv, ?51. London, 1878.
Hunt, John. Religious Thought in England from the Reformation lo the End of the
Last Century. A Contribution to the History of Theology. Svo, 3 vols., pp.
xxxi, 471 ; xxix, 468; xxv, 445. London, 1873. (For the Evangelical Revival,
see Vol. III.)
Leckey, Wm. E. H. A History of England in the Eishleenth Century. Svo, 4 vols.,
pp xix, 626; xvi, 699; xii, 591; xv, 606. New York, 1878-88. (Vol. II,
Chapter IX, devotes special attention to the evangelical revival, while the whole
work gives the setting of the movement.)
Overton, J. H. The Evangelical Revival in the Eighteenth Century. 12mo, pp. xi,
208. New York. No dale. (Epochs of Church History Series.)
Ryle, J. C. Christian Leadera of the Last C nliiry; or, England a Hundred Years
Ago. Svo. London, 1868.
Stephen, Leslie. Hisloryof English Thought in the Eighteenth Century. Second edition.
Svo, 2 vols., pp. XV, 466 ; xl, 469. New York, 1881. (See Vol. II, Chapter XII.)
Stevens, Abel. A History of the Religious Movement called Methodism, considered
in its Different Denominational Forms, and its Relations to British and Amer
ican Proteatantiam. 12mo, 3 vols., pp. 480, 520, 524. New York, 1868-61.
Also abridged in one volume, Svo. New York.
Tyerman, Luke. The Oxford Methodists: Memoirs of the Rev. Messrs. Clayton,
Ingham, Gambold, Hervey, and Broughton, with Biographical Notices of
Others. Svo, pp. viii, 416. London and New York, 1878.
(2) The Wesleys.
A Short Account of the Late Rev. J. Wesley, A.M., During the Last Two Weeks
of His Life, Collected from the Persons who Attended Him During that Time.
To which Is added a short sketch of hia character. Extracted from the public
papera. ISmo, pp. 24 London, 1791.
Clarke, Adam. Memoirs of the Wesley Family, Collected Principally from Original
Documents. Fourth edition. 12mo, pp. 659. New York. No date. And
various editions.
Clarke, Eliza. Susanna Wesley. (Famous Women Series.) 16mo, pp. vii, ,301.
Boston, 1891.
Dobbin, 0. T. Wesley the Worthy, and Wesley the Catholic. With an introduction
by Rev. Wm. Arthur, M.A. ISmo, pp. xii, 129. London, 1850.
Dodd, Thomas J. John Wesley. A StiKly for the Times. 12mo, pp. 152. Cincin
nati, 1891.
Dove, John. A Biographical History of the Wesley Family, and More Particularly
its Earlier Branches. 12mo, pp. iv, 299. London, 1833.
Ellis, James J. John Wesley. (In Lives that Speak Series.) 12mo, pp. xv, 228.
New York, 1890.
Hanipaon, John. Memoirs of the Late Rev. John Wesley, A.M., with a Review of Hia
Life and Writin'.'S, and a Hiatory of Methodism from its Commencement in 1729
to the Present Time. ISmo, 3 vols., pp. viii, 221, 216, 235. Simderiand, 1791.
Jackson, Thomas. The Life of the Rev. Charies Wesley, M.A., Comprising a Re
view of His Poetry; Sketches ot the Rise and Progress of Methodism, with
Notices of Contemporary Events and Characters, Svo, 2 vols., pp. xvi, .191 ;
vill, 578. London, 1S41. Abridged In one volume, 12mo, pp. xv, 500.
London, 1862.

LITERATURE OP CHURCH HISTORY. 363
Janes, Edward L. Wesley His Own Historian. Illustrations of Hia Character,
Labors, and Achievementa. From his own diaries. 12mo, pp. 479. New
York, 1870.
Journal of the Rev. John Wesley, M.A. Svo, 4 vols., pp. 546, 480, 491, 555.
London, 1 827. (There are several American and English editions other than this.)
Journal of the Rev. Charles Wesley, M.A., to which are Appended Selections from
His Correspondence and Poetry. With an Introduction and Occasional Notes
by Thomas Jackson. 12mo,. 2 vols., pp. xlvi, 466; vl, 494. London, 1849.
Kirk, Rev. John. The Mother of the Wesleys. A Biography. 12mo, pp. 398.
Cincinnati, 1867. Also London, 1864, pp. xx. 351. (A work of much merit.)
Lelievre, Matthew. John Wesley sa vie et son CEuvre. ]2mo, pp. xiv, 304. Paris,
1868. Translated by Rev. A. J. French, with the title : John Wesley. His
Life and Hia Work. Pp. xii, 274. Loudon, 1871. (This is one of the best
short biographies.)
Moore, Henry. The Life of the Rev. John Wesley, A.M., in which are Included
the Life of His Brother, and Memoirs of Their Family, elc. Svo, 2 vols., pp.
xxiil, 467, 482. New York, 1825. (Thomas Coke, Henry Moore, and Dr.
Whitehead were appointed by Mr. Wesley his Uterary executors. Moore and
Whitehead failed to agree, and published separate lives of the founder of
Methodism.)
Priestley, Joseph. Original Letters by Rev. John Wesley and His Friends, lUus-
tralive of Hia Early History, with Other Curious Papers Communicated by the
Late Rev. S. Babcoek, to which is Prefixed an Address to the Methodists.
Svo, pp. XV, 170. Birmingham, 1791.
RIgg, James H. The Living Wesley, As He Was in His Youth and in His Prime.
With an introduction by John P. Hurst. 12mo, pp. 269. New York, 1874.
(A work of much merit.)
RIgg, James H. The Churchmanshipof John Wesley, and the Relations of Wesleyan
Methodism to the Church of England. 12mo, pp. 120. London. No date.
Southey, Robert. The Life of Wesley, and the Rise and Progress of Methodism.
Svo, 2 vols., pp. xxxi, 512, 622. London, 1820. A new edition. 12mo, pp. 631.
London, 1864. Also a new edition with notes by the late Samuel T. Coleridge,
and remarks on the life and charactpr of John 'Wesley by the late Alexander
Knox. Edited by Rev. Charles Culhbert Southey. 12mo, pp. xxxi, 367, 394.
London, 1864. A new edition edited by John Atkinson was published in Lon
don in 1889. (This ia the best written life of Wesley, and the one best known
to the world.)
Stevenson,' George J. Memorials of the Wesley Family, Including Biographical
and Historical Sketches of AU the Members of tlie Family for Two Hundred
and Fifty Years, together with a Genealogical Table of the Wesleys. Svo, pp.
xxiii, 562. London, 1876.
Taylor, Isaac. Wesley and Methodism. 12mo, pp. vl, 366. London, 1851.
Telford, John. The Life of .Tolm Wesley. 12nio, pp. xvi, 363. New York, 1890.
(This work ia the best for the early life of Wesley.)
Tyerman, Luke. The Life and Times of Rev. John Wesley, M.A., Founder of the
Methodists. Svo, 3 vols., pp. xll, 564; xi, 618; vii, 675. London, 1871. Also
New York, 1872, with an Appendix of 23 pages, by Abel Stevens. (This is the
most exhaustive life of Wesley.)
Tyerman, Luke. The Life and Times of Rev. Samuel Wesley, M.A., Rector of
Epworlh and Father of the Revs. John and Charles Wesley, the Founders of
the Methodists. Svo, pp. xvi, 472. London, 1866.

304 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
Urlin, R. Denny. John Wesley's Place in Church History Determined Wilh the
Aid of Facts and Documents Unknown to or Unnoticed by His Biographers.
12mo, pp. xiv, 272. London, 1870.
Watson, Richard. The Life of the Rev. .lohn Wesley, A.M., Sometime Fellow of
Lincoln College, Oxford, and Founder of the Methodist Societies. Eighth edition.
12nio, pp. viii, 485. London, 1851.
Wedgewood, Julia. John Wesley and the Evangelical Reaction of the Eighteen'th
Century. 12mo, pp. viii, 412. London, 1870. (An impartial history, and of
much value.)
Wesley His Own Biographer. Selections from the Journals of the Rev. John
Wesley, A.M., Sometime Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. With the Origi
nal Account of his Death. Svo, pp. 640. London, 1891.
Whitehead, John. The Life of the Rev. John Wesley, M.A. 'Selected from his
private papera and printed works ; and written at the request of his executors.
To which is prefixed .some account of his ancestors and relations ; with the
life of the Rev. Charles Wesley, M.A. CoUeeted from his private journal, and
never before published. The whole forming a history of Methodism, in which
the principles and economy of the Methodists are unfolded. Svo, 2 vols^ pp.
xvi, 500, 607. Loudon, 1793-96. Also Boston, IS44, and Auburn, 1854.
(3) Whitefield and His Followers.
Belcher, Joseph. George Whitefield. A Biography with Special Reference to His
Labors in America. 12mo, pp. 514. New York. No date.
Gillies, J ilin. Memoirs ofthe Life of the Rev. George Whitefield, Late Chaplain to
the Right Hon. the Countess of Huntingdon. Svo, pp. xvi, 357. London, 1772.
Gledstone, James Paterson. The Life and Travels of George Whitefield, M.A. Svo,
pp. xii, 533. London, 1871.
Hay, David. George Whitefield, or Consecrated Eloquence. ISmo, pp. vu, 7L
London, 1867.
Life and Times of SeUna, Countess of Huntingdon. By a Member of the Houses of
Shirley and Hastings. Svo, 2 vols.; pp. xxxii, 488 ; xxiv, 644. London, 1844.
Philip, Robert. The Life and Times of the Rev. George Whitefield, M.A. Svo, pp.
ix, 654. New York, 1838.
The First Two Parts of His Life, with His Journals, Revised, Corrected, and Abridged
by George Whitefield, B.A., Chaplain to the Right Hon. the Countess of Hunt
ingdon. ISmo, pp. 446. London, 1756.
Tyerman, Luke. The Life of the Rev. George Whitefield, of Pembroke College, Ox
ford. Sv.), 2 vols., pp. X, 561 ; viii, 645. London, 1877. (This is the best life of
Whitefield.) (4) Other Leaders of tlie Evangelical Revival.
Benson, Joseph. The Life of the Rev. John W. De La Fl^chi^re. CompUed from the
Narrative of the Rev. Mr. Wesley, the Biographical Notes of the Rev. Mr
GUpin, from His Own Letters, and Other Authentic Documents, Many of Which
Were Never Before Published. 12mo, pp. 357. New York. No date. Also
London, 1804.
Blanshard, Thomas W. The Life of Samuel Bradburn, the Methodist Demosthenes.
12mo, pp. xi, 292. London, 1870.
Bradburn, Eliza Weaver. Memoirs of the Late Rev. Samuel Bradburn. Consisting
principally of a narrative of hia early life written by himaelt, and extracta from
a journal which he kept upward of forty years. To which is added a selection
from his manuscripts. 12mo, pp. xi, 237. London, 1816.

LITERATURE OP CHURCH HISTORY. 365
Clarke, J. B. B. (Editor). An Account of the Infancy, Religious and Literary Life
of Adam Clarke, LL.D., F.A.S., etc. Written by one who was Intimately
acquainted with him from his boyhood to the sixtieth year of his age. Svo,
3 vols., pp. xxxvlil, 327; xxiv, 414; xivn, 482. London, 1833. Also in one
vol., Svo. New York, 1833.
Coke, Thdmas. Extracts of the Journals of the Rev. Dr. Coke's Three Visits to
America. 12mo, pp. vi, 120. London, 1790.
Drew, Samuel. The Life of the Rev. Thomas Coke, LL.D., Including in DetaU His
Various Travels and Extraordinary Missionary Exertions in England, Ireland,
America, and the West Indies ; with an Account of His Death on the 3d of
May, 1814, While on a Missionary Voyage lo tlie Island of Ceylon in the East
Indies. Svo, pp. xix, 391. New York, 1818. First edition, London, 1817.
Etheridge, J. W. The Life of the Rev. Thomas Coke, D.C.L. 12ino, pp. viii, 450.
London, 1860.
Everett, James. Adam Clarke Portrayed. 12mo, 3 vols., pp. xiv, 348; Iv, 344;
Iv, 503. London, 1843-49.
Macdonald, Frederick W. John W. Fletcher, of Madeley. 12mo, viii, 196. New
York, 1886. (In Heroes of Christian History Series.)
Treffry, Richard. Mempirs of the Rev. Joseph Benson. 12mo, pp. viii, 363. Lon
don, 1840.
Tyerman, Luke. Wesley's , Designated Successor; the Life, Letters, and Literary
Labors of the Rev. John William Fletcher, Vicar of Madeley, Shropshire. Svo,
pp. xvi, 581. New York, 1883.
(5) Leaders of the Evangelical Revival in the English Church.
Aveling, Thomas W. Memorials of the Clayton Family, with Unpublished Corre
spondence of the Countess ot Huntingdon, Lady Glenorchy, Rev. John Newton,
A. Toplady, etc. Svo, pp. xii, 516. London, 1867.
Cadogan, William Bromley. Life of the Rev. William Romalne, M.A. In Vol. I of
Romalne's Works. Svo, pp. clli. London, 1813.
Cecil, Richard. Memoirs of the Rev. John Newton, Late Rector of the United Par
ishes of St. Mary, Woolnooth, and St. Mary, Woolchurch Haw, Lombard Street,
with General Remarks on His Life's Connexions and Character. Third edition.
12mo, pp. 322. London, 1808.
Hardy, R. Spence. William Grimshaw, Incumbent of Haworth, 1742-1763. ]2mo,
pp. vii, 286. London, 1860.
Milner, Mary. The Life of Isaac MUner, D.D., F.R.S., Dean of Carlisle, President of
Queen's College, and Professor of Mathematics in the University of Cambridge.
Svo. London, 1842.
Myles, Wm. Life and Writings of Wm. Grimshaw, B.A., Minister of Haworth In
the West Riding of the County of York. ISmo, pp. v, 199. Newcastle-upon-
Tyne, 1806.
Newton, John. The Letters of the Rev. John Newton, to which are Prefixed
Memoirs of His Life by Rev. Richard Cecil. Svo, pp. vi, 380. New York,
1845.
Newton, John. Memoirs of the Life of the Late Rev. William Grimshaw, A.B.,
Minister of Haworth In the West Riding of the County of York. With Occa
sional Reflections in Six Letters to the Rev. Henr.v Foster. ISmo, pp. 159.
London, 1814.
Pratt, Josiah. Memoir of Richard Cecil, Prefixed to His Works. Svo, 4 vola.
London, 1811.

366 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
Roberts, Wm. Memoirs of the Life and Correspondence of Mra. Hannah More.
12mo, 2 vols., pp. iv, 484, 479. New York, 1835.
Scott, Thomas. Letters and Papera of the Late Rev. Thomas Sootl, never before
pubUshed. With Occasional Observations. 12mo, pp. xii, 324. Boston, 1825.
Smith, Goldwin. Cowper. In EngUsh Men of Letters. 12mo, pp. 128. New
York, 1886.
Stephen, Sir James. The Evangelical ,Successlon ; The Clapham Sect. Two Papers
in Essa.ys In Ecclesiastical Biography. London, 1875.
Temple, Richard. Memoirs of the Rt. Hon. John Lord Teignmouth, Governor-
General of India, and First President of the British and Foreign Bible Society.
12mo, pp. vl, 34S. New York, 1859.
Venn, Henry. Life, and a Selection from the Letters, ofthe Late Rov. Henry Venn,
M.A., Successively Vicar of Huddersfield, Yorkshire, and Rector of Yelling,
Huntingdonshire. The Memoir of His Life Drawn Up by the Late Rev. John
Venn, M.A,, Rector of Clapham, Surrey. Fourth edition. Svo, pp. xvi, 594.
London, 1836.
Wilberforce, Robert, Isaac, and Samuel. Tho Life of WUliam WUberforce. Svo,
4 vols. London, 1838. Also 12rao, 6 vols., pp. x, 396, 464, 568, 397, 412. Lon
don, 1839. (Tho authors were the sons of William Wilberforce.)
6. Tlie Anglo- Catholic Revival of the Nineteenth Century.
Abbott, Edwin A. Tho Anglican Career of Cardinal Newman. Svo, 2 vols., pp. x,
415; xii, 480. London, 1892.
Bowden, John Edward. Tho Life and Letters of Frederick WiUiam Faber, Priest
ofthe Oratory of St. PhUip. 12mo. Loudon, 1869. New edition, 1888.
Brieknell, W. Simcox. The Judgment ofthe Bishops upou tho Tractarian Theology.
A Complete Analytical Arrangement of the Charges Delivered by the Prelates
, of the Anglican Church from 1837 to 1842 inchisive, so far as they relate to
the Tractarian Movement. Svo, pp. vill, 753. Oxford, 1845.
Browne, Edward George Kirwan. Annals of the Tractarian Movement from 1842 to
1860. Third edition. Svo, pp. 682. London, 1861.
Candlish, R. S. Progress of Oxford Tractarianism, In the North British Review,
vol. iii, p. 165.
Church, R. W. The Oxford Movement, 1833-1845. ]2mo, pp. xii, 416. London,
1892. (A very caudid narrative. The Dean says that the Oxford Movement
was a reaction against the Reform biU of 1832.)
Churton, Edward. Memoir ot Joshua Watson. Svo, 2 vols. London, 1861. (Has
a reference to R. H. Fronde in Vol. II.)
Coleridge, Sir J. T. A Memoir of the Rev. John Keble. Second edition. 12mo,
2 vols., pp. xvi, 278; iv, 279-620.
CoUette, Charles Hastings. Dr. Newman and liis Religious Opinions. Svo, pp. xvi,
200. London, 1866.
Ellicott, C. J. Tho Anglo-Cathollc Movement, Past and Future, in the Princeton
Review, 1878, p. 612.
Faber, Francis A. A Brief Sketch of the Eariy Life of Rev. Frederick William Fa
ber. Svo. .London, 1860.
Hampden, Henrietta. Some Memorials of Renu Dickson Hampden, Bishop of Here
ford. Svo, pp. xiii, 284. London, 1871.
Hare, Julius Charles. The Contest with Rome : A Charge to the Clergy of the
Archdeaconry of Lewes, Delivered at the Ordinary Visitation in 1851. With

LITERATURE OP CHURCH HISTORY. 367
notes especially in answer lo Dr. Newman's Recent Lectures. Svo, pp. vi, 346.
London, 1852. (Notes C and D deal with the changes in Dr. Newman's view of
Romanism.)
Hewit, A. P. The Oxford Tractarian School, in the Catholic Worid, vol. xii,
pp. 134.
Hutton, Arthur WoUaston. Cardinal Manning. 12nio, pp. vii, 260. Boston, 1892.
Jennings, Henry J. Story of Cardinal Manning's Lif e. Svo, pp. 150. London, 18,82.
(Of little value.)
Lettera and Correspondence of John Henry Newman, During his Life in the English
Church. Edited by Anne Mozley. Svo, 2 vols., pp. 496,513. London, 1891.
(Tn these volumes Newman acknowledges his obligations to the Evangelicals,
in aaaoolation with whom his active life began. He paya a high tribute to the
character of Thomas Scott, the Evangelical commentator)
Lilly, W. S. Characteristics of Newman. Svo, pp. 353. New York, 1875.
Lilly, W. S. Cardinal Manning's Characteristics, Political, Philosophical, and Re
ligious. Svo. New York, 1885.
Lock, Walter. John Keble, a Biography. 12mo, pp. 245. Boston, 1893.
Meynell, Wilfred. .lohn Henry Newman, the Founder of Modern Anglicanism and
a Cardinal of the Roman Church. Svo. London and New York, 1 890.
Moor, John Frewen. Memorials of Rev. John Keble. Second edition. London,
1867.
Mozley, J. B. Remains of Richard Hurrell Froude. Svo, 2 vols. London, 1S37.
Mozley, Thomas. Reminiscences Chiefly of Oriel College and the Oxford Movement.
16mo, 2 vols. Boston, 1882.
Newman, Francis W. Contributions Chiefly to the Early History of the Late Car
dinal Newman, with Comments. 12tno. London and Now York, 1892.
Newman, John Henry. Apologia Pro Vita Sua: Being a History of his Religious
Opinions. 12mo, pp. 395. London, 1883 ; also New York, 1869.
Palmer, WilUam. A Narrative of Events Connected with the Publication of the
Tracts for the Times, etc. Second edition. Svo, pp. x, 115. London, 1843.
(Reviewed by Henry Rogers In the Edinburgh Review, October, 1S44, p. 309.)
Palmer, WUUam. The Oxford Movement of 1833, in the Contemporary Review,
vol. xliii, p. 636, sg.
Patlison, Mark. The Oxford Movement and Oriel CoUege, in The Academy, vol.
xxii, p. 1.
Patlison, Mark. Memoirs. 12mo, pp. vl, 334. London, 1885.
Paul, Charles K. Biographical Sketches. Svo. London, 1883. (See for Life of
Newman.)
Rogers, Henr3^ The Oxford Tractarian School, in the Edinburgh Review, vol. Ixx,
pp. 601.
Stanley, Arthur Penrhyn. The Life and Correspondence of Thomas Arnold. Svo,
2 vols, in one, pp. xxv, 400. New York, 1877. (Arnold is strongly polemic
against the Tractarlaus.)
Tracts for the Times. By Members of the University of Oxford. New edition.
Svo, 5 vols. London, 1839-40.
(Various replies to the Tracts were published on their appearance, which in turn
called forth rejoinders. Some of the replies were written by John Bird Sumner,
Bishop of Chester; Thomas Arnold, of Rugby; W. Gresley, Prebendary of
Lichfield; Daniel Wilson, Vicar of Islington; Christopher Benson, Master
of the Temple; E. C. Harrington, Prebendary of Exeter; James Garbett, Rector
of Clayton, Sussex; WiUiam Goode, Rector of AU HaUowes, London; the

368 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
Bishop of Exeter; Godfrey Faussetl Lady Margaret Professor of Divinity in
Magdalen College ; Charles Goddard, Archdeacon of Lincoln, aud others of less
note. Newman, Pusey, and W. F. Hook made rejoinders to some of these
writers. It la almost impossible to find a collection of these invaluable replies.
Such a collection bound in nine octavo volumes ia at preaent, however, iu the
library of Drew Theological Seminary.)
TuUoch, John. Movements of Religious Thought in Great Britain During the Nine
teenth Century. St. Giles Lectures. 12mo, pp. xi, 338. (Chapters II and III
Ireat of the Oxford Movement.)
Ward, Wilfred. WilUam George Ward and the Oxford Movement. Svo, pp. xxxi,
481. London, 1890.
Ward, Wilfred. William George Ward and the Catholic Revival. Svo, pp. xlvi, 468.
London and New York, 1893.
While, J. W. Genesis of the Oxford Movement, iu the BibUotheca Sacra, vol. xlvi,
p. 654 ; also vol. xlvii, p. 4. '
Williams, Isaac, The Autobiography of. Edited by the Yen. Sir George Prevost.
As throwing further light on the history of the Oxford movement. 12mo, pp.
vl, 186. London, 1892. (A beautiful picture of a saintly life. Williams is most
candid iu all his atatemeiits.)
Wiseman, N. Essays. 3 vols. London, 1853. (Volume II has several references
to the Tractarian Movement.)

7. The Modern Church Period.
Alexander, Archibald. Biographical Sketchea ofthe Founder and Principal Alumni
of the Log College. 12mo, pp. 279. Philadelphia, no date. (A valuable con
tribution to the history of religion and education in the middle United States.)
Amherat, W. J. The History of Catholic Emancipation and the Progress of the
Catholic Church, in the British Isles, from 1771-1820. Svo, 2 vols., pp. 331,
355. London, 1886. (Not an impartial account.)
Arthur, WUliam. Italy in Transition: Public Scenes and Private Opinions in the
Spring of I860. Illustrated by Official Documents from the Papal Archives of
the Revolted Legations. 12mo, pp. vi, 429. Nevy York, 1860. (An account
of the overthrow of the temporal power of the Pope, and also of the character
of the papal government in the Romagna in the period immediately preceding
annexation to Italy.)
Arthur, William. The Pope, the Kings, nnd the People. Svo, 2 vols., pp. xl, 424;
viii, 626. London, 1877. (This ia the beat account we have, by an EngUsh writer,
of the proceedings of the Vatican Council of 1870. . The papal syllabus of 1864
is given in the Appendix, with the counter propositions of Schrader.)
Blunt, John H. A Key to the Knowledge of Church History Ancient and Modern.
Svo. London, 1872.
Brown, Thomas. Annals ofthe Dlaniptlon. With Extracta fVom the Narratives of
Ministers who left the Scottish Establishment in 1843. Svo, pp. xviii, 841.
Edinburgh. 1884,
Huell, Samuel, Translator. Report of the Union Conferences, held from August 10
to 16, 1875, at Bonn, under the Presidency of Dr. Von DoUlnger. Edited' by
Dr. Fr. Heinrich Reusch. l2mo, pp. 200. New York, 1875. (The object of
this Conference was to settle upon terms of agreement between the Anglicans,
the Orthodox Greeks, and the dissenters from the Roman Catholic Vatican Coun
cU of ]87rt.)

AUXILIARIES OP CHURCH HISTORIES. 369
Carroll, H. K. The Religious Forces of tho United States: Enumerated, Classified,
and Described on the Basis of the Government Census of 1890. Svo, pp. 449.
New York, 1893. (The author was placed by the LTiilted Stales Government in
charge of the division of churches, in the Eleventh Census. Tnis Is the first
volume ofthe American Church History Series.)
CInistel, Etienne. Christianity iu the Nineteenth Century. A Religious and Philo
sophic Survey of the Immediate Past, according to the Spirit of Jesus. Trans
lated by J. R. Beard. London, 1874.
D'Alviella, Count Goblet. The Contemporary Evolution of Religious Thought in
England, America, and India. Translated by J. Moder. Svo, pp. xv, 344. New
York, 1886.
D'Aublgne, J. H. Merle. History of the Protestant Church in Hungary to 1850.
Translated by the Rev. J. Craig, D.D., with an Introduction by J. H. Merle
D'Aublgne, D.D. Svo, pp. xxviii, 464. London, 1844.
Dorchester, Daniel. Christianity in the United Stales. From the first settlement
down to the present time. 4to, pp. 795. Now York, 1888.
Hagenbach, Karl Rudolph. History of the Church in the Eighteenth and Nineleenlli
Centuries. Translated by John F. Hurst. Svo, 2 vols., pp. xll, 604 ; vi, 487.
New York, 1869.
Lloyd, JuUua. Sketches of Church Hi.story In Germany. 12nio. London, 1882.
Rogers, J. Guinness. The Church Systems of England in the Nineteenth Century.
The Sixth Congregational Lecture. Svo. London, 1881. (An estimate of tlie
various branches of Protestantism from a Nonconformist standpoint.)

SECTION XIII.
AUXILIARY SCIENCES.
The auxiliaries to Church History are :
I. Material.
1. A knowledge of the general history of the world, more par
ticularly as connected -with the general history of religion ; of phi
losophy and the sciences ; and of art, especially Christian art.
2. The Geography of the Church.
3. The Chronology of the Church.
. II. Instrumental.
I. Acquaintance with the languages necessary for the study of
sources. This is Ecclesiastical Philology.
2. The antiquarian skill needed for judging of the value of
sources, monuments, and documents. This we call Chui-ch Diplo
matics. GENERAL HISTORY.
I. 1. The importance of familiarity with the general history of the
world will be apparent without discussion.* Not only does church
history, as an integral part of the history of the world intimate reia-
and the human race, assume the latter, but the two t^""^^"' ^«°^^-
often pass over into each other to some extent, as, for history.
instance, in the Middle Ages. Hence, in this special field, non-the-
24

370 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
ological and theological writers find a common ground.' Nor may
we forget that the history of Cliristianity, which certainly should
not be lost sight of in the liistory of the Church, covers a larger
surface tliaii church history itself. To oppose the history of the
world to the latter, as being merely profane history, would be to
commit serious error. "Tliis is a mode of judging," says Rotht",
"m connexion with whicli the Christian element in history will in
evitably appear to become more and more exhausted as time goes
on, and the history of the Christian world become tlie history of
the self-effected dissolution of Christianity, according to a view
that has now become popular." "
Nor may the ecclesiastical historian disregard the history of other
religions, among -which the history of the Israelites is most neatly,
related to Christianity, so that Old Testament history becomes at
this point an anxiliai-y to chnrch history. Not only did the arrange
ments of the early Church grow ont of the later organization of the
Jewish synagogues, but the -whole of the Middle Ages presents to
view, in certain aspects, a repetition of Israelitish history, such as
the hierarchy, the temple service, the Levitical institution, the uni
fying of Church and State, intolerance, and the parallel between
Mohammedan- David and Charlemagne. The history of Mohamme-
ism. danism is important for a proper conception of the
Spanish, and also of the Greek and later Oriental, churches, as well
as for the Crusades. But Hellenism and Pciganism should also
arrest the attention of the church historian. For the peculiarities
of Christianity, whose historical development he is to describe, can
only be recotrnized by contrast with non-Christian institntions.
Needofknowi- The significance of Christianity in universal history
edge of the an- cannot be scientificall'v understood without acquaintance
cient world . , , . .•'--. ,. . it ¦¦
and its faiths. With the ancieiit world and its religions. Nor does tlie
fact that the delineation of chnrch history in general will connect
itself with descriptions of the religions state of the ancient world
constitute the only important feature. For the missionary history
of every country will always embrace the two leading elements of a
description of what previously existed, and a statement of what
subsequently took its place. The material for religious history will,
' We cite, in illustration, Raumer's Gesch. d. Hohenstaiii'en, and similar worka.
An acquaintance wilh the literature of general history is taken for granted. Comp.
Gieseler, Church History, vol. i, p. 19, notes.
^ Rothe, Debatte iiber d. Prot. Verein, in Schenkel's Zeitschr,, vol. v, p. 302.
Whether church history is to pass over into the history of the world, " since the
stream of Christianity has formed a new bed, namely, the civil and moral, into
which it now courses from its temporary channel, the ecclesiastical," is a difEerent
question, which we leave untouched for the present.

AUXILIARY SCIENCES. 371
consequently, increase in quantity in proportion as the continued
expansion of Christianity provides a constant supply of new mate
rial for church history.

HISTORY OF RELIGIONS.
English and American Literature.
i. general.
Baring-Gould, S. Origin and Development of Religious Belief. 2 vols., pp. 810.
New York, 1878. (Written from a philosophic point of view; not even the ex
istence of a God is assumed.)
Barlli, A. The Religions of India. Authorized Translation by Rev. J. Wood. Sec
ond edition. Svo, pp. xxiv, 309. London, 1889.
Chambers, John David. The Theological and Philosophical Works of Hermes Trls-
megistua. Christian Neo-Platonist, translated from the Original Greek with
Preface, Notes, and Indices. Svo. Edinburgh, 1882, and also Cincinnati.
Chambers, John David. Sacred Books of the East. Vol. X. Part I. The Dham-
mapada, translated from Pdli by F. Max Miiller, pp. Iv, 99. Part II. The
Sutta-Nipdta, translated from Pali by V. FausboU, pp. xvi, 224. Oxford, 1881.
Vol. xl, Buddhist Sulfas, translated from P^li by T. W. Rliys Davids, pp. xlviii,
320. Oxford, 1881.
Clarke, J. R. Ten Great Religions : an Essay in Comparative Theology. Svo,
2 vols., pp. 528. Boston, 1871.
Cobbe, P. P. Prehistoric Religion. Religions of the World, etc. (In Darwinism,
Morals, and other Essays.) Svo, pp. 400. London, 1872.
Cocker, B. F. Christianity and Greek Philosophy. Svo, pp. x, 531. New York,
1875.
Conway, M. D. Sacred Antliology : Book of Ethnicfd Scriptures. Svo. New York,
1875.
Davids, T. W. Rhys. The Hibbert Lectures, ISSl. Lectures on the Origin and
Growth of Religion as Illustrated by Some Points in the History of Indian Bud
dhism. Svo, pp. viij 262. New York, 1SS2. (Six lectures on difEerent phases
of Buddhism, with which other fo''ras of laltli may be easily compared.)
Edklns, Joseph. Religion In China. 8vo, pp. 276. London, ISSS.
Faber, G. W. Origin ot Pagan Idolatry. Svo, 3 vols. London, 1816.
Ffoulkes, E. S. P. Christendom's Divisions. Svo, 2 vols., pp. xxv, 258 ; xii, 601.
London, 1865-67.
Gardner, J. The Faiths of the World. Svo., 2 vols. Edinburgh, 1858-60.
Goodair, J. T. Seven HomUies on Ethnic Inspiration. Svo. London, 1871.
Hardwick, C. Christ and Other Masters. London, 1863. Second edition, Svo,
2 vols., pp. xvi, 383; vii, 461. Third edition, Svo, 1 vol., pp. xviii, 692. Lon
don, 1874.
Jacob, G. A. A Manual of Hindu Pantheism. A Translation with copious annota
tions of the Vedantasara, pp. x, 129. London, 1881. (The work is an epitome
of Indian philosophy, furnishing accurate Information to all who have not time
for original research.
Johnson, S. Oriental Religions and their Relation to Universal Religion. Svo, pp.
viii, 802. Boston, 1872.

373 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
Kellogg, S. H. A Review of Professor Max MiiUer's " Origin and Growth of Relig
ion." Pp. 26. Bibliotheca Sacra, 1884, p. 132. (The object of Professor Mul-
ler'a leclurea is to show how man rose in India by a natural method from a slate
of no religion to monotheism.)
Kuenen, A. -National Religions and Universal Religions. The Hibbert Lectures,
1882. 1 2mo, pp xll, 365. New York, 1 882. (Aims to account for the religious
of the worid by means of a Theory of Development, not formulated, but clearly
seen In the plan of the work.)
Lang, Andrew. Custom and Myth. 12mo, pp. 312. New York, 1885.
Legge, James. Tho Religions of China. Confucianism and Taoism Described and
Compared with Christianity. 12mo. New York, 1880.
Lenormant, P. Chaldean Magic: Ita Origin and Development. Translated from the
French, with Considerable Additiona, by the Author, and Nolea by the Editor.
London, 1877.
Macdonald, K. S. The Vedic Religion ; or, The Creed and Practice ot the Indo-
Aryana Three Tlioiiaand Years Ago. 12mo. London, 1881.
Mackay, R. W. Progress of the Intellect, as Exemplified in the ReUgious Develop
ment ofthe Grceka.and Hebrews. Svo, 2 vols. London, 1850.
Maurice, P. D. The Religions of the World and their Relations to Christianity. Svo.
London, 1876.
MofEat, J. C. A. Comparative History of Religions. 12mo, 2 vols. New York, 1874.
Muller, Max. Lectures on the Science of Religion, with a Paper on Buddhist
. NIhUism, aud a Translation ofthe Dhammapada, or "Path of Virtue." 12mo,
pp. iv, 300. New York, 1877.
Muller, Max. Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion, as Ulustrated by
the Religions of India. (Hibbert Lectures.) Svo, pp. xvi, 382. New York,
1879.
Nanjio, B. A Short History of the Twelve Japanese Buddhist Sects. Translated
from the Original Japanese. 12mo, pp. 172. Tokyo, 1886.
Parka, Leighton. His Star in the East. A Study in the Eariy Aryan Religions.
12mo, pp. 292. Boston, 1887.
Pressens6, E. de. The Religions Before Christ. Being an Introducljion to the His
tory of the First Three Centuries of the Church. Translated by L. Corkran.
Svo, pp. 268. Edinburgh, 1862.
Rawlinson, George. Egypt and Babylon. From Sacred and Profano Sources.
Svo. London, 1884; also New York.
Rawlinson, George. The Religions of the Ancient World; including Egypt, Assyria
and Babylonia, Persia, India, Phoenicia, Etruria, Greece, and Rome. ]2mo, pp.
249. New York, 1883.
Rawlinson, George. The Contrasts of Ci'ristianity with Heathen and Jewish Sys
tems. Svo. London, 1861.
Rawlinson, George. The Origin of Nations. ]2mo, pp. xiv, 283. New York, ISSl.
Reid, J. M., Editor. Doomed Religions. A Series of Essays on Great Religions ofthe
World; with a Preliminary Essay on Primordial Religion. 12mo, pp. 455.
New York, 1884. (Mohammedanism, Brahnianism, Parseeism, Buddhism, Taoism,
Shintoism, Confucianism are all treated. Has a List of Books on the subjects.)
RevlUe, Albert. The Native Religions of Mexico and Peru. Translated by P. H.
Wicksteed. (The Hibbert Lectures of 1884.) 12mo, pp. 212. New York,
1884. (A thorough discussion in small compass.)
Rhys, D. T. W. Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion. Svo, pp. vii, 262.
London, 1882.

AUXILIARY SCIENCES. 373
The Faiths of the Worid. St. Giles Lectures. 12mo, pp. vl, 364. New York, 1882.
(A condensed account of the beliefs of the world from extensive studies by well-
known scholars.)
Thiele, C. P. History ot the Egyptian Religion. Translated by James Ballingal.
Svo. Loudon, 1878. (The Paris edition of 1885 contains a bibliography of the
subject.)
Tyler, W. S. The Theology of the Greek Poets. Andover, 1870.
Tylor, B. B. Primitive Culture : Researches into the Development of Mythology,
Philosophy, Religion, Language, Art, and Custom. Svo, 2 vols., pp. xii, 502;
vUi, 470. NewYoi'k, 1877.
VInet, A. Vital Christianity : Essays and Discourses on the Religions of Man and
the Religion of God. 12mo. Edinburgh, 1851.
Whitney, W. D. Oriental and Linguistic Studies. The Veda ; TheAvesta; The
Science of Language. 12mo, pp. vii, 416. New York, 1873.
Whitney, W. D. Oriental and Linguistic Studies. Second Series. The East and
West; Religion and Mythology; Ortliogr.nphy and Phonology; Hindu Astron
omy. 12mo, pp. Ix, 431. New York, 1874.
II. MOHAMMEDANISM.
Arnold, J. M. The Koran and the Bible; or, Islam and Christianity. Svo. London,
1866.
Bose, Ram Chandra. Mohammedanism, an Essay in "Doomed Religions,'' pp. 34-1 1 5.
De Lamartine, A. History of Turkey. Translated. 12mo, 3 vols., pp. 403, 394,
431. New York, 1855. (Book I is a discussion and history of Mahomet.)
Deutsch, E. Islam. Literary Remains, pp. 59-134. Svo. London, 1874. (There
is in tliia essay a fine description of the personal appearance and manners ot
Mahomet.)
Fiske, E. F. Tho Respective Peculiarities in Creeds of the Mohammedan and the
Hindoo, which Stand in the Way of Conversion to the Christian Faith. Cam
bridge, 1850.
Freeman, Edward A. The History and Conquest of the Saracens. Six Lectures.
]2mo, pp. xxx, 203. London, 1877.
Freeman, Edward A. The Ottoman Power in Europe: Its Nature, its Growth, and
its Decline. 12mo, pp. xxii, 315. London, 1877. (The last chapter, on "The
Practical Question," is a strong appeal for the expulsion of the Turks from
Europe.)
Hughes, Thomas Patrick. A Dictionary of Islam, being a Cyclopasdia of the Doc
trines, Rites, Ceremonies, and Customs, together with the Technical and Theolog
ical Terms, ofthe Mohammedan Religion. 4to, pp. vii, 750. London, 1885.
Lees, James C. Mohammedanism in " The Faiths of the World." St. Giles Lec
tures. 12mo, pp. 364. New York, 1882.
Macbrlde, J. B. Mohammedan Religion Explained. 12mo. London, 1857.
Muir, William. Annals of the Early Caliphate. Svo, pp. xix, 470. London, 1883.
With a M.np. (A Review of the beginnings of Mohammedanism.)
Muir, Sir William. The Life of Mahomet from Original Sources. New edition. Svo,
pp. xi, 613. London, 1877. (Abridged from the first edition in four volumes.
The Standard Life of Mahomet.)
Muir, Sir William. The CaUphale : Its Rise, Decline, and Fall. From Original
¦Sources. Second edition. Svo, pp. xv, 612. London, 1892.
Neale, F. A. Islaraism : Its Rise and Progreas ; or. The Present and Past Condition
of the Turks. Svo, 2 vols., pp. 365, 315. London, 1864.

374 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
Osborn, Robert D. Islam Under the Khallfs of Baghdad. Svo, pp. xii, 406. Lon
don, 1878.
Palgrave, W. G. Essays on Eastern Questions. Svo. London, 1872.
Smith, R.B. Mohammed and Mohammedanism. 12mo, pp. xvji, 388. London, 1874.
Southgate, Horatio. Narrative of a Tour Through Armenia, Kurdistan, Persia, and
Mesopotamia. 12rao, 2 vols., pp. 324, 356. New York, 1840. (The Introductory
Chapter of 54 pages discusses the " groundwork of Mohammedanism.")
Stobart, J. H. W. Islam and Its Founder. 12mo, pp. 254. London, 1876.
Taylor, W. C. History of Mohammedanism and its Sects. 12mo. London, 1851.
Wherry, E. M. A Comprehensive Commentary on the Quran ; comprising Sale's
Translation and Preliminary Discourse, with Additional Notes aud Emendations.
Together with a Complete Index to the Preliminary Discourse and Notes. Vol.
1. 12mo, pp. 391. Boston and New York, 1882.
WiUlams, W. R. Eras and Characters of Hiatory. 12mo, pp.280. New York,
1882. (Chapter vll diacusses " Mahomelanism.")
PHILOSOPHY.
Christianity came into relation with the ancient systems of
philosophy as with the ancient religions. It brought with it no new
philosophy, indeed, though many philosophically cultured Chris
tians, such as Justin Martyr, believed it did ; but its contents
presented themselves at once to philosophic thought as au object of
speculation. Hence arose the influence of Platonism and Aristote
lianism. As, during the Middle Ages, the external history of the
Church coincides with that ofthe world and of nations, so the theol
ogy of the Church and the philosophy of individual thinkers inter
penetrate each other in scholasticism. The most recent phenomena
in the territory of the theological world, moreover, are utterly in
comprehensible without a familiar acquaintance with the immense
revolution in philosophical ideas that has taken place since the be
ginning of the last century. No person will, accordingly, be likely
to question the importance of a knowledge of the history of philoso
phy in this connexion.
ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE OP THE HISTORY OP PIH-
LOSOPHY.
Cousin, Victor. Course of the History of Modern Philosophy. Translated by 0.
W. Wight. Svo, 2 vols., pp. viii, 452, 439. New York, 1852. (Much space ia
given by Cousin lo the Consideration ofthe Philosophy of Locke.)
Henry, D. S., Translator. An Epitome of the History ot Philosophy. From the
Prench, with Additions. 16mo, 2 vols., pp. vl, 276 ; xii, 311. New York, 1841.
(A compact manual. The original was adopted as a text-book for colleges and
schools by the University of Prance.)
Lewes, George Henry. From Thales to Comte. Svo, 2 vola., pp. Ixi, 407 ; x, 663.
London, 1867. (Written in the interest of Positivism. The contention is that
all systems prior to that of Comte have utterly failed to ajitisry the demands of
the human mind.)

AUXILIARY SCIENCES. 375
Mackinto.oh, Sir Jamea. Dissertation on the Progress of Ethical Philosophy Chiefly
During the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries. AVilh a Preface by William
Wliewell. Svo, pp. 299. Philadelphia, 1845. (The history of Modern Ethics
is confined to English and Scotch writers.)
Masson, David. Recent British Philosophy : A Review with Criiloisnis. 12mo, pp.
335. New York, 1866. (On pages 23-29 there is a list of British writers on
Speculative Philosophy from the early part of the century lo 1865,)
MorreU, J. D. An Historical and Criticd View of the Speculative Philosophy of
Europe in the Niiieleenth Century. Svo, pp. xviii, 752. New York, 1851.
(This is perhaps the most comprehensive account in English of Nineteenth
Century Philosophy.)
Tennenian, W. G. Manual of the History of Philosophy. Translated by A. Johnson.
12ino, pp. xii, 532. Oxford, 1833. Also Revised, Enlarged, and Corrected by J. R.
MorreU. London, 1852.
Uebervveg, Fredrich. A History of Philosophy from Thales to the Present Time.
Translated by George S. Morris. With additious by No,ih Porter. Svo, 2 vols.,
pp. XV, 487 ; viii, 561. New York, 1874. (Vol. I contains the History of An
cient and Mcdiieval Phllosrphy. Vol. II, Modern Philosophy. Appendix I
furnishes a valuable sketch of Philosophy in Great Britain aud America, by Dr.
Noah Porter, and Appendix II a Sketch of Modern Philosophy iu Italy, by
Vincenzo Bolla )
The history of other sciences, with the whole of the history of
literature and culture, also belongs within the Church historian's
circle of knowledge, and should not be disregarded by him.
Church history often derives assistance from the histoiy of juris
prudence, of commerce, of war, and of medicine. A specially im
portant aid, however, is found in the history of Christian art as
connected with the history of the progress of culture. Compare
Archseology and Liturgies.
ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE.
1. CULTURE AND LITEEATUEE.
Buckle, H. T. History of Civillzatlou in England, France, Spain, and Scotland.
New edition, Svo, 3 vols. London, 1S78.
Draper, J. W. A History of the InteUectual Development of Europe. Revised edi
tion. Svo, 2 vols. New York, 1876.
Gu'zot, P. The History of Civilization from the Fall of the Roman Empire to the
French Revolution. Translated by Wm. Hazlitt. 12mo, 4 vols. New York,
1859.
Macklnnon, W. A. History of CivUlzation. 12mo, 2 vols. London, 1846.
2. ARCHITECTURE AND AET.
Aiidsley, W. and G. Handbook of Christian Symbolism. Svo, pp. 145. London,
1 865. (Tlie symbols and monograms used by the early Church.)
Bowler, George. Chapel and Cliurch Architecture, with Designs for Parsonages.
Folio. Boston, 1856. (Mainly a book ot plates.)
Caveler, WiUiam. Select Specimens of Gothic Architecture. 4to, plates 77. Lon
don, 1839.

376 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
Clement, C. E. A Handbook of Legendary and Mythological Art. Svo. Thirteenth
edition. Boston, 1881. New York, 1872.
Clement, C. E. Painters, Sculptors, Architects, Engravers, and their Works. Sixth
edition. Svo. New York, 1881.
Close, T. Church Architecture, Scripturally Considered from the Earliest Ages to
the Preaent Time. 12mo, pp. 112. London, 1844.
Hopkina, John H. Esaay on Gothic Architecture, with varioua plans and drawings,
for churches. 4to, pp. 46, plates 13. Burlington, Vt., 1836.
Jameson, Mrs. A. The History of our Lord aa Exemplified in Worka of Art ; with
that of Hia Typea : St. John the Baptist, and other Persons of the Old and New
Testaments. New edition. Svo, 2 vols. London, 1872.
Jameson, Mrs. A. Legends of the Madonna. New edition. Svo. London, 1879.
Jameson, Mrs. A. Sacred and Legendary Art. New edition. Svo, 2 vols.' Lon
don, 1879.
Jobson, F. J. Chapel and School Architecture as Appropriate to the Buddings of
Nonconformists. Svo, pp. 191. London, 1850.
Norton, C. E. Historical Studlea of Cliur h Building in the Middle Ages. Venice,
Siena, Florence. Svo, pp. vi, 331. New York, 1880.
Parker, John Henry. A Concise Glossary of Terms used in Grecian, Roman, Italian,
and Gothic Arehltecture. 16mo, pp. 335. Second edition. London, 1888. (An
excellent book for the beginner in these studies.)
Pocock, W. F. Dealgna for Churches and Chapela. 4to, pp. 28, plates 44. London,
1824.
Poole, G. A. History of Ecclesiastical Architecture In England. Svo. London, 1848.
Pugin, A. and A. W. Examples of Gothic Architecture. 4to, 3 vols. With many
plates. London, 1850.
Pugin, A. W. The True Principles of Pointed or Chriatian Architecture. 4to, pp.
61. Londou, 1S53.
Pugin, A. W. The Present State of Ecclesiastical Architecture in England. Svo,
pp. 158. With numerous plates. London, 1843.
Sootl, G. G. An Essay on the History of Englisli Church Aroliitecture Prior to the
Separation of England from the Roman Obedience. Polio. London, 1881.
Scott, G. G. Lectures on the Rise and Development of Mediasval Architecture.
Illustrated. Svo, 2 vols. London, 1879.
Sharpe, K. Seven Periods of English Architecture. Svo. London, 1871.
Smith, T. Roger. Architecture, Gothic and Renaissance. 12mo, pp. xxxix, 236.
London, 1884. (One of the Handbooks on Art Education, edited by Edward
J. Poynter and Professor Roger Smith.)
Street, G. E. Some Account of Gothic .Architecture in Spain. Svo, pp. 627. Lon
don, 1865.
Tyrwhitt, R. St. John. The Art Teaching of the Primitive Church. 12mo, pp. a,
382. London, no date.
Wills, Frank. Ancient English Ecclesiastical Architecture and its Principles Applied
to the Wants of the Church at the Present Dav. 4lo, pp. 120. With plates.
New York, 1860.
2. Ecclesiastical geography differs from political in tho fact that
countries are divided up according to their ecclesiastical relations.
The Christian countries are separated from the non-Christian ; and,
-within the limits of the formei-, tlie denominational are distinguished

AUXILIARY SCIENCES. 377
from the unconfessional by boundaries, while the territory em
braced within the limits of a single ecclesiastical organization is
further subdivided into the politico-ecclesiastical sections covered by
patriarchates, dioceses, parishes, and other subdivisions. The
places are topographically distinguished — with all of which the re
markable facts in Church history stand connected. In studies we
must connect geographical charts with historical tables. It is also
proper to adduce ecclesiastical statistics in connexion with the geog
raphy. But the former, considered as the science of ecclesiastical
conditions, is rather a product of Church history than an auxiliary
science.' The aggregate resulting from the past is represented in the
present. We may name the following as important works :
Droysen, G. AUgeme ner historischer Handallas : in Sechsundneuuzlg Karten mit
Erlaiiterndem Text. Folio, pp. 92. Leipsic, 1886.
Freeman, Edward A. The Historical Geography of Europe. Second edition. Svo,
2 vols., pp. xlviii, 629. Vol. II, Ixv plates. London, 1882.
Labberton, Robert H. Historical Atlas, containing a Chronological Series of One
Hundred Colored Maps, lUustraling Successive Periods from the Dawn of History
to the Present Daj'. Svo, pp. xl. Philadelphia, 1872. New edition. Svo, pp.
213. New York, 1 886.
Piitz, Wilhelm. Handbook of Mediaeval Geography and History. Translated from
the German by Rev. R. B. Paul, M.A. 12mo, pp. 223. New York, 1850.
Willsch; J. E. T. Atlas sacer s. ecclesiasticus, Gotha, 1843 sq. English edition,
translated by John Leitch. Svo, 2 vols. London, 1859.
3. Ecclesiastical chronology is identified with chronology in gen
eral. The different eras are of special importance. The following
are the best works in this department :
Jarvis, S. F. A Chronological Introduction to the History of the Church. Svo, pp.
634. New York, 1 845.
Riddle, J. E. Ecclesiastical Chronology; or. Annals of the Christian Church, from
its Foundation to the Present Time. Svo, pp. 510. London, 1848.
Smith, Henry B. History of the Church of Christ in Chronological Tables. Folio,
pp. 93. Revised cdilion. New York, 1875. (A valuable text accompanies the
tables, and there la a copious index.)
II. I. Ecclesiastical philology. This is generally understood to
desisnate the knowledge of ecclesiastical Greek and Latin, and it is
upon this soil that the language of the Church has actually secured
its chief development in the accumulation of ecclesiastical ideas.
But, in reality, the language of every people to whom the Gospel
has forced its way — and it is destined to be proclaimed in all the
' Older works by Clericus, Spanlicim, Bingham, and others; see Gieseler (Amer.
edition), vol. I, pp. 16, 17. The works of StaudUn, WIggers, and Wiicsch; see
under Statistics.

378 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
tongues of the earth — is within the range of ecclesiastical philology.
This applies to the different Oriental languages, the speech of the
Occident during the Middle Ages, and the modern tongues of
Europe and other lands. To trace the ecclesiastical language of
Germany through its development by the niy.stics, Luther, the jiiet-
ists, and the influence of modern philosophy, would prove a serious
task. Much remains to be done with reference to the etymology
of German ecclesiastical terms. The best authorities are :
Adelung, J. C. Glossarium manuale ad scriptores mediae el Inflinae Latiiiitalls.
Halle, 1772-84. 6 vols.
Carpentler, P. Glossarium novum ad scriptores medll aevi cum latinos turn gallicos.
Par., 1766. 4 vols., 4.
Diez, F. C. Etymolog.Wiirlerb. der roman. Sprachen. Bonn, 1855. Third edition, 1874.
Du Cange, C. Glossarium ad sorlpun-es mediae et iufimae Latinitatis (1678) ; ed.
nova, opere et stud. Monachor. ord. S. Benedictl. Par,, 1733-36. 6 vols., f.
New edition, by G. Henschel. Par., 1840 ft. 7 vols,, 4.
Hoffmann, G, Gesch. des Kirchonlateins. 1st vol., 1st p.art. Bresl., 1879.
Rousch, H. Itala und Vulgata. Das Sprachldiom der nrchristliolien Itala und der
katholisclien Vulgata unier Beriicksichtiguug der romlschen Volkssprache durch
Beispiele erlautort. Marb. (Lpz,), 1869. Second edition, 1875.
Sulcer, J. Cp. Thesaurus ecclesiasticus e Patribus graecia (16S2). Second edition,
Amstel, 1728. 2 vols., f.
2. Diplomatics is the science of diplomas, i. e., of original docu
ments (bulls, briefs, letters of institution or foundation, patents,
etc.), with whicli numismatics, heraldry, and sphragistics are to be
combined. SECTION XIV.
SEPARATE BEANCHES OP HLSTOEICAL THEOLOGY.
It is possible to separate special divisions of the life of the
Church from the whole held included within the range of Church
history, and consider them in their separate development. In this
regard the history of the system of Christian teaching comes most
prominently into notice under the name of the History of Doctrines,
and as endowed with a measure of independence. The next place is
held by Patristics and Ecclesiastical Symbolics, and upon these fol
lows the history of worship and of the constitution of the Church,
under the name of Archaeology. The latter constitutes the histor
ical basis of practical theology, the others of dogmatic.
The possibility of according a special treatment to precisely these
branches is not the result of accident. Dogma, constitution, and
worship are the principal elements in the life of the Church. The
territorial expansion of Christianity and its persecutions constitutes
the trunk from -which these branches rise. It is, of course, possi-

SEPARATE BRANCHES OP HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. 379
ble to Consider the trunk itself alone. But it would result in fur
nishing but a barren picture so long as we look only to territorial
extension and limitations. The Hiatory of Missions has, likewise,
received separate treatment. But this will, whenever it is treated
forcibly, itself expand into Church history in its earliest periods,
inasmucii as the object must be to show how Chris- History ot Mis-
tianity was extended, what doctrines it taught, what sions.
customs and manners it introduced, and what fruits it has pro
duced.' Or, it may be compressed into a monograph on the life of
some distinguished herald of the faith.'' It is only to recent His
tories of MLssions that the name can be applied with propriety, and
here, if regard be had chiefly to the impulse of missionary effort,
it coincides with tho history of Christian life and work, such as the
founding of missionary societies, or, where the attention is directed
principally to results, it leads immediately into statistics.
The History of Missions has the same bearing upon the work of
the future missionary that is exercised by the study of the history
of the home Church upon him who designs to labour within its limits.
Its special treatment should be appropriate for his needs. In pro
portion as the Church itself enlarges its share in missionary effort
will every theologian be obliged to pursue this branch of Church
history, to the extent necessary for acquaintance with the whole
history of the Church, and for imparting animation to the picture
in which that whole is described. It is otherwise, however with
respect to the branches mentioned above, which, bending otitward
from the trunk of the history, became immediately interwoven with
the growth of other branches, such as the dogmatic and the jiracti-
cal. In this instance, we obtain, on the one hand, the History of
Doctrines, and, on the other, Archseology, with this solitary distinc
tion — that the history of doctrines has assumed more of tlie form
of a distinct science than is the case with archseology. This we
shall show hereafter.
In addition to dogma, constitution, and worship. Christian ethics
might receive attention ; and, in ]ioint of fact, both the christian Eth-
History of Christian Morality itself and that of Chris- i<^-
tian Ethics, as a science, liave received separate treatment. Prop
erly considered, the latter should constitute the parallel to the
History of Doctrines, or, rather, should grow out of a living treat
ment of this branch. Tlie former appears to the best advantage as
' This ia tliecaseinBlumhardl's Mlssionageschlchte and Tzschlrner'a Fall dea Hei-
denthnms. ' The " Lives " of Columba, Gallus, Boniface, Ansgar, Otto v. Bamberg. Comp.
the literature in text-books of Church history.

380 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
the blossom of Church history itself, and it is still a serious ques
tion whether it be advisable to separate it from the parent stem.
The most vital view of Christian morality is obtained from the
study of monographs and of archseology, especially when the
latter is made to embrace a somewhat extended field. On the
relation of Patristics and Symbolics to the History of Doctrines,
see below.
Still other branches might be separated, but they would possess
value only for the professional historian. This is true, especially, of
the careful tracing of such features " as must be included in the
historical presentation for the sake of continuity alone, and which
are not to be regarded as properly historical elements." ' A com
plete history of the popes, for instance, carried through from be
ginning to end, or a similar history of Church councils — in short,
every thing in connexion with which completeness requires that,
in addition to matters exerting an influence upon the history,
special attention be given to names and figures, and the like — can
only claim the attention of such persons as are called to cultivate
historical science for its own sake. For " nothing is more un
fruitful than the heaping up of historical knowledge which neither
serves any jiractical ends nor imparts itself to others through the
representation." " '
English and American Litekatcre of Christian Missioxs.
(!) Missions in General.
Aikman, J. L. A Cyclopaedia of Christian Missions. Svo. London, 1859.
American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. Memorial Volume of Fir.st
Fifty Years. Svo, pp. xix, 462. Boston, 1861.
Anderson, R. Foreign Missions: Their Relations and Claima. 12mo, pp. 463. New
York, 1869.
Anderson, R. History of the MIsaiona of the American Board. 12mo, 4 vola.
Boston, 1870-74.
Badley, B. H. Indian Missionary Directory and Memorial Volume. Svo, pp. 76.
Lucknow, 1876.
Bliss, Edward M. The Encyclopaedia of Missions, Descriptive, Historical, Biograph
ical, Statistical. With a Full Assortment of Maps, a Complete Bibliography, and
lists of Bible Versions, Missionary Societies, Mission Stations, and a General In
dex. Royal Svo, 2 vols., pp. vnl, 661, 679. New York, 1891. (A vast treasury
of information.)
Bonar, A. R. Incidents of Missionary Enterprise. 16mo, pp. xv, 342. Edinburgh,
1842.
Boyce, W. B. Statistics of Protestant Missionary Societies, 1871-73. Svo, pp.
xxvlli, 184. London, 1874.
Brightwell, Miss C. L. Romance of Modern Missions. Svo. London, 1 870.
' Schleiermacher, i 154. " Ibid., 191 Anm.

LITERATURE OP CHRISTIAN MISSIONS. 381
Brown, Wm. History of the Propagation of Christianity Among the Heathen Since
the Ueformatlon. Svo, 2 vols, pp. 547, 535. London, 1854.
Carroll, H. K. The World of Missions: The Societies, Fields, Agencies, and Successes
of Protestant Missions. 24mo, pp. 69. New York, 1881.
Choules, J. 0. The Origin and History of Missions. 4to, 2 vols., pp. xxii, 622 ;
xiv, 610. Boston, 1842.
Christlieb, T. Protestant Foreign Missions. Translated by David Allen Rend.
16mo, pp. 264. New York, 1880.
Coan, Titus. Life In Hawaii : An Autobiographical Sketch of Mission Life and La
bor (1835-1881). 12mo, pp. 340. New York, 1882.
Cox, F. A. History of the Baptist Missionary Society from 1792-1842, to which is
added a Sketch of the General Baptist Mission. 12mo, 2 vols.', pp. 444, 406, 34.
London, 1842.
Daggett, Mrs. L. H. Historical Sketches of Woman's Missionary Societies in Amer
ica and England. New edition. 16mo, pp. 143. Boston, 1883.
Dobbins, F. S. A Foreign Missionary Manual : Geographical, Synoptica', Statistical,
and Biographical. 16mo, pp. 203. Philadelphia, 1881.
Gamniell, W. A History of American Baptist Missions in Asia, Africa, Europe, and
North America. Sixth edition. 1 2mo, pp. xii, 359. Boston, 1 860.
General Conference, Proceedings of, on Foreign Missions, held In Mlldmay Park,
London, 1878. Svo, pp. vlll, 434. London, 1879.
Gracey, Mra. J. T. Woman's Medical Work in Foreign Lands. 16mo, pp. 191.
DansviUe, N. Y., 1881.
Gracey, .L T. The Missionary Yearbook for 1889-90. 12mo, pp. 428. New York,
1889.
Hamilton, R. W. Missions : Their Authority, Scope, and Encouragement. An Es
say. 12mo, pp. 430. Leeds, 1846. (Discusses the philosophy of missions.)
HasseU, Joseph. From Pole to Pole. A Handbook of Christian Missions. 12mo,
pp. 451. London, 1866.
Holmes, J. Historical Sketches ot the Missions of the United Brethren to 1817.
Second edition. Svo. London, 1827.
Hood, G. Histoiical Sketch of Missions in Sopth America. 12mo. Philadelphia,
1881.
Jackson, Sheldon. Alaska and Missions on the North Pacific Coast. 12mo. New
York, 1880.
Johnstone, Jas. Report ot the Centenary Conference on the Protestant Missions of
the Worid in London, 1888. Svo, 2 vols., pp. 560, 624. London, ISSS. (Vol.
I has quite an extensive Bibliography prepared by Rev. S. M. Jackson. It is an
abstract of the Bibliography in Bliss's Encyclopsedia of Missions.)
Jubilee, The Missionary : An Account of the Fiftieth Anniversary of the American
Baptist Missionary Union, at Philadelphia, 1864. Svo, pp. 500. New York,
1865.
Kennedy, Jamea. Lite and Work in Benares and Kumaon, 1839-1877. With an
Introductory Note by Sir William Muir, late Deputy-Goveruor of the North
western Provinces of India. Svo. Illustrated. London, 1884.
Kingsley, Bishop C. Round the Worid. l2mo, 2 vols., pp. 344, 325. Cincinnati,
1868.
KingsmUl, J. MIsaiona and Miasionaries. Hlatorically Viewed from their Commence
ment. Svo, pp. viii, 534. London, 1853.
Laurie, Thomas. The Ely Volume, or the Contributions ot our Foreign Missions to
Science and Human Well-being. Svo, pp. 532. Boston, 1881.

383 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
Lowe, J. Medical Missions, Their Place and Power. Svo. London, 1 886.
Lowrie, J. C. A Manual of the Foreign Missions ot the Presbyterian Church In the
United States of America. 12mo, pp. 359. New York, 1868.
Maclear, G. F. A History of Christian Missiona during the Middle Agea. Svo, pp.
xxi, 466. Cambridge, 1 863.
Merivale, C. Conversion of the West. 16mo, 5 vols. New York, 1879.
Merivale, C. The Conversion of the Roman Empire. Svo, pp. 267. New York, 1865.
Merivale, C. The Conversion of the Northern Nations. Svo, pp. 231. New York,
1866,
Mitchell, J, Murray. Foreign Missiona of Protestant Churches, their State and Pros
pects. 12mo. New York, 1888.
Molster, William. A Handbook of Wesleyan Missiona, Briefly Describing their Rise,
Progress, and Present State In Various Parts of the Worid. 1 2mo. London, 1883.
Miiller, F, Max, On Missions: A Lecture delivered In Westminster Abbey. 12mo,
pp, 77. New York, 1874.
Murray, A. W. The Martyrs of Polynesia. 12mo. London, 1884.
Newooinh, H. A Cyclopaedia of Missions: Containing a Comprehensive View of
Missionary Operations throughout the Worid. 1 2mo, pp. vl, 784. New York, 1854.
Philips, J. E. Woman's Work in Foreign Missions. Svo. London, 1865.
Reid, J. M. Missions and Missionary Society ot the Methodist Episcopal Church.
12mo, 2 vols., pp. 462, 471. New York, 1879.
Shorring, M. A. The History of Protestant Missions in India, 1706-1882. Edited
and carefully revised and brought down to date by the Rev. E. Storrow, for
merly of Calcutta. With Four Maps. Svo, pp. 482. London, 1875. Second
edition, 1884.
Slater, T. E. The Philosophy of Missions. 12mo. London, 1 882.
Smith, F. The Origin and History of Missions. Compiled and Arr.anged from
Authentic Documents. 4to, 2 vols., pp. xxii, xl, 622; xiv, 610. Boston, 1842.
Smith, S. F. Missionary Sketches: A Concise History of the Work of the American
Baptist Union. 16mo, pp. 358. Boston, 1869.
Smith, Thomas. Mediaeval Missions. 12mo, pp. ix, 279. The Duff Lectures.
New York, 1880.
Thompson, Augustus. Sketch ot the Origin and the Recent History of the New
England Company. By the Senior Members of the Company. 12mo. London,
1884. (The earliest of the Missionary Societies in Great Britain In modern timea.)
Thompson, A. C. Moravian Missions. Twelve Lectures. ]2mo, pp. 516. New
York, 1882.
Thomson, Bishop E. Our Oriental Missions. 12mo, 2 vols., pp. 267, 281. Cincin
nati, 1871.
Warneck, Gustav. Outline of the History of the Protestant Missions from the Ref
ormation to the Present Time. A Contribution to Recent Church History.
Reprinted, wilh additions, from the Real-Encyklopadle. Translated from the
second edition by Thomas Smith, D.D., Professor of Evangelistic Theology,
Edinburgh. Svo. Edinburgh, 1884.
Wheeler, Mrs. M. S. The Woman's Foreign Missionary Society of the Methodist
Episcopal Church. 12mo, pp. 346. New York, 1881.
Wilkinson, John. Israel's Mission and Missions to Israel. 12mo. London, 1889.
WUllaras, Monler. Religious Thought and Life in India. An Account ofthe Relig
ions ot the Indian Peoples, based on a Life's Study of tbcir Literature, and on
Personal Investigations in their own country. Svo. Part I. Vedism, Brali-
manism, and Hinduism. London, 1888.

LITERATURE OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONS. 388
WiUlams, S. WeUs. The Middle Kingdom: a Survey ofthe Geography, Government,
Literature, Social Life, Arts, and History ofthe Chinese Kinpire and its Inhajb-
itants. Revised ed'.tion, with Illustrations, and a new map of the Empire. Svo,
2 vols., pp. 836, 774. Ncw York, 1848. Fifth edition, 1883. (Chapter xix, on
Christian Missions among the Chinese, traces the unparalleled progress of the
Christian religion among that people.)
Young, Robert. Light in Lands of Darkness. A Record of Missionary Labour
among G reenlauders, Eskimos, Pafeigonians, etc., Armenians, Nestorians, Per
sians, Egyptians, and Jews. With Introduction by the Eari ot SliaCtesbury.
Third edition. 12mo. London, 1884.
For full Literature on the special mission fields, see Hurst's Bibliotheca Theologica,
pp. 179-188. Also S. M. Jickson, Bibliography of Missions in the Bliss En
cyclopsedia of Missions. (2) lAves of Missionaries.
Carey, WiUiam. By His Nephew, Eustace Ciirey. 12mo. London, 1836, Second
edition, 1837. (There are also Lives by Jo=eph Belcher, Von A, Christ, James
Culross, George Smith. John B. Myers, J. Marshman, John S. Banks.)
Coan, TitnaM. Autobiography. 12mo. New York, 1882.
Eliot, John, Lite of. By R, B. Caverly. 12mo. London, 1881.
Gardiner, Allen Francis, Life of. By J. W. Marsh, Svo. London, 1883. (There are
also LivG^by J. W. Marsh, W. H. Sierling, and Charles Bullock.)
Gessner, Johannes E., Life of By J. D. Procbnow. Translated by L. Morgan. 12mo.
London, 1865.
Heber, Reginald, Life of. By His Widow. 4to, 2 vols., pp. vi, 564; xll, 638.
London, 1830. (Also Lives by Thomas Robinson, G. Bonner, James Cbamhers.)
Hunt, .Tohn, Life of. By G. S. Rowe. 24rao. Cincinnati, 18:i7.
Japp, A. H. Master Missionaries : Studies iu Heroic Pioneers' Worka. Svo. Lon
don, 1880.
Judson, Adonlram, Life of. By Edw.ird Judson. Svo. New York, 1883. (There
are also Lives by H. Bonar, J. Clement, Mrs. H. C. Conant, A. D. Gillett,
Eustace Judson, William C. Richards, Francis Wayland.)
LIving.stone, David, Life of. By W. G. Blaikie. New editi<in. Svo, pp. 504, New
York, 1882. (There are also Lives by T. Hughes, Dr. Maeauley, A. Montefiore,
Samuel Mossman, J. S. Roberts. H. Seymour, Samuel Smiles, and others.)
Martyn, Henry, Life of. By Charies D. Bell. ]2mo. New York, ISSO. (.ilso Lives
by John Hall, John Sargeant, Samuel Wilberforce, and others.)
Moffat, Robert, Life of. By David J. Deane. Svo. London, 1887. Also Lives by
AV. Walters, M. E. Wilder, Anne Manning, John S. Moffat.)
Patteson. John C, Life of By Frances awdry. I2mo. London, 1875. (Also Lives
by W. E. Gladstone, C. Knudsen, Jesse Page, C. M. Yonge, Mrs. Cliariea,
Pitmiin, Mrs. K. R. Heioinss of the Mission Field : Blogriipheal Sketches. Svo, pp.
368. London, 1880.
Sherwood, J. M. Memoirs of Rev. David Brainerd, Missionary to the Indians in
North America. Based on the Life of Brainerd prepared by Jonathan Ed-
, wards, D.D., and afterwards revised and enlarged by Sereno E. Dwight, D.D.
With an Introduction on the Life and Character of David Brainerd, by the Edi
tor. Also an Essay on God's Hand In Missions, by Arthur T. Pierson, D.D.
]2mo, pp. 354. New York, 1884.
Smith, L. E. Heroes and Martyrs of the Modern Missionary Enterprise 8vo.
Hartford, 1852.

384 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
Smith, Thomas. Men Worth Remembering. "Alexander Duff." 12mo. London, 1884.
Williams, John, the Martyr of Erromanga. By John Campbell. 12mo. London,
1842. (Also Lives by W. P. Besaer and E. Piout.)
Williams, Samuel Wella, Lite of. By Frederick Wells Williams. Svo. New York,
1888.
Walsh, W. P. Modern Heroes of the Mission Field. Svo, pp. x, 249. London,
1879. Third edition, ISSS.
Zeisberger, David, Life of. By Edmund De Schweinitz. Svo. Philadelphia, 1838.
(There are also several Lives of him in German.)
(3) Ethnology of Missionary Lands.
Bancroft, H. H. Native Races of the Pacific States of North America. Svo, 5 vols.
San Francisco, 1883.
Barras, J. On the Natives of India. Svo. London, 1 889.
Bellew, H. W. J. The Races of Afghanistan. Svo. London, 1880.
Biddulph, J. Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh. Svo. London, 1880.
Brace, C. L. Races of the Old World : A Manual of Ethnology. Svo. London, 1863.
Brown, Robert. The Peoples of the Worid. Svo, 6 vols. London, 1882-86.
Clark, E. L. Races of European Turkey. Svo. New York, 1878.
Clarke, H. Early History of the Mediterranean Population. Svo. London, 1882.
Curr, E. M. The Australian Race: Its Origin, Language, Customs, Places ot Landing
in AustraUa, and the Routes by which it Spread Itself Over that Continent.
Svo, 3 vols. Vol. iv, 4to. London, 1888.
Dalton, Edward T. Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal. 4to. London, 1882.
Earl, G. W. Native Races ofthe Indian Archipelago, Papuans. 12mo. London, 1853.
Ellis, A. B. The Tshi-speakiiig Peoples of the Gold Coast of West Africa : Their
Religion, Manners, Customs, Laws, Languages, etc. Svo. London, 1887.
Houghton, R. C. Women of the Orient. 12mo. Cincinnati, 1878.
Lewin, T. H. Wild Races of-,Southeaslern India. Svo. London, 1870.
Painter, J. T. Ethnology: A History and Genealogy ot the Human Race. 12mo.
London, ISSO.
Watson, J. P., and Kay, J. W. Races and Tribes of Hindoostan. 4to, 4 vols.
London, 1868-70.
Whitmee, S. J. Ethnology of the Pacific. Svo. London, 1879.
Yealman, .1. P. Shemitio Origin of the Nations of Western Europe. Svo. Lon
don, 1879. SECTION XV.
THE HISTOEY OF DOCTRINES.
J. A. EmestI, Prol. de theologiae hlstoricas et dogmatlcae conjungendae necessitate, Lips., 1857,
and in the Opusc. theol.. Lips., 1792 ; L. Wachler, De theologia ex hlstorla dogmatum einendan-
da, Rlntel, 1795 ; De Wette, Religion u. Theologie, section 2, pp. 167-198 ; Ch, Fr. Illgen, Werth
d. Christl. Dogmengeschichte, Leips., 1817 ; AugustI, Werth der Dogmengesch. In Theoiog., Blat
ter 11, p. 11 sqq. ! W. K. L. Zlegler, Ideen Uber d. Begriff u. d. Behandl. d. Dogmengesch. In
Gabler's Neuest. theol. Journal, 1798, U, p. 325 sqq. ; Thomaslus, Aufgabe u. Behandlung der
Dogmengesch., In Harless' Zeitschr. tOr Protestantismus, 8, 2 ; * Th. Kliefoth, Elnlelt. In d. Dog
mengesch., Ludwigslust, 1839 ; F. DBrtenbach, Methode d. Dogmengesch., In Stud. u. Krit., 18.52,
No. 4, pp. 757-822 ; Kling, In Herzog's Encykl., Ill, p. 450 sqq. ; Rltschl, Methode der ftltem
Dogmengeschichte (Jahrbb. Ifir Deutsche Theologie, 1871, 2).
The History of Doctrines is a scientific representation of the
gradual unfolding, establishing, and settling of the Christian faith

THE HISTORY OF DOCTRINES. 383
into a definite body of doctrines, the distribution of the same
into its particular elements, and the transformations History of doo-
and changes through which it passed under the influ- times d..nued.
ence of different and progressive forms of culture. It forms the
bridge between Historical and Systematic Theology, and employs
Church history in the character of an auxiliary.
Christianity presented itself at the beginning with a doctrine,
but not with a system of dogmatics. Its dogmas were compressed
in the glad tidings of a salvation which had appeared to men, and
its religious conceptions connected themselves with the figurative
and popular phraseology of the time. The need of dogmatic devel
opment was only gradually felt. The tendency toward such devel
opment, which inheres in Christianity, was already apparent in its
earliest adherents. The reflection and dialectics of Paul unfolded
themselves side by side with the contemplation of John, both being
•strictly within the bounds of the religious sphere. But the neces
sity of defending Christianity against other modes of thought, and
of guarding against the influence of the foreign principles of Ju
daism and Ethnicism, led by degrees to those definitions of doe-
trine which the Church accepted as its common symbol, individual ten-
Individual tendencies come into view, however, beside deicies.
the inclination toward a common form of doctrine. Different states
of mind within the Church affected the mode in which its teaching
was understood, and thus began the formation of a body of dog
mas, conditioned by the circumstances of the time, and struggling
into definite shape by the force of its own inherent nature. It is
the task of the history of doctrines to follow out the Thetaskof doc-
process by which such formation of doctrine took place, '"°^' history.
to ascertain its internal laws, to compare wh.it has come into being
with the original from which it sprang, and trace it back to the
idea, as well as to ascertain the measure of truth it may contain in
the midst of the erroneous elements in which it is involved. This
is a task that can certainly be fully performed by hira only who
has apprehended the significance of the doctrine in its profoundest
meaning, so that it would seem that the history of doctrines could
only be successfully treated where it follows upon dogmatics. It
should again be remembered, however, that no branch of any sci
ence can be completely developed without involving the others in
the process. Moreover, while it is certain that the his- delation of one
tory of doctrines, in its scientific perfection, presumes science to oth-
acquaintance with dogmatics, it is equally certain that ^"'
he alone is able to apprehend a doctrine in its vital relations
who has cast a preliminary glance over its historical progress.
35

B86 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
Without this it would be to him only a rigid hieroglyph, a dead
statute.' The principal thing, in connexion with the problem which the
history of doctrines is expected to solve, is to furnish
Problemofhis- •' „ , , . , , i ^ i u-
tory and reve- an account of the relation between what has come his-
'*'*°°' torically into being and what was originally revealed.
This must neither be regarded as, from the standpoint of a false
biblical positivism, a mere degeneration, or a running off into ordi
nances of simply human origin; or, from the standpoint of specula
tive narrowness, as an unconditional advance from the mere concep
tion to the pure idea. Attention must be equally bestowed upon
the divinely intended and natural development of the truth con
tained in the Scriptural germ, and the divinely permitted, and like
wise natural, aberrations from the truth, which are conditioned by
the very fact of such development.
The history of doctrines has to do neither with evolution simply
Province of doo- "Or with corruption alone, but with both; and its work
trinai history, jg^ substantially, to determine the relation sustained by
the one to the other. It deals with the positive acceptance of doc
trine by the Church and with the petrifying influence of tradi
tional beliefs, with agreements upon dogmas reached by the scien
tific process and with the insipid character they assumed in the
course of rationalistic manipulations, with the transfiguration re
ceived at the hands of a true speculation and the volatilizing effects
of idealistic processes, and, finally, with the pregnant interpretations
of presaging minds and the obscurities entailed by a pseudo-mysti-
' The primary meaning of Hbyjia is statute, decree, in the outward and positive sense.
Comp. the " decree that went out from Cijesar Augustus," Luke ii, 1, and also Dan.
ii, 13; vl, 8; Esther in, 9; ,in the LXX, and 2 Mace, x, 8, in the Apocrypha. The
term Soyuara is also applied in the New Testament (Eph. ii, 15 ; Col. u, 14) to the
Jewish ordinances from which Christ has delivered us ; for it is to be presumed that
the better class of exegetes are agreed that the teachings of Christianity are not so
designated in those passages. Christian doctrine is never designated by the terin
ioypia in the New Testament (Ei>nyyHiov, Kripvyiia, 7.byoi or (i<56f tov Qeov being
Used instead) ; in Acts xv, 22 and 26, where it occurs, the reference is to conclusions ,
reached with regard to a practical question. By the Stoics, however, the word is used
in the sense of doctrine (or principle), e. g., by Marc. Aurel, in Libra ad se ipsum,
ii, 13 ; and simUarly the Latins employ the words decretum, placitum (Cicero, Acad,
Quaest, iv, 9 ; Senec. Epp., 94, 95). This usage was afterward foUowed by the Church
fathers. Comp, the citations in Suicer, Tliesaurus, s. v. doypa, and Hagenbach, Hist.
Doct., § 1, note 1 . But they too employ it in the sense of a firm, established princi
ple (to dslov Siiyfia), and at others to designate a temporary subjective opinion. The
History of Doctrines may not, however, be made simply a record of passing opinions,
although it must take cognizance of them as elements of temporary importance.
Comp. J. P. Lange, Christl. Dogmatik, p. 2; Herzog, Encykl. iii, 433.

THE HISTORY OF DOCTRINES. 387
cal mode of treatment. The work of the history of doctrines is
properly performed only when all such elements are rightly appre
hended and appreciated.' This task should not be rendered more
difficult by the carrying of unnecessary ballast of any kind. For
this reason much that requires notice in the treatment of Church
history may here be presumed as falling within that department.'
SECTION XVL
GENEEAL AND SPECIAL HISTOEY.
The unfolding and demonstrating of the dogmatic spirit that
runs through the whole will be continually apparent in the defining
of particular dogmas, which again, in turn, determine the doc
trinal spirit of an age. For this reason the general and the special
history of doctrines is found to be interwoven in such a way as not
to admit of their being totally separated, but to require that, in their
treatment, regard be had to the relations they sustain to each other.
Christian doctrine is, in its root, a xmit {to delov doyixa), and the
various formulations of particular doctrines are merely christian doc-
members into which the organism may be divided. A ^^^^ * *""*•
living recognition of this fact leads to the ignoring of the distinc
tion between general and particular; and many late writers have,
accordingly, rejected the division into general and special history
of doctrines. It is certain that the method which presents the
general history in one series, or volume, and the special in another,
without establishing any living relations between the two sections,
must be set aside.' For the former thus becomes merely an ex
panded chapter from ecclesiastical history — a history of the Church
teaching, and also, in part, a history of dogmatics — while the latter
is reduced to the character of a historical supplement to dogmatics,
' It would not be proper, for instance, to formulate in advance a general idea of
rationaUsm, mysticism, etc., and then seek to adapt the different features as observed
to such preconceived scheme. Every such tendency must be explained in conformity
with its historical aspects and relations ; comp. Klieforth, p. 319.
' Hase says : " The distinction between the History of Doctrines as a special sci
ence, and as a part of Church history, is merely formal in its character. For if the
difference of extent, which is determined by external considerations, be left out of the
question, the two deal simply with different poles of the same axis. The former
treats the dogma as it develops itself in the form of definite conceptions, while Church
history discusses the dogma in its relation to outward events." Church History
(Blumenthal and Wing's ed.), p. 12. Similariy Kliefoth, p. 324: "The whole of
Church history is to be regarded as introductory to the History of Doctrines." Con
cerning its relation to other historical departments (e. g., the history of heresies), comp.
Hagenbach, Hist, of Doctrines (Smith's ed.), § 6.
' This is the chief fault of arrangement in Augusti and Baumgarten-Crusius.

388 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
a historia dogmatis. This difficulty can be avoided only by an
Elastic treat- elastic treatment of the general history, so as to allow
rr'mstory i* ^^ extend partially into the Special, or by arranging
necessary. the matter according to periods, and giving the prece
dence in each period to the general history. Thus the dogmatic
principle governs the period, and the special history is made to
follow. In this case the general history of doctrines takes on the
character of an introduction.' We consider the latter to be the
more suitable plan in a methodological point of view, though, for
purposes of artistic treatment, the former is even still more favour
able. The arrangement of the particular doctrines, moreover,
should not be unconditionally governed by a firm and previously
Arrangement constructed dogmatical system, but solely by the dog-
dogmatufchM-- ^^^^^^ character that predominates in the periods to
aoter. which they respectively belong.' For every period has
a keytone, derived from some doctrine of preponderating influence,
which underlies and runs through the whole of its development,
and gives to the period its dogmatic character.' This principle
leads to a division into periods of corresponding character.
' At this point we coincide with Kliefoth, p. 334 sg. : " When the entire mass of
dogmatic phenomena has been classified by periods, it becomes requisite to describe
the internal progress of the periods, and to determine the historical point within the
period that each particular dogmatic phenomenon has occupied. Not until this has
been done can the historical relations of every such phenomenon be thoroughly un
derstood." It is, of course, evident that external events, e. g., the progress of a con
troversy, the holding of councils, the publication of decrees, etc., cannot be entirely
disregarded, since they afford the necessary points of connexion. But "the writer on
the History of Doctrines will need to include only so much as may be necessary to
constitute the thread between the different knots in the course of dogmatic develop
ment, or as may be otherwise needed for illustrating the history of the dogma upon
which he is engaged." Kliefoth, p. 346 ; also p.' 367 sg.
' The inadmissible character of the " local " method was already noticed by de
Wette (Rel. u. Theol., p. 179). Comp. also Kliefoth, p. 370, and Meier's method of
treating the History of Doctrines. Baur correctly observes (Dogmengesch., p. 14) :
" The general element which must be prefixed to the history of each period as an in
troductory feature can consist only in the determining of the general point of view
under which each period must be regarded, and in the assigning of its rightful place
to the period as a definite element in the process of historical development in general.
° Hase says, " That certain particular doctrines form epochal points in one century,
whUe certain others fix the attention in another, is not the result of accidental causes
merely, but is an interest grounded in necessity ; and any dogma can attain to epoch
al importance but once in the course of its history." — Rosenkranz, p. 248. " History
embraces only what has truly lived at some time, and has thereby become immortal,
as constituting a point at which the rays of the Christian mind were refracted ; for it
is a history of the living, and not of the dead, even as God is the God of the living
only." — Church History, p. xii. '

DIVISION OP DOCTRINAL HISTORY. 389
SECTION XVIL
DIVISION OF DOCTEINAL HISTOEY.
Comp. Hagenhach, article In Stud, u. Krit., 1828, No. 4, and KUefoth, i. «., p. 56.
The division of the history of doctrines into periods is governed
by a different principle from that which applies in con- Division of doo-
nexion with Church history in general. The epochs trinai history
which appear important to the Church, considered as a '^" '
whole, are here secondary to those which give a different direction
to doctrine. It follows, therefore, that the division is to be con
formed to the dogmatic spirit which prevails in, and animates, any
given time.
It has been remarked, that the periods in ecclesiastical do not al
ways coincide with those of secular history, because elements that
exert a decisive influence in the one department are not equally im
portant in the other. A similar observation will apply to the rela
tion sustained by the history of doctrines to that of the Church.
For, while the history of doctrine is involved in that of the Church
and its constitution, it is yet possible that "great changes may
come to pass in the field of the one, while all continues unchanged
in the other, and that a, particular time may be important as the
point of an unfolding in the one while it is altogether unimportant
in the other." * It is, of course, difficult to discover the true turn
ing points at which the circles of doctrine separate. Difficulty of
and the knots at which they run into each other. The ^^i^g"^
determining of such points is itself dependent on the change.
fixing of the nature of the dogma. The inquirer who regards the
speculative side of the dogma as the regulative feature will mark
out a different division from him who, before all else, goes back to
the religious disposition of which the dogma is simply the intelligi
ble, but inadequate, expression, and who seeks to ascertain what
practical influence was exerted by the dogma upon an ecclesiastical
period. In a similar way the material aspect, which is the prepon
derance of certain doctrines — or the formal element — which is the
practical conditions under which the formation of a doctrine was
brought to pass — may become the determining influence with differ
ent minds.
The division we advocate, for instance, into Apolo- y^^^^j^^^ a,nd
getical. Polemical, Scholastico-Systematic, Symbolical formal meth-
and Confessional, Philosophically Critical, and Specula- ° '
tive Periods, is predominantly formal, while Kliefoth has proposed a
' Schleiermacher, § 166.

390 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
division according to material conditions, based, at the same time,
in the formal way, on national characteristics, and has ingeniously
subdivided the several periods into stages of growth, of settling in
symbolic form, and of decline. His first period is the Grecian, in
the course of which both the objective doctrines of God and of
Christ (Theology and Christology) were developed (Origen, Athan-
Kiiefoth's meth- asius, and the Cappadocians). The second is the Ro-
°^- man Catholic (Augustine and the Scholastics), to which
the development of Anthropology belongs. The third is the Ger-
manico-Protestant (after the Reformation), which moves within
the field of Soteriology (Justification, Repentance, Sanctification).
The fourth (the present), finally, has for its task to attain to a
correct recognition of the Church, and thereby to a sound escha
tology, based on the development of the Church considered as the
kingdom of God.
Baur divides the whole of the history of doctrines, in strict ac
cordance with his settled Hegelian philosophy, into
three principal periods: "The period of the ancient
Church is the period of self -producing dogma and of the Christian
religious consciousness — the substantiality of the dogma, which at
tains to objectivity in the dogma, and knows itself to be identical
¦with it. The period of the Middle Ages and of Scholasticism is
that in which that consciousness returns from the objectivity of the
dogma to its own subjectivity, and contrasts itself with the dogma
under the influence of rational reflection " (as though this influence
had not been operative at any former time!). "^The period since the
Reformation is that of absolute self-consciousness, which is no
longer bound to the dogma, (?) and has assumed a place above
it " (?). This is not the proper place for exploding this division in
its details, nor yet for extensively noticing other attempts.' What
has been remarked may suffice to indicate the necessity for adopt
ing a principle of division which is drawn from the movements of
the life of the science itself.
' Miinscher, for example, has adopted seven periods, and Lentz eight. Klee re
gards the division into periods as being wholly superfluous. J. P. Lange agees, upon
the whole, with the arrangement we have adopted (Christl. Dogmatik, p. 65). Giese
ler and Neander have retained the periods of Church history in the EQstory of Doo-
trines as weU.

MODE OF TREATMENT. 391
SECTION XVIIL
MODE OF TEEATMENT.
The only proper mode of treating the history of doctrines is
that which, emanating from the true nature of the dog
ma, brings to distinct consciousness both what is change- doctrinal his-
able in the statements of doctrine and what is permanent ^^'
in the midst of the changes, and gives rise to such mutability itself.
Only such a treatment, moreover, will warrant the expectation of
realizing the practical advantage of preserving the history of doc
trines from yielding to the authority of a rigid narrowness of the
traditional type, and from being dominated by a mania for novelty
and condemning what is old. For the historical sense is the neces
sary base of a theological character.
The remarks, in a preceding section, relating to a true pragma
tism in the treatment of Church history, are applicable at this point
as well. The form assumed by particular doctrines may, indeed,
not unfrequently be explained by a reference to different and exter
nal causes, such as political conditions and events, the scientific cul
ture of a period, or even conditions of climate, and other surround
ings. But, while seeking such explanations, the dynamical principle,
which works from within outwardly upon the material,
should not be forgotten, since the triumph of any chief principle im-
tendency over others, which cannot be altogether acci- p""^^"'-
dental, must, in the end, be judged by that principle.' This twofold
and self-complementary mode of viewing the history will guard
against two errors which lie near at hand. On the one hand, the
recognition of what is changeable in received conceptions of doc
trine, and the connected observation that much which „ ...
' . . Necessity of
once was held to be indispensable to a correct faith is no reooprnizing
longer so regarded by even very orthodox scholars, while '"'™2^^-
other things which are now stubbornly maintained in many quar
ters were formerly regarded more mildly, or with indifference, will
preserve the mind from being bound by the unworthy fetters of '
any system whose influence tends to confine inquiry from the out
set within narrowing limits, and will infuse a noble confidence in
truth, which is not alarmed for the safety of the Church with the
springing up of every breeze.
But, on the other hand, even greater attention will be fixed upon
the one thing needful, which, whatever may have been the form of
doctrine, has always asserted itself, and has always demonstrated,
' Comp. Rosenkranz, p. 248, and Hagenbach in Coburger Theol. Annalen, article
Ueber den Sieg der Oithodoxie uber die Heterodoxie, 1832, vol 4, No. 1.

392 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
however frequent may have been its temporary obscurations, that
it is the permanent element which is destined to abide. It will ap
pear, moreover, especially when the periods have been properly
arranged, and with evidential force, that every period was specially
A central truth determined and guided by some particular truth; that,
tor every age. gQ ^q gpeak, it had its own polar star, by which it shaped
its course, and which shone for it with a brightness such as, with a
change of constellation, it could not possess for any other age.
But God continually brings up new stars, with the object that all
should guide to the One who is the salvation of the world. It is,
therefore, a sign of crudeness, and of a want of genuine enlighten
ment, when the mind finds it impossible to so far enter into former
modes of thought as to discover that the productions of the human
mind, when engaged upon the very noblest work that could com
mand its attention, are more than mere abortions of unreason and
superstition.' The " absurdities of Scholasticism," which have so
often been made matter for sport, are certainly as nothing when
compared with the absurdity with which the schoolmen have been
judged by the people, " whom they could not have used as copy
ists" (Semler).^ HISTOET.
Comp. Baur, Dogmensgeschichte, 8 6.
The history of doctrines, in its clearly defined outlines, is a new
science. Materials for it have, however, been furnished from the
beginning. A rich mine for discoveries exists already in ecclesi-
astico-historical and polemico-dogmatical works of the Church
fathers, especially Irenaeus, Hippolytus, and Epiphanius. Down
to our own time, also, works on Church history contain material for
the history of doctrines. While connected in this way with Church
history on the one hand, the history of doctrines stands similarly
related to dogmatics on the other. We have only to bear in mind
the great dogmatical works of Chemnitz, Hutter, Quenstedt, J.
Gerhard, and others. Works preliminary to the history of doc-
' Rosenkranz, ubi supra : " WhUe it cannot be denied that arbitrariness and acci
dent form an element in the History of Doctrines, as in every thing that is human, it
is also true that the play of subjectivity, its dabbling in opinions, forms a feature that
destroys and subordinates itself, as being unimportant, to the real movement. The
estimate of the History of Doctrines which iinds in it merely a lumber-room of human
follies and silly opinions, is itself a silly opinion, which has no perception of the yearn
ing of the mind to know its own inner nature, and no conception of the secret alli
ance which binds aU the actions of the mind into a general whole." Comp. Kliefoth,
p. 208 sg. ; Baur, Dogmengesch. § 3, and (with reference to the unhistorical disposi
tion of Rationalism) pp. 42, 43.
'Comp. Mohler, Kleine Schriften i, p. 131 sgg.

LITERATURE OP DOCTRINAL HISTORY. 393
trines proper were furnished by the Roman Catholic theologians :
Petavius (1644-50, 1700), Thomassin (1684-89), Dumesnil (IY30),
and by the Protestant Forbesius a Corse (1645 sqq.). It is only
since the days of Semler and Ernesti that a separate treatment was
thought of (Ernesti, ubi supra, and Semler's Introduction to Baum
garten's System of Doctrine, Halle, 1759 sq.). At first, the attention
was merely directed to the accumulation of material, and this was
iollowed with the critical treatment of doctrines, for the expressed
purpose of " enlarging the range of vision for incipient theologians
or theological students in general " (Semler). The positive method
of treatment was soon added, and the history of doctrines was
made to serve in defence of dogma in the interests of Apologetics
(Augusti). The higher view, which has regard equally to the crit
ical and the dogmatical elements, and which dialectically mediates
the contrasts between the positive and the speculative, is a fruitage
of the recent science.
ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE OP DOCTRINAL HISTORY.
Alger, William R. A Critical History of the Doctrine of a Future Life, with a Bib
liography by Dr. Ezra Abbot. Philadelphia, 1864. Sixth edition. Svo, pp.
676. New York, 1869. New edition, 1878.
Bernard, Thomas Dehany. The Progress of Doctrine in the New Testament, Cqnsld-
ered in Eight Lectures delivered before the University of Oxford on the Bamp
ton Foundation. ]2mo, pp. 258. New York, 1883.
Craven, E. R. The Nicene Doctrine of the Homoousian. Bibliotheca Sacra, 1884,
p. 698, pp. 63.
Crippen, T. G. A Popular Introduction to the History of Christian Doctrine. Svo,
pp. 357. Edinburgh and New York, 1884. (Traces each doctrine or section of
doctrine in detaU rather than by periods.)
Delitzsch, Franz. Old Testament History of Redemption. Translated from Manu
script Notes of Lectures by Samuel Ives Curtis. 16mo, pp. 213. Edinburgh, 1881.
Donaldson, James. A Critical History of Christian Literature and Doctrine from the
Death of the Apostles to the Nicene CouncU. Svo, 3 vols. London, 1864^66.
Dorner, J. A. History of the Develo.pment of the Doctrine of the Person of Christ.
With a Review of the Controversies on the Subject In Britain since the Middle
of the Seventeenth Century. Translated by W. Lindsay Alexander, D.D., and
D. W. Simon, D.D. Svo, 5 vols., pp. xviu, 467 ; viii, 544 ; 456 ; vin, 462 ; xxviii,
502. Edinburgh, 1862-64.
Dorner, J. A. History of Protestant Theology, Particularly in Germany. Trans
lated by G. Robson and Sophia Taylor. Svo, 2 vols., pp. xxiii, 444; 511.
Edinburgh, 1871.
Hagenbach, K. R. Text-Book of the History of Doctrine. The Edinburgh Transla
tion by C. W. Bush, Revised, with Additions from the fourth German edition
by Henry B. Smith, D.D. Svo, 2 vols., pp. 478, 558. New York, 1861-62.
Harnack, Adolf. Outlines of the History of Dogma. Translated by Edwin Knox
Mitchell. Svo, pp. xii, 567. New York, 1893. (Harnack treats first of the
rise of ecclesiastical dogma, aud next of its development. The history of Prot-

394 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
eStant doctrine is excluded. He denies that the dogmas are the exposition of
Christian revelation, and affirms that dogmatic Christianity is the work of the
Helleuic spirit upon gospel soil.)
Howard, George B. The Schism Between the Oriental and Western Churches, with
Special Reference (o the Addition of FUloque to the Creed. 12mo, pp. vi, 118.
London, 1892. (A concise yet thorough discussion.)
Jacob, G. A. The Lord's Supper Historically Considered. 12mo, pp. 82. London,
1884. (Based on a work entitled " The Lord's Supper: History of Uninsphed
Teaching," by the Rev. Charies Hebert, D.D., and defends the Zwingllan theory
of the Supper.)
Lecky, William H. History of European Morals from Augustus to Charlemagne.
Svo, 2 vols., pp, xviii, 498 ; x, 423. New York, 1869. (Although this does not
profess to be a history of dogma, it is valuable as showing the changes wrought
by Christianity in the ethical ideas of Europe.)
McElhinney, John J. The Doctrine of the Church : A Historical Monograph. With
a FuU Bibliography of the Subject. 12mo, pp. 464. Philadelphia, 1871. (The
bibUography has a simple chronological arrangement.)
Neander, A. Lectures on the History of Christian Dogmas. Translated by J. E.
Ryland. 12mo, 2 vols., pp. 356, 264. London, 1858.
Newman, John Henry. An Essay on the Development of Doctrine. Svo, pp. 208.
New York. No date. (This is not so much a history of doctrine as an effort lo
show that the Roman Catholic Church rightly claims authority over the devel
opment of doctrine. In its time this book was the subject of much comment
and controversy.)
Pusey, E. B. The Doctrine of the Real Presence as Contained in the Fathers, from
the Days of St. John the Evangelist to the Fourth General Council, Vindicated
in Notes on a Sermon, " The Presence of Christ in the Holy Eucharist," Preached
A. D. 1853 Before the University of Oxford. Svo, pp. xn, 722. Oxford, 1855.
(Although this work is a defence of a sermon, yet it contains a large collection
of testimonies of the Fathers, and is in that respect valuable.)
Reuss, Edward. History of Christian Theology in the Apostplic Age. Translated
by Annie Harwood. With Preface and Notes by R. W. Dale. Svo, 2 vols., pp.
xxviii, 424; viii, 548. London, 1872-74.
Richey, Thomas. The Nicene Creed and the Fllioque. A Monograph.. Reprinted
with Notes from the Church Eclectic. 12mo. New York, 1884. (An attenipt
to show that " the creed grew, just as the Bible did, out of the experience of
the Church.")
Ritschl, Albrecht. A Critical History of the Cliristian Doctrine of Justification and
Reconciliation. Translated from the German by John S. Black. Svo, pp. xvi,
606. Edinburgh, 1872. (After a brief introduction Ritschl begins with An-
selm's theory of reconciliation, and from thence traces the history of the mediae
val and the Reformation ideas of justification. Then follow variations of the Refor
mation principle made by the schools of German theology and philosophy.)
Shedd, W. G. T. A History of Christian Doctrines. Svo, 2 vols., pp. viu, 412 ; vi,
508. New York, 1869.
Sheldon, Heury C. History of Christian Doctrine. 2 vols. Vol. I, from A. D. 90
to 1517, pp. 411 ; Vol. II, from A. D. 1517 to 1885, pp. 444. Svo. New York,
1886.
Smeaton, George. The Doctrine of the Holy Spirit. The ninth series of the Cun
ningham Lectures. Svo, pp. x, 372. Edinburgh, 1SS2. (The third division
contains the history of the doctrine.)

LITERATURE OF DOCTRINAL HISTORY. 395
Swete, H. B. On the History of the Doctrine of the Procession of the Holy Spirit ;
from the Apostolic Age to the Death of Charlemagne. Svo, pp. 246. Cam
bridge, 1876. (A very scholarly treatment.)
Tulloch, John. Rational Theology and Christian Philosophy in the Seventeenth
Century. Svo, 2 vols. Edinburgh, 1872.
WaU, WUliam. The History of Infant Baptism. Second edition. Svo, 4 vols., pp.
1x1, 535 ; xiv, 575 ; vii, 584 ; 555. Oxford, 1845. (Vol. Ill consists of Mr.
Gale's Reflections on WaU's History, and Vol. IV of WaU's defence.)
WIggers, G. F. An Historical Presentation cf Augustinianism and Pelagianism
from the Original Sources. Translated from the German, with Notes and Addi
tions, by Ralph Emerson. Svo, pp. 383. Andover, 1840.
Though not histories of Christian doctrine, yet, as discussions of the conditions un
der which early doctrine was developed, the foUowing works wUl be most use
ful to the student : (1) " Delivery and Development of Christian Doctrine."
The Fifth Series of Cunningham Lectures. By Principal Robert Rainy, New
College, Edinburgh (Svo, pp. xv, 409. Edinburgh, 1874). (2) " The Influence of
Greek Ideas and Usages upon the Christian Church.'' By the late Edwin Hatch,
of the University of Oxford (the Hibbert Lectures for 1888. Svo, pp. xxili,
359. London, 1892). Principal Ralny's topics are Delivery of Doctrine in the
Old Testament ; Delivery of Doctrine in the New Testament ; Function of the
Christian Mind wjith Reference to Doctrine ; Development of Doctrine ; Creeds.
Principal Ralny's contention is that doctrine arose from a desire " to settle what
God had given to be believed ou certain points and to guide aright the souls of
men,'' and "that the intention to satisfy the scientific interest was hardly at
all kept in view." Dr. Hatch discusses : Greek Education ; Greek and Christ
ian Exegesis; Greek and Christian Rhetoric; Christianity and Greek Philoso
phy; Greek and Christian Ethics ; Greek and Christian Theology — the Creator;
Greek and Christian Theology — the Moral Governor ; Greek and Christian The
ology — God as the Suprenie Being; The Influence ofthe Mysteries upon Christ
ian Usages ; The Incorporation of Christian Ideas as Modified by Greek into
a Body of Doctrine; The Transformation of the Basis of Christian Union. 'His
contention is that the Greek mind not only acted powerfully in the formation of
Christian doctrine and usage, but brought into both much that does not properly
belong there. The proposition with which he sets out is that the Sermon on
the Mount contains the entire substance of Christianity. Wilh these may be
associated: "The Continuity of Christian Thought." By Alexander V. G.
AUen (12mo, pp. xviii, 438. Boston, 1884, 1893). This is a plea for Ihe
Greek view of the Incarnation and Anthropology, as against the Latin.

396 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. I
SECTION XIX.
PATEISTICS AND SYMBOLICS.
An exact acquaintance with the lives and works of individuals
who rose to eminence above their contemporaries as teachers of the
Church (Patristics), and whose efforts prompted the development
of dogma, is included, though not wholly absorbed, in the circle of
studies belonging to the history of doctrines. But inasmuch as the
dogma is not the concern of individuals merely, having become the
possession of the Church, nor an ecclesiastical branch, because it is
the expression of the common faith, the teachings of ecclesiastical
confessions (Symbolics) likewise form an integral part of the liistory
of doctrines. SECTION XX
PATEISTICS.
1. Herzog, Eeal-Encyklopaedle. 2. M'Clintock and Strong, Cyclopsedia.
The material usually comprehended under the name of patristics
(patrology) is difficult to unite into an independent science vdth
scientific limitations, because,
1. The term Church father itself designates a vacillating idea,
whose only stability rests on empirical foundations.
2. The material of patristics is partly resolved in that of literary
history and partly in that of ecclesiastico-historical monographs,
while only the remainder is reserved for the use of the history of
doctrines. Patres ecclesiae^ is the name given to men who by their intel
lectual energy promoted the life of the Church, especially in the
earlier stages of its development. The additional name
of patres apostolici is applied to such of them as stood
nearest the apostles, the fathers of the first century, such as Bar
nabas, Hermas, Clement of Rome, Ignatius, Polycarp, and Papias.
The usage is, however, very variable. The Roman Catholic Church
distinguishes between Church fathers, Church teachers, and Church
writers. The latter class includes those who are not honoured as
fathers, or whose orthodoxy is suspected — e. g., Origen — while
Church teachers are those whose orthodoxy is acknowledged, and
who have, in addition, exercised a determining and shaping influ
ence upon the dogma. These are Athanasius, Basil the Great,
' Corresponding to the Heb. 3X. The pupUs of the rabbins were termed their
sons. Comp. Schoettgen, Horae Hebr. et Talm., i, p. 745, on Gal. iv, 19 ; Clem. Alex.
Strom., i, 317 ; aiirina naripag rotjf narrixnaavTac ipafdv ; BasU the Great in Constitut.
Monast., c. 20; Chrysost. Horn,, 11 and 48, vol. v; Suiceri, Thesaur., ii, p. 687 b.

PATRISTICS. 397
Gregory Nazianzen, and Chrysostom in the East; and Jerome,
Ambrose, Augustine, and Gregory the Great in the West. Thomas
Aquinas and Bonaventura are also included with them. The bound
aries of patristics are indefinite also as respects time, umits oi Pa^-
Protestants close the series of Church fathers with the tristicsintime.
6th century (Gregory the Great), Roman Catholics with the I3th.
The scholastic divines, Thomas Aquinas, Duns Scotus, and others,
however, are preferably termed doctores ecclesiae, their activity be
ing, in point of fact, chiefly limited to teaching ; while, in the case
of the fathers of the early centuries, the government of the Church,
and also the characteristics of their personality, claim attention as
well. This may be seen in the life of Cyprian, and in the much
later illustration in Bernard of Clairvaux.
The Church fathers are not only ecclesiastical lights, luminaria,
but also, in many instances, ecclesiastical princes, pri- other terms for
mates, and saints, sancti patres. This constitutes the church lathers.
reason why patristics is interwoven with different branches of the
history of the Church. If it be chiefly regarded with reference to
its biographical element — the lives of the fathers, to which some
apply the distinctive name of Patrology ' — it will coincide with
ecclesiastico-historical monography. If attention be directed pnly
toward the writings left by the fathers, it will become a branch of
the history of literature.'' Thus patristics will constitute an ele
ment in the history of doctrines only in so far as the object is to
comprehend the teachings of an ecclesiastical personage in connex
ion with the modes of thought which prevailed in his time, and to
assign to it a suitable place in the dogmatical development as a
whole. The difference prevails, however, that in the former case
the person himself becomes, monographically, the central object of
the inquiry, while the history of doctrines is more especially con
cerned with the opinion of the individual as related to the develop
ment of doctrine at large. The history of doctrines is, for in
stance, less concerned to know how Augustine attained to his con
victions than how the Church came to adopt his views as its own.'
' Danz, p. 322.
' This may likewise be treated as a distinct branch which, however, will be simply
a collateral branch of the history of Christian culture in general. We assigned to it
a separate place in our first edition (and also in the History of Missions^, and Pelt
also accords it separate treatment " only because of its special importance for theo
logians, and because it is the customary method," and without assigning to it a place
in the organism of theological sciences (§ 67). It is probably better for the purposes
of encyclopaedia to narrow down the framework, for which reason we give it no sepa
rate paragraph.
' Comp. Hagenbach, History of Doctrines (Smith's ed.), § 5.

398 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
In all such cases it is difficult to understand why patristics should
be erected into an independent study. In a scientific aspect it is
immaterial whether the life of Augustine or that of Spener be
under discussion — both of them are comprehended under the idea
of monography. Bibliographical investigations, in relation to the
various editions of. Lactantius, have the same scientific character as
though they were concerned with the letters of Luther or Calixtus.
It follows, that the contribution to the history of , doctrines ren-
dered by patristics is not different in substance from
tristics to doc- that furnished by every monograph in which doctrinal
tnnai history. jjjg^Qj,y. jg involved. For, while we must be concerned
to know the doctrinal system of an Athanasius or Augustine, it is
equally important that Anselm, Luther, Quenstedt, Bengel, Schleier
macher, and Rothe be made to contribute toward the common work.
The only qualification to which weight attaches is, that the possi
bility of pre-eminent service decreases with the progress of time.'
Real productiveness is greater in proportion as the development is
near the point of origin. But it would, nevertheless, be arbitary,
and an evidence of mechanical views, if the attempt were made to
confine such productiveness " altogether to the age of the so-called
Church fathers."
Remarks of a somewhat similar character will apply to the ap-
The term pellation "classic." In neither case is it possible to
"classic." draw a clearly defined line, although certain eminences
will be presented to every eye as decidedly and energetically prom
inent; and, as in that instance, the attention of students is to be
turned toward the classical, so patristical studies are to be recom
mended here, in order that familiarity with ecclesiastical modes of
thought and language may be acquired at an early stage. To at
tempt the reading of all the Church fathers would be far too great
a task for the student, to offset which the treatment of Church
history should include an outline of patristics. Certain of the fa
thers may, in addition, be described in monographs, and the more
important of their works be read, in part or as a whole, as patristic
selections, under the direction of the teacher. For this purpose we
may particularly recommend, in addition to the Apostolical Fathers,
the Epistle to Diognetus, the Apologists (Justin Martyr, Athen-
agoras, Theophilus of Antioch, Minucius Felix, and some portion
Best works of of Tertullian), the Alexandrians (Clement and Origen
the fathers. ^t least in extracts or summaries), Athanasius, Basil the
Great, Gregory Nazianzen, Gregory of Nyssa (in a similar way),
some of Chrysostom's Homilies and the work De Sacerdotio, and
' Schleiermacher, § 251

PATRISTICS. 399
Augustine's Confessions, De Doetrina Christiana, Enchiridion ad
Lauren tium, and De civitate Dei.'
THE HISTORY OP PATKISTICS.
The necessity of collecting the material of patristics could not
arise before an ecclesiastical literature had been formed. Jerome
(died 420) composed Illustrious Men, or Ecclesiastical Writers,
and was followed by Gennadius (490), Isidore of Seville (in
the 1th century), Ildefonsus of Toledo (in the Sth), and by Hono-
rius Augustodunensis, Sigebertus Gemblacensis, Henr. Gaudavensis,
Joh. Trithemius, and Aubertus Mirseus (between the I2th and 16th
centuries). All are found in J. A. Fabricii, Bibliotheca eccles.,
Hamb., 1718. The Benedictine monks, more accurately the Con-
gregatio St. Mauri, have distinguished themselves by their editions
of the Church fathers ; 'and a number of theologians in the Anglican
Church have likewise performed meritorious work in this direction.
In later times patristical studies were promoted in the Roman
Catholic Church by Robert Bellarmine (in the 1 7th century), Caspar
Oudin, Ellies du Pin, le Nourry, Tillemont, Ceillier, Lumper, Spren-
ger, Mohler, and others ; and, in the Protestant, by Scultetus, Nol-
ten, Oelrichs, Cave, Schoenemann, and J. G. Walch. The earlier
works were more particularly confined to the bibliographical de
partment, while in modern times the method of monographical
discussion has been elevated into an art.
' R. Rothe, writing while yet a student, says, " I am convinced that no person can
become a thorough and skilful theologian who has not made a serious and life-long
task of the study of the Church fathers, and who has not derived adequate and spir
itual strength from their sanctified spirit and their genuinely religious appUcation of
a solid learning. But for this the longest life will ever be too brief, so that there can
be no thought of completing the work while at the university" (C. Nippold i, p. 98).
Certain mediseval writers — Scholastics and Mystics — have equal claim to be made the
object of careful study, especiaUy Anselm, Cur Deus homo, and pre-eminently the
Reformers. The history of the Reformation, for instance, may be most attractively
followed along the thread of the letters of Luther (published by de Wette), Zwingle
(by Schulcr and Schulthess), and Calvin (Strasburg ed., by Strauss, Baum, and Cunitz).
Every student should have also read, in addition to the more important of Luther's
writings (the Address to Christian Nobles of the German Nation, and that on the
Babylonian Captivity), the Loci Communes of Melanchthon and Calvin's Institutes. In
a word, the entire history of Christian literature should be made to pass in living
forms before the eye of the theologian. This, however, is nothing more than the
practical reaUzation of the idea of thorough study of the field of Church history in
general.

400 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
PATRISTIC LITERATURE.
1. German and French.
Best Editions of Collected Works of the Fathers.
Cailleau, A. B., et M. N. S. Guillon, Colleotio selecta ss. eoel. patrum. Paris, 1829 ss.
, 148 vols.
Corpus scriptorum ecclesiastlcorum latinorum ed. consUio et impensis Academiae lit
erarum Csesarias Vindobonensis. 1S66 sqq. (Vol. I, Sulplo. Severus. II, Mi
nucius Felix. Ill, Cyprian. IV, [1 875] Arnoblus.)
Gallandii, A. Bibliotheca vett. patrum antiquoruraque scriptt. eoclesiast. Venet.,
1765-88. 14 vols. fol. (Gives the smaller writings of the Church fathers ih the
most complete collection. However, it remains unfinished.)
Horoy, Medii aevi biblioth. patristica. Vol. I. (Honor. III.) Paris, 1879. (Expected
to be In 100 vols.)
Magna bibliotheca vett. patrum et antlqu. scriptorum ecclesiaSt., ed. Margarln de la
Eigne. Paris, 1575. Most complete, Paris, 1654. • 17 vols. fol.
Maxima bibliotheca vett. patrum, etc. Lugd., 1677. 27 vols. fol. (The Gi'eek
fathers only in Latin translations. Especially important because of introduction
of mediaeval theologians.)
Migne, J. P. Patrologlee ciirsus completus s. bibl. universalis ss. patr. scriptorumque
eccl. Paris, 1844 ss. (The Latin Fathers in 221 vols., the Greek in 161.)
Migne, J. P. Theologias cursus completus. Vol. I, Paris, 1879. (In -28 vols.)
Permaneder, M. Biblioth. patristica. Landsh., 1841-44. 2 vols. New edition,
1850. (Vol. I, entitled : Patrologia generalis s. eiicyclopeedia patristica.)
Reifferscheld, A. Biblioth. patrum latin, ilalica. (Catalogue of MSS. of Latin
Church fathers in the Italian libraries.) Vienna, 1865 fE.
2. ENar.iSH AND American Literature.
Ante-Nicene Christian Library, edited by Roberts and Donaldson. Svo, 24 vols.
Edinburgh, 1864-72.
Augustine, The Confessions of. Edited by WUliam G. T. Shedd. 12mo, pp. xxxvi,
417. Andover, I860. (A very convenient edition of the Confessions. Dr.
Shedd has prefixed an Introduction.)
Bennett, J. The Theology of the Early Christian Church, Exhibited in Quotations
from the Writers of the First Three Centuries. 12mo, pp. xii, 315. London, 1852.
Blunt, J. J. Lectures on the Right Use of the Early Fathers. Third edition.
Svo. London, 1869.
Bolton, W. J. The Evidences of Christianity, as Exhibited in the Writings of its
Apologists down to Augustine. Svo, pp. 237. New York, 1854.
Bright, WUliam. Select Anti-Pelagian Treatises of St. Augustine, and the Acts of the
Second Council of Orange. 12mo, pp. Ixvlll, 399. Oxford, 1880. (The Latin
text of the treatises is given; Dr. Bright has prefixed an historical introduction.)
Burton, E. Testimonials of the Ante-Nicene Fathers to the Divinity of Christ.
Second edition. Svo. London, 1829.
Burton, E. Testimonies of the Ante-Nicene Fathers to the Doctrine of the Trinity,
and ofthe Divinity of the Holy Gho.st. Svo. London, 1831.
Cave, WiUiam. Lives of the Most Eminent Fathers of the Church, that Flourished
in the First Four Centuries. A New and Revised Edition by Henry Carey.
Svo, 3 vols., pp. XX, 463; xv, 463; Iv, 444. Oxford, 1840.

LITERATURE OF PATRISTICS. 401
Church, R. W. St. Anselm. Svo, pp. xii, 303. London, 1870.
DaUl^, John. A Treatise on the Right Use of the Fathers In the Decision of Contro
versies existing at this day in Rell):lou. Traiishned from the French by T.
Smitli. Re-edited and amended by G. Jekyll. Second edition, Svo, pp. xxiv,
359. London, 1842. (Tills famous book, by one of the Protestant scholars of
the seventeenth century, vva-i brought out again In the time of tlie Tmctarlan
controversy. It Is an argument against the authority of the Fathers in matters
of doctrine.)
Deane, Henry. The Third Book of St. Irenaeus. Bishop of Ly.ins, against Heresies.
With Short Notes and a Glossary. 12ino, pp. iv, 115. Oxford, 1880. (This is
a text-book for the use of dieological students. Besides the Latin text, each
chapter Is prefaced vvlili a synopsis of its contents.)
Douglass. Series of Christian Greek and Latin Writers. Editor, F. A. March.
12mo, 5 vols. New York, 1874-80.
H.'irrlson, J. Whose are the Fall ers ? Svo, pp. Ix, 728. London, 1867.
Jackson, G. A. The Apostolic Fathers and the Apologists of the Second Century.
ISmo. New York, 1879. (A Series of Church HIstorj' Primers.)
Kaye, John. Some Account of the Writings aud Opinions of Justin Martyr. Third
edition. Svo, pp. 222. London, 1853.
Niiander, Augustus. Tho Life of St. Chrysostom. Transloted by the Rpv. J. C.
S'apleton. Svo, pp. vill, 438. London, 1844. (Also London, Bohn Ecclesias
tical Library.)
Neander, Augustus. Anti-Gnostlcus ; or. The Spirit of Tertullian, and an Introduc
tion to his Writings. Translated from ihe Second Hdltion (1849) ofthe Original
German. 12mo, pp. 191-552. London, 1851. (Tile edition quoted Is in the
Bohn Ecclesiastical Library, and is bound up with the second volume of Nean
der's History of the Planting and Training of the Christian Church.)
Perry, G. G. Tlie Christian Fathers. Svo. London, 1870. (Ignatius, Polycarp, and
fourteen others )
Poole, George Ayllfie. The Life aud Times of Saint Cyprian. Svo, pp. xv, 417.
Oxford, 1840.
Roberts, Alexander, and Donaldson, James, Editors. Also A. Cleveland Coxe, Amer
ican Editor. The Nicene Fathers. Large Svo, 9 vols., double columns.
Buffalo, 1887.
Rule, Martin. The Life and Times of St. Anselm. Svo, 2 vols., pp. 438, 425. Lon
don, 1883.
Schaff, Philip, Editor. A Select Library of the Nicene and Post-Nlcone Fathers of
the Christian Church. Large Svo. Fourteen volumes, double columns. Buf
falo, 1886-90.
Schaff, Pliilip, and Wace, Henry, Editors. A Select Library of the Nicene and Post-
Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church. Second Series. Large Svo, 6 vols.,
double columns. New York, Oxford, and London, 1890-93.
Semisch, Charles. Justin Martyr : His Life, Writings, and Opinions. Translated from
the German by J. E. Rylance. 12mo, 2 vols., pp. xx, 341 ; xvi. 387. Edinburgh,
1843. (Semisch's examination of Justin's doctrinal opinions is very thorough.)
Stephens, W. R. W. Life and Times of St. John Chrysostom. Svo, pp. xvi, 456.
London, 1872.
Wilson, William. The Popular Preachers of the Ancient Church: Tlieir Lives, Their
Manners, and Their Work. l2mo, pp. 282. London, no date. (Oives lives
of Cyprian, Ambrose of Milan, Augustine of Hippo, Basil the Great, Gregory
Nazianzen, and Chrysostom.)
36

403 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
SECTION XXL
SYMBOLICS.
Symbolics, in a broad sense, designates the science of the origin,
Deflnition ot nature, and contents of all the public confessions in
symboucs. which the Church has laid down a summary of its teach
ing, and which it has erected at certain times and under certain
forms as the standard of its faith. In a more limited sense, the
term is used to denote a knowledge of the distinctive teachings
¦which, especially since the Reformation, separate the different di
visions of the Church from each other in doctrinal matters, the con
trast between Koman Catholicism and Protestantism, and the minor
differences therewith connected. Symbolics forms an integral part
of the history of doctrines, or coincides wiih comparative dog
matics, or polemics, in proportion as the purely historical or the
dogmatico-polemical interest predominates in the stating and dis
cussing of such opposing standards. It is probably best to regard
it as a historical science connected with the history of doctrines,
but as also, under this form, a necessary aid and point of transition
to dogmatics.
'SiV^ijioXov (a token, mark ') denotes, in ecclesiast ical usage, a for
mula preserved by tradition or in writ ing, by which all who belong
to the same ecclesiastical party may recognize each other. The
symbol is the common shibboleth, the ecclesiastical standard, about
which the community is gathered. The use of such symbols, of
which the so-eall d Apostles' Creed was the earliest, is derived
r,. . ., , . from the ritual of baptism. Its first oflSce, therefore.
First and later r" j _ »
office ot sym- was to distinguish the Christian, as belonging to a dif-
*""¦ ferent religious society, from the Jew and the heathen;
and it was afterward employed to distinguish orthodox Catholic
' Comp. Suicer, Thesaur. Eccles., ». *., and Creuzer, Symbolik Mone's ed., § 16, p. 13).
Svy^oTiOv signifies what is formed by the Joining together cf two parts; c. g., the
term av/iPo/ia was applied to the two halves of the tablets which served as pledges of
a contracted hospitality (tesscrce hospitaliiatis). It was afterward employed to desig
nate all unions ; and, subsequently, everything that in the progress of time came to
take the place of the coarse tokens of earlier times, a pledge in general. Thus we
find it applied to the ring, which was given instead of ordinary contributions toward
a common feast, and later to the pledge for subsequent redemption, which was in use
in matters of exchange; also to the tessera militaris, the parole; in brief, to any
token, any sign, by which those belonging together, the initiated, might recognize
each other. Its derivation from avfijiuKXeiv, for the purpose of proving that each of
the apostles contributed one article to the Apostles' Creed, is absurd. Nor is art
symbolism to be taken into account in this connexion. This has its place, but in a
different theological department (Liturgies), although but little has been done as yet
toward its thorough scientific development. Comp. the section on Archseology.

SYMBOLICS. 403
Christians from heretics. The bfioovaiog of the Nicene symbol
served in this way to discriminate the adherents of the Athanasian
(orthodox) faith from the Arians.
The Nicene, the so-called Athanasian — the Symb. Quicumque of
later date — and the so-called Apostolic Creed, form the three
principal symbols of the Church. But when the adherents of the
purified doctrines separated from the Roman Catholic Church, in
the time of the Reformation, they laid down the doctrines held by
them in common, first apologetically, and then polemically, in sepa
rate symbolical writings, the Lutherans and the Reformed party
each constructing their own, because of deviations from the truth
that had taken place — each, however, holding fast to the three
leading symbols of the early Church. The differences existing with
in the above-mentioned parties, together with the controversies that
agitated the Protestant Church as a whole, gave rise to still further
symbolical divergencies. It was also desired to erect barriers
against all intermixture with non-Catholic bodies (Anabaptists,
Anti-Trinitarians, Anti-Scriptuarians, etc.), with whom the Reform
ers wished to have nothing in common.
The following are the Lutheran symbols, brought together in
1580 in the Book of Concord: The Conf. Augustana, Lutheran sym-
1530, the Apology, I53I, the Articles of Smalcald, 1537, *><"«•
and the Formula Concordiae, 1579, to which must be added the
two Catechisms of Luther, 1528 and 1529. The Reformed Con
fessions are less sharply distinguished from other theological pro
ductions, and less generally received. The more prominent are
the Swiss (Conf. Bas. i; Helv. i or Bas. ii, and Helv. ii), Gallic,
Belgic, Anglican (xxxix Articles), Scottish, and American, and the
Anhalt, Brandenbergian, and Heidelberg Catechisms. To these must
be added the Arminian Confession, by the Remonstrants of Hol
land. It consisted of 26 chapters, and appeared first in 1622.^
The Roman Catholics, on their part, now saw themselves com
pelled to present more clearly what was distinctive in their teach
ing. This was done in the Professio fidei Tridentina and the Cate-
chismus Romanus. The smaller sects and ecclesiastical parties
likewise reduced to writing the points at which they diverged from
the general belief; e. g., the Anabaptists (Mennonites), Socinians,
Quakers, and others, although such writings have, in some instances,
simply the authority of private productions. The Socinian Catechis-
mus Racoviensis might deserve to be considered a symbolical book
more than any of the others. The idea of confessional writings can
not be entertained in connexion with the Quakers, who make their
" Comp. Winer (Pope's ed.). Creeds of Christendom, p. 28.

404 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
religious life altogether independent of the letter, even that of the
Bible.' The task of Historical Theology embraces even the origin and
fortunes of these books. To whatever extent symbolics is primar
ily engaged upon this external history, it will coincide with the his
tory of ecclesiastical literature. Or, it might, if not in too detailed
a form, be incorporated with Church history, which is necessarily
obliged to take notice of the origin of movements of great import
ance. But the task of symbolics is more extensive. What has
Scope of sym- been thus far noted partakes more of the nature of in-
boiics. troduetion, analogous to the introduction to the books
of the Bible. To this must be added exegetical investigation, in
asmuch as the meaning of these confessional writings' is to be ascer
tained, construed, and explained. But as exegesis leads immedi
ately into Biblical dogmatics as its resultant, so symbolics does
not rest satisfied with having explaineij each particular confession,
but passes on to construct, in harmony with the definitions of the
several symbolical writings, a system of .Roman Catholicism, of
Protestantism, of Anabaptism, Socinianism, Quakerism, and the
rest. Finally, it proceeds to compare these ecclesiastical systems
with the general principles upon which they are based, or with each
other, by an examination of particular doctrines which they receive.
In the latter function it becomes Comparative dogmatics." When
it goes to the length of taking part directly in favour of some mode
of belief, and of defending it, in opposition to other beliefs — e. g ,
the views of Protestantism against those of Roman Catholicism —
it becomes I^olemics.
Symbolics thus provides the weapons for polemics, and is its his-
Reiation of torical base. It is related to the history of doctrines
hSory ol do^ ^® *® *^® ''"°* ^^ *^^ *'''^"'*^ °^ ^^^ *''^®' °^" *^^ ^^^^ *°
trines. the Stream. The history of doctrines is obliged to pass
through the field of symbolics, and even becomes symbolics to some
extent. In the history of doctrines we have made a distinction
between the general and the special. Symbolics may similarly
be treated in a general way by discussing principles, noting oppo
site ideas at large; for example, those of Roman Catholicism and
' The term symbolics is not, therefore, thoroughly appropriate, and can only denote,
in instances where no symbols exist, that " the statements are conformed to the most
classical and generaUy acknowledged mode of presenting any particular faith." —
Schleiermacher, § 249, note.
' Schleiermacher, § 98, distinguishes between Comparative Dogmatics and Symbol
ics, but is not wholly decided to recognize either as a science which could well exist
independently.

SYMBOLICS. 405
of Protestantism, or it may trace the particular differences in sepa
rate doctrines. The two methods must be combined. It has been
justly observed, however, with i-eference to the conflict of princi
ples, that the task of symbolics has not been fully accomplished
when it has brought into view the existing dogmatic contrasts, since
the differences between the several confessions extend also into the
domains of ethics, politics, and social life.
The symbolics of to-day will, accordingly, need to be expanded
into a science that shall not onlv embrace the dogmatic
» T-, ,-1 , ,. • IT-, Symbolics a
Vital tendencies of Roman Catholicism and Protestant- broad science
ism, and, further, those of Lutheranism and Calvinism, ^°-^^^-
of Episcopacy and Puritanism, of the Orthodox and the Schismatic
in Protestantism, but also the moral, political, artistic, and scientific
factors, bringing the whole together for purposes of comparison,
and pointing out how every. such confessional feature stands con
nected with the fundamental dogmatic principle upon which the
confession rests.' The material for such a science, which would be
highly interesting as bearing upon the history of culture as well,
but for which the term " symbolics " would no longer be an ade
quate designation, must be sought in the history of the Reforma
tion, and of later times, down to the present.
HISTORY.
Symbolics, in the broad sense, was already cultivated, in part, in
the antiquity of the Church, inasmuch as certain teach- origin of mod-
ers in the Church — like Augustine, On Faith and Sym- em symbols.
bol, A.D. 393 — explained the ecclesiastical symbols. But a "defi
nite recognition of ecclesiastical contrasts was begotten by the Ref
ormation " (Pelt, p. 444). Symbols, strictly speaking, first orig
inated in the Lutheran Church, though the term confessio, which
was preferred 'by the Reformed, was also in use (Confessio Augus
tana). Upon the basis of this symbolism polemics unfolded itself,
Chemnitz, Examen concilii Trid, being on the one side, and Bel
larmine, De controversiis fidei, on the other; and, likewise, between
Lutherans and the Reformed party, Hospinian, Concordia discors,
1607, and Hutter, Concordia concors, I6I4. The need of Historical
Introductions to the symbolical books was not felt, however, prior
to the middle ofthe 17th century.
This method of discussing simply the history of the The pragmatic
books was supplemented in the I Sth century by the method.
pragmatic method, the foundation for which was laid by Planck,
' Pelt applies to this the name "Science of Confessional Principles, or Science of
the Principles of the Separate Churches," pp. 375 and 444.

406 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
and which was developed by Marheineke and Wi^^r, the former
giving more attention to the general discussion, the latter to the
treatment of particular questions (locis). , Koellner followed in the
footsteps of biith these writers, with his large work, while Guericke
again depai'teil from the position of impartial investigation, and
pressed symbolism into the service of his Lutheran proclivities. A
presentation of symbolics, from the Roman Catholic point of view,
by Mohler (1832), naturally aroused a lively interest for this sub
ject, and called forth a number of works in opposition (by Nitzsch
and others), particularly the Symbolics by Baur (1834), and a con
tinued interchange of further writings. This science, which had
for a time occupied the position of quiet objectivity, was thus trnns-
ferred again to the ground of polemics, and called for a renewed
treatment in harmony with its principles.
The opposition between the Lutheran and the Reformed views,
Opposition be- which had at one time sunk into indifference, and had
an^''and""Ee- subsequently been compromised by the establishment
formed. of the "Union," or, at least, had been reduced to its
merely relative importance, has also come into the foreground of
late, and been carried to excess. Science has gained thereby, inas
much as the differences connected with the principles of the Reform
ers, which had formerly been overlooked, were now more sharply
apprehended and more definitely stated. It is to be regretted, how
ever, that the passions and the narrow spirit of the disputants have
often perverted the actual points of view, and caused a confusion from
which we can hope to be delivered, through God's mercy, only by a
cautious theology enlisted in the service of truth and not of a party.
ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE OP SYMBOLISM.
(This list also includes Hardouln aud Mansi.)
Baron, J. The Greek Origin of the Apostles' Creed. Svo. London, 1SB5.
Bethune, G. W. Expository Lectures on the Heidelberg Catechism. 12mo,
2 vols., pp. vlli, 491, 535. New York, 1864.
Book of Christian Discipline of the Society of Friends in Great Britain. Svo, pp.
xiv, 372. London, 1883.
Boultbee, T. P. An Introduction to the Theology of the Church of England, in an
Exposition of the Thirty-nlue Articles. Svo. London, 1871.
Bright, WUliam. Notes on the Canons of the First Four General Councils. Svo, pp.
vi, 215. Oxford, 1882. (Each canon is treated in a manner yielding a contribu
tion to Church history.)
Browne, E. H. An Exposition of the Thirty -nine Articles, Historical and Doctrinal.
Svo, pp. 871. New York, 1870.
Crownlee, W. C. Tho Doctrinal Decrees and Canons of the CouncU of Trent.
Translated from the first edition with a Preface and Notes. 16mo, pp. 119.
New York, 1857.

LITERATURE OF SYMBOLISM. 407
Budd, Henry. The XXXIX Articles of Our Establlslied Church, 1571. 12mo, pp.
311. London. No date. .
Bungener, L. F. History of the CouncU of Trent. From tlie French. Edited with a
Summary of the Acts of the Council by John McClintock. 12mo, pp. 546. New
York, 1855.
Burnet, G. An Exi osltion of the Thirty-uiue Articles of tbe Church of England.
Svo, pp. xlviii, 542. Oxford, 1805.
Chrisman, E. B. Origin and Doctrines of the Cumberland Presbyterian Church.
ICmo, pp. 191. St. Louis, Mo., 1858.
Dale, Alfred W. W. The Synod of Elvira, and Christian Life In the Fourth Century.
A Historical Essay. Svo, pp. xxviii, 354. London, 1882.
Dales, John B., and Patterson, R. M., Editors. Proceedings of the Second General
Council ofthe Presbyterian Alliance, convened at Philadelphia, September, 1880.
Svo, pp. 1,154. Philadelphia, 1880. (This important volume contains the creeds
and terms of subscription of the Presbyterian Churches of Great Briiain, British
Colonies, United States, France, Switzerland, Austria, and Spain, collected un
der the direction of the Alliance.)
Doctrine (The) of the Church of England, as stated in Ecclesiastical Documents set
forth by Authority of Cliurch and State. Svo. London, 1868.
Ffoulkes, E. S. Tho Athanasian Creed. 12mO. London, 1871.
Forbes, A. P. A Sliort Exposition of the Nicene Creed. 12mo, pp. 345. London,
1866.
Forbes, A. P. An Explanation of the Thirty-nine ArUcles. Svo, 2 vols., pp. xl,
299, 518. Oxford, 1867.
Fidton, John. Index Canonum. Containing the Canons called Apostolical, the Can
ons of tlie Undisputed General CouucUs, etc., together with a Complete Digest of
the Whole Code of Canon Law in the Undivided Christian Church. Svo. New
York, 1872. (A work of much value.)
Greg, W. R. The Creeds of Christendom. Svo, 2 vols. London, 1863.
Grler, Richard. An Epitome ofthe General Councils of the Church from the Coun
cil of Nice, A. D. 325, to the Conclusion of the Roman Council of Trent, in the
j-oar 1563. 12mo, pp. 338. Dublin, 1828.
Hall, P. The Harmony of Protestant Confessions Svo, pp. 695. London, 1841.
Ilardouin, Joannes. Acta Conciliorum et Epistolse Decrotales, ac coiislltutiones siim-
morum Pontlflcum. 12 vols., folio. Paris, 1715. (This is a great work on the
Councils, end stands in value next after Mansi. The last volume covers the
ground from A. D. 1509 to 1714. There is also an excellent index.)
Hardwick, C. A History of the Articles of Religion, with Documents, A. D. 1536-
1615. Third edition. 12mo, pp. xx, 420. Londm, 1876.
Harvey, W. W. The History and Theology of the Three Creeds. Svo, 2 vols.,
pp. XV, 348, 352. Loudon, 1854.
Hefele, Charles Joseph. A History of the Councils of the Church from the Origi
nal Documents. Translated from the German, with the author's approbation,
and edited by the editor of Hagenbacli's History of Doctrines. 3 vols., pp. ix, 502 ;
xvi, 503; xii, 480. Edinburgh and New York, 1883. (The third volume in
cludes the history of the councils of Ephesus and Chaloodon. One of the great
works in Church history.)
Heurttley, C. A. Harmonia Symbolica: a Collection of Creeds belonging to the An
cient Western Church, and to- the Medlteval English Church. Svo, pp. 181.
Oxford, 1858.
Hodge, A. A. ACommentary on the Confession of F.iiih. 12mo. Philadelphia, 1 869.

408 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
Jacobs, Henry E. The Book of Concord; or. The Symbolical Books ofthe Evangel
ical Lutlieran Ctiurcli. With Historical Introduction, Notes, Appendices, and
Indices. 2 vols. A''ol. I, The Confessions. Svo, pp. 671. Philadelphia, 1882.
Yol. II, Historical Introduction, Appendices and Indices. Pp. 429. Phlladel-
plila, 1883. (Indispensable t,o the student of Lutheranism.)
Jelf, R. W. The Thirty-nine.Articles of the Church of England. Svo. London, 1873.
Jenkins, R. C. Romanism: A Doctrinal and Historical Examination of the Creed of
Pope Plus lY. Svo. London, 1882. (A criticism of the creed, which is based
on the decrees ofthe Council of Trent.)
Jimeson, A.' A. Notes on the Twenty-five Articles of Religion as Received and
Taught by Methodists in the United States. Second edition. 12mo,' pp. 407.
Cincinnati, 1854.
ICaye, John. Some Account ofthe Council of Nicaa in Connexion with the Life of
Athanasius. Svo, pp. 300. Loudon, 1853.
King, (Sir) Peter. The liistory of the Apostles' Creed, with Critical Observations on
its Several Articles. Fourth edition. 12mo, pp. 415. London, 1729. (The
first American edition. Pp. 340. Ellzabethtown, N. J., 1804.)
Kraulh, C. P. The Augsburg Confession. 12mo. Philadelphia, 1869.
Krauth, C. P. The Conservative Reformation and its Theology, as Represented in
the Augsburg Confession, and in the History and Literature of the Evangelical
Lutheran Church. Svo, pp. 855. Philadelphia, 1871.
Laurence, Richard. An Attempt to Illustrate those Articles ofthe Church of Eng
land whicli the Calvinlsts Improperly Consider as Calvinifetlcal. Bampton Lec
tures for 1804. Fourth edition. Svo, pp. 423. Oxford, 1853.
Lectures on the Augsburg Confession, on the Holinan Foundation. Delivered in the
Theological Seminary of the General Sjmod of the Evangelical Lutheran Church,
Gettysburg, Pa. First Series, 1866-86. Svo, pp. 888. Philadelphia, 18S8.
The volume contains: I. The Trinity. By J. A. Brown. II. Original Sin. By
S. Sprecher. III. The Person and Work of Christ. By S. S. Schmucker. lY. Jus
tification by Faith. By M. Yalentine. Y. The Office of the Ministry. By C. A.
Hay. VI. New Obedience. By C. A. Stork. YII. The Church. By J. G.
Morris. YIIL The Church as It Is. By H. Ziogler. IX. Baptism. By F. W.
Conrad. X. The Lord's Supper. By G. Diohl. XI. Confession. By A. C.
Wedekind. XII. Repentance. By S. W. Ilarkey. XIII. Use of the Sacra
ments. By W. M. Baum. XIY. CaU to the Ministry. By L. A. Gotwald. XV.
Human Ordinances In the Church. By S. A. Holmnn. XVI. Civil Polity and
Government. By L. E. Albert. XVII. Christ's Return to Judgment. By E.
J. Wolf. XVIIL Free Will. By H. L. Baugher. XIX. The Cause of Sin.
By S. A. Repass. XX. Relation of Faith and Good Works. _By E. Iluber.
XXI. The Invocation of Saints. By J. C. KoUer.
Lumby, . I. R. The History of tho Creeds. Svo. London, 1873.
Macbride, John D. Lectures ou the Articles of the United Church of England and
Ireland. Svo, pp. 534. Oxford, 1853.
Macplierson, J. The AVestminster Confession of Faith; with Introduction and
Notes. 12rao, pp. 171. New York, 1881.
Mansi, Joan. Domln. Sacrorura Conciliorum nova et ampllssima colleotio. 31 vols. fol.
Florence and Venice, 1759-98. (The best collection down to 1509. A ncw
edition, fac-slmlle, published by Victor Palmd. Paris and Berlin, 1 884, sqq.)
Mnthews, George D. Alliance of the Reformed Churches holding the Presbyterian
System. Minutes and Proceedings of the Third General Council. Svo. Belfast,
1884.

LITERATURE OF SYMBOLISM. 409
Mitchell, Alexander F. Tho Westminster Assembly : its History and Standards.
Being the Baird Lecture for 1882. 12mo, pp. 519. London, 1883. (Traces
Puritanism to its beginnings In the sixteenth century.)
Nampon, A. Catholic Doctrine as Defined by the Council of Trent. Svo. Phila
delphia, 1869.
Newman, J. H. Tract Number Ninety. Remarks on Certain Passages in the Thir
ty-nine Articles. Svo, pp. 134. New York, 1865.
Pearson, J. An Exposition of the Creed ; with an Appendix containing the Principal
Greek and Latin Creeds. Svo. London, 1870.
Perry, S. G. F. The Secoud Synod of Ephesus, together with Certain Extracts Re
lating to it, from Syriac MSS. preserved in the British Museum aud now first
edited. Svo, pp. 4o9. Dartford, 1881.
Popoff, Basil. The History of the Council of Florence. Edited by Rev. J. M. Neale.
]2mo, pp. 189. London, 1S6I.
Radcliffe, John. The Confession of Our Christian Faith, commonly called the Creed
of St. Athanasius, illustrated from the Scriptures of the Old and New Testa
ments, by parallel passages from the Greek and Latin Writers of the First Five
Centuries and the Apostles and Nicene Creeds. Svo, pp. 510. London,
1844.
Revised Confession of Faith and Catechism ofthe Cumberland Presbyterian Church,
adopted by the Cumberland Presbyterian Church, A. D. 1883. NashvUle, Tenn.
Rogers, T. Exposition of the Thirty-nine Articles. Svo. London, 1853.
Rule, W. H. Councils, Ancient and Modern ; from the Apostolical Council of Jeru
salem to the (Ecumenical Council of NIcsea and the last Papal Council in tho
Vatican. ISmo. London, 1870.
Scott, Thomas. The Articles of the Synod of Dort. Translated from the Latin witli
Notes. With an Introductory Essay by Samuel Miller. 12mo, pp. 260. Phila
delphia, 1856.
Schaff, P. Bibliotheca Symbolica Eccleslas Universalis. The Creeds of Christendom,
with a History and Critical Notes. Svo, 3 vols., pp. 954, 557, 880. New York,
1879. (As a comparative history of Protestant and other theologies the first
volume has great value.)
Schaff, P. The Harmony of the Reformed Confessions, as Related to the Present
State of Evangelical Thaology. 16nio, pp. 70. New York, 1877.
Schaff, Pliilip. Creed Revision in the Presbyterian Churches. Svo, pp. 67. New
York, 1890. (This book, besides an analysis of the Westminster Confession,
contains the New Confession and Declaratory Statement of the Presbyterian
Church of England.)
Stuckenberg, J. H. W. The History of the Augsburg CJoufession, from its Origin till
the Adoption of the Formula of Concord. 12mo, pp. 335. Philadelphia, 1869.
The Symbolical Books of the Various Churches of the United States, such as the Con
fession of Faith (Presbyterian), tbe Methodist Discipline, the Constitution of the
Reformed Church (Dutch) in America, the Augsburg Confession, the Heidelberg
Catechism, the Revised Prayer Book of the Protestant Episcopal Church, and
the Confession which is most generally recognized by the Congregational
Churches can be readily procured from the denominational publishing houses,
for which see Appendix II.
The Westminster Confession of Faith. With Introduction and Notes by tho Rev.
John Macplierson, M.A. 12mo, pp. 171. New York, 1881.
United Presbyterian Church: Confession of Faith, Containing Confession, Catechisms
aud Testimony, Discipline, etc. 12mo. Pittsburg, no date.

410 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
Waterworth, J. The Canons and Decrees ol the Saci'ed and (Ecumenical Council of
Trent. To which are prefixed Essays on the External and Internal History of
the Council. Svo, pp. 326. London, ISSS. (Invaluable lo the student of the
CouncU.)
Welchman, E. Tne Thirty-nine Articles ofthe Church of England. Illustrated witli
Notes, aud confirmed by texts of the Holy Scripture, 'and testimonies of the
Primitive Fathers, together wilh references to ihe pas.sages in the several au
thors which more largely explain the doctrine contained in the said articles.
Fourteenth edition. Svo, pp. 86. London, 1834.
Westcott, B. F. The Historic Faicli. Svo. London, 1883. (Lectures on the Apos
tles' Creed.)
Winer, George Benedict. A Comparative View of the Doctrines and Confessloiis
of the Various Communities of Christendom. With Illustrations from their
Original Standard-i: Ediied with an Introduction by William B. Pope. Svo, pp.
Ixx, 3P2. Edinburgh, i873. (Thp doctrine.'' of the various. Churches are stated
in the language of their symbolical books, and their divergences from one anoihcr
are then pointed out.) SECTION XXII.
ARCHAEOLOGY.
Compare Bingham, Antiquities of the Christian Church, Svo, 9 vols, London, 1840; Newton's
Essays ou.\rt and Archseology, London, 1885; Mommsen, on Latin Inscriptions, in Contem
porary Review, May, 1871 ; Kraus, Roma Sotterranea, Freiburg, 1879 ; Lenormant, Les Cata-
combes, Paris, 1858 ; Roller, Th., lies Cataoombes de Rome, Paris, 1870 ; De Rossi, Roma, Sotter
ranea Gristiana, lol., 5 vols., Roma, 1864-79 ; Garrucci, Storia dell' arte Cristlana, Svo, 6 vols.,
Prato, 1873, 1881 ; Luebke, Ecclesiastical Art in Germany in the Middle Age^i, trmn the fifth
German edition by L. A. Wheatley, Edinburgh, 1887 ; Venables, article " Mosaics " in Diction
ary of Christian Antiquities, vol. 11.
While the history of doctrines, in connexion with patristics and
symbolics, presents the history of the development of doctrine
apart from Cliurch history in. general, making of it iin object for
special consideration, eccksiastical archaeology deals preeminently
with the history of worship. But the boundaries of this science
are as indefinite and changeable as its name is inappropriate.
Gieseler says :" In strictness of language everything that once
existed in the Church, and has now become antiquated, would be
long to ecclesiastical archseology. But if this principle be admitted
it will not be easy to justify the separate treatment of archseology,
as if it were an independent historical science. What scientific rea
son could be assigned for attemiitiiig the historical representation of
everything that is ancient in the Church down to tlio boundary
where it touches upon what now exists, but really excluding the
latter from such representation ? For it is held to be a leading
principle in historical science, that it should show how the now ex
isting has been developed out of what once was." ^
' Uebersicht d. kirchenhistor. Literatur, in Stud. u. Krit., 1831, No. 3, p. 627 sq.

ARCHEOLOGY. 411
The case resembles that of patristics. Arbitrary boundaries have
been assumed, some extending archaeology down to
Gregory the Great only, while others continue it to the a history of
time of the Reformation. But as patristics must be ^°''*'^p-
brought down to the latest times in the form of a history of the
literature and a history of theology, so must archseology be carried
onward as a history of worship. For the ancient is not entitled to
separate treatment simply because it is old, though it will not be
denied that, as in patristics, the first six centuries are of special im
portance as the constructive period, and especially so in liturgical
features.' By taking archaeology out of its connexion with the
living development of the Church, and making it an incense-breath
ing reliquary, we degrade it as a science into a mere hunt for bric-
a-brac, and give it an un-Protestant varnish of idle curiosity and
favouritism. It becomes instructive and quickening Archajoiogy
only through its relations to the present, which is "ateT\'^^''' the
obliged, in the interests of both dogmatics and liturgies, present.
to continually draw from the ancient sources, and renew its life at
the original beginnings of the Church itself. Archseology, as the
history of worship, enters into a relation with the history of Christ
ian art as close as that sustained by the history of doctrines to
historical philosophy; and, as the latter prepares the w.iy for dog
matics, so does the former for liturgies.
Certain writers, especially older ones, and Boehmer among them,
include the history of constitution in archaeology. But it is ques
tionable whether a separate treatment of that branch is needed, or
be allowed to quietly retain its place upon the tree of Church his
tory, with which it is intimately united." It would, at all events,
be impracticable to regard the two as forming a single worship and
science. The history of worship also sustains an inti- morals.
mate relation with Christian morals, or Christian life itself, in
the more independent forms of its manifestation. Each is
largely involved with the other ; for example, the history of
asceticism, of fasting, and of feasts, the Church feasts being
likewise popular festivals. It is difficult to indicate the bounda
ries at this point, and the historian will be obliged to depend
' Comp. Schleiermacher, §g 168-70; Danz, § 70; Rosenkranz, p. 221, and Guericke
.in Herzog, Encykl. s. v.
''' Rheinwald's definition, according to which Christian archseology is " the repre
sentation of the entire life of the Church, in the course of its development and ac
cording to its results," is evidently too broad, since it would include the history of
doctrines also in archzeology. Compare, for a contrary view, Boehmer, who, how
ever, holds to the boundary of the first six centuries.

413 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
upon a certain tact to preserve him from wandering away into for
eign matters.' HISTORY.
The history of archaeology depends upon the history of worship
itself. In the same measure as the latter rose from its original sim
plicity to an artistic representation under various forms, has it of
fered material for antiquarian research. The simple collecting of the
material from the appropriate sources, as ancient liturgies. Acts of
Councils, and Papal decretals, was all that was undertaken at first;
for example, in the Roman Catholic Church, by J. Bapt. Casalius
(Christianorum ritus veteres, 1645), who was joined by Cardinal
Bona (died 1694), Claude Fleury (1682), Martfene (died 1739), Th.
Maria Mamachi (1749-55), and Selvaggio (1787-90). In the Prot
estant Church the initiative was taken, certainly not as the result
of accident, by the Anglicans, and first of all by Joseph Bingham
(died 1723), in the Origines Ecclesiasticse (Antiquities of the Chris
tian Church, 1708-26), whose work was translated into Latin by
J. H; Grischow, Halle ed., 1724-38, and again in 1751-61 (10 vols.
4to). The best English edition is by Pitman, London, 1840, 9 vols.
Svo. He was followed, among Germans, by J. A. Quenstedt (Antiqu.
Bibl et Eccles., Vit., 1699) and Hildebrand at Helmstedt (died
1691), who published a series of dissertations. G. A. Spangenberg's
Comp. Ant. Eccles. was published by G. Walch, Lips., 1733, and
upon this followed S. J. Baumgarten, Simonis, and others.
SECTION XXIIL
STATISTICS.
C!omp. Schleiermacher, §§ 95, 232 sq. ; Hagenbach's article on Statistics, In Herzog's Ency-
klopasdla ; Sohem, American Ecclesiastical Year-Book, New York, 1860. Dorchester, Problem
of Religious Progress, New YOTk, 1881.
All history, on arriving at the present time, expands into statis
tics, which has to do with conditions instead of events. Ecclesias
tical statistics, accordingly, deals only with ecclesiastical conditions.
It is possible, however, to secure resting-places in the past, also, from
which to conduct a statistical review. On the other hand, the germs
of a further historical development lie in the conditions of the pres
ent. The contrast between history and statistics must, for this
reason, be considered a flexible distinction.
' The History of Morals must be distinguished from the History of Ethics, in the
same way as the History of Dogmatics is distinguished from the History of Doctrines,
the History of Liturgies from the History of Worship, and that of Ecclesiastical Ju
risprudence from that of Constitution. All of these are simply departments of the
History of the Theological Sciences.

STATISTICS. 413
"Statistics," says Schlozer, "is history at a standstill;" but this
is not a real pause, and what has been at this moment „
. . .,, . History must
treated as statistics will in a few years belong to his- fumisn statis-
tory. The historical presentation itself is obliged to "*^'
furnish statistical information respecting the age of which it treats,
thus interrupting the progress of the narrative, and changing the
past into the present. It is not possible, however, to furnish such
reviews with equal facility at all times, the periods of general con
fusion being especially unfavourable to such inquiry, while the
times immediately before and afterward are eminently suitable.
This may be seen, for example, in the state of the world immedi
ately before the introduction of Christianity, or the condition of the
Church before the Reformation, or in the time of Charlemagne,
Gregory VII., or Innocent III. The most favourable point for a
statistical review is always where an old period ends and a new one
begins. The statistics of the present, or statistics in the proper
sense, includes, like the history, the whole of the kingdom of God
in its earthly manifestation — the outward state of Christianity in
its spread; its geographical extension, or the statistics of missions;
and the constitution, worship, customs, and teaching of the Church.
Statistics of doctrine may either content itself with simply stat
ing the prevalent confessions and tendencies of belief, as is usual
with works of this character — numerical strength of the Roman
Catholic population of a country, of the Lutheran, and others — or
it may draft a somewhat detailed description of the existing state
of doctrine. For it really is what Schleiermacher calls it, though
it is but outwardly so, " a description of the teaching accepted in
modern times." Statistics generally deals most largely ., .. ., ,
with ecclesiastical constitutions — because this element ecclesiastical
is more easily grasped and understood than others — and '">'^'i''""°°s-
also with the worship. The most difiicult feature to include in a
description is the life itself, -with all its shadings and gradations;
and for this work, as for the narrating of historical events, the skill
of the artist will be I'equired. The groupings may be arranged to
correspond with different points of view; for example, by countries,
confessions, forms of doctrine, constitution, worship, and their fac
tors. Each method has its advantages and disadvantages,' and it
will be advisable to combine different systems in the Best source for
execution of this work. The best source for. statistics statistics.
is, beyond question, personal study and observation, which here
' See Pelt, p. 363 sg., and the combination proposed in that place ; " Much remains
to be accomplished by special effort in this department, with reference to both the
material and the form. — Schleiermacher, § 245.

414 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. ¦
possibly may assure us to some extent, but is absolutely denied to
us in history. Exact observation, however, is possible only when
based on the facts of history down to the present time ; and the
testimonies of contemporaneous authorities are largely needed with
regard to existing facts. Suitable helps, in addition to works of a
properly statistical character, may be found in official reports, de
scriptions of travel, especially when written by. persons who travel
in the interests of ecclesiastical afiairs, and ecclesiastical periodicals
and newspapers.
The student of theology will, of course, need to become ac
quainted with such matters. He is required to comprehend the
time in wliich he lives, and to enter with all his abilities and sympa
thies into its progress. But the nequid nimis has its application to
his case. In the absence of a thorough historical preparation, and
of the historic sense, the only attainment likely to be reached will be
a limited knowledge instead of thoroughness. For nothing is more
dissipating and destructive of thoroughness than an exclusive read
ing of newspapers and journals; and the temptation to employ the
Shallow books reading of travels simply as a pastime is likewise an
of travel. imminent danger. A shallow literature, of the tourist
and journalistic type, has, unfortunately, deluged all lands, and it
affords nothing but superficial reasonings. Beware of it ! Fortu
nate is the youth who has a paternal friend at hand, to impart coun
sel and aid in interpreting the signs of the times !
ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE OF ECCLESIASTICAL
STATISTICS.
Appleton's Annual Cyclopsedia and Register of Important Events has been published
yearly since 1866. Each volume contains the history and statistics for the year
of the prominent denominations, and Is not confined to the United States.
Carroll, H. K. The Religious Forces of the United States: Enumerated, Classified,
and Described on the Basis ofthe Government Census of 1890. Svo, pp. 1x1,449.
New York, 1893. (This volume is one of the American Church History Series.
Its Author, Dr. H. K. CarroU, was superintendent of the ecclesiastical division
of the United States Census of 1890.)
Census BuUetins : of "the United States Census ; Department of Church Statistics.
Issued under the direction of H. K. Carroll. 1891.
Dorcliester, Daniel. The Problem of Religious Progress. ]2mo, pp. 603. Now
York, 1881. (The object of this book is to illustrate the progress of Protestant
ism in the United States. The author contends that the increase of the num
ber of communicants In the evangelical Churches of our country is greater in its
ratio than the Increase ofthe whole population.)
The Denominatlon.ll Yearbooks of English and Amerlcin Churches contain carefully
prepared statistics. For the English Church the annually Issued " Clergy List "
is valuable. It contains : 1. An Alphabetical List of the Clergy of Great Britain
and Wales. 2. The Public Schools with their OCBcers. 3. List of the Bishops

STATISTICS. 415
and Archbishops of England and Wales, from the formation of each see to the
present time. 4. The Colonial and Missionary Dioceses. 5. List ot Benefices
in England and Wales, with their net annual value. 6. List of the Patrons of
Church Livings. 7. The Benefices arranged under their ecclesiastical divisions.
(Published in February of each year, 291 Strand, London.)
The following Annuals are the best for recent statistics: Minutes of the General
Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the United States. Minutes of the
Conferences of the Methodist Episcopal Church ; also the Methodist Yearbook.
Minutes of the Conferences of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. The
(Jongregational Yearbook, also the English Congregational Yearbook. The
American Baptist Yearbook, and the English Baptist Handbook. The Minutes
of the Wesleyan Conferences. The Lutheran Yearbook. The Freewill Baptist
^ Register. The Universalist Register. Sadlier's Catholic Directory and Potts's
and Whitaker's Church Almanacs. Nearly aU the Churches of Canada pubUsh
Directories containing statistics. The Moravians publish an annual in London.
Whitaker's Almanac, London, contains the Ecclesiastical Statistics of Great Britain.
The list of the sects of aU kinds Is taken from the records of the registrar's
office, but the figures representing church populations are not official.

416 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY.

CHAPTER III.
SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY.

SECTION L

Comp. Schleiermacher, 8 196; von der Goltz, Der Weg zum Systeme der dogmatlschen The
ologie, In Jahrbb. Iflr deutsche Theologie Iv, p. 679 sqq.
Henry B. Smith, Analysis and Proof Texts of Julius itiiller's System of Theology (translation
of) In Amer. Presb. and Theol. Review. New York, 1865. The same author's Introduction to
Christian Theology, (edited by W. S. Karr), New York, 1883.
Systematic Theology is the scientific and connected presentation
of Christian doctrine in its relation to both faith and morals. For
merly it was regarded and treated as a single science of Christian
teaching. But latterly, since the time of Danseus and Calixtus, it
has been divided into two distinct branches. These, however,
should be regarded as simply different sides of that same life which
manifests itself in faith and morals, and whose various qualities are
in constant relation with each other.
We have observed, in a former connexion, that Christianity was
Christianity not, at the Outset, an organized and self -inclusive body
veiTplntot °f d(jctrines. But this does not necessitate the con-
system, elusion that Christianity was not destined to unfold into
a system of doctrine at some future time. The pre-requisites for
such a consummation existed from the first, and a sound develop
ment of its teaching could only lead to the analysis of its contents,
and to their comprehension under a single idea. A relative dis
tinction may be established between the several doctrinal concep
tions of John, Paul, and other apostles. But the respective systems
are simply members of the great organism of the developed Christ
ian teaching as a whole. There is no cessation in the develop
ment of doctrine. Where an apparent pause is observed, there is
danger of stagnation and petrifaction. But there are single stages
in the history, at which the dogmatic consciousness of the Church
appears in a more assured light, and where the unfolding arrives at
a relative conclusion. These are the times of symbols and of the
greatest dogmatical writings, in which the belief of an entire age,
or at least of an ecclesiastical party, or a school, is reflected.

SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 417
It thus becomes proper to speak of Lutheran, Reformed, or Ro
man Catholic dogmatics, whose results may be brought Ecclesiastical
into the light of objective history. .Such objective de- Dogmatics.
scription has also been denominated Ecclesiastical Dogmatics, in
distinction from Biblical Dogmatics. But neither the latter nor the
former is dogmatics in the strictest sense.' Both are merely intro
ductory in their character; and ecclesiastical dogmatics results
from symbolism, and is a further historical basis for dogmatics
proper, just as biblical dogmatics results from biblical exegesis, and
is the basis for the history of doctrines. The object object of dog-
of dogmatics proper is not simply to record historical ™atics.
matter, but also to express the conviction entertained by the writer
who presents the system to our notice in word and print."
It is, therefore, for adequate reasons that systematic theology is
taken from the soil of history, into which it has struck its roots,
and is made a separate branch of study,^ the very centre of the the
ological sanctuary and the heart of theological life. It takes the
exegetical and historical material, and out of it constructs for the
' Dogmatics should always be ecclesiastical ; that is, be linked to the Church to
which it owes its birth. But we understand by ecclesiastical what has been ecclesias
tically fixed and authorized, the symbolically statutory, or, as it has been termed, the
socially established. See J. P. Lange, Christl. Dogm., i. The attempt has been
made, of late, to limit the term dogmatics to this statutory, symbolical, and tradi
tional branch, while the German phrase " Glaubenslehre " — System of the Faith — has
been applied, as alone appropriate, to what we would characterize as dogmatics
proper. This Is done, for example, by Alex. Schweizer, who, in his Christliche Glau
benslehre, follows in the track of Rothe. But it is impossible to understand, in view
of the elastic meaning of the word Soyya, why the term dogmas may not be used with
reference to the theology of the present day. This usage is further recommended by
the ease with which the adjective "dogmatic," and the verb "to dogmatize," may be
formed from the noun. Comp. Krauss on 1 Cor. xv, pp. v and vi. Von der Goltz
(ubi supra, p. 688) likewise declares that he is unable to attach the importance to the
difference between dogmatics and the term advanced by Schweizer which that writer
urges, and continues : " The mere stating of the doctrines held by the fathers is no
dogmatics, but a cross section taken from the history of doctrines."
' Qualified, of course, by the feature that such personal conviction claims to have
discovered the true expression of ideas that now live in the Church, and have earned
the right to make themselves heard. Only upon this ground does the work deserve
the name of dogmatics. The mere statement of subjective views, sometimes having
no reference to the Church, and even designed to antagonize the Church, and break
down its teaching, reducing it to a mere zero, deserves to pass by any other name
rather than that of dogmatics, or a system of the faith.
' Liicke, Stud. u. Krit., 1834, No. 4, p. 115 : "I am of the opinion that the scientific
interest which gives birth to systematic theology is predominantly unlike the histor
ical, even though it include the critical element. It is simply the systematic, and
not merely the subordinate, interest, in an orderly arrangement of a given historical
material, but at the same time a desire to state scientifically the doctrines of Christian
37

418 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY.
present time that doctrine which, in its turn, yields the governing
principles for practical theology. In this work it may also appro
priate to itself the name of theology, kut'' k^dxrfv.
Christian doctrine is not, however, simply a doctrine of the faith.
Ethical charao- ^^ ^^^ Sense that the faith is merely turned in the direc-
ter of Christian tion of religious perception and apprehension. But it
is, to an equal extent, ethical doctrine, or, more pre
cisely, a doctrine of the life. Disposition and the life are embraced
as one under Christianity. It preaches both faith and repentance,
— a change of disposition — and its thoroughly practical character
even causes the regeneration of the soul to be of primary import
ance, while thought upon it, or reflection, has but a derived value.
Christianity is, first of all, a religion, and not a theology. While
it has been observed that religion, in its essence, is neither a form
of knowledge nor of action, though it necessarily leads to both, it
follows that the doctrinal system of a religion will need to develop in
the two directions of knowing and doing. This is generally con
ceded with reference to the practical department. It would not be
desired that either the doctrinal or the moral element should be
¦wanting in a catechism of Christian teaching. The same is true of
those sermons in which the two factors of doctrine and ethics are
presented in combination. These, as in the case of Wesley and
Dwight, are justly regarded as superior to homiletical literature
in general.
The question is, however, whether the same rule shall apply in
„ . . the scientific field as well. At the first, wliile the sci-
Predommance '
of the dogmat- ence itself was being developed out of the practical ele-
ic nterest. ments at hand, the two features were interwoven with
each other. We see an illustration of this in Augustine's Chris
tian Doctrine. The dogmatic interest, however, has, upon the
whole, always overbalanced the ethical in religious controversies.
The Reformation seemed to spring primarily from moral, not di
rectly doctrinal, causes. But a change of relations soon took place,
which resulted in the attaching of greater weight to the definition
of doctrinal points. It might be said that attention was, with en
tire propriety, directed chiefly to the settling of the truths belong
ing to the faith, since works spring from faith. But the faulty
faith and action with absolute truthfulness, in such a way that aU doubt and opposi
tion, and all want of congruity in Christian thought, may be rem.oved. This is wholly
unlike the historical object." Lange, p. 49 : " The importance of dogmatics is ma
terially obscured when it is treated, as it was by Schleiermacher, simply as a branch
of historical theology. The immediate object of historical theology is to make
dogmatics possible, but not to absorb it."

SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 419
principle consisted in this fact, that the faith was too little appre
hended from the dynamical, and too greatly from the merely theo
retical, side, the apprehending of the faith being confounded with
tendencies of belief, and the understanding of the faith with its
power. In this way Christian ethics long failed to receive just
treatment. It was a mere tenant on the premises of dogmatics,
sparingly introduced in connexion with the teaching of the divine
law; and a practical application {usus practicus) was appended to
the several dogmas as occasion might require. It is not caiixtus sepa-
strange, therefore, that Calixtus should fall upon the fro'm^dogml^
idea of emancipating ethics from dogmatics, and assign- ics.
ing to it a separate field.'
But the idea of emancipation should never have been entertained.
Christian ethics must evijr be grounded, and at home, in Christian
dogmatics, if it is not to renounce the Christian character, and de
generate into a general or philosophical morality. The latter
event actually came to pass ; and there was even a time when moral
ity spread- itself over the practical field so broadly that dogmatics
was shrivelled into a narrow extract. The separation of the two
became an error as soon as it extended to principles, and assumed
an internal independence of ethics from dogmatics. In this regard
the recalling to mind of their original unity and connexion has been
of advantage. It is a different question, however, whether their
fusion into a single science must be the result. Science „,„
° . Difference be-
must often separate elements which are combined in tween dogmat-
life, and theology may distinguish between dogmatics i<=s a°d etwcs.
and ethics with the same propriety as philosophy discriminates be
tween the philosophy of religion and ethics. The one has to do
with things to be believed, the other with things to be done. The
one moves upon the ground of conception and recognition, the
other upon that of modes of disposition and conduct based upon
such recognition. In other words, "Dogmatics represents life in
its transcendent relations to God, the eternal basis of its being;
ethics according to its immanent relation to the world of man.
Dogmatics regards it in its specifically ecclesiastical character,
ethics in its general human character. Dogmatics describes the
organ, ethics indicates the tasks that await its energy. Dogmatics
teaches how man derives his Christian life from God, ethics how he
is to give proof of it in the world of men, by human methods and
in that exercise of incarnated power which we call virtue."* The
' The Reformed theologian Danaeus attempted this even earlier than Calixtus. Comp.
Nitzsch, iibi supra.
" Lange, ubi supra, pp. 46, il.

420 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY.
reference of the one to the other should, therefore, never be for
gotten, and a really Christian dogmatics will always. guide into
morality, while Christian ethics will point back to dogmatics.
It may be noted, moreover, that Schleiermacher already deemed
it "desirable that the undivided treatment should be employed
from time to time,"' and this desire has been responded to in recent
times by two theologians, Nitzsch and Beck, although in diverse
ways." The method has also been tried, finally, by Rothe, of in
cluding the substance of' the doctrines of belief in ethics as being,
in effect, the determining influence of the latter, and of regarding
only the historical residuum as dogmatics.' But it is not to be sup
posed that the usage has been thereby settled for all time.
' Schleiermacher, § 231. J. C. v. Hofmann allows no other excuse for the sepa
ration of dogmatics from ethics than that of convenience. " Both branches have
been at times considered historical, and at other times systematic, or dogmatics
has been assigned to historical theology, while a special treatment has been demanded
for ethics. The writer who distinguishes between the science of the kingdom of God
in itself and the science of its actualization in man, or who designates dogmatics a
history of the dealings of the redeeming God in their development, and ethics a his
tory of development in the men redeemed by him, will be compelled to treat the same
material twice, wholly or in part, and this without any appreciable profit, but simply
from different points of view. For it is impossible to describe God's dealings with
man without discussing at the same time man's action toward God, or to describe the
attitude of the Christian without preceding the description with a direct or implied
reference to the attitude of God, to which the former corresponds. If the relation
sustained by God be presumed, it is admitted that ethics is simply the part of a
greater whole. If it be stated, ethics is thereby made such a part, nothing remains
but the admission that Christian ethics, as the science relating to Christian conduct —
not that of men in general — toward God, is indeed a separable, but not for that rea
son an independent, part of the one body of teachings which has its origin in the
publication of that relation existing between God and man which has been established
through the mediation of CJhrist." — Schriftbeweis i, pp. 14, 15.
'Nitzsch, System der Lehre fur akadem. Yorlesungen. Bonn, 1829, 6th ed., 1851.
Tob. Beck, Eiiil. in d. System der christl. Lehre, oder propaedentische Entwicklung der
christl., Lehrwissenschaft, Stuttgart, 1838. Die christl. Lehrwissenschaft nach den
bibl. Urkunden, Stuttgart, 1840.
' Theol, Ethik i, p. 38. In opposition see Lange, supra, p. 49, and Julius Miiller in
Herzog's Encykl., iii, p. 439, and also Dorner in ibid., iv, p. 187: "Dogmatics and
ethics are as certainly separate departments as God and man are really different from
each other. . . . Dogmatics is engaged upon the being, thoughts, and actions of God,
which . . . have for their object an ethical world ; Christian ethics has to do with the
good that comes into actual being in the form of man's free-wiU, and under the actual
ized purpose of the love of God." Comp. also Schenkel's Dogmatik i, p. 13.

DOGMATICS. 421
SECTION IL
.DOGMATICS.
Baumgarten-Omslns, Einleitung In das Studium der Dogmatik, Lpz., IffiO; F. Fischer, zur
Einleitung in die Dogmatik der evangellsoh-protestantlschen Kirohe, Tiib., 1888 ; Mynster, fiber
den Begriff der chrlstlichen Dogmatik (theol. Stud. u. Krit., Jahrg., 1831, No. 3) ; Rust, Rede
flber christliche Dogmatik, Frank!., 1830 ; Kling, fiber die (}estalt der evangel. Dogmatik (Tub.,
theol. Zeltsehrift, 1834, 4) ; F. H. Th. Allhn, Einl. in das Studium der Dogmatik nach den Er
gebnissen der neuesten wissenschaftl. Forschungen, Lpz., 1837 ; Beck a. a. 0. J. P. Lange,
christl. Dogmatik, 1st part, Heidelb., 1819 ; Th. A. Liebner, introductio in dogmatlcam christi
anam. Lips., 1854 ; J. Muller, in Herzog's Bealencykl. Ill, p. 433 f . ; Rothe, Begriff der evangel
ischen Dogmatik (Zur Dogmatik I.); Wledermann, christl. Dogmatik. Einl., p. 1-20; Von der
Goltz, vi>i supra, and his Dogmatik, mentioned below.
The best English and American treatment of Introductory Systematic Theology is found at
the beginnings of the works, and not In separate volumes. For the older works, see Lowndes,
The British Librarian, pp. 883-814. Hodge and Van Oosterzee, of later writers, furnish the best
introductory discussion.
Christian Dogmatics forms the central point of all theology. The
reason is, that the results obtained by exegetical and historical in
quiry, in so far as they touch upon the Christian faith, are wrought
over, and impressed upon, the consciousness of the present time,
and are combined into that scientific whole! from which the princi
ples underlying ethics and practical theology are to be deduced.
Dogmatics is neither a mere philosophy of religion nor a mere his
tory of doctrines, but a science including both historical Dogmatics de-
and philosophical elements. It is the science which ^'^•
presents to our notice the material obtained by exegesis and history
in an organized and systematic form, representing the sum of the
truths of the Christian faith in organic connexion with the facts of
the religious consciousness. It, therefore, demands preparatory
training in exegesis and history, as well as in philosophy.
What has been said of systematic theology in general applies
more especially to dogmatics, as constituting the centre of gravity
in this matter. For ethics, which is connected with it, depends
upon it in the last analysis. Hence Augusti is justified in the re
mark, that the old and generally adopted usage, which conceives
dogmatics and theology as being synonymes, is evidence of the
high importance which has always been attached to this first of all
the departments of theology." It is, to use Lange's expression, " in
a specific sense the theology of the Church." But there is, never
theless, no universal agreement respecting the extent and import
ance of this science, some regarding it as being simply historical in
its nature, and others making it merely philosophical or specula
tive. Again, they who admit that it combines within itself both
historical and philosophical elements, yet differ greatly with regard
to the relations sustained by the one to the other.
' System der christl. Dogmatik, § 1.

422 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY.
The reducing of dogmatics to a mere historical science may grow
out of various fundamental views. Those make a great mistake
who regard the system of doctrines as completed once for all, for
they confine dogmatics within the boundaries of the
progressive sd- past. This is precisely the view of the sceptic, who
'*'"*'¦ seeks to degrade it into a mere old history, whose high
est usefulness consists in its walking behind, and bearing the train,
i^ery easily dispensed with, of the wisdom of our own time. There
was no lack of opinions of the latter sort during the last century,
and a number of dogmatical works dating from the present century,
such as those of Bretschneider and Wegscheider, are filled with un
modified historical matter. Tzschirner took the ground of simple
statement, without entering upon any direct discussion.
There is, however, still another historical view of dogmatics,
which at least grows out of a living apprehension of history, and
therefore demands intellectual mediation between the past and the
present. This view is represented by Herder," and especially by
Schleiermacher, who, in point of fact, steps out from the past alto-
Schieiermach- gather, and makes of dogmatics, as he would of statis-
er's deflnition tics, a science of the present as historically conditioned,
ogmaics. gjjjQg ]jg conceives it to be "the science of the combina
tion of doctrine which prevails in a Christian ecclesiastical com
munity at a given time." "
' Von Religion, Lehrmeinungen und Gebranchen, § 3*7 : " Dogmatics, even on the
conception which underties its name, is simply a history of doctrines. How beneficial
is it to carry forward every dogma to its limits, philologically, historicaUy, philosophi
cally!" Though Rohr, in his Briefe iib. Rationalismus, announced the expectation
that the time wUl come when our dogmatics shall appear only in the character of a
history of doctrines, and appealed for justification to the progress made by the spirit
of inquiry among theologians since Socinus and Herbert of Cherbury, there seemed to
be but little hope that the prophecy would be fulfilled. A certificate of death has,
however, been issued in behalf of dogmatics from a different quarter, and in a differ
ent connexion, it being characterized as the "science of Church doctrines," in dis
tinction from doctrines of the faith. (Page 39.) Schweizer says : " The dogmatics of
former times has been superseded by the doctrinal system of the evangelical Protes
tant faith, which, having been contained in the former in a very subordinate and re
stricted character, has thrown off its dogmatic fetters, and become the system of faith
in each separate state of development in the Evangelical Church.'' But this language
is connected with the «ms linguce referred to above. The wild cry, "No more dog
matics ! " which has been uttered in certain writings of a partisan character, can only
impose upon persons who have no sympathy ivith anything that has been historicaUy
developed. We are able, on the other hand, to agree with Biedermann, who asserts (p.
17) that "the science of mere ecclesiastical doctrines must be overcome by a true science
of the Protestant faith." Upon this point he remarks, however, that this cannot be ac
complished by simply declaring that dogmatics is such a science of traditional doetrina
' Darstellung, §§ 91, 196 sqg. ; Der christUche Glaube, vol. i, p. 1.

/ DOGMATICS. 423
With reference to this definition, the question has been properly
asked, what is to be understood by "prevalent"? Schleiermacher
responds, "That form of doctrine is prevalent which is employed
in public transactions as representing the common piety," ^ or that
" which is officially asserted and made known, without calling forth
official contradiction."" Upon this point he is obliged to concede,
however, that " the boundaries must be extended or narrowed as
time and circumstances may require." Since this definition requires
that not what was formerly accepted should be pre- objections to
sented, but what now prevails, it removes dogmatics schieiermaoh-
to some extent from the strictly historical field. But ^¦'^ "^ "" °^;
Schleiermacher proceeds further still. He demands that dogmatics
should not state the views of others simply, but also the personal
views of the writer, and even ascribes to it a kind of sagacity that
will detect the truth, since he defines its task to be the " purifying
and perfecting of the doctrine."^ Further, he insists upon the appli
cation of critical processes, which, of course, applies also to history.
He thereby elevates dogmatics into a science which is directed to
ward the future, and which teaches, to an equal degree, what
must be accepted in the future, and what is authoritative now,
or has been so in the past. By this method dogmatics is evi
dently lifted out from the framework of historical theology, and
it is for this very reason that adherents of the school of Schleier
macher, and some other writers as well, have raised objections
that are not wholly unfounded against its incorporation with that
branch.* ' Der christl. Glaube, vol. i, p. 1.
' Darstellung, § 16, note.
' Christl. Glaube, vol. i, p. 130. Schleiermacher speaks with especial clearness in
opposition to a mere empirically historical view respecting dogmatics and ethics, p. 9 :
" We may, at aU events, insist that every representation of Christian doctrine is his
torical, but it may not on that account cease to be systematic ; and, on the other
hand, while every one Is systematic, it must be not only systematic, but in every in
stance also historical and systematic.''
¦• Comp. the extract from Liicke, p. 721 of MS. Von der Goltz says, in a similar
-"pirit: "If the designation of dogmatics as a historical department is designed to
specify simply that it is not merely a speculative construction of Christianity, but that
It is the positive truth of the Chri.stian faith as the common possession of the Church,
with its internal combinations wrought into intelligible form, there can be no objec
tion to the idea. But the designation ' historical ' is nevertheless misleading. Its
originator, Schleiermacher, adds to it the feature that systematic theology is only to
present the historically given matter, without laying claim to the right of presenting
authoritative truth. This is an error. Dogmatics has always striven to report not
only what the Church teaches, or has taught, but what it should teach. Dogmatics
aims to furnish authoritatively what constitutes the normal statement of the truth in

424 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY.
It does not follow that the historical character of dogmatics is
thereby denied. This is in any case to be retained, unless dog
matics is to become equivalent to the philosophy of religion. The
material of dogmatics is certainly historical, but it is required to
pass throuffh the philosophical process of reflection.
yogmatlcs to ^ . ^ .,* ¦ i -^i xi_ i, .. ^ i-
pass through Dogmatics has to do not simply with the abstract relig-
reflection. ^^^^ consi'iousness, but with the consciousness of the
Church, and with revelations addressed by God to man which have
been historically transmitted. It is only necessary that the divine,
in so far as it may be apprehended by the human mind, be cognized
with human certainty, and be received into the scientific conscious
ness of the present. In this way scientific knowledge and syste
matic philosophical thought will interpenetrate each other in the
treatment of the system of belief. " A reference of religion in it
self to religion, as it appears in Christianity and in the manifestation
of the latter through the evangelical Church, is established," as
Hase correctly shows.' In his later editions he presents the idea
with greater definiteness, " of the relation of the Christian religion
in itself to the religious spirit."" Schenkel likewise holds that,
the domain of Christian beUef. This is in harmony with the proper meaning of the
word dogma ; for dogma is an established term, attested by the Church, to designate
a truth belonging to the Christian faith."
• Evangel. Dogmatik, I, § 2. The definition of De Wette (Dogm., I, § 60) may be
made to agree with that of Hase: "The representing of Christianity as related to the
culture of an age is dogmatics." Other definitions are very obscure, e. g., those of
Reinhard, Wegscheider, and Tzschirner, that of the latter being: "Dogmatics is the
science of the Christian beUef, or the scientific presentation of the doctrine of God
and divine things contained in Christianity.'' Biedermann teaches, that dogmatics is
both a positive and a speculative science (but observe, not a " mixture of both " I ),
while Rothe terms speculative dogmatics a " wooden iron.'' It is evident that much
confusion respecting the scientific nomenclature still prevails upon this point.
" The 6th ed., for instance, says,, " Dogmatics is the systematic presentation of the
Christian rehgion in so far as it has taken definite shape in the form of dogmas, and
as it stands related to the religious spirit." Comp. § 11 (in the older editions): "As -
philosophical dogmatics, when not connected with historical references, is a mere ab
straction, so the historical presentation of biblical, ecclesiastical, and comparative-
symbolical dogmatics can only become actual science by its union with philosophical
dogmatics — a science which embraces the consciousness of Christianity in its primitive
form, the self-consciousness of the Church, and a comprehension of the different
forms in which the Christian spirit, affected by human errors, has found expression.
While each of these is, in its own way, important, it is yet but an isolated view of
Christianity, for whose complete recognition dogmatics is required, which apprehends
the Christian faith in the whole of Its development, and teachgs how to become ac
quainted with the nature of the religious spirit." The recent Protestantism of France,
contrasting with the former abstract view of dogmatics, likewise recognizes the co
operation of various factors in it — the religious, the historical, and the scientific.
Comp. the pamphlet, M. Soberer, ses disciples et ses adversaries. Par., 1854, p. 8.

DOGMATICS. 425
" Christian dogmatics is the scientifically connected presentation of
the saving truths of Christianity, as founded upon personal convic
tions, and as historically conditioned in the form of the common
consciousness of Christians.'" It follows that a genuine dogmatist
must receive into himself all the stages of theological culture, and
not only control the entire field of theological knowledge intellec
tually, but also demonstrate with his personal character that he
represents the Church in his teaching, and that the consciousness
of Christians generally finds a living and concrete illustration in
his own — the highest duty assigned to the theologian ! He must
be firmly grounded on the basis of the word of God in Necessity ot a
the Scriptures, but have at the same time taken into p"™ and weu
,. ,„, . ..IT- 1} 3 J. ¦ endowed per-
himself the entire progress of the history ot doctrines, sonai charac-
have wrought out all contrasts, have reduced every '^"'•
thing to clearness and certainty in his own consciousness, and be
able to render to himself an account of the internal and external
character of every doctrine. The human spirit, with its capacities
for religion, and its needs and strivings, must, as well as the Scrip
tures, with their profound teachings, be open to his eyes. He must
be acquainted with the present and with the past, and he must
make use of both to carry forward the development for future
times and the preparation for new developments ;' " following the
age, but not subservient to it." °
SECTION IH.
APOLOGETICS AND ITS EBLATIOlSr TO DOGMATICS.
Schleiermacher, § 33-42. Comp. the article by Heubner,' In Ersch und Gruber's Encyklop.,
vol. 4 ; Schmid, fiber christl. Apologetlk, in tbe antagonistic serial on Theol. und Philos., 1839 ;
' Lechler, fiber den Begriff der Apologetik, ein histor. Beitrag zur Bestimmung der Ausgabe,
Methode und Stellung dieser Wissenschaft, in the Stud. u. Krit., 1839 ; Hanell, die Apologetlk
als die Wissenschaft von dem der Kirche und der Theologie gemeinsamen Grunde, In the Stud.
u. Krit'., 1843 ; J. Eirzel, flber die christl. Apologetlk, (Vortrag an die Zfirlcher Synode,) Ziirich,
1843 ; Kienlen, die Stellung der Apologetlk und der Polemlk In der theologischen Encyklop.,
(Stu<}. u. Krit., 1846.) See Hagenbach's article In Herzog's Realencykl., I.
Hetherington, Apologetics ol the Christian Faith, N. T., 1867.
The presentation of the Christian faith presumes the truth of
that faith as a whole, or regards the fact of Christianity as a divine
fact. It is the office of science, however, to justify that presump
tion to the Feligious sense. Hence, apologetical investigation must
' Christliche Dogmatik, p. 1.
' Hase distinguishes five functions of the dogmatist : first, the philosophical unfold
ing of the reUgious belief ; second, historico-critical apprehension ; third, systematic
arrangement; fourth, ascertaining and estimating its reUgious value; fifth, organic
further development of the Christian system.
'^ Kling, ubi supra, p. 11.

426 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY.
precede the purely dogmatical. In its formal aspect, apologetics,
Apologetics like dogmatics, is a philosophical and historical science,
doKmatiT*^ci! ^°^ ^^^ proofs are drawn bojbh from within and with-
ence. out — from reason and conscience, and from history.
With regard to its contents, the relation it sustains toward dog
matics is that of elemental and constitutive to the systematically
developed, or of the keynote to its scale. It is, accordingly, pos
sible to separate the two branches from each other, yet not abso
lutely, but only relatively.
Schleiermacher, who assigns dogmatics to the department of his-
Apoiogetics and torical theology, has, nevertheless, erected a separate
tSn toliogSit department of philosophical theology, and given it the
"^- , first place. It is subdivided into apologetics and po
lemics. Hence these branches thus come to occupy the position of
outposts, though in a somewhat lost and isolated state, being far
removed from the main body of theological forces, and separated
by the interposition of other departments, such as exegesis and
Church history; we, therefore, consider it advisable to call in these
outposts and incorporate them with the main body. They are cer
tainly included in dogmatics, and constitute the organs through
whose exercise it makes itself understood by outside observers.
The life of dogmatics beats in them; they constitute the two poles
at which the electric flash that passes through dogmatics is dis-
chai'ged both positively and negatively. At every step taken by
the system of Christian belief it is obliged to defend its just claim
to be so regarded against the attacks of unbelief, and it is also
obliged to assert its determinate character as a particular form of
belief, as the Protestant, in distinction from other similar beliefs,
such as the Roman Catholic." Dogmatics itself thus adopts the
apologetical mode of procedure at one time, and the polemical at
another, in its teaching, provided the latter has a living aim. It
becomes apologetic when it purposes to bring into prominence, in
connexion with the statement of every doctrine, the underlying
' The apologetic or the polemical interest will predominate at different times. The
latter was uppermost in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries ; whUe dogmatics,
without a persistently apologetic character, is inconceivable at the present day, though
the newly awakened strife of confessions has considerably repressed quiet and un.
prejudiced apologetic expositions. Ullmann, in his Preface to the 6th German edi
tion of his Sinlessness of Jesus, p. v, justly complains that " many contemporaries,
even of the younger class, are so involved in the formulas ef ready finished doctrines,
whether framed in the interests of belief or unbelief, as to reject every attempt to
establish the faith at the outset ; in the one case because they will not think of an
authentication that must be constantly renewed, in the other because they refuse to
know the faith itself."

APOLOGETICS AND ITS RELATION TO DOGMATICS. 427
principle of Christianity as radically different from every other
religion, and thus to fasten the Conviction that Christianity, as a
whole, is true and divine by opening up to view each separate ele
ment. ' It is polemical in so far as it rejects all that is improper or
that obscures, defaces, or works injury to the dogma, and as it pro
tects the view held by the Church against the non-ecclesiastical and
pseudo-churchly ideas which may exist.
This does not forbid the separate treatment of apologetics and
polemics.' The former, especially, has established its right to such
treatment. But it must not be allowed to remove to a distance
from dogmatics. On the contrary, " while defending the ground "
of the latter,' it must go before it and prepare the way, as the Bap
tist before Christ, either by way of introduction to dog- . , „
' ... Apologetics an
matics, or independently. It will in either case act in introduction to
the service of dogmatics, and with reference to its needs. °smatics.
The leading place at the head of dogmatics must, accordingly, be
given to apologetics, though not the first place in the entire course
of theological study, as Schleiermacher decides. It may be said,
indeed, that exegesis and ecclesiastical history also cannot be re
garded as sciences belonging to Christian theology in their inmost
nature, unless a previous understanding of the nature of Christian
ity in general be secured. But such an understanding is attainable
only upon the ground of history — unless it is to be based on the
air — so that we again are forced to the conclusion that Remote begin-
no department has an absolute beginning. Certain partinente' "^m
apologetical assumptions must be necessarily taken for theology.
granted in the study of exegesis and Church history, though with
the understanding that they are to receive thorough investigation
in the proper place. This procedure approves itself as correct on
the grounds of methodology also. An apologetical course at the
very beginning of theological study would, assuredly, be of little
service to the student whose interest for apologetics needs to be
awakened, and who for that end requires exegetical and historical
studies, particularly the life of Jesus and the history of the king-

' Sack, in his Polemik, has conceived the distinction on this wise : " Dogmatics is
Christian doctrine as adapted to Christian thinkers, implying friendUness on their
part ; apologetics Is Christian doctrine in a form adapted to heathen thinkers, and
presumes hostility on their part ; and polemics adapts the doctrine to the state of
heretical Christian thinkers, proceeding on the supposition of dissatisfaction on their
part." These different functions frequently run into each other, however. What
dogmatics, for instance, does not afford evidence of such dissatisfaction in this age,
which is dissatisfied in so many regards 1
» Zyro, in Stud, u Krit., 1887, S.

428 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY.
dom of God. But after the theologian has arrived at dogmatics
he can no longer dispense with apologetics as a science which deals
with the principles of the former.
No absolute reply can be given to the question whether a sepa-
Apoiogetics in T^'te chair should be devoted to its service, or whether
the schools. it should be taught in connexion with dogmatics. De
partments should not be multiplied unnecessarily, and experience
has probably demonstrated that, while, in the field of authorship,
special apologetical works are much to be desired, since they call
forth a thorough discussion of the vital question upon whose solu
tion the whole of dogmatics depends, the Apologetica in schools
come to occupy a somewhat isolated position when not connected
with some other department.' In former days apologetics was con
nected with introduction to the books of the Bible, because the dem
onstration of the genuineness of such writings, and the discussion
of revelation and inspiration, were held to constitute the substance
of its task. But it has been correctly shown, in more recent times,
that it is not the particular features, but rather the Christian relig-
Entire Chris- ion, in the whole of its manifestations, that must consti-
]ect''of'apo°oI *"*'® *^® object upon which the line of apologetical
getics. proof is directed." The latter -will proceed upon a two
fold basis and become a " demonstration of the Spirit and of power "
(I Cor. ii, 4). This was formerly restricted to the ground of merely
prophecy and miracles. But we would prefer to say that the
demonstration of the Spirit lies in the inward justifying of Chris
tianity to the Spirit, in that it demonstrates itself as religion, while'
the demonstration of the power consists in its being apprehended
as a definite historical fact, as an effective actualization of religion,
as that religion which is endorsed by the world's historical expe
rience. The task of apologetics may, accordingly, be, with Lechler,' con-
The task of sidered as a twofold one, viz.: (I) To show that Chris-
apoiogetios. tianity is a religion, and (2) That it is the true religion,
or unmodified religion.* It thus connects itself on the one hand
' Noesselt already decided against the separate treatment of apologetics, arid also
Tholuck, Verm. Schriften, part i, p. 376, and Literar. Anzeiger, 1831. But compare
Nitzsch Protest. Beantwortung von Strauss' Philo. Dogmatik, in Stud. u. Krit., 1842,
No. 3. Are not lectures on apologetics generally delivered as an introduction to dog
matics at the present time ?
' Lechler, ubi supra.
' Ibid., p. 606.
* " The Christian religion forms the subject, and absolute religion the predicate ;
while apologetics itself forms the copula ; for it is simply the scientific process through
which Christianity is shown to be the absolute religion." — Ibid., p. 608.

APOLOGETICS AND ITS RELATION TO DOGMATICS. 429
with the philosophy of religion, and on the other with the results
obtained by exegesis and Church history. It forms this connexion
with the former because its office is to determine the nature of re
ligion in general, while apologetics applies this general notion of
religion to Christianity, and shows its concrete realization in this
form; with the latter, because the entire development of the divine
wisdom in revelation, and, first of all, the manifestation of Christ
and the existence of the Church, form the basis upon which their
evidences rest. In other words, the demonstration of the absolute
purpose of Christianity to become the religion for all peoples and
times, the religion for the individual and the race, is in scientific
form precisely what the popular definition seeks to express when it
declares it to be the task of apologetics to prove the truth and di
vine character of Christianity.
This has too often been understood to mean that the divine ele
ment is m_erely another predicate superadded to the Divinity and
truth, and its existence has, from the standpoint of the voiveThfeach
older supernaturalism, been looked for exclusively in other.
the extraordinary features of revelation, its inspiration, prophecies,
and miracles;' whereas the divinity is already involved in the
truth, and the truth in the divinity. This is not intended to signify
that the divine element in Christianity consists simply in its gener
ally acknowledged moral truths and its abstract correspondence
with the laws of reason, though even this is something, and affords
a field of apologetic effort even to the rationalist; but that the truth
of Christianity is of a peculiar kind, having been born with Chris
tianity, and therefore revealed; for what "eye hath not seen nor
ear heard, and what hath not entered into the heart of man . . .
God hath prepared for them that love him, and hath revealed it
unto us by his Spirit" (I Cor. ii, 9, 10). But this specifically pecul
iar divine truth is certainly required to establish and approve itself
to the inner consciousness as involving the human element also,
that is, as a truth for man." For this reason it must first render
the negative proof that it contains nothing which conflicts with the
' The erection of such entrenchments, without any direct connexion with the con-
tents of the Gospel, caused that " hateful ditch " concerning which Lessing declared
that he could not pass over it. Comp. Hirzel, p. 22 sgg. The divine nature of
Christianity does not appear in the absence of natural factors in the development of
human affairs. If this were so Christ and Christianity would, of course, be fables, and
not the subject of history. It manifests itself through the renewing might of the
Spirit in the living consciousness pf believers." — Bunsen, Hippolytus i (Pref.).
' " Were the eye unlike the sun
How could it bear His light?" — Goethe.

430 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY.
nature and the mission of man, and hence that contradicts the abso
lute reason, but that its definiteness constitutes at the same time a
reasonable character." SECTION IV.
THE HISTOEY OF APOLOGETICS.
The necessity of defending Christianity in general — the faith and
morals of Christendom — against attack, was apparent at an early
day. The earliest form of apologetics was the juridical, in the
character of a defence against unjust charges before the tribunals
of heathen authority. This form of necessary resistance was soon
joined with theological apologetics in the stricter sense, so that the
defensive element soon became the offensive, and apologetics took
The field of ^^ * polemical character. The earliest Christian apolo-
eariiest apolo- gists represented heathenism in its emptiness, Judaism
ge ics. -jj ^^g insufficiency, and Christianity in its greatness and
unique character. The first apologies, by Aristides and Quadratus,
and also those by Melito of Sardis, Miltiades, and Claudius A].)olli-
naris, are either lost or exist only in the fragments we find in Euse
bius. The oldest in our possession are the two apologies by Justin
Martyr, about the middle of the second century, and those of Tatian,
Athenagoras, Theophilus of Antioch, and Hermas. The Alexan-
ciement and drian divines, Clement and Origen, defended Christian-
origen. ity — the former against the. Greeks generally in his Ad
monitory Treatise, and the latter against the attacks of Celsus, in
which undertaking they, like their predecessors, made ample use of
Grecian philosophy. In the African Church, Tertullian became the
attorney of Christianity through the publication of his writings —
The Apologist, Against the Gentiles, and Against the Jews. He
' The term " apologetical " may, however, " be applied in instances where it is being
demonstrated that the decisive feature cannot be properly introduced into the demon
stration at this point. It follows that an apologetical significance is to be ascribed
to the little work by Lavater entitled "Nathanael, or the Certain but Unprovable
Divinity of Christianity." Hirzel says: "Apologetics can only remove hinderances
from the way of the thinking reason, in part, and in part bring an already existent
belief into harmony or into a clearly apprehended relation with the entire sum of
knowledge and of life." " No syllogistic method of proving the truth of Christianity
is incontrovertible. But no human ingenuity has as yet succeeded in putting to
shame the demonstration of the Spirit and of power." — Schenkel, Der ethische Char
akter des Christenthums, in Prot. Monatsbl., 1867, p. 116. Melanchthon, too, remarks
concerning the truths of Christianity : " Geometrica pingi et oculis subjici possunt ;
haec vero, de quibus hic dicimus, non ita pingi et oculis subjici possunt, sed attenta
consideratione paulatim magis intelligentur." — Loci Communes (in Bretschneider,
Corpus Reform, xxi, p. 646).

THE HISTORY OF APOLOGETICS. 431
was subsequently joined by Minucius Felix, Cyprian, Arnobius
(about A. D. 303), and Lactantius (died about 325).
The fathers of the second period, though directing their efforts
more especially upon internal affairs, likewise continued the work
of apologetics; for example, Athanasius, iu his Treatise against the
Greeks, Cyril of Alexandria (died 444), who wrote the books
against Julian, and still other writers.
After ancient heathenism had been overcome it was necessary to
defend Christianity against the continued attacks of the Jews, and,
after the appearance of Mohammed, against the followers of Islam.
A number of apologetical works of this character originated during
the Middle Ages. We may mention those by Agobard, of Lyons,
in his Insolence of the Jews, 822; by Abelard, in his Dialogue be
tween the Philosopher, the Jew, and the Christian; and by Thomas
Aquinas, in his Truth of the Catholic Faith against the Gentiles.
A kind of uncertainty respecting the foundations of Christianity
began, moreover, to manifest itself within the pale of conflict be-
the Church itself. Philosophy and Christianity came p^y^°„fchri^
into conflict, and in this way the apologetic writers tianity.
came to regard internal conditions, especially after the restoration
of the sciences in the fifteenth century. The truths of Christianity
were protected against philosophical scepticism by Marsilius Ficinus
in his Christian Religion and Piety of Faith (Opp. Par., I64I, torn, i,
pp. 1-73), and against the intellectual scepticism by Savonarola in
his Triumph of the Cross.
The period of the Reformation was more particularly engaged in
prosecuting the conflicts that arose within the Church; but the
claims of apologetics soon afterward came again into notice. In
1627 Grotius composed the work, Truth of the Christian Religion,"
primarily for mariners who came into contact with non-Christian
peoples, in order to furnish them with a cable that should save them
from Mohammedanism and heathenism. But the work was suited to
the learned class rather than the unlearned) and has long Grotius and
maintained its reputation among them. The Arminian Limborch.
Limborch subsequently walked in the path of Grotius, in his Truth
of the Christian Religion. He had for his object the defeat of the
Spanish Jew, Orobio, and the Portuguese deistical Jew, Acosta. The
rise of freethinkers of England furnished the impulse for apologet
ical authorship in that country, where it was even promoted by the
institution of prizes. Mention must be made of Locke (I695-I733),
Samuel Clarke (1704), Lardner, in his Credibility of the Gospel
History (1764-67, iv), Addison, in his Evidences of the Christian
' Frequently edited. A good edition ijs Le Clerc and Madan's, Lond., 1814.

432 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY.
Religion, Stackhouse, in his Worth of the Christian Religion, and
Butler, in his Analogy of Natural and Revealed Religion.
In the Roman Catholic Church of France, Pascal, in his Thoughts
(1668), and Astie (1857), and Havet, have defended Christianity
against the objections raised by sceptical thinkers. The same work
was performed in the Reformed Church by Abbadie (died in Ire
land, 1727), Jaequelot (died 1725), and G. A. Turretin (died 1687),
in his Treatise on the Truth of the Christian Religion.
The German apologists of the last century largely followed the
German apolo- English at the first; but the Wolfenbiittel Fragments,
sies- since 1777, were chiefly influential in calling forth apol
ogetical works. A measure of uncertainty was soon apparent, how
ever, in the fact that people -were not agreed with reference to the
condition of the defence itself. What should have been maintained
was often given up, and other matters were insisted on which
might have been conceded, or which, at least, in the form in which
they had been held, were untenable.' The apologists were divided
into two camps^that of the strictly orthodox, and that of the lati-
tudinarians. The prominent names at this point are Lilienthal,
The Good Cause of Revelation (Konigsb., 1750-78, in 16 vols.),
Euler," Haller, A. F. W. Sack, Jerusalem, Noesselt, Less, Spalding,
and Klenker. Chateaubriand defended the genius of Christianity
and proved its greatness by the history of its martyrs (The Genius
of Christianity; or, the Beauty of the Christian Religion, Par., 1802),
from the position occupied by modern culture in France, and from
that of sesthetical Roman Catholicism as well. The progress of
development in theology in Germany gave rise to the conflict be
tween Rationalism and Supernaturalism, by which means apolo
getics was transformed into polemics. The question concerning
principles generally was at stake. Most of the works mentioned
above were called into being by practical and temporary conditions
rather than by scienijific considerations. This is true in recent
times also of Stirm; but the attempt to establish apologetics upon
a strictly scientific basis was now made by Karl Sack, at Bonn, who
was inspired thereto by Schleiermacher. The same effort was made
' Lessing says, with reference to the apologetical literature of his day, " It often
appeared to me as if the gentlemen had exchanged their weapons, like those which
are presented in the fable of Death and Love. The more forcibly one attempted to
prove Christianity to me the more did I become inclined to doubt. The more reck
lessly and triumphantly another sought to tread it under foot the more assuredly was
I conscious of maintaining it, at least in my heart." See C. Schwarz, Lessing als
Theoiog, Halle, 1854, p. 35.
" Comp. Hagenbach, Leonhard Euler, als Apologet des Christenthums, Basle, 1851, 4.

HISTORY OP APOLOGETICS. 433
in the Roman Catholic Church by Drey (comp. Pelt, p. 398 sq.).
Apologetics thus came to be clearly distinguished from
apology; but it has not yet succeeded in attaining to an yet a separate
assured position as a separate science. Nothing has ^<''®°<"*-
been gained by assigning to it a place under Practical Theology, as
has been done in recent times, for theology can only be practically
applied after its foundations have been theoretically established.
In the English-speaking world the ground on which the defense
of Christianity is made has been during the present century greatly
broadened. The evidence writers of the eighteenth century rested
their case almost exclusively on the testimony of miracles and
prophecy. Since their time the internal evidences have received
fuller recognition ; more stress has been laid upon the capability of
Christianity to witness of itself in the human soul. The evangelical
revival, which has called attention to the fact that Christianity is
above all else a life, has aided in the development of this line of
argument. In addition to the emphasis laid upon the self-witness
ing power of Christianity, the character of Christ, as a testimony
to the truth of his religion, has received the attention which it
deserves. Doctor Bushnell's " The Character of Christ " forbids his
possible classification with men. Alexander's "Christ and Chris
tianity," anil the many lives of Jesus, which are a feature of the
theological literature of our time, have here done good service.
Along witli them has gone the vindication of the gospels as history,
against the assaults of Strauss and Baur and their followers. The
triumphant defense of the Gospel of John, through the unexpected
discovery of long-lost ancient documents, is one of the events of
our age. This broadening of apologetics is well represented in the
summary of Coleridge, himself a leader in the change which differ
ences the Apology of the nineteenth from that of the eighteenth cen
tury : " (I) Its consistency with right reason I consider as the outer
court of the Temple, the common area within which it stands. (2)
The miracles, with and through which the religion was first revealed
and attested, I regard as the steps, the vestibule, and the portal of
the Temple. (3) The sense, the inward feeling in the soul of each
believer of its exceeding desirableness — the experience that he needs
something, joined with the strong foretokening that the redemption
and the graces propounded to us in Christ are what he needs — this
I iiold to be the true foundation of the spiritual edifice. But (4) it
is the experience derived from a practical conformity to the con
ditions of tbe Gospel — it is the opening ej'e; the dawning light;
the terrors and the promises of spiritual, growth; the blessedness
of loving God as God, the nascent sense of sin hated as sin, and
28 '

434 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY.
of the incapability of attaining to either without Christ; it is the
sorrow that still rises up from beneath, and the consolation that
meets it from above ; the bosom treacheries of the principal in the
warfare, and the exceeding faithfulness and longsuffering of tlie
disinterested ally ; in a word, it is the actual trial of Faith in
Christ, with its accompaniments and results, that must form the
arched roof, and Faith itself must be the completing keystone." '
ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITKRATURE OF APOLOGETICS.
Addison, Joseph. On the Evidences of the Christian Religion. London, 1730,
et passim.
Aids to Faith. A Series of Theological Essays by Several Writers. Svo, pp. 4G9.
Londou, 1861.
AUen, Alex. Y. G. 'The Continuity of Christian Thought. The Bohlen Lectures for
1883. 12mo, pp. xviii, 438. Boston, 1884
Bampton Lectures. 114 vols. London, 1 780-1893.
Barne.s, Albert. Lectures on the Evidences of Cliristianity iu the Nineteenth Cen
tury. The Ely Lectures for 1861. ]2mo, pp. 451. New York, 1868.
Bremen Lectures (The). Ou Fundamental, Living Religious Questions, by various
Eminent European Divines. Translated by Rev. D. Heagle. 12mo, pp. 308.
Boston, 1871.
Bruce, Alexander Balmain, The Chief End of Revelation. ]2mo, pp. 278. New
York, 1885. (Emphasizes the witness of a spiritualized consciousness to the
Cliristian scheme.)
Bruce, Alexander Balinain. Apologetics ; or, Christianity Defensively Stated. Svo.
New York, 1893.
Bushnell, Horace. Nature and the Supernatural as together Constituting the One
System of God. 12mo, pp. xii, 628. Now York, 1867. (Chapter X is the
strongest chapter of the book.)
Chambers, T. W. The Psalter : A Witness to the Divine Origin of the Bible. Yedder
Lectures for 1876. ]2mo, pp. 200. New York, 1876.
Christianity and Agnosticism : A Controversy Consisting of Papers by Henry Wace,
Thomas H. Huxley, Bishop Magee, W. H. Mallock, and Mrs. Humphrey Ward.
12mo, pp. 329. New York, 1889. (These papers have excited much interest in
England.)
Christlieb, Theodore. Modern Doubt and Christian Belief: a Series of Apologetic
Lectures Addressed to Earnest Seekers after Truth. From the German. Svo,
pp. XX, 549. New York, 1874. (This excellent work deals with recent un
belief. The student wUl find in it an outline of the causes of skeptical thought
in this century and its outcome.-)
Cocker, B. F. Lectures ou the Truth of tho Christian Religion. Svo, pp. 265.
Detroit, 1873.
Cook, Joseph. Boston Monday Lectures. With Preludes on Current Events. 12mo,
9 vols. Boston, 1877-81.
Dodge, Ebenezer. The Evidences of Christianity. With an Introduction on the Ex
istence of God and the Immortality ofthe Soul. 12mo, pp. xiv, 244. Boston, 1869.
Ebrard, J. H. A. Apologetics ; or. The Scientific Vindication ot Christianity. Trans-
' Biographia Literaria, chap. xxlv.

LITERATURE OP APOLOGETICS. 435
lated by WiUiam Stuart and John Macplierson. Svo, 3 vols., pp. xix, 407; vlll,
423 ; vii, 406. Edinburgh, 1887. (Part I treats of the external contents of
Christianity; Part II, of Christianity as an historical fact, in its organic con
nexion with the general history of religion. Under Part II Ebrard undertakes
to give some account of all the known religions of the world.)
Edersheim, Alfred. Prophecy and History in Relation to the Messiah. The War-
burton Lectures for 1880-1884, with Two Appendices on the Arrangement,
Analysis, and Recent Criticism of tlie Pentateuch. Svo, pp. 400. New York,
1884.
Erskine, Thomas. Remarks on the Internal Evidence for the Truth of Revealed Re
ligion. Third American from the fifth Edinburgh edition. 16mo. Andover.
(A work originally published early in this century and much read.)
Everest, Harvey W. The Divine Demonstration : a Text-book of Christian Evidence.
12mo, pp. 401. St. Louis, 1884.
Fisher, George P. Essays on the Supernatural Origin of Christianity, with Special
Reference to the Theories of Renan, Strauss, and the Tiibingen School. Svo, pp.
620. New York, 1870. (Dr. Fisher's treatment' of his subject is comprehen
sive. Some of the topics discussed are. The Genuineness of the Fourth Gospel,
Baur on Parties In the Apostolic Church, Baur and Strauss on the Conversion
of Paul, The Nature and Function ofthe Christian Miracles, etc.)
Fbster, Randolph S. Studies in Theology — Evidences of Christianity. Svo, pp.
xiv, 430. New York, 1889. (The successive chapters discuss the Arguments
from Prophecy, Miracles, Internal Evidence, Character of the Writers, Success
ful Propagation ofChristianity, its Adaptation to Human Nature a' id from Ex
perience. An appendix of one hundred pa^es contains valuable passages from
other Apologetic writers.)
Godet, F. Lectures in Defence of the Christian Faith. Translated by W. H. Lj-t-
tleton. 12mo, pp. 320. New York, 1881.
Grant, James. The Religious Tendencies of the Times. 16mo, 2 vols. London, 1869.
Greenleaf, Simon. The Testimony of the Evangelists Examined by the Rules of
Evidence Administered In Courts of Justice. Svo, pp. 613. New York, 1876.
(Contains an appendix on the history of tho MSS. of the New Testament by C.
TIschendorff ; also, A Review of the Trial of Jesus.)
Gregory, 0. G. Evidences, Doctrines, and Duties of the Christian Religion. Svo.
London, 1866.
Hetherington, W. M. The Apologetics of the Christian Faith. Svo, pp. 5S1. New
York, 1867.
Lardner, Nathaniel. The Credibility of the Gospel History; or. The Facts Occa
sionally Mentioned in the New Testament Confirmed by Passages of Ancient
Authors who were Contemporary with Our Saviour or His Apostles or Lived
Near Their Time. London, Parti, 1727, 2 vols., Svo; Part II, 1733-1755, 12
vols., Svo. Also Svo, 10 vols. London, 1838. (This great work, from which
other writers have drawn supplies, is considered to be one of the masterpieces
of Apologetics. Thomas Hartwell Home, the author of the "Introduction,"
acknowledges his many obligations to Dr. Lardner.)
Leathes, Stanley. Characteristics of Christianity. Pp. c, 197. London, 1884. (The
six lectures treat of the characteristics of Christianity as follows : The long prep
aration for it, the historical forces producing It (meaning chiefly the conversion
and labors of the apostle Paul), Christianity a book religion, identified with a
Person, preserved by a Spirit, the hope and refuge of mankind.)
Leathes, S. The Grounds of Christian Hope. Svo. Loudon, 1877.

436 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
Leland, John. The Divine Authority of the Old and New Testaments Asserted.
Svo. London, 1837.
Liddon, Henry P. Some Elements of Religion. Second edition. 12mo, pp. xxiv,
243. London, 1873.
Luthardt, C. E. Apologetic Lectures. Svo, 3 vols. Edinburgh, 1865-73.
Malr, Alexander. Studies in the Christian Evidences. Svo. Edinburgh, New York,
1SS3. (The author finds no possible conflict between science and religion.)
McCosh, James. The Supernatural in Relation to the Natural. 12mo, pp. xii, 369.
New York, 1862.
Mcllvaine, Charles P. The Evidences of Christianity in the External or Historical
Division: Exhibited in a Course of Lecture-. Ninth edition. 12mo, pp. 526.
New York. (The authenticity of the Gospel history and the truth of miracles
and prophecy are fully discussed.)
Morrison, Charles R. The Proofs of Christ's Resurrection, from a Lawyer's Stand
point. Svo, pp. 155. Andover, 1882.
XavlUe, Ernest. Modern Atheism ; or, The Heavenly Father. Translated by Rev.
Henry- Downton. Second edition. 12rao. London, 1884. First edition, 12rao.
pp. ix, 375. Boston, 1867.
Paley, WiUiam. A View of the Evidences of Christianity. 16mo, pp. xiii, 262.
Philadelphia, and very many editions. (This book has been since Its publication
extensively used, both in Great Britain and America, as a text-book on the
Christian evidences. The material is drawn largely from Lardner, but is pre
sented in a most perspicuous and winning style.)
Pascal, Blaise, Thoughts of. Preceded by a Sketch of His Life, 12mo, pp. vl, 384.
Boston, 1849. (Part II of this book contains his Apology for the Christian Relig
ion, given in detached thoughts, indeed, but wonderfully suggestive.)
Paterson, H. Sinclair. The Fourfold Life: Its Antecedents and Consequences,
London, 1885. (A vindication of the historical truth of the four evangelists
against the objections of modern unbelief.)
Pierson, A T. Many InfaUible Proofs: Chapters on the Evidences of Christianity ;
or the Written and Living Word of God. 12mo. Chicago and New York, 1886.
Pitts Street Chapel Lectures (The). Delivered in Boston in 1858 by Clergymen of
Six Different Denominations. Svo, pp. 366. Boston, 1858.
Bedford, R. A. The Christian's Plea Against Modern Unbelief: a Handbook of
Christian Evidence. 12mo. London, 1881. (A concise survey of both sides of
the controversy.)
Replies to " Essays and Reviews," by Goulburn. Rose, Heurtley, Irons, Morrison, Had-
dan, Wordsworth. 12mo, pp. 438. New York, 1862.
Robbins, Sanderson. A Defence of the Faith. Svo, pp. 222. London, 1862.
Rogers, Henry. The Eclipse of Faith; or, A Visit to a ReUgious Skeptic. 12mo, pp.
ix, 452.
Rogers, Henry. Reason and Faith, and Other Essays. Svo, pp. 458. Boston, 1853.
(The essay on Reason and Faith, their claims and conflicts, occupies the space
from page 339 to page 458. It is well written.)
Rogers, Henry. A Defence of the Eclipse of Faith, by its Author. Being a Rejoin
der to Professor Newman's Reply. Also " The Reply to the Eclipse of Faith,''
by Francis WilUam Newman, together with his Chapter on the Moral Perfection
of Jesus. 12mo, pp. vl, 208. Boston, 1854. (The attack by Francis WiUiam
Newman on the Moral Perfection of Jesus gave great offence at the time of its
appearance ; the reply of Mr. Rogers is very vigorous.)
Rogers, Henry. The Superhuman Origin of the Bible, Inferred from Itself. Svo,

LITERATURE OF APOLOGETICS. 437
pp. X, 465. New York, 1874. (This volume consists of a series of Lectures. The
eighth, on " The Exceptional Position of tho Bible In the World," is especially
valuable.)
Row, C. A. Christian Evidences Viewed In Relation to Modern Thought. The
Bampton Lectures for 1877_. Svo, pp. xvi, 480. London, 1877.
Schaff, Philip, and Roussel, Napoleon. Romance of M. Renan and the Christ of
the Gospels. ISmo, pp. 239. New York, 1868.
Smith, Henry B. Apologetics: A Cuurse of Lectures. Edited by William S. Karr,
D.D. With Two Appendices by Professor Smith, entitled. Sketch of the His
tory of Apologetics, and Recent German Works ou Apologetics. 16mo, pp. 194.
New York, 1882. (Mainly an outline.)
Smith, Henry B. Introduction to Christian Tlieolog_y. Lectures on Apologetics.
Edited by William S. Karr, D.D. Two volumes in one. 12mo. New York, 1885.
Storrs, Richard S. The DIviue Origin of Christianity Indicated by its Historical
Effects. Svo, pp. 674. New York, 1885.
The Failh of Catholics ; Confirmed by Scripture and Attested by the Fathers of the
First Five Centuries of the Church. Wilh an Introduction by the Right Reverend
Monsignor Capel, D.D. Svo, Svols., pp. 468, 505, 491. New York and Cincin
nati, 1885. (An apology for the doctrinal .system of the Catholic Church.)
Thomson, Edward. Evidences of Revealed Religion. 12mo, pp. 327. Cincinnati,
1872.
Townsend, L. T. Credo. ]2mo, pp. 444. Bcston, 1869.
Wi^ce, Henry. Student's Manual of the Evidences of Christianity. Svo. London,
1892.
Watson, Fred. The Ante-Nlceue Apologies: their Character and Value. 12mo, pp.
205. Cambridge, 1870.
Watson, R. An Apology for the Bible. ISmo. Pawi'm, ei New York, 1837.
Whately, R. Lectures on Chrlstiiin Evidences. Edited by T. Arden. 12mo.
London, 1868.
Wright, G. Frederick. The Logic of Christian Evidences. 1 6mo, pp. 328. Andover,
1884.
Wright, G. Frederick. The Divine Authority of tho Bible. 12mo, pp. 241., Boston,
1884. SECTION V.
POLEMICS AND lEENICS.
Comp. Schleiermacher, §§ 52-6? ; Pelt in Herzog's Encyklopaedia, vll, p. 60, and xl, p. 791 ;
M'Clintock and Strong's Cyclopaedia, articles Irenics aud Polemical Theology, vols. Iv and vlli.
While dogmatics is governed by apologetical motives on the one
hand, its entire substance is pervaded by polemical considerations
on the other. That is to say, it has continually to recognise confes
sional contrasts, a'^ historically revealed by symbolics, and to bring
into view what is peculiar in the confession which it professes to
support. It thus receives the confessional stamp, without which it
would cease to be the dogmatics of a particular Church. It has,
moreover, to reprove what is erroneous and morbid in the Church
itself, and to present the unimpaired rule of doctrine in opposition
to dogmatical perversions. This polemical feature does not, how-

438 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY.
ever, exclude the irenical, whose aim it is to discover the measure
Polemics and of truth in the keeping of opposing parties, and to point
u'enicsnotsep- ^^^ ^^^ conditions upon which a gradual understanding,
ments. and ultimately a true and lasting reconciliation, of ex
isting contrasts, may be brought about. Neither polemics or irenics
is therefore to be regarded as a separate branch of theological study,
but simply as a special side of the department of dogmatics.
The older divines already distinguished between the acroamatic
and elenchical theology. But symbolics had not yet received its
present scientific form. If we assume that the distinctive doctrines
have already been discussed in symbolics in so far as they are avail
able as historical material, there will be nothing more for the dog
matic theologian to do than simply to move about on this historical
ground with freedom and security, and to know how to strike chiv
alrous blows for his Church. But if it is not possible that he should
be allowed to escape such service, it is not easy to understand why
polemics should become a distinct branch.' Each depends for its
life upon the other; polemics becoming empty disputation when it
has no dogmatic basis, and simple dogmatics without polemical salt
being an insipid hash. Dogmatics derives its confessional charac
ter, as Roman Catholic, Lutheran, Reformed, and other types, from
the polemical tendency it manifests, just as it is shown to be Christ
ian dogmatics by the apologetic exposition with which it is intro
duced. A dogmatics that is Christian without any qualifying fea
ture, to be satisfactory to both Roman Catholics and Protestants in
a scientific point of view, is, in the present condition of affairs,
wholly inconceivable. ° If the attention w^ere even confined alto
gether to biblical dogmatics, the latter would assume a very differ
ent form under Roman Catholic from that under Protestant treat-
 .. ... ment. But, as has been shown in a former section,
Dogmatics both ... . .
biblical and ec- dogmatics is not simply a statement of Bible doctrine,
ciesiast cal. ^^x, jt assumes both that and ecclesiastical doctrines.
The features added by the dogmatic theologian can only amount
to a closer specification of the relation sustained by himself, or rather
by his age — in so far as he has apprehended the latter and received
' " Peaceable minds are also, against their wUl, swept into the stream of polemics,
and faithful adherence to denominational belief excites the feeling of resistance to the
uninterrupted assaults upon his views in proportion to its strength." — Schenkel, Ges
prache, etc., i, Vonede iv.
" Comp. Schleiermacher, § 197, note. The task of dogmatics is, nevertheless, not
cut short thereby, as Biedermann asserts (Dogmatik, p. 9) — the task, namely, passing
beyond the acknowledged existence of diverse views, " of following the confessional
branchwork down to its root, the real principle of Christianity, and of basing its judg
ments of confessional differences upon that foundation."

POLEMICS AND IRENICS. 439
it into himself — to the Bible and the Church, and thus open the way
in which the doctrine is to move in the progress of its further
development. But how can this be accomplished in the absence of
confessional determinateness? Since, however, the ultimate goal of
our efforts cannot be division, but unification, the dogmatic theo
logian will not be authorized to cling to the letter of the doctrines
of his Church, as hitherto received, with a tenacity that makes all
approximation toward other confessional views impossible. To
defend to the death what is untenable .and merely peculiar to the
stage of development attained by any particular age, influenced
simply by obstinacy and party interest, is bad polemics.
Every judicious dogmatist must be intent upon eventually com
promising and harmonizing such contrasts as may exist.' ^^^ judicious
But such harmonizing is not to be accomplished by an dogmatist a
ovei'hasty obliteration of differences, or by forcibly
breaking off their points and grinding their edges, so as to reduce
every thing to indefiniteness and imbecility. This is false irenics.
It is necessary, on the contrary, that the contrasts be sharply appre
hended and followed down to their last details. This honest mode
of procedure is less liable than any other to the danger of misrepre
senting the views of opponents. For the more earnest the effort
to understand the peculiarities of even an antagonfstic doctrine, the
more will such doctrine display characteristics which afford a ground
upon which reconciliation is possible. The understanding of a dis
ease is the only guide to a right selection of remedies for its cure,
while palliatives can only harm. This has been shown by the his
tory of the latest times in the case of two of the leading confes
sions of Protestantism — the Evangelical Union of the Lutheran and
Reformed Confessions of Prussia, introduced by King Frederick
WiUiam III., in 1817. An external union has certainly ^^^j^g^n^m
been established, but it could not be made effective in union of Pms-
all quarters, because the internal differences had not
yet been wholly overcome; the result being that they were only
made more prominent. The conflict, however, if it only be con
ducted in the interests of truth, and without the intervention of
blind passion, may, and will, result in demonstrating that the
several evangelical modes under which Protestantism comes into
' It is most of all necessary that a false consequential spirit be avoided, as it consti
tutes a mortal principle to the sciences. A French writer has some capital remarks upon
this point ; Man is not a system which is divisible like a thread. He is not a mechan
ical force which prolongs itself infinitely. Fanaticism in all things is the reduction
of Intelligence by passion under the yoke of an exclusive idea. — Remusat, De la Re
form et du Protestantism, p. 62 f.

440 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY.
notice are equally justified in the forum of science and before the
pious consciousness, and that each serves to complement the other,
though neither may be absorbed into the other.'
The reconciliation of Roman Catholicism and Protestantism ap
pears in a more difficult light up to this time, and the work of the
dogmatic theol'gian will, for the present, be obliged to retain a
polemical character in this field rather than assume an irenical na
ture. The agreement has been carried so far, however, as to admit
of the recognition that the differences between Roman Catholicism
and Protestantism, which have, upon the whole, remained unchanged,
Modiflcation of are to be very differently defined by science from what
uc andpmet '"'^.s the case at the beginning of the struggle. The re-
tant polemics, lation between Scripture and tradition, for instance, is
presented by the later theology of Protestantism in a form mate
rially modified from that of former days. The same is true of justi
fication and sanctification. The doctrine of the Church, also, is now,
for the first time, approaching its thorough development and elab
oration. In the Roman Catholic Church, on the other hand, the
contrast between the Romish and the more independent principle is
steadily becoming more prominent. In proportion as the purely
evangelical element shall attain to clearness, and be distinguished
from vague liberalism through the efforts of the nobler spirits in
that Church, will agreement, if not unification, upon the common
ground of Christianity become possible."
The idea of polemics is not exhausted, however, when justice has
been done to confessional interest. For, while every thing that
savours of conflict is termed polemics, it is also true that every
science has its polemical side. Apologetics is polemical in one
point of view,^ and polemics, in the strict sense, involves an apolo
getical element. We see illustrations of this in Melanchthon's Apol
ogy and similar writings.* Schleiermacher distinguishes between
apologetics and polemics, so as to conceive the former as facing
outwardly and the latter as turning its attention within, and then
' " Many Lutherans have long since become Calvinlsts, and many Calvinlsts Luther
ans ; it only remains necessary thnt the right methods of promoting and expressing
this already existing unity be discovered." — Henry at the "Kirchentag" at Berlin
(Verhandlungen, p. 34).
'^ An attempt of this kind, as is well known, was recently made by Doellinger, the
best representative of Old Catholicism.
' " It is self-evident that no defence that should be simply defensive and not also
offensive, and that should not especially lay positive foundations, is possible on scien
tific gi'ounds." — Lechler, ubi supra, p. 597. Comp. Hirzel, «6i supra, p. 13.
'' Schleiermacher, § 52. Each one of the parties is obliged to defend itself against
the charge of anarchy or corruption.

POLEMICS AND IRENICS. 441
proceeds to regard polemics more generally as having to do with
the repressing of morbid appearances in the Church at schieiermacb-
larere, as we call indiffierentism and separation.' But er's definition
p ., , 11-, 1 of relations of
it IS. hardly necessary to establish a separate depart- apologetics
ment for either this work or the restraining or partial and ^"'^ polemics.
perverted tendencies in the science generally. Such morbid tend
encies '' are either to be dealt with theoretically, by dogmatics and
ethics, or combated in a practical way, in the field of clerical work
and that of general Church activities. But, in the latter case, the
canon by which the contest must be regulated, the dXrj^eveiv kv
dydtrri (Eph. iv, 15), is likewise ethical. Both polemics and irenics
have, for this reason, a place under practical theology. In con
nexion with dogmatics it is better to regard them in the light of
" applied dogmatics.'" SECTION VI.
THE niSTOET OF POLEMICS AND lEENICS.
Christianity was born for confiict. Christ said that he came not
to bring peace, but a sword. Christian polemics, accordingly, be
gan with the beginning. Paul and John opposed false teachers.
The fathers trod in their footsteps — Irenseus, with his work against
a false Gnosis, and Tertullian, with his work on Prescription against
Heretics, being especially prominent as fighters of heresy. The
entire body of Church doctrine passed through the patristio po-
surges of conflict. Irenics sometimes went hand in 'einics.
hand with polemics; but such ill-timed attempts to promote unity
served only to increase the intensity and confusion of the struggle.
The separation of the Western Church from that of the East, pro
fessedly on account of the filioque controversy, introduced a long
polemical contest between the two bodies, and also, since the begin
ning of the eleventh century, many attempts to bring about a
reunion. Strict polemics begins with the division between the
' Sack has carried these categories still further ; Indiflferentism (divided into Natur
alism and Mythologism) ; Literalism (into Ergism and Orthodoxy) ; Spiritualism (into
Rationalism and Gnosticism) ; Separatism (into Mysticism and Pietism) ; and Theoc-
ratism (into Hierarchism and CEesaro-Papism). H. Steffensen (in Theol. Mitarbeiten,
Kiel, 1841, pp. 3-32) leads back these morbid forms to two fundamental states, ac
cording as they obscure " the piety of the Church (the substantial life of the Church)
or pious ecclesiasticism (the formal life of the Church ").
2 The attention is, of course, not to be fixed siinply upon the appearances, but, as
Sack says, they are to be " traced back to the inward dispositions from which doc
trinal differences are developed, as from their root."
' This is done by J. P. Lange in connexion with Dogmatic Statistics and General
Therapeutics.

443 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY.
Churches in the Reformation, and the number of the controversial
works called forth by circumstances during that period is legion.
But similar works continued to issue from both camps in the
Church in later times. In the liomish Church the Spanish Fran
ciscan Alphouso de Castro (died 1558 at Brussels) wrote, in the
reign of Philip II. , Against all Heresies (libri xiv, Paris, 1534); the
Jesuit Francis Coster issued a Controversial Manual (1685); and
Gregory de Valentia wrote on Controversial Matters of Faith in this
Time (I59I). Special prominence attaches to Bellarmine (died
1621) and his work. Disputations on the Controversies of Christian
Faith and also to Martin Becanus (died 1624, having been the con
fessor of the Emperor Ferdinand IL), the author of a Manual of
Controversies of this Period. This Church found a skilful and
somewhat peaceably disposed defender in Bossuet, the Bishop of
Meaux, who wrote an Exposition of the Doctrine of the Catholic
Church on Controverted Matters (Paris, 1671). Among Lutherans
the following deserve mention: Chemnitz, Examination of the
Council of Trent (1565); Nic. Hunnius (died 1643), Examination of
the Fundamental Dissent pf I-iitheran and Calvinistic Doctrine (Vit.,
1616) ; Conrad Schliisselburg, superintendent at Stralsund, Catalogue
of Heretics (1597-99) ; and Abr. Calov, Synopsis of Controversies.
Other dogmatical writers also mingled a large measure of polemics
with the dogmatical material in their works.
Among Reformed theologians we may mention Hospinian, Con-
Eeformed writ- cordia Discordant (Zurich, 1 607), replied to by Hutter in
ers. his Concord Concordant (Vit., I6I4); Daniel Chamier
(at Montauban), The Whole Catholic Army (1626); Joh. Hoorn-
beck. Sum of Controversies (1653); Fr. Turretin, Institutes of The
ological Summary (1681-85); and Fr. Spanheim, the elder (died
1649), and the younger (died I70I), in a number of works.
The irenical tendency occasionally progressed side by side with
the polemical, or took its place when polemical zeal had spent its
force. Thus, Nicolas de Cusa wrote, in the fifteenth century, his
Dialogue on the Peace or Concord of Faith (ed. by Semler, 1787).
The irenical tendency -was represented in the Protestant Church by
G. Calixtus, whose efforts led to the Syncretistic controversies. An
Introduction to Polemical Divinity was written, in 1752, by J. G.
Walch, of Jena.
The zeal for polemics diminished after the middle of the eight
eenth century, and particularly toward its close, and writings and
maunderings were composed about unity, generally emanating from
the position of indifferentism. The newly awakened confessional
zeal of Protestantism in the nineteenth century, however, called

THE HISTORY OF POLEMICS AND IRENICS, 448
fortli a large number of controversi.al writings in tho conflict
against Ultramontanism .and Jesuitism; but the purely scientific
interest was often subordinated by the fervour of the combatants lo
the practical questions of the hour. The scientific treatment of
polemics was even relegated to the more peaceable field of symbol
ics ; and it is quite recently that Hase has restored polemics to
honour as a science in the strict sense, and has again incorporated
it with the circle of theological studies.' The scientific status of
irenics, on the other hand, is altogether of recent date, scientiflc status
and its system is not yet developed to any considerable of irenics.
extent. It secured a foothold as a factor in the domain of practical
life, but often served only to provide new material for polemics.
Thus the union which wns consummated in Prussia and elsewhere,
in tlie course of the second decade of the century, called forth a
multitude of works and counter-works. We may mention J. Schu-
dej'off, on the General Union of the Christian Confessions (Neust.,
1829); H. Steffens, What Lutheranism is to Me (.3reslau, I83I) ;
Rudelbach, Reformation, Lutheranism, and the Union (Leipz., 1839);
K. F. Gaupp, Union of the German Church (Breslau, 1843); J. A. G.
Woltersdoi'ff, The Ecclesiastical Union (Stendal, 1851) ; and Jul.
Mueller, The Evangelical Union (Berlin, 1854). Of historical works
are the following : Nitzsch, Archives of the Evangelical Union
(Berlin, 1853); R. Stier, LTnlutheran Theses (Brunsw., 1854) ; and
Carl Schulz, The Union : An Inquiry into its History and Doctrine
(Gotha, 1868).
ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE OF POLEMICS AND IRENICS.
Barnum, S. W. Romanism As It Is : an Exposition of the Roman Catholic System.
For the Use of the American People. New edition. 8vo, pp. xviii, 753. Hart
ford, Conn., 1876.
Brown, Bishop, and Joseph Baylee. A Controversy on the Infallibility of the Church
of Rome and the Doctrine of Article VI of the Church of England. 12mo,
pp. 410. London, 1852.
Butler, William Archer. Letters on Romanism, in Reply to Dr. Newman's Essay on
Development. Ediied by Thomas Woodward. Second Editiou. Revised by
Archdeacon Hardwick. Svo. London, 1858.
Dixon, A. C. The True and the False. 12mo, pp. 173. Baltimore, 1890. (A dis
cussion of Romanism.)
Edgar, Samuel. Tho Variations of Popery. 8vo, pp. xxiv, 60G. New York, 1852.
(A strongly polemic work, but competently wriiten. The Preface is au historical
review of the controversy between Protestantism and Rome.)
Ford, David B. Studies on the Baptismal Question ; includinsf a Review of Dr.
Dale's "Inquiry Into the Usage of Baptize," 8vo, pp. 41G. Boston and New
York. (The produotlcm of a scholarly Baptist.)
' It is true, indeed, that Schleiermacher already assigned to It an honorary place among
such studies, and that Sack wrote. In A. D. 1838, a textbook of this science ; ti'at the example
produced no lasting consequences.

444 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY.
Gault, Robert. Popery the Man of Sin and the Son of Perc(ition; being a Prize
Essay of the Evangelical Alliance. 12mo, pp. xl, 449., New York, 1855.
Hare, Julius Charies. The Contest with Rome : a Charge to tlie Clergy. Svo, pp.
vl, 346. London, 1852.
Howitt, W. History of Priestcraft. New edition. ]2mo. London, 1846.
Hughey, G. W. Political Romanism; or, The Secular Policy of the Papal Chuicli.
12mo, pp. 287. Cincinnati, 1872.
Maurice, F. D. The Religiou of Rome audits Influence on Modi rn Civilization. Svo.
London, 1855.
Michelet, J. Priests, Women, and Families. Translated by G. H. Smith. Svo, pp.
iv, 66. London, 1846. (Michelet writes as a Frenchman, who longs to see his
country delivered from the domination of the priest.)
Roussell, Napoleon. Catholic and Prote.stant Naiions Compared In their Tlireefold
Relations to Wealth, Knowledge, and Morality. Svo, pp. 380. Boston, 1855.
Thompson, R. W. The Papacy and the Civil Power. 12mo, pp. 750. New York,
1876. (A thorough discussion of the subject, with abundant historical citations.)
Whately, Richard. Errors of Romanism Traced to their Origin in Human Nature.
New edition. Svo, pp. viii, 230. London, 1856. (The topics discussed are:
Superstition; Vicarious Religion; Pious Frauds; Undue Reliance on Human
Authority; Persecution; Trust In Names and Privileges.)
SECTION VIL
THE METHOD OF DOGMATICS.
The method of arranging and dividing the material of dogmatics
is, beyond all que.stion, dependent on the underlying dogmatical
view, since it is no small question which doctrine shall control the
others, or what relations the various articles of the ci'eed are to
sustain to each other, or what is their bearing upon the entire body
Theological o^ Christian truth. The traditional method, by Theolog-
Heads. jgal Topics, or Heads, has, on that account, not only been
variously modified, but has also been superseded to some extent by
other modes of division, and in part combined with them.
The question concerning the particular doctrine which is to be
placed at the base, so to speak, the irpioTov Kivoiv of dogmatics,
reaches back into apologetics. What is the essential feature of
Christianity ? what is the principal subject of its teaching ? what are
fundamental articles ? Upon these questions will depend the entire
structure of dogmatics. If it be held that the doctrine about
DoKoiatics de- Christ is less important than what he tauaht, and that
sence of Chr^s^ *^^ essential thing in connexion with Christianity is
tianity. that it has thrown light upon the doctrines relating to
God and his attributes, and also those which concern human des
tiny, the entire system will assume a character different from what
it would be if it be assumed that the central point of Christianity
' Excellent hints for the cultivation ot irenics are furnished In the worts by Liicke : Ueber das
Alter, den Vertasser, die ursprilnsllohe Form und den wahren Sinn des kirchl. Friedensspruches ;
In necessarlis unitas. In non neoessariis libertas. In utrlsque carltas. GOtt., 1850.

THE METHOD OP DOGMATICS. 443
lies in the personality of the God-man, or in the fact of redemption,
or in the justification of the sinner before God by faith, or, finally,
in the mystery of the Trinity. Each of these views will necessitate
a plan on which to dispose of the separate doctrines within the gen
eral structure.
The traditional method began with God and his attributes, pro
gressed through the creation until it arrived at man and his sin,
passed through these to the Redeemer and his work, and then dis
cussed the Church and the sacraments, until it closed with an out
look into the future, or the last things. This has been ^be Local or
denominated the Local or Topical method, from locus Topical Method.
or TOTTog, whicih corresponds to the terms caput or pars fidei, or
articles of faith {dpdpov Tyg TlaTsug).' It is already found with
John of Damascus and the scholastics, and it has been the usual
method with Lutherans since Melanchthon, though the latter him
self had followed a different method in the first edition of his Loci
Communes, which begins with man and his need of salvation. Dif
ferent principles of arrangement were .attempted from time to time
in the Reformed Church. Thus we may mention the Federal
method (methodus foederalis) of Cocceius and Witsius in the 1 7th
century," which was adopted among moderns by Augusti ; ' and the
division according to the Persons of the "Trinity, by Melchior Ley-
decker, in the same century,* which is followed by Marheinecke in
his Dogmatik, Schirmer in his Biblical Dogmatics, and Rosenkranz
in his Encyclopaedia.
Schleiermacher's method is peculiarly founded on the contrast
between sin and grace as constituting the turning point gchieiermach-
in the Christian conception of the world. His Dog- er's method.
matics falls into two principal parts: I. "The pious feeling of
dependence, without reference to the contrast between personal in
ability and imparted ability;" 2. With a substantial recognition of
such contrast. Hase divides dogmatics into ontology and Chris
tology. Anthropology and theology are classed under the former
head, and eschatology is discussed under anthropology, while the
doctrines of the Holy Spirit, the Church, and the sacraments con-
' See Bretschneider, Entwicklung der dogmatischen Begriffe, p. 191. The proof
texts in Scripture were also termed loci classici, loci probantia, dicta classica, sedes
doctrinae, and the science which treated proof passages was termed topics.
' Foedus naturae et operum and foedus gratiae with economies ante legem, sub legs,
and post legem. Comp. Al. Schweizer, Ref. Dogm., p. 103 sgg.
' 1. Of the state of sin; 2. Of the state of grace; 3. The facts of Christianity (which
hobble along at quite a distance).
* Comp. Schweizer, ubi supra, p. 115 sgg.

443 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY.
stitute a part of his Christology.' Like Schleiermacher, he place?
the Trinity, " as the sum and consummation of Christology," at the
end. Kling argues that Christology is entitled to the first place."
He agrees with Hahn in considering the doctrine of Christ as the
Son of God and of man, the Saviour of the world, the fundamental
doctrine of the Christian religion, but, diverging from that scholar,
prefers to begin with the doctrine of the person of Christ.'
It is more correct, however, to regard the person of Christ as
^ . ^, forming the centre of Christian dogmatics, to which
Chnsts person » ¦ ,r-i -i i i- •
the centre of all our knowledge respecting God and man refers m a
dogmatics. prophetic way, and from which it again proceeds, as
having been satisfied by Christ. While the character of Christi
anity is the " divinely human," ¦" it yet appears to be a more natural
method to consider, first, God in his relations to man apart from
the mediation of Christ, as the Creator, Lawgiver, and Judge ; next,
man in his relations to God while unredeemed ; (a) as the creature
and image of God, (b) as a sinner, and (c) Christ as the God-man
and Redeemer, the latter constituting the centre from which man
kind as redeemed by him, as glorified in him, but also as progress
ing toward its consummation in him, is discussed. In this way the
separate doctrines of salvation, or soteriology, and of the Church,
the sacraments, and eschatology will form the completion of anthro
pology, on the one hand, while, on the other, the doctrine of the
Holy Spirit, which finds its proper place at this point, in connexion
with the exaltation of Christ and his kingly office, brings the doc
trine of God in the Trinity to a full completion.
There is no propriety in discussing Christ before attention has
been directed toward God and man, but it is not, on the other
hand, possible to finish either the doctrine of God or of man with
out including Christ. The whole of the doctrine of the Trinity is
left in the condition of an uncomprehended speculative problem, if
it be not prefaced by Christology, and eschatology comes under
notice too far in advance when treated, as it is by Hase, before the
doctrine of Christ. The topical method, as a whole, may, there
fore, be retained, but so that- each topic shall find its completion
' Evangel. Dogmatik, 2d ed., p. 46 sgg.
' Gestalt der evang. Dogmatik in Tiib. Zeitschrlft for 1834, No. 4.
'Hahn's division iS as follows: 1. Theology, consummated in the Son of God;
2. Anthropology, in the Son of man ; 8. Soteriology, in the Redeemer ; 4. The doc
trine cf the Church, as founded, governed, and consummated by Christ, the promised
and glorified King of truth.
* Comp. Ebrard's Inaugural Address, Die Gottmenschlichkeit des Christenthums,
Zur., 1S45.

THE METHOD OP DOGMATICS. 447
in the others, and that, for that reason, it shall not be brought to
a conclusion without bringing the others into account. Retention of
This is the meaning which , underlies the federative topical method.
method, and, also, the arrangement of Schleiermacher. Both these
methods seek to destroy the invariable and mechanical arrangement
by which the articles succeed each other under regular rubrics,
and to establish living relations among the various doctrines. We
would not, therefore, argue in favour of the traditional method
without modifications, as does Pelt,' though we see no reason for
rejecting the customary terminology, such as theology, anthro
pology, and the rest.
The outlines of a system of dogmatics, such as we outline of dog-
should prefer, would be as follows :
I. God, and his relation to the world and to man as his creature.
Natural, legal, and prophetical theology.
2. Man, as related to God and the world, so long as they have
not been brought together through the mediation of Christ. The
doctrine of man's primeval state ; the destination of man, and
sin. 3. The doctrine of the personality of the God-man and his work
for the redemption of mankind. Christology and objective soteri
ology — the heart of Christian dogmatics.
4. Man as related to Christ, and through Christ to God. The
doctrine of salvation, subjective soteriology, the ordo salutis. The
doctrine of the Holy Spirit.
5. Man as related to Christ, and through Christ to the world.
Communion of believers, the Church, and sacraments. Hence, also,
man's changed relation to naiture — death, the resurrection, and the
whole of eschatology.
6. God, manifested in Christ, in his relation toward himself. The
Christian doctrine of the Trinity in its immanent meaning.
1. God in his relation to the world, viewed in connexion with the
fact of redemption.
The kernel of the whole, Christology, is thus inclosed within
theology, and the interior connecting links will constitute the
anthropology. The attributes of God need not, in this arrangement, be separ
ated from each other, as Schleiermacher's method requires. They
may Fe placed under the first head, but would, of course, attain
their full significance only at the end.
A method that corresponds, in the main, to the above, and that
commends itself to favour by its clearness, is that of Al. Schwei-
' Encyklopaedie, p. 502.

448 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY.
zer.' It possesses the additional advantage of having taken the so-
schweizer's called prolegomena, generally constituting a separate part,
method. in which the fundamental elements are laid down, from its
isolation, and bringing it into organic connexion with the remain
der of the system of belief. Ih this way he obtains the following
division into three parts: I. The laying of foundations, or the con
sciously realized faith of Christianity in the Evangelical Church as
a whole; the apologetic, or better, the grounding part. 2. The
elements contained in the pious Christian consciousness which do
not involve the specifically peculiar character of Christianity — the
elemental part. 3. The specifically Christian side or part. It is
evident, of course, that the two former divisions will be more ab
breviated than the latter. SECTION VIIL
THEOLOGY.
Comp. Nitzsch, In Herzog, Encyklopaedie, s. v. Gott.
Article Theology, in M'Clintock'and Strong's Cyclopaedia, vol. i.
Theology is, in Christian dogmatics, used to designate the doc
trine relating to God, and more especially God as he has appeared
Meaning of *o man. Such theology has nothing in common with
theology. scepticism, which everywhere professes to know nothing
about God, nor with that false dogmatism which claims to know more
about God than he h.is permitted man to know. In treating his
nature and attributes it, accordingly, has respect not to metaphysi
cally ontological questions as it does to religious considerations, and
is conscious of the figurative character of the language and modes
of reference it must employ, as well as of the real and substantial
basis upon which such language and modes rest.
We may appropriate to ourselves the assertion of Feuerbach,
that theology is, at bottom, merely anthropology, without accepting
it in the sense of Feuerbach. In fact, his definition may even be
employed against him. We concede that, in a certain sense, the
ology is anthropology, and that it must be anthropological through
and through, if it be acknowledged, on the other hand, that anthro
pology is also modified by theology, or that the two are simply
diverging members of a single body, which body is religion. The
God human -^^^'^ everywhere teaches a human God, that is, a God
and superhu- for man. This is the true anthropnpathy. He is a God
"*"¦ who is likewise superhuman, but whatever of the su
perhuman is revealed always has reference to the human element.
' Christliche Glaubenslehre nach Protestant. GrundsStzen, p. 86. Comp. the entire
section, Methode der Glaubenslehre, p. 70 sqq.

THEOLOGY. 449
The entire Old Testament speaks of God as dwelling in the midst
of his people; the entire New Testament describes him as mani
fested in Christ, and through Christ become the father of humanity.
Even the creation of heaven and earth is narrated in a human
method, that is, from a human point of view, and is adapted to the
needs of man, whose home is in the earth.
This constitutes religion, which dogmatics is to apprehend, in all
wisdom and humility, as the religion that emanates from God, and
is willed and ordered by him. It does not seek to comprehend God
as he exists from' eternity to eternity ; it is satisfied to know that
he is. But it desires to know every thing respecting his nature that
he has revealed to man, and also the relation into which he has en
tered with man, who is modelled after the image of God. Hence,
all sound dogmatic theologians have, from the beginning, asserted
the incomprehensibility of God as strongly as they have jncomprehensi-
taught that, with reference to our salvation, he is com- ^^'¦^ "' '^od.
prehensible by us,' and they have demonstrated, in the works of
creation and redemption, the glories of his character which have
been made knovsm to us. Their position is at once that occupied
by reason and the Scriptures.
Dogmatics is not obliged to prove the existence of God. But it,
nevertheless, takes that slender thread which runs through the
history of the human race which inquires after God, and points out
how the consciousness that he exists is manifested in connexion
with the different forms of argument — the physico-theological, cos
mological, ontological, historical, moral, and the rest — and that the
very fact that search for such proof is made, is, in this case, of itself
a sufficient proof.'' It treats the attributes of God, not as coming
upon him from without, and attaching themselves to him in an ex
ternal way, but as being the unfolding of his nature in behalf of
our natural and moral consciousness.
Here, then, is the place in which to discuss the relation of God to
the world and the human spirit, but in an ethical and religious light,
¦ Comp. the citations from the Fathers in Hagenbach, History of Doctrines, § 27
(Smith's ed.).
° " More than one hundred demonstrations in geometry have been made of the
Pythagorean theorem, all of which accomplish the same object. Innumerable proofs
of the existence of God have likewise been constructed, but they failed to accomplish
what they promised to achieve. . . . God is not a right-angled triangle, and it is not
possible to invent either numerous or striking evidences respecting him. There is but
one proof for God, and this he wields himself." — Rosenkranz, Encyklopaedie, p. 6.
Hamann, already, remarks that " if he is a fool who denies God, he is a much greater
fool who attempts to prove his existence." Comp., however, G. A. Fricke, Argumenat
pro Dei existentia exponuntur et judicantur. Lips., 1846.
29

450 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY.
rather than in that of pure speculation. The idea of the divine per-
Ood's relation sonality is here to be investigated in its religious bear-
to the world, ings, and anthropomorphism and anthropopathy here find
their psychological basis and theological corrective, the language of
the Bible and the needs of the human heart being duly recognized.'
The doctrines of the creation and preservation of the world, of
Providence and the government of the world, as well as of sin
(theodicy), all depend on theology. Here, again, dogmatics is re
quired to fix a clear boundary between matters which belong to
the religious conception of the world and those which are proper
ly cosmical in their character. The older dogmatic theologians,
even John of Damascus, included physics, natural history, and
astronomy. But the more recent science has properly thrown over
all such ballast. Still, there is constant temptation to wander off
into foreign fields, such as geological researches with reference to
the narrative of the creation. Theology must content itself with
the idea of creation as such.
The doctrines of angels ,and of demons are usually connected
Angeioiogy and with that of creation, though the second one stands
demonoiogy. more particularly related to the doctrine of the fall,
and hence with that of sin. It is to be remembered, however, that
the idea of angels was in existence when Christianity appeared,
and that the latter adopted the. existing views without formulating
them into a distinct doctrine, or founding on them any material
feature of revealed religion. Here, again, we meet the temptation
of straying off into false metaphysics, of identifying, without quali
fication, the poetic with the didactic, and popular figurative notions
with definite scientific statements, all of which are not easy to keep
asunder in the given case. Or, we are exposed to the danger of a
gross realism, by which the one element is mistaken for the other.
Eeiigious ele- It Js, therefore, necessary to commend at this point that
trineshouid*be J'^cJicious dogmatical procedure which aims, first of all,
prominent. to bring the religious element of a doctrine into promi
nence, and thereby naturally preserve the true medium between
coarse literalism and superfcial negation.^
' Comp. § 2ft. "Human forms of speech. Anthropomorphisms, are most frequently
applied to God when piety is vital and communion with him is habitual; and the
Bible leads in this direction ; so that, in this very matter, and even in expressions that
are at first offensive to reason and exposed to ridicule, there is reason for admiring
the high degree of pedagogical wisdom in religious things, however great the naivete,
and for observing that even the pious naivete alone has the best of the argument." —
Hirzel, in the Kirchenfreund, 1873, No. 10, p. 154, article Zum Streit und Freiden.
' Comp. the article Engel, in Herzog's Encyklopaedie, iv, by Boehmer. It is not

ANTHROPOLOGY. 451
SECTION IX.
ANTHEOPOLOGT. •
Theological differs from physiological anthropology in that, al
though it proceeds upon the basis of man's natural condition, it does
not regard him in his relation to nature, but as he stands related to
God. It is divided into the two leading sections of a doctrine of
man's original state prior to the fall, and a doctrine of the fall and
of sin, which was thereby introduced into human nature, and has
since perpetuated itself and been actualized in the experience of
every individual.
Theological anthropology of a scientific character is, of course,
impossible apart from physiological anthropology; that Theological an-
is, apart from all acquaintance with man as naturally thropoiogy.
constituted. But the latter serves merely as a natural foundation.
The most perfect familiarity with human nature in its anatomical
and physiological, and even in its psychological, asjaects, in so far as
psychology restricts itself to psychological limits, will not be com
petent to disclose to our view the religious nature of man.' It is
, allowable, of course, to find mere accommodation in the discourses of our Lord which
relate to the world of angels and demons, which are not only based on a religious idea,
but also on an earnest reality. The doctrine concerning Satan, for instance, rests on
the fact of the power of evil, which reaches down into the deepest abysses of dark
ness (Daub's Ischarioth). It has been wittily said by Rougemont, with reference to
this point : Men have pretended that all the demonoiogy of Jesus was only an accommo
dation to the prejudices of his people and his age. This is as much as to say that
the battles of Alma and Inkerman are only an accommodation of Napoleon III. to the
prejudices of the French against the Russians. What struggle has ever been more
real, more terrible, more gigantic, than that of the Son of God and of Satan in the
wUderness? — Christ et ses Temoins, vol. i, p. 152. But this yields no stronger
proof for the personaUty of Satan than for that of death, sin, or hell, which, likewise,
are powers that were overcome by Christ in a real sense, and not figuratively only.
The figurative designation of the thing is here interchanged with the thing itself,
whose reality continues unchanged. Schenkel, following in the footsteps of Schleier
macher, has subjected the doctrine of the devil to the light of a rigorous criticism
(Dogmatik, i, p. 247 sqg.). On the other hand, persons are not wanting who hold
that effects are stUl produced, and persons possessed, by demons at the present time.
' The remark of Rosenkranz (Encykl., p. .S3), that " theological anthropology has
nothing to do with the physical and Intellectual nature of man," is too strong. But
it is true -that "it must turn over the consideration of that nature to philosophical an
thropology, and fix its attention on the relation in which man stands to God." Comp.
Harless, in preface to his Ethik (4th ed.) : " I believe that our divines would do well
by not restraining their interest in the field of physical research too far; for it is only
in the light of unjustifiable abstraction that the latter can seem to have nothing in
common with the mind." Darwin's theory of the descent of man, tracing him back

453 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY.
true that this religious nature of man may be apprehended to
some extent by psychological inquiry, but, by this method, man
appears only as an isolated specimen of his race ' and a penetrating
observation of his nature is afforded only by the history of mankind
in connexion with the revelations made by God. We, therefore,
urge that, as in dogmatics, theology is required to be anthropolog
ical, so, in like manner, must anthropology be theological.' The
questions which relate to body and soul, or body, soul, and spirit,
and to the origin of the latter (pre-existence, traducianism, crea-
tionism), are in place here only in so far as one theory or an
other becomes necessary for the understanding of man's religious
nature. The proper course of dogmatical procedure will be to apprehend
in their real spirit the few grand indications of the Scriptures upon
such matters as the image of God, and to so present them to our
spirit through the medium of exegesis, history, and philosophy, as
The high Idea to enable US to grasp the more exalted idea of human-
of huraanity. j^y beneath the figurative language by which it is ex
pressed. Upon the correct apprehension of that idea depends the
corrpct view of sin, whether it is to be considered a mere negation,
or natural deficiency, or a privation, depravation, and perversion of
human nature. These are the terms that distinguish between the
Protestant and the Roman Catholic views.
The history of man's fall into sin is likewise involved in great
difficulties when regarded as simple history. But the genesis of
sin, as repeated daily, may, nevertheless, be demonstrated from the
masterly and matchless narrative. It is impossible to deny that
the consciousness of a common guilt, of which every individual par
takes, is profoundly religious in its nature, and attested by both
Scripture and experience. Nowhere do psychological inquiry and
The doctrine of ^^^ study of God's word, considered as the judge of
s'°- human thoughts, more fully complement, or rather ex
plain, each other than in the doctrine of sin. Does not Paul speak
on this point (Rom. vii) with reference to his own experience, and
from out of the depths of human nature as a whole ? The same
holds true of Augustine and Luther. Abstract reason will, of
course, always incline toward Pelagianism upon such doctrine;-,
since it affords a necessary corrective in many particular respects.
to an ape, which has been so much discussed of late, will not at all disturb the scholar
who knows how to distinguish between the domain of religion and that kind of nat
ural science which must often take a backward step ; but it will afford food for reflec
tion and for profounder thought with respect to the Umitations of our knowledge.
' Comp. Bunsen, Hippdlytus i, p. 289 sqq.

CHRISTOLOGY. 453
But the mind derives no satisfaction from that course, inasmuch as
it is continually reminded of a rupture that is more profound than
refiection is able to perceive.' SECTION X.
CHRISTOLOGY.
Comp. Eling, in Herzog's Encyklopaedie, s. v. II, and article Christology, in M'Cllutock and
Strong's Cyclopaedia, vol. ii.
Inasmuch as the religious relation subsisting between God and
man finds its historical exemplification only, and in a peculiar man
ner, in the person of Jesus Christ, the God-man, Christology must
constitute, not merely an essential part, but the very centre of a
system of dogmatics. Its task will be to conceive Jesus .
as sinless man, as free from error, in so far as this centre of dog-
stands connected with sin, and, for that reason, as being '^^ ^'^'
the only-begotten Son of God, and God manifest in the flesh. It
will be required to harmonize the qualities which Jesus possesses in
common with the race, or human nature, with those which stamp
him as unique, and exalt him above the race, and, therefore, of the
divine nature, without, on that account, being authorized to set aside
his real and complete humanity, or to obscure the greatness of his
specific deity.
The life of Jesus forms the historic basis of Christology. But
the latter has to cultivate thoroughly a ground which ^^^ ^^ ^^^^
the former, in its character as a purely historical sci- the basis of
ence, could not include within its territory.'' There has chnstoiogy.
been no lack, however, of theologians who assert that Christology
is superfluous, and who thereby stab Christian dogmatics, consid
ered as specifically Christian, to the heart.'' Their dogmatics is
' Comp. Hundeshagen, Der Weg zu Christo, i, p. 186.
' Rothe, among others, points out the necessity of apprehending the divine nature
of Christ from the study of the picture of his human life : " To speak of recognizing and
acknowledging the divine element in Christ without having observed it shine forth
from what is human in him, or having caught its reflection in the mirror of his hu
manity, is merely to bandy idle words. . . . Apart from the underlying oasis of hu
manity, the whole of the sacred life and work of Jesus by which redemption was
effected becomes a magnificent phantasmagoria, an empty pageant, upon which no one
may depend for comfort and for hope either in Ufe or death. The unavoidable conse
quence, in short, is unmitigated Docetism." — In Schenkel's Zeitschrlft, pp. 380, 383.
' Thus by Henke, in the preface to his Linsementa, p. 12 : " Ut omnis haec in
Christum religio ad rellgionem Christi magis revocetur, omni opera contendendum
est." Comp. Rohr, Briefe iiber Rationalismus, p. 36 : " What supernaturalists term
Christology in their dogmatics does not appear in my system as an integral part at all ;
for, while it constitutes a rehgion which Jesus taught, it is not one whose object he

454 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY.
confined altogether to theology and anthropology, and in the prog
ress of their works Christ appears simply as one theologian and an
thropologist among others, to whom an occasional appeal is made,
but not as the ¦&sdv\}puTrog, who is himself the central feature of
dogmatics. But objection against this very ¦dedvdpiiinog idea has been raised
. . from many quarters. The term, it is true, is not biblical,
term "God- and cannot be found in the Bible Dictionary. But can all
"""'¦ the terms with which the attributes of God are desig
nated, and others with which dogmatics has been enriched, be found
in the Bible ? The term " God-man " may, no doubt, be so under
stood as to involve a contradiction. If the idea proceeds on the
assumption of an un-human God and an un-divine man, who are to
be joined together in an outward form, the one will necessarily ex
clude the other; in other words, the ancient " finite is not capable
of the infinite." But it has been correctly shown that the divinely
human character of Christianity and the divine humanity of the
Saviour condition each other.' It is only necessary to remember,
in this matter, that language of this character is developed on the
soil of religion, and not on that of abstract speculation. The entire
doctrine of the person of Christ may be apprehended in a very irra
tional way, either as describing the mechanical contact of two dis
similar things, the two members of the Form of Concord, or iis a
mixture of divine and human elements, as we see in Apollinar-
ism.^ In this way the one is disturbed and obscured by the other
rather than modified and complemented by it.
The doctrine of the Church itself has not always been free from
Doctrine of the abstruse and confusing definitions, though it has, with
pr'oper'iy de- correct judgment, continued to insist on the darryxvTug, .
fined. dTpsTTTWf, ddiaipsTug, and d^wptcTTWf. The truth upon
this subject cannot be intuitively understood, but may be appre
hended in its character as a truth to be accepted by faith; and
while the truly wise may arrive at an understanding with regard to
it, a satisfactory agreement and a logical settlement upon its merit s
are utterly impossible to persons who are merely puffed up with
their knowledge.
The history of doctrines affords the most striking evidences of
might be himself." The most recent rationalizing theology seems inclined to return
to this Ebionitic view. Vide the " Schlussbetrachtung " in Strauss' Life of Jesus for
the German People.
' Ebrard, ubi supra.
' Comp. the History of Doctrines. Guizot, however, still speaks of a " continual
mixture of the divine and the human."

SOTERIOLOGY. 455
this fact. Whenever the attempt is made to bring Christology to
a logical conclusion, and formulate it, the difficulty of avoiding
Ebionitism or Docetism, Nestorianism or Monophysitism, which
stand on either side like Scylla and Charybdis, will present itself,
and the history of doctrines will require to defend itself against the
attacks of various forms of heresy in the manner best suited to re
pel the antagonizing error. The reason for this fact does not, how
ever, lie in the doctrine itself, with its infinite significance, but in
the human limitations which affect the dogmatics of each particular
age.' SECTION XI.
SOTEEIOLOGY.
Most intimately connected with the doctrine of the Redeemer's
person is the doctrine of the salvation which depends on him, and
pf the appropriation of this salvation on our part by faith. This is
soteriology. Its objective side is found in the work of Christ, in
the redemption and atonement wrought by him. Its subjective
side is found in the. work of the Holy Spirit upon the human heart,
' The merely complementary relation sustained by the two leading confessions of
Protestantism to each other is pointed out by Sohneckenburger, Vom doppelten
Stande Christi, Pforzheim, 1848. Jul. Miiller beautifully observes that "at this point
evangelical theology needs a new development out of the Holy Scriptures as the orig
inal source of doctrinal life, and accompanied with a rejection of the entire ballast of
formulas, which, in the dogmatics of former times, was connected with the idea of the
communis naturarum. In such development the leading object must be held to the
preservation in doctrinal form of the evangelical picture of the life of Jesus flhrist in
its human truthfulness and compreheusibility, undeterred by monophysite, docetic, or
Nestorian opinions, but accompanied by the declaration that this man Jesus Christ is
the logos, in the flesh, God of God, born in eternity of the Father. . . . The thought
that he who, as the eternal logos, is with the Father, Is at the same time a true Son of
man, contains such an inexhaustible fulness of knowledge respecting the common sal
vation, that every division based on the effort to definitely formulate the relation be
tween the divine and human natures in Christ becomes a sin committed against the
God-man himself, to whom all profess a common allegiance. — Die evangel. Union, ihr
Wesen und ihr GottUches Recht, 1st ed., Berl., 1854, p. 316 sqq. Comp. also Rothe,
ubi supra, p. 384 : "When this shall have become clear, that moral unity with God Is
to be conceived as not ideal only, but as real, as the result of a more thorough ac
quaintance with the interior nature of moral being, then shall we also, for the first
time, have grasped the key to Christology, and behold a living Christ, in sharp and
vivid outUnes, before the eye of the mind — a Christ who is bone of our bone, and
flesh of our flesh, and at the same time the only begotten of the Father, in whose pres
ence we are constrained to bow and exclaim with Thomas, ' My Lord and my God '. '
Then will the breathings of our faith be deep and joyous, when it has seen the dawn
ing of this bright light in the midst of darkness — it' is faith in Christ, instead of unbe
lief, which has penetrated through the dogma."

450 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY.
the different gradations of which are denominated the order of sal
vation. The principal points to settle are, the relation of justifica
tion to sanctification, of divine grace to human freedom, and of
faith to works. The confessional opposition between Protestantism
and Roman Catholicism is more sharply defined in this field than
in any other.
The doctrine of Christ's person would, indeed, belong to the realm
Christ the Me- oi idle Speculation if its only purpose were to conceive
diator. Qf Jesus as an isolated marvel upon the page of history,
or as a God man who appears and vanishes away like some meteor.
But this is not its object. Christ, as being the Son of God and Son
of man, becomes the Mediator between God and man. He atones
and redeems. His death is made to appear as the crowning point
of his redeeming work, and Christ himself is the basis of reconcilia
tion, the IXaa/xog. In him the old dies, and the new attains to life.
Death and resurrection are the pivots upon which his character
turns for the history of his world. The dogma concerning the"
death of Jesus belongs, in one respect, to Christology, as having
proceeded out from the person of Christ. But, in its results, that
death forms the condition of salvation, and the Soctrine, therefore,
belongs to soteriology. To apprehend this death in its religious
significance, not from the idea of mere abstract right, as a satisfac
tion, nor yet from the idea of mere moral influence, as an example,
but rather as a free thought of love, executed under a divine neces
sity in harmony with God's eternal decree, and as therefore fraught
with infinite consequences for the entire human race, constitutes one
of the highest problems of Christian dogmatics. In the solution of
it the religious spirit is required to participate, as well as the rea
son, with its combining and analytical processes.'
But it is as improper to isolate the work of Christ as to isolate his
person. The death of Jesus is most intimately and organically con
nected with his life previous to his death, and with the development
of the kingdom of God subsequent to his resurrection, and also with
Subjective so- the regeneration of each individual. This is subjective
terioiogy. soteriology, the order of salvation. The process which
was regarded as dynamical by the Christianity of apostolic times,
that is to say, the change wrought in man by the Spirit of God —
repentance, regeneration, renewing of the spirit, and sanctification —
was, in later days, classified under the heads of illumination, con
version, sanctification, and perseverance, and the whole made to
tend toward the goal of a most intimate communion with God, a
' Comp. Hagenbach's articles on this subject in the Kirchenbl. fur die Ref. Schweiz,
1884, Nos. 7 and 9.

SOTERIOLOGY. 457
unio mystica cum Deo. The two ideas which are chiefly important
here, however, and which the Protestant doctrine, as distinct from
the Roman Catholic, clearly distinguishes from each other, are justi
fication and sanctification. The former term is made justmoation and
to denote the acquittal of the sinner on the part of sanctification.
God, considered simply as a declaratory act, while the latter desig
nates the gracious process by which the personal life of an individ
ual is developed into the divine. Although it is difficult to separate
one from the other, their separation in the idea is required by the
principle of evangelical Protestantism, that man is justified solely
by the grace of God to the exclusion even of every consideration
arising out of the good w hich God has wrought in man. This latter
is simply a consequence resulting from the new relationship.
But the determining of the exact relation of the grace which
makes man free to the will of man which thus attains to freedom —
which must always enter into the account as a will, and, therefore,
as relatively free — is among the most difficult of doctrinal problems,
which so easily admit of a turning aside to either the right or left.
Both the Scriptures and experience assert that, on the one hand, man
is unable to perform any thing without the aid of God, and th^t, on
the other, he possesses the power of choosing to obey the call of
grace or to refuse its authority. The whole history of doctrines shows
that, in some periods of the Church, the greater emphasis was laid
on the freedom of the will, while in others its fettered state was
made more prominent. This is the point at which it becomes neces
sary to develop the idea of freedom into clearness, and here, espe
cially, the philosophy of religion and that of dogmatics flow into each
other.' A profound study of the problem will always result in the
inclination to set aside the contrast, and to distinguish between free
dom and license, between necessity and compulsion, and between
what is done by God in man and man in God, and what is done by
man without God and by God without man." The letter of the
symbolical definitions in the doctrine of the Protestant Church is
often too harsh and unmanageable, and cannot be fully maintained
' In our arrangement the doctrine of freedom will come under notice twice in the
system : first in connexion with the doctrine of sin, and next in connexion with that of
grace. Anthropology, in general, will also' fall into these two halves.
^ " The solution of the great problem is found by turning the attention away
from an abstract consideration of man and his separation from God, and fixing
it upon the constant divine influence by which man becomes a higher personality ;
thus the possibUity of a free self-determination even toward the good is always
preserved. The idea of a separation between divine causality and the free activ
ity of man must be given up ; both are with and in each other,'' etc. — KUng, ubi
supra, p. 32.

458 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY.
in every feature of such definition. But the evangelical principle,
which finds expression in that form, will eventually be recognized as
the true and the only principle that can abide every test.
SECTION XII.
THE CHUECH AND THE SACEAMENTS.
The salvation which proceeds from Christ reaches the individuah
through the medium of the religious community. The individual,
however, enters into a living relation with that community only
through faith in Christ. Thus the doctrine of Christ and the doc
trine of the Church condition each other. Dogmatics has to deal
with the idea of the Church only on its interior or religious side,
the external relation of the Church to the State and its political
organization falling within the province of ecclesiastical law. Dog
matics, however, is obliged to furnish the governing ideas for the
guidance of the latter. Its office with relation to the means of
grace to be administered by the Church — the word of God and the
sacraments — is, in like manner, to apprehend them in their religious
.significance, while the careful determination of the most appropriate
mode of conducting the administration belongs to liturgies.
"The importance of the doctrine of the Church," says Kostlin,
" for the science of Christian teaching, while it has been remarkably
misapprehended during an e.'i.tended period, has more recently been
recognized the more clearly and emphatically." ' But many an
error has been committed in the process, and what is outward has
been made prominent to a degree that suggests danger, and in a
manner that can hardly be reconciled with the spirit of the reformers,
or even with that of Luther, the authority of whose example is in
voked." Whether, as Schleiermacher states the contrast, the Ro-
' Luther's Lehre von der Kirche (Stuttg., 185S), p. 1. There is much conflict of
opinion upon this doctrine at the present time ; " but so much is settled that Protes
tantism is divided among itself not so much with reference to the idea of the Church
as concerning the relation of the phenomenon to the idea." — Schenkel, ubi supra,
p. 589. The point at issue is whether the Church should be regarded in the light of
a remedial institution in which persons are to be trained for citizenship in the king
dom of God, or in the light of an organized community, in which the kingdom of
God is, however imperfectly, already apparent and actually present.
^ " It is undeniable that, despite its blessings, a disagreeable element of darkness
has, in most periods, attached to the Church through which the most exclusive church
men have, as a class, obtained the greatest prominence, namely, a passionate insisting
on the correctness of received views, a mania for fastening the charge of heresy upon
opponents, an exaggerated love for the form they represented. If this old ecclesias
tical Adam should ever be restored, a certain distinguished theologian (R. Rothe, in

THE CHURCH AND THE SACR.IMENTS. 459
man Catholic view, that the individual must come to Christ through
the Church, be maintained, or the Protestant, that he can come to
the Church only through faith in Christ — the former is empirically
true, the latter ideally so — it is yet undeniable, from any point of
view, that the religious character of the doctrine of the Doctrine of
Church can only be understood through the doctrine of Christ neces-
Christ. The doctrine of the Church is, in the next stand doctrine
place, connected with the doctrine of the Holy Spirit, °' church.
in conformity with the expression of Irenseus, " Ubi ecclesia, ibi et
Spiritus Sanctus; et ubi Spiritus Sanctus, ibi et ecclesia." Schleier
macher, therefore, brought the doctrines of the Holy Spirit and of
the Church into the closest connexion, as the Apostles' Creed had
also done at a much earlier period.
The Protestant distinction between the visible and the invisible
Church would assign the latter only to the province of dogmatics,
as essential to the faith, while the former would belong to the do
main of politics; and questions relating to the constitution of the
Church do, in point of fact, seem to be .sadly out of place in a doc
trinal work, particularly a Protestant one. But inasmuch as the
invisible cannot be absolutely separated from the visible, and inas
much as it does not manifest itself by the side of the visible, and as
exterior to it, but rather in the visible, it will always be necessary
for dogmatics to recognize the vessel in which the spirit of the
religious community manifests itself. The task of settling the fun
damental forms of ecclesiastical life, by which alone that life can
maintain its ecclesiastical character, is thus devolved upon dogmat
ics. While pointing out the spiritual nature of the Church, dog
matics is required to guard the Church, as being holy, against
degenerating into worldliness; against divisions and dismember
ment by insisting upon her unity; and against separatistic schisms
by asserting her universal character. The purely external adminis
tration of the Church, as variously modified by conditions of time
and place, is turned over to another department, that of ecclesiasti
cal politics and ecclesiastical law.
The same reasoning which applies to the constitution of the
Church applies also to Church worship. The order- Liturgies based
ing of the latter devolves upon liturgies. But liturgies ""^ dogmatics.
is based on dogmatics, and derives from it the instructions upon
which it is to proceed. The fundamental, unchangeable, and
his Theol. Ethik.) would be obliged to gain new adherents to the opinion that Chris
tianity can attain to itself and its real nature only by the process of completely strip
ping off its ecclesiastical envelopments." — A. Schweizer, Die Prot. Central Dogmen,
vol i, p. 19.

460 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY.
divinely ordered types of Christian worship, the word and the sacra
ments, are most intimately connected with the life of believers, and
thus constitute an essential part of dogmatics. Considered as
means of grace, an udminicula gratia:, they will stand connected
with the doctrines of salvation and grace in general, while in their
character as institutions of the Church they will need to be placed
under the doctrine of the Church.
The idea of a sacrament is not of scriptural origin,' but was grad
ually developed in the consciousness of the Church. The institu
tion of. the so-called sacraments, baptism and the Lord's Supper,
however, is of biblical origin." The signification of these ordinances
is still the ground of much controversy between denominations and
schools. Much depends upon a profound penetration into the nature
of a religious symbol, so as to prevent it from degenerating into a
merely arbitrary ceremony, and from becoming involved in the
Faith tbe con- magical notion of a purely objective efficiency, an opus
necting lint, operatum.' The connecting medium is faith. But in
the proportion in which misapprehension prevails on the part of the
principal confessions of Protestantism themselves, should dogmatics
be intent upon discovering a term which will be satisfying to the
religious feeling, without doing offence to a simple apprehension of
the pure word of Scripture and its sound interpretation.

SECTION XIII.
ESCHATOLOGY.
Inasmuch as the kingdom of God, which manifests itself on earth
under the form of a church community, is progressing toward
an ultimate consummation,' dogmatics groups the aggregate of
the hopes dependent on Christianity into the prophetical doctrines
' Calixtus saw and insisted upon this ; Epit., p. 128 (Henke, Calixt. i, p. 299).
Even Melanchthon objected to the term " sacramentum " at first, as being un-biblical
(Loci Comm. of 1521, in Bretschneider, Corp., p. 210). Comp. Hagenbach, Hist.
Doctr., § 268, note 2 (Smith's ed.).
^ The institution of baptism has, of course, been questioned by the sort of criticism
which remands everything to the realm of vision which the Gospels record concerning
the risen Jesus. Such house-cleaning labours by the radical method will not cause
any considerable damage, however, while a community of believers exists to whom
the form of the risen Lord is more than a phantom.
^Schenkel has emphasized the objective theological side of a sacrament on the
Protestant view in opposition to the merely subjective anthropological conception.
Comp. his Wesen des Protestantismus i, p. 395, and the preface, p. xi ; but comp.
also his Dogmatik, and other writings of later date, in which a different view is advo
cated.

ESCHATOLOGY. 401
of death, the resurrection, the judgment of the world, and eternal
life. These are denominated the last things, and the teaching in
which they are presented is termed eschatology.
The question whether the soul be immortal may be raised in con
nexion with the doctrine of the creation of man, or immortality not
anthropology. But the question concerning immor- '^ft'^™^^
tality, in the most general acceptation, must not be ogy.
confounded with the inquiry respecting the last things, which has
less to do with the natural constitution of the soul and the destiny
of individuals after death than with the world's development as a
whole and the ultimate consummation of the kingdom of God.
For this reason the position, in connexion with the doctrines of
man and before the Church has come under notice, to which Hase
assigned eschatology, is inappropriate. The most proper place for
the doctrine respecting death is not, indeed, among the four last
things; it may, more appropriately, be connected with the doctrine
of sin. Its only claim to a place under eschatology lies in the
teaching that death also shall be swallowed up in victory (I Cor.
XV, 54). The doctrines of the resurrection and the last judgment
are characterized wholly by the scriptural mode of representation;
the figurative form is unmistakable; but the vision is required to
look beyond the figure to the eternal truth reflected in its imagery,'
even though it will not be possible to comprehend these several
doctrines within a fully rounded circle of adequate conceptions.'
' See de Wette, Kirchliche Dogmatik, p. 213 : " The difficulties can be obviated
only by distinguishing the purely doctrinal elements from those which are symboli
cally historical. . . . But the two must be re-combined into a living hope which is not
ruled merely by an obstinate concern for the destiny of individuals, but which, like
wise, has regard to the fate of the whole. The eternal and the temporal, which are
always involved in and connected with each other, are thus conjoined."
2 Comp. the prophetical doctrines in Schleiermacher's Glaubenslehre. The extra-
scriptural chiUastic vagaries and fancies, together with the hypotheses of soul-
sleeping, hades, etc., have, without exception, been able to maintain themselves only
within the sphere of the most narrow formulations of doctrine. Such doctrines have,
however, been discijssed with greater confidence in recent than in the older theology.
Rothe, in his Ethik, ii, pp. 154-169, 480 sgg., has sought, in a very peculiar manner,
to open the way toward a more elevated solution of the problems of eschatology.
Comp. also the labours of Auberlen and others. We cannot refrain, however, from
directing attention to a statement by Palmer, which deserves con.sideration at this par
ticular juncture : " The Jewish scribes, before the manifestation of Christ, were unable
to construct, from the prophecies of the Old Testament alone, a picture of the Mes
siah whose truthfulness might stiU be recognized after he had appeared, although
every person who would use his eyes was, after his appearing, compelled to see that
the Old Testament predictions were fulfilled in the person and work of Christ. So is
it improbable that we should ever succeed in obtaining from the scriptural indications

462 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY.
If this might be accomplished, hope would cease to be hope and
„.,..• ^ would become realization, and faith would be trans-
Chnstian hope '
only to be real- formed into sight. In opposition to a sentimental, and
ized in hrist. q^ ^gjj geifigh, doctrine of immortality, it becomes neces
sary to insist upon the truth that Christianity knows no other hopes
than such as shall be realized in and through Christ; and that, con
sequently, it can return to the numerous questions which arise no
other answer than that which is already contained in its christolog-
ical creed — namely, that Christ himself is the resurrection and the
life, and that in him all his children shall live.'

SECTION XIV.
THE TEINITY AND PEEDESTIjSTATION.
The doctrine of God in his tri-unity comprehends all theology.
But this aggregation can only be brought to pass after the practical
and religious signification of Father, Son, and Spirit has been as
certained in its connexion with the historical development of the
kingdom of God. The whole is comprehended by this one doctrine,
as constituting the sacred mystery pf Christianity, and the doctrine
, „ of election is most intimatelv connected with it. Both
Election con- •'
nectedwiththe the eternal nature of God as related to himself, and his
Tnmty. eternal decree, lie outside of the relation of God to
finite being, and consequently outside of the sphere of practical
religion. They are, therefore, in the strictest sense, of a speculative
nature, and move wholly within the realm of the absolute.
The terms triad and trinity, together with the idea upon which
they rest, are extra-biblical. Buf it does not follow that the idea
is, on that account, unscriptural. The very contrary is true; for
the whole of New Testament theology is erected upon a, mono-
respecting the future and the consummation of the kingdom of God a harmonious and
completely rounded whole which might deserve the name of a system, whUe we are
equally certain and assured that the ultimate fulfilment wiU authenticate the prophecy
as being entirely true and consistent with itself. In such matters, even a thirst for
theological knowledge will do better to restrain itself to moderate bounds than to as
sume the air of knowing what, nevertheless, is not Imown, and to look contemptuously
down from the height of such yvCiaif upon the ^i?i.7) maric: with which the Church has
contented itself for well-digested reasons." It may also be well to recommend special
care with regard to a phrase of Oetinger's that has recently been much used and
much abused, namely, " that corporeity is the end of the ways of God," as it may lead
into a religious materialism which may become as dangerous as the irreligious sort,
because unconsciously promoting its designs.
' Comp. Hermann Schultz, Die Voraussetzungen der chrlstlichen Lehre von der Un-
Bterblichkeit, Gottingen, 1861.

THE TRI'NITY AND PREDESTINATION. 4G3
theistic, but trinitarian, foundation, since God the Father chooses
mankind in Christ. Christ, as the Son, has redeemed it, and the
Spirit imparts the assurance of salvation to believers, and completes
the work of sanctification. Neither work is conceivable apart from
the others; and it is for this reason that believers are baptized in
the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, and that the sub
stance of the Christian doctrine of redemption is concentrated into
a trinitarian formula in the apostolic benediction in 2 Cor. xiii, 14,
and elsewhere.
But it is equally certain that the Bible does not emphasize the
relation subsisting between the Persons' of the Trinity Trinity less em-
so much as the relation sustained by God to man. Go??^reiaaon
When John opens his prologue with "In the beginning to man.
was the Word," he yet turns at once to his principal theme, the
theme upon which he makes all else to depend, Kal 6 Xdyog adp^
eyevsTO. He regards the manifestation of God in Christ as the
most essential feature, and therefore emphasizes it again in his first
L-pistle, where he asserts that the Son of God came into the flesh.
The scriptural Triad is, consequently, predominantly a triad for
purposes of revelation, while the relations immanent to it are, at
most, simply alluded to. Nor should it be forgotten, that the
Logos idea itself is not a new or strictly Christian thought, but was
already present, as we see in Philo, in the speculative culture of the
time. But inasmuch as God has manifested nothing except his
nature, it will not be improper to retain the names of Father, Son,
and Spirit, not, with Sabellius, as mere names, but as " distinguish
ing hypostatical terms." ¦
The salvation taught by dogmatics should not, however, be made
to depend on such subtleties. We have every respect
for the speculative doctrine of the Trinity ; but it is a aepradent "on
theological sanctuary which only anointed and approved ^^"eties.
minds, with pure intentions, may seek to penetrate. The doctrine,
has, moreover, been loaded with many absurdities from time to time,
and even pantheistic infidelity has concealed itself behind such
intricacies in order to attack historical Christianity from behind
such cover. The same is true of the mystery of predestination.
Who has ascertained God's decree? A religious faith, as con
trasted with the superficial creed of Pelagianism, is compelled to
' The word " Person " is likewise e.xtra-biblical, and in many respects inappropriate.
"The very terms 'Father' and 'Son' indicate that they have reference to the mani
festation of God, and not to his immanent and extra-mundane being " (p. 296).
' Kling considers this expression to observe the correct medium between the Sabel-
lian and the Athanasian theories (ubi supra, p. 38).

4G4 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY.
acknowledge that salvation is not the result of accident, and not
wrought out primarily by ourselves, but that it is a salvation that is
willed and decreed by God, based on a foreknowledge of character
and works. -The problem of God's foreknowledge, and rewards and
punishments based on it, we may not solve. It is wiser and more
edifying for us to recall continually to mind the narrow limits of
the human understanding, and to stand reverently still, with the
apostle, before the riches both of the knowledge and the grace of
God. SECTION XY.
OETHODOXT AND HETEEODOXY.
Schleiermacher, § 303 sgg., and the discussions on orthodoxy and orthodox views by Eflckert,
Krause, and Hase, In the Protest. Kirchenzeitung fiir das Evangl. Deutschland for 1854 ; Pelt,
In Herzog's Encyklopaedie, x, s. v.
James F. Clarke, Orthodoxy : Its Truths and Errors. Boston, 1875. John W. Donaldson,
Christian Orthodoxy Eeconciled with the Conclusions ol Modem Biblical Learning. Lond., 1857.
Daniel Dorchester, Concessions of LIberalists to Orthodoxy. Boston, 1878.
A dogmatical system is said to be orthodox in so far as it is in
harmony with the doctrine of the Church, as contained in its sym
bols, and with the conclusions deduced from such doctrine. It is
heterodox in so far as it departs from the accepted belief of the
Church. This distinction should not be identified with that made
between supernaturalism and rationalism, which has already been
discussed, although it has many points of contact with the latter.
The term orthodox is to be taken in its historical rather than its
etymological meaning in this connexion, for it is to be presumed
that every instructor will aim to teach the truth, and to be ortho
dox in this sense of the word. The conservative in ecclesiastical
matters may, accordingly, be regarded as constituting the orthodox
feature, while the mobile will characterize the heterodox. Ortho-
Orthodoxy not doxy, moreover, is not to be identified with super-
ed'^-ith su"pCT- naturalism. The two ideas, to say the least, are not
naturalism. Coextensive. A great number of heterodox notions had
their origin in a period when supernaturalism was generally ac
cepted. Socinianism, for example, is, to the half at least, supernat-
uralistic, and yet heterodox ; and even ultra-supernaturalist opinions
may turn over into heterodoxy, as we see in patripassianism. The
Church and its creed, rather than the Bible, though Bible-ortho
doxy is sometimes spoken of, constitute the measure of orthodoxy,
in the strictly technical meaning of the word. It follows, that even
the strictest supematuralist will be heterodox, in so far as his rela
tion to his own Church is concerned, whenever he diverges from
her doctrine — for instance, a Lutheran who should incline toward

ORTHODOXY AND HETERODOXY. 465
Roman Catholicism, or a member of a Calvinistic Church who should
incline toward Lutheranism. Rationalism is, no doubt, a hetero
dox phenomenon, in all its tendencies. But as con- „ „
r , ' . nationalism a
trasted with the supematuralist, the rationalist himself heterodox phe-
might have the support of orthodoxy upon a given ¦"""'*''<"'•
quSstion. He might, for instance, take ground with the Reformed
Church upon the doctrine of the Lord's Supper, or with the Luther
an Church upon the question of predestination. Nor il it difficult
to show that pietism, with all its biblical supernaturalism, includes
many heterodox elements. Where, indeed, can a thoroughly ortho
dox person be found in our day, whose views shall be so correct
as that the defenders of the old-time Lutheran or Reformed ortho
doxy will find no feature that is open to objections?
The genuine dogmatic theologian should pursue no other purpose
than to present the truths of the Christian faith in purity, and in
harmony with the Bible and the results of historical development,
recognizing the goal toward which such development tends, and
the requirements of the present age. He will obey the apostolic
canon, "Prove all things; hold fast that which is good." He will,
accordingly, be both conservative and reformatory in his methods;
for " the endeavour to retain, in the dogmatical development, mat
ters which have become wholly antiquated in the public promulga
tions of the Church, and which exercise no definite influence upon
other questions in the process of scientific discussion, is a false
orthodoxy. To antagonize such formulas as have a well-established
support in the formularies of the Church, and whose scientific exr
pression is not confused by the relation sustained by them to other
doctrines, is false heterodoxy." '
' Schenkel says : " No greater error and no more hurtful notion can be found than
exist in the fancy that the work of the Reformation was accomplished, and even
completed, three hundred years ago, and that every step beyond the original position
of the reformers is apostasy from the Reformation itself ; that to go back to the fin
ished theological system of Protestantism, as contained in confessional writings, and
to settle down in them for all time to come, constitutes the chief duty of a believing
theology and of a Church which has attained to greater freedom and independence." —
Wesen des Protestantismus, iii, 1, Pref., 'p. iv. SimUar language is employed by a
French writer: "The Reformation is not the last word of Christianity; and the God
who has revealed himself to us in his Gospel has yet many revelations to make to us
on the thoughts, the concealed riches, and the infinite applications of the word of
life. . . . Ignorance believes voluntarily in the absolute truth ; but education and expe
rience teach us to see shadows where we find contrasts, and simple differences where
all seemed apparition." — Lettres a mon Cure, p. il. Geneva, 1854. Hase remarks
(Dogmatik, Sth ed., p. 9), with entire correctness : " Orthodoxy, as designating una
nimity with regard to the teaching of the Chiirch as sustained by the written law, is
authorized in the evangelical Church. But so, likewise, are individual divergences
30 I

406 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY-
SECTION XVL
THE HISTOET OF DOGMATICS.
Comp. Ch. 6. Heinrich, Versuch einer Geschichte der verschledenen Lehrarten der chrlst
lichen Wahrheiten, etc., Lpz., 1790; J. H. Schlckedanz, Vers, einer Gesch. d. christl. Glaubens-
lebre, Braunschw., 1827; W. Herrmann, Greschlchle der prot. Dogmatik, von Melanchthon bis
Schleiermacher, Lpz., 1843; J. P. Lange, Christl. Dogmatik, i, p. 56 sqqi; w. Gass, Gescb. der
prot. Dogmatik, etc. (vol. i, Construction of Basis and Dogmatism ; vol. Ii, Syncretism, tbe Tor-
niatlon of the flif ormed School of Theology, Pietism ; vol. ill, tbe Transition Period ; vol. iv. En
lightenment and RationaUsm. The Dogmatics of the Philosophical Schools. Schleiermacher
and his Times), Berl., 1854-67 ; Heppe, Dogmatik des deutscben Protestantismus Im 16. Jabrhnn-
dert (§ 76) ; * Dorner, Gesch. d. prot. Theologie, Munich, 1867 (Engl, translation by Robson and
Taylor, 2 vols., Edlnb., 1871) ; Milcke, Die Dogmatik des 19. Jahrhunderts, etc., Gotha, 1867.
Hodge : Systematic Theology (3 vols.), N. Y. 1872. Introduction (In Vol. I), pp. 1-188.
The earliest systematic collections of the doctrines of belief are
found in the symbols and the confessions of faith. Origen, among
the Church teachers of the first period, furnished a sketch of what
we denominate a system of dogmatics, in his work on Principles.
Of Augustine's works the following belong to this class : Manual
Augustine's ^0 Laurentius (on Faith, Hope, and Charity), on Chris-
works, tian Doctrine and the Kingdom of God (each of the
latter but partially), on Faith and Symbol, and on the Doctrines of
the Church. He was followed by Fulgentius of Ruspe, Gennadius,
and Junilius. In the Greek Church were produced the Catecheses
of Gregory of Nyssa (Larger Catechetical Treatise), and of Cyril
of Jerusalem (Catechism for the Baptized and to be Baptized),
though they were more particularly designed for practical uses.
The first to construct a dogmatics, in the strict sense, that is, a sys
tem of doctrine, was John of Damascus (730), in the work. Precise
Statement of the Orthodox Faith, though the compiler, Isidore of
Seville (died 636) had led the way with his Statement (8 books).
The dogmatics of the Middle Ages found its chief expression in
Scholasticism Scholasticism, which latter obtained a necessary comple-
and mysticism, ment in mysticism. John Scotus Erigena (died about
880) was eminent as a philosophical thinker of the 9th century. But
his principal work, on the Division of Nature, is not a dogmatics in
the strict meaning of the term. From the close of the llth and
the beginning of the 1 2th centuries downward, Anselm of Canter
bury," Roscellin, and Abelard aroused the dogmatic spirit from
and variations, provided only that they maintain a Christian and Protestant character.
They both are placed under the law of a higher orthodoxy, namely, the perfect truth
of Christianity, and it is incumbent upon Christian charity that it preserve the feeling
of unity in the midst of such differences, and even of dispute. Whatever antagonizes
Christianity, however, must be excluded as heretical, even though it lay claim to the
Christian character." On the distinction between 'heterodoxy and heresy, comp.
Schenkel, Dogmatik, i, p. 186, and Martensen-

THE HISTORY OF DOGMATICS. 467
various directions, and sought to bring about a reconciliation be
tween knowledge and faith. But a properly systematic treatment
in obedience to established rules dates back only to Peter Lombard,
who died in 1 164. The authors of such works, Robert Pulleyn,
Peter of Poictiers, and others, were designated Sententiarii. The
Victorines, on the other hand, sought to combine mysticism, which
rises to the surface from out of the depths of religious feeling,
with dialectics.
An increased knowledge of Aristotle, after the Crusades, led to
a still further development of scholasticism. Alexander Hales
(Doctor irrefragabilis, died 1245), Albert Magnus (died 1280), and
Thomas Aquinas (died 1274), the head of an entire school
which was represented by the order of Dominicans,
composed so-called Summoe. These were loosely constructed works,
in which every proposition was subdivided into a number of ques-
-tions, distinctions, and the like — a gigantic labour of the mind.
The scholastic spirit, however, soon degenerated into the invention
of hollow subtleties, a tendency which was especially facilitated by
the prevalence of nominalism. The school of Thomists soon came
to be opposed by the mystical school of Bonaventura (Doctor seraph-
icus, died 1274), and also by the dialectic school of Duns Scotus
(Doctor subtilis, died 1308), both of which originated with the order
of Franciscan monks. The dispute between the schools became at
the same time a quarrel of the orders. The Summae were now
superseded by so-called Quodlibets; the number of the Degeneration of
various questions approached infinity, and dogmatics dogmatics.
was ultimately left without substance and worth. The free-think
ing but sceptical William Occam (died 1347) was succeeded by the
last of the scholastics, Gabriel Biel (died 1495), while mysticism,
which had made progress in the practical field in the persons of
Master Eckart, Tauler, Ruysbroek, and Suso, received scientific
form at the hands of Gerson (Doctor christianissimus, died 1429).
The cultivation of humanistic studies gave to dogmaacs a many-
sided spirit, but left it, at the first, without fixed princi- Melanchthon
pies for its control. The regeneration of dogmatics does p"o°feTtant
not begin earlier than the Reformation. Luther was a dogmatics.
preacher rather than a dogmatic theologian. The foundation for
evangelical dogmatics as a science was laid by Melanchthon, the
Preeceptor Germanise, in. his Commonplaces (Loci Communes,
Viteb., 1521 J afterward Loci Praecipui Theologici). He was fol
lowed, in the Lutheran Church, by Martin Chemnitz (Theological
Syllabus), Aegidius .(died 1603), Nic. Hunnius (died 1643), and the
rigidly zealous Leonh. Hutter (Lutherus Redivivus; died I6I6).

468 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY.
whose work (Loci, 1619) was directed especiiilly against the milder
school of Melanchthon. Twesten published Hutter's Compendium
in a second edition in 1863. A work of leading importance. Theo
logical Commonplaces (Loci Theol., Jen., 1610-25, ix vols. 4to, edited
Lutheran dog- ^J Cotta, Tub., 1772-81, XX vols. 4to, supplemented by
matic writers. Q ji_ Muller, vols. xxi and xxii, 1788-89; latest edition
E. Preuss, 1863-70, vols, i-viii, unfinished), was published by J.
Gerhard (died 1637); and the works by Quenstedt (died 1688),
Konig, Calov, HoUaz, Baier, and others are also deserving of men
tion. A new scholasticism unfolded itself in these works, which
was counterbalanced by a new mystical tendency in J. Boehme,
Weigel, Arndt, and others.
In the Reformed Church exegetical studies were prosecuted with
lite more energy than dogmatical, and the latter were more
atureintheEe- dependent on the former than in the Lutheran Church,
forme uro . -Hjegause the letter of the symbol was less authoritative
ih its influence over them. Zwingli's dogmatical laboui's (Brief and
Pious Introduction to Protestant Doctrine, 1523; Commentnry on
the True and False Religion, 1525; Brief and Clear Exposition of
the Christian Faith, 1536, et al.) are deserving of attention.
But Calvin's Institutes of the Christian Religion (Basle, 1535)
Calvin and his is ^ work of the first importance, and comparable with
successors. ^jjg Loci of Melanchthon. His successors were Bullin-,
ger, Musculus, Peter Martyr, Hyperius; and, in the seventeenth
century, Keckermann, Polanus of Polansdorf, Alsted, Alting, Wol-
leb, Burmann, Heidanus, F. Heidegger, and others. The synthet
ical method having been usefully followed in the Lutheran Chureh
after Melanchthon, Cocceius (died 1669) and Leydecker now began
to attempt different methods; for example, the Federal Theology
and the (Economical, in the order of the three persons of the Trin
ity. But a new method, the analytical, was introduced into the
Lutheran Church by Calixtus. It begins with the end or final
cause, the " final method," toward which the entire system of belief
must tend. Many, including some of the writers already men
tioned, followed in his track, the strictest of all being Dannhauer
(died 1668) in his Christian Introduction, 1649.
A milder tendency, (diverging from rigid orthodoxy, began to
assert itself in Germany at the opening of the eighteenth century,
toward whose inti-oduotion various phenomena in the spheres of
both religion and philosophy contributed. This we see in Spener
and Pietism, and in the Cartesian, Leibnitzian, and Wolfian philos
ophies. In the Reformed Church the Arminian tendency, repre
sented by Limborch (died I7I2; Christian Theology, 1686), gained

THE HISTORY OF DOGMATICS. 469
a continually increasing number of adherents to its milder views, as
did also the related tendency which went out from the school of
Saumur. In the Lutheran Church a method increasingly controlled
by the influence of the new period was introduced by Pfaff, in his
Institutes (1720); Buddseus, in his Institutes of Doctrinal Theology
(1723, 1741); Reinbeck (1731-41, 4 vols.), continued by J. G. Conz,
(1743-47, 5-9 vols.); Carpov, (1737-65); Rambach (1744), and, un
der the determinate influence of the Wolfian philosophy, by Jac.
Siegm. Baumgarten, in his System of Doctrine, published by Semler
(1759 and 1760, 3 vols.). This tendency was also commended, -with
more or less fulness, by Semler, in his Institutes (1774), and Attempt
at a Free Theological Method of Teaching (1777); and by Michaelis
(1760, 1784), Teller (1764, 1782), Toellner (1775), Do- Transition to
ederlein, Morus, and others, who thereby brought about rationalism.
the transition into rationalistic modes of thought, though they
guarded themselves with many qualifications.
After Gruner and Eekermann had prepared the way, Hencke
compressed dogmatics, which had once extended over forests of
folios, into a few " lineaments," in which process he threw over
board " Christolatry and Bibliolatry, as being mere „ ..
remnants of an old-time superstition." Kant intro- tendency of
duced a new era, and was joined, more or less fully, by "^""^ "'^'
Tieftrunk, Staudlin, and Ammon. Storr and Reinhard held fast
the orthodox system, but rather with respect to its formal super
naturalism than as a rigid conformity to ecclesiastical tradition.
Augusti, on the other hand, sought to restore the ancient system
of doctrine, whose consistency even Lessing had conceded, to its
place of honour, but without laying a deep foundation for it in
philosophy, or bringing logical discrimination to bear on the ques
tion. The latter was much more efficiently done by De Wette, the
former by Daub and Marheineke.
In opposition to this reactionary movement of dogmatics, as
understood by rationalism, the latter, with entire consistency, took
separate ground, finding its most adequate expression in Wegs-
cheider's work, which must be regarded as the Corpus Doctrinse of
the tendency. Bretschneider pursued an intermediate course,
though starting out with the fundamental ideas of rationalism.
He also furnished a serviceable historical apparatus. Dogmatics
thus seemed likely to be resolved into speculation in the one direc
tion, or to sink beneath the mass of historical matter with which
it was loaded down, or, finally, to be evaporated in the sohieiermacb-
crucible of rationalistic hypercriticism. At this point er's dogmatics.
Schleiermacher appeared with his System of Doctrines, in which he

470 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY.
did not base dogmatics upon either historical authority or philo
sophical speculation, but regarded it as representing the conscious
ness by which the Church is animated. From him dates a new
period in the treatment of this science generally, though many con
tinued even afterward to move in the ancient ruts. Knapp, Hahn,
and Steudel, for instance, simply attached themselves to the older
biblical and ecclesiastical system, while Hase, proceeding upon the
basis of the doctrine of the Church as historically developed, strove
to bring about its reconciliation with the advanced culture of the
day, accomplishing the task with spirit and taste under the influ
ence of modern philosophy, beginning with that of Schelling.
The spirit of Schleiermacher made itself positively felt, however,
Twesten and pre-eminently through Twesten and Nitzsch, each of
Nitzsch. whom contributed, in his own way, to the securing of
friends for the revealed faith of Christianity, which rationalism had
given up as lost, even among the younger generation of theolo
gians.' Other writers have sought to open newer paths, e. g., Tob.
Beck, who sought to' comprehend the substance of Bible teaching
in a corresponding system with a specially prepared terminology,
while avoiding the road which had been trodden hard by the
schools. In opposition to serious efforts of this character arose the
system of Strauss, which assumed the form of a dialectical process
for the annihilation of dogma, but which, after it had reached its
culmination in Feuerbach, could only lead to a new and thorough
investigation of the dogma, based on a recognition of the inde
structible basis upon which the life of the Christian faith is estab
lished. The more important works which have since been issued afford
the happiest evidence of this fact, and prove that Christian dog-
, matics has not yet reached its final from, but that it is
Progress ol •' , . %. , • i ¦
most recent rather passing through a metamorphosis, from which it
dogmatics. ^j^^jj ^^^^ ^^^^^ .^j^j^ j^g youth renewed, and with a re
newed disposition to clothe doctrine with fresh and appropriate
forms, that shall prove to be more perfectly adapted to the deep
est needs of our age. The dogmatics of the Reformed Church
' On Nitzsch comp. the Biography by Beysclilag, p. 179. Nitzsch's " crowded, Heracli-
tlan style, which never presents more than the half-opened bud of the thought," does
seem not only to present difficulties which " all feeble or ease-loving minds " will dread
to surmount, but also to place frequent obstacles ih the way of those who do not seek to
avoid the labour needed to penetrate into such a depth of thought. The forceful ele
ments In the works of Nitzsch are an exalted earnestnees and a cool criticism, which
enable him to be just toward a more independent mode of thought, while standing
firmly upon the positive foundations of Christianity.

THE HISTORY OF DOGMATICS. 471
has found a well-informed' and capable interpreter in Schweizer,
who has been joined in the free exercisfeof thought by Schenkel.
In the Reformed Church, Ebrard represents the confessional point
of view, while Vilmar, Thomasius, Philippi, and Kahnis repre
sent the Lutheran. The masterly work of A. Ritzschl aims at
a positive remodelling of the orthodox system on a biblical basis.
The dogmatic works of Biedermann and Lipsius represent the so-
called liberal theology. One of the most important of the recent
doctrinal systems is the System of Christian Doctrine (Glaubens
lehre) of Sulzberger, published in Bremen in 1877. He is Professor
of Theology in the Theological Seminary of the Methodist Epis
copal Church at Frankfort^on-Main, and his work is a terse and
skilful presentation of the doctrinal system of his communion.
The Roman Catholic Church, whose older dogmatic theologians,
Bellarmine, Canisius, Maldonat, Becanus, and others, had, to a
greac extent, conformed to the scholastic method, was Roman catho-
likewise unable to avoid being influenced by the Intel- "« dogmatists.
lectual revolution of the times. A more simple and independent
doctrinal method, from which the- mass of scholastic and Jesuitical
rubbish was eliminated, was introduced as early as the time of
Noel (Natalis Alexander, died 1724).
Among German dogmatists the older method was followed by
Kliipfel (died 181 1), Stattler, Gmeiner, Schnappinger, Zimmer,
Dobmaier, Buchner, Liebermann, and others. A new movement
was begun by Georg Hermes (died 1881), in his Introduction to
the Christian Catholic Theology (Munster, 1834). He, while fully
regarding doubt as the necessary condition for the determining of
truth, sought to press through it into orthodox Catholicism,, as con
stituting the ultimate goal of a really profound speculation. But
by that very effort he came into formal conflict with Roman Ca
tholicism and its cardinal principle of ecclesiastical authority. A
similar process was passed through by the system of Gtinther.
Franz Baader, influenced by Schelling's Natural Philosophy, was
more speculative than any of his compeers. But a similar tendency
had been* previously apparent in Schwarz (died 1 794), and Cajetan
Weiler (died 1826). Among later Roman Catholic theologians,
Brenner, Thanner, Klee, Staudenmaier, and others, appear also to
be similarly inclined.
In England, some of the leading doctrinal systems have been
translations from the Continental writers. Among the Scotch,
whose theological type has been Reformed, Calvin's Institutes has
always been recognized as the standard. The Independents and
Presbyterians of England have exhibited a similar attachment. In

473 ' SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY.
the Church of England, parson on the Creed and Burnet on the
Thirty-nine Articles, oUflts they are, liave largely supplied the
dogmatic treatment. Among the Wesleyans, Wesley's Sermons,
which are mostly of doctrinal character, have held the foremost
jilace. • The first Methodist writer of a full doctrinal system was
Richard Watson, whose Institutes (Lond., 1823) have been the
standard for the last half century. Pope, in his Compendium of
Christian Theology (3 vols.. New York, 1880), is the first British
Wesleyan writer of- a dogmatic system at all comparable with
Watson. In the United States tl*ere has been large dependence on the
German sources, the works of the German dogmatists being trans
lated and freely read. Knapp's Theology has had a wide accept
ance. This has been succeeded by Storr and Flatt's Elementary
Course of Biblical Theology (1836), Nitzsch's System of Christian
Doctrine (1849), the Christian Dogmatics of the Danish Martensen,
the Christian Dogmatics of the Dutch Van Oosterzee, and Schmid's
Doctrinal Theology of the Evangelical Lutheran Church. But
American theology has not been without its original writers in the
dogmatic department. Even during the colonial period there were
vigorous doctrinal authors, whose works have had an important
bearing on the whole later course of theological belief. Each Church
has had its own dogmatic system. Dwight's Theology, originally
delivered as sermons, has had large endorsement among Congrega-
tionalists and still wider circles. Hodge, in his Systematic Theol
ogy, represents the doctrinal system of the Presbyterian Church.
Tills work "is the product of a lifetime of reverent study, of broad
scholarship, terse and exact style, and of just recognition of the
\ native and foreign literature of the department. Raymond's Sys
tematic Theology embodies the Methodist dogm.atics, and is marked
by careful thought, a rich and warm diction, and a most attractive
perspicuity and vigour of style. fi«ith these works, as well as A. A.
Hodge's Outlines of Theology, and Ralston's Elements of Divinity,
indicate a dispfeition of the American theological mind to lean no
longer on' Continental authorities for doctrinal statement.
ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE OP DOGMATICS.
1. General.
Armlnlus, James, The Works of. Prom the Latin, in 3 vols. Svo, pp. 669, 538,
565. Auburn and Buffalo, 1853.
Binney, Amos, and Steele, Daniel. Theological Compend : Improved. 12nio, pp. 195.
New York, 18T5.
Calvin, John. Institutes ofthe Christian Religion. 8vo, 3 vols., pp. cxvi, 54-2, 630,
6G2. Edinburgh, 1846. ' ¦

LITERATURE OF DOGMATICS. 473
Dick, John. Lectures ou Theology; with a Preface, Memoir, etc., by the Ameri
can Editor. 8vo, 2 vols., pp. xxii, 532, 559. New York, 1850.
Dorner, J. A. A Sj'stem of Christian Doctrine. Translated by Rev. Alfred Cave,
B.A., and Rev. J. S. Banks. 8vo, 4 vols., pp. 465, 405, 429, 451. Edinburgh,
1880-82.
Dwiglit, Timothy. Theology : Explained and Defended in a Series of Sermons.
Svo, 4 vols., pp. 576, 558, 560, 552. New York, 1846.
Hodge, A. A. Outlines of Theology. Svo, pp. 678. New York, 1878.
Hodge, A. A. Questions on the Text of the Systematic Theology of Dr. Charies
Hodge; together with an exliib^tion of various schemes illustrating the princi
ples of Theological Construction. New York, 1885.
Hodge, Charles. Systematic Theology. 4 vols. (vol. Iv being an Index.) 8vo, pp.
xiii, 648 ; xi, 732 ; vill, 880 ; 81. New York, 187.3.
Hovey, Alvah. Outlines of Cliristian Theology. Svo. Providence, 1870.
Field, Benjamin. The Student's Handbook of Christian Theology. Edited with Bio
graphical Sketch by Rev. John C. Symons. Tenth edition. Svo, pp. xxiv, 311.
London, 1876.
Foster, Randolph S. Studies In Theology. Prolegomena. Svo, pp. vlli, 344. New
York, 1889.
Foster, Randolph S. Studies in Theology. Theism. Svo, pp. xii, 450. New York,
1889.
Knapp, George C. Lectures on Christian Theology. Translated by Leonard Woods,
Jun. Svo, pp. 572. London, 1831. .
Litton, E. A. Introduction to Dogmatic Theology, on the Biisls of the XXXIX Aici-
cles of the Church of England. Large 12mo, pp. 295. London, 1882. (This
work includes : The Rule of Faith ; Christian Theism and the Holy Trinity ; Man
Before and After the Pall; the Angels; Person and Work of Christ.)
Martensen, H. Christian Dogmatics. Svo, pp..vl, 501. Kdinburgh, 1866.
Miley, John. Systematic Theology. Svo, 2 vols., pp. xvi, 532. (Yol. II, in press.)
New York, 1893-94.
Mulford, Elisha. The Republic of- God. An Institute of Theology. Svo, pp. 261.
Boston, 1S81. (The titles of the chapters are: The Being of God; The Person
ality of God; The Precedent Relations of Religion and Philosophy to the Reve
lation of God ; The Revelation of God ; The Revelation of God in Christ ; The
Conviction of the World ; The Revelation of Heaven to the World ; The Justifi
cation of the Worid ; The Redemption of the Worid ; The Life of the Spirit.)
Nitzsch, Carl. A System of Christian Doctrine. Translated from the Fifth German
E litiou by Rev. Robert Montgomery and John Hennen, D.D. Svo, pp. xv,
408. Edinburgh, 1849.
Pendleton, J. W. Christian Doctrines: a Compendium of Theology. 12mo, pp.
426. Philadelphia, 1878.
Pond, Enoch. Lectures on Christian Tlieology. Svo, pp. 785. Boston, '1867.
Pope, William B. A Compendium of Cliristian Theology. Svo, 3 "vols,, pp. viii,
456 ; vii, 451 ; vii, 493. New Yorlf, 1880.
Raymond, Miner. Systemfitic Theoldgy. Svo, 2 vols., pp. 534, 530. Cincinnati and
New York, 1877. (The statement of the atonement is especially good, and the
entire work Is characterized by sound sense.)
Schmid, Heinrich. The Doctrinal Theology of the Evangelical Lutheran Church.
Svo, pp. 696. Philadelphia, 1846. - ' , .. , ,.
Shedd, W. G. T. Dogmatic Theology. Svo, 2 vols., pp. 546, 803. New Yori;,
188S.

474 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY.
Smitli, Heury B. Introduction to Christian Theology. Edited by William S.^Karr,
D.D. 12mo, pp. 237. New York. (Includes discussions of the Idea and
Sources of Christian Theology ; the Being of God ; Revelation ; the Evidences
ofChristianity and of the Canonicity, Authority, and inspiration ofthe Word
of God.)
Strong, Augustus H. Systematic Theology ; a Compendium and Commonplace Book
Designed for the Use of Theological Students. Svo, pp. xxix, 753. Rochester,
N. Y., 1886.
Summers, T. 0. Systematic Theology. A Complete Body of Wesleyan Arminian
Divinity, Consistmg of Lectures on the Twenty-five Articles of Religion. Ar
ranged and Revised by John J. Tygert. Svo, 2 vols., pp. 552, 519. Glossary,
52. Nashville, Tenn., 1888.
Tyler, Bennett. Lectures on Theology, with a Memoir by N. Gale. Svo, pp. 395.
Boston, 1859.
Van Oosterzee, J. J. Christian Dogmatics. From the Dutch. Svo, 2 vols , pp. 388,
430. New York, 1874. (On the function of the Christian consciousness this
author is very clear.)
Yenema, Herman. Institutes of Theology. Edited by A. W. Brown. Svo, pp. 536.
Edinburgh, 1850.
Watson, Richard. Theological Institutes. Svo, 2 vols., pp. xcl, 642, 688. New York,
1836. 2. Special Dogmatics.
1. Tlie Divine Nature.
Breckenridge, Robert J. The Knowledge of God Objectively Considered, being the
First Part of Theology Considered as a Science of Positive Truth, both Induc
tive and Deductive. 8vo, pp. xv, 530. New York. 1858.
Charnock, Stephen. Discourses upon the Existence and Attributes of God. Svo.
2 vols. New York, 1874; also 1 vol., pp. viii, 768. London, 1849.
Harris, Samuel. The Self-Revelation of God. Svo, pp. x, 570. New York, 1887.
Jukes, Andrew. The Names of God in Holy Scripture : a Revelation of his Nature
and Relationships. 12mo, pp. 226. 1888.
Macculloch, John. Proofs and lllustraiions of the Attributes of God, from the Facts
and Laws of the Physical Universe. Being the Foundation of Revealed Religion.
Svo, 3 vols., pp. 608, 575, 512. London, 1843.
M'Cabe, L.' D. The Foreknowledge of God, and Cognate Themes. 12mo, pp. 454.
Cincinnati, 1878.
M'Cabe, L. D. Divine Nescience of Future Contingencies. 12mo, pp. 306. Now
York, 1882. 2. Christology.
Bickersteth, Edward H. The Rock of Ages ; or. Scripture Testimony to the One
Eternal Godhead of the Father, and ofthe Son, and of the Holy Ghost. 12mo.
New York, 1861.
Bruce, Alex. B. The Humiliation of Christ In its Physical, Ethical, and Official As
pects. The Sixth Series of the Cuunlngham Lectures. Second edition. Revised
and enlarged. Svo, pp. 455. Edinburgh, 1881. (The best English history
and criticism' of the doctrine of the Kenosis.)
Coulin, Frank. The Son of Man : Discourses on the Humanity of Jesus Christ.
12mo. Philadelphia, 1869.
Dale, R. W. Christ and the Controversies of Christendom. With an Introduction
by L. W. Bancroft, D.D. 12mo. New York, 1874.

LITERATURE OF DOGMATICS. 475
Dorner, J. A. History of the Development ofthe Doctrine of the Person of Christ.
Svo, 5 vols., pp. xviii, 467 ; viii, 544; 456; viii, 462 ; xxviii, 502. Edinburgh,
1878.
Ecce Deus. Essays on the Life and Doctrine of Jesus Christ. 12mo, pp. 363.
Boston, 1869.
Fairbairn, A. M. The Place of Christ in Modern Theology. Svo, pp. xxili, 556.
New York, 1S93. (One of the most original of recent works on theology.)
Gess, W. P. The Scripture Doctrine ofthe Person of Christ. 12mo. Andover, 1870.
Glover, Octavius. Doctrine of the Person of Christ. An Historical Skeich. Svo.
London, 1867.
Hengstenberg, E. W. Christology of the Old Testament. Translated from the Ger
man by T. Meyer. Svo, 4 vols. Edinburgh, 1865.
Hengstenberg, E. W. The Parousia. A Critical Inquiry into tbe New Testament
Doctrine of our Lord's Second Coming. 12mo, pp.394. London, 1878.
Liddon, Henry Parry. The Divinity of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ. Svo,
pp. xix, 776. London, 1867.
Pope, W. B. The Person of Christ. Tho Second Fernley Lecture, 1871. Svo, pp.
168. London, 1871. (The object Is to " concentrate attention on the unity and
the indivisibility of the Saviour's Incarnate Person.")
Reubelt, J. A. The Scripture Doctrine ofthe Person of Christ. Freely translated
from the German, by W. F. Gess. ]2mo, pp. 456. Andover, 1870.
Sartorius, Ernest. The Person and Work of Christ. 18mo, pp. xvi, 161. Boston,
1848.
Smith, John Pye. The Scripture Testimony to the Messiah. Fifth edition. Svo,
2 vols., pp. xxviii, 472; xii, 810. Edinburgh, 1868.
Thompson, Joseph P. The Theology of Christ from His Own Words. ]2nio, pp.
309. New York, 1871.
Turnbull, Robert. Theophany; or. The Manifestation of God in the Life, Character,
and Mission of Jesus Christ. 12mo, pp. 239. Hartford, 1849.
Uhlhorn, G. The Modern Representations of the Life of Jesus. Translated by 0.
E. Grinnell. 12 mo, pp. 164. Boston, 1868.
Ullmann, Carl. The Sinlessness of Jesus : an Evidence for Christianity. 12ino, pp.
331. Edinburgh, 1858. New edition, 1870.
Yan Oosterzee, J. J. The Image of Christ as Presented in Scripture. Svo. London,
1874.
Wilberforce, Robert I. The Doctrine of the Incarnation of our Lord Jesus Christ.
12mo, pp. XV, 411. Philadelphia, 1849.
Young, John. The-clirist of History. An Argument Grounded on the Pacts of His
Life on Earth. Seventh edition. London. (An argument for Christ's divinity.)
3. The Holy S2nrit.
Eoet, .7. A. Holiness as Understood by the Writers of the Bible. A Bible Study.
12mo, pp. 70. New York, 1889.
Boynton, J. Sanctification Practical. A Book for the Times. 16mo, pp. 142. New
York, 1867.
Buchanan, James. On the Office and Work of the Holy Spirit. Svo. Edinburgh,
1856.
Davies, E. The Gift of the Holy Ghost the Believer's Privilege. 12mo, pp. 108.
Reading, Mass., 1874.
Dixon, A. C. The Person and Ministry of the Holy Spirit. 12mo, pp. 187. Balti
more, 1890.

476 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY.
Dunn, L. R. The Mission of the Spirit. Second edition. 12mo, pp. 315. New
York, 1871.
Hare, Julius Charles. The Mission of the Comforter. Tliird edition. 12mo. Lon
don, 1876; also Boston, 1854.
Parker, Joseph. The Paraclete. An Essay on the Personalliy and Ministry of the
Holy Ghost. Svo, pp. 416. New York, 1876.
Piatt, S. H. The Gift of Power. 12mo, pp. 277. New York, 1856.
Smeaton, George. The Doctrine of the Holy Spirit : the Ninth Series of the Cuu
nlngham Lectures. Svo, pp. 368. Edinburgh, 1882. (Includes sketch of the
history ot the doctrine and views held by various branches of the Christian
Church from the time of the apostles.)
Stowell, William H. The Work of the Spirit. Svo, pp. xx, 468. London, 1849.
Thompson, Joseph P. The Holy Comforter: His Person and His Work. 12mo,
pp. ^10. New York, 1848.
Walker, James B. The Doctrine of the Holy Spirit; or, Philosophy of the Divine
Operation in the Redemption of Man. New edition. 12mo, pp. 225. Cincin
nati, ISSO. 4. Atonement.
Atonement, The. Discourses aud Treatises by Edwards, Smalley, Maxey, Emmons,
Griffin, Burge, and Weeks. With an Introductory Essay by Edwards A. Park.
Third edition. Svo, pp. Ixxx, 596. Boston, 1863.
Barnes, Albert. The Atonement in its Relations to Law and Moral Government.
12mo, pp. 358. Philadelphia, 1859.
Beecher, Charles. Redeemer and Redeemed. 12mo, pp.369. Boston, 1864.
Browne, Edward H. Sermons on the Atonement, and Other Subjects. Svo. Lon
don, 1859.
Buruey, S. G. Atonement and Law Reviewed: Soteriology, the Sacrificial in
Contrast with the Penal, Substitutional, and merely Moral or Exemplary
Themes of Atonement. Svo, pp. -239. Nashville, Tenn., 1888. (Cumberland
Presbyterian.)
Bushnell, Horace. Forgiveness and Law, Grounded in Principles Interpreted by
Human Analogies. 12mo, pp. 256. Now York, 1874.
Bushnell, Horace. The Vicarious Sacrifice. Svo, pp. 552. ' New York, 1866.
Campbell, John M. The Nature of the Atonement. Fourth edition. Svo, pp. 392.
-. Loudon, 1873.
Candlish, Robert S. The Atonement: Its Reality, Completeness, and Extent. Svo,
2 vols. London, 1867.
Cone, Orello. Salvation. 16ino, pp. 101. Boston, 1889. (Universalist. Discusses
scriptural salvation ; secular salvation ; the factors; probation and morals ; uni
versality.)
Crawford, Thomas J. The Doctrine of Holy Scripture Respecting the Atonement.
Svo, pp. X, 538. Edinburgh, 1875.
Dale, R. W. The Atonement: being the Congregational Union Lecture for 1875.
Third edition. 12mo, pp. xii, 503. New York, 1S76.
Freemantle, W. H. The World as the Subject of Redemption. Bampton Lectures
for 1883. Svo, pp. 443. New York, 1885.
Magee, William. Discourses and Dissertations on the Scripture Doctrine of Atone
ment and Sacrifice. From the fifth London edition. 2 vols. New York, 1339.
New edition. Svo, pp.. 236. London, 1861.
Malcolm, Howard. The Extent and Efficacy of the Atonement. 16mo. Philadel
phia, 1870.

LITERATURE OF DOGMATICS. 477
Martin, Hugh. The Atonement: in its Relation to the Covenant, the Priesthood,
and the Intercession of our Lord. 12mo, pp. xll, 288. Philadelphia, 1871.
Maurice, Frederick Denison. The Doctrine of Sacrifice Deduced from the Scriptures.
Svo, pp. 374. Cambridge, 1854.
Medd, Peter Goldsmith. The One Mediator: The Operation of the Son of God in
Nature and in Grace. Eight Lectures Delivered Before the University of Ox
ford In the Year 1882, on the Foundation ofthe Late Rev. John Bampton, D.D.,
Canon of Salisbury. Svo, pp. xxiil, 524. New York, 1884. (The doctrine set
forth is that to the Logos exclusively is assigned the function of mediating be
tween God and the universe as the one personal word of the Father.)
Miley, John. The Atonement iu Christ. 12mo, pp. 351. New York, 1879.
Oxenham, H. N. The Catholic Doctrine of the Atonement. Svo. London, 1S69.
Kandles, Marshall. Substitution: A Treatise on the Atonement. Svo, pp. 255.
London, 1877.
Rigg, James H. Modern Anglican Theology. Chapters on Coleridge, Hare, Maurice,
Kingsley, and Jowett, and on the Doctrine of Sacrifice and Atoneme'nt. Third
edition, revised, to which is prefixed a, Memoir of Canon Kingsley, with Per
sonal Reminiscences. Svo, pp. 552. London.
Smeaton, George. The l)octrlne of the Atonement as Taught by Christ Himself.
Edinburgh, 1868.
Smeaton, George. The Doctrine of the Atonement as Taught by the Apostles.
Edinburgh, 1870.
Symington, William. On the Atonement and Intercession of Jesus Christ. Third
edition. 12mo, pp. 308. New York, 1849.
Wardlaw, Ralph. Discourses on the Nature and Extent of the Atonement. New
edition. 12mo. Glasgow, 1844. 5. Justification.
Buchanan, James. The Doctrine of Justification. Svo, pp. 526. Edinburgh, 1867.
Davies, R. N. A Treatise on Justlflcatlou. 16mo, pp. 250. Cincinnati, 1878.
Faber, G. S. The Primitive Doctrine of Justification. Second edition. Svo. Lon
don, 1839.
Hare, Edward. A Treatise on the Scriptural Doctrine of Justification; with a
Preface by Thomas Jackson. 16mo, pp. 253. New York, no date.
Heurtley, Charles A. Justification. Bampton Lecture for 1845. Svo, pp. xv, 343.
London, 1846.
Kenrick, F. P. The Catholic Doctrine on Justification Explained and Vindicated.
]2mo, pp. 255. Philadelphia, 1841.
Mcllvaine, Charies P. Justification by Faith: A Charge Delivered Before the Clergy
of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the Diocese of Ohio, September 13, 1839.
16mo, pp. 156. Columbus, 1S40.
Newman, John H. Lectures on the Doctrine of Justification. 12mo, pp. xvi, 404.
London, 1874. 6. Evil, Origin of.
Flower, J. W. Adam's Disobedience, and Its results in relation to mankind as
shown in Scripture. Second edition. Svo, pp. 823. London, 1871. (I. Death.
II. Imputation. III. Results Attributed to Imputation.)
James, Henry. Nature of Evil Considered, in a Letter to Rev. Edward Beecher.
12mo. New York, 1855.
Lovett, H. Thoughts on the Causes of Evil, Physical and Moral. 12mo. London,
1810.

478 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY.
Naville, Ernest. The Problem of Evil. 12mo, pp. 330. New York, 1872.
Young, John. Evil Not from God. 12rao, pp. 343. New York, 1858.
7. The Church.
Abbey, R. An Inquiry into the Ecclesiastical Constitution, the Origin and Charac
ter of the Church of Christ, and the Gospel Ministry. Edited by T. 0. Summers.
12mo, pp. 432. Nashville, 1856. (Part I discusses the Primitive Church.)
Arnold, Thomas. Miscellaneous Works : The Church. Pp. 9-72. New York, 1845.
Augustine, St. The City of God. Edited by Marcus Dods. Svo, 2 vols., pp. xvi,
557 ; vi, 574. Edinburgh, 1881.
Bannerman, James. The Church of Christ. Svo, 2 vols. Edinburgh, 1868.
Barnes, Albert. An Inquiry into the Organization and Government of the Apos
tolic Church, Particularly with Reference to the Claims of the Episcopacy.
16mo, pp.252. Philadelphia, 1855. (Chapter IV is entitled "The Constitu
tion of the Church as Established by the Saviour and the Apostles." The
rest of the book is confined to a discussion of Episcopacy.)
Barrows, W. The Church and Her Children. 12nio, pp. 340. Boston, 1875.
Binnie, William. The Church. 12mo, pp. 152. Edinburgh, 1882. (Discusses I.
What is the Church? IL Christ and the Church. HL The Chief End of the
Church. IV. The Christian Ordinances. V. The Polity of the Church.)
Candlish, James S. The Kingdom of God Biblically and Historically Considered.
The Tenth Series of the Cunningham Lectures, Svo, pp. x, 423. Edinburgh, 1884.
Chapin, A. B. A view of the Organization and Order of the Primitive Church.
Containing a Scriptural Plan of the Apostolic Church. 1 2mo, pp. 408. New
Haven, 1842. (An attempt to establish apostolic succession. The argument
is largely patristic.)
Coleman, Lyman. The Apostolic and Primitive Church, Popular in its Government
and Simple in its Worship. 12mo, pp. 413. Philadelphia, 1869.
Cunningham, William. Discussion on Churcli Principles: Popish, Erastian, and
Presbyterian. Svo, pp. 584. Edinburgh, 1863.
Ffoulkes, E. S. Primitive Consecration of the Eucharlstic Oblation, wilh an Earnest
Appeal for its Revival. London, 1885. (An attempt to prove that the invoca
tion of the Holy Ghost constituted valid consecration of tho eucharist in the'
early Church.)
Freemantle, W. H. The World the Subject of Redemption. Being an Attempt to
sot forth the Functions of the Church as designed to embrace the whole Race of
Mankind. (Bampion Lecture.) Svo, pp. 443. London, 1885.
Garratt, W. A. , An Inquiry into the Scriptural View of tho Constitution cf a
Christian Church, and its Relation to the Church Universal. 12mo, pp. 419.
London, 1846. (Written by a lawyer, and shows a careful study of patristics.)
Harris, Samuel. The Kingdom of Christ on Earth. Twelve Lectures Delivered be
fore the Students of the Theological Seminary, Andover. Svo, pp. viii, 255.
Andover, 1884.
Hatch, E. The Organization of the Eariy Chribtian Churches. Pp. xxviii, 216.
London, 1881. (The second lecture, on Bishops and Deacons, Is an attempt to
prove that emoKoivoi were nothing more originally than the treasurers and
managers of funds of various clubs and mimlcipalltles.)
Jacob, G. A. The Ecclesiastical Polity of the New Testament. A Study for the
Present Crisis in the Church of England. 12mo, pp. vlli, 424. New York,
1872. (Takes the low Church view of the Constitution of the Christian
Church.)

LITERATURE OF DOGMATICS. 479
Lndd, George T. The Principles of Church Polity. Svo. New York, 1882.
(In the historic growth of Congregationalism the author finds the funda
mental elements of all true ecclesiastical life illustrated. The discussion
is historical only In so far as these elements of Church Hie are made clear by
history.)
Litton, Ed. Arthur. The Church of Christ in its Idea, Attributes, and Ministry.
Svo, pp. 468. Philadelphia and New York, 1856.
Maurice, Frederick D. The Kingdom of Christ. Svo, pp. 595. New York, 1843.
M'Elhinney, Jolm J. Doctrine of the Church, with a Bibliography of the Subject.
Svo, pp. xvi, 464. Philadelphia, 1871.
Morris, Edward D. Eccleslology. A Treatise on the Church and Kingdom of God
on Earth. Svo, pp, iv, 187. New York, 1885.
Palmer, William. A Treatise on the Church of Christ. Svo, 2 vols., pp. 529, 557.
New York, 1841.
Sawyer, L. A. Organic Christianities, or the Church of God, with its Officers and
Government and its Divisions and Variations, Both in Ancient, Mediseval, and
Modern Times. 12iiio, pp. 455. Boston, 1854. (Part I discusses the polity
of the Christian Church under Christ and his apostles.)
Whately, Richard. The Kingdom of Christ. 12mo, pp. 210. New York, 1843.
8. Eschatology.
Bush, George. Anastasis ; or, The Doctrine of the Resurrection of the Body. 1 2mo.
New York, 1845.
Davidson, Samuel. The Doctrine of Last Things Contained In the New Testament,
Compared with the Notions of the Jews and the Statements of Church Creeds.
Pp. 170. London, 1882. (Denies that " any harmonious, homogeneous view
of the last things " Is to be found in the New Testament.)
Emerson, George H. The Doctrine of Probation Examined with Reference to Cur
rent Discussions. 12mo, pp. 175. Boston, 1883. (In opposition to the doc
trines ofthe limitation of probation to this life and to eternal punishment.
Farrar, F. W. Etern.il H"pe. ]2mo, pp. Ivll, 225. New York, 1878.
Greene, J. M. The Ble.ssed Dead. 16mo, pp. 8!). Boston, 1888. (Five sermons
concerning death and the life beyond the grave)
Haley, John W. Supplicium Sternum. The Hereafter of Sin ; What It Will
Be; with Answers to Certain Questions and Objections. 16mo, pp. 152. An
dover, 1881. (Maintains the endless punisliraent and increasing suffering of
the lost soul.)
Hanna, William.. The Resurrection of the Dead. Svo. Edinburgh, 1872.
Westcott, Brooke Foss. The Gospel of the Resurrection. ]2mo. London, 1869.
Jukes, Andrew. The Second Death and the Restitution of All Things. Eighth
'edition. 12mo, pp. xll, 194. New York, no date.
Luekook, Herbert Mortimer. After Death : an Examination of the Testimony of
Primitive Times Respecting the State ofthe Faithful Dead, and their Relation
ship to the Living. Fourth edition. Svo. London, 1882. (An investigation
of the testimony of the eariy Christians concerning their belief, touching
the state of the dead, and the value of prayers of the living for the dead, and
the dead for the living.)
Mann, Cameron. Five Discourses on Future Punishment : Preached in Grace Church,
Kansas City, Mo. 12mo, pp.183. New York, 1S88.
Mead, Charies M. Tlie i^onl Here and Hereaftpr : A Biblical Study. 12mo, pp. 462.
Boston.

480 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY.
Patterson, Robert M. Paradise ; The Place and State of Saved Soids between Death
and the Resurrection. Philadelphia. (Makes a distmction between "paradise,"
sheol, and hades, identifying the first with the abode of redeemed souls before
and after the resurrection of the body.)
Peters, George N. H. The Theocratic Kingdom of Our Lord Jesus, the Christ as
Covenanted in the Old Testarnent, and Presented in the New Testament. Svo,
3 vols., pp. 701, 780, 694. With full Indexes of Scripture, Authors and Books,
and Subjects. New York, 1885. (An elaborate treatment of the eschatological
problem from the pre-millenarlan view.)
Plumptre, E. H. The Spirits in Prison, and other Studies on the Life after Death.
Svo, pp. xll, 416. London. (Expresses belief in the possibility of repentance
in a future state.)
Roimensnyder, Junius B. Doom Eternal : The Bible and Church Doctrine of Ever
lasting Punishment. With an Introduction by C. P. Krauth, S.T.D., LL.D.
12mo, pp. 384. Philadelphia, 1884.
Schaff, Philip. Studies in Eschatology. Pp. 21. Presbyterian Revieiv, 1883, p.
723.
Smyth, Newman. Dorner on the Future State, heing a translation of the Section
of his System of Christian Doctrine, Comprising the Doctrine of the Last
Things, with an Introduction and Notes. 12mo, pp. 155. Now York, 1883.
(Begins with section 151 of Dorner's work and concludes with section 154.)
Warren, Israel P. The Parousia. A Critical Study of the Scripture Doctrines of
Christ's Second Coming; His Reign as King; the Resurrection of tho Dead;
and the General Judgment. Second edition. 12mo, pp: 394. Portland,
1884.
West, Nathaniel. Studies in Eschatology ; or. The Thousand Years in Both Testa
ments. With Supplementary Discussions upon Symbolical Numbers, the Devel
opment of Prophecy and its Interpretation concerning Isr.nel, the Nations, the
Church, and the Kingdom as Seen in the Apocalypses of Isalali, Ezekiel, Dan
iel, Christ, and John. 12mo, pp. 515. New York, 1889.
Wright, G. Frederick. An Inquiry Concerning the Relation of Death to Probation.
16mo, pp. 114. Boston, 1882. (The chief value of the work consists in the
author's clear statement of the fact that between the moral effect of a doubt
concerning this doctrine and the moral effect of a positive disbelief in It there
is little diflference.) 9. The Descent of Christ into Hell.
[.4non.] A Brief Answer unto Ciertaine Objections and Reasons against the Descen-
slon of Christ into Hell. 4to. Oxford, 1604.
Barrow, Isaac. Sermons on the Apostles' Creed. Sermon XXVIII. Works, vol.
ii, pp. 475. New York edition, 18^5. (Biirrow wholly discards most of the
senses attached to this passage of the Apostles' Creed.)
Broughton, Hugh. Au Explication of tlie Article of Clirist's Descent into Hell.
Worka, pp. 727-840. London, 1662.
Horsley, Samuel. Hosea. Translated from the Hebrew. With Notes. Second
edition. With a Sermon now first published on Christ's Descent into Hell.
4to, pp. 1, 226, 18. London, 1S04
. Huidekoper, Fredei'le. The Benef of the First Three Centuries concerning Christ's
Mission to the Under Worid. 12mo, pp. xii, 187. Boston, 1854.
Pearson, John. An Exposition of the Creed, Article V, " He Descended into Hell."
Svo, pp. 341-404. New York and Philadelphia, 1850. (This is a learned

CHRISTIAN ETHICS. 4-jl
expo.sition of the senses in which the words of Article V have been interpreted
by the Cliurch in various ages.)
Seiss, Joseph A. Christ's Descent Into" Hell. 12mo. London, 1887.
Smith, Richard. A Letter to Dr. Henry Hammond Concerning the Sense of that
Article In the Creed, " He Descended into Hell ; " together with Dr. Hammond's
Answer. Svo. London, 1684.
[Wlllett, Andrew.] LImbo-Mastix, that is a Canvlse of Limbns Patrum, Shewing
that Christ descended not In Soule to Hell to deliver the Fathers from thence'
4to. London, 1604. SECTION' XriL
CHRISTIAN ETHICS.
The theological ethios of Christianity, called by the elder writers
Theologia Moralis and Ethica Christiana, describes tlie tlieory of
the moral life as it should find expression in a Christian feeling,
which is produced by a living faith, and approves itself in a Christian
life. It occupies, in common -^vith dogmatics, the ground of posi
tive Christianltj', and, therefore, derives its fundamental principles
from Christianity. In another direction, however, it piace of ciiris-
stands connected with the general or philosopliical ethics "^" eiwcs.
of human origin; and while it differs from the latter witli regard to
its scientific form, and its starting points and motives, their sub
stance can never be contradictory to each other.
This science has been erroneously called practical theology by
some writers, who contrasted it with dogmatics, and regarded the
latter as a theoretical department, dogmatics being held to deal
with things to be believed, and practical theology with things to be
done. For, although ethics has to do more particularly with man's
powers of action and volition, while dogmatics is concerned with
his powers of perception and cognition, it would yet be highly un
scientific to regard ethics as a mere collection of practical rules. It
is even true that, in certain respects, ethics may be called a theory
with more propriety than dogmatics, since every theory requires a
corresponding practice." Ethics is cert.iinly employed upon the
' This holds true of practical theology properly so called. A word here with re
gard to the designation of this science. Dorner, ubi supra, decides in favour if
ethics, as compared with " morals." " Mos, mores (whence comes moral discipline)
refers more especitilly to the outward appearance than to the Interior source, and does
not, by far, approach the meaning ofthe Greek ^iJof. Mores describes character, in
deed, but not its unifying source. 'HiJof, originally the Ionic form of ^i?of, involves,
on the other hand, what is customary, the moral as generally accepted ; not only em
pirical manners (mos), whicli may be bad, but also what has been sanctioned, and is
according to method and rule." Comp. Ersch and Gruber, Encykl. a. v. Ethos. Nor
win it escape the notice of any who may study the us.ige of our time, that, while the
word morality was formerly of universal application, it is now held to be more refined
to lay stress upon " the ethical."
81

4S2 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY.
practical side of the dogmatical system, but it is requisite that the
practical side itself be theoretically, and, therefore, scientifically,
apprehended, and it was for this reason that the necessity for a sep
arate treatment of ethics, apart from dogmatics, was acknowledged
in a former connexion.' Such a separation does not by any means
involve a division by which ethics becomes independent of dogmat
ics. For even as faith and works are most intimately connected in
the practical sphere of Christianity, so that works become the fruit
age of faith, so is Christian ethics everywhere based upon dog-
T..,, matics. The absence from a system of Christian morals
Christian Eth- ... . . .
les based on of indications which everywhere give evidence of the
ogma ics. doctrinal views of its author, is always a bad sign.'' As
dogmatics, moreover, reaches back with its most general ideas into
the philosophy of religion, so. must Christian ethics join hands, in
its scientific expression, with philosophical ethics;' and it will even
resemble it more closely in outward appearance than dogmatics can
resemble the philosophy of religion. This results from the fact that
the features which are peculiar to a positive religion are more clear
ly apparent in its doctrinal statements than in its moral precepts.
Every historical religion, nevertheless, possesses definite moral
convictions, through which it governs peoples and times — a fact
which may be traced down through all the subdivisions of Protes
tantism and Roman Catholicism.'' It will, therefore, be necessary
for philosophical ethics to descend to the level occupied by the his
torical phenomena of the moral life which come under the influence
of positive religions, in order that it may derive life for the general
from particulars — unless it should prefer to move about in the
midst of dead abstractions. But its work will consist in utilizing
whatever is gnined in this way in the determining of the character
of universal morality, while Christian ethics is concerned to dis
cover the concrete and historically defined, and especially the char
acteristically Christian features, for their own sake. Its task is.
Christian Eth- therefore, as de Wette has shown,' analytical in its na-
*'hii^"^''hi"^V t^''^' while that of philosophical ethics is synthetical.
synthetical. ' The differences which exist between the two may, ac
cordingly, be stated as follows:
' Section 1, Part 1.
' Schleiermacher, § 229. Comp. also ibid., Christliche Sitte, p. 3 sqq.
^ It will, doubtless, be apparent that one philosophical system cannot possess au
thority in Philosophical and a different one in Christian ethics. — Schleiermacher, § 227.
* Comp. Schleiermacher, § 228, note ; Marheineke, System des Katholicismus, ii'i,
pp. 20-29.
' Lehrbuch der Sittenlehre, § 8,

CHRISTIAN ETHICS. 483
1. Philosophical ethics has to do with the determining of man
toward morality as a whole,' while Christian ethics represents the
manifestation of the divinely human life in the person of Christ as
constituting the ideal of morality, and, consequently, requires of
each individual that he should become like Christ. This forms the
Christian doctrine of the highest good."
2. The startingpoint of philosophical ethics lies, necessarily, in
the moral self-determination of man, which involves the evidence
of its own truth, in opposition to any determination on the part of
nature, while Christian ethics regards the Spirit of God as the de
termining power through the effectual working of his grace in the
believer's heart. This is the Christian doctrine of virtue which re
sults, without the slightest modification, from the teachings of
Christian dogmatics.
3. Philosophical ethics regards man in the relations which he
sustains toward the world, and determines his duties by that rule;
Christian ethjos has regard primarily to the relations sustained by
him toward the kingdom of God. This is the Christian system of
duties. The above distinctions should not give rise to the misapprehen
sion that a philosophical and a Christian morality, which could con
flict with each other, may exist, or that a thing may be moral
according to the principles of the one and not so according to the
principles of the other. The truth is, that the one serves merely to
confirm the other. Morality, which presents to view the Harmony of
human element, can no more be contradictory to that anacMstim
which involves the Christian element than the ideas man etiiics.
and Christ can contradict each other. Even Christian morality is
'The obligations of Christian ethics are binding only upon Christians; philosoph
ical ethics puts forth a universal claim, for its object is to secure the control of every
person who is able to comprehend the philosophical principles from which it is de
duced." Schleiermacher, Christliche Sitte, p. 2 ; comp. p. 7 sgg. ; de Wette, ubi
supra. Rothe likewise agrees with this view at bottom (Theol. Ethik., p. 35), although
he does not distinguish Christian so much as theological ethics from philosophical.
"The latter begins with the moral consciousness considered simply in that character,
while the theological proceeds from that consciousness as it exists in the individual,
under the determinate religious form assumed through the influence of the particular'
Christian Church to which he may belong, and also from the historical ideal of moral
ity as found in the Redeemer's person, of which the former is but a reflection." But
Christian and philosophical ethics do not come into contrast with each other on his
view, because philosophical ethics and philosophy in general are essentially Christian
within the bounds of Christendom. Rothe concedes a relative contrast, however, in
BO far as mankind have not been altogether penetrated by the influence of . Chris
tianity. ' See Schleiermacher, ubi supra, p. 36.

484 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY.
required to adapt itself to the conditions of mankind generally,"
and the philosophical must tend toward the Christian as its goal.
The foremost principle of the one, in each instance, is the ultimate
aim of the other. Religion, when regarded from the standpoint of
philosophical ethics, constitutes the crown and beauty of the moral
life, while from that of Christian ethics it forms its root. In the
view of philosophical morality, the Christian community is but one
society beside others, in the State, in behalf of which certain duties
are doubtless to be performed ; but the human society of the State,
as being the most general form of a moral organism, is the under
lying idea.
Christian ethics, on the other haiid, starts out from the idea of
the Christian community as a distinctively religious organism, and,
spreading outward in constantly expanding circles, it comes to in
clude at last the duties which men owe to the State. Brotherly
love {(jiiXadehpla), which has its origin in love to Christ, is by it
extended into universal love. The supreme law in philosophical
ethics, on the contrary, is respect for the dignity of human nature in
other people, from which most general conception it afterward de
scends to the level of the several conditions of actual life, in which
righteousness becomes spiritualized, and transformed into the prin
ciple of love. The latter result would, of course, be beyond its
powers of attainment, did not Christianity itself afford it a clearly
defined embodiment of the idea; for "it is able," in its character
as philosophical ethics, "to do no more than set up pattern speci
mens of the moral life in general outline, while Christian ethics sets
forth in detailed examples and precepts the problems which have
actually been solved in the pages of Revelation." " Christian ethics,
' De Wette, § 9 : " Christian ethics is required to be human, to adapt itself to
human capabilities and needs, since it could not, on the contrary principle, bring an
effective influence to bear on man." Bruch, p. 19 : " The more thoroughly the ethics
of Christianity is apprehended, and the spirit by which it is animated is understood
in its purity, the more will the conviction grow that it is nothing else than the truest
reflection of the legislation which is woven into the nature of the human mind, and
which, asserting itself in living power in the mind, is designed to lead man toward the
goal of his destination." Pelt, Encyklopaedie, p. 620 : " True reason is always one,
and finds its highest and purest mode of expression in Christianity; the vask remains
the same."
' De Wette, § 4; or, in other words, Pelt, Encykl., p. 620: "The process of the
unification of nature and reason is only indicated in the philosophical realm, while it
is accomplisl\^ed in the Christian." But comp. Dorner, ubi supra, p. 190: "The sep
aration of the two branches of philosophical and theological ethics, which must con
tinue at least as long as philosophical ethics may desire, causes conflict. This, how
ever, is beneficial, not only to the end that reason, outside the pale of Christianity,
may recognise with increasing clearness that its truth and purity are attainable only

CHRISTIAN ETHICS. 483
therefore, passes beyond the philosophical. To the former be
long the recognition of moral conditions and an abun- (.hrtajj^ j^.
dance of moral forces which are in thorough harmony transcend phu-
with human nature, though imparted to it rather than °^' '^^
originating in it. It may be said, accordingly, that to this extent
philosophical ethics has to do simply with the moral nature of man,
while Christian ethics is engaged upon the positive and Divine
qualities which have been introduced into that nature, with grace
and its salutary effects. It is, of course, necessary that a correct
idea be obtained of this positive element, and of its relation to the
natural man. It is the task of dogmatics to secure this idea.
SECTION XVIIL
Christ's work the basis of ethics.
The positive element of Christian ethics does not consist in any
authoritative letter of either the Old or the New Tes- ^jjg o^jti^ggm.
tament, but in a course of life which was introduced ment of christ-
into human conditions, and typically actualized, by
Christ, and which, through the influence of his Spirit, is to be con
tinued in the community of believers, and to approve itself as a
moral force upon the outside world.
It was long customary to so conceive the positive feature of
Christian ethics, and the characteristics by which it is distinguished
from philosophical ethics, as to warrant the statement that the lat
ter acknowledges the authority of reason only, the former that of
the Bible. Two entirely different authorities were thus opposed to
each other in a form altogether outward, it being assumed that the
Bible contains a collection of Divine commands, which were even
characterized as " arbitrary," as contrasting with the autonomous
requirements of reason." The idea bears only against a false and
merely formal supernaturalism, which assumes that the Bible is
simply a code of faith and morals, and grounds the positively re
vealed ethics in the good pleasure of God. The Old Testament may
through the religion of the incarnated Uyo(, but also on account of the non-Christian
elements in Christian theology itself, which afford a partial endorsement of the ethics
of the general human reason as against theological ethics, until the ethical self-con
sciousness of the Church, which coincides with the ideal process by which the first
and the second nature interpenetrate each other, is complete.'' Comp. also Gelzer's
Monatsbl., ubi supra.
' Ernesti, Vindiciae arbitrii divini in religione constituenda (Opusc. theol. i, p. 171
«q.). Per contra, Toellner, Disquisitio, utrum Deus ex mere arbitris potestatem suam
legislatoriam exerceat, etc., Lugd. Bat., 1770; de Wette, ubi supra, p. 4. Comp.
Dorner, vbi supra, p. 188, against this false positivism.

486 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY.
possibly correspond to such an idea, and the Decalogue, although
it might with but little difficulty be traced back to the general
foundations of morality, has, in point of fact, been long compelled
to serve as a framework for Christian ethics.
But it is also true that they who have correctly regarded the
teaching of Jesus as the regulative feature, have too constantly
considered it as merely statutory, without sufficiently remembering
Jesus not a that the profound significance of that teaching can only
Si" Statutory ^® Comprehended in connexion with the life of Jesus
teacher. and with the entire work of salvation. Jesus did not
aim to enunciate disconnected moral maxims, like Epictetus, nor is
his example, to which appeal is made, mere superadded example ;
and it cannot, in many circumstances, be example even for us.' For
a Christian disposition does not consist in the imitation of his ex
ample in special matters, but in the imitating or appropriating of
his spirit (Phil, ii, 5). As dogmatics builds upon the foundation
laid by apologetics, whose work is to prove that Christianity is a
religion, and indeed the absolute religion, so is ethics required to
begin with taking its stand upon the apologetical result that Christ
is the sinless One, the actualized moral ideal for humanity, and
that, therefore, Christianity is not simply a general sort of moral
™. . .. .. .u phenomenon, but the universal moral power which rules
Christianity the '¦ , , » , , . tt
universal moral over the whole of modern history. Hence its positive
f"'"""'' feature is not a letter, but an act — the revelation of
God through Christ incarnated in human nature. Its question,
therefore, will not be merely, "What is written?" but rather,
"What is in harmony with the spirit of Christ?" Likewise, as
dogmatics already entertains ideas which are not expressly con
tained in the Bible — for example, the Trinity — so is Christian ethics,
in the course of its development, imperatively required to pass be
yond the letter of the Bible, and is, therefore, required to engage
in tbe exact definition of moral ideas. The most blessed fruits of
Christianity are fruits of which but the germ exists in the Bible —
for example, the idea of a Christian State, of Christian marriage
and all that it involves, of the abolition of slavery, of respect for

' The situation that one comes to occupy when he demands for every particular act
a warrant from the moral deportment of CJirist, may be learned from the example of
Thomas a Kemijjs, who deduced the duty of writing bodiss from John viii, 6. Vide
Ullmann, Reformers before the Reformation, ii, p. 161. Schleiermacher's words re
lating to the individual bearings of Christian ethics (Die christliche Sitte, p. 48 sqq.)
are very significant in this connexion. The setting up of a pattern in the field of
morals is always a questionable procedure. An ideal, such as that to which we seek
to attain, is more than a pattern which we strive to copy.

DIVISION OP ETHICS. 487
individual life, and of religious services on the Christian Sabhatii.
These have been freely developed in the course of human life, with
out any direct command or statute in the Scriptures imposing the
duty. Hence, as dogmatics presupposes the history of doctrines, so
does Christian ethics have regard to the entire development of the
Christian life, in which connexion such inalformations as Montanism,
Pantheism, Gnosticism, Asceticism, Jesuitism, Quietism, also come
under notice, as marks of warning, similar to the study of heresies
in dogmatics. SECTION XIX.
division of ethics.
Christian, like philosophical, ethics falls into general principles
and particular or applied ethics. The former is concerned with the
settling of the moral principle, or, better, of the objects (,j,^igtig^„ g(„_
and motives of moral action, and hence, with the inves- ics general and
tigation of man's moral nature and capacities, the cor- ^^"^'^ ¦
rect bounding of the ideas of good and evil, of sin and imputation,
and of grace and freedom. It also has to do with the work of set
ting forth the goal of all moral effort, with the doctrine of the
highest good, all of which leads back again into the profoundest
depths of the doctrines of the faith. Special ethics, on the other
hand, has to do with the particular manifestations and expressions
ot the moral life in given circumstances, and is subdivided into the
particular doctrines of virtue and of duty.
The division into general and special ethics is, of course, only
relative. Rothe's observation, in opposition to this view, that it is
"merely external and formal, in a thoroughly abstract way,"' is
correct if the division be taken as an absolute one, and if it be car
ried out in an abstract and lifeless manner. But an examination
of Rothe's work itself will show at once that the first two volumes
contain general ethics, together with matter that is usually includ
ed under dogmatics, and that the third is devoted to special morals,
although the author, at this point, in connexion with the doctrine
of duties, again distinguishes between the general and the par
ticular. He justly declares, that, with reference to general ethics,
the discussion relating to a "supreme moral principle" yig^gotRothe
is confusing and without result. He demands, instead, Harless, and
a threefold object, which he disposes into the doctrines
of good, of virtue, and of duties. Other writers have preferred a
different division. Harless sets forth the following three parts;
' Theol. Ethik, i, p. 199.

488 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY.
the good, the possession, and the preservation, of salvation. The
last named of these has to do with " the concrete manifestation of
Christian virtue in the fundamental relations of human life," and
hence coincides, in this regard, with special ethics. Pelt likewise
divides ethics into three parts:' (I) The actualizing of the highest
good upon earth in the form of the kingdom of God ; (2) Of the will
of the individual, to be developed in conformity with the doctrine
of duties; and (3) The realizing of the highest good in the habitual
character of individual Christians, or the doctrine of virtue. Rosen
kranz, following the antithetical method of the Hegelian school, di
vides the M'hole «sf ethics into the two diverging ideas of good and
evil, and of human freedom.' By this method the first and second
form the general, and the third the special, part.'
Schleiermacher's division is in harmony with his fundamental
views of Christianity." The end of Christianity is held to be bless-
sohieiermaoh- edness in God, which, however, has been disturbed by
er's method. the consciousness of sin. This fact gives rise to a feel
ing of disinclination, out of which comes an impulse to act in the
direction of restoring the idea, now violated, of the relation between
the higher and the lower potencies of life, or, in other words, of
restoring human nature to its normal condition. This is restorative
action. Over against such disinclination, moreover, is an inclination,
or voluntary desire, to yield to the authority of the higher require
ment, and this gives rise to expansive or extensive action. But,
in addition, there are elements of satisfaction, intermediate between
the inclination and the disinclination, which do not, indeed, corre
spond to absolute blessedness, but yet are a relative blessedness;
and these originate action, designed, not to introduce changes, but,
while remaining without any proper efficiency, to serve as an ex
pression of the individual's inward state. This is descriptive action,
whose only object is to recommend the personal experience of the
individual to the favour of others. Its general expression compre
hends everything which we are accustomed to include under the
name of Christian worship.
Whatever may be the method, however, by which it is intended
to formally connect theological ethics with dogmatics, on the one
hand, and, on the other, to combine or isolate philosophical ethics
from dogmatics, and whatever may be the mode by which we seek
to distribute the proper tasks of philosophical ethics over different
departments, and to trace the various radii from the centre to the
' Encyklopaedie, p. B19. ' Ibid., p. 57.
' Other methods of dividing are given in Pelt, p. 623.
* Christliche Sitte, p. 44 sgg.

DIVISION OF ETHICS. 480
circumference of life, everything will depend upon the discovery
of the centre itself, in order to trace, in the spirit of the Gospel,
"the main outlines toward a thorough regeneration of the moral
life in both State and Church." '
Asceticism and pedagogics are sometimes regarded as special
subdivisions of ethics, the former as teaching man how Asceticism and
to train himself for morality, the latter as showing how pedagogics.
he may train others. But since every exercise of moral power re
acts upon the moral disposition, while the good cannot be secured
without conflict, it follows that ascetici'sm is already conditioned in
morality. Many forms of exercise occur in the practice of godli
ness {yvfivaaia, I Tim. iv, 7, 8), being at times largely negative, and
aiming to avert the evil by reacting against the power of sensual
allurements, as we see in the medieval asceticism, fasting, mortifi
cations, voluntary abstinence, and in other abnormal forms. Then,
again, they are largely positive, stimulating the good by meditat
ing upon the supreme good itself, and by absorbing the emotions
in the divine ideals. All of this, however, finds a place in moral
ity itself. According to Schleiermacher's division, the former would
belong to the class of restorative actions, and the latter to that of
descriptive actions.
The moral principles involved in education must likewise be dis
cussed in ethics, and more especially under the head of expansive
actions.' The art of training, however, the technics of education,
forms a distinct science, which is properly termed pedagogics, but
which is not a theological, but a philosophical, science, in so far as
it deals with man as a whole. It belongs to practical theology in
so far as it is concerned with a training for ecclesiastical life.
Casuistry, too, has been treated as a distinct branch. It has to
do ¦with cases in which duties come into conflict with
each other {de casibus conscientiae). Kant designated ^"'^ ^^'
it as the "dialectics of conscience." It is, however, merely the
outgrowth from a scholastic and Jesuitical morality, and, as such,
is to be banished from a sound system of ethics, inasmuch as it does
not present actual cases of conflict to view, and merely resolves
apparent cases by a higher law.
' Gelzer, Protest. Monatsbl. fiir innere Zeitgeschichte, 1854, Preface to vol. iv.
The author includes among the most indispensable prerequisites for such a, work, a
profound understanding of modern history from the Eeformation to our times, and
Incessant energetic investigation of original sources, and inquiry into the original
meaning of Christianity, and also into the laws of its transformations in the field of
secular and ecclesiastical history.
" See Schleiermacher, ubi supra, p. 53 ; Rothe, iii, p. 679 sgg.

I I
490 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY.

SECTION XX.
the history of ethics.
E. Feuerlein, Die Sittenlehre des Christenthums in Ihren geschlchtlichen Hauptformen, Tiib.,
1855 ; A. Neander, Vorlessungen iiber die Geschichte der chrlstlichen Ethik, pub. by Erdmann,
Berl., 1864; C. S. Wake, Evolution of Morality; being a History of the Development of Moral
Culture, 2 vols., Lond., 1878; A. Thoma, Oeschichte des christlichen Sittenlehre In der Zeit des
N. Test., Haarlem (Lpz.), 1879 ; Wuttke, Chrisiian Ethics, 2 vols., N. Y., 1873, treats the History
In vol. I.
The Bible presents to our notice neither a system of morality nor
one of doctrines; but it has a wealth of moral precepts, all of which
are animated by, and borne upon, the spirit of the theocracy, and
which are interwoven with the history of God's kingdom, like pearls
in a diadem. Nor did the apostolic fathers refrain from moral ad-
Ethioai labours monitions. In the progress of the conflict with the
of the Fathers, heathen, or antique, conception of the world, the more
rigid view of Montanism soon came to occupy a place beside the
milder tendency. ' In another direction, mistaken views of Christian
liberty, on the part of the Gnostics, led into the dangerous errors
of the Carpocratians, and the later pantheistic sects of the Middle
Ages. It thus became the task of Christian theology to more ex
actly determine and regulate Christian morality. Certain prelimi
nary labours had already been performed by the apostolic fathers
and the apologists. We see this esjiecially in Clement of Rome
and the Shepherd of Hermas. Clement of Alexandria followed,
giving many moral precepts, carried down to particulars in the
pedagogics, and treating in his Miscellaneous works the moral law
and virtue as the chief good.
A considerable number of treatises of a moral nature are found
in the works of Tertullian, which must be divided into classes, ac
cording as they were written before or after his conversion to
Montanism, e. g., On Theatricals, Idolatry, The Soldier's Crown,
The Pallium, Patience, Veiled Virgins, Exhortation to Chastity,
Monogamy, Modesty, and other works. In a similar spirit Cyprian
wrote an Exhortation on Martyrdom, on Good, on Patience, and on
Works and Alms. The preachers Macarius, Basil the Great, the
two Gregories, Chrysostom, Ephraim Syrus, and Cyril of Jerusalem
made extended use of moral references, and many of their sermons
are purely moral. Ambrose, too, in his works on Virgins, and on
the Duties of Ministers of the Church, and Augustine, in his works
on the Morals of the Catholic Church and on Continence, furnished
Ethical works of Hioral and ascetic treatises. Jerome rendered profit-
early writers, able service, especially to monastic asceticism, in his
polemical conflict with Jovinian and Vigilantius, and his Morals of

THE HISTORY OF ETHICS. 4f,l
Gregory the Great (died 604), in his work on Job, indicate the na
ture of their contents by their title. In this department, as in dog
matics, the work of compilation preceded that of systematic ar
rangement, as we see in several of the works of John of Damascus.
The dogmatical works of scholasticism include ethics also, it be
ing largely controlled by the " four cardinal and three theological
virtues" of Aristotle. Casuistry, also, was developed under its in
fluence, Raymond de Pennaforte (died 1275) obtaining special celeb
rity by his Summary on Penitence. The Victorines and the later
Mystics penetrated more deeply into the foundations of the religi
ously moral life, but committed the error of not basing asceticism
upon the spirit of Christian liberty. This applies also to the valu
able Imitation of Christ of Thomas a Kempis. The Etwcai reaction
continually increasing corruption in the Church after in the church.
the removal of the papal chair to Avignon, and the separation of
the churches, produced a mighty reaction.
The forerunners of the Reformation, such as Wycliffe, Huss, and
others, pointed out, among other things, moral infirmities, and the
reawakened interest in classical studies, likewise, intro- Humanism and
duced a new feature into ethical teaching. Morality ethics.
was exalted into a guide to the wisdom of Christianity for the
practical government of life by Petrarch (died 1374), Marsilius
Ficinus (died 1499), Louis Vives (died 1540), Erasmus (died 1563;
Manual of the Christian Soldier) and others. Savonarola (died
1498) wrote his Simplicity of Christian Life in a spirit of larger
sympathy with Christian faith. While the Reformation must
be regarded as a moral renovation, not as a reform of abstract
doctrine, it was yet, first of all, necessary that the new principle
should be apprehended in the way of conquering the faith of men.
The reformers, therefore, appear as moral heroes and The reformers
inaugurators of a new period, but not as moralists in ^^^ e"''<=^-
the strict sense. Zwingli, however, presents with special force in
his sermons the morals of practical life. He performs that same
office, also, in his writings. The Shepherd, Freedom of Foods, and
other works. Luther, in his Letters, Meditations, Sermons, Appeal
to the German Nobility, and similar writings, gives living witness
of the moral spirit by which he was animated. Melanchthon, in his
Elements, however, accorded a scientific treatment to ethics, though
from an ancient standpoint. Calvin, who, as a reformer, was
a Christian, Cato-like censor, included ethics in the doctrine of re
generation, as expounded in his Institutes, under the Life of the
Christian Man, The Bearing of the Cross, and other chapters.' In
' Institutes, Ii, 8 ; comp. lib. iii, c. 6-8.

493 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY.
the Reformed Church generally it was common, in view of the
position occupied by the Old Testament, to attach great promi
nence to the legal element, and to combine it into a system, chiefly
in connexion with the Decalogue.
The first to treat Christian ethics as a separate theological depart-
First separate ™®"* belonged to this Church— namely, Lambert Da-
treatment of naeus (Danaen, died 1536), in his Christian Ethics
ethics. (Geneva, 1577, I60I-40). The school of Saumur pro
duced in the seventeenth century the Christian Morals (1652-69,
6 vols.), by Moses Amyraud (died 1664), in which the attempt was
made to harmonize natural with revealed ethics. A new interest
was imparted to the study of ethics by the Cartesian philosophy,
particularly within the Reformed Church;' and Arminianism gave
special prominence to the ethical side of Christianity as constitut
ing an essential feature.
After Calixtus' had, in the Lutheran Church, separated ethics
Protestant eth- from dogmatics, which he does in his Epitome' of Moral
ical writers. Theology (1634-62), other affiliated works were pub
lished, such as those of Conr. Durr, of Altorf (died 1677; Com
pendium of Moral Theology, 1698); G. Th. Meier, of Helmstedt
(died 1693); J. Ch. Schemer, of Rostock (died 1693; Moral The
ology Consistent with Itself, 1707), and similar works. The two
movements of Pietism and Methodism reacted upon the ethical life
with stimulating and purifying effect. The close of the old and
the transition into the new period was marked, both in dogmatics
and ethics, by Buddaeus in his Institutes of Moral Theology (I7II,
1724), and J. L. Mosheim in his Ethics of the Holy Scriptures
(Helmst. and Leips., 1735-53, 9 vols.). These were succeeded by
Rambach (1738, 4to), S. J. Baumgarten (Halle, 1764), Crusius
(Leips., 1772, 1773, 2 vols.), G. Less (1777, 4th ed., 1787), Ende-
mann (1780, 2 vols.), Dodeiiein (Jena, 1789; 3d ed., 1794), Mich
aelis (Gott., 1792, 2 vols.), Morus (1794-99, 3 vols., published by
Voight), and others.
In the Roman Catholic Church the Jesuits especially devoted
Roman catho- themselves to ethics, dragging it further and further
He ethics. into the labyrinths of casuistry, and shaking it to its
lowest foundations by their miserable theory of probabilism. The
most notorious are Gabriel Vasquez (died 1604), Thomas Sanchez
(died I6I0), Francis Suarez (died 1617), Paul Laymann (died 1635),
' Comp. Pelt, p. 479.
^ The Lutheran Church had not been without ethical writers even prior to Calixtus;
tbe latter merely gave to ethics a more systematic form, and brought it into connexion
with the body of Church teaching. Comp. Henke, ubi supra, p. 514.

THE HISTORY OF ETHICS. 4C3
Vine. Filliucius (died 1622), Escobar (died 1669), and Busenbaum
(died 1669), in his Marrow of Cases of Conscience. This work,
which first appeared in 1645, has passed through 52 editions. It
has been rewritten and enlarged by Lacroix (Cologne, 1757) and
others. Jesuitism was confronted bj- the stricter and more Augus
tinian spirit of Jansenism and the school of Port Royal, to which
Ant. Arnauld, Pierre Nicole (Essay on Morals, Par., I671-I714,
6 vols.), and Pasquicr Quesnel (Abridgment of the Morals of
the Gospel, Par., 1693) belonged. They combined with a thor
oughly sincere moral disposition a strict asceticism, amounting
almost to enthusiasm, and not unfrequently an obscure mysticism."
Quietism was a distinct outgrowth from this tendency.
A new period for ethics began with Kant and his doctrine of the
Categorical Imperative, by which ethics was happily Want's treat-
delivered from the fetters of an erroneous theory of ment of ethics.
blessedness, or Eudsemonism, but was at the same time robbed of
its profound religious motives, and transformed into a species of
moral arithmetic. Even (Jhristian ethical writers, such as Ammon,
followed this system for a time, while others, as Reinhard, pro
ceeded by the eclectic and empirical route. Men of strong supra-
naturalistic faith, like Schwarz and Flatt, contented themselves
with adhering only to what is scriptural, without starting out with
any definite scientific principle. De Wette has pointed out the
necessity for such a principle.' As Schleiermacher created an
epoch in philosophical ethics by his Critique of Morals, so his treat
ment of Christian ethics is thoroughly peculiar, and everywhere
based on the specifically Christian element. From this time a
striving to attain to a more thoroughly scientific character is appar
ent in most of the Protestant works belonging to the department
of ethics, however strongly their authors may be controlled by dis
similar fundamental views.
Richard Rothe has, according to Bunsen's judgment, penetrated
more deeply than his predecessors " into the innermost marrow of
ethical speculation, and has demonstrated that Christianity is the
realization of the highest thoughts of God." In the Roman Cath
olic Church, Liguori (died 1787) and Bened. Stattler, (Ethics, 1782)
endeavoured to restore probabilism. Others adopted the older
scholastic method, for exam]i]e, Liebermann in his Institutes (May
ence, 1840, 5 vols.). Among the Roman Catholic moralists who
have shown themselves accessible to the scientific impulses of the
century, to a greater or smaller extent, we may mention Schwarz-
' On this point compare especially Reuchlin's Gesch. von Port Royal.
2 In Beriin wissensch. Zeltsehrift, 1819, Nos. 1 and 2.

404 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY.
haber (1785), Lauber (1784-88), AVanker (1794), Mutschelle (1802,
1803), GeisshUttner (1803), Schenkl (1802, 1803), Reykberger (1794),
Reigler (2d ed., 1828), and Vogelsang (Bonn, 1834-39, 2 vols.).
The latter is a disciple of George Hermes. The manuals^and text
books of J. M. Sailer (Bishop of Ratisbon), Heinrich Schreibor,
and Joh. Bapt. von Hirscher are especially noteworthy because of
their practical aim.
ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE OP CHRISTIAN ETHICS.
1. General.
Adams, Jasper. Elemeuts of Moral Pliilosophy. Svo, pp. 492. New York, 1837.
(Part I, Relation to God and tlie nuties thence Arising; 'Part II, Relation to the
Citizen; Part III, Individual Relations to Others; Part lY, Duties, and Obliga
tions to One's Self : Part Y, Review of the Chief Professions and Employ
ments ; Part VI, Christian Duties.)
Alden, Joseph. Christian Ethics; or. The Science of Duty, lilmo. New York, 1867.
Alexander, Archibald. Outlines of Moral Science. 12mo, pp. 272. New York, 1370.
Bascom, J. Ethics; or. Science of Duty. 12mo, pp. xiii, 883. New York, 1879.
Birks, T. R. Supernatural Revelation ; or, First Principles of Moral Theology. Svo,
pp. vl, 240. London, 1819.
Blaekie, John. Four Phases of Morals: Socrates, Arlstotb, Christianity, Utilita-
1'iani.sm. 12mo, pp. vll, 331. New York, 1872.
Butler, Joseph. Sermons. Svo, pp. xxiv, 30.1. New York, 1846. (This work is
the fountain from which some of the best English and American writers on
Ethics have drawn their doctrines. Butler's achievement in ethics is his ex
position of Conscience, " as the highest tribunal of man's nature, which sur-
veys, approves, or disapproves the several aCFoctlons of our minds and passions
of our lives.")
Calderwood, Henry. Handbook of Moral Philosophy. Seventh edition. 8vo, pp. xl,
297. London, 1881.
Challcn, James. Christian Morals. ISmo. Philadelphia, 1859.
Cobbo, Frances Power. Darwinism in Morals, and Other Es-ays. Reprinted from the
Theological and Fortnightly Reviews, Fraser's and MacmlUan's Magazines, aud
the Manchester Friend. 12n]o, pp. 422. Boston, 1883. (A liberal Unitarian
examination of many topics, among them the Evolution of Morals and Religion,
Hereditary Piety, the Devil, tho Religions of the AVorld, and the Religion ot
Childhood.)
Dagg, J. Leadley. The Elements of Moral Science. 1 2mo, pp. 374. New York, 1 SdO.
Davies, J. Llewelyn. Tlioology and Morality, Belief and Practice. Svo. London, 1873.
Dewar, D. Elements of Mural Philosophy and of Christian Ethics. Svo, 2 vols.
London, 1S26.
Dymond, Jonathan. Essays on the Principles of Morality, and on the Private and Po
litical Rights and Obligations of Mankind. Svo, pp. 432. Now York, 1834.
Fleming, W. A Manual of Moral Philosophy, with Quotations and References fof
tlie Use of Students. New edition. Svo, pp. 439. London, 1871.
Gillett, E. H. The Moral System ; with an Historical and Critical Introduction, with
Special Reference to Butler's Analogy. 8vo, pp. 231. New York, 1874.
Godwin, John H. Acllvo Principles; or. Elements of Moral SolcnW, Mental Feel
ings, Volitions, Moral Perceptions, and Sentiments. Svo. Loiidon, 1885,

LITERATURE OP CHRISTIAN ETHICS. , 495
Green, Thomas Hill. Prolegomena to Kthics. Svo. Oxford, 1883. (The first book
deals with the Metaphysics of Knowledge. A close criticism of Mill.)
Haven, Joseph. Moral Philosophy; Including Theoretical aud Practical Ethics.
]2mo, pp. 366. Boston, 1860.
HIckok, Laurens P. A System of Moral Science. Revised with the Co-operation of
Julius H. Scelye, LL.D. 12mo, pp. 288. Boston, 1880
Hopkins, Mark. The Law of Love, and Love as a Law ; or, Moral Science, Theoret
ical and Practical; with Strictures by Dr. M'Cosh, with Replies. 12mo. pp
342. New York, 1869. New edition, 1875.
Hopkins, Mark. Lectures on Moral Science, Delivered before the Lowell Institute,
Boston. 12mo, pp. xvi, 288. New York, 1862.
Janet, Paul. The Theory of Morals. Translated from the latest Prench edition by
Mary Chapman. Pp. 490. Edinburgh and New York, 1883. (Book I deals with
The Good; Book If, The Law or Duty; Book III, Morality.)
Jarrel, W. A. Old Testament Ethics Vindicated; being an E.^posltion of Old
Testament Morals; a Comparison of Old Testament Morals with the Morwls
of Heathen so-called "Sacred Books," Religious, Philosophical, and Intidel
Writers; and a Vindication of -Old Testament Morals Against Infidelity. Second
edition. 12rai, pp. 285. Greenville, Tex., 1883.
Kant, Emnnuel. Critique of Practical Rea'ion, and other Works on the Theory of
Ethics. Translated by Thomas KingsmUl Abbott. Fourth edition. Revised
and EnUnrged, wilh Memoir and Portrait. 8vo, pp. Ixiv, 368. London, 1889.
Lcalhcrman, P. R. Elements of Moral Science. 12mo, pp. 414. Philadelphia, 18C0.
(Follows the Scripture as closely as possible.)
Mnllook, W. II. Property and Progress ; or, A Brief Inquiry into Contemporary
Social Agitation in England. Svo. New York, 1 884.
Martensen, H. Chrisiian Ethics. Special Part. First Division: Individual Ethics.
Translated from the Author's German edition by William Appleck, B.D. Svo,
pp. vl, 423. Edinburgh and New York, 1881.
Martensen, H. Christian Etlucs. Special Part. Second Division : Social Ethics.
Translated from tho Author's German edition by Sophia Taylor. Svo, pp. 384.
Edinburgh and New York, 1883.
Martineau, Janie.'!. . Types of Ethical Theory. Svo, 2 vols. Oxford, 1 885. (An
inlultlonist, the author pronounces moral judgment to be the verdict of a faculty,
giving by immediate inspection the moral worth of any given mode of conduct.
Is largely historical, and in some of its principles follows Butler.)
Novnntlcus, Scotftis. Ethica; or, The Ethics of Reason. 12mo. London, 1884.
(Opposes Utilitarianism — finds the grounds of moral action in man's nature.)
Payne, George. Elements of Mental and Moral Science. Third edition. Enlarged.
Svo, pp. 456. London, 1845.
Peabody, A. P. AManiial of Moral Philosophy. 12mo, pp. 233. New York, 1873.
Porter, Noah. The Elemeuts of Moral Science, Theoretical and Practical. Svo, pp.
xxv, 574. New York, 1885. (The doctrine of the freedom ofthe will is main
tained, and the fact that only the voluntary in human actio;: and experience has
moral quality is recognized, and also that the genesis of tlie idea and ground of
obligation are not In the reason, but In the sensibility.
Rivers, R. H. Elements of Moral Philosophy. Edited by T. 0. Summers. 12mo,
pp, 381. Nashville, Tenn., 1860. (Part I, Theoretical Ethics; Part II, Practical
Ethics. Chapter VI treats of slavery from the apologetic p' int of view.)
Sartorin.s, Ernest. The Doctrine of Divine Love ; or. Outlines of tlie Moral Theology
of the Evangelical Church. Svo, pp. xxxll, 378. New York, 1884. (Part I,

498 SYSTE.MATIC THEOLOGY.
Primary Divine Love : its Contrast, and the Reconciliation of iliat Contrast;
Part II, Of Divine Love Renewing and Perfecting.)
Schurman, J. Gould. Kantian Eihics and the Ethics of Evolution. A Critical
Study. l2mo, pp. 103. London, 1881.
Smith, Alexander. The Philosophy of Morals. Svo, 2 vols,, pp, xxvii, 304, 342,
London, 1835.
Spalding, Samuel. The Philosophy of Christian Morals. Svo, pp. xxviii, 430. Lon
don, 1843.
Spencer, Herbert. The Data of Ethics. 12ino, pp. xxxiv, 288. New York, 1S83.
Stephen, Leslie. The Science of Eihics. Svo, pp. xxviii, 462, New York, 1863,
(An exposition of the ethics of evolutiou.)
Wardlaw, Ralph. Christian Ethics; or. Moral Philosophy on the Principles of Divine
Revelation. Svo, pp. xii, 416. Liudon, 1833.
Wayland, Frances. The Elements of Moral Science. Seventy-seventh edition.
12mo, pp. 396. Boston, 1865.
Whewell, William. The Elements of Morality, including PoHtJ^ 12mo, 2 vols.
New York, 1845.
Whewell, William. Lectures on the History of Moral Philosophy in England. New
edition. Svo. London, 1852.
Winslow, Hubbard, Moral Philosophy: Analytical, Synthetlctil, and Practical,
Sixth edition. ' 12mo, pp. 480. New York, 1866.
Wuttke, Adolf. Christian Ethics. With a Special Preface, by Dr. Riehm. Trans
lated by .lohn P, Lacroix. 12mo, 2 vols., pp. 378, 348. New York, 1873.
(Introdnction to Vol. II by W. F. Warren ; Vol. I treats of the History of Ethics ;
Vol II, ot Pure Ethics.) 2. Ethical Monographs.
Dwinell, I. E. Easy Divorce : lis Causes and Evils. A Social Study. Pp. 19.
New Englander, 1884, p. 48.
Evans, Hugh Davey. A Treatise on the Christian Doctrine of Marriage. 12nio,
pp. Ixviii, 385. New York, 1870.
Hovey, Alvah. The Scriptural Law of Divorce. 16mo, pp. 12. Boston, 1866.
(Dr. Hovey treats first of the Scriptiire law as declared by Christ, aud next as
applied by Paul.)
Woolsey, Theodore D. Divorce and Divorce Legislation. Second edition. 12mo, pp.
308. New York, 1SS5. (The author believes that It Is better for tlie present to
.accept a law which sometimes allows divorces on other than sorlptural grounds.)
ViTrlght, Carroll D. A Report on Marriage and Divorce in the United States, 1807
to 1886; including an Appendix Relatlns to Marriage and Divorce in Certain
Countries in Europe. Revised edition. Svo, pp. 1,074. Washington, 1891.
(This not only gives a statistical view of the question, but a synopsis ofthe law
in each State and Territory.)
For a full discusskm ofthe subject consult Poole's Index to Periodical Literature and
Supplements. SECTION XXI.
THE METHODOLOGY OF SYSTEMATIC THEOI.OOY.
The study of systematic theology can be pursued with profit only
after the preparatory studies in exegetical and historical theology
have been completed. Yet it is possible to so awaken an interest

THE METHODOLOGY OF SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 407
for dogmatics and ethics, while pursuing such preparatory studies,
that a proper and methodical study of the former science will only
require for its complete treatment such elements from the mental
and outward experiences of life as have developed into personal
convictions. It is by no means possible to master dogmatics by
study alone. It requires to become a possession of the mind as the
result of earnest conflict. The same is true of ethics. It is first of
all necessary that Christianity shall have been justified as a divine
fact to the personal consciousness, and consequently that apolo
getics shall have subjectively performed its work in the mind of the
dogmatic theologian. Otherwise it will be impossible to determine
and practically complete the objective development of dogmatics
into a science.
The study of encyclopsedia is designed to awaken an interest in
dogmatics. The theologian is invited to direct his attention, with
the first step he takes into the science, upon that point at which all
theology culminates in a scientific aspect. He is not to lose sight
of the goal while examining into the great variety of matters which
intervene, although this is likely to occur where a soulless and
micrological exegesis is employed, or the ordinary road of trodden
ecclesiastical history is followed. The dogmatic heights cannot be
stormed, but must be gained. The intervals that lie between can
not be overleaped. The fruit must ripen under the vivifying influ
ence, from within, of the religious disposition as it ascends into
greater clearness, and, from without, of the streaming light of sci
ence. In its nature the study of dogmatics is partly historical and
partly philosophical, and neither side should be culti- r h th
vated to the neglect of the other. A mere dogmatic hL'!t5ricai and
historian who is thoroughly " posted," as students say, P'""''sophicai.
in his department, but who has not been inwardly impressed by
his subject, and brought into relations of sympathy with it, resem
bles, according to Hegel, a counting-house clerk, who keeps an ac
count of the wealth which belongs to other people, without ever
acquiring property of his own. But it is also true that the mere
speculator who has failed to lay an historical foundation is not un
like the mercantile speculator, or swindler, without substantial cap
ital, who is, consequently, doomed to inevitable bankruptcy. It is,
therefore, needful that the historical and the philosophical elements
be combined in this study, and upon a scriptural basis. But if the
conversational and disputational method, in addition to that of
direct address, is in keeping anywhere, it is here.
Disputation, however, will not accomplish every thing. The in
ward health, which holds together the marrow of the religious life,
33

498 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY.
and to which dogmatics must bear testinptony, is of greater value
than the gymnastics of the intellect. Mere science is inferior to
wisdom, which, to use the expression of Gerson, requires a cogni
tion of the affections. The practical task of ethics is, at least, as
important within the dogmatico-ethical department as the scientific.
Religious ex- He only who has experienced the sanctifying, purify-
perience neces- {xicr and elevating power of the Gospel in his own be-
sarv to under- ... ... .
stand dogmat- ing, who IS earnestly striving to attain to that Christian
ics and ethics, digpogiition in which the Chri.stian virtues find a reali
zation — he only will be able to speak of a fruitful and blessed ex
perience derived from the study of dogmatics and ethics. He only
who internally participates in the weal or woe of the Church is
entitled to an opinion upon these matters. Without this, however
great may be his outward learning and logical ability, he can only
speak of the mysteries of the kingdom of heaven as the blind may
speak of colour.'
This practical way is pointed out by our Lord himself (John vii,
17) with reference to apologetics. The reading of writings for and
against a principle, instructive as it is for the rij^er judgment,"
serves, as a general thing, to confuse rather than to set forth the
truth. Only he who has learned from his own experience to know
upon what point the weight of Christian truth is really directed,
will be able to comprehend the exact salient point of apologetics,
' " So long as moral and religious regeneration is regarded simply as a formula, to
be recited from the catechism — and multitudes of nominal Christians have even now
no other conception of its character— there will arise no loudly expressed opposition
against it. Or, if it should arise, it will amount to noise only, and pass away in the
antiquated squabbles of schools of theology. Far otherwise will be the case when
the dead formula is transformed into a mighty law of life, and an effective regenera
tion is suggested such as will endeavour to permeate the State with moral influence,
and lead the Church back to its eternal origin, that it may renew its youth ; at this point
the ways of the living aud the dead, of hirelings and the children of the house, will
diverge. At this point of separation stands the present time." — Gelzer, ubi supia.
" All that occurs in the profounder life of the soul is intelligible to them only who
have passed through analogcnis experiences ; aud in the same way the deepest experi
ence of the human soul, its union with Christ by faith, mu,st ever remain unintelligible
to those who have not partaken of it." — Gess, Uber die biblische Versohnungslehre,
p. 33.
' Oberlin, for instance, prepared himself for his conflict with the freethinkers by
reading the works of Voltaire. Comp. Oherlin's Leben, by Schubert, p. 29. In like
manner the theologians of our day cnnnot be excused from learning to know the liter-
ature of nihilism, whose highest perfection of form has been attained in Strauss's
Old and New Faith, and which has entered on a new stage of development, as ideal
istic pessimism, with Schopenhauer's philosophy. But to begin with such studies, in
the expectation of thus being enabled to discover the truth, is like plunging into a
whirlpool for the purpose of learning to swim.

THE METHODOLOGY OF SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 499
and will ba able, when encountering even unskilful argumentation,
to sepaiate the kernel from the shell. So, too, the true Need of expe-
tactics for the polemic, with which he may resist the rienee.
assaults of error, can only be acquired through the e.\perience
gained in conflict with the foe within his own being. Besides, it is
only in connexion with such conflict that the courageous disposi
tion is developed which forms the necessary correlative to genuine
Christian endurance.
It is evident, finally, that the study of ethics also will be attended
with profit onlv when personal moral growth keeps „ ,
^. •' r o r Moral growth
pace with the progress of the study. Where conscience needed tor
is lacking the mind will, despite all the definitions for- «t>«Jy "f etii>cs-
mulated by science, never learn what constitutes the power of con
science, and in the absence of love it can never know wherein con
sists the might of love. It is indefatigable labour expended on
himself that opens the moral nature of man to the vision of even
the scientific inquirer. Only where the chief good is recognised as
such, as the result of personal experience, can the doctrine of what
is good be scientifically developed with success — the doctrine of
duties only where obligation is personally felt, the doctrine of vir
tues only where Christian virtues are practically cultivated. In the
absence of moral effort any amount of ethical studies will fail to
become more than dry theory or lifeless, abstract doctrine. A
majority of the errors committed even in the field of scientific
ethics — for example, in casuistry — were coincident with a neglect
of practical morality. The times of decadence in morality have
ever reacted unfavourably upon the treatment of ethical science.
Similar facts may be shown in the field of art. But incongruities
between theory and practice are nowhere so strikingly apparent as
when they exist in the sphere of morals, as in Pharisaism or hy
pocrisy.

500 PKACTICAL THEOLOGY.

CHAPTER IV.
PRACTICAL THEOLOGY.

SECTION L
PEOVINCE OF PEACTICAL THBOLOGT.
Practical theology embraces the theory of Church activities or
^ ., ... . functions, whether thev be exercised bv the Church as
Definition of ' . ¦' •'
practical the- a whole or by individual members and representative
° °^' persons acting for the Church. Its task is regulated by
the nature of religion in general, and by that of the Christian
Church in its determinate historical individuality. It, therefore,
builds upon all such studies as give to religion and Christianity a
scientific character and an outward form. Its immediate sphere of
action, however, is that of art — that is, of action emanating from
known laws.
In designating practical theology as a theory, we evidently depart
from the usage by which the preceding departments are character
ized as theoretical in contrast with the practical." But usage may
also prove our justification. It does not, at any rate, hold to the
etymology of the word so far as to have us think, in connexion
with it, simply of theorizing {deupelv) — the properly contemplative
as distinguished from the practical. On the contrary, whenever
theory is spoken of a reference to practical ends is always under
stood, so that it denotes a guide to practice." This usage, less
' Marheineke likewise observes that " the theology which is not practical is theoret
ical. The latter is knowledge for its own sake, the former for the sake of practice."
— Prakt. Theologie, § 6. But knowledge having reference to subsequent action is the
very thing that is denominated theory !
" The definition by Pelt, by which practical theology is made " a scientific knowl
edge respecting the self-development of the Church," is likewise inadequate. The
knowledge is not alone sufficient in this case, but needs to be transformed into action,
as Pelt himself remarks, in the progress of his statement (p. 561), when he says that
practical theology aims to show how " the further development of the Church may
be assured by the action of the Church in the present moment." It is true of every
science, and, therefore, of this, that a theory of this nature must not be a rhapsodical
something, but is required to become an organic whole, '"bearing the idea upon

PROVINCE OP PRACTICAL TPIEOLOGY. 501
scientific than customary, it is true, would, accordingly, convert
practical theology most emphatically into a theoretical science. It
transmutes into action what the inquiring mind has brought before
us from the fields of the philosophy of religion, exegesis. Church
history, dogmatics, and ethics, and transforms the kmoTijiiri into
TSXvTj. It is not the application of an art, but the theory which
qualifies for the practice of an art. It thus possesses a g^jg^jig^ ^^^j._
claim to scientific character. For, while all theology acter of practi-
aims, in its character as a positive science, to affect the '^ ^° °^^'
life of human beings, it is yet incomplete without that department
which is most directly engaged in carrying that positive -aim into
effect. It is, accordingly, with entire justice that practical theology
has been termed, by Schleiermacher, " the crown of the tree."
But, in like manner, as there is an internal unity of life in the
crown of the tree which is outwardly repeated under a different
form, so are all the different theological sciences repeated in prac
tical theology, but with reference to the life of the Church and its
needs, and hence in the form of application.' In its practical the-
most general aspects practical theology reaches back pJj°fosoph!f''S
into the philosophy of religion, for it is designed to reugion.
reduce religion to practice in the life. Unless the nature of the
which it rests within itself as a recognised germ of life " (p. 562). Vinet, speaking of
practical theology, observes well and to the point : " It is art which supposes science,
or science resolving itself in art. It is the art of applying usefully, in the ministry,
the knowledge acquired in the three other departments of theology, which are purely
scientific." — Pastoral Theology (Skinner's ed.), p. 21. Also Ebrard: "Practical theol
ogy, when examined in the light, is not a knowledge, but an ability; not a science,
but an art, in which the theological knowledge that has been acquired becomes prac
tical, in which it undergoes a practical application." The contrary view is advocated
by Palmer, ubi supra, p. 323 : " Not the application to certain concrete conditions of
office and life of a previously indwelling knowledge, but a knowledge itself which the
other departments of theology have not furnished, forms the contents of practical
theology." We concede this, provided this knowledge be a knowledge relating to
what is to be done. On any other view practical theology becomes the most hollow.
and unfruitful of all studies, while it is undeniably the most fruitful of them all when
its eye is fixed upon actual life.
'It is not easy to understand why Graf (Prakt. Theologie, pp. 136 and 116) should
object to this expression, unless the view introduced by Schleiermacher with reference
to theology in general be regarded as antiquated (p. 136). Our idea does not, how
ever, involve a " popularized theology," but simply a scientific combination and elab
oration of the practical elements. Comp. what Yinet says : " The speculative side
should have its place. Action is the last end of speculation ; but whatever may be
the nature of the action, it is not sufficiently provided for if attention be confined to
it in the practical point of view.. It should be studied abstractly. . . He who re
gards the things of his profession only in the midst of action will act neither with
freedom, nor with intelligence, nor with depth. — Pastoral Theology, p. 22.

503 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY.
religion be understood, all worship, sermons, religious training,
and care of souls will be impossible. The conception entertained
with regard to the nature of religion will determine what the
worship, sermon, catechesis, and the care of souls are to accomplish.
But practical theology cannot be allowed to rest content with
mere general definitions in religious matters. It has to do with
well-defined Christian and ecclesiastical functions. It, therefore,
presupposes, in its scientific work, the whole of the positive con
tents of Christianity — its facts and teachings, and, more than all
else, a knowledge of the Bible. The sermon must be rooted in
the Bible. The homilist needs to be also an exegete. It also re
quires familiarity with Church history. The entire constitution
aud government of the Church, and the organization of its worship.
The jiistoricai ^xe grounded in historical conditions, and cannot be
basis. spun out from abstract theories. Liturgies, for in
stance, is based upon archaeology, and Church government on the
history of the constitution of the Church. The function of teach
ing, moreover, in all its departments, necessarily presupposes
Christian doctrine, considered both in its establishment by apolo
getics and in its development by dogmatics and ethics. Finally,
sipce Church functions are always exercised by a particular Church,
having a determinate denominational character, and being exposed
to the possibility of conflict with other confessions, practical the
ology is required to include also this symbolical and polemical side
of theological science. It thus comes to pass that the symbol is
reflected especially in catechisms and liturgies, and that the consti
tution of any particular Church corresponds to its peculiarities of
confession. These considerations justify the placing of practical
theology at the close of the theological course. Only that theolo-
Practioai tbe- gian who has passed through a preliminary scientific
pietfs^the the^ training, and has received into himself and assimilated
ological course, the Substance of theological knowledge, is qualified to
dispose of and utilize the possession he has acquired. The latter,
however, will not accomplish itself. Hence, it is the task cf prac
tical theology to present to view the combined practical features of
all theology, and then to indicate the objects toward which the ac
tivities of the Church are to be directed, and also the laws under
which its functions are to be exercised.
The oflSce of practical theology is to show, not merely what may
be admitted to the ecclesiastical field in the character of an estab
lished element of worship ot Church constitution, but also how
everything is to be administered. Only a crude empiricism would
consent to leave this to the play of chance or considerations of

PROVINCE OF PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. 50;;
convenience. The scientific dignity of practical theology appears
in the very fact that it will not rest satisfied with mere routine, but
demands, and makes possible, a regulated action in behalf of the
Church and in harmony with its spirit. Such action, in unison
with law, we designate as being according to art, and therefore
assign practical theology to the department of art as its legitimate
field. It is important, however, that the word art be not under
stood in a perverted sense, so as to denote paltry arts ^^^g ^^.^ j^^^
and tricks, or the unnatural, since true art is altogether highest nature.
nature, taken out from its crude and accidental surroundings, intel
lectually illumined, and transmuted into consciousness.
It is sometimes said by persons who are pi'ejudiced against sci
ence, that the apostles were not learned men ; that they did not
treat preaching as an art, and that this work does not afford a field
for the exhibition of art, because only what comes from the heart
can effect an entrance into other hearts. Such objections, however,
serve merely to show to what extent the real nature of art is yet
misunderstood. The word is employed in this connexion both in a
wider and a more limited sense. Practical theology is entitled to
the name of a theory of art, even in the broader meaning, since
every rational function which aims at a definite result must be
guided and upheld by an authoritative principle. In this sense it
is actually customary to speak of medical art, the corresponding
feature to which in the theological field may, perhaps, be found in
the art which has to do with the training and the care of souls.
But a place in practical theology must be conceded to art also in
the narrow or sesthetical meaning of the word, in which sense it
comes under the category of "descriptive functions."' This will
appear more particularly in connexion with the theory of worship,
in the department of Liturgies. SECTION II.
PEACTICAL SIDE OP CLERICAL LIFE.
The aggregate of ecclesiastical functions, which constitutes the
object of practical theology, may be comprehended under the two
categories of Church Government and Church Ministrations. The
clergyman is required by the practical relation which he sustains
toward the Church to devote himself, predominantly, if j-ormer restric-
not exclusively, to service in each of these depart- tion ot practical
ments. For this reason, practical theology has hitherto ^° °^^'
been largely restricted to the task of furnishing a guide to clerical
' Comp. Schleiermacher's division of Ethics, supra.

504 PRACTICAL' THEOLOGY.
duties, or to the character of a science of the clerical calling, with
particular reference to the ministrations of the Church.
" The practical in theology," says Schweizer, " has in no wise
been created by the spiritual order, but rather has itself produced
tills order, which is in a peculi;ir sense the servant of the Church.
The theology, at times predominantly learned, and at other times
more largely practical, has been developed by the Church itself,
regarded as a community holding to a common faith." ' His view
requires that practical theology should begin with the institution
of a spiritual order, a measure which belongs, according to Schleier
macher's arrangement, to the theory of Church government. Since,
however, this branch has not as yet been largely' developed, it
would seem to be by no means advisable, in a methodological point
of view, to place its scanty proportions in the foreground. It is,
likewise, very' dilBcult to divide the whole of practical theology
between the two categories of Church government and Church min
istration." It is impossible to separate them wholly from each
other. The liturgical elements, for instance, belong to Church gov
ernment in so far as the organization of the worship is concerned,"
and to Church ministrations when the administration of the worship
is in question.
It seems to be hazardous, upon the whole, to depart too greatly
in this matter from the concrete facts with which we have to deal.
We do not misapprehend the faulty character of an empirical proc
ess which yields 51s its result the simple fact " that preaching is
carried on, and then constructs a theory — homiletics — to correspond
with that fact."* But it is also necessary that, on the other hand,
the a priori construction of a science whose very name indicates
that it is designed to meet practical wants, be avoided. These
Practical needs practical needs, moreover, have not arisen as the result
h™torili * X o* ™®'"^ accident, but grow out of the historical devel-
veiopment. opment of the Church during her progress to this time.
Hence they are consequently to be regarded as necessary rather
than accidental facts, and as rooted in the history of the Church.
To these considerations we must add the practical nature of the
calling of the theologian himself. The primary object in which he
is concerned, when, having been qualified for the service of the
Church, he leaves the school behind, is certainly that he be intro
duced into the spiritual oflSce. To acquaint him with the duties of
that oflSce is the work of practical theology. Should he confine his
efforts in that position also to speculative labours merely, when may
' Vbi supra, p. 20. * See Marheineke, Prakt. Theologie, § 35.
* Comp. Schleiermacher, §§ 269 and 286. * Schweizer, ubi sv,pra, p. 24.

PRACTICAL SIDE OF CLERICAL LIFE. 505
we suppose that he will develop a sense for the practical? It is just
this theory that constitutes a most distressing feature, that, after
having in many instances spent numerous years in study, our young
ministers often fail to know how to conduct a mere Bible class, or
to construct a sermon that shall be more than a compilation from
the notes of seminary lectures. If it happen that, in addition, their
heads become filled with notions upon Churcli government through
the study of practical theology, instead of their being brought in
person to the place where safe action is necessary, what is to be
looked for in such a case ? A morbid and total devotion to science,
without due emphasis on its practical departments, would result in
rendering the young preacher unpractical who is placed in the very
heart of the activities of practical theology. It appears. Necessity of
then, that, in connexion with the study of practical p^tS^isideof
theology, the young preacher should be first directed clerical duties.
into the fields which have already been cultivated by other hands —
homiletics, catechetics, and liturgies — and led to put forth his effort
there. It is, nevertheless, requisite that the nature of such studies,
their internal necessity, and their connexion with the organism of
the Church, as a whole, be made scientifically clear to his mind.'
After this he may extend the range of his vision beyond the culti
vated fields of Church ministrations, and embrace the uncultivated
lands of ecclesiastical polity and ecclesiastical law."
It is certainly an observation of real value, that the functions of
the Church are not identical with those of the clergy, and, there
fore, may not be confounded with them. But the theologian must
comprehend these functions, and the clergyman must execute them
theoretically or in practice. A sudden attempt to establish a lay
theology, in which the clergyman should take occasional part, but
only with reference to his own person, would be wrong, and could
just as well be applied to other departments. It may be said that
the Bible is the common property of all Christians, and that there
fore exegesis belongs to all ; that the faith is the common property
of the Church, and that dogmatics is consequently a science in
which all may engage, and by no means theologians only. Since,
however, theology as a science does not come within the reach of
all men, but is empirically restricted to those who are occupied in a
special calling and profession, we may say that exegesis, historical
' Comp. Marheineke, Prakt. Theologie, § 32.
" Schleiermacher consequently evinced sound judgment in pla^cing Church ministra,
tions before Church government. Rosenkranz, too, concludes his Encyklopaedie
with this department. Pelt, on the other hand, begins with the theory of Church
organization.

506 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY.
theology, and systematic theology bave to do with what it is nec
essary that the minister should know. Practical theology, on the
Difference be- Other hand, treats what he has to do, in the exercise of
tween tbe re- a clear consciousness and as a pastoral function; act-
lation ol the . ...... j; ..i. .-.i i •
preacher to mg, as he must, in the name of the Church, main-
practieai the- taining a constant connexion and reciprocal relation
ology and the .... ^
other depart- of active influence with the Church. This practical
ments. point of view will govern our arrangement, which does
not rest on a priori considerations, but upon a simple recognition
and observation of the state of facts in the case.

SECTION III.
METHOD OF TKEATMENT.
The duties for which practical theology is to qualify, admit of
being divided according to various methods, which correspond to
the different points of view that may be occupied. We class them
under the three following categories : •
I. The gathering of individuals, and their introduction into the
fellowship of the Church. This we call Halieutics and Catechetics.
2. The guiding and promoting of the Christian life within the
„ , . , Church societ'v : a. As expressed publicly in connexion
Categories of •' ^ r j
Practical The- with the worship, either in a prescribed or a more inde-
oiogy. pendent form ; this is Liturgies and Homiletics. b. As
manifested in the wider circles embraced within the Church, in the
form of the care of souls ; this is Pastoral Theology.
3. These functions are enclosed within the Organization of the
Church, by which each clergyman is required to labour in his own
place, and to whose proper management he must contribute; this
is Ecclesiastical Polity and Law.
Every mode of division involves deficiencies, which are owing to
, the fact that the actual state of the Church, with the
AU modes of '
division imper- needs which have been made manifest by experience,
'"''¦ does not in all respects correspond to the ideal of what
the Church ought to be. A purely scientific arrangement, based on
the idea of the Church, will not unfrequently come into conflict
with things as they exist. On the other hand, one which starts out
with a recognition of the actual condition of the Church is open to
the charge of being controlled by accidental features, and, there
fore, of being unscientific. This objection was brought to bear
against most of the earlier methods of arrangement, which, how
ever, in many instances, scarcely deserved this name, since they
joined together homiletics, liturgies, and catechetics, at haphazard.

*
METHOD OF TRE.\TMENT. 507
without going back lo the conditions lying deep in the organism of
the Church, upon which their life depends.
The disposition to organize this department has been manifested
in different directions since the time of Schleiermacher, and divis
ions of the most various kinds have been attempted. Those by
Nitzsch, Schweizer, Marheineke, and Moll principally deserve at
tention. Nitzsch conceives practical theoloery as being a „ ^
. . T . . . Systems of
theory of Church functions, and divides the latter into Nitzsch and
fundamental and conservative. Among fundamentals he °""^'^'
reckons homiletics, catechetics, and liturgies, the first two of which
are included under the idea of the didactic. He divides the con
servatives into education and sacred politics. This method is fol
lowed in the dissertation cited above. A somewhat different view
prevails in the larger work,^ which divides the functions, first, into
those designed to edify, such as preaching, celebrations, the care
of souls; and, second, into the regulative, such as internal and ex
ternal Church law, objectively as legislation, subjectively as the
formation of government and constitution. Schweizer has raised
important objections against the arrangement of Nitzsch.- Of these
we notice especially that which censures the destroying of the nat
ural connexion of homiletics with liturgies through the association
of the former with cutechetics, thus giving to it a character too ex
clusively didactic. Schweizer proceeds upon the distinction be
tween Church government and Church ministrations, and schweizer's ar-
endeavours to carry further into details, and to modify, rangement.
the pLans marked out by Schleiermacher, with whom he agrees in
the main. He deals, first of all, with the instituting of the spiritual
order, the developing of a positive clergy from the natural clergy.'
He then lays down an ingeniously contrived dixision of Church
ministrations, based upon Schleiermacher's distinction between the
free and those restricted to set forms. Such restriction applies,^
most of all, to the services of the public worship, though less rigidly
to the sermon than to the liturgy. It is less operative in the care of
souls, where it appears more largely in the department of pastoral
' Praktische Theologie, vol. i, p. 128, sgg.
^ He obtains three forms : 1. The Roman Catholic, on which the sacerdotal char
acter of the individual (character indelebilis) makes a clergyman of the clergyman.
2. The Illuministic and Quaker, where the distinction between those who impart and
those who receive is but temporary, and determined by the particular service in hand.
3. The Protestant, which is intermediate between the preceding two.
' The clergjTuan is restricted in services which he performs in the name of the
Church, and as directed by her, being, so to speak, merely the organ of the Church,
while in free activity his individuality may assert itself. Coincident with the above
is the distinction between the fixed and movable.

503 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY.
supervision than in that of unofficial service. It appears least
of all in the work of winning souls to the Church,' though more
prominently when that function is exercised in connexion with the
regular work of a church than in connexion with missionary work.
Schweizer's division will, accordingly, result in the following
Schweizer's di- Scheme: I. The theory of Church government. II. The-
vision. oiy Qf Church functions; I. Theory of worship; a. Li
turgies, h. Homiletics; 2. Pastoral Theology, the Care of Souls;
a. ministerial, b. free; 3. Halieutics, theory of the art of adding
to the membership of the Church; a. Catechetics, b. Theory of
missionary operations.
Much may be said, however, in opposition to this division also.
Defects of "^^^ °"^y i® *^® entire distinction between free and
Schweizer's restricted merely relative, as Pelt has shown,' but the
arrangemen . j-gla^tiyity itself, his plus out of the minus, is not
always properly graduated. Should catechetics — which, in its
character as the service ' for immature minds, reaches back into
worship, and therefore .into the department which, more than
others, is controlled by established forms — be less restricted to
forms than the care of souls ? The missionary function, halieutics,
moreover, is erroneously placed by the side of catechetics, while it
ought to precede, and prepare the way for, the latter function, as
well as for all the remaining ones. It is, certainly, a function of
acquisition, while catechetics is a preparatory function. Halieutics
seeks its field, and finds it, beyond the limits of the organized eccle
siastical community; catechetics stands within those boundaries,
though on the line. The two departments should, accordingly, lead
and follow, instead of being placed side by side. The contrast be
tween freedom and limitation cannot be the determining idea in
this matter.
Marheineke distributes practical theology over the three concen-
Marheineke's ti'i^ circles within which practical effort must be em-
method, ployed. He distinguishes: 1. The Christian Church;
2. The Protestant Church; 3. The particular, or local. Church. The
ministrations of the Church have reference to the latter, and are
divided into: a. The formation of the congregation, the instruction
' From ukieva aXiev^, Matt, iv, 19. The term was first employed by Sickel in his
Grundriss der christl. Halieutik, Lpz., 1829. We employ it in its broad meaning, not
excluding Halieutics from Homiletics, with which it was identified by Sickel, but still
regarding It primarily as the science of missions, and, therefore, placing it before Li
turgical Homiletics proper, and also before Catechetics.
'^ Encykl., p. 567. Comp. also the review in Rheinwald's Report., 1887, vol. xix,
p. 125, sgg.

METHOD OF TREAT.MENT. 500
of youth; catechetics. b. The assembling of the congregation;
homiletics and liturgies, c. The influencing of individuals; care of
souls. This method is also open to the objection of destroying the
unity of the different functions. Liturgies concerns the life of the
general, as well as that of the local. Church. Catechetics has to do
both with future members of the Church, and, in part, with the
congregation. Preaching is conducted in the name of the Church,
and for the good of the congregation. Moll deduces the functions
of practical theology from the nature of the Church,
devoting Part I to the physiology of the Church, and ° ^ ™^ ° '
reserving the theory of ecclesiastical functions for Part II. These
are divided into regulative, training, and edifying functions. The
first class includes the constitution, the legislation, and the admin
istration of the Church. To the second belongs training by means
of supervision, instruction, and discipline. The third has to do
with liturgical performances. Harms constructed a
... , .., i 1 • • r ¦.. ¦ ^-n Harms' scheme.
witty scheme, without claiming tor it any scientinc
character. It is according to the three P's — the preacher, the
priest, and the pastor — the catechist losing his place, and being
. stowed away in the pastor's province. A fourth P ouglit to have
been available for the pedagogue. The Roman Catholics, Drey,
Staudenmaier, and Graf, have adopted still other divisions.'
We might attempt additional methods to those which we have
enumerated." For example, we might arrange an order according
to the following plan: I. The official and extra-official; or, based
on the nature of religion, the directly religious and liturgical,
designed to affect the feelings; 2. The homiletical, which operates
more especially upon the understanding, and addresses its appeal to
reason; 3. The practical, or pastoral, function, which directs its
aim upon action — the practical life. In connexion with this scheme
it would be necessary to regard catechetics, the common basis of
the whole, as a preparation for the religious life in every direction,
such as the public worship, the instruction, and the religious training
' See Pelt, ubi supra.
' This, as we observe, is substantially the same as that of Ebrard, in Liturgik, § 10,
namely : a. Ministerium externum (catechetics and missions) ; b. Ministerium inter
num (worship and care of souls) ; c. The common bond of outward order (guber-
natlo). A difEerent method is given by Ehrenfeuchter, Theorie des Cultus, p. 81,
who gives the precedence to catechetics (the power of religion to produce doctrine
and dogmas) ; the next place to the care of souls and ecclesiastical law (the power to
penetrate through the individuality of nations in the course of historical develop
ment) ; and the last and highest place to liturgies, because the most diversified powers
of the life of the Church flow together in the worship ; but, being deprived of move
ment, present themselves as settled states.

510 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY.
of children. The entire discussion of this subject indicates that
it would be prejudice to insist that any particular arrangement is
the only correct one, and that every division which may be scien
tifically justified deserves notice in its place.'
SECTION IV.
HfsTOET OF PEACTICAL THEOLOGY.
Directions for the conduct of the spiritual office are already
found in the Pastoral Epistles ofthe New Testament; in the Apos
tolic Fathers; in Tertullian, Cyprian, and Chrysostom, in his 'work
on the Priesthood ; Ambrose, in his treatise on the Duties of Min
isters; in Augustine, in his work on. Christian Doctrine; and in
Works of the Ephraem Syrus, in his work on the Priesthood. To
Fathers. these must be added Th^ Pastoral Care, which is as
cribed to Leo the Great (died 461), the Book of Pastoral Care, to
John, Bishop of Ravenna, by Gregory the Great (died 604), and the
Epistle to Ludifredus on the Duties of Priests in the Church, by
Isidore of Seville (died 636). During the Middle Ages the work
on the Ins'titution of the clergy, by Rhabanus Maurus, was a leading
book for the training of the clergy, and many directions are found
elsewhere for priests, bishops, monks, and Church officers in gen
eral, according to the different gradations of the hierarchy and the
requirements of different places.''
The forerunners of the Reformation turned their attention pref-
work of the erably upon practical theology. Wycliffe, among
Reformers. others, for example, wrote a tractate on The Pastoral
Office. But a special change was wrought in the character of prac
tical theology by the Reformation itself, by which it became the
theory of culture for preachers and pastors, instead of remaining a
theory of training for priests. The isolated directions of Luther
¦were collected by Conrad Porta, of Eisleben (died 1585), in his
Pastoral of Luther, which has been often reprinted since 1582, the
last edition being that issued in Nordlingen in 1842.' The term
' An absolute division is impracticable, because the several branches of practical
theology are so interlaced as to admit of being represented separately only in a modi
fied sense. See Vinet, Past. Theol., pp. 22, 23.
'' Comp. Ratherius of Verona, Synodica ad Presbyteros et Ordines cetcros forinse-
cus, i. n., per universam dioecesin constitutes, in d'Achery, Spicileg. T. I., p. 376 sgq.;
the Tractatus de moribus et officiis episcoporum, by Bernard of Clairvaux (died 1153),
addressed to the Archbishop Henry of Sens, and Neander, Der heil. Bernhard,
p. 17, sgg. ,
^ Comp. F. Gessert, Evangelisches Pfarramt nach Luther's Ansiohten, Bremen,
1826.

HISTORY OF PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. Cll
pastoral theology, which had alreaay been employed by Erasmus
Sarcerius (1562), was now, with minor variations, transferred to
other works also ; for example, those of Quenstedt, in his Pastor.'il
Ethics (1678, 1708), of J. L. Hartmann (died 1684), of Kortholt, in
his Faithful Pastor (1698), of Mayer, in his Museum of the Minis
ter of the Church (1690),' and of other writers who did not always
work in harmony with the spirit of Luther.
The universities provided chairs of practical theology only in
exceptional instances; for example, in Helmstedt and
Tiibingen. Such features as were deemed important oiogy in the
were generally treated in connexion with dogmatics "'"^^''s"'^^-
under the head of The Ministry, or in the chapter On Cases Of Con
science. Spener, in his Pious Desires, and A. H. Francke, in his
Pastoral Admonitions (1712), his Observations on Hartmann's Pas
torate (1739), and in his Pastoral College (1743), infused new life
into this study. But, down to the close of the eighteenth century,
the works most esteemed were those of Mieg (died 1708), Sacred
Duties of the Protestant Pastor (1747), Deylingius (died 1755), In
stitutes of Pastoral Prudence (Lips., 1768), Pet. Roques (died 1748),
The Protestant Pastor (1723, Germ., Halle, 1768), Mosheim (1754),
and ToUner (1769), Outline, upon which followed Rosenniuller
(1778), G. F. Seller (1786), J. J. Pfeiffer (1789), and others. All
of these, however, were superseded by Niemeyer.
The rationalistic spirit of the age, which first found expression
in Spalding's Utility of the Preacher's Office (1st ed., Rationalistic
1772), asserted itself during the final decades of the cen- p^fotfcai
tury in the secular mode of apprehending the task of theology.
practical theology. Those profounder relations of the spiritual
office, as they had been described by Herder, in his Provincial
Sheets, were crowded into tbe background more and more. Graffe,
with his dry formalism, allied himself with Kant, while Schlegel,
on the other hand, emphasized the " promotion of Christian godli
ness," and F. H. Ch. Schwarz (died 183V) defined the Christian idea
still more clearly. To this was now added the impulse for scien
tific arrangement which emanated from Schleiermacher, although
works of even later date — for example, the very serviceable treatise
by Hiiffell — were but slightly influenced by it." Harms is original
throughout, everywhere proceeding upon practical considerations,
in this respect contrasting with Marheineke, who is purely specula
tive. The two complement each other; but the bridge which leads
¦ Comp. Tholuck, Geist der Luther. Theologen Wittenbergs, p. 261.
' According to the judgment of some critics the work of Huffell has even lost in
value by reason of its strict regard for scientific principles.

512 PR.\CTICAL THEOLOGY.
over from the one to the other might be difficult to find by the
student. In view of what has been done down to the present time,
it may be asserted that, so far as Germany is concerned, Nitzsch
has brought the science of practical theology to a conclusion for
some time to come. Within the pale of the Roman Catholic
Church Maria Theresa was the first to erect a chair of practical
theology, its seat being in the national university of her realm,
Austria. Sailer was efficient here, also, in a preparatory way, and
was followed by. Schenkel, Pawondra, Schwarzl, GoUowitz, Reichen-
berger, Hinterberger, Herzog, and others.' Among Rom.m Cath
olic works, that by Graf is preeminent.
Little has been done in England or America for the scientific
organization of practical theology. The usage has obtained of
treating the functions of the minister under the two heads of
preaching and the pastoral care, leaving Halieutics, Catechetics,
Liturgies, and Ecclesiastical Law to be treated, without any
attempt to assign them fixed places, or to be omitted altogether.
Shedd speaks of the minister as both an orator and a pastor: as an
orator he addresses masses of men; as a pastor he deals with indi
vidual souls. All of practical theology, threefore, which this writer
considers is the formation of clerical character and the discharge of
strictly pavish duties. Hoppin, folio \ving the same general method,
divides the minister's activities inio those of the study and pulpit,
and those which find their place outside of the study and pulpit.
Vinet, who is regarded as an authority in America, makes the same
twofold division : "The preacher instructs, the pastor trains up:
the one receives and nourishes those who come; the other seeks
also those who do not come." Kidder, however, takes in the whole
scope of practical theology, though without attempting to show the
logical connexion of its parts. It is made by him to include " a
knowledge of the various theories of Church polity; the theory and
administration of discipline; the history and use of liturgies; the
agencies and details of Church enterprise^ ; catechetics, or the ele
ments of Christian instruction; homiletics, the science and art of
Christian address ; and the duties and relations of the pastoral
office." ' Practical theology, in England and America, still waits
for a broiider treatment which shall unite all the parts into one
consistent whole.
' See Pelt, p. 667. ° Christian Pastorate, p. 196.

LITERATURE OF PR.VCTICAL THEOLOGY. 513

LITERATURE OF PRACTICAL THEOLOGY IN GENERAL.
Ch F. Baur, Ueber das Verhaltniss der prakt zur wissenschaft Theologie. Tiib., 1811.
A. H. Niemeyer, Handbuch fiir christliche Religionslehrer. Halle, 1790. 6th ed.,
1823 and 1827. 2 vols.
j. J. M. Sailer, Vorlesungen aus der Pastoraltheologie. Sth ed. Sulzb., 1853. 3 vola
J. F. C. Graffe, Die Pastoraltheologie nach ihrem ganzen Umfange. Gott., 1803. 2 vols.
G. Schlegel, Handbuch der praktischen Pastoralwissenschaft. Greifsw., 1811.
F. H. Ch. Schwarz, Der christl. Religionslehrer und seine moralische Bestimmung.
Giessen, 179S-1800. 2 vols.
G. Ph. Ch. Kaiser, Entwurf eines Systems der Pastoraltheologie fiir Vorlesungen-
Erl., 1816.
* L. Huffel, Ueber das Wesen und den Beruf des evangel.-luther. Geistlichen. Geissen,
4th ed., 1843. 2 vols.
J. T. L. Danz, Die Wissenchaften des geistl. Berufs. im Grundrisse. Jena, 1824.
F. B. Koster, Lehrbuch der Pastoralwissenschaft mit besonderer Riicksicht auf Pas-
toralweisheit. Kiel, 1827.
*KI Harms, Pastoraltheologie. . In Reden an Theologie-Studierende. 3d ed. Kiel,
187S. 3 vols.
R. Haas, Der geistl. Beruf nach den neuesten Zeitbed iirf nissen. Giessen, 1834. 2d
ed., 1845. 2 vols.
Ph. Marheineke, Entwurf der prakt. Theologie. Berl., 1837.
J. J. Kromm, Der evangel-protest. Geistliche innerhalb der Grenzen seines helligen
Berufs. Mannh., 1839.
t J. Widmer, Vortrage iiber Pastoraltheologie. Augsb., 1840.
¦f A. Graf, Kritische Darstellung des gegenwartlgen Zustandes der praktischen Theo
logie. Tiib., 1841.
*C. I. Nitzsch, Praktische Theologie. Bonn, 1847, 1848. 3 vols. New ed., 1848-07.
Index by Schmidt, 1872.
K. F. Gaupp, Praktische Theologie. Beri., 1848, 1852. 2 vols.
F; Schleiermacher, Die praktische Theologie nach den Grundsatzen der evangel. Kirche
im Zusammenhange dargestellt. Berl., 1850.
f F. Yogi, Pastoraltheologie. 7th ed., by GoUowitz, 1855.
'I' J. Amberger, Pastoraltheologie. Regensb., 1851, 1852. 2 vols.
C B. Moll, Das System der prakt. Theologie, im Grundrisse dargestellt. Halle,
1853.
J. H. A. Ebrard, Vorlesungen iiber praktische Theologie. Konigsb., 1854.
F. Ehrenfeuchter, Die praktische Theologie. 1st part. Gott., 1869.
K. Kuzmany, Praktische Theologie der evangel. Kirche Augsb. und Helv. Conf. Zi-
nachst fiir akademische Vorlesungen. Wien, 1860.
W. Otto, Grundziige der evangelischen praktischen Theologie. Dillenb., 1866.
 Evangelische prakt. Theologie. Gotha, 1869. 2 vols.
R. Kiibel, Umriss der Pastoraltheol. 2d ed. Stuttg., 1874.
J. Paludain-Miiller, Der evang. Pfarrer und sein Amt. From the Danish, by A. Struve
Kiel, 1874.
E. Doy6, Der evang. Geistliche als Pred., Priester und Pastor Berl., 1874.
A. Schweizer, Pastoraltheologie. Lpz., 1876.
P. L. Steinmeyer, Beitrage zur prakt. Theol. Beri., 1874-79. 5 parts.
G. V. Zezschwitz, System der prakt. Theol. Lpz., 1876-78. 3 parts.
Th. Hirnack, Praktische Theologie. Erl., 1877.
33

514 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY.
SECTION V.
CATECHETICS.
Catechetics has to do with the introduction of persons into the
Christian community, and therefore with the imparting of instruc
tion and the religious nurture connected therewith. Catechetical
instruction in the Christian countries of our day is largely confined
to children, who have been admitted into the Church by the rite of
baptism and by the regeneration of the heart. But its range should
also embrace the instruction of such adults as have not come under
early religious training, or have neglected it.
The function of receiving new members into the Church is pre
ceded by that of gaining new members for the Church, or rather
Halieutics and ^o'' the kingdom of God in general. This function of
Keryktios. acquisition has been termed Halieutics. It coincides
with the missionary function, or Keryktics,' and by its nature takes
the precedence of catechetics. In view of the continually increasing
demands of science, it was impossible that the missionary function
should, in its steadily progressing development, retain an empirical
character alone. It was compelled to gradually construct a science
of missionary operations, and a good beginning has already been
made in this direction."
It is not proper, indeed, to embrace the methodology of missions
within the circle of studies which are necessary to the future servant
of the Church as such, because mission work, as historically devel
oped down to the present time, is, with few exceptions, rather a
matter for independent Christian effort than an enterprise of the
Church in its official character. Another reason is, that the train
ing of the missionary varies from the ordinary cour-se of theological
training in many respects, both as to form and matter. The meth-
Methodoiogy of odology of missions will, nevertheless, possess interest
missions. for every theologian who is interested in the general
work of missions ; and even within the bounds of Christendom the
' Comp. Schleiermacher, § 298 ; Danz, p. 362, and the works by Stier and Lindner,
cited there.
" Such beginnings exist in the various instructions given to missionaries by the
societies in whose service they are engaged, e. g., the Unterricht fiir die Briider und
Schwestern, welche unter den Heiden am Evangelio dienen, Barby, 17S4; the in
structions in Annual Proceedings of the Church Missionary Society, Loud., 1804-44;
Melville Home, Letters on Missions, Lond., 1824; James Hough, The Missionary Vade-
mecum, etc., Lond., 1832 ; William Swan, Letters on Missions, Lond., 1830. Also the
special instructions relating to India, ot Duff, Buyers, etc. Comp. also the Calwer Be-
leuohtungen der Missionssache, since 1842 ; and especially W. Hoffmann, Missions
fragen, i, 1, Htidelb., 1847.

CATECHETICS. 515
ultimate object always is to win souls for Christ. Homiletics, too,
must aim to win souls. The same must be said of catechetics and
pastoral theology, although such effort differs considerably in char
acter from that which is expended upon persons who have no ac
quaintance whatever with Christianity. Within the Church the
theory for such effort may, at least with reference to cultured
persons, be largely regarded as applied apologetics. But, be
yond the borders of the Church, there is no element upon which
it may lay hold aside from the religious spirit in human nature
generally.' Returning to catechetics, we observe that the name did not origi
nate accidentally;" for Karijxdv (from ?;%of, a sound), whence tcaTTj-
XV'V^j Karrixovfievog are derived, signifies, in both the New Testa
ment and the earlier Church fathers, to announce or instruct in a
general sense (comp. Luke i, 4; Aets xviii, 25; xxi, 21-24; Rom.
ii, 18; I Cor. xiv, 19; Gal. vi, 6). On this basis catechetics would
be synonymous with keryktics. But by the more definite usage,
which was subsequently developed, the name of catechists was
applied to persons who prepared the novitiates for Christianity, for
which reason they were also called nautologists, since they, accord
ing to a figure prevalent at the time, brought on board new rein
forcements for the crew. It will be necessary to hold fast this idea
when attempting to determine the scope of catechetics. Every
person whose Christianity is not yet sufficiently advanced to enable
hira to participate personally in the benefits of redemp- scope of cate-
tion, is yet a catechumen, a minor, whose susceptibility ohetics.
to the influence of both the edifying and the regulative functioii
needs to be aroused.' Every person who aids to qualify him for
that end is a catechist.
It is, of course, true that Christian youth — that is, that portion of
the Church which has become incorporated with it through bap
tism and instruction in the Sunday-school, but which has not yet,
by renewal of the baptismal covenant, been individually received
into the fellowship of the Church-— are with us the leading objects
' In dealing with Jews the Old Testament Scriptures furnish a point of contact ;
but the nature of the work becomes, for that very reason, different from that which
must be employed with the heathen. It, as a rule, presupposes a knowledge of Chris
tianity, though not a Christian understanding, and is therefore more particularly po
lemical and apologetic than halieutic.
' Schliermacher, § 291, thinks that the term is tdo limited for the ground to be oc
cupied ; but it is in some sense also too broad, inasmuch as in the ancient meaning of
the word Karjixelv the homiletical function was also involved. A further discussion of
the word Karrixelu may be found in Zezschwitz, p. 17, sgg.
'Schliermacher, §§ 293, 294; Zezschwitz, System der Katechetik, Einl.

516 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY.
of the catechetical function.' But circumstances may exist in
which adults likewise need catechetical instruction, as in the case of
Jews, Mohammedans, or heathen who become Christians, or of Ro
man Catholics who become Protestants. It is, as can be readily seen,
the task of ethics and pastoral skill to determine the general method
of estimating such changes of relation from the religious and moral
Difference be- point of view, while catechetics has to do with persons
aTd°catechei> °^^y ^^° ^^^^ already resolved to effect that change."
Ics. But adult persons are found, even in Christian countries,
whose immaturity in a Christian aspect calls for catechetical instruc
tion, either because they were not baptized in infancy or because
their religious training has been wholly neglected. Nor is it by
any means a settled question, with reference to a large portion of
the Christian Church, especially in the rural districts, whether a
form of instruction midway between the hermeneutical and the
catechetical could not be introduced, which should carry forward
and establish the instructions previously received by persons who
have been admitted to fellowship among mature Christians.'
SECTION VI.
CATECHETICAL METHODS.
The Christian religion rests upon the facts of consciousness as
well as upon those of a positive revelation and of actual history.
It follows, therefore, that the task of the catechist will involve the
developing of religious feeling and of the understanding of the cate
chumen with regard to the inward truths of religion, as well as the
The work of impressing on his soul of the great value of external
the catechist. truths. This reflection will indicate to what extent
the interrogative method is adapted to catechetical instruction.
' The instruction of candidates for Church membership is exclusively a clerical
function, while the earlier religious training belongs, in part, to the school and the
family. It follows that difEerent classes of catechumens may be assumed, each of
which will require a mode of treatment peculiar to itself.
' Palmer's exclusion of the instruction of proselytes from the scope of catechetics
(Katechet., p. 5), and its being assigned to the field of missionary work, arise from
the confounding of the function of winning and converting souls, by which the reso
lution to embrace the new faith is called forth, with the teaching function, which as
sumes the change of religious belief as an already existing fact, and is employed upon
a more thorough exposition of particulars. The catechumen is no longer beyond the
pale of Christianity, though he yet remains outside the Church. Comp. also what he
has said in Section iii with reference to the relation of halieutics to catechetics.
' With reference to the catechization of adults, which Spener already introduced at
Frankfort, and which others also successfully engaged in, see Burk, Pastoraltheol
ogie in Beispielen, p. 536, sgg.

CATECHETICAL METHODS. 517
This instruction should be, not mere instruction, but the training
and nurture of the soul.
Two methods are to be avoided at this point — the one going to
the extreme of endeavouring to lead the young and inexperienced
mind to discover every thing through the questions he is made to
answer, while the other goes to the contrary extreme of seeking to
furnish him with the needed information wholly from without.
Catechetics goes back to the nature of religion and Christianity,
and is required to gauge its task by that rule. Religion Function oi
cannot be imparted from without like a material sub- cateci^eties.
stance. The spark which God has placed in every human soul
must be kindled into life. But this, in turn, must be accomplished
through incitements and communications from without. Among
these may be enumerated the presenting of religious examples, and
of great religious occurrences and facts, the opening to view of the
connexion running through the Bible history,' and especially by
•directing attention to the splendour of the life of Jesus. All this
must constitute the introduction to a subsequent strictly systematic
method of instruction in the form of catechism. The method
should also be accommodated to the necessary gradations of the
course of instruction, being at one time more interrogative, and at
another more in the form of direct statement. This will serve to
show how far the definition of Bertholdt " and others may be ap
proved, which asserts that " catechetics is the particular science
which lays down the rules which are to govern in religious instruc
tion, imparted by the method of question and answer, in order that
it may become appropriated and profitable."
Many absurdities have been evolved, especially by Graffe, in
connexion with this play of question and answer. There has been
talk of sjjiritual Socratism, in which the fact was overlooked that
Socrates had to do with very different persons from The socratio
those who, as a rule, come under ' the influence of the method.
catechist.' Their questions, moreover, have a very different aiiu.
' " Catechetical instruction should begin with creating a clear conception of all these
personages (Abraham, Joseph, Moses, Samuel, David, Paul, John), each of whom is
representative of some particular feature of the religious life, but all of whom unite
among themselves into a common whole." — Rosenkranz, p. 332. All that is merely
mechanical, as well as all that is merely learned and critical, should be avoided.
* Theol. Wissenschaftskunde, ii, p. 297. Mosheim regarded catechization as being
" a reasonable and orderly conversation between teacher aud pupil." — Sittenlehre (3d
ed.), i, p. 488.
' Hiiffell, i, p. 447, sgg. (2d ed.). " The Socratic method begets the conceit in the
mind of catechumens that they, in some way, produce religion, and almost compels
them to indulge in arrogant criticisms upon the faith whose wisdom has, after all, not

518 PRACTICAI, THEOLOGY.
The natural process is that he should put the question who desires
to learn about some matter, and it would follow that the catechu
men and not the catechist, should ask.
This is the arrangement in the catechism of Leo Judseus. But it
is the catechist who inquires in order to ascertain how much the
catechumen knov\'s — a task which may consist simply in the mechan
ical conduct of a recitation, which certainly does not deserve the
name of a Socratic method; or it may involve a process of inter
rogation which serves either to merely excite attention, to arouse
independent thought, or, as being grounded in the conversational
form, to logically advance the progress of the discussion. This last
form is only available, however, when dealing with persons of some
what mature years and an advanced stage of knowledge. In such
a case the various forms of questioning, such as the problematical,
assertory, demonstrative, categorical, hypothetical, and disjunctive,
may all be employed ; not, however, so as to admit of their being
previously memorized, but in such a way as to develop them natu- •
rally through the active interchange of ideas. The exciting of such
The real art of interchange in proper measure, together with the ani-
the catechist. mating of its progress, constitutes the principal art of
the catechist. This, however, cannot be accomplished by the mere
eliciting of answers. The catechist will need to assert his right ty
speak at the proper point, to impart after having for a time de
manded. It is, therefore, as important to observe the proper key
while narrating, expounding, and exhorting, as to impart the proper
¦ turn to questioning.
The task of catechetics, however, is by no means fully exhausted
Religious na^ when directions relating to form have been supplied.
shotidbeSd- I* is, first of all, essential that the religious nature of
led. youth be studied in so far as it is the object of cate
chetics, and this not merely with i-eference to its power-s of appre
hension, but in every direction in which it is displayed. At this
point catechetics has general pedagogics for its basis, and'this, ac
cordingly, would be the proper point for discussing the relation of
religious instruction as imparted by the school to that dispensed by
the Church. Much has been said upon this point from the peda
gogical point of view. But it is further essential that the subject-
matter of the instruction, which is distinctively Christian in its
yet dawned in any wise upon their understandings." — Rosenkranz, p. 335. Mar
heineke, Prakt. Theologie, § 315. Zezschwitz shows, however, that the abuse of the
method of developing a subject by question and answer does not set it aside, but that
its further development is a task of the art of catechetica, vol. i, p. 4 ; comp. p. 11
sqq., vol. iii, p. 23, sgg., and vol. iv entire.

CATECHETICAL METHODS. 510
character, be handled in accordance with clearly defined theolog
ical views, and also that the grading of the instruction, the object
to be attained thereby, and the means to be employed, be clearly
determined. The grading might be about as follows: 1. For the
period of childhood, the exciting of religious feeling and reflection
by means of repeating Scripture narratives and teaching simple
texts, verses from hymns, and the like; 2. At the riper stage of
youth for boys and girls the connected teaching of Bible history,
accompanied with the teaching of the catechism. At this stage
the didactic element will predominate; 3. At the stage of incipient
manhood the instruction proper for all candidates for Church mem
bership, their preparation for the sacrament, and their initiation into
the deeper unity of the Bible, in both history and doctrine, as well
as into the teaching of the Church. With the latter process may
be connected a survey of Church history, introduction into the life
of the Church as a community, and into the life of devotion gener
ally. To what extent a stage of instruction beyond that for candi
dates for Church membership should be assumed is a question of
practical importance, but upon the answer to which the catechetical
function is no longer dependent, since, in the nature of the case, its
task was ended at joining the Church. All that is subsequent to
that act belongs to ecclesiastical didactics and to pedagogics in its
broad acceptation; for instance, the religious instruction imparted
in Bible classes, in Sunday-schools, Church lyceums, lectures, and
similar ways. Here we see the value of catechisms, of sacred histo
ries, of volumes of selected passages from the Bible, and many sim
ilar works. Every pastor should always have in mind the instruc
tion, and use of proper methods thereto, apart from his pulpit
ministrations. But the true catechist has not fulfilled his task when, in his offi
cial capacity, he has conducted a session for the in- q^^^^^^i^^^ ^
struction of the children. He will bear in his heart the part of pastoral
youth entrusted to his care (John xxi, 15: fiooKe rd dp- ^°'' '
via iJ,ov). With this feature catechetics reaches over into the field
of pastoral care. It is also customary, in many places on the Con
tinent, to connect the instruction of children with the public wor
ship, and in this respect catechetics comes into contact with the
homiletical and liturgical functions — the arranging of an appro
priate 'worship for children. But where no such custom prevails
the hour given to religion must not become one of instruction sim
ply,' but must at the same time be made an hour of edification, of
'"The catechetical function must not be confined to instruction, but must consist
pre-eminently in developing a children's worship, the soul of which is prayer, and it

520 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY.
training in the practice of godliness, and hence a branch of worship.
The summit of the catechetical function, finally, consists in the
reception into Church fellowship, the recognition of whose signifi
cance and relation to the whole belongs to liturgies.
SECTION VIL
MENTAL AND SPIEITUAL ENDOWMENT.
The study of catechetics must not be confined to oral instruction
merely, but must ulso involve appropriate practice, an opportunity
for which should be afforded the student. Occupation with the
general instruction of children will furnish a useful introduction to
such practice; and the student who has enjoyed the benefit of
thorough instruction in religion and of a thorough preparation for
joining the Church, and who has preserved the blessed influence of
such a course in his own heart, will, in a special sense, possess a
great advantage over others. Diligent attention given to sound
catechetical methods, and a general interest in the religious and
intellectual life of the young, are also of advantage.
The opinion is strongly entertained by many that catechetical
knowledge will spontaneously develop ^tself. But precisely that
which seems easy, even to children, is the most difficult of all. Let
Luther be remembered, who owned that he was obliged to give his
entire life to the study of the catechism, and yet never could ex
haust the study. By way of contrast let a young minister, dried
up with speculative and critical knowledge, be imagined as the
centre of a circle of animated and joyous children. Does conceit
lead one to despise these little ones, and is there in him nothing of
the feeling which attracted Christ toward those of whom he said.
Necessity of "of such is the kingdom of heaven"? In that case it'
sympathy vriof were better to acknowledge one's bankruptcy than to
childhood. sin against the sanctuary of childhood. But if the love
exists, and only practice be lacking, the needed remedy may yet be
found. It is the task of the Church to provide that remedy. The
end in view is not to be attained by hiring a few children through
offering rewards, or forcing them into the auditorium as horses are
driven in a riding-school, for the purpose of experimenting with them.
must involve a disciplinary element." — Pelt, Encykl., p. 676. " The children's wor
ship must go hand in hand with catechetical instruction and with the several depai't-
ments of catechetics. It must preserve, nourish, make, and keep alive what these
have planted."— Hirscher, p. 563 ; Vinet, Past. Theol., pp. 229-235 ; Palmer, p. 536,
«5'g'. ; Kraussold, p. 179, «y. ; Zezschwitz iii, p. 615. In the language of the early
Protestants of Germany, recitations from the catechism were explicitly termed " pray
ings," a usage still in vogue in some sections of Switzerland.

MENTAL A>"D SPIRITU.iL ENDOWMENT. 5^1
The pastor should seek out the children in their sphere as he would
look for plants in their natural soil. All young pastors, even
those who are not constrained thereto by motives of economy,
sliould endeavour to secure opportunity for the teaching of chil
dren. Even the scientific instruction of the young forms a valua
ble preparation for religious teaching, and the teaching of language
and history especially will afford those gymnastic advantages which
were elsewhere looked for from the Socratic method. The tibility
to tell a story or relate an incident well is a special art to be ac
quired only by practice. But the religious disposition and con
tinued participation in the religious life are, here as elsewhere, a
prime necessity. Every opportunity afforded the theological can
didate to teach a Bible class, or conduct a Sunday-school, should be
thankfully embraced all through his theological studies. To observe
a thorough catechist while surrounded by the children, and with
him to enter into the thought and feeling of the children, will
quicken the mind and impart courage. Hirscher beautifully says:
" Fortunate art thou if nature has provided thee with rich endow
ments'; 'but, however this may be, let there be no lack of effort to
secure what may 'depend upon thyself. A real enthusiasm will
richly supply what nature might have bestowed in but inferior
measure." ' SECTION VIII.
HISTOKY OF CATECHETICS.
Comp. LangemacS (died 1740), Historia Catechetica (Stralsund, parts 1-3, 1729-40); K6cher,
Katechetische Geschichte der papstlichen Kirche, Jena, 1753 ; Schuler, Gesch. d. katechet. Rel.-
uuterrlchts unter d. Protestanten von der Eeformation bis 1763 (1766), Halle, 1802; Gilbert,
Christ. Cateobet. hist., P. I., tres priores states complectens. Lips., 1835 ; Ditbmar, Beltr. zur
Gesch. d. katechet. Unterrlchts, Marburg, 1848; Ehrenfeuchter, Gesch. d. Katechismus mit bes.
Beriicksichtigung d. Hannover. Landesklrche, GOtt., 1857 ; Mayer, Gesh. des Katechumenats u.
d. Katechese In d. ersten sechs Jahrhunderten, prize essay, Kempten, 1868 ; Weiss, Altklrchl.
Pffidagogik dargest. in Katechumenat u. Katechese der ersten sechs Jahrhunderte, prize essay,
Freiburg, 1869 ; Vinet, Pastoral Theology (Skinner's Translation, 2d. ed.). New York, 1861 ;
Kidder, The Christian Pastorate, Cincinnati, 1871 ; Elliott, Hermeneutical and Pastoral Lec
tures, New York, 1880 ; Phelps, Men aud Books, New York, 1882.
The catechumens- of the ancient Church were not children; but
childhood is already designated in the New Testament catechumens in
(Mark x, 13-19; Eph. vi, 4; 2 Tim. iii, 15) as called to the ancient
participate in the kingdom of God. With regard to
the relation held by catechumens, and the different classes to which
they belonged (oKpow/xevoj, yovvKXivovTsg, KaTr^xoviievoi, (fxim^diievoi),
consult the best works on ecclesiastical history. Zezschwitz says:'
" Ecclesiastical antiquity has no knowledge of a te^vt; KaTT^^TtK?;, or
catechetical art. The latter appears in that character at a time
' Page 724. ' Page 15.

523 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY.
when the governing idea is no longer the catechumenate, but the
function of teaching." The Apostles' Creed furnished the subject
matter of instruction at an early period. But distinctively cate
chetical discourses were also in vogue, together with addresses deliv
ered on the occasion of reception into membership. This we see
in Cyril of Jerusalem, and in the Catechetical Discourse of Gregory
Early catechet- of Nyssa. A guide for the instruction of adult cate-
icai works. chumens was given by Augustine in the treatise on
Catechetical Questions, addressed to the deacon Debgratias, at
Carthage. The situation was changed when the baptism of children had be
come more general, and Christianity had been made the religion of
the state. Then catechetics became, in consequence, more largelj
what it is in our day — a teaching of the young. Charlemagne ren
dered valuable service by providing for such teaching. The Ten
Commandments and the Lord's Prayer were taught in addition to
the Creed. These were termed Leading Articles, which extended
also to the sacraments of baptism and the Lord's Supper. Tlie
monks Otfrid, of the Weissenburg monastery in Alsace, and Kero
The flret cate- ^"'1 Notker Labeo, of St. Gall, wtote the first cate
chisms, chisms, A clear view of the position of catechetics in
the fifteenth century is given in the Picture Catechism, published by
Geffeken, in Leipzig, in 1855. The Waldenslan Gitechism repre
sented an evangelical tendency. The Wicliffites and Hussites
(Bohemian Brethren) were also interested in the religious education
of the young, which had been so terribly neglected by the Church in
the lifeless and mechanical state in which it had become immersed.'
Among Roman Catholics, upon the Reformation, the Chancellor
Charlier Gerson constituted a notable exception, assuming the posi
tion of catechist in his own person, and also furnishing the priests
with a guide for catechization, though' in very general outlines
merely, in his treatise on Drawing the Poor to Christ.
The first agency to perform thorough work, however, was the
Luther's two Reformation. Luther, while engaged in the visitation
catechisms. q£ j-jjg churches, in 1528, became convinced of the need
for providing the people with a " good, simple, unvarnished cate
chism," a " lay Bible which should embrace the entire contents of
Christian doctrine." This called forth his two catechisms, the
smaller being intended for children and the larger for teachers.'
' Comp. Herzog's Waldenser, 4, supplement, p. 458 ; and Zezschwitz, Kateohismen
d. Waldenser u. Bohmischen Briider, Erlangen, 1863.
^ DifEerent editions by Stier, Parisius, Purgold, etc. See Winer, Handbuch d. Lit
eratur, complementary vol., p. 199.

HISTORY OF CATECHETICS. 523
They constituted the basis of religious instruction during a long
period, and engaged the attention of numerous commentators.
Luther is still a model as respects the true catechetical style in
point of hearty and naive mode of expression.' The Reformed
Church, too, did not remain behindhand. CEcolampadius, in his
Report on Children," and Leo Judseus,' and Calvin," hd the way.
The Heidelberg Catechism, composed by Zacharias Ur- TheHeideiberg
sinus and Caspar Olevianus, became as famous as the catechism.
catechisms of Luther, having been translated into nearly every lan
guage, and been made a symbolical book of the Reformed Church."
The older catechists did but little theorizing, the amount contrib
uted in this direction being limited, upon the whole, to noteworthy
hints in individual works. But a special emphasis was placed upon
the matter in the state churches by the ordering of sermons on the
catechism by the authorities of the Church.'' But there was no
absolute lack of theoretical instruction. The catechism of David
Chytraus, at Rostock (I554-I604), assumed the form of popular
dogmatics, but secured a wide acceptance by reason of its clear
arrangement and precision.' We may mention the following addi
tional works: Hyperius, on Catechetics (1570, republished by A.
Schmidt, Helmstedt, 1704); Alsted, Catechetical The- Leading au-
ology (Hanov., 1622); Dietrich (died 1669), Catechet- L^'^'her'and
ical Institution (1613); Maukisch, the commentator of spener.
Dietrich (1653); Kortholt, Encouragement for Catechetical Instruc
tion (1669), and Trotzendorf. These authors are the most widely
known theorists between the time of Luther and that of Spener.
' " The catechism of Luther," says Herder, " must be fervently committed to mem
ory and retained forever." Comp. Harnack, Der kleine Katechismus Luthers iu
seiner Urgestalt, Stuttg., 1856. Comp. Vilmar (Pastoraltheol., p. 104) with reference
to its advantages over the Heidelberg from a pedagogical point of view. Zezschwitz
(Katechetik, ii, p. 265, sqg.) furnishes a "historico-critical estimate" of the material of
catechetics. ^ Reprinted in the Leben u. ausgewahlte Schriften d. reform. Kirohe, vol. ii, pp.
296 ff.
' Newly published by Grob, Winterthiir, 1836.
* Henry, ii, pp. 150, sgg.
'Originally issued in 1563. An edition in the form of the original edition, pub
lished by Welters, 1864. Bethune, Lectures on the Heidelberg Catechism, N. Y, 1868.
See a judicious estimate of this work, as contrasted with the depreciatory treat
ment accorded to it in the days of rationalism, in G. Miiller, Theophil., Zurich, 180],
p. 313. Comp. also the more recent works of Zyro, Sudhoff, Guder, Bender, Krum
macher, and others.
^ Comp. Rudelbach, Amtliches Gutachten ub. d. Wiedereinf uhrung der Katechismus-
examina, etc., Dresden, 1841.
' Krabbe, Chytraus, pp. 45, 46.

,')24 PRACTICAI, THEOLOGY.
The last-named theologian, Trotzendorf, gave a new impulse in
this field by the publication of his Catechetical Tables (1683), and
also by his Thoughts on Catechetical Information, published by a
friend in Halle, in I8I5.' The principal query with Spener was,
" How shall we connect the head with the heart ? " Seidel, of Ber
lin (I7I7), and others, followed in his track. CEtinger, too, is im
portant in this connexion because of his Historical and Moral Store
house of Catechetical Directions, which appeared in 1762.^
In the orthodox school, Fecht, of Rostock (died 1 7 16), delivered
Orthodox writ^ lectures on catechetics, and combined catechetical prac-
^''s- tice therewith. Additional guides to catechization were
furnished by Rambach in his Well-Instructed Catechist, which ap
peared in 1722; by Buddseus (died 1729), in his Catechetical Theol
ogy, which appeared in two volumes in Jena, in 1752, and by
others. In the Reformed Church, Osterwald (died 1747) endeav
oured to bring into vogue, through the medium of his widely circu
lated Catechism (Amsterdam, 1707), a more independent treatment,
which should accord with the needs of the time. But his effort
resulted in his substituting the subjectively abstract element of
natural religion and morality for the earlier concrete and objective
modes of expression sanctioned by the usage of the Church. The
Catechetics al- rationalistic revulsion in education, caused in the latter
S'pedago^ ^^^^ ^^ *^® eighteenth century by Basedow, Salzmann,
Ics. and other philanthropical schoolmen, reacted also upon
catechetical instruction.^ The aim was to counteract, by the proc
ess of a free development of the faculties of the soul, a merely me
chanical method and a dead orthodoxy.
But the result was a lapse into the opposite extreme. The posi
tive subject matter was frequently lost in the process of shallow
argumentation, and in this way a false Socratism came into being,
which could be confined within appropriate limits oiily after long-
continued struggles. The so-called " philanthropic " method found
"Philanthropic" adherents, though with modifications, in Miller, in his
method. Directions in the Art of Catechising (1778, 1782, 1788);
in RosenmUller, Directions in Catechising (1763, 1793), and others.
Schmid treated catechetics in an entirely formal way, as we see in
his Catechetical Handbook (Jena, I79I, 1792-99, 1801, 3 vols.).
Graeffe, finally, carried the rationalistic formalism of questions to
'Comp. Thilo, Spener ,als Katechet., Berlin, 1840.
^ Comp. the Siid-deutscher Schulbote, 1855, 1—4.
' Comp. Salzmann, Die wirksamste Mittel Kindern Religion beizubringen, 3d ed.,
Leips., 1809. In his Konrad Kiefer he raves against the catechism, and allows little
Konrad "to pluck pigeons " instead of handing him the book !

HISTORY OF CATECHETICS. 525
its liighest point. He may, therefore, be considered the repre
sentative of the older rationalistic catechetics, based on Kantian
principles in religion and morals, while Dinter, on the other hand,
succeeded in overcoming formalistic narrowness and dryness by a
more vivid and original apprehension of the matter of religious
teaching. Still, in his dogmatic opinions, he did not forsake the
rationalistic point of view.
The religious element, and, more particularly, the peculiarly
Christian features of tliat element, was regarded by Daub and
Schwarz as being the essential thing, a view that was in the strong
est contrast with the former method. A more profound apprehen
sion of the whole subject, however, has been attained through the
influence of the Schleiermacher school — as we see in services of
Rtttenik and Schweizer — though the process was not schleiermacher.
unaccompanied by the danger of making the dialectical element
prominent at the expense of the emotional.
The Jesuits and related orders acquired entire control of the educa
tion of youth in the Roman Catholic Church, the Larger (1554) and
Smaller (1566) Catechisms of the Jesuit, Peter Canisius (died 1595),
being highly esteemed, in addition to the Roman Catechism, which
received the sanction of the Council of Trent, in 1566. The theory
of catechetics, likewise, was not neglected by the Jesuits." But
even Roman Catholic catechetics did not escape the in- Roman catho-
fluence of the age in later times.'' Here, too, an ani- "" catechetics.
mated and Christian mode of treatment obtained the victory over
every s<ji't of lifeless formalism.
ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE OF CATECHETICS.
The individual Churches have produced their catechisms, which. In many cases,
have undergone important modifications. For the names of these, and works written
on them, we refer to the denominational literature of each of the great communions.
Bartle, J. Exposition of the Church Catechism. 12mo. London, 1868. Second
edition, 1874.
Befg, J. P. The History and Literature of the Heidelberg Catechism and of its In
troduction into the Netherlands. Svo, pp. 166. Philadelphia, 1863. (The
position of this Catechism as to Calvinism is stated on pp. 29, .SO.)
Bethune, George W. Expository Lectures on the Heidelberg Catechism. ]2mo,
2 vols., pp. viii, 491, 5,S5. New York, 1864.
Boyce, E. J. Catechetical Hints and Helps. Second edition. 12mo. London, 1876.
Dawe, C. S.- Study of the Church Catechism. 8vo. London, 1882.
Denison, J. B. Catechising on the Catechism. With a Preface by Canon H. P.
Liddon. Svo. London, 1889.
' Comp. Possevin's (died 1611) Letter on the Necessity, Utility, and Reason for Teaching the
Catholic Catechism (ed. W. Kder, Ingolstadt, l.W-^l.
" See M. Vlerthaler, Geist der Socratlk, Salzburg, 1798.

526 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY.
Green, Ashbel. Lectures on the Shorter Catechism of the Presbyterian Church.
12mo, 2 vols. Philadelphia, no date.
Hodge, A. A. and J. A. The Sysiem of Theology Contaiucd In the Westminster
Shorter Catechism Opened and Explained. 12nio, pp. 190. New York, 1888.
Jones, Miss C. A. Stories on the Church Catechism. ]6mo, 4 vols. London,
1867-87.
Maclear, G. F. Class Book of the Catechism of the Church of Eugland. 18mo.
London, 1868.
Mitchell, Proressor A. P. The Catechisms of the Second Reformation, with Notes.
8vo. London, 1886. (The Shorter Westminster, Rutherford's, and other Scot
tish catechisms are Included.)
Nevin, Alfred. Notes on the Shorter Catechism. 12mo. Philadelphia, 1878.
Paterson, Alex. Commentary on the Westminster Shorter Catechism. 18mo. Lon
don, 1848.
Poutoppedan, Rriek. Epitome of Explanation of Martin Luther's Smaller Catechism ;
from the Norwegian by E. Balfour. 16mo. Chicago, 1878.
Pope, William Burt. A Higher Cateclsm of Theology. 12mo. New York, 1884.
(Arminian.)
Steel, Robert. The Shorter Catechism, with Proofs, Aualysis, and Illustrative Anec
dotes. Svo. London, 1884.
Tercentenary Monument. In Commemoration of the Three Hundredth Anniversary
of the Heidelberg Catechism. Svo, pp. Ixxill, 574. Philadelphia, 1863.
Whitecross, J. Anecdotes Illustrative of the Assembly's Shorter Catechism. Svo.
Edinburgh, 1869.
Whyte, Alex. Commentary on tho Shorter Catechism. 16mo. New York, 1884.
Williams, Isaac. Plain Sermons on the Catechism. Svo, 2 vols. London, 1847.
New edition, 1888. SECTION IX.
THE THEORY OF WORSHIP — LITURGICS. ,
To comprehend the nature of Christian worship as a whole, and
The field ot of the various elements by which it is modified in par-
liturprics. ticular, is the scientific task of liturgies. Upon the
manner in which it is performed will depend, in great measure, both
the general organization of the public Christian worship and the
administration of its sever.al details. The former is included in the
department of Church government, the latter in that of Church
ministrations. It is the task of the philosophy of religion and of ethics to point
out the necessity of public worship. It is, first of all, important to
arrive at the understanding of such worship as being a necessity of
the common life of Christianity instead of a mere court-ceremonial;
or, at most, a moral stimulus for the masses. The nature of wor
ship, which Hegel terms " the highest deed of the human spirit," '
' In harmony with that view, and carrying the idea further into its details, Rothe
calls worship an action, and more particularly an action to be performed in common
— an Internal, ethical, spiritual action, the highest which the Christian may perform.

THE THEORY OF WORSHIP— L1TURGIC3. C27
must be deduced from the nature of religion and of Christianity.
It is, therefore, the first duty of liturgies to apprehend the idea of
public worship as an ethically justified and obligatory act on the
part of the congregation. The constituent elements of the worship
are afterward to be recognised in harmony with their liturgical
importance and their relation to each other, as they stand upon the
basis of that fundamental principle. This is also the point at which
the relation of worship to art, in the strict sense, is to Relation oi
be determined. The Church is not simply an educational worship to art.
institution, as those seem to suppose who centre the entire worship
m the sermon, and regard everything else, such as singing, prayer,
the sacrament-!, and the benediction, as mere additions.
Bahr says: "In no other religion does the religious community
appear to be so necessary and essential as in Christianity. The
idea of a church, whether local or embracing the whole of the
Church, is eminently peculiar to Christianity, and attains to the
full dignity of truth in it alone. Christianity assumed the form of
an independent religion for the first time when it appeared in and
with the form of a community, and it lives and continues on from
age to age only in that form. . . . The Church, united by the ties
of a common Lord and a common faith, not only sustains a doc
trinal relation to Christ, but also a vital connexion like that of the
body to the head. But it appears as such, as a whole, only in the
public worship." ' Also Palmer, in his treatise on Practical The
ology, says: "In the celebration the Church presents herself in
bridal array; at such times we should, before all else, be filled with
joy and exultation, excited by the reflection that it is a glorious
privilege to belong to the Church, to be identified with and live in
it." '' Schenkel's idea, shared, however, by many others, that public
worship is merely a means for the exciting of piety, and that it has
no end in itself, grows out of his warped view of religion generally.
Worship must be conceived as the common act of the congrega
tion in which the religious life of its members finds ^^^^^^ defined.
expression under the form of devotion. Such expres
sion takes shape partly in the word and partly in the symbol.'
> Page 351. . ^ , . .
» Comp. supi-a, § 12. We concede fully that a mere participating in the worship is
not necessarily religious, and that facility in the use of forms of worship cannot be a
substitute for universal piety (p. 171); but this is pronouncing judgment upon mock-
worship merely, which stands related to the true and sacred worship ol God as arti
ficiality does to art, or hypocrisy to religion. Here, too, the rule applies : abusus non
toUit usum. — Dogmatik, p. 172. •
'Ehrenfeuohter's conception (§ 33) of Christianity, as the end of all symbols, can
hold good only in so far as the symbol is regarded as being veiled and obscure i

538 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY.
The nature of the religious, or, more exactly, the Christian, symbol,
as distinguished from the legal types of Judaism and heathen
nature-symbols, and the relation of the symbol to the Word, can
only be understood, from the peculiar nature of the religious or
Christian life. Ehrenfeuchter says: "It would be as silly to apolo
gize for religion because it has a system of worship as to excuse the
soul for having a body. Some desire to attribute the worship to
the sensuousness of man alone. . . . But on this method no one would
suspect the eternal law of life, by which everything that is real is
also possessed of the power to express itself in figurative form, and
to manifest itself in the fulness of life and energy." ' The place of
the r.ermon in the worship is likewise determined by liturgies, so
that homiletics itself is, in a broad sense, a part of liturgies." In a
different point of view the sermon, nevertheless, extends beyond
purely liturgical limits, and unfolds in its independent movement a
conformity to law wnich is no longer included in the domain of li
turgies. All worship is based upon action and reaction, upon mutual
incitement according to settled laws, which modify its organism,
and upon which its earnestness, dignity, solemnity, practical fruit-
fulness, and power to edify, depend.
This, accordingly, is the place for discussing the contrast between
the formally restricted and the free, the established and the mova
ble, the devotional and the festal, what has been historically trans
mitted, and what is demanded by the present time.
A sound theory of worship will maintain a true medium between
„ , , that settled uniformity of a lifeless mechnnism which
Province of a •' ......
ao'und theory moves in the world of empty ceremonies, and a frivolity
of worship. -y^hich is possessed of a mania for novelty and adherence
to the fashion of the times, and which elevates its unsettled and
superficial notions to the place of what has been tested and shown
to be, of worth.' It also distinguishes between a superabundance
mystification has an end. But Christianity has, on the contrary, developed a noble,
free, consciously-spiritual symbolism, upon which the worship is necessarily based, and
which Ehrenfeuchter himself has profoundly and fervently apprehended under the
idea of an "ideal art." Pp. 253, 275, and elsewhere.
' Page 51.
' This is also the view of Palmer, p. 352. Comp. Hagenbach, Liturgik u. Homi
letik. ' Even a better and really religious subjectivity has its limits. Ehrenfeuchter, ubi
supra, p. 76, observes with justice that " when the attempt is made to enforce the
universal acceptance of an individual poetic view, which may possibly be profoundly
true for the individual, and afford him wondrous comfort, the only result will be a
hardening of the poetic element and a petrifaction of the religious. For the poetic
feeling of an individual is transitory, and even has its highest charm in the fact of its

THE THEORY OF WORSHIP— LITURGICS. 520
of what may be perceived by the senses, and that r.ationalistic
soberness which dreads all that is imaginative.' It will know how
to discover those elements of art which are most nearly related to
the religious life, and be obliged to carefully distinguish between
the saci-ed and the profane, the necessary and the accidental, that
which has been made from that which has developed. Fluctuating
and unsettled states, in this regard, will increase in proportion as
our stay upon the soil of practice without principles, on the one
hand, and of impractical theories on the other, is protracted.
A general interest in the liturgical regulation of our Church affairs
has, however, been aroused, and the theory of worship has been re
constructed from its foundations. It is only to be regretted that
bridges leading over from the region of speculation to that of prac
tice are so few, the result being that the learner, whose immediate
object is to qualify himself for the service of the Church, is, with
all the abundance of theory at command, left in ignorance with re
spect to the course he should adopt. The simple restoration of
what is old, toward which the tendencies of the present age are di
rected from certain quarters, will by no means furnish a solution of
the problem. Wljat is needed is a living worship, which fjeed of a iiv-
shall address both the intellect and the feelings. Upon i°e worship.
this consummation science needs to fix its eye, pursuing its course
evanescent character, in the isolation of each separate moment which blooms forth
with enlivening influence from the prosaic conditions of the actual world. . . . Such
play of the imagination and, the feelings gives rise to the arbitrary character of par
ticular services (e^e?M&priiKeia)." "A misunderstanding of the significant difference
which exists between public and family worship works serious injury at this point." —
Ibid., p. 79.
' " This is the pietistic view, which attaches no importance whatever to the outward
features of the worship, and perhaps regards it as being in contradiction with iti^elf,
or with the idea upon which it rests. With this coincides the rationalistic view, in
that it separates the interests of freedom from those of necessity, and maintains that
tbe Christian religion is only designed for the needs of indi-viduals, and requires that
each one should be pious for himself; that no value is to be attached to outward
union for the purposes of a common worship, because this will constitute a limitation
of individual liberty." — Marheineke, Prakt. Theologie, § 75. Comp. Ehrenfeuchter,
Liturgic, § 38. On the relation of Protestantism to art, comp. Meyer, Das Verhalt
niss der Kunst zum Cultus, Zurich, 1837 ; Grueneisen, De Protestantismo artibus baud
infesto, Stuttg., 1839, 4to; Protestantismus u. Kunst, in Deutsche Vierteljahrsschrift,
1839, 4, No. 8, pp. 287-322; Der Protestant. Gottesdienst u. d. Kunst in ihrem
gezenseitigen Verhaltnisse, St. Gall, 1840; Lange, In welchem Verhaltniss steht die
Reformirte Kirche nach ihrer Lehre u. nach ihrer geschlchtlichen Entwicklung zu;'
Kunst? An essay in the Verhandlungen d. Schweiz. Predigergesellschaft, St. Gall,
1844 ; Schnaase, Verhaltniss d. Kunst zum Christenthum u. besonders der evangel.
Kirche, Berl., 1852; Koopmann, Der evangel. Cultus u. d. Kunst, Darmst., 1854, and
Kottmeier, Darstellung des Helligen durch d. Kunst, etc., Bremen, 1857.
34

530 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY.
until the time shall arrive when the understanding, having been
matured by thorough study, shall yield its fruitage as well in the
practical life as in other domains. SECTION X.
CONTRAST BETWEEN PROTESTANT AND ROMAN CATHOLIC LITURGICS.
In the Protestant minister's circle of studies that part of liturgies
which relates to ministrations in the Church, or to direct administra
tion, will require less space proportionately than that which has to
do with the government of the Church, and consequently with the
devising of methods. The contrary to this is the rule in the Roman
Catholic Church.
The word liturgies points primarily to the already existing service
for the Church, the Liturgy.' The more complicated such service
is, the more time will be needed for acquiring the mechanical readi
ness which is necessary to its performance. It is apparent that
theology will be in a very low state where the whole of the theo
logical course is expended upon a mechanical training of this sort
„, V. , , „. for the clerical oflSce. Regions still exist M'ithin the
Mechanical Ut- °
urgy In Roman Roman Catholic Church where nothing more than such
Catholicism. ^ mechanism is required. But Roman Catholic theol
ogy is not at its best in such localities. Wherever it bears the
character of a science, it seeks, rather, to penetrate by the way of
speculation into the inner sanctuary of worship, and to justify its
meaning and importance to the thinking mind.' But there is no
' Comp. the lexicons on }i,eiTovpy6c, XeiTovpyelv, Tietrovpyia (Lukei, 23; Heb. viii, 2;
ix, 21 ; X, 11), formed out of Xeirnf (A^j'rof, from ?m6i, Xttif), the equivalent of il^pooioc,
and ipyov (mun-us publicum) ; hence ipyov Tov ^£u=roi) ?mov is equivalent to Ticlrov
ipyov. See also the Apol. Conf. Aug., p. 270 (ed. Hase), where the ancient us#of the
word is well expounded. On the ecclesiastical and Levitical meaning of the word in
the New Testament, comp. Bleek on the respective passages in the Epistle to the He
brews. The derivation from A1T7 (^trat, preces, whence is derived the word litany) is
erroneous. The La'.,'in word cultus (Gr. ^.arpeid) answers to the German words " Got
tesdienst" (divine service) and "Gottesverehrung" (worship of God), which have
been frequently objected to, especially the former, though unjustly. See Pelt, p. 100.
Marheineke, Prakt. Theologie, § 63, says, that " he only who has been made free by
God, and been born again into the liberty of the children of God, can resolve to enter
upon the service of God, in which alone man can be truly free.''
' " In our days," observes a Roman Catholic writer, " praise will be given by all ra
tional periions to him who has sufiBciently sharpened his intellectual vision to enable
him to find again in the worship of the Church the royal robe with which the incar
nated Son of God was enveloped, and to interpret all its forms in the spirit to which
its origin is due." — Most, Die llberalen .Principien auf dem Gebiete des Cultus, in Tiib.
theol. Quartalschrift, 1847, No. 1.

PROTESTANT AND ROMAN CATHOLIC LITURGICS. 531
breaking through the bounds of what has been traditionally received
and what already exists, and Roman Catholic liturgies is, therefore,
compelled to struggle always with the same task in reference to
worship, which oppresses the scholastic theology of Roman Catholi
cism with reference to dogma, namely, to secure an after under
standing of matters which already exist. "The theory has more
the character of a statute than of an internal and necessary law." ^
This is not the case with Protestant liturgies. This is continu
ally eniployed upon the task of constructing a system protestant ii-
of "Worship which shall perfectly correspond to the turgics.
Protestant principle, and to the needs of each particular time. It
does not become contemplation 'merely with reference to the already
finished edifice of the temple, but is essentially constructive, and we
always find it engaged with line and compass in the study of the
plan. It does not aim to secure a definite conclusion of its labours
for all subsequent time, but to carry forward the development,
within certain limits to be by itself appointed, of what is capable
of being developed. There can, accordingl}', be no idea of a mech
anism in the performance of liturgical services, and the specifically
technical features connected therewith can only consist in the per
sonal appropriation of things that are prescribed, and in a personal
entering into the spirit of the worship. The liturgical capability
of the Protestant clergyman will, therefore, be manifested by a
spiritual reproduction of what is prescribed by the Church, and is
to be attained less in the way of practice than in that of inward
consummation. For, it is certain that even the simplest of litur
gical services, such as the offering of prayer in the presence of the
congregation, the administering the sacraments, and the pronounc
ing the benediction, are more appropriately and fervently performed
by him who has penetrated the mystery of religious Necessity of re-
feelings and their public representation, than by him ugious feeiins;.
who, having no sympathetic feeling, simply performs a duty which
is officially assigned to him. Every opnis operatum is a negation of
the Protestant principle, the death of liberty, and a turning away
from the internal to the external.
This leads to a further distinction between Roman Catholic and
Protestant liturgists, namely, that the Protestant clergy- Djjgrence be-
man, in his liturgical functions, sustains a different re- tween Roman
, . T , ¦ ,. 1 ¦ -1 1 Cattiolic and
lation toward the congregation from that sustained by protestant li
the Roman Catholic. While the latter ministers in turgists.
sacred things by virtue of his priestly character, even where no
'Ehrenfeuchter, ubi supra, p. 63; compare § 16, and Marheineke, Prakt. The
ologie, § 198.

533 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY
congregation is present, or, when it is present, still only before it, and
never in and with the congregation,' the Protestant liturgist repre
sents in person the priesthood of the whole congregation. He e.v-
presses in Church prayers only what all mentally repeat, and, if he
sing, his voice is lost in the volume of praise by the whole con
gregation. The sacraments, even, are administered by him as the
oflScer designated by the congregation, and set apart by the Church.
He shares with the Roman Catholic liturgist, indeed, in being bound
by the rule established by the Church, but not in the same degree,
nor in the same manner. Many consider it, no doubt, a prerogative
of Protestantism to afford absolute license, and such license has
occasionally been carried to a high' pitch, certainly not to the ad
vantage of real Protestantism.''
To assume that the preacher offers prayer simply as a preacher,
Distinction be- since "the prayer must be his own work as much as
tween hormiet- ^j^^ sermon," is erroneous. A clear distinction must be
leal and litur- ' ^
gicai elements, made, at this point, between the homiletical and the
liturgical elements.' No restraint is imposed upon him with respect
to the former by homiletical rules, and he is certainly expected to
come before the congregation with prayer as well as speech. The
more the congregation recognises in the preacher's personal piety
the acme of the religious life of the community,* the less will he
refuse to perform a service which he must consider, in this precise
form of service {XeiTovpyla), as being the necessary compleraent to
the more indepehdent sermon. The sermon is an inadequate and
incomplete feature when not sustained by the whole economy of the
worship.
Liturgies In re- Liturgies touches upon the fields of ethics and ecclc-
eTnTecoiesia^ siastical law. Here, too, arise the ethical questions con-
ticai law. ceming the extent to which the liturgist is required to
represent the ritual in his own person, and whethfer he is simply to
' Ehrenfeuchter, p. 223.
' " The further development with which such a formal Protestantism violently
breaks in upon, and interrupts, the course of liturgical tradition, is a progress into
vacancy, and the setting to rights and clearing up are a transferring into the hands of
the individual of what is designed for the Church as a whole." — Marheineke, Prakt.
Theologie, § 227. Remarks on the license assumed by Protestant clergymen to the
injury of the liturgical rights of the congregation occur in Bahr, ubi supra.
' Comp. Al. Schweizer, Wiefern liturgische Gebete bindend sein sollen ? Zurich,
1836, p. 22, sg., and the discussions of this subject by H. Lang, Bitzius, aud Riifli iu
the Swiss Reform, 1873, Nos. 10, 12, and 16.
* " The bond of union which embraces the entire body must also appear in the sin
gle individual, and the organism of the whole show forth in the pai'ticular member."
— ^Ehrenfeuchter, ubi supra, p. 65 ; comp. p. 346.

PROTESTANT AND ROMAN CATHOLIC LITURGICS. r>;]3
make use of its forms of expression.' Upon this follows, in imme
diate sequence, the legal question respecting the authority in which
the right to prescribe a ritual is vested, and the extent to which it
is allowable for the individual administrator to depart from the
established form. Pedantry in Church government may work as
injuriously at this point as self-will and arbitrary measures may in
connexion with the ministrations of the public worship. Such
differences can only exist, however, where the life of the church is
hampered in some direction, either because the liturgy has been im
posed without the consent of the congregation, or the liturgist has
intruded himself into his place. When the minister ceases to be
the organ of his congregation and of the Church he is no longer
in his proper place. But where he possesses the confidence of the
congregation it will not be difficult for him to decide how far he
may go in any given case. The being governed by forms, laid
down by the legislative authority of his Church, will not be regarded
as a burdensome constraint, but as a duty imposed on him by his'
own convictions as a servant of the spirit rather than the letter.
He will thus be enabled to move with freedom and dignity even
when guided by such authority.
After all that has been said, however, the question may yet be
raised whether Protestantism can recognise a science of „ . ^ ^
" . Protestant reo-
liturgies at all ? and whether we are not to be guided ognition of li-
in such matters, also, simply by the Holy Scriptures? *'^''^'^-
The latter must certainly be the authoritative standard here as
everywhere. Principles such as are contained in John iv, 24, and
Matt, vi, 7, wiU ever continue to be governing principles, and the
Lord's Prayer will remain a model for all other prayers. But this
does not imply that the liturgical forms of the apostolic age, which
are not even well understood by our age, should be retained as an
inalienable heirloom for all subsequent time. A literal retention of
this kind would even destroy the higher conception of worship.
The idea of the Lord's Supper would be entirely lost if, for exam
ple, it were maintained that exactly twelve should be seated at one
table whenever it is administered. What could be more erroneous
than the assumption that, since the early Christians did not yet
possess the New Testament Scriptures, it is requisite that only Old
Testament Scriptures be made the subject of preaching and Old
Testament psalms be sung ? On this view it would be wrong to
celebrate Christian festivals, and we should be obliged to observe
' The above follows a distinction made by Schleiermacher, and has been opposed by
V. Colin and Schulz (Leips., 1831). Comp. Schleiermacher in Stud. u. Krit., 1821,
No. 1, and the replies of the above, Leips., 1831.

534 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY.
the ancient Sabbath with the Jews and the Sabbatarian sects. It
is, therefore, with entire propriety that Ehrenfeuchter observes,'
that it certainly is the aim of Protestantism to restore primitive
Christianity, not, however, in the sense of actualizing its begin
nings, but rather its principles. Hence "the sphere of worship in
cludes more than that of the Holy Scriptures."" Hence, also, Prot
estant liturgies is presented with the great and far-reaching task of
" ascertaining and representing the eternal forms of worship." '

SECTION XL
FOEMS OF WORSHIP AND THEIK EELATION TO AET.
The essential elements of Protestant worfship are the sermon.
Elements of which is based upon the word of God, the united prayer
worship. g^jj^ singing of the congregation, and the benediction,
which concludes the service. The highest point of Protestant wor
ship is attained in the periodical celebration of the Lord's Supper,
whose leading characteristic is that of a feast. The distribution of
the various liturgical observances, the relation they are to sustain
toward each other, and the more or less festal character they are to
bear, will be determined by the ecclesiastical year, the periodically
recurring festal seasons which it includes, and the wisdom and care
of the pastor. All forms of art which have no immediate relation
to the living Word are referred to the background at this point,
and are designed at most to promote an auxiliary object, not directly
aiming at an increase of devotion.
It must be conceded that not all Protestant liturgists are agreed
The eucharistio upon the above statements. Many have maintained
element. ^jjj^^ ^^q eucharistical feature especially should not be
wanting in any form of divine service, and that all else should, as
in the Roman Catholic Church, tend to give prominence to it as
the principal end in view, even the sermon being made to occupy
• Page 72.
^ Ibid., p. 166: "The sphere of worship is always extended over an existence of
•actual joy in God, over a present filled with the consciousness of God, w^hile the sacred
writings always, by their form, refer back to what is past."
^ Ibid., p. 75 : The ancient Church in general deserves, next to the apostolic age, to
be consulted, together with its forms of worship, whenever a reconstruction of the
worship is in question, but it is not necessary that their example be anxiously imi
tated. It should be discriminately used with reference to the needs and conditions of .
the present time. Comp. Simon, Die apostol. Gemeinde-u. Kirchenverfassung, Poted.,
1851 ; Abeken, Der Gottesdienst der alten Kirche, Berl., 1853; Harnack, Der christl
Gemeindegottesdienst im apostol. Zeitalter, Dorpat, 1863.

FORMS OF WORSHIP AND THEIR RELATION TO ART. 535
a secondary position in this regard.' It cannot be denied that the
Lord's Supper constitutes the summit and crown of the common
worship. But it is to be questioned whether its too frequent repe
tition would not lead to a loss of real solemnity and fervour o£ dis
position, and to its being degraded into an opus operatum. This
assertion of the eucharistical feature with which the demand for a
purely liturgical service, without the sermon, is connected, has its
excuse in the one-sided view which led ProLestantism, particularly
of the Reformed type, to lay stress f6r a time upon the sermon as
being the only element of worship which is absolutely essential.
That the sermon should constitute the central feature „,Plan of the ser-
of the service, even though but in a formal way, is mon in wor-
entirely proper, and in harmony with the position every- ^^^^'
where assigned to the word of God in the organism of Protestant
worship. But it should be remembered that the word of God
does not secure a proper recognition through the sermon only,
and that the latter is not in any sense its only exponent.'' The
original representative of the word of God is the Bible itself.
For this reason the reading of a section from the Scriptures is
included among the elements of public worship.' But it is neces
sary that the congregation be afforded opportunity for self-edifica
tion, upon the basis of God's word, for giving expression to the
' E. g., by Kliefoth, Die ursprlingliche Gottesdienstordnung, Rostock, 1S47, 2d ed.,
2 parts, 185S-59, and since then by many others.
^ Bahr, ubi supra, has directed attention upon this point with emphasis, and often
with keen irony ; but he goes too far in the direction of undervaluing the sermon.
Ehrenfeuchter (§ 87) assigns to the latter its true position among the difEerent ele
ments of the worship by conceiving of it as their formal centre. Comp. also Vinet:
It is being recognised with increasing clearness in the Reformed Church that the at
tention is not to be fixed alone upon the hearing of a sermon in connexion with th'e
public worship, but that the direct participation of the congregation is absolutely
requisite. Comp. Coquerel (fils) : What is adoration and worship but an art by which
he who adores puts himself in true and actual relation with Him whom he adores ? . . .
Nothing which is passive alone constitutes the highest worship. The being present
and listening is not an act, and consequently not worship. Le Culte tel que Dieu le
demande (Paris, 1853). This is a rationalistic view, and should be qualified.
^ These lessons are not simply needed for the purpose of acquainting the peo,jle
with the Scriptures, although this was formerly the case, when the Bible was not .^so
generally circulated as at the present. But the united listening In the Church is very
different from the private reading at home. Comp. Palmer, Homiletik, p. 870. R.
Rotlie wrote from Rome, " The mere listening to the reading of the Scriptures in the
Christian congregation has always been a rich blessing and enjoyment, to me at least,
although I have not unfrequently been deprived of them by their discussion pro and
con." In Nippold, p. 360 : In the Reformed Church it is usual, in some localities, to
road the Decalogue, but it is better to make independent selections suited to each
separate occasion. The ancient Church had its lectors.

536 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY.
impressions received, and to elevate itself into immediate com
munion with God.
Prayer and singing are exponents of the word of God equally
Prayer and with the sermon, in so far as they are based upon, and
singing. originate in, that word. Even the sermon can only be
a word of God to the congregation when it is not only based upon
the Bible, but is supported by the common devotion, and, so to
speak, grows from it as its appropriate soil. It is necessary, there
fore, that prayer and singing on the part of the congregation should
both precede the sermon, for the purpose of exciting devotion and
collecting the minds of the people, and follow it, to reproduce and
fix the impressions received.' They form a species of antiphony to
the sermon, while the benediction which follows constitutes the
symbolical conclusion of the whole.''
It is for liturgies to decide what is the relation sustained by
prayer and singing to each other and to the sermon, and in what
order the several parts are to succeed and support each other.
Probably a hymn of general character, not directly related to the
sermon, will furnish the most appropriate introduction for divine
service, to be followed by the prayer. The prayer should conclude
with the Lord's Prayer. Its character involves that it should be
introductory, and calculated to excite devotion, but at the same
time adapted to call forth that contrite disposition whence springs
Orderof ser- ^ ^^^^ desire for salvation. Then follow Scripture selec-
^f*- tions, and then singing, with special reference to the
sermon, and afterward the sermon. The closing prayer may have
direct bearing on the sermon, and be shaped by its thought. It is
designed to fix the impression wrought by the sermon, but must
lead over into the general worship again. At this point inter
cession is in place. The closing hymn and benediction form
the end.
It is of advantage to the nature of devotion that the different
services of .the Church be not equal in the extent and fulness of
their liturgical elements. The average medium is found in the
Sunday services, which are more extended than the week-even
ing services. The more joyous a divine service is designed to
be, the more largely may forms of art be drawn upon in its ar
rangement, though under the j)resumption that such forms will
possess a strictly religious character. If we examine the available
' " The singing falls chiefly to the lot of the congregation, and the preaching is the
service of the clergyman; while the functions of both are combined in the prayer, as
in a common centre. "^^Marhelneke, ubi supra, § 250.
" Rosenkranz, Encykl., p. 340.

FORMS OF WORSHIP AND THEIR RELATION TO ART. 5:17
forms of art we shall find them to consist in discourse, music, and
action. A large field is open to music. Should it be employed only
when connected with words, under the form of singing? jjygjg j^ .y.g^_
Should it be congregational only? Ought it to be in- ship.
terspersed with solo and choir singing, or accompanied with instru
mental music, and to what extent?' How far may instrumental
music be allowed without the accompaniment of song? The limit
lies here. As action may, as a rule, be regarded only as an auxil
iary to speech, so instrumental music may be regarded only as an
aid to the singing.
Religious architecture" also deserves a prominent j^lace among the
arts connected with Protestant worship, and beside that sacred archi-
of discourse and that of song, not only for reasons of teoture.
propriety, but also because of the religious and symbolical idea.
which the edifice is to embody and express.' But a church edifice,
even when the embodiment of an idea, together with the symbolical
features introduced into the structure, is not to be regarded as in-
. volving any essential element, but merely as an aid to the exciting
of devotion, and as exercising an influence to stimulate and support,
rather than to direct and govern, the worship. The architectur:il
symbol, therefore, stands upon the border line, upon the same foot
ing ns the music of the organ and the ringing of church bells. For
it is possible to conceive of a truly elevating Protestant worship
from which all of these are wanting, while such worship could find
no expression at all in the. absence of the sermon, singing, and
prayer, and the celebration of the Lord's Supper. The essential
feature, in which Protestant worship differs from Romim Catholi
cism, is simply its inward nature, freedom, and life — qualities which
must not be allowed to give way before any degree of sesthetical
refinement. However, it would be equally improper to renounce
' " It may be said of the Christian Church, that in the organ it has invented an in
strument which combines within itself all the tones which existed singly in separate
instruments before its discovery." — Rosenkranz, p. 337. Comp. Herder's poem, Die
Orgel. Harms pronounced against the organ, as did also the ancient usage of the
Reformed Church, which had no better name for it than the " pope's lyre " (!). Comp.
Biihr, ubi supra, p. 112, sg.
¦' Vetter, ubi supra. " There is no grander cathedral than St. Peter's Church in
Rome ; but more beautiful than this, says the cherished Neander, is that Church which
consists of two or three Christian souls assembled in the name of Christ." — Merle
d'Aubigne in the Verhandlungen des sechsten evangel. Kirchentags zu Berlin (Berl.,
1853), p. 48.
' Comp. Ehrenfeuchter, p. 290, sgg. This field embraces also the external sur
roundings of the church edifice, particularly burial grounds and {heir monuments.

538 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY.
all natural connexion between worship and art, in so far as the latter
enters modestly into the service of the Church.'
Lange says : " Worship is the festal representation of the ideal in
the. real; while art is the festal representation of the real life in the
ideal;" or, "art represents the manifestation of the new world hi
symbolic form, while longing that it shall come into being; and
worship represents the hidden character and the growth of i he new
world with a yearning that it may appear." Ehrenfeuchter shows
ingeniously how man becomes in worship both the material and the
manager of it: "The art of comprehending himself in the inner
most relations of his life, and of entering into relations with God,
is what we demand of every human being. This constitutes the
profoundest and truest element of life." F. W. Krummacher beau
tifully remarks, in one of his sermons, that "art is entitled to a
place in the Church. This admits of no doubt; but it is the
product, and not the creator, of the new life. The promise is
restricted altogether to the word, and the word is accompanied
by the generating, while art has only the preserving and refresh
ing, spirit. Art, moreover, belongs rather to a Solomonic period of
the Church than to a Davidic. In the latter it is necessary that
the sword of the word should first perform its work. Not until
the victory was achieved did the harp and psaltery ring out their
notes."" It follows from this, that worship through the Word still consti
tutes the heart of Protestant liturgies. To deal with the Word in
preaching is the office of homiletics; and liturgies, accordingly, is
Limitations of restricted : 1. To the word as connected with the sing-
liturgics. ing (Church hymnology) ; 2. As emanating from the
common feeling in the form of prayer (Church prayer) ; and 3. As
it introduces and accompanies the performance of sacred actions,
as in the benediction and the sacraments. The two latter form the
ritual. Hence hymn books and the ritual constitute the liturgical
apparatus which each Church government is required to provide for
the use of the ministrations of the Church, and liturgies is required
to furnish the fundamental principles by which the work of provid
ing such apparatus is to be governed. With reference to hymn
books, or the text of hymns, it is by no means a question how to
provide the Church with hymns which should be modelled upon
' "Art," remarks u, Swiss pastor (Ritter of Schwanden), "is that St. Christopher
who seeks out a lord, serves him faithfully, and does not admit into his mind the
thought of being lord himself; and yet so feels his own worth as to be resolved to
remain with him only who is the strongest."
= Die Sabbathglocke, Berl., 1853, pp. 178, 179.

FORMS OP WORSHIP AND THEIR RELATION TO ART. 530
any particular liturgical theory. On the contrary, liturgies boldly
and gladly makes use of the existing treasures of liymnology in the
Church.' Hengstenberg says : " The poetry of Protestantism evi
dently finds its culmination in the Church h-ymn. In „
. . , • T T ¦ Hengstenberg
opposition to ' the widespread notion which still con- on religious
trols many weak natures, that the worship of Romanism p"^''''-
is more poetic thjm that of Protestantism,' it is asserted, and with
truth, that this would be a correct opinion 'if poetry consisted in
all manner of mechanical forms and outward ornaments.' But
poetry is spirit whi.-ih speaks to spirit, and the unadorned sing
ing of one of Luther's or Paul Gerhard's hymns with the heart of
a living congregation is more poetical than all the allurements
which attract the eye and ear in the splendid worship of Roman
Catholicsism." To sift our hymns, and discover the gold contained in them, is one
of the highest arts of theology. Here, again, it is easy q,^ ^^^^^ ^^^
for a view that is based upon the taste of individuals necessarily
to assert itself, whether it be the fanciful pedantry of ^°° '
affecting what has the flavour of antiquity or the rationalistic
soberness which eliminates everything that breathes the aroma
of poesy. Not everything that is old is also good. Even
among the old there is much that is antiquated, either because
it is involved in a dogmatical or ethical conception of the world
which has passed away, or because it can no longer be corcipre-
hended and enjoyed.' The thing demanded is, accordingly, that
hymns of a truly sterling character be sought out with accurate
judgment, and that the heart of this class be discovered. But the
claims of the new are also to receive due recognition beside the
old, though the purity of tone and colour in the latter should be
preserved. The Church hymns of the former days often become
mongrel forms through an "improvement" which results to their
damage, and through their being dressed up a la mode, by which
means they assume a character which cannot be approved either
by good taste or historical judgment. Changes are required in
occasional instances, no doubt, but they should be executed
with the utmost caution, and it is one of the principal problems
' The Reformed Church has long been content to use psalms only. Here, too, it
would be a misapprehension of the idea of scriptural worship were the text of spirit
ual songs to be confined to psalms only. Many of the most beautiful Church hymns
are usually revised psalms.
* Evangel. Kirchenzeitung, vol. Ixxiv, No. 4, p. 374.
' See Marheineke, ubi supra, p. 256, and Stier, Erneuerte Eechenschaft iiber das
evangelische Gesangbuch, Brunswick, 1852.

540 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY.
in liturgies to determine the principles on which they are to be
introduced.' If the Church hymn belongs to the department of poetry, the
prayer involves a form of language which expresses the
Public prayer. ,,. ^ , „^ , ¦ ,. ^
" unity of poetry and prose — that is to say, ot free
and yet elevated speech. Every infusion of merely reflective, dog
matizing, moralizing, and logically connecting elements, is to be
avoided. The older written forms of Church prayers, while con
taining much that is strong and robust, were yet often pervaded
with a dogmatizing and polemical spirit which could not be edify
ing; and modern forms often include much sentimental verbiage,
or are couched in the tone of merely moralizing preaching. It
will be necessaly that the appropriate manner and tone of the
Church prayer, by which it secures an aspect of due veneration, be
retained, and that all effeminacy and insipidity be excluded, while
at the same time the structure of sentences is kept sufficiently flex
ible to avoid the impression of stiffness.'
With reference to the administration of the Sacraments, we may
say that they constitute the most fixed and immovable element of
worship, especially with regard to the words of institution and con
secration, which liturgies is not at libertj* to change. The addi
tions, such as preliminary and supplementary prayers, exhortations,
and the like, are not so immovably fixed. Such other formulas as
relate to specific occasions may receive a more independent and
flexible treatment, though the true spirit of the Church may always
be retained even in the framing of such formulas.
' The preface to Knapp's Liedersehatz contains valuable directions for this work.
Comp. also Herder's preface to the Weimar Gesangbuch. Numerous discussions of
this question have been had in recent days at Church conferences and synods, and in
periodicals, but without arriving at any agreement respecting the principles on which
a hymn book for the common use of the evangelical Churches should be composed.
2 Ehrenfeuchter, § 81.
' Kapp (in the work mentioned below) has set forth some excellent principles.
Comp. also Hebel, Ideen zur Gebetstheorie (in Werke, vol. vii) ; we are not to pray
" as the awkward members of a guild, and the foremen address each other in a sworn
form of greeting, but as dear children approach their beloved father." There is dan
ger, however, that the Church prayer express too great familiarity, as if addressing
a mere " friend of the family."

THE METlIODOLOrjY. 541
SECTION XII
THE METHODOLOGY.
The nature of liturgies forbids that facility in its use should be
acquired by practice, as may be done with catechetics and homi
letics. But the liturgical sense may be variously cultivated, and
especially by making of the divine service a vital element for the
pastor, in which he feels himself at home. The understanding of
liturgical matters is likewise aided in a special degree by familiurity
with the older and more recent liturgies, though we may not use
them, and particularly by familiarity with the treasures of hym
nology which belong to the Church. To this may be added personal
practice in singing, — if we have the gift, — an acquaintance with
the theory of Church singing, and also an insight into the nature of
Christian architectjire.
Practice in the leading of the prayers of the congregation may
be connected with practice in preaching, but the true The necessity
anointing of the liturgist must be derived from a Higher °' divme help.
Power. Fessler says: " The school and extensive reading, industry,
and practice, may, when joined to distinguished ability, produce
excellent oi-ators, but the forming of a divinely inspired liturgist,
who holds full communion with God, is exclusively a work of grace
— i. e., of the illuminating, inspiring, and anointing influence of the
Holy Spirit.'" Frcelich observes, with striking truth, that "to
strike the proper tone with a certainty which shall excite the congre
gation to join heartily in prayer, and to fill it with devotional feel
ing, and to hold it fast, and harmonize it with the different turns of
the prayer, demands not only all the fervour of which the leader is
capable, but also all his skill." ... In the biography of Spleiss,
superintendent at Schaffhausen, he is credited with having prepared
himself for the conduct of his liturgical services with the same indus
try and care which he bestowed upon a sermon; and thus, while
his sermons frequently burst forth with excessive vivacity, his li
turgical delivery was quiet and restrained. But each word was em
phasized with the proper degree of force, and made to express its
full meaning, especially in the more important passages.
Every part of the service connected with the worship, and not
the sermon alone, must be minutely studied. An expressive and
unaffected presentation of these various parts is very rare. Even
the ablest preacher may utterly destroy the good influence of the
sermon by carelessness in the conduct of the other portions of the
' Biiokblicke auf meine 70 jahrige Pilgerschaft, Breslau, 1826, p. 416.

543 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY.
service, while the lack of personal eloquence may be readily over
looked in the case of a faithful administrator in holy things.
The proper reading of the Scripture lessons is highly essential.
., They should be selected with great care, their spirit
relation to the studied, and then read with cabn fervour.' With re-
singing. gard to singing, the minister is not required to accom
plish more than any other member of the Church. But he is still
expected to direct the singing to the extent of selecting the hymns
which are to be sung. For this purpose, if for no other, a thor
oughly intimate acquaintance with the hymn book, unfortunately
so rare an acquirement, is of great advantage. Luther went too
far when he said, " I will not look at a preacher who cannot sing."
The pastor should do all he can, in his appropriate sphere, toward
the improvement of the singing by seeing that the congregation
are supplied with hymn books, and all possible helps. He cannot,
therefore, permit himself to remain in ignorance of the poetical
and musical treasures of the hymnology of his individual denomi
nation, or of that of the Church as a whole.
.The opportunity of attending public worship while travelling
should never be neglected, from religious as well as homiletical and
liturgical considerations, the object l)eing to enlarge one's spiritual
and mental horizon, and the combatting of prejudices that were
previously entertained. A visit, for example, to a congregation of
the Moravian Brotherhood will yield to every raiiid a profitable
picture of Christian propriety and liturgical simplicity. Besides,
every opportunity for a better acquaintance with the better speci
mens of ecclesiastical art and architecture should be seized upon
cheerfully. No preacher visiting the older countries should neg
lect any privilege, both in services in the churches and in observa
tion, to enrich his mind for better ministrations after his return
home. With regard to every part of the service, and more especially the
administration of the sacraments, everything depends upon a sense
of propriety, which itself results from thorough moral culture. At
the communion table and the baptismal font the most learned pedant,
the keenest critic, and the profoundest speculator, may be put to
shame sooner than a simple, properly trained, modest, and inwardly
consecrated and anointed servant of God. Such a man as that the
preacher — if not that already — should endeavour to become.
' Such reading should not be declamatory, but suited to the spirit of the passage,
aud recitative. Comp. Ehrenfeuchter, p. 352 ; Bahr, p. 72.

THE HISTORY OF LITURGICS. 543
SECTION XIII.
THE HISTOEY or LITUEGICS.
Christian worship has developed itself out of the Jewish worship.
It was at first simple synagogue worship, then, to an christian wor-
increasing extent, levitical priesthood and temple ser- *'''p developed
o ' , . , '^ from the Jew-
vice, and, finally, a return to the simpler form through isn.
the agency of the Reformation. From that point it is possible to
distinguish three periods: "The stormy perio^ ofthe Reformation;
then the quiet and often stagnant intermediate period; and, finally,
the active and struggling period in which we live." '
Liturgies is conformed in its method to these successive stages:
The apostles already furnished hints respecting the proper behav
iour at the time of worship (I Cor. xi, 22; Eph. vi, 19; Col. iii, 16;
James ii, 2, 3). The apostolical constitutions apd the liturgies
which were promulgated under the names of the Apostle James
and the Evangelist Mark, of Jerusalem and Alexandria, are, as is
well known, rejected by criticism. With them were connected, in
the East, the liturgies of Basil and of Chrysostom, and, in the
West, those of Gelasius and Leo I. These last, however, were
superseded by the Roman Missal of Gregory I. Milan alone pre
served its special liturgy." When the Romish worship, under the
supervision of the papacy, had developed into the ritual of the
Romish mass, and the functions of the priesthood had extended
over a wider area, it became necessary to provide guides for their
conduct, such as Durandus (died 1296), in his Reason for Divine
Offices, and similar vyorks.
Luther transformed the mass into a simple observance of the
Protestant ceremony of the Lord's Supper, and the Reformed theo
logians rejected both the name and the thing.' The symbolical
books contain the earliest liturgical principles, and they reappear
occasionally in dogrtiatical works in connexion with the Church and
the sacraments. The sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the flour
ishing period of German Church hymnology, did more in the way
of furnishing a liturgical apparatus, such as hymn books and form
ularies, than in that of discussing the worship itself. It was not
until a beginning was made, from the standpoint of modern ration
alism, in the work of setting aside the ancient, or of conforming it
' Lange, ubi supra, p. 109.
'Comp. Assemani, Codex liturgicus, Rom., 1649-65; xiii, fol. ; Eeuaudet, CoUectio
Liturgiarum orientalium, Paris, 1716; Daniel, Codex liturgicus ecclesiae universEe,
Lips., 1847, sgg.
' Comp. J. C. Funk, Geist u. Form des von Luther angeordenten Cultus, Berlin, 1818.

544 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY.
to the so-called " demands of the spirit of the times," or the period
of diluting the hymnology of the Church, that new theories were
Rationalistic provided 10 accompany the new liturgical forms. Tljis
works. ^a,s done by Zollikoffer, Seller, Diterioh, Hufnagel, Wag
nitz, and others, first in the journals of the period, and afterward
in books. Specimens of these works may be seen in Bastholm's
Improvement of the Outward Worship (Leips., 1786); Spazier's
Frank Thoughts on the Protestant Worship of God (Gotha, 1788);
Wolf rath. Questions on Liturgical Subjects (Hamburg, 1793-94);
Burdorf's Hints for the Improvement of the Festivity of Public
Worship (1795); Jenisch's Worship of God and Ecclesiastical Re
form (Berlin, 1803), and Reinhold's Ideas on the Outward Worship
(Neustrelitz, 1805). To these may be added Tzschirner, in his
Cautious Improvement of Sucred Services (1815), who demands a
natural worship of God, and Hebel, in his Liturgical Contributions,
who admits the emotional element, but too strongly from a subjec
tive point of view. The mystical and Romanizing tendencies, stim
ulated by the romantic school, likewise asserted themselves by the
side of the rationalizing and sentimental tendencies in worship, in
Horst's Mysteriosophy, and in the works of Fessler, and others.
Gass (died 1831), stimulated especially by Schleiermacher, was
the first to provide a really scientific basis for evangelical liturgies,
of which the writers mentioned in the literature below availed
themselves in the further development of this branch, though gen
erally governed by speculative rather than practical motives. Kapp
was more largely practical than any other author. , The latest
Recent diver- movements within the ecclesiastical territory have given
sity of views, j-jsg ^o a great diversity of views. This we see in the
union of the two Protestant Churches of Germany, and the con
nected dispute, extending into ecclesiastical law, respecting the
ritual, in which Schleiermacher took part. We observe it also in
the reaction against the Prussian service book, which emanated from
the Old Lutheran party. To these must be added Puseyism, which
originated in the Oxford School, and whose fundamental views in
relation to ecclesiastical law and liturgies found acceptance in Ger
many as well. We see it also in Irvingism, which sought to restore
a levitical worship.
In the Reformed Church it was felt to be necessary that at least
a justification of the peculiar form of worship be furnished. Greater
sobriety and caution were manifested from that point, in opposi-
iion to an ssstheticising, mystifying, and speculative transcendent
alism, which does not exclude the recognition of whatever may be
more valuable among the possessions of other churches. It is in

THE HISTORY OF LITURGICS. 545
place here to recall the unfortunate dispute concerning the ritual in
the Grand Duchy of Baden, and the hymn book contro- „ .
/ . . ... Controversy in
versy in the Palatinate, in connexion with which such Baaen ana the
a quiet discussion of principles as was to be desired, ^^"'"°**^'
and as would have yielded fruit to the Church and to science, was
not, in all probability, secured — a proof that not all times are
equally prepared to admit of liturgical reforms, and that some will
warn against retrogression in matters where others see only prog
ress. Nor has the Roman Catholic Church been free from attempts
to reconstruct the worshij) anew since the close of the last century.
Not to dwell upon the Theophilanthropists of France (1796), who
endeavored to introduce a sentimental deism, and the church of
the Abbe Chatel at Paris (from 1830), it may be sufficient to men
tion, in the theoretical department, the Principles of Liturgical
Theology, of the Benedictine, Kohler (I "/SB), and Winter's What
the Liturgy Should Be (Munich, 1809), together with the works of
Schmidt, Hnogek, Ltift, and others. Ignatius of Wessenberg ren
dered especially meritorious service in the ennobling of the wor
ship and the introducing of a German hymnology. His ideal, at
all events, was to build up a German Catholic Church, though not
of the kind produced in the fourth decade of this century, to
which that name was applied. It remains to be seen how far the
Old Catholicism of DoUinger and others will succeed in construct
ing a liturgy.
In many of the Protestant churches of Great Britain and Amer
ica a revolution in the estimate of the value of a fixed liturgy is
quite observable. While retaining in public services the use of free
prayer, concessions have been made by them to the value of forms.
The participation in the reading of Scriptures by the congregation,
the repeating of the Apostles' Creed, the use of the Gloria Patri,
and occasionally of the Gloria in Excelsis and the Te Deum, are
confessions of a desire to enter more fully into ia fellowship of
thought and life with the Church universal. Unquestionably the
growth of the historical spirit has had somewhat to do with this
salutaiy change ; but more than this, the conviction that liturgi
cal forms insure stability. At the same time the value of the
hymn as an element of public worship has been more clearly per
ceived, and the development of a popular hymnody, which has
carried religious thought and emotion to the lowest strata of society,
has become one of the features of our century. And if this sacred
song be not of the highest quality, it still performs its function of
making the Christian religion a part of the common life of men.
Isaac Taylor claims that "hymns and psalms and spiritual songs
35

546 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY.
are a species of literature, in which the English language is richer
than any other, and that they administer comfort, excitement,
and instruction to an extent and in a degree which never can be
calculated." '
Be this as it may, the two drifts of the religious feeling of the
English-speaking world — that toward the popularizing of sacred
song, and that toward the adoption of liturgical forms in churches
where they have not heretofore been acceptable — must be both
taken into account. It has even been proposed that the Churches
of the United States come into some sort of union on the basis of
the liturgy of the Church of England. The proposal has not been
received with favor, but the fact of its originating with a repre
sentative of a non-liturgical Church shows a dissatisfaction with the
ancient attitude of such Churches toward forms of prayer. The
vast open-air gatherings, in the summer season, of American Christ
ians for teaching and worship must continue for a long time to
give prominence to sacred song, which cannot, at least in such cir
cumstances, be rivaled by liturgical forms. The growth of intelli
gence, and the habit of reflection which comes of intelligence, must,
however, create in many the desire to express their highest aspira
tions in the language of those prayers which have come down to us
as the supplications that have fallen from the lips of the saints of
all the Christian ages.
ENGLISH AND AMERICAN. LITER ATURE OP LITURGICS.
Blunt, John Henry. Tho Annotated Book of Common Prayer. Svo. London, 1866.
New and enlarged edition, 1S84.
Liturgy and Hymns for the Use of the Protestant Church of the United Bretliren,
or Unitas Fratrum. New and revised edition. 12mo, pp. xxxviii, and 1,32S
hymns, without paging. (The morning service contains an extended litany.)
Proctor, Francis. A History of the Book of Common Prayer, with a Rationale of its
Offices. With an Introductory Chapter on the History of the American Liturgy.
By William Stevens Perry. Fifteenth edition. 12rao, pp. xl, 502. London
and New York, 1881. (Perhaps the best history ofthe English Prayer Book.)
The Book of Common Prayer, and Administration of the Sacraments and Other Rites
and Ceremonies of the Church, According to the Use of the Protestant Episco
pal Church in the United States of America. 12mo. New York, 1855. .(The
alterations in the Book of Common Prayer prepared in the General Convention
of 1S83 were adopted by the General Convention of 1886.)
The Book of Public Prayers and Services for the Use of the People Called Meth
odists. 12mo, pp. 298. London, 1888. (Based on the English Prayer Book.
The Appendix contains directions relative to the solemnization of Marriages in
Wesleyan Methodist Chapels, and the Burial Laws Amendment Act of 1880.)
The Sunday Service of the Methodists in Amerioa. With the Occasional Services.
]2mo, pp. 314, 104. London, 1784. (TWs Is the Service Book prepared by Mr.
' Wesjey and MethncWmii p. 95.

HOMILETICS. 547
Wesley for his American Societies. Recent editions have been issued by the
publishing houses in New York, Cincinnati, aud Nashville.)
Wheatly, Charles. A Rational Illustration of the Book of Common Prayer of the
Church of England. 12m ., pp. xii, 532. London, 1852. (The author con-
sid.rs Bucer an intermeddler in the formation of the Euglish book.)
SECTION XIV.
H OMILBTICS.
Liturgies determines the nature and form of worship. But
homiletics has to determine the nature and form of the Christian
sermon alone, and to furnish instruction respecting the mode of ex
pounding the word of God in the congregation, and of presenting
it in discourse. Liturgies directs attention to the en-
_ . . . Relation of 11-
tire contents ot Christian revelation, whence the sermon turgics to horn- •
is to derive its material ; and the latter operates parltv ''®"<^-
in the field of hermeneutics and partly in that of rhetoric, though
with constant reference to the peculiar nature of sacred discourse,
as distinguished from other forms of oratory.
The word homiletics is derived from bfiiXia. It is usual to under
stand homilies as denoting only a single class of sermons, namely,
those whose unity does not inhere in a theme which is propounded,
but in the text" and which approximate to popular forms of speech
in their language more than to those of other classes.' The ancient
usage covered a broader ground with this term, however, and in
conformity therewith we use the term homiletics to designate not
only the theory of this single form of discourse, but that of the
sermon in general. At this point, however, we must fix the limit.
Homiletics must not be expanded into a theor-v of sa- „ „ ,
^ . ' Homiletics not
cred, or even Christian or religious, eloquence, in gen- a theory of sa^
eral. It is possible to conceive of Christian addresses «''e<iei<"i™nce.
which are not included in the department of homiletics proper; for
example, the missionary address {Kr/pvyfia). The latter may be de
nominated a sermon, in the peculiar biblical meaning of the word ;
but it, as well as the preaching of the apostles, is nevertheless un
like what our sermons can be, since they are not the product of the
impulse of the moment, but bear the character of a regularly re
peated and integral part of public worship. Herder remarks," that
"as soon as the sermon ceased to be what it really was in the mouth
' Opinions differ greatly with regard to the propriety of homilies. While Herder
has advocated their use. Harms has decided adversely to it, and says : " They fill, but do
not satisfy." Schleiermacher was likewise not inclined to regard them with special
favour. He considered homilies to be a mere aggregation of separate sermons.
' In Briefe iiber das Studium der Theologie, No. 40, the whole of which should be
read in this connexion.

54S PRACTICAL THEOLOQY.
of the apostles, a message, it became an exposition of the word of
God, its writings and teachings, and an application of what had
been read in the midst of a quiet Christian assembly. This was
termed a homily, aud was not properly an oration."
If it be desired to set forth a theory for the awakening preaching
of an apostolic herald, or for ^he proclamation of the Word among
the heathen, it will be found^ionvenient to appropriate to it the
name keryktics — a term first formed by Stier from the Greek word,
KTjpvacio, to proclaim.' Such preaching precedes, in point of time,
even catechetics, while the sermon, as ordinarily understood, is ad
dressed to persons who already belong to the Christian community,
so that homiletics carries forward the work of catechetics.
We would not assert that the usual sermon should involve no ele-
.. . ment of keryktics, for many nominal Christians exist
Necessity of con- ,,
tinuai preaching to whom the Call to repentance needs to be continually
ot repentance, addressed, and Schleiermacher pivoted the question
upon too fine a point when he excluded all hortatory sermons of
Ibis kind. Vinet urges the reality, which is stronger than any the
ory. It is equally certain, however, that many of our most zealous
hortatory preachers miss the mark by incessantly driving the plough,
instead of pausing to sow the seed and water it, and cherish the
growing blade. By preaching only repentance we always tarry in
the court of the Gentiles, and never enter into the most holy place.
The needs of advanced Christians and growth in grace should not
be disregarded. The treatment accorded to cold and formal Christ
ians within the Church, moreover, is specifically different from that
which the actual heathen, who " are without," can receive. An ap
peal may be addressed to their nominal Christianity, or, better, to
the Christian name they bear. They may be reminded of their
baptism, and everything may be presumed of them in an ideal sense, ,^
though it does not exist in a real form. Their conscience differs
from that of the heathen, and discourse addressed to that conscience
must differ from that which aims to reach the heathen mind.
Still other forms of discourse might be mentioned which belong
' Comp. Nitzsch in Stud. u. Krit., 1832, No. 3, p. 726: "Since it must be admitted
that the word homily — whether so used in the New Testament or not, is immaterial
in this connexion — does yet, when historically considered, and taken in the meaning
assigned to it in the early usage of the Church, denote the function which embraces
the whole of the service of the Myoc toU ^eov, it follows that homiletics is always to
be regarded as a leading branch of practical theology by the side of catechetics. The
combination of the two is, only in the case of the missionary, however, to be denomi
nated keryktics, provided it is still necessary to retain the Greek designations for the
sake of brevity, and of associating the conditions of the present with those of antiq
uity and history.''

HOMILETICS. 549
to the keryktical, and not the homiletical, department; for exam
ple, the preaching of the crusades in the Middle Ages, and such
free discourses in the open air as the mediseval friars were wont to
deliver, or the bazar and street preaching of the most recent period.
There is also a class of discourses which belongs within the circle
of parliamentary speech, such as conference and occasional addresses.
Occasional discourses stand at the very boundary line, and are in
cluded more especially under the pastoral or the liturgical function,
as they are directed to the peculiar condition and religious needs of
the respective persons concerned, or relate entirely to the particular
occasion to be utilized. The ordination sermon, for example,
grows out of the position held by the ordaining minister under the
economy of Church government.
We, therefore, confine our attention to the sermon within the
limits of the regular services of the Church, in which it assumes
various characters in accordance with the solemnity, be it more or
less, of the particular service, being either a Sunday morning or
evening sermon, or a more popular discourse in familiar language,
as the homily, or a practical exposition of some Scripture. The
feature which makes a sermon of the sermon, and distinguishes it
from other forms of religious or Christian discourse, is the text ' or
passage of Scripture which does not serve merely as a motto, but
is the root from which the sermon must grow. This The text
deteriiiines not only the contents of the sermon, which
must be scriptural in any case, but also its form. The preacher is
not simply a speaker, but also an expounder, with the single quali
fication that at one time the former function will be more promi
nent, and at another time the latter. The art of preaching has its
' Textus (from texo), a texture. Applied to the texture of discourse in Quinet., 8, 6 ;
Ammian. Marcellin., 15, 7. Comp. Stephani Thesaur. In the Middle Ages the term
textus was applied to the Bible itself; comp. du Frene. It is here given to a partic
ular section taken from the Scriptures, which Campe not inappropriately renders by
" Grundspruch " (fundamental theme). Examples are not wanting, in the history of
homiletics, of sermons which have no other texts than verses from hymns or sections
from the Catechism. But such discourses do not belong within the range of the ser
mon as fixed by the requirements of a fully developed Protestant worship. They may
be serviceable for the work of edification in other directions, but they cannot replace
the sermon. Addresses not founded upon a text are, as a rule, better adapted for
occasional discourses, but they are termed occasional discourses for that very reason.
Texts taken from secular books are even worse than no texts at all. In the Midd'e
Ages sermons were based on Aristotle, later, in the fifteenth century, on Brandt's
Ship of Fools, and the Rationalist Unitarians of Eugland still draw their texts from
Schiller and Byron. An instructive discussion as to whether a text is needed or may
be dispensed with, and concerning the special difficulties involved in the being re
stricted to a text, is contained in Yinet, Homiletics, chap. 3.

550 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY.
field of exercise both in the department of hermeneutics and in that
of rhetoric. With regard to the former branch we refer to the
department of exegesis, treated in this work. With reference to
the oratorical branch it is important to assure to pulpit discourse
its special field. As religion itself is neither a formal know
ing nor a doing, religious discourse likewise differs from those
forms of discourse which direct their aim chiefly upon knowing or
upon doing. The former class, of course, are not discourses, in a
strict sense of the word, but approximate in character to treatises,
such as academical addresses or lectures.
The sermon should not be a lecture or treatise. It aims to
The sermon not enlarge and correct the religious apprehension, but
a lecture. Q^dy in order that the religious state of the soul may
be more clearly understood and be more unimpeded in its expres
sion. The preacher may not rest satisfied with having wrought
conviction in the mind unless it make itself felt upon the heart. It
should also pass over into action. The pulpit discourse differs,
however, from all such addresses as aim directly to produce action,
and in connexion with which the speaker is content with having
the object realized which he has in view, without regard to the
motive from which it is performed. This is the case with parlia
mentary and juridical addresses. The older homiletical writers of
France distinguished between " eloquence of the bar " and " elo
quence of the pulpit." It will be apparent, from this consideration,
to what extent Demosthenes and Cicero may be regarded as our
models. " The person," says Herder, " who, without qualification,
regards the forensic orations of Demosthenes and Cicero as models
to which our sermons are to be conformed, has no proper idea of
the nature of either the sermon or the forensic address; he has not
apprehended the design of either."' He elsewhere says: ".Preach
ers cannot,' like Demosthenes and Cicero, call forth sudden decis
ions and resolves to action; they cannot, because they should not;
and they should not, because they cannot. There are no Philips
before our walls that we should at once rush in wild enthusiasm to
guard our gates — this is true, and who has ever wrought to secure
that end? There are no felons to be instantly condemned or ac
quitted — who has ever spoken as if this were the case ? But let it
be supposed that something of this kind were yet to be devolved
upon the speaker, then, teacher, you are compelled to perform the
work, and will need to display ability in its accomplishment, or
you speak but poorly. If a Christian duty, of whatever kind, ought
to be instantly performed, and it were devolved upon you to make
'Briefe, No. 40, Werke x, p. 18.

HOMILETICS. 551
it clear and 'urge to action, it were weak not to do this despite
whatever theory might be employed to furnish an excuse." '
Should the sermon then aim simply to influence the religious
feeling ? By no means. A mere gush of feeling is not
at all a discourse. The sermon should not be a mono- sermon to the
logue, an expanded prayer, a meditation in which the ^''sreKation.
preacher appears only in his relation to God and Christ (after the
manner of the ancient " speaking with tongues," I Cor. xiv, 2), and
not in that sustained toward the congregation. This is a fault in
which many emotional persons become involved, whose discourses
soar upon the air, instead of being directed upon the heart like ar
rows from the quiver. A discourse is distinguished from the poem
by the very fact that it is not a mere outburst of the feelings, but
rather a homily, in the etymological meaning of the word — that is,
a conversation with the hearer, who is to be regarded as not merely
a recipient, but as joining with thought and feeling in oratory a con-
the discussion, and possibly as replying to it and raising versation.
doubts. Vinet says: "Oratorial discourse thus appears as a con
test, a combat; this idea is essential to it. At one time the orator
combats an error by a truth, at another he opposes one sentiment to
another sentiment. In its just use oratory is a combat waged
against errors of the mind and heart with the warfare of speech! '"
" The oratorial discourse is a drama, each word of the preacher is a
question to which the auditor replies in himself, and his reply be
comes a new question to which the orator replies. There is an in
terior in every oratorical art." Cicero, when asked to point out the
result of rhetoric, replied: "Actio, actio, actio."
We must, accordingly, include the dialectical element also, al
though this, again, must rest upon a profounder basis, namely, the
common feeling of Christianity. But M''e must not resolve every
thing into dialectics. The sermon must necessarily be of a pare-
netic or hortatory character, and aim to excite to resolve and action.
But such resolution must likewise grow out of the feeling which
has been excited, and out of definite convictions. The sermon is a
testimony of Christ and of life in him, and at the same ,^^^ sermon a
time a proclamation of that life.' It is discourse to an testimony to
extent, perhaps, not equalled by any other form of ad
dress, inasnmch as it addresses the entire man, takes hold upon the
inmost depths of his being, discloses that being to his thought, and
raises him above himself.''
' Provinzialbliitter, p. 374. ' Homiletics, Skinner's edition, p. 26.
« Ehrenfeuchter, p. 358, assigns the latter only to the sermon, the former to prayer.
'* Comp. Herder, Der Redner Gottes (Werke zur Relig. und Theol., x, p. 475, sgg.).

553 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY.
The individuality of the speaker is, doubtless, more fully dis
played in the sermon than in the liturgy. But this must not be
understood as implying that his individuality, in the form of per
sonal views, should assert itself in this work, or that the preacher
should preach simply himself, or merely human doctrine. Christ
attains to a distinct form in each separate individual, and it follows
that the individual life can only be properly manifested in the
higher peculiarities which it involves, and for the benefit of the
common life of the Christian community. We will not, therefore,
say that the preacher is required to renounce his individuality.
This view presumes a conflict, which, unfortunately, arises in many
cases between the convictions of the preacher and those of the
Church. It should, rather, be the aim of the preacher to make the
asserting of his individuality subserve the spiritual elevation of the
congregation, and his human teaching reflect the word of God.
For the preacher's individuality is not, in point of fact, to be con
sidered a channel through which water flows, or a glass for the pas
sage of the rays of light. On the other hand, we hold that the
preacher is not to annihilate, but to perfect and idealize, his indi
viduality. The speaker, carried along by the peculiarity of his
Christian life, pours out upon the congregation what has been de
veloped into life in his own personal experience, and thereby awak
ens new life in his hearers.'
But he does this in an artistic form by first stripping off the evil
features attaching to his individuality, including everything that is
merel,y subjective and accidental, by permitting the product of his
mind to become clear to himself through the process of meditating
upon it, and to become, in a true sense, a part of his inner life, and
by assuring himself, with an inward certainty that extends down
to the individual expression, that he is justified in appearing in this
precise manner, and not otherwise, before the congregation, as its
speaker, and that he is called to labour precisely in that form. We
do not question whether the preacher, by virtue of his official posi-
, tion, is alone competent to perform this function, and
not other members of the Church as well. Laymen
officiated as speakers in the early Church. We consider it proper
' Beyer, ubi supra, p. 25, separates the idea of the sermon into three parts : (1) The
creative ; (2) The receptive ; and (8) the mediating principle. He finds these three in
(1) The word of God ; (2) The congregation ; and (3) The person of the preacher. " The
word of God furnishes the sermon with its life-giving and saving contents, the life
derived from God ; the adaptation to the congregation gives to it historical and local
form ; and the mind of the preacher, in which the preceding elements are combined
into upity, bestows upon it the power and colouring of personal life."

HOMILETICS. 553
that our worship be so expanded as to admit of other than settled
and stationed ordained preachers. Lay preaching, however, should
have clearly defined limits. To judge of the sermon altogether
from the pastoral, instead of from the litUrgical and lay, point of
view, and to consi4er the pulpit simply as an elevation upon which
the one shepherd stands to feed his flock, appears to us an entire
misunderstanding of the nature of the sermon. We do not disre
gard the benefits arising from the bond which joins pastor and peo
ple together, but all the gifts and graces for preaching are not con
fined to him who may be pastor. SECTION XV.
HOMILETICAL AEKANGEMENT AND MATEEIAL.
Homiletics is divided into two parts, the General and the Special.
The latter embraces, I. Invention; 2. Disposition; 3. The Division ot
elaboration and delivery of the discourse. Care is re- homiletics.
quired, however, to avoid the danger of regarding such division in
thought as having brought about a real separation in the concrete,
and to guard in general against losing sight of the essential charac
ter and meaning of pulpit discourse, because of the influence of the
arbitrary rules of the schools which have intruded themselves into
the different divisions of homiletics.
The theory may be divided in conformity with the two questions.
What shall be preached? and How shall it be preached? The limit of sa-
This was the plan pursued by Augustine in his Christ- "'^^ eloquence.
ian Doctrine. The m:itter may be considered in its general and its
particular aspects, the general inquiry being. How far does the limit
of sacred eloquence extend? That limit is determined by the
Christian character. Nothing but what is connected with the
Christian life as such,' and aims to establish, purify, and perfect
that life, may properly be made the subject of homiletical discourse.
But nothing that belongs within that circle can be excluded from
the range of such discourse. This is, consequently, the place for
determining the character of Christian preaching. The sermon
should be pervaded by both doctrinal and ethical preaching. The
two should interpenetrate each othei-, though the doctrinal element
may at times predominate,, and at other times the ethical. To what
extent m^ay political matters be discussed? How far may the course
of nature, as the changes of the seasons, be regarded? In all these
' We assume as self-evident the fact that the standard to which such Christian life
is to be conformed is given in the word of God, and particularly in the teaching of
Christ and the apostles.

554 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY.
matters good taste and sound wisdom must be observed. There is
a time for everything.
The first division of homiletics is the theory of invention. No
direct invention, in the ordinary meaning, of the word.
Invention. ..
must be understood. The matter for our preaching
was invented long ago. But the duty is devolved upon us of de
ciding what portion of the existing treasure shall now be presented
to the congregation. With what subject should the preacher deal
on this day, at this hour, in this particular instance ? At this point
we again meet the opposing elements of the prescribed and the
free. There are certain great general topics, such as Christmas, the
new year, Easter, important national days, and public events of par
amount interest, which require special treatment, but the device of
the text and mode of treatment are the province of the preacher in
his individual capacity. To what degree may a preacher be guided
by his personal mood? How far may outward circumstances gov
ern his choice ? Should he, in his regular ministrations, undertake
a doctrinal or an exegetical series ? Which parts and books of the
Scriptures deserve to be separately treated ? Should he select his
texts chiefly from the Old or the New Testament ? Should he pre
fer historical to doctrinal passages? Should he choose parables;
larger or smaller sections; texts from the gospels, or the epistles,
or the apostolic history? Guiding principles are needed in all these
matters. There should he no accident or personal whim. Even
eminent preachers have allowed themselves to be misled into the
effort of exciting curiosity either by selecting peculiar texts or dis
cussing piquant themes. Reinhard and Draseke in Germany, and
mafiy preachers in both England and America, have erred in differ
ent directions upon this point; the one being misled by his ingenu
ity, the other by his wit. Reinhard, however, was tempted to go
astray because of the restriction imposed by the topics prescribed
by the ecclesiastical calendar. The custom of selecting abbreviated
texts, mere starting points of texts, so to speak, prevails especially
in the Reformed Church of France. This is very prominent in the
sermons of Adolph Monod and Alexander Vinet.
A frequent and living intercourse with the Scriptures, the obser-
.... ' vation of its practical features, an acquaintance with
essary for prop- the human heart, a correct estimate of the preacher's
er tex s. personal disposition, and especially a candid observa
tion of the time and its needs, and of the Church at large as well
as the local church, comprehend the secret of homiletical invention,
and protect against the intellectual bankruptcy of being preached
out, while they also cut off, at the beginning, all temptation to

HOMILETICAL ARRANGEMENT AND MATERIAL. 555
make use of unworthy artifices, such as an attempt to surprise by
novelty and originality. A text that has been judiciously selected
is worth half a sermon, and brief and striking texts are certainly
very effective. Palmer remarks: " It is a beautiful and grand thing
for the preacher to have succeeded in striking the proper chord in
the very enunciation of his text, aod an electrical effect is often
produced when the congregation is made to realize at the outset
that this is to be the subject which ought to be discussed to-day." '
When the theme and text have been selected the work of arrange-
ing is in order. It is, first of all, necessary to determine the exact
relation sustained by the text to the theme, and this decision will
govern the further progress of the s^ermon, the theme being either
at once evoked from the text, and then developed more extensively,
or, being gradually developed before the hearer's mind, the dis
course is strung upon the thread of the text. The former method
is synthetic preaching; the latter, analytical. The two o th f
methods may frequently be combined and interpene- analytical-
trate each other, especially when but little attention is '"^''''"^•
bestowed upon unnatural and inflexible divisions, and more regard
is had for a natural and attractive grouping of ideas. Arrange
ment is certainly needed, but not arrangement only. Connexion is
also requisite. By this we mean a just distribution of effective
points, not only in harmony with the laws of logic, but also with
those of rhetoric and art.
Herder strikingly observes of a true disposition of the sermon :
" There must be no figure, no clause, no comma, which does not
grow, as it were, necessarily out of the theme as a branch and its
limbs, or a fiower and a leaf of the tree grow out of the root or the
trunk. If it be not in this place it is nowhere, and the discourse is
incomplete; it has a gap, a vacant pl.ice, as we say of paintings.
A totally different question is that which asks whether the disposi
tion should be set forth like a naked skeleton. • Nature does not fol
low that plan, and the sermon should be the last to adopt it.
Natural arrangement, and a continued analysis of the word of God,
form the best disposition for its use." ' The best mode of division,
however, will always be that in which the connexion of the text
determines the structure of the sermon, and where the latter grows
out .of the text. This, likewise, settles the question concerning the
relative value of synthetical or analytical sermons.
The sermon should not be a mere unorganized agglomeration and
aggregation of saws and sentences any more than it should resem
ble a .skeleton. A fine human figure is resolved into its component
' Page 384. ' Briefe iiber das Studium der Theologie, No. 45.

556 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY.
members before the observer, but the members have an elastic con
nexion, and are not articulated with wires. The bones may no
more stand out than they may be buried in obesity from sight. So
with the sermon. This involves the entire secret of so-called ser-
monic division. Much pedantry has taken root in this field, but it
is once more dying out. The aim was to divide off with the aid of
Artistic divis- line and compass, and an external symmetry, as in the
i°'^- closely clipped French gardens, came to be considered
the law of beauty. A Procrustean bed was made ready, and every
thing was stretched or cut off until the parts, and secondary parts,
were all of equal length. The utmost conscientiousness was em
ployed in measuring and weighing whether a sermon should be
divided into two or three parts, or whether more i than three could
be allowed, and how much space should be allotted to the introduc
tion and every other member. Many preachers even made use
of an arrangement obtained from others, as if theft were not a
crime, and as if the arrangement and the execution did not mutu
ally determine each other. A master must be competent to fit his
own goods; only a bungler will construct a patchwork article.
Much has been said upon the delivery of the sermon. It cannot
be denied that the pulpit has its own peculiar st'vle, any
The delivery. . ./ ? ./
more than it can be denied that there is a special style
of praying or singing, or of architecture, in. the Church. The
preacher should not talk, but speak, and speaking is an art. His
tone should not be simply argumentative, nor merely hortatory, nor
yet merely pathetic. The beauty of the discourse is dependent on
its truthfulness. Beyer well says: "If the idea of the beautiful
requires that thought should find its adequate expression in the con
crete form, a sacred beauty must always be ascribed to the sermon.
Its divine substance is to be presented to view under the form of
human speech, and, therefore, must penetrate with glorifying power
through the whole discourse, and appear in its structure, and even
in the separate words. But the beauty of the sermon is for this
very reason not such as may be intentionally sought out and arti
ficially manufactured. It is no tinsel ornamentation." '
The more fully justice is done to the sermon the richer will it be
in fulness of expression, resembling the word of God, in which it
has its origin. In its moments of elevation it may approximate to
the poetical character, but without becoming poetry." Everything
¦ Dbi supra, p. 348, and also p. 567.
' Comp. Palmer, Ueber das Malen in den Predigten, p. 86, sgg. We would not
agree with him in designating Krummacher absolutely as a model, since his colours are
at times altogether too glaring.

HOMILETICAL ARRANGEMENT AND MATERIA L. 557
that is unworthy, all that resembles the Capuchihade, all meretri
cious ornamentation, both that which recalls to mind the grosser
affairs of ordinary life and that which involves the terminology of
the schools and books; in a word, all that is purely tech-
, Useless orna-
nical, should be carefully excluded from the sermon, ment to be
All foreign terms which are not contained in the Bible *™''^®'*-
are, therefore, to be avoided whenever possible. Dignity and sim
plicity should combine in it into the higher unity of Christian ear
nestness. Popularity of style should not be carried to the extreme
of triviality. The language should be select, but not strained. A
true popularity, an adaptation to the level of common minds,' may
most readily be secured by the study of the Scriptures and of the
good, robust preachers of the earlier days. Such older forms of
thought need to be recast into modern phraseology, however, in
order that an adventurous pulpit jargon, having no affinity with
actual life, may be avoided.
Whether the sermon shotild be written and memorized, or merely
elaborated in the mind, will depend upon personal considerations,
and theory has but little concern with the question. Palmer says:
" The congregation does not ask, and has no right to ask, how you
prepare to speak readily, whether by writing your sermon or other
wise. Your mode of occupation while in the study is your business
alone. You may, if you choose, compose your sermons in Latin or
in French; if you employ your language, the tongue of the congre
gation, readily while in the pulpit, the other processes involved in
the sermon concern yourself alone." Schleiermacher has expressed
the opinion that persons of placid disposition may venture upon ex
temporaneous speech, while emotional natures would do better to
fix both thought and its expression by previous writing. The old
Zalansky says a blunt word: "A young preacher should sit out and
sweat out. his sermons; first write them, and when they have been
thoroughly finished present them to the people. . . . Shame upon
them who even make it their boast that they have not in many
years devoted a sheet of paper to the writing of their sermons."
It does not follow from this that sermons should smell of the lamp.
Artis est artem celare.
The internal process of preparing the sermon must never be al
lowed to appear in the delivery. The sermon, even ,^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^
though a written one, must always be mentally con- be mentally
fitructed with a view to its being spoken, and not as if
' The popularizing of preaching was never more strongly urged than at a time #hen
the true Christian life of the people had been wholly lost sight of. Th| best discus-
Bion of unction, is given by Vinet, in his Pastoral Theology, pp. 214, 215.

558 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY.
it were an article to be read.' It must lie in the mind as a speech,
and be continually upon our tongues; the imagination must always
picture us, as was always Guthrie's method, as standing in the pul
pit with the open Bible before us, and the congregation assembled
iu our presence. Only thus shall we be able to retain suificient
freshness of mind to prevent the sermon from becoming stale in the
process of protracted preparation, and to cause it to be constantly
new and fresh while we meditate upon it, so that the time of deliv
ery may become the real natal hour of the sermon, and the hearer
may be impressed that it comes freely and directly from the heart
at that moment. It is self-evident that a sermon which must be
read, as a whole, can produce no such effect. Rosenkranz says:
" The unfortunate habit, begun in early life, of relying upon read
ing and writing, and the fact that people have not been sufficiently
accustomed to think, form the reason why free speech, which can
only arise from an assured state of the mind, is kept do'wn, espe
cially in the case of persons of liberal culture." But a school-boy-like
and poorly memorized sermon, and also one that is so completely
extemporized that the pangs of labour under which the speaker
brings forth his thoughts may be observed, will produce a painful,
and, even if joined with much facility of speech, a repulsive im
pression. As a final direction, it must be observed that the various opera
tions of invention, arrangement, and elaboration are not to be sepa
rately employed in a mechanical way, but each must be made to ex
ert a determining, supplementing, and correcting influence over the
others, if the sermon is to retain its ¦vital colouring. The entire sermon
must already be present in the moment of mental composition, as the
plant exists in the germ. It is simply to be resolved before the mind
into its elements, and be precipitated and clarified, as in some chemical
process. The arrangement often leads to a more exact fixing of the
theme, and the elaboration reacts upon the disposition, while the'
written word cannot be corrected until the spoken word has been
heard. A sermon may be excellent in point of style, and yet read
by the preacher to himself to better advantage than it can be heard
by a congregation. It is, therefore, necessary that the preacher
Possible efrect should not only think himself into the sermon, but also
be VtudteTb? **^^ * ^'^® estimate of the effect it will produce upon
the preaoher. the ear. Often the repeating of the sermon aloud, or
at any rate its imaginary delivery in thought, instead of merely
' Gossner remarks that the Holy Ghost at Pentecost distributed tongues of fire, but
not pens for writing. Bengel's motto was, " Think much, and write little ; " and yet
he conscientiously wrote down at least the plan.

HOMILETICAL ARRANGEMENT AND MATERIAL. 559
thinking it over, will be very beneficial. Bishop Burnet was accus
tomed, when riding or walking, to speak upon a given text in a loud
tone of voice, and without any preparation, by which practice he
attained to such readiness that he became able to speak appropri
ately upon any subject without much previous thought. The sermon
should be transfigured and spiritualized to its very centre down to the
moment of delivery, in which it is thrown off as a ripened fruit from
the mind of the preacher. If a sermon be delivered a second time,
or many times, it should be improved for every new delivery. Thus
only can there come the joy of creating with^ach repetition. To
ride an old sermon to death is a sad business. " Dissatisfaction
with old sermons," says Palmer, "should continue while life re
mains." Augustine was always dissatisfied with his sermons after
they had been delivered. When shall the immorality of presenting
in numberless churches a fossil sermon that has once, like a part in
a play, been committed to memory, come to an end?
The rules with reference to delivery are generally of a negative
character. Harms fancifully comprehends the whole under the
three L's, " langsam, laut, lieblich " — slow, loud, pleasant. Canon
Kingsley said: "Keep sacredly to the habit of breathing at every
stop. Read and speak slow; and take care of the consonants, and
the vowels will take care of themselves." ' Upon the subject of
gestures especially, in which much depends upon the
speaker's individuality, it is possible only to indicate
precautions of the most general kind. Much depends upon the
theme. The gesture should be the outgrowth of the thought and
feeling. It is only effective when unconscious, like the breathing of
a child. Be sure the gesticulation is imperfect, unnatural, if the
speaker can remember afterward what it was. Herder had no ges
ticulation, and Schleiermacher next to none. The elder Edwards
had almost none, even in his most overpowering discourses. The
young preacher should guard against imitating some favourite ges-
ticulator. Some use the mirror as a help in preparation. But a
faithful friend, who directs attention upon our mistakes of emphasis
and our faulty gestures, is the best kind of mirror within reach.
Goethe's words, in Faust, will cover all our remaining ground:
If feeling does not prompt, in vain you strive;
If from the soul the language does not come,
By its own impulse, to impel the hearts
Of hearers, with communicated power.
In vain you strive — in vain you study earnestly.
' Letters and Memoirs of the Life of Charles Kingsley, p. 384. The entire letter
addressed to Miss  is on Stammering, but will apply well to pulpit elocution.

ik..

560 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY.
Toil on forever ; piece together fragments ;
Cook up your broken scraps of sentences.
And blow, with puffing breath, a struggling light,
Glimmering confusedly now, now cold in ashes;
Startle the schoolboys with your metaphors ;
And if such food may suit your. appetite.
Win the vain wonder of applauding children !
But never look to win the hearts of men,
And mould the souls of many into one.
By words which come seductive from the -heart!
Be honest, if you would be eloquent ;
Be not a chiming fool with cap and bells ;
Reason and genuine feeling want no arts
Of utterance — ask no toil of elocution ;
And when you are in earnest, do you need
A search for words ? O, these fine holiday phrases,
In wliich you robe your worn-out commonplaces,
These scraps of paper which you crimp and curl,
And twist into a thousand idle shapes,
These filigree ornaments, are good for nothing.
Cost time and pains, please few, impose on no one ;
Are unrefreshing, as the wind that whistles.
In autumn, 'mong the dry and wrinkled leaves.

SECTION XYL
THE METHOD OF HOMILETICS.
Exercises which afford a preparation for preaching are: (I) The
Preparationsfor cultivation and quickening of the practical faculty in
the pulpit. tiig general study of the Bible ; (2) The preserving of
particular thoughts in writing, which contain the germs of future
themes; (3) Practice in delivery. Constant and devotional listening
to sermons in the services of the Church, and also the reading of
homiletical productions, whether old or new, aid greatly in the form
ing of the future pulpit speaker.
Exegesis should not be studied alone with a view to the pulpit.
But practical exegesis should, nevertheless, always be enjoined with
critical. The person who studies the Scriptures as a preacher
should must often be struck by their flashes of light even when
engaged upon the driest subjects. Such flashes indicate fruitful
seasons. Every preacher should keep a notebook, upon which to
enter the seedthoughts gained from the Scriptures, together with
brief hints with regard to disposition and elaboration. In aU his
walks and most leisurely moments his eye should be on his pulpit.

THE METHOD OF HOMILETICS. 561
The most useful scrapbooks for preachers are those which each
man compiles for himself. Exegesis in preaching can
not be conducted on the same plan as surgical prac- -H'ays before
tice upon a skeleton. It is a skeleton, indeed, when a ""^ '"''"'¦
student is required to preach in the presence of his fellow students
and a faculty of theologians, who are to personate the absent con
gregation. We suppose there is necessity for this in theological
seminaries, but no student is expected to do full justice to himself
under such circumstances. Young Rothe, in his student days,
wrote this to his father: "Frankly stated, it appears to me that
an experiment of this kind is a questionable matter. It is surely
a repulsive thought that a Christian congregation should sit like
a sort of wig-block upon which a young bungler is to try his
sermon; and yet in another direction such an experiment can, in
view of the entire nature of the sermon, be undertaken nowhere
but in the congregation, and it must, therefore, be carried through
in that way." A sermon may be read, or recited, or gone through
somehow, before an audience of critics, but it cannot be delivered
in the highest sense. Might it be proper in like manner to pray
by way of test ? or to exhort, or to censure or comfort, all by way
of practice ?
But there ought to be practice in delivery ? Yes, and the more
the better, provided it is rightly done. The school should aim to
promote this end, and do this work. Student associations for prac
tice in speaking will also render valuable aid. But when it is re
quired that a sermon should be preached by way of practice — and
this should come to pass in the last year of the course — let it be
undertaken with the help of God, and with full allowances for all
the disadvantages of the hour.
Many preachers attempt to display the whole of their theology in
their first sermon; many others endeavour to concen- Defects ot first
trate in it all the feeling of their hearts. A wise re- sermons.
straint is highly needed at this point. Persons who have not yet
passed beyond the period of theological conflict should beware of
troubling the congregation with their doubts, or with the questions
of the schools in general. Let them select themes which they are
able to discuss, which have become transparent and concrete to
their minds, and which they are competent to manage. Herder's
paternal counsel has a general application here: "0 friend, friend,
do not hasten into the pulpit while too young or too thoughtless.
You are not without other exercises which, though conducted in
private, will forward you further on your way. If you insist on
preaching, at least clothe yourself in modesty from head to foot.
36

562 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY.
Nothing is more attractive in a youthful speaker, and especially a
pulpit speaker, than this."
Many, however, are restrained from entering the pulpit by exces
sive timidity, and by the fear of breaking down. Such
ground for dis- difficulties, which have their origin as frequently in self-
couragement. j^j^ pride as in a really sacred awe respecting the char
acter of the office, can only be overcome in a moral way. The true
napprjaia is a gift of grace. The best young preachers, however,
have always been most alarmed. Pliny says: "Quod M. Cicero de
stilo, ego de metu sentio. Timor est emendator acerrimus. Hoc
ipsum, quod nos recitaturos cogitamus, emendat; quod auditorium
ingredimus, emendat; quod pollemus, horrescimus, circumspicimus,
emendat." Luther preached his first sermon in the convent of the
Augustine monks before venturing to present himself before the
public. Spener says that when he entered the pulpit for the first
time he felt as though he were being led to the place of execution.
Moeves testifies that he trembled far more while preaching his first
sermon than when listening to the thunder of his first battle.
Criticism may follow the sermon of the young preacher, but it
should not be allowed to intimidate him beforehand. It is, more
over, a fact that he only is able to feel and hear himself into the
real spirit of a sermon who gladly and frequently listens to the ser
mons of other men. One of the faults of our surfeited age consists,
in its unwillingness to hear other than distinguished orators. Some-
Every sermon thing may be learned from every sermon, even though
a lesson. j^; \yQ ^ poor one. But there is no objection to our be
coming acquainted with what is best and most perfect whenever
opportunity is afforded. In this direction the rich sermon litera
ture of our English theology is of great assistance. The reading of
a sermon is not, of course, equivalent to hearing it, but it possesses
advantages of its own. Criticism may be applied with much less
restraint in this case than when listening during the hour of wor
ship in the church. The reading of sermons should be elevated into
a study to a much greater extent than is actually the case. Artists
are directed to examine works of art, and poets are obliged to read
the works of other poets. Why should not a similar rule apply to
sermons? To construct anew a sermon that has been read by a
master in the pulpit, and to search out its effective points, penetrate
into the mystery of its profound connexion with the Christian life,
and compare its method with that of another, constitutes a valuable
exercise for young ministers of the Gospel, and* one upon which
teachers of homiletics should lay greater stress. Such critical read
ings, moreover, afford the surest defence against the danger of

THE HISTORY OP HOMILETICS. 563
slavishly imitating so-called " sermon skeletons," in which undertak
ing it generally happens that the imitators copy precisely their faults
and excesses. Better study a great sermon than any skeleton. But
do not steal either, or from either.

SECTION XYII.
THE HISTOEY OF HOMILETICS.
I. HiSTOEY OF THE ChEISTIAK SeEMON.
Schuler, Gesch.'der VerSnderungen des Geschmacks im Predigen, Halle, 1792-94, 3 vols. ; and
fhid., Beitrage zur Gesch. d. Verand. des Geschmacks Im Predigen, Halle, 1799; Ammon,
Gesch. d. Homiletik, etc., GOttlngen, 1804, Part I. (the first period from Huss to Luther, with
historical introduction to the history ot homiletics, from the rise of Christianity down to the be
ginning of the fifteenth century) ; Schmidt, Kurzer Abriss d. Gesch. d. geistl. Beredsamkelt u.
Homiletik, Jena, 1790; Schuderoff, Vers, einer Kritik d. Homiletik, Gotha, 1797; Lentz, Gesch.
a. christl. Homiletik, Brunsw., 1839 ; Panlel, Pragm. Gesch. d. christl. Beredsamkelt u. d. Hom
iletik, Leips., 1839 ; Schenck, Gesch. d. deutscb-Protest. Kanzelberedsamkelt von Luther bis auf
d. neuesten Zeiten, Beri., 1841 ; Doering, Die deutscben Kanzelredner des ISten u. 19ten Jahr
hunderts, Neustadt a. d. Oder, 1830; Leopold, Predigtamt im Urchristenthum, etc., Liineburg,
1840 ; Marbach, Gescb. d. deutscben Predigt vor Luther, Berl., 1873 ; Beste, Die bedeutendsten
Kanzelredner d. altem Lutherischen Kirche, von Luther bis Spener (2 vols.), Leips., 1856-58 : Al.
Vinet, Histoire de la predication parmi les Eflorm^s de France au dix septifeme slfeole, Paris,
18U0 , Sack, Gesch. d. Predigt in d. deutscben evangel. Kirche, Heidelberg, 1866 ; Schmidt,
Gesch. d. Predigt i. d. evangel. Kirche Deutschlands von Luther bis Spener, etc., Gotha, 1872.
For English and American bibliography, see below.
The earliest preaching was a Kripvyiia, a declaration, a heralding,
and the formal homily was not developed until a sys- The early hom-
tem of Christian worship had been constructed, although "i''^-
it did not entirely supersede free discourse even then. Either hom
ilies or free discourses were handed down by Origen, Eusebius of
Csesarea, Eusebius of Emisa, Gregory Thaumaturgus, Athanasius,
Basil the Great, Gregory of Nyssa, Gregory of Nazianzen, Cyril of
Jerusalem, Ephraem Syrus, Macarius, Amphiloshius, and John
Chrysostom. These were not always free from the influence of the
ancient rhetoric learned from heathen schools. In the Latin Church
the discourses of Zeno of Verona, Ambrose, Gaudentius, Augustine,
Leo I., and others, are worthy of note.
Preaching declined in the Middle Ages. In the Greek Church
'J6hn of Damascus and Photius delivered addresses in Medieval
honour of the Virgin Mary and of images; but the preachmg.
Trullan Council (692) had already directed the clergy to make use
of old and approved homilies. In the Western Church recourse
was hkewise had at first to collections, postils, i. e., post ilia sell.
verba Domini sive Scripturae Sacrae, the earliest of which were
undertaken by Paul Warnefried and Alcuin, and followed by the
similar collections of Raftan Maur, Haymo of Halberstadt, and
others. These collections were designed to serve as models for

564 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY.
imitation in the vernacular. But this design was gradually laid aside
as the growth of the hierarchy and of externality in the worship
became more pronounced. The power of Christian oratory was
henceforth less apparent in the church than in the open air, frequent
ly in the public streets. The preaching in convents was conducted
in the Latin language. St. Bernard (Doctor mellifluus), and also
the great scholastic Thomas Aquinas, attained to special eminence in
this regard.. The Begging Friars, from the thirteenth century, gave
a new impetus to preaching. According to the historians, Bertholdt
of Regensburg (died 1272), a Franciscan monk, preached to sixty
thousand. people.
Among the Mystics special importance attaches to Master Eckart,
The Mystic Heinrich Suso, and particularly to John Tauler. John
preachers. Melicz, the forerunner of Huss, and the latter reformer
himself, likewise brought a beneficial influence to bear upon the
work of preaching. Chancellor Gerson preached in both Latin .and
French, and the great Florentine, Girolamo Savonarola, was espe
cially powerful of speech. The fifteenth century brought with it
some strange contrasts, the comical being closely connected with
the serious. This refiection will serve to explain the burlesque
mode of preaching followed by Gabriel Barletta, Olivier Maillard,
Michael Menot, and, to some extent, by the excellent Geiler of
Kaisersberg. The Brothers of the Common Life, on the other
hand, contributed toward the promotion of Protestant preaching.
The Reformation of the sixteenth century, however, was pre
eminently a regeneration of the Christian sermon as based on the
Preaching by word of God, Luther himself being distinguished above
the Eeiormers. all others, although Zwingli does not need, upon the
whole, to take a much lower place. The personal traits and situa
tion of these men were very different. Calvin was also peculiar,
and most of the remaining reformers, as CEcolampadius, Bullinger,
and Haller, were good preachers. The time, however, when men
attained to eminence in such labours soon came to an end. Luther's
"postils" were followed by others, of which still others availed
themselves with more or less benefit. ¦ Of writers of postils we may
mention Anton Corvinus, Brentz, Avenarius (Habermann), Chem
nitz, Osiander (Peasant Postils),, Matthesius (Mountain Postils),
and Dietrich (Children's and Home Postils).
Much insipidity prevailed at the close of the sixteenth century
and during the seventeenth, and it was especially common to intro
duce disputes into the pulpit, and to chastise heretics. But worthy
and edifying preachers were not wanting, of whom we name espe
cially Arndt (died 1627), the author of the treatise on True Chris-

THE HISTORY OF HOMILETICS. 565
tianity, Herberger (died 1627), Andrea, and others. The structure
of the sermon was now subjected to critical treatment, and all
manner of artificial divisions were introduced; for example, the
five different usus: (I) didascalicus; (2) elenchticus; (3) paracleticus;
(4) epanorthoticus; (5) paedenticus. In the end there were, literally,
a hundred different methods, and all imaginable fancies panciiui divis-
with regard to theme, exordium, and division. The ^'"^^¦
want of taste reached its culmination — not, however, in a pedantic
form so much as in a mere disposition to drift — in the Roman
Catholic Church of Germany, in the person of the eccentric preacher,
Ulric Megerle (Abraham de St. Clara, court preacher at Vienna,
died 1709), who displayed many excellent qualities, but carried the
effort to popularize his sermons to the extreme of triviality, and in
dulged his scurrilous method until his name became provei-bial.
A very different state of things existed in France, where both
the Reformed and the Catholic Churches were served by the most
celebrated of their pulpit orators at this time. We may mention
of those belonging to the former Church, Mestrezal rptie French
(died 1657), du Bosc (died 1692), Claude (died 1687), ?"»•
and especially Saurin, who preached at the Hague, and died 1730.
Of Roman Catholic preachers we may name: Mascaron (died 1703),
and pre-eminently, Flechier (died 1710), Bossuet (died 1704), Bour-
daloue (died 1710), and Massillon. The fame of these preachers is
based upon their classic style, Chrysostom being their model, more
than upon the depth and consistency of their Christian sentiments.
Fenelon (died 1715), on the other hand, was distinguished for his
fervour. After the Huguenots, expelled under Louis XIV., had
settled in Germany, the French style, as represented in Ancillon,
Abadie, Jaequelot, Lenfant, and especially in Saurin, came to be
regarded as a model also in that country. To this must be added
the English model, found in the perspicuous and moderate Tillot
son, who died 1694.
The preaching now became more mild in its doctrinal character,
and gave greater attention to moral questions, besides making use
of greater elegancies of style, its leading representatives being
found in the Swiss preachers, Osterwald and Werenfels. The piet
ism of Spener and Francke led, in Germany, to a re- sermons of the
newed recognition of the profound conditions upon Pietists.
which the life of the Christian sermon depends. But it was im
possible that its influence should conduce to give it an artistic form.
Spener's style was heavy. Wolfianism, too, was not favourable to
the easy movement of discourse. The mania for definition and
demonstration became highly ridiculous, in many instances of even

566 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY.
this kind of labour. Rambach (died 1735) represents, in Germany,
the transition from the pietistic to the philosophical method fol
lowed by Reinbeck, who died in 1741. Modern pulpit oratory, in"
that country, had its origin with Mosheim (died 1755), who was
termed the German Bourdaloue, and whose model was Tillotson.
He was followed by Cramer (died 1788), the elder and the younger
Sack, Jerusalem, Spalding, Zollikofer, Resewitz, Teller, Bartels,
and others. The reflective and moralizing elements constituted the
predominant quality in most works emanating from these, in some
instances, very celebrated preachers. They also gave increasing
expression to the utilitarian theory. Under such influence sermons
came to be degraded not only into dry disquisitions upon morality,
but even into popular lectures on agriculture, hygiene, and simi
larly inferior topics. The more strictly evangelical method was not
left without representatives, however, who continually asserted its
claims in the face of such aberrations. In Wllrtemberg, Rieger
(died 1743) was considered a model, and in Prussia the "divine
orator " Willamovius became an ideal for the imitation of Herder.
Herder and Lavater apprehended the task of sacred oratory anew,
Herder and ^n*! came into decided contrast, not only with the more
Lavater. strictly evangelical, but also with the rationalistic, method
of preaching, which had its origin in Kantianism, and whose repre
sentatives appear in the persons of Loffler (died 1816) and others.
Both Herder and Lavater were rather guided by their own genius
than by the methods of any school. Reinhard (died I8I2) became
the founder of such a school, and the representative of a strictly
logical method. His sermons, collected in thirty-five volumes
(1793-1813), were long regarded as models. They were charac
terized by richness of thought, especially upon moral questions,
clearness and definiteness of expression, force and dignity of style.
Their deficiencies are, a farfetched and indirect treatment of the
text, and, coupled with a degree of religious warmth, a certain
dryness and prosaic rationalism. The method of Zollikofer and
Reinhard found supporters among both rationalists and supranatu-
ralists, and, in fact, occupies a theological position in which the con
trast between their different principles has not yet been thoroughly
overcome. The more eminent preachers who, while retaining more or less of
personal freedom and individuality, followed in the track of these
earlier models, were Marezoll, Ribbeck, Hanstein, Ehrenberg, Ey
lert, Kief eker, Ammon, Bretschneidei-, Tzschirner, Schuderoff, Rohr,
Zimmermann, Schmalz, Bockel, Alt, the Strasburgers Haffner and
Blessig, the Swiss Mtlslin, Stolz, Hafele, Heer, Fasi, and others.

THE HISTORY OF HOMILETICS. 567
The oratory of many of these men attained to a higher elevation
than that of their models.
Schleiermacher (died 1834) introduced a new life into the method
of preaching,' as, indeed, he did into theology gener
ally. _ The prevalent moralizing method predominates ^''^^'^'"""'^^'¦
in his earlier sermons, the First Collection. But the specifically
Christian element comes into greater prominence in his later efforts,
though in the manner which was peculiar to himself. His dialectic
method has been frequently imitated to the injury of his followers.
His sermons deserve rather to be studied than imitated. The ser
mons of Claus Harms, of Kiel— Sermons and United Postils— are
constructed with a larger recognition of the condition and needs of
the people, and are genuine models of Christian addresses in popu
lar form, although it is necessary to distinguish between
the earlier (1808-11) and the later (1824-27). Harms ^'''"^^"'^•
concedes that " much rationalistic sin still attaches " to the former.
But this cannot be said of the latter class, or of his " Christological
Sermons " (1821), since the controversy that called forth his Theses
gave to Harms a place among the most advanced defenders of Lu
theran orthodoxy. It is also necessary to separate between an earlier
and a later period in the case of Draseke, whose affectation of orig
inality often destroys the profound impression otherwise produced,
although a noble enthusiasm, akin to that of Herder, exhales from
his sermons.
Originality, carried to the verge of extravagance, and sometimes
of insipidity, attains its highest point in the sermons of F. A.
Krummacher. Theremin's sermons are characterized by gretit rhe
torical talent and perfection of style. It may be stated, as a general
fact, that the renewed infusion of life into theology restored life
and individuality to preaching as well. A long list of names might
be furnished of persons who are distinguished by logical keenness,
or depth of thought, by intensity or elevation of feeling, or by the
power of evangelical conviction and the fire of a newly awakened
zeal, which, in some instances, assumes forms of every variety and
with every degree of colour. It will be sufficient to recall the
names of the more or less venerated persons without dwelling upon
the different tendencies they represent — for example, Menken,
'Schweizer, Schleiermacher's Wirksamkeit als Prediger, Halle, 1834; Rhenius,
Magdeb., 1837; Rienacker, in Stud. u. Krit., 1831, No. 2, pp. 240-54; Sack, ibid.,
pp. 350-85; Liicke, Erinnerungen an Schleiermacher, ibid., 1834, No. 3, p. 745, sgg. ;
concerning Schleiermacher's political sermons, see Wehrenpfening in the Prot. Kirchen-
Zeitung for September, 1859; Baur, Schleiermacher als Prediger in d. Zeit von
Deutschland's Erniedrigung und Erhebung, Leips., 1871.

568 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY.
Emmerich, Hossbach, Jonas, Sydow, de Wette, Al. Schweizer, Griln
eisen, Tholuck, Nitzsch, Strauss, Harless, Jul. Muller, Tob. Beck,
Arndt, the two Hof ackers, Krummacher, Ahlfeld, Schenkel, . Rust,
Palmer, Ehrenfeuchter, Ebrard, Steinmeyer, Conrad, Gerock, Hoff
mann, Kohlbriigge, Sander, Mallet, Bernet, Bilchsel, Kogel, Harms
(of Hermannsburg), Langbein, Petri, Milllensiefen, Kapff, Bey-
schliig, Rothe, Brttckner, Kahnis, W. Baur, and others.
Modern rationalism is represented, though with various modifica
tions, by Schwarz of Gotha, H. Lang of Zurich, and Hausrath of
Carlsruhe. The sermons of the French pulpit orators, Adolph Monod, Alex
ander Vinet, Grandpierre, Bersier, and Pressense, and, as represent
ing freethinking tendencies, Colani, Coquerel, father and son,
deserve to be studied.
Among Roman Catholics, in addition to those already mentioned,
the names of Sailer, Mutschelle, Boos, Brand, Forster, and Kalin
deserve to be noted. Werner, of Vienna; Lacordaire; Father
Hyacinthe, now practically separated in all but name from the
Romish Church, and bearing the name of Loyson; Ventura, of
Rome, Gavazzi, and the preachers of Protestant doctrines in Italy,
have each, in his day, arrested attention.
For the American and the Englishman their models must be the
successful preachers in the English language. In modern times
none have equalled the masters in English theology as the makers
of sermons. In the earlier English period may be mentioned Far-
indon, Atterbury, South, Tillotson, Charnock, Baxter, Hall, Taylor,
Beveridge, and Howe, while in the more recent we may mention the
Wesleys, Whitefield, Heber, Simeon, Robert Hall, Robertson,
Spurgeon, Punshon, Kingsley, Dean Stanley, Farrar, and Liddon.
II. HiSTOEY OF THE ThEOEY OF PeEACHING.
Christ preached with authority, and not as the scribes. The
apostles proclaimed in Christ's stead, " Be ye reconciled to God."
No human instruction was needed for their guidance; the Spirit
taught them what they ought to say. " It is, therefore," as Beyer
says, " a leading duty of theological science to thoroughly deter
mine the nature of apostolic preaching in order to provide a stand
ard for Christian preaching in general." After the Church had
been founded, however, and conditions of human arrangement had
Art of preach- been introduced, the art of preaching was developed
theoiogS'so"- ^y ^^^ ^^^^ °^ theological science. Origen laid down
ence. the proposition, and secured its recognition, that the
didactic sermon is a work of art. The teachers of Christianity,

THE HISTORY OF HOMILETICS. 569
moreover, were generally the pupils of heathen rhetoricians, such
as Libanius and Themistius, and the theory was accordingly devel
oped on the ground of the old time rhetoric, much in the same way
as the ancient Platonic and Aristotelian philosophies were at first
applied to the science of Christian theology. Augustine, starting
with the recognition of the authority of rhetoric, gave instructions
respecting the proper mode of presenting the doctrines contained
in the Scriptures. In his Christian Doctrine he called
attention to invention and expression in the sermon,
and followed Cicero in many respects, though with an intelligent
apprehension of the real task of Christian oratory. He was suc
ceeded by Cassiodorus, Isidore of Seville, and Raban Maur, in the
latter's Clerical Institutes. Alanus, of the Island (died 1203), wrote
a Summary of the Preacher's Art, and Humbert the Roman, a
Dominican (died 1277), wrote on the Learning of Speakers. The
homiletical views of Thomas Aquinas were collected from the writ
ings of himself and others under the title of Treatise for Preachers,
upon which followed Leonard of Udine's (died 1470) Tractate on
the Fundamentals for Preachers (Ulm, 1478), and Nicholas Bari-
anus of Milan's Sixty-Seven Questions on the Matter of Preaching,
which appeared in Boulogne in 15 1 1.
Reuchlin published a work upon the same subject, bearing the
title of Book of Treasures in the Preacher's Art (Pforzheim, 1504).
The Curate's Manual of the pastor Surgant of Basle, which imme
diately preceded the Reformation, and discussed the method of
preaching in its details, is especially deserving of mention.
Luther was more practical than theoretical in everything, and
we obtain only scattered hints from his works, the most valuable
of which, in this respect, is Table Talk. This was collected for the
first time by Porta, pastor at Eisleben, toward the close of the six
teenth century, and subsequently by Walch. Luther made the dis
criminating demand that the preacher should be both a dialectician
and a rhetorician, but he also recommended that such Luther and
a mode of preaching be adopted as would edify even Melanchthon.
servants. In 1519 Melanchthon published his Rhetoric, and in 1535
he wrote his Office of Speakers. The Ecclesiastes of Erasmus was
also extensively used. Directions for the art of preaching were
given, among Protestants, by Hyperius, on the Function of Sacred
Assemblies, or the Popular Interpretation of the Scriptures (1553);
by Weiler, a pupil of Luther, on the Mode and Reason of Address
(Norimb., 1562); by Hemming, a pupil of Melanchthon, on Pastoral
Instruction, and How the Flock of Christ should be Fed with Sound
Doctrine; by Osiander, on the Reason of Address (Tub., 1582); by

570 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY.
Andrea, on the Method of Address, (Tub., 1595); and by Panera-
tius (1571). We find similar directions in The Speaker, by Reb-
han (1623), and the works of Hunnius,' Htilsemann, Schleupner,
Forster, the elder Carpzov, and Zalansky, the Lutheran jDastor at
Prague ; Muller, in his Ecclesiastical Orator (Rostock, 1670, 4to),
Baier, a pupil of Arndt, in his Compendium of Homiletical Theol
ogy (1677), and Leyser, in his Course of Homiletics (Viteb., 1701).
Among Reformed theologians we may mention Gaussen, on the
Eeformed writ- Reason of Address (1678), and the Hollanders van Til
era- ' (died 1713), Vitringa (died 1722), and Hollenbeck, in
the latter's Best Kind of Address (1668; 2d ed., 1770). We may
also recall Fordyce, an Englishman, who wrote on the Art of Preach
ing (1745).
After Spener had, in Pious Desires, directed attention toward a
truly awakening and edifying mode of preaching, his exposition
speedily led to the publishing of textbooks written in harmony
with his views, which, in their turn, called forth the opposition of
the old-school writers. Thus Loscher wrote his Homiletical Brev
iary (Viteb., 1720) in reply to Lange's Sacred Oratory (Francof.,
1707). There was also a supply of insipid guides to flowery preach
ing, an example of which is furnished in the Elegancies or Flowers
of Orations, written by Christian Weiss, rector at Zittau, whom
others followed in a similar direction. Hallbauer, of Jena, on the
other hand, became noteworthy at the beginning of the eighteenth
century by the writing of his Necessary Instruction in Wisdom in
The woiflan Edifying Preaching. The Wolfian school produced
school. Rambach, who wrote the Elucidation on Homiletic
Precepts (Giessen, 1736), Reinbeck, the author of the Outline of a
Method of Edifying Preaching, and Baumgarten, the author of Direc
tions on Edifying Preaching (Frankf., 1752). This school carried
the mania for definitions in the pulpit to an extreme, and was op
posed by G. F. Meier of Halle, himself a Wolfian, in his Thoughts
by a Philosophical Preacher (1762). Teller (1741), Kortholdt (1748),
Simonetti (1754), FOrtsch (1757), and others, issued additional
works in this department about the middle of the century. The
theories of Mosheim, in his Advice on Edifying Preaching (1771);
of Teller, in his Outlines of Homiletical Lectures (Helmstedt, 1763);
of Gruner (Halle, 1763); Bahrdt (1773); Steinbart (2d ed., 2iilli-
chau, 1 784) ; Marezoll, On the Destination of the Preacher (Leips.,
1793); Schmidt, Guide for Popular Pulpit Oratory (3 vols., Jena,
1795-1800); Thym (Halle, 1800), and Thiess (1801), all bear the
stamp, in various degrees, of this same tendency with regard to
preaching.

THE HISTORY OF HOMILETICS. 571
This, too, was the period to produce the largest number of jour
nals, magazines, archives, sketches of sermons, and the like. " For,"
as Palmer observes, " no mercantile house has sent out into the
world a larger number of commercial travelers, intended to traffic
with the article 'sketches of sermons,' than has the firm 'Ration
alism & Co.' " ' The conclusion of the old, and more especially
rhetorical, theory, is formed by the work of Schott, the scientific
complement to Reinhard, which, in its own way, is not without
value. Theremin directed attention more especially to the inward source
whence oratory has its rise, and a majoi-ity of the works, mentioned
below, of recent times, have likewise treated homiletics in connexion
with .the ideas respecting the nature of religion, Christianity, the
Church and its worship, as they have been brought out by philosophy
and recent theology, and also in relation with the religious concep
tions of art. The first among Roman Catholics, subsequent to the
Reformation, to construct an Ecclesiastical Rhetoric, was Valerius of
Verona (1574). He was followed by Alexander (1701); Gisbert, in
his Idea and Practice of Christian Eloquence (1728); Roman catho-
Penelon, in his Dialogues on Eloquence in General, and "c writers.
that of the Pulpit in Particular (1788); and Maury, in his Prin
ciples of Pulpit and Forensic Eloquence (1789). Of German Ro
man Catholics, those deserving of mention are Ignatius Wurz (1769,
2 vols.), Rudolf Graser (died 1787), Brand, and Zarbl.

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE OP HOMILETICS.
/ Abbott, Lyman. A Layman's Story. 16mo, pp. 361. New York, 18T3.
Alexander, James W. Thoughts on Preaching: being Contributions to Homiletics.
12mo, pp. .xii, 514. New York, 1861. (Not a methodical treatise, but full of
rich suggestions.)
Baldwin, M. S., and Others. Papers on Preaching. Svo. New York, 1888.
Bautain, M. The Art of Extempore Preaching. Hints for the Pulpit, the Senate,
and the Bar. 12mo, pp. xii, 364. New York, 1859.
Bloom, J. H. Pulpit Oratory in the Time of James tlie First Considered and Beauti
fully Illustrated by Original Examples. A. D. 1620-21-22. Svo, pp. viii, 243.
London, 1831.
Broadus, John A. A Treatise on the Preparation and Delivery of Sermons. Svo,
pp. 529. Philadelphia, 18V0.
Broadus, John A. Lectures on the History of Preaching. 12mo, pp. 242. New
York, 1876.
Bungener, L. The Preacher and the King ; or, Bourdaloue in the Court of Louis
XIY. Being an Account of the Pulpit Eloquence of that Era. Translated from
the Prench, by George Potts. 12mo, pp. 338. Boston, 1853.
' Homiletik, p. 38.

573 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY.
Burgess, H. The Art of Preaching and the' Composition of Sermons. Svo. Edin
burgh, 1881.
Claude, John. Essay on the Composition of a Sermon. ]8mo, pp. 252. New
Yoi'k, 1848. (This famous essay has appeared in many editions.)
Dabney, R. L. Sacred Rhetoric. 12mo, pp. 361. Richmond, 1866.
Davies, G. J. Papers on Preacliing. 8vo. London, 1882.
Etter, John W. The Preacher and His Sermon. A Treatise on Homiletics. Pp.
581. Dayton, Ohio, 1884. (Especially rich in its treatment of the subject of
preaching to children.)
Fisk, Franklin W. Manual of Preaching. 12mo, pp. xv, 337. New York, 1884.
Fowler, Henry. The American Pulpit: Sketches, Biographical and Descriptive, of
Living American Preachers. Svo, pp. 575. New York, 1856.
Hervey, George Winfred. A System of Christian Rhetoric, for the Use of Preach
ers and other Speakers. Svo, pp. 632. New York, 1873. (A work of more
than ordinary originality. The theory ofthe author is that " the preachers of
the Gospel are successors of the prophets ; that tho preacher is one who speaks
iu behalf of God, and with his commission and assistance.")
Homiletical aud Pastoral Lectures ; Delivered before the Church Homiletical Society ;
with a Preface by C. J. Ellicott. 12mo. New York, iSSO.
Hood, Edwin Paxton. Lamps, Pitchers, and Trumpets. Lectures on the Yocation
ofthe Preacher. Second Series. 12mo, pp. 303. New York, 1869. (For illus
tration sketches are given of Frederick W. Robertson, Pusey, Manning, New
man, Spurgeon, Lacordaire, and Binney.)
Hood, B. Paxton. The Throne of Eloquence. Great Preachers Ancient and Mod
ern. Svo, pp. vi, 479. ' New York, 1888. (Discusses true and false ideals of
pulpit eloquence, and presents the lives of several noted preachers.)
Hood, B. Paxton. The Yocation of the Preacher. Svo, pp. vii, 528. New York,
1888.
Hoppin, James M. Homiletics. A new edition. Svo, pp. 845. New York, 1892.
Kidder, Daniel P. A Treatise on Homiletics. 12mo, pp. 495. New York, 1864.
Macleod, Alex. Christus Cousolator. The Pulpit in Relation to Social Life. SvO;
London, 1870.
Mahaffy, J. P. The Decay o£ Modern Preaching. An Essay. 12mo, pp. 160. New
York, 1882.
Moore, Daniel. Thoughts on Preaching, Specially in Relation to the Requirements
ofthe Age. 12mo, pp. 386. London, 1861. Second edition, 1869.
Murray, Nicholas. Preachers and Preaching. 12mo, pp. xii, 303. New York,
1860.
Neale, John M. Mediseval Preachers and Mediseval Preaching. A Series of Ex
tracts, Translated from the Sermons of the Middle Ages, Chronologically
Arranged, with Notes and an Introduction, ]2mo, pp. 417. London, 1856.
Parker, Joseph. Ad Clerum: Advices to a Young Preacher. 16mo, pp. ,266. Bos
ton, 187 1. (A capital book.)
Parker, Joseph. Pulpit Notes ; with an Essay on the Preaching of Jesus Christ.
12mo. London, 1873.
Phelps, Austin. The Theory of Preaching, Lectures on Homiletics. Svo, pp. 610.
New York, 1881. (Also a lecture on " Ministerial Culture.")
Phelps, Austin. Men and Books, or Studies in Homiletics. Lectures Introductory
to "The Theory of Preaching." 12mo, pp. 354. New York, 1882.
Phelps, Austin. English Style in Public Discourse, with Special Reference to the
Usages of the Pulpit. Svo, pp. 389. New York, 1883.

LITERATURE OP HOMILETICS. 573
E'ipley, Henry J. Sacred Rhetoric. 12mo, pp. 259. Boston, 1849.
Russell, William. Pulpit Elocution. Comprising Remarks on the Effect of Manner
in Public Discourse ; The Element of Elocution Applied to the Reading of the
Scriptures; Hymns and Sermons, with Observations on the Principles of Ges
ture ; aud a Selection of Exercises in Reading and Speaking. With an Introduc
tion by Professor E.A.Park and Rev. B. N. Kirk. Second edition. 12mo.
Andover, 1885.
Shedd, W. G. T. Homiletics and Pastoral Theology. Svo, pp. vi, 429. New York,
1867.
Sheppard, Nathan. Before an Audience ; or. The Use of the Will in Public Speak
ing. 12mo, pp. 152. New York, 1892.
Smith, Wilder. Extempore Preaching. 12mo, pp. 170. Hartford, 1884. (The
titles of chapters are : Preparation, General ; Preparation, Special ; Arrange
ment; Illustrations; Style; Memory; First Attempts ; Delivery; Physical Con
ditions ; Spiritual Conditions ; Repeating.)
Spurgeon, Charles H. Lectures to My Students : a Selection from Addresses Deliv
ered to the Students of tlie Pastors' College, Metropolitan Tabernacle, London.
12mo, pp. 297. New York, 1875.
Stevens, Abel. Essays on the Preaching Required by the Times. 12mo, pp. 266.
New York, 1856.
Storrs, R. S. Conditions of Success in Preaching Without Notes. 12mo, pp. 233.
New York, 1875.
Sumner, J. B. On Apostolic Preaching and Ministerial Duty. 12mo. New York,
1S64.
Taylor, William. The Model Preacher. 12rao. Cincinnati. No date.
Townsend, L. T. The Sword and Garment. 16mo, pp. 238. New York, 1871.
Turnbull, E. The Pulpit Orators of France and Switzerland. 12mo. New York,
1848.
T wells, H. Colloquies in Preaching. 12mo. London, 1889.
Yincent, Marvin R. The Expositor in the Pulpit. 16mo. New York, 1884.
Yinet, A. Homiletics, or the Theory of Preaching. Translated and Edited by
Thomas N. Skinner. l2mo, pp. xxiii, 534. New York, 1854.
Wayland, Francis. Letters on the Ministry of the Gospel. 16mo, pp. xii, 210. Bos
ton, 1863. (Includes both preaching and the pastorate. Letter II is on the
" Call to the Ministry ; " Letter III, " The Ministry Not a Profession.")
Wynne, Frederick R. The Joy of the Ministry. 12mo, pp. xv, 202. London,
1887.
Ziegler, H. The Preacher : his Relation to the Study and the Pulpit. 12mo. Phil
adelphia, 1876.
Zincke, F. Barham. On the Duty and Discipline of Extemporary Preaching. 12mo,
pp. xii, 251. London, 1866.
For the history of American Preaching aud Preachers, Sprague's Annals of the
Americau Pulpit is an almost inexhaustible storehouse of information.
Yale Lectures.
Beecher, Henry Ward. Yale Lectures on Preaching. 3 vols., 12mo, pp. 275, viii,
330, 336. New York, 1872-74. (Also combined in one volume.)
Hall, John. God's Word Through Preaching. Being the Yale Lectures for 1875.
12mo, pp. 274. New York, 1875.
Taylor, William M. The Ministry of the Word. Being the Yale Lecturesfor 1876.
12mo, pp. 318. New York, 1877.

574 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY.
Dale, R. W. Nine Lectures on Preaching. Yale Lectures for 1877. 12mo, pp. viii,
302. New York, 1877.
Simpson, Matthew. Lectures on Preaching. Yale Lectures for 1878. 12mo, pp.
336. New York, 1879.
Crosby, Howard. The Christian Preacher. Yale Lectures for 1879, 1880. 12mo,
pp. 195. New York, 1880.
Brooks, Phillips. Lectures on Preaching. Yale Lectures for 1877. 12mo, pp. 281.
New York, 1891.
1881. No Lecture.
Robinson, E. G. Lectures on Preaching Delivered to the Students of Theology at
YaleCollege. 12mo. New York, 1883. (Lectures for 1882.)
1883. No Lecture.
Burton, Nathaniel J. Yale Lectures on Preaching, and other Writings. Svo, pp.
639. New York. (Contains the Lectures for 1884.)
Storrs, Henry M. Lectures for 1^85; not published.
Taylor, W. M. The Scottish Pulpit -from the Reformation to the Present Day.
Yale Lectures for 1886. New York, 1887.
Gladden, Washington. The Relation of the Church and the Ministry to Socialism.
Yale Lectures for 18S7. Not published.
Trumbull, H. Clay. The Sunday School : Its Origin, Methods, and Auxiliaries. Yale
Lectures for 1888. Svo, pp. xiii, 415. Pliiladelphia, 1893.
Broadus, John A. Lectures for 1889; not published.
Behrends, A. J. F. The Philosophy of Preaching. 12mo, pp. viii, 234. New York,
1800. ^The Lectures for 1890).
Stalker, James. Tlie Preacher and His Models. The Yale Lectures on Preaching,
1891. 12mo, pp. xii, 284. New York, 1891.
Fairbairn, A. M. Lectures for 1892; not published.
Horton, Robert F. Yerbum Dei. The Yale Lectures on Preaching, 1893. 12mo,
pp. ii, 300. New York, 1893. SECTION XYIII.
PASTORAL THEOLOGY (iN THE LIMITED JMEAXING OE THE TEEm).
See American Presbyterian Review, Vol. Ill, 333. Among the earlier works on the pastoral
ofiace are : Baxter's Gildas Salvianus ; or. The Eeformed Pastor (1658) ; Bishop Burnet's Dis
course ol the Pastoral Care (1692) ; Edwards's Preacher and Hearer (1705-9) ; Mason's Student
and Pastor (1755) ; and Fletcher ot Madeley's Portrait ol St. Paul (1786).
While Liturgies and Homiletics are concerned with the functions
Objects ol Pas- of the clergyman in the sphere of fiublio worship. Pas
toral Theology, toral Theology in its limited meaning has to do with
the direction of the life of the Christian society and of individuals,
or, in otlier words, with pastoral care arid the cure of souls.
Here, again, it is possible to distinguish between functions whose
exercise is largely governed by official restrictions, and others
which admit of a greater personal freedom. The former serve to
display the faithfulness of the pastor, and the latter hia love and
devotion. The rules which apply to the former may be. grounded
in Church government, but. those which control the latter must be
derived from Christian Ethics. In the case of either it is requisite

THE FUNCTION OP PASTORAL THEOLOGY. 575
that experience and practice should complete what the science is
able to present only in its most general outlines.
The tei'm is not definitely fixed.' Many embrace the whole of
Practical Theology within its scope, but incorrectly, r^u ^
Catechetics is most nearly allied to it of all the torai Theology
branches hitherto considered, being the common basis ™'^^^""^-
of the entire body of ecclesiastical functions; while Homiletics and
Liturgies are not to be regarded as Pastoral sciences. H.'irms cor
rectly distinguished the preacher from the pastor. Only what has
respect to the latter is Pastoral Theology. But to
what extent is Pastoral Theology included in the do- Theoiogyasci-
main of science ? When Rosenkranz asserts ^ that there ^'^'^'
can be no Pastoral Theology in the evangelical Church because
there are no special Ethics for the clergyman, and because the care
of souls cannot be comprehended under a system of rules, and
when he even terms it " a beginning of priestcraft," and charges it
with amounting simply to " a guide to hypocrisy," and to " a sys
tem of belittling tricks which destroy the life of a true devotion,"
or " a low desire for the disj)lay of priestly greatness," his mind is
evidently fixed upon the abuse of Pastoral Theology. There is
certainly no special system of Ethics for the clergy; but a circle of
special duties belonging to his calling exists for the minister as for
any other man — duties devolved on him by reason of his pifice, or
by a proper estimate of the position to which God has assigned him.
The function of Pastoral Theology is to determine what may be
justly required of the minister, and what he must accept, as be
longing within the sphere of his calling. This reaches over into
Ecclesiastical Law. But matters which the clergyman in the e.ver-
cise of his independent choice imposes on himself also need to be
more specially and thoroughly discussed than is possible in the field
of Ethics, where only the general principles which bear upon such
matters are set forth. The chap'ter on good judgment, or, if it be
preferred, on wisdom, i. e., genuine moral skill in conducting
matters with' reference to known ends, or in laying hold upon the
appropriate means, covers a very broad field, which ad-
.. „ 1 . T -1. J • jT -i -il il • 1 ¦ Pastoral duties
mits or being described in conformitywith ethical prin- best learned
ciples, even though it cannot be comprehended within '™™ expen-
abstract rules. Mere book-lenrning will not, of course,
be sufficient for that end; the individual judgment is required to
' On the vrovd pastor, see Vine't, Pastoral Theol., Int., p. 1.
' Preface to the first edition of the Encyklopiidie, p. x.xxi, and second edition, p. 352.
On the other hand, compare Schleiermacher, g § 299-308 ; Harms, III, p. 26-27, and
especially Yinet, Theol. Past., p. 236, sqq.

576 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY.
perform most of the work. But the judgment may be directed and
quickened, and in this the experience of other ministers becomes a
valuable aid, though it cannot by any means be regarded as abso
lutely regulative.
A collection of clerical anecdotes is, however, not yet a Pas
toral Theology. Cases are never exactly parallel to each other,
and a method which was adapted to the circumstances of a partic
ular time and place will not be appropriate to a different time and
place. But it is meritorious to point out hoio experience may be
utilized, even to the student. If the name of science be denied to
this loving apostolical service, which the gray-haired veteran in the
office renders to inexperienced youth, we shall not delay to argue
the question. We personally believe that at this point the wisdom
of the professional chair reaches its limit, and that Pastoral Theol
ogy may be learned to better advantage at the hands of a guide
who has been tested in the spiritual oifice than in the lecture-room.
It will perhaps be necessary, after all, to admit, with Palmer, that
Pastoral Theology, as such, is not a science, and that its substantial
difference from Practical Theology consists in that fact. It con
tains consilia rather than poercepta, and "its partially casuistical
nature prevents its incorporation with any well-constructed organ
ism." Theological science is required, nevertheless, to mark out in
their broad outlines the paths over which the Pastoral life must
move.' This becomes so much the more necessary at the close of
the course of theological study, because so many students fail to
find the bridge which leads over from the school into actual life.
Pastoral Theology is required to build that bridge, and to furnish
the future shepherd with staff and ring or confer upon him his
spiritual investiture.
If it be now required that the field of pastoral duty belonging
Pastoral luno- to the minister be outlined in so far as it may be the-
''°P^ aistrtbu- oretically determined in advance, it will be necessarv
ted into three ... . . .
departments, to distribute his functions over three distinct depart
ments, in each of which a further distinction may be made be
tween the predominantly official and the free individual action,
although the one reaches over into the other, as in the following
scheme :
' " A better Pastoral Theology will be produced only when the Christian and the
systematic interests shall mutually recognize and support each other." — Schweizer.

THE PASTOR AND THE PEOPLE. 577
1. THE EELATION OF THE P.VSTOR TO THE CONGREGATION AS A
WHOLE.
a. The pastor as the ordained head of the cdngregation.
As presbyter, Kar e^oxrjv, the pastor is placed at the head of the
congregation, and to him, therefore, belongs the guid
ance {icvfiepvTjaig) of the Church, and the administra- the bead oi the
tion of Church order and discipline, in which work he congregation.
must have the co-operation of the Church, subject to the provisions
of the laws in force in his particular communion. Here we enter
upon the department of Ecclesiastical Law. But where the laws
do not come to his assistance, the free impulses of love will lead
him to let his light shine as he walks before his people and to ap
prove himself as a faithful shepherd of the flock. Especially will
he rejoice in every thing that is good which springs up among his
people, even though it be not prescribed by superior authority;
and, while he will take his stand in opposition to the unhealthful
manifestations of a misled piety he will gladly co-operate in every
work which gives shape to religious life, and will assist in prepar
ing the way for such work.
b. The pastor in his personal relation to his people.
The Christian minister in charge of a congregation has duties to
perform as important as preaching. He is the shepherd of his
flock, and should know his people in their wants, cares, burdens,
and griefs. It is his duty to show a reasonable personal interest
in them; he, of all men, should rejoice with them that rejoice, and
weep with them that weep. Hoppin lays down the principle that
the " minister should become personally acquainted with every one
of his people." This is not in every case practicable, especially in
large cities, but at least he " should strive to know something of
their varieties of character, their peculiarities of disposition, their
mental maladies and speculative opinions, as well as their external
history and circumstances." ' Such thorough acquaintance with the
people is secured by means of pastoral visitation, which can never
be neglected without injury to the minister's usefulnessg. Shedd
reminds us that the minister is apt to be deficient on the one or the
other side of this double character of preacher and pastor, but ad
vises him to make it his aim to "perfect himself in both respects." '
c. The minister as related to the administration of charities within
the territory of his congregation.
How far should ministering to the necessities of the poor {6ia-
' OfBce and Work of the Christian Ministry. By Jas. M. Hoppin. Pp. 533, 531.
2 Pastoral Tlieologv, p. 390.
37

578 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY.
Kovla Trig TpaTT&^rjg) be placed in the hands of him who is charged
with the ministry of the word? (Compare Acts vi.) The
mechanical duties may more readily be performed by other per
sons which was the original work of the diaconate; but he will
not be able to withdra-vv from the work of general supervision. In
cases, moreover, in which he is relieved from the keening of ac
counts, he will show himself so much the more efficiently a father
to the poor from choice.
2. THE RELATION OP THE PASTOR TO THE FAMILY.
This, too, is partly official, and determined by his position in the
Church, and partly independent. The relations of the minister to
the family assume an official form most frequently in connection
with special events, which belong pi-operly to this section, and only
in part to the departments of Liturgies and Homi
letics. The solemnizing of marriage, for instance, is a
public ecclesiastical ceremony. Baptism, more than other ser
vices connected with the family, passes beyond the
limits of the home circle, and becomes a public service
of the Church. If baptism be administered at the house, the cere
mony should not degenerate into a mere sentimental family fes
tival, but shouhl confer upon the Christian home the higher conse
cration of a temple. In the case of a death the sympathy of the
congregation is also largely enlistetl; but members of
the family are as a rule affected more than others, and
the position of the minister thus leads him not only into the
Church and to the grave, but also to the house of mourning
and into the circle of the bereaved. The address delivered
should be primarily adapted to the condition of the latter com
pany; for which renson more extended funeral sermons should only
be i^reached when demanded by the extraordinary nature of the
case.' The more nearly perfect the development of piety in a
family, the less inclination will there, be to avoid the clergyman
until a casus mortis shall demand his services in an oflicial ca
pacity; free intercourse with the clergyman will develop itself
naturally, whose influence will tend to crowd out of sight more
and more the distinction between clerus naturalis and positivus.
When, on the other hand, the Christian home is yet upon a low
level of piety, even the official visits of a clergyman will be prO'-
ductive of good; and in case such visits should not be formally
' Palmer, Homiletik, p. 889, has adduced an illustration, which shows in a pointed
way how contrary to good taste it is to select far-fetched texts for funeral sermons :
" And the king said unto Barzillai, ... Who desires to hear about Barzillai now ? "

TIIE SPIRIT OF THE PASTOR. 579
required, a faithful pastor will know how to secure admission to
such homes, not for the purpose of asserting his official character,
but in order to aid the family in attaining to that freedom of action
which is needed in all the occurrences of life by exciting its love
and confidence.
3. THE pastor's RELATION TO THE MASSES OUTSIDE OF ALL
CHURCHES.
The problem of reaching the masses is very simple, if ministers
have the disposition to preach the Gospel to all sorts Reaching the
and conditions of men. As the masses, so called, con- masses.
stitute in every country the bulk of the population, it is as easy to
find them as it is to find the sun or the sea; and they can be reached
by a sincere Christian sympathy, even if at the first they repel our
attempts to do them good.
Professor Phelps, of Andover, quotes as one of the sayings of his
honored father : " The man who belongs nowhere belongs to me,
and I must give account of him;" and Payson showed his readi
ness to serve all men by adopting as his motto: "The man who
wants to see me is the man whom I want to see." All things are
not possible to the minister, but the recognition of the fact that
the people of all classes and conditions, dwelling in one neighbor
hood, are a cotnmunity should be unmistakably made by every
pastor and Church.
It may even be said in a certain sense that the aim of Pastoral
Theology should be to render the specific office of pas
tor more and more unnecessary; for if the co-operation demands a
of the congregation is required in the public worship, "" ^® ^^'"''
it is far more necessary here. Such co-operation must of course be
conceived of as analogous in character to the work of the pastor,
and not as counteracting the latter in a separatist spirit. In this
field, as everywhere, one extreme leads to the other. Any over
straining of the idea of office can only lead to evil consequences in
one way or another. A distinction exists between the shepherd
and the sheep in the economy of nature, but not in the spiritual
field. The shepherd must not forget that he is himself a sheep be
longing to the great flock, and that One alone is the Good Shep
herd. And even he is designated in Scripture , as " the Lamb of
God, which taketh away the sin of the world." There are endless
modifications, however, with reference to what has now been said..
The duties of a rural pastor will differ from tho^e of the city pas
tor, and further differences arise from the contrast of conditions in
farming villages as compared with those of manufacturing towns,

580 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY.
those of inland towns with those of large commercial cities. And,
finally, there are also special fields of labor, such as those occupied
by the chaplains of hospitals, prisons, orphanages, and of troops in
garrison or in the field, all of which require a special theory, and
all of which likewise require a suitable man, endowed with all the
necessary qualities for his position. SECTION XIX.
PRACTICAL SCIENCES AUXILIARY TO PASTORAL THEOLOGY.
A true insight into the conditions of the different spheres of life,
and a scientiiic apprehension of their character, are necessary to
the clergyman, because his duties everywhere reach over into the
various relations of life. He will tlierefore need to become ac
quainted with various forms of knowledge which lie outside of the
different departments of strictly theological-science, and hence out
side of Pastoral Theology as well, but which nevertheless involve
a practical cliaracter. Among such forms we reckon
e gogics. ^j^^ theory of education, the theory of public charities,
psychical, and, to some extent, also piiysical, therapeutics.
These matters certainly lie beyond the range of studies prescribed
for the theologian, as such, and remarks like the above cannot,
therefore, be intended to urge the incorporation of such branches
with the theological course.' But it is important, in view of the
practical nature of the future calling, that the conditions among
„,. ^ which that calling must be exercised should at least be
The pastor "
should be a known. If the clergyman should be required to share
prac lea man. -^^ ^j^^ supervision of Christian schools, and to express
his judgment upon school matters in general, it will be necessary
that he should be acquainted with the principles involved ; and an
additional argument arises from the fact that catechetics stand
' It has been wittily observed that they constitute " Pontius in the Credo" (comp.
Graf, Prakt. Theol., p. 174). Very well; but a hint which prevents the inquirer
from being sent from Pontius to Pilate, and gives hhn the necessary information at
once, can do no harm. Our idea does not require that lectures should be delivered
upon all such topics; many things may be preserved for the future ad notam.
Harms asks his hearers (Pastor, p. 16): "Can you estimate architectural plans cor
rectly ? Can you draft a lease ? Do you know what amount of clover seed should be
sown to the acre ? Can you deal roughly with lazy artisans employed upon your house
at the expense of the Church 1 ". We are entirely agreed with Schweizer that Theology
proper has no answer to give to questions of this kind ; but such questions are not
so much out of place as may at first sight be supposed, and constitute interrogation
points which in their appropriate sphere serve to show the way beyond the borders df
a different territory.

PEACTICAL CHARACTER OP THE PASTORATE. 581
connected -with pedagogics. If he is to render substantial aid in
the department of public charities he will not find questions relat
ing to pauperism, now so frequently discussed, to be wholly foreign
to his position. It will be necessary that he should learn to know the
sources of poverty which lie iu existing social conditions, if he is to
aid in bringing it to an end ; and for this reason a course in Political
Economy, for instance, might be recommended to the theologian,
in so far as it relates to the amelioration of pauperism. The
clersryman will also need to understand the nature of „^ ,^ ,
''•' . . Sbould know
the forms of business if ho would be competent to es- the lorms oi
timate their influence over the physical, social, and "^ "^^^^
moral welfare pf the people. The opinion of religious teachers
respecting the mighty progress of industrial enterprises in our day,
for instance, is not an unimportant matter, for the latter not infre
quently come into conflict with the Christian life, in appearance,
at least, as appears from the low degree to which interest in the
Church has sunken in a majority of manufacturing towns, the ne
glect of the Sabbath, and of Christian schools, and the exclusive
attention given to business, the fasliions, luxury, and recreations.
Can any thing be accomplished with reference to such matters by
nierely protesting against the spirit of the age, while unable to resist
its progress ? And is not the cultivated clergyman .compelled to
learn the character of the time, with its requirements and its needs,
if he would successfully deal with its excrescences and perverted
tendencies ? Will he not be compelled to devise methods of relief
for breadless sufferers who complain that they lack remunerative
employment ? But all this can be accomplished only when he has
obtained an insight into the conditions of the time.
SECTION XX.
THE METHOD OF PASTORAL THEOLOGY.
The Seminary and Vicariate.
L Hiiffell, iiber die Errlchtung praktischer Institute zur Ausblldung der angehenden evangel-
christl Geistlichen- Eine Vorarbelt lur die bevorstehende badnische Generalsynode und
zugleich alien Regiemngen gewldmet, denen das Wohl der protestantischen Kirohe am Herzen
liegt. Karlsruhe, 1831 ; Hupleld a. a. O. S. 53-55 ; Derselbe : " Ist die Bildung, welche Theologen
aul der Universitat erhalten, auch ausreichend far Ihren Seelsorgerberul ? In den Annalen
der gesarnmt^n Theologie und christl. Kirche, Jahgr., 1833 ; Sprague's AnnaU of the American
Pulpit ; one ot the best exhibitions ol practical pastoral life extant in EngUsh. See also J. W.
Alexander's T^houghts on Preaching, p. 135, et seq.
The student will not be able to do more in the period devoted to
academical instruction than to secure a clear understanding of the
task of Pastoral Theology in its general outlines, and to cultivate a
sympathy for its work. The appropriate school for this, and all

583 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY.
other practical accomplishments, will be found either in the semi
nary or in the period of candidature which opens the way to the
A4.i=t„.™o„ exercise of official functions. A practical school afford-
Aids to a prep- , ^ ^ -^
aration lor the ing valuable aid in the work of preparation during the
pas ora . years of Candidacy, is found in frequent intercourse with
people belonging to different classes in society, and particularly in
associating with experienced clergymen, in observing the signs of
the times, in aiding to carry forward the objects of the numerous
associations for Christian work; and a further special aid will be
found in the reading of the biographies of eminent pastors.
To provide a bare sketch of Pastoral Theology is all that theory
What shall be *'*° accomplish ; and it is therefore a question what
done lor prac- shall be done to furnish a thorough practical training
tioai training? supplementary to that of the schools? Medical men
have their hospitals and tlieir clinics ; should not something sim
ilar be provided for theologians ? The proposition is not devoid of
difficult considerations. At this point we come to consider the
practical or professional seminary which may exist under diverse
conditions, either as forming a part of the university, or as entirely
distinct from it. It might be asked whether the monastic aspect
which seminary training may assume does not tend to unfit rather
than to qualify for actual life; whether theory does not in this,
as in other respects, predominate over practice. Every thing will
depend upon the spirit which pervades the different seminaries.
The testimonies of persons who are familiar with such institutions
Value and ifm- '^'"^ ^^ their favor. But it is certain that even the semi-
itations of the nary can produce no ready made preai'.her and pastor.
seminary. j^ merely serves to lead over from the college or uni
versity into practical life ; and lectures upon practical branches of
study, which are often entirely too inadequate as delivered at the
univei-sity, are certainly in place here. But who is to lead the
seminary student to the bedside of the sick, or to the dwellings of
the poor ? Who will furnish him with opportunities for intercourse
with farmers, or for studying life in its manifold conditions? Such
considerations have led some minds in Europe to discuss the idea
of founding seminaries in rural regions which should not be placed
under the direction of professors, but of experienced and practical
pastors. Such seminaries for Protestant clergyman would become
a kind of model and metropolitan pastorates, from which surround
ing villages and dependent churches might receive spiritual service,
and to which the preachers might return, bringing new experiences,
as bees bring honey to their cells. But it is to be questioned
whether such a scheme could be carried practically into effect.

THE HISTORY OP PASTORAL THEOLOGY. 583
Every candidate for the ministry should consider it a duty to visit
clergymen in their fields of labor, and to be made ac- . , .,
"•' . Association
quainted with the duties of his station, though it should wits experi-
be at first merely as a non-participating observer. The ^nced pastors.
preaching of a trial sermon, or the conduct of a catechization will be
sufficient to entitle the youthful clergyman to enter a Christian home
in the company of the resident pastor, or to visit the sick. Journeys
of limited extent, and simple excursions, even, may likewise yield
fruit, when it is sought after ; and upon this, as other points, read
ing must be employed to take the place of personal observation
when the latter is deficient. The reading of good popular authors
will create an interest for the life and manners of the people, their
needs, prejudices, aud modes of thought ; but it is necessary to
guard against the forming of false ideals regarding the life of the
people, and also concerning the life of the shepherd of the people.
Least of all should one give way to the idyllic dreams of former
days in an age like ours, which drives them e\ en from the mind of
the dreamer himself. The biographies of faithful pastors which
describe their joys and sorrows, their lives, labors, and aspirations,
are of greater value than the romantically tinged and imaginary
pictures of model clergymen. The former constitute the true legends
of saints for the evangelical theologian.

SECTION XXL
THE HISTORY OF PASTORAL THEOLOGY.
The earliest pastoral instructions are those which were given by
Christ to his Apostles (Matt, x), and those which they, ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^
in their turn, addressed to their pupils, especially structionsirom
through the pastoral epistles. Scattered elements are
to be found in the early teachers of the Church, and in their works.
When the care of souls became a priestly and hierarchical function,
chiefly through the institution of auricular confession, the instruc
tions provided for the use of confessors took on a similar character.
The Reformation urged the importance of the pastoral work in addi
tion to the work of preaching, with special emphasis. Zwingle wrote
his Shepherd according to the Image of Christ and the Word of
God, and many of Luther's letters afford rich materials for the use
of pastoral learners. The literary and more or less systematic
treatment of the subject begins with the Pastorale of pirst system-
Erasmus Sarcerius (1558), which was followed by the ^tic treatise.
Pastor of Nicol. Hemming (1566) and the Pastorale Lutheri com
piled by Conrad Porta (1582). The guides to pastoral work which

584 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY.
appeared at a later day were again of a casuistical character (comp.
Quenstedt, Ethica Pastoralis, 1678). Gottfried Olearius brought
out a direct Pastoral Theology in his Collegium Pastorale, etc.,
which was written by him at the beginning of the eighteenth cen
tury (Leipsic, 1718). Spener's Theologische Bedenken' unquestion
ably originated in the recognition,, according to the true spirit of
Protestantism, of a priesthood which is common to all Christians ;
but the later Pietism led the way back into the casuistical discussion
of clerical ethics, and thereby introduced many inappropriate ele
ments into the practical administration. The Sammlungen by Stein-
metz, abbot of Klosterbergen, and the Sammlungen zur Pastoral
theologie by Philip David Burk (1771-73) furnish a beautiful testi
mony in favor of the better Pi'tism and its tendencies, especially as
displayed in its Wurtembergian representatives. Rationalistic Pas
toral Th(!ology took gound in opposition to the Pietistic treatment,
making of the clergyman a philanthropic educator of the people,
and restricting his field of labor principally to the banishing of
prejudices and the elevating of social conditions, and, iu the loftiest
theories, to the improvement of the schools for the people (Sebaldus
Nothanker, by Nicolai). Modern Pastoral Theology is based on
more correct views respecting the nature of religion and the spirit
ual office, and must, therefore, be conceded to have divested itself
of much' of what Rosenkranz stigmatizes as savouring of priestcraft.
English literature abounds in practical treatises upon the duties of
the pastor, although the discussions of pastoral theol-
American ogy on its theoretical side are not very many. Proba-
works. .|^|y. ^j^g Qjjg work which has made the deepest impression
is Richard Baxter's Gildas Salvianus, or Reformed Pastor (1656).
It was prepared by a most successful yiastor for a conferen(^e of
pastors, and is still a model of its kind. Doddridge advised the
reviewing "of the practical part of it every three or four years," and
John Wesley made the reading of it one of the duties of his lay
preachers. Bishop Burnet wrote A Discourse on the Pastoral
Care, and 'John Fletcher of Madeley, The Portrait of St. Paul.
Among modern works may be named The Ministry of the Gospel,
by Francis Wayland ; Office and Work of the Christian Ministry, by
P^-ancis M. Hoppin ; Homiletics and Pastoral Theology, by William
Gf. T. Shedd ; and The Christian Pastorate, by D. P. Kidder. The
Yale Lectures on Preaching contain, both directly and incident
ally, valuable suggestions for the right ordering of the pastorate."
' Comp. the collection for the times made by Hcnnioke, Halle, 1838.
^ For the English Literature of this subject, see M'Clintock and Strong's Cj'clopse-
dia, vol. vii, p. 757.

FURTHER CULTIVATION OF THEOLOGICAL STUDIES. 585
SECTION XXiL
THE FURTHER CULTIVATION OF THEOLOGICAL STUDIES.
The study of theology can never be exhausted,' more than that
of any other science, and hence constant progress in its study never tc
development is required. The germs of knowledge cease.
imparted by the schools are to be thoroughly elaborated, and espe
cially m the years subsequent to graduation. Much, therefore, de
pends on a faithful improvement of the years of candidacy ;' but
intercourse with the science is never to cease, even after the pas
torate has been reached. Theological science can only retain its
vitality, however, so long as it is sustained by theological views
which have been tried and approved in the conflict of life. Much
has been said with reference to the tendency of clergyman to dete
riorate as students. There was a time in Germany and Switzer
land when more good bee keepers than Church guardi- gome wasteful
ans, more capable florists and cattle raisers than capable occupations.
trainers of human beings, -were to be found .imong the clergy. They
were more skilful in the plant nursery than in the village school,
and more ,nt home in their cattle stalls than in the sheepfold of
Christ. But the Chureh derives no greater benefit from one sided
]'hilologists and critics, nor from authors in the department of
belles-lettres, or even of theology or ethics, if such employments
cause the interests of the congregation to be neglected. A pastor
who has not yet completed his studies in this regard should prefer
not to be a pastor. His studies, in one word, ought not to be sepa
rated from his practical life so as to assume the appearance of dX-
XoTpiU, but ought rather to be enlisted in the service of the practical
life. This does not imply that he should read only devotional
works ; at no time is he to remain unacquainted with the progress
of theological science, because his entire efficiency must rise and fall
with the Church, and Theology is the finger on the dial of ^the latter.
But let him not study merely as a scholar or an amateur, but as a
pastor, who has an eye to his congregation, and also to the Church,
of which the congregation forms simply a part. Let ^jj
him carry his people in his heart, .nnd cause thcrn to profit the prontoi
by all which he secures, and let him know how to obtajn ^^^ people.
new seed for the field he has to cultivate from among the finest
' I have always been unable to regard the period of the university course other
wise than as a time of sowing and collecting materials, and have believed that the
collecting must precede the digesting. — Eothe (Studienjahre, in Nippold, i, p. 70).

5SG PRACTICAL THEOLOGY.
fruits that science affords. The best means for preserving the vitality
of scientific pursuits among clergymen are found, aside from socie
ties for reading, in the conferences of preachers and pastors, and in
the more extended ministerial associations which have been spring
ing up in increasing number in recent years. The object for which
such associations have been established differs from that of the
synods. The latter are directly engaged in the service of the
Church, the former in that of the clergy ; the latter fall within the
department of Church government, the former in that of Church
ministrations, to which they contribute a further incitement. The
more thoroughly the two elements interpenetrate each other, the
better it will be. The school affords training that fits for life, and
life in turn becomes a school ; and thus it should ever be with each
one. Life ripens through conflict, and character, disposition, with
out which, beyond dispute, there can be no real theological science,
are likewise steeled and purified by the heat of confiict.'
ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE OF PASTORAL THEOLOGY.
1. Pastoral Office.
Barrett, Alfred. Pastoral Addresses: Adapted for Retirement and the Closet. Third
edition. ]6mo, 2 vols., pp. 384.
Baxter, Richard. The Reformed Pastor : Showing the Nature of the Pastoral Work.
Svo. New York, 1860. New edition. ]2mo, pp. xv, 311. Loudon.
Blunt, John Henry. Directorium Pastorale. The Principles and Practices of Pastoral
Work in the Church of England. Svo, pp. 456. London, 1865.
Blunt, John Henry. Tlie Acquirements and Principal Obligations and Duties ofthe
Parish Priest: Being a Course of Lectures Delivered at the University of Cam
bridge to the Students in Divinity. 12mo, pp. .194. London, 1869.
Bridges, Charles. The Christian Ministry ; with an Inquiry into the Causes of its
Inefficiency. Svo. New York, 1 868. ,
Brown, John. The Christian Pastor's Manual. A Selection of Tracts on the Duties,
Difficulties, and Encouragements of the Christian Ministry. 12mo. Philadel
phia, 1837.
Burder, Heury F. Mental Discipline ; or. Hints on the Cultivation of Intellectual and
Moral Habits. Addressed Particularly to Students in Theology. 12mo. New
York, 1830.
' The pastor needs to possess a real creative faculty, a certain poetic element
(voi?itik6v Tl). This creative faculty is primarily related to the sermon, of course, but
afterward also to the other departments of clerical labor, to instruction and pastoral
care. The clergyman needs to understand the requirements in either field, and must
know how to meet -them all. If, theretore, he does not carry about with him an ade
quate fund, he can be, in his capacity as clergyman, only a sorry comforter, a chatterer,
or a silent dog. Subordinate, unproductive, and otherwise contracted characters are
usually able to make themselves useful in all offices, iu some form, at least, but tliey
are not qualified for the spiritual office. To be required, and yet not able to produce,
is the most terrible torture conceivable by man. — Yilmar, p. 80.

LITERATURE OF PASTORAL THEOLOGY. 587
Burgon, J. W. A Treatise on the Pastoral OfSco. Addressed Chiefly to Candidates
for Holy Orders, or to Those who have Recently Undertaken the Care of Souls.
Svo, pp. xxiv, 470. London, 1864.
Burnet, Gilbert. A Discourse on Pastoral Care. 32mo. London, 1849.
Campbell, George. Lectures on Systematic Theology, Pulpit Eloquence, and Pastoral
Character. Svo. London, 1840.
Cannon, J. S. Lectures on Pastoral Theology. New York, 1853.
Chrysostom, St. John. On the Prieslliood. InSixBoolis. Translated by B. H. Cow
per. 12mo, pp. 239. London, 1866.
Douglass, A. P. The Pastor and His People : Discussions on Ministerial Life and
Character. 12mo. London, 186S.
Ellicott, C. J. Homiletical and Pastoral Lectures. Delivered in St. Paul's Cathedral
Before the Church Homiletical Society. Edi ed by C. J. Ellicott. 12mo. New
York.
Evans, R. W. The Bishopric of Souls. Fourth edition. 12mo. London, '1856.
Fairbairn, P. Pastoral Theology. A Treatise on the Office and Duties of the Clirist
ian Pastor. 12mo, pp. 386. Edinburgli, 1865.
Ilill, Micaiah. The Principles of the Pastoral Function in the Church. 12mo, pp.
458. London, 1855.
Hoppin, James M. The Office and Work of tlie Christian Ministry. Svo, pp. 620.
New York, 1869.
Hovey, Alvah. The Christian Pastor, his Work, and the Needful Preparation : a Dis
course, etc. ISmo. Boston, 1857.
Humphrey, Heman. Thirty-four Letters to a Son in the Ministry. 12mo. Amherst,
1842.
James, Jolm Angel. An Earnest Ministry the Want of ihe Times. 12mo. New
York, 1849.
Kidder, Daniel P. The Christian Pastorate: Its Character, Responsibilities, and Du
ties. 12mo, pp. 569. New York, 1871.
Liepsner, B. F. (Editor.) The Young Pastor and his People: Bits of Practical Ad
vice to Young Clergymen, by Distinguished Ministers. 12mo, pp. 2S4. New
.York, 187S.
Littlejohn, A. N. The Bishop Paddock Lectures, 1884. The Christian Ministry at
the Close of the Nineteenth Century. New York, 1884.
Meade, William. Lectiires on the Pastoral Office: Delivered to the Students of the
Theological Seminary at Alexandria, Ya. Svo, pp. 241. New York, 1849.
Murphy, Thomas. Pastoral Theology : the Pastor in the Various Duties of his OfBce.
Svo, pp. 509. Philadelphia, 1877.
Oosterzee, J. J. Van. Practical Theology. New York, 1879.
Oxenden, Ashton. The Pastoral Office: its Duties, Difficulties, Privileges, and Pros
pects. 12mo. London, 1864.
Park, Edwards A. The Preacher and Pastor, by Fenelon, Herbert, Baxter, and
Campbell. Edited and Accompanied by an Introductory Essay. 12mo. New
York, 1849.
Pastoral Letters from the House of Bishops to the Clergy and Members ofthe Prot
estant Episcopal Church in the United States. 12mo. Philadelphia, 1S45.
Plumer,W.S. Hints and Helps in Pastoral Theology. 12mo,pp.381. NewYork,1874.
Pond, Enoch. Lectures on Pastoral Theology, 12mo, pp._ 395. Andover, 1866.
(Especially adapted to Congregational Churches and ministers.)
Shedd, William G. T. Homiletics and Pastoral Theology. Eighth edition. Svo,
pp. 429. New York, 1870.

588 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY.
.Smith, George. The Doctrine of the Christian Pastorate. Svo, pp. 123. London, 1851.
Spooner, Edward. Pastor and People ; or. Incidents in the Every-Day Life of a
Clergyman. 16mo, pp. 260. New York, 1S65.
Thompson, Henry. Pasto'ralia., A Mauual of Helps for Parochial Clergy of the
United Church of England and Ireland. Second edition. 12mo, pp. 263.
London, 1S32.
Tyug, S. H. The OfBce and Duty of a Cliristian Pastor. 12mo, pp. 178. New
York, 1874. (Delivered before the Boston School of Theology, 1873.)
Yinet, A. Pastoral Tlieology. 12ino, pp. 387. New York, 1854.
Wilson, James Stewart. The Life, Education, and Wider Culture of the Chrisiian
Ministry: its Sources, Methods, and Aims. Lectures Delivered at Aberdeen,
etc. Svo, pp. 284. London, 1882.
Wisner, William. Incidents in the Life of a Pastor. 12mo, pp. 316. New York,
1851. 2. Ecclesiastical Law.
Coleman, L. Manual on Prelacy and Ritualism. Philadelphia, 1S67.
Henry, W. J., and Harris, W. L. Ecclesiastical Law aud Rules of Evidence. Svo,
pp. 5!1. Cincinnati, 1879.
Hodge, Charles. Discussions in Cluirch Polity. From Contributions to tlie Princeton
Review. Svo, pp. xi, 532. New York, 1878.
Hoffman. Murray. The Ritual Law of the Churcli ; with Its Application to the Com
munion and Baptismal Offices. New York, 1872.
Hoffman, Murray. Ecclesiastical Law in the State of New York. Svo. New York,
1868.
Hunt, Sandford. Laws Relating to Religious Corporations. A Compilation of the
Statutes of the Several States in Relation to the Incorporation aud Maintenance
of Religious Societies. Svo. New York, 1876.
Joyce, James W. The Civil Power and Its Relations to the Chureh; Considered
with Special Reference to the Court of Final Ecclesiastical Appeal in England.
Svo, pp. xii, 240. London, 1875.
Strong, William. Two Lectures Upon the Relation of Civil Law to Ecclesiastical
Polity, Property, and Discipline. 12mo, pp. 141. New York, 1875.
. Tyler, R. H. American Ecclesiastical Law: the Law of Religious Societies, Church
Government and Creeds, Disturbing Religious Meetings, and the Law of Burial
Grounds in the United States. Svo. Albany, 1866.
Vinton. P. Commentary on the General Canon Law and the Constitution of the
Protestant Episcopal Church of the United States. New York, 1870.

APPENDIX.

RELIGION AND SCIENCE.
The following titles, chiefly ol English and American works, upon the relations of Religion
and Science, may be uselul to theological students. The list, though large, does not prolevis
to be complete.
Ackiand, T. S. The Story of Creation as told by Theology and Science. 16rao.
London.
Agassiz, Louis. Contributions to the Natural History of U. S. of America. (An
essay on classification. Vol. I, pp. 232. Boston, 1867.
 Methods of Study iu Natural History. Pp. 313. Boston, 1871.
 The Structure of Animal Life. Svo, pp. 128. New York, 1870. (The last
lecture is entitled : Evidence of au Intelligent and Constantly Creative Mind in
the Plans and Variations of Structure.)
Anniversary Memoirs of the Boston Society of Natural History. 1830-1880. Boston.
(Contains a Critique of Darwinism by Prof. Hyatt.) 4to, pp. 636.
Annual of Scientific Discovery. Edited by Spencer F. Baird, Secretary ot the Smith
sonian Institution ; formerly by David A. Wells. New York and London, 18()0-62.
(Gives frequent notices of the discussions of the antiquity of man, origin of life,
etc.)
Argyll, The Duke of. Primeval Man. An Examination of some Recent Speculations.
Pp. 200_ New York, 1869.
Bain, Alexander. Mind and Body, Theories of their Relations. 12mo. New York.
Bascom, John. Science, Philosophy, and Religion. 12mo, pp. 311. New York,
1871.
Bastian, H. C. Evolution, and the Origin of Life. New York, 1880.
 The Beginnings of Life. Being some Account of the Nature, Modes of Origin,
and Transformations of Lower Organisms. With Numerous Illustrations. 2 vols.,
12mo. New York, 1872.
Beale, Lionel S. Protoplasm; or. Life, Matter, and Mind. 12mo, pp. 160. 2d ed.
London, 1870. (A scientific refutation of Huxley's protoplastic theory.)
Birks, T. R. The Diflaculties of Belief in Connection with the Creation and Fall.
12mo. Cambridge, 1855.
 The Scripture Doctrine of Creation, with Reference to Religious Nihilism and
Modem Theories of Development. 16mo. New York, 1875.
Brace, Charles L. The Races of the Old World. A Manual of Ethnology. 12mo,
pp. 540. New York, 1863. (Discusses the geological question of the antiquity
of man.)
Bruntin, T. Landon. The Bible and Science. London, 1881. 12mO, pp. 416. (Aims
to show the agreement of evolution with the Pentateuch.)
Biichner, Louis. Force and Matter. Enipirico-Philosophical Studies, intelligibly
rendered. Edited by J. Frederick CoUingwood. 12mo, pp. 374. Loudon, 1870.

5C0 APPENDIX— RELIGION AND SCIENCE.
\
Biichner, L. Man in the Past, Present, and Future. A Popular Account of the Re
sults of Recent Scientific Research as regards the Origin, Position, and Prospects
of the Human Race. Svo. London, 1872. (Atheistic.)
Cabell, J. L. The Testimony of Modern Science to the Unity of Mankind. 12mo,
New York, 1S60.
Calderwood, Henry. The Relations of Science and Religion. The Morse Lecture, 1 880.
12mo, pp. xiii, 323. New York, 1881.
Chadbourne, P. A. Instinct : its Office in the Animal Kingdom, and its Relation to
the Higher Powers of Man. 16rao, pp. 307. New York, 1872. (Argues that
man has an instinctive belief in the existence of God.)
Chapin, James H. The Creation and the Early Developments of Society. 12mo,
pp. 274. New York, 1880.
Christianity and its Antagonisms: Evangelical Alliance, Conf. of 1873. Division HI.
Svo. New York, 1874.
Christlieb, Theodor. The Best Methods of Counteracting Modem Infidelity. A Paper
read before the Evangelical Alliance, 1873. ISmo, pp. 89. New York, 1S74.
(Discusses scientific unbelief.)
Church and Science (The). The Debate between ; or, the Anqient Hebraic Idea of the
Six Days of Creation ; with an Essay on the Literary Character of Tayler Lewis.
Andover, 1860.
Claims of the Bible and of Science : Correspondence between a Layman and the Rev.
F. D. Maurice on some Questions arising out of the Controversy respecting the
Pentateuch. ]2mo. London, 1863.
Clark, Edson L. Fundamental Questions : Chiefly Relating to the Book of Genesis and
the Hebrew Scriptures. 12rao, pp. vi, 217.
Clark, Henry James. Mind in Nature ; or, the Origin of Life and the mode of
Development of Animals. With over Two Hundred Illustrations. Svo. New
York, 1865.
Cook, Joseph. Biology. 15th ed., 12mo, pp. 325. Boston, 1878. (Wholly popular in
its treatment of the subject.)
Creation, Vestiges of. 12mo. New York.
Dabiiey, R. L. The Sensualistic Philosophy of tbe Nineteenth Century Considered.
Svo. Edinburgh.
Dana, James D. Manual of Geology ; with Special Reference to American Geological
History. Svo, pp. 814. Philadelphia and London, 1863. (Discusses the An
tiquity and Unity of the human race.) 2d ed., pp. S2S. New York, 1875.
Darwin, Charles. The Descent of Man, and Selection in relation to Sex. 2 vols.,
12mo, pp. 409, 436. New York, 1875.
 The Origin of Species by Natural Selection ; or, the Preservaticm of Favoured
Races in the Struggle for Life. 6th ed., pp. xx, 4R8. London, 1873.
 Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication. 2 vols., pp. 494, 568.
New York, 1875.
Dawkins, W. B. Early Man in Britain, and his Place in the Tertiary Period. Pp.
xxiv, 537.
Dawson, J. W. Archaia ; or. Studies of the Cosmogony and Natural History of the
Hebrew Scriptures. 12mo, pp. 400. Montreal, 1860.
 Fossil Men and their Modern Representatives. An Attempt to Illustrate the
Character and Condition of Prehistoric Men in Europe by those of the American
Races. 12mo, New York.
 Nature and the Bible. Lectures delivered in Union Theological Seminary on
the Morse Foundation. New York, 1875. Pp. 2.17.

APPENDIX— RELIGION AND SCIENCE. 591
Dawson, J. W. The Chain of Life in Geological Time. London, 1880. Pp. 272.
 The Story of the Earth and Man. 12mo, pp. 493. New York, 1873.
Dick, Thomas. Chiistian Philosophy; or, the Connection of Science and Philosophy
with Religion. Revised edition. Illustrated with upward of 5.) Engravings,
12rao. New York, 1857.
Draper, John William. History of the Conflict between Religion and Science. New
York, 1875. Pp. 373. '
Duns, John. Biblical Natural Science. Being the Explanation of all References in
Holy Scriptures to Geology, Botany, Zoology, and Physical Geography. Super-
royal Svo, pp. l-lo2. London, 1864.
Elam, Charles. Winds of Doctrine. An Examination of Modern Theories of Atoma-
tism and Evolution. Pp. 163. London, 1877.
Farrar, Adam Storey. Science in Theology. Sermons preached in St. Mary's, Oxford.
12mo, pp. 250. Am. e«l. Philadelphia, 1860.
Figuier, Louis. Primitive Man. Revised Translation. Illustrated with Thirty Scenes
' of Primitive Life, etc. Svo. New York, 1870.
 The To-morrow of Death ; or, the Future Life According to Science, translated
by S. R. Crocker. 16mo, pp. 395. Boston, 1S72.
 The World before the Deluge. Edited by H. W. Bristow. 12mo, [ip. 518.
New York, 1872.
Fiske, John. Darv/inism, and other Essays. 12mo, pp. viii, 283. London, 1879.
 Outlines of Cosmic Philosophy, based on the Doctrine of Evolution. 2 vols.,
pp. 465, 523. Boston, 1875.
Fly, E. M. The Bible True ; or, the Cosmogony of Moses compared with the Facts of
Science. 12mo. Philadelphia, 1871. '
Fjwie, T. W. The Reconciliation of Religion and Snienoe. Being Essays on Im
mortality, Inspiration, Miracles, and the Being of Christ. Svo, pp. 404. London,
1873.
Fraser, William. Blending Lights ; or, the Relations of Natural Science, Archseology,
and History to the Bible. 12mo. New York, 1874.
Gelkie, Cunningham. Hours with tMfe Bible ; or, the Scriptures in the Light of Mod
ern Discovery from the Creation to the Patriarchs. (Discusses the geological age
of the world and the antiquity of man.) New York, 1881. (Vol. II is from
Moses to .Tudges.)
Geikie, James. The Great Ice Age and its Relation to the Antiquity of Man.
Pp. xxv, 645. New York, 1874.
Gibson, Stanley. Religion and Science : their Relations to each other at the Present
Day. Three Essays on the Grounds of Religious Belief. Svo. London, 1882.
Gloag, Paton J. The Primeval World. A Treatise on the Relations of Geology to
Theology. 12mo, pp. 194. Edinburgh, 1S59.
Gray, Asa. Darwiniana. Essays and Reviews pertaining to Darwinism. 12mo,
pp. 398. New York, 1876. (Aims to show that natural selection is not incon--
sistent with natural theology.)
— ^ Natural Science and Religion. Lectures to the Theological School of Yale
College, 1880. 12mo, pp. 111.
Haeckel, Ernst. The History of Creation ; or, the Development of the Earth .and its
Inhabitants from Natural Causes. (A popular exposition of the doctrine of Evolu
tion.) Translated by E. Ray Lancaster. 2 vols., pp. 408, 374. London, 1876.
Harcourt, L. V. The Doctrine of the Deluge, Vindicating the Scriptural Account
from the Doubts which have been recently cast upon it by Geological Specula^
tions. 2 vols., Svo. London, 1S3S.

593 APPENDIX— RELIGION AND SCIENCE.
Harris, John. Man Primeval ; or, the Constitution and Primitive Condition of tho
Human Being. 12mo. Boston, 1870. '
 The Pre-Adamite Earth. Contributions to Theological Science. 5th ed., 12mo.
pp. 300. Boston, 1867.
Heard, J. B. The Tripartite Nature of Man: Spirit, Soul, and Body. 12mo, pp. xxiv,
374. Edinburgh, 1870.
Hedge, Frederic Henry. The Primeval World of Hebrew Tradition. 12mo, pp. 283.
Boston, 1870.
Henslow, George. The Theory of Evolution and the Application of the Piinciples of
Evolution to Religion. Pp. 220. London, 1873.
Hill, Thomas. Geometry and Faith. A Supplement to the Ninth Bridgewater
Treatise. 3d ed. greatly enlarged. 12mo, pp. 109. Boston and New York,
1882.
Hitchcock, Edward. Religious Truth Illustrated from Science, in Addresses an 1
Sermons upon Special Occasions. 12mo. Boston, 1867.
 The Religion of Geology and its Connected Sciences. 12mo, pp. 511. Boston,
1851.
Hodge, Charles. What is Darwinism ? 12mo, pp. 178. New York, 1874. (Argues that
Darwinism is Atheistic.)
Homo versus Darwin. A Judicial Examination of Statements recently Published by
Mr. Darwin regarding " The Descent of MJan." 12mo. Philadelphia, 1872.
Huxley, Thomas H. Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature. 12mo, pp. 184. New
York, 1862.
 Critiques and Addresses. Pp. 350. London, Z873.
 Lay Sermons, etc. London 'and New York, 1872.
 The Origin of Species ; or, the Causes of the Phenomena of Organic Nature.
Pp. 160. New York, 1872.
 The Theory of Evolution. Lectures delivered in New York. New York Trib
une Extra No. 36. Popular Science Monthly, 1S76 and 1877.
Janet, Paul. The Materialism of the Present Day : a Critique of Dr. Biiohner's
System. From the French. 12mo, pp. 202.* London and New York, 1866.
Jevons, W. Stanley. The Principles of Science. A Treatise on Logic and Scientific
Method. 2 vols., Svo, pp. 463, 480. London and New York, 1874. (Argues that
Science as well as Religion rests on probable evidence ; and that there is no
necessary antagonism between Science and Theology.)
Kurtz, John Henry. The Bible and Astronomy ; an Exposition of the Biblical Cos
mology, and its Relations to Natural Science. 12mo. Philadelphia, 1861.
Laidlaw, John. The Bible Doctrine of Man. The Seventh Series of Cunning
ham Lectures. Svo, pp 397. Edinburgh arid New York, 1879. (Discusses
Evolution.)
Lange, F. A. History of Materialism. With a Criticism of its Present Importance.
3 vols., 8yo. Boston, 1880.
Le Conte, Joseph. Religion and Science. A Series of Sunday Lectures on the Rela
tion of Natural and Revealed Religion ; or, the Truths Revealed in Nature and
Scripture. Pp. 324. New York, 1S74.
Lenormant, Frangois. The Beginnings of History, according to the Bible and the
Traditions of Oriental Peoples. From the 2d French ed. 12mo, pp. 588. New
York, 1882.
Leslie, J. P. Man's Origin and Destiny Sketched from the Platform of the Physical
Sciences. (Argues the consistency of evolution with theism, but rejects revelation.)
Boston, 1881. 12mo, pp. 442.

APPENDIX— RELIGION AND SCIENCE. 593
Lewes, George H. The Physical Basis of Mind. Forming the Second Series. Svo.
Boston, ISSO.
 Problems of Life and Mind. 2 vols., 12mo, pp. 434, 487. Boston, 1874-5.
Lewis, Tayler. The Bible and Science ; or, the World Problem. 12mo. Schenec
tady, 1856.
 The Six Days of Creation ; or, the Scriptural Cosmogony, r2mo, pp. 416.
New ed., 1879.
Lubbock, Sir John. Prehistoric Times, as Illustrated by Ancient Remains and the
Manners and Customs of Modern Savages. Svo, pp. 640. New York, 1872.
 The Origin of Civilization, and the Primitive Condition of Man. Mental and
Social Condition of Savages. Svo, pp. viii, 380. New York, 1870.
Lyell, Sir Charles. Principles of Geology ; or, 'the Modern Changes of the Earth
and its Inhabitants, considered as Illustrative of Geology. 2 vols., pp. 671, 652.
New York, 1873. (Furnishes, in his " Uniformitarian " theory, the ground for
Darwinism.)
 The Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man, with Remarks on Theories
of the Origin of Species by Variation. Svo, pp. 526. Philadelphia, 1863. Re
vised edition, pp. xix, 572. London, 1873.
 The Student's Elements' of Geology. Pp. 624. London, 1871.
Macdonald, Donald. The Creation and Fall. A Defense of the First Three Chapters
of Genesis. Svo. Edinburgh.
M'Causlaud, Dominick. Adam and the Adamites ; or, the Harmony of the Scriptures
and Ethnology. 12mo, pp. 324. London, 1868.
 Sermons in Stones ; or. Scripture confirmed by Geology. 16mo. London,
1870.
M'Cosh, James. The Development Hypothesis. Is it Sufficient? 12mo, 104. New
York, 1876.
Martineau, James. Modern Materialism and its Relations to Theology and Religion.
, With an Introduction by H. W. Bellows. ISmo, pp. 211. New York, 1877.
Maudsley, Henry. The Physiology and Pathology of Mind. From the London edition.
Svo, pp. 442. 1867. (Resolves Psychology into Physiology, and holds that mind
is the highest form of force.)
Mill, John Stuart. A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Deductive. Svo, pp. 600.
New York, 1867. (Argues that we can give no account of the permanent causes
in nature.)
Miller, Hugh. The Testimony of the Rocks ; or. Geology in its Bearing on the Two
Theologies, Natural and Revealed. 12mo, pp. 511. Boston, 1870.
Mivart, St. George. Lessons from Nature as Manifested in Mind and Matter. 12mo,
pp. viii, 462. New York, 1876. (Anti-Darwinian.)
 Man and Apes. An Exposition of Structural Resemblances and Differences
bearing upon questions of Affinity and Origin. 12mo, pp. 200. London, 1874.
 The Genesis of Species. 1 2mo, pp. 296. Londpn, 1871. (An argument against
Darwin for a Special Creation.)
Molloy, Gerald. Geology and Revelation ; or, the Ancient History of the Earth Con
sidered in the light of Geological Facts and Revealed Religion. 12mo, pp. 380.
New York, 1870.
Miiller, Max. Chips from a German Workship. 5 vols., 12mo. New York, 1876.
(The essays in Vol. IV are chiefly on the science of Language.)
Murphy, Joseph John. Habit and Intelligence in their Connexion with the Laws of
Matter aud Force. 2 vols., pp. 349, 240.
 The Scientific Basis of Faith. Svo. London, 1873.
38

594 APPENDIX— RELIGION AND SCIENCE.
Nott, Josiah, and Gliddon, George R. Types of Mankind ; or. Ethnological Researches.
Svo. Philadelphia, 1S54.
 Indigenous Races of the Earth ; or. New Chapters of Ethnological Inquiry,
Including other valuable contributions. Royal Svo. Philadelphia, 1857.
Ormathwaite, Lord. Astronomy and Geology Compared. 16mo, pp. 179. New
York, 1872. (An argument against Darwinism as atheistic.)
Owen, Richard. Palseontology ; or, a Systematic Survey of Extinct Animals and their
Geological Relations. 2d ed., pp. 463. Edinburgh, 1861.
 The Anatomy of the Vertebrates. 3 vols. London, 1868. (Chapter 40 is
especially important.)
Paine, Martin. Physiology of the Soul and Instinct as distinguished from Material
ism. With supplementary demonstrations of the Divine Communication of the
Narratives of the Creation and the Flood, Svo, pp. 707. New York, 1872.
Painter, R. B. Science a Stronghold of Belief ; or. Scientific and Common Sense
Proofs of the Reasonableness of Religious Belief. 12mo. New York, 1880.
Paul, William. The Scriptural Account of Creation Vindicated by the Teaching of
Science. 12mo.
Peabody, Andrew P. Christianity and Science. Lectures delivered before the
Students of the Union Theological Seminary. 16mo, pp. 287. New York, 1874.
Pendleton, N. W. Science a Witness for the Bible. 12mo. Philadelphia, 1860.
Peschel, Oscar. The Races of Man and their Distribution. From the German. 12mo,.
pp. 528.
Phin, John. The Chemical History of the Six Days of Creation. 12mo. New
York, 1870.
Poole, R. S. The Genesis of the Earth and of Man ; or, the History of Creation and
the Antiquity and Races of Mankind! 12mo. London, 1860.
Pratt, John H. Scripture and Science not at Variance. With Remarks on the His
torical Character, Plenary Inspiration, and Surpassing Importance of the Earlier-
Chapters of Genesis. 7 ed., revised and corrected. 12mo. London, 1872.
Pratt, Henry T. A. The Genealogy of Creation, Newly Translated from the Unpointed
Hebrew Text of the Book of Genesis. Showing the General Scientific Accuracy
of the Cosmogony of Moses and the Philosophy of Creation. Svo. Londom,
1861.
Primeval Man Unveiled ; or, the Anthropology of the Bible. Crown Svo. London,
1871.
Problems of Faith. A Contribution to Present Controversies. Third Series of Lect
ures to Young Men delivered at the Presbyterian College, London, by the Duke of
Argyll, Professor Watts, Dr. Donald Fraser, and William Carruthers. Edited by
Oswald Dykes. 12mo. London, 1875.
Quarry, John. Genesis and its Authorship. Two Dissertations. Svo, pp. 635.
London and Edinburgh, 1866. (Argues that revelation was not designed to teach
any system of science.)
Ragg, Thomas. Creation's Testimony to its God. The Accordance of Science, Phi
losophy, and Revelation. A Manual of tbe Evidences of Natural and Revealed
Religion. 12mo. London, 1867.
Rawlinson, George. The Origin of the Nations. 12mo, pp. 272. New York, 1878.,
(Aims to show the harmony between Genesis and the science of Ethnology.)
Recent Scientific Conclusions, (Thoughts on,) and their Relation to Religion. 12mo.
London, 1872.
Rigg, A. The Harmony of the Bible with Experimental Physical Science, A Course
of Four Lectures. ISmo. London, 1869,

APPENDIX— RELIGION AND SCIENCE. ' 595
Ritchie, A. T. The Creation. The Earth's Formation on Dynamical Principles, ia
Accordance with the Mosaic Record and the Latest ScientificJDiscoveries. 5th ed.,
revised, Svo, pp. 680. London, 1SS2.
Sandys, R. H. In the Beginning. Remarks on certain Modern Views of the Crea
tion. 2d ed., crown Svo. London, 1880.
Saville, B. W. The Truth of the Bible. Evidence from the Mosaic and other Records
of Creation ; the Origin and Antiquity of Man ; the Science of Scripture ; and
from the Archaeology of Different Nations of the Earth. Svo. London, 1870.
Schmidt, Oscar. The Doctrine of Descent and Darwinism. Pp. 334. London, 1875.
Science and the Gospel ; or, the Church and the Nations. A Series of Essays on
Great Catholic Questions. 12mo. London, 1870.
Science and Revelation. A Series of Lectures in Reply to the Theories of Tyndall,
Huxley, Darwin, Spencer, etc. Lectures delivered in Belfast iu 1874-75. Belfast
and New York, 1875.
Sewall, J. B. Evenings with the Bible and Science. 16mo, pp. 151. Boston and
New York, 1864. '
Sewell, William. Christian Vestiges of Creation. 12mo. Oxford, 1S61.
Shields, Charles W. Religion and Science in their Relations to Philosophy. Svo.
New York, 1875.
 The Final Philosophy. A System of Perfectible Knowledge, issuing from the
Harmony of Science and Religion. Svo, pp. 609. New York, 1877.
Smith, John Pye. Geology and Scripture ; or, the Relation between the Holy Script
ures and Geological Science. 12ino, pp. 364. New York, 1840.
Smyth, Thomas. The Unity of the Human Races proved to be the Doctrine of Script
ure, Reason, and Science. 12mo. New York, 1850.
Smyth, William W. The Bible and the Doctrine of Evolution. Being a Complete
Synthesis of their Truth, and giving a Sure Scientific Basis for the Doctrines of
Scripture. 12mo. London, 1873.
Southall, James T. The Recent Origin of Man, as Illustrated by Geology and the
Modern Science of Prehistoric Archseology. Svo, pp. 606. Philadelphia, 1875.
Spencer, Herbert. First Priuciples of a New System of Philosophy. 12mo, pp. 503.
New York, 1864. (The fifth chapter attempts a reconciliation of Religion and
Science.
 The Principles of Biology. 2 vols., pp. 492, 669. New York, 1871.
St. Clair, George. Darwinism and Design ; or. Creation by Evolution. Pp. 369. Lon
don, 1873.
Stirling, James H. As Regards Protoplasm. In relation to Prof. Huxley's Essay on
the Physical Basis of Life. ISmo, pp. 71. New Haven, 1870.
Thompson, Joseph P. Man in Genesis and in Geology ; or, the Biblical Account of
" Man's Creation tested by Scientific Theories of his Origin and Antiquity. 12mo,
pp. 149. New York, 1870.
Tullidge, Henry. Triumphs of the Bible, with the Testimony of Science to its Truth.
12mo, pp. 439. New York, 1S63.
Tyndall, Professor John. Fragments of Science for Unscientific People. A Series of
Detached Essays, Lectures, and Reviews. New York. 12mo, pp. 422. 1871.
(The second essay discusses prayer and natural law ; the sixth, the scope and limit
of-scientific materialism.)
Venn J. On some of the Characteristics of Belief, Scientific and Religious. (Hulsean
Lectures for 1869.) Svo. London, 1870.
Wallace, Alfred Russell. Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection. 2d ed.,
pp. 384. New York, 1869.

596 APPENDIX— RELIGION AND SCIENCE.
Wallace, Alfred Russell. The Geographical Distribution of Species, etc. 2 vols., pp.
607, 503. New York, 1876. (Aims to apply certain facts in the distribution of
species to the Darwinian theory of their origin.)
 The Malay Archipelago. Pp. 638. New York, 1869.
Warring, Charles B. The Mosaic Account of Creation, etc. ; or. New Witnesses to
the Oneness of Genesis and Science. 16mo, pp. 292. New York, 1876.
Warrington, George. The Week of Creation ; or, the Cosmogony of Genesis, con
sidered in its Relation to Modern Science. 12mo. London, 1870.
Whewell, Wm. History of the Inductive Sciences. 3d ed., 2 vols., pp. 666, 648.
New York, 1870.
 The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences. 2 vols., pp. 686, 523. London, 1840.
Whitney, M. Dwight. Language and the Study of Language. 12mo, pp. 505. New
York, 1868.
 Oriental and Linguistic Studies. First and second series. 12mo, pp. 416, 431.
New York, 1873, 1874.
Wight, George. Geology and Genesis. A Reconciliation of the two Records. Rec
ommendatory Note by W. L. Alexander. 12mo. London, 1857.
Williams, Charles. The First Week of Time ; or. Scripture in Harmony with Science.
12mo. London, 1863.
Wilson, Daniel. Prehistoric Man. Researches into the Origin of Ciivlization in the
Old and the New World. 2 vols., Svo. London, 1865.
Winchell, Alexander. Pre- Adamites ; or, a Demonstration of the Existence of Man
before Adam. 8to, pp. xxvi, 500. Chicago and London, 1880.
— '¦ — Reconciliation of Science and Religion. 12mo, xvi, 403. New York and Cincin
nati, 1877. (Argues that there is no contradiction between evolution and direct
creation.) '
 Sketches of Creation. A Popular View of some of the Grand Conclusions of
the Sciences in Reference to the History of Matter and of Life. With Illustra
tions. 12mo, pp. xii, 459. New York, 1870.
 The Doctrine of Evolution. Its Data, its Principles, its Speculation, and its
Theistic Bearings. 12mo, pp. 148. New York, 1874.
Wiseman, (Cardinal,) Nicholas. Twelve Lectures on the Connection between Science
and Revealed Religion. Svo, pp. xii, 404. London, 1837.
Wright, G. Frederic. Studies in Science and Rphgion. 16mo, pp. 406. Andover,
1882. (The seventh essay discusses the Bible and Science.)
 The Logic of Christian Evidences. 12mo, xiv, 312. Andover, 1880.
Wythe, Rev. Joseph H. The Agreement of Science and Revelation. 12mo, pp. 290.
Philadelphia and London, 1872.
Yorke, J. F. Notes on Evolution and Christianity. Svo, pp. 296. London, 1882.
Young, J. R. Modem Skepticism Viewed in Relation to Modern Science. 12ino..
London, 1865.
See also J. W. Dawson's address before the American Association for the Advance
ment of Science, Montreal, 1875 ; John L. Leconte's address before the same,
Salem, 1876 ; Huxley's article on Biology in ninth edition of Encyclopaedia Bri
tanuica ; Professor Clerk Maxwell's article on Atoms in same ; Edward S. Morse's
paper before American Association in Popular Science Review, 1876 ; Goldwin
Smith's article on Ascent of Man, in MacmlUan's Magazine for January, 1SY7 ; M.
A. Wilder's article on Natural Law and Spiritual Agency, in the New Englander
for October, 1874.
For an account of recent German works on Theology and Science, Darwinism, etc.,
see Bibliotheca Sacra for April, 1877, pp. 386 and 887, and July, 1877, pp. 577-584

APPENDIX— AMERICAN CHURCH HISTORY. 597
IL
HiSTOKIES OF THE ChEISTIAN ChUECHES IX THE UniTBD StATES.
The histories of the Churches in the United States are of so much importance to the
theological student that we offer here a list of those most accessible. As many of
the denominational publishing houses, from which they are generally issued, are
not well known, the location of each has also been stated.
General.
Baird, Robert. Religion in America ; or, An Account of the Origin, Relation to the
State, and Present Condition of the Evangelical Churches in the United States.
With Notices of the Unevangelical Denominations. Svo, pp. xvii, 696. New
York: Harper & Brothers. 1866.
' Belcher, Joseph. The Religious Denominations in the United States. Illustrated.
Large Svo, pp. 1024. Philadelphia, 1861.
EUis, George E. The Puritan Age and Rule in the Colony of the Massachusetts Bay,
1629-1685. Svo, pp. 576. Boston, 1888.
Gambraill, Theodore C. Church Life in Colonial Maryland. 12mo, pp. 309. Balti
more, 1885.
Greenleaf, Jonathan. Sketches of the Ecclesiastical History of the State of Maine,
from the Earliest Settlement to the Present Time. 12mo, pp. 293 ; Appendix 77.
Portsmouth, 1821.
Religious Denominations of the United States. Their Past History, Present Condi
tion, and Doctrines, Accurately Set Forth in Fifty-three Articles by Clergymen and
Lay Authors Connected with the Respective Persuasions. Svo. Philadelphia :
C. Desilver & Sons. 1871.
Eupp, I. Daniel. History of the Religious Denominations in the United States.
Svo, pp. vi, 734. Philadelphia: J. Y. Humphreys. 1844.
Sprague, William B. Annals of the American Pulpit ; or, Commemorative Notices
of Distinguished American Clergymen of Various Denominations, with Historical
Introductions. Svo, 10 vols. New York : R. Carter & Brothers. 1859-69.
Baptlst.
Anderson, George W. The Baptists in the United States. ISmo, pp. 72. Phila
delphia : American Baptist Publication Society, 1420 Chestnut Street.
Armitage, Thomas. A History of the Baptists, Traced by their Vital Principles and
Practices from the Time of Our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ to the Year 1886.
With an Introduction by Rev. J. L. M. Curry. Svo. St. Louis, 1887. (The
best recent history of the denomination.)
Backus, Isaac. A History of New England, from 1629 to 1804. With Particular
Reference to the Denomination of Christians called Baptists. Second edition,
with Notes, by David Weston. Svo, 2 vols., pp. x, 538 ; ix, 5S4. Newton, Mass.,
1871.
Bailey, G. S. The Trials and Victories of Rehgious Liberty in America. A Centen
nial Memorial, 1776-1876. ISmo, pp. 72: Philadelphia : American Baptist Pub
lication Society.
Barrows, C. E. Development of Baptist Principles in Rhode Island. ISmo, pp. 104.
Philadelphia : American Baptist Publication -Society.

598 APPENDIX— AMERICAN CHURCH HISTORY.
Benedict, David. General History of the Baptist Denomination in America and
Other Parts of the World. Svo, 2 vols., pp. 970. New York : L. Colby. 1848.
Bitting, C. C. Rehgious Liberty and the Baptists. ISmo, pp. 72. Philadelphia:
Bible and Publication Society.
Borum, Joseph H. Biographical Sketches of Tennessee Baptist Ministers. 12mo,
pp. xiv, 640. Memphis, 1880.
Cook, R. B. The Story of the Baptists in all Ages and Countries. Illustrated,
pp. 409. Baltimore, 1884.
Cox, F. A., and Hoby, J. The Baptists in America. A Narrative of the Deputation
from the Baptist Union in England to the United States and Canada. 1 2mo,
pp. 476. New York, 1836.
Cramp, J. M. Baptist History. From the Foundation of the Christian Church to the
Close of the Eighteenth Century. 12mo, pp. 598. Philadelphia: American
Baptist Publication Society. 1869.
Crowell, W. Literature of the American Baptists During the Last Fifty Years.
Missionary Jubilee Volume. New York. 1865.
Curry, J. L. M. Struggles and Triumphs of Virginia Baptists. A Memorial Dis
course. 18ino, pp. 71. Philadelphia: Bible and Publication Society.
Hovey, Alvah. Progress of a Ceutury. ISmo, pp. 70. Philadelphia: American
Baptist Publication Societj^
Minutes of the General Conference of the Free-will Baptist Connection, to which is
prefixed an Introduction containing a Brief Outline of the Rise, Progress, and
Early Polity and Leading Measures of ^he Denomination. 12mo, pp. xii, 444.
Dover, N. H, 1859.
Moss, Lemuel, Editor. The Baptist and the National Centenary. A Record of
Christian Work, 1776-1876. Svo, pp. 310. Philadelphia: American Baptist
Publication Society. 1876.
Smith, J. T. The Six-Principle Baptists. A Historical Sketch. Pp. 19. Baptist
Quarterly Review, 1883, p. 450.
Stewart, J. D. History of the Free-wiU Baptists for Half a Century. 12mo, pp. 480.
Dover, N. H., 1862.
Stewart, J. D. The Centennial Record of Free-will Baptists, 1780-1880. Pp. 266.
Dover, N. H.
Taylor, Geo. B. The Baptists and Religious Liberty. ISmo, pp. 36. Philadelphia:
Bible and Publication Society.
Taylor, G. B. Virginia Baptists. ISmo, pp. 35. Philadelphia : American Baptist
Publication Society.
The Letters of Roger WiUiams, 1 632-1682, now first coUected. Edited by John
Russell Bartlett. 4to. Providence, 1874.
WUliams, A. D. Memorials of the Free Communion Baptists. Svo. Dover, N. H. :
Free-will Baptist Printing Establishment. 1852.
WiUiams, William R. Lectures on Baptist History. Philadelphia, 1877.
Also various biographies of Free-will Baptist ministers, to wit: John Colby, pp. 310;
William Burr, pp. 208; Clement Pliinney, pp. 190; John Stevens, pp. 120;
Martin Cheney, pp. 471; David Marks, pp. 515; George F. Day, pp. 431.
Dover, N. H. : Free-will Baptist Publishing House.
Christiaji.
Suramerbell, N. History ofthe Christians. Dayton, 0. : Christian Publishing Asso
ciation.

APPENDIX— AMERICAN CHURCH HISTORY. 599

Congregational.
Bacon, Leonard. The Genesis of the New England Churches. Svo, pp. xvi, 485.
New York: Harper & Brothers. 1874.
Bacon, Leonard. Historical Discourses on the Completion of Two Hundred Years,
from Beginning of the First Church in New Haven, Conn. Svo. Boston : A.
H. Maltby. 1849.
Cambridge (Mass.) Platform of (Congregational) Church Discipline, 1648. Confes
sion of Faith, 1680. Platform of Ecclesiastical Government by N. Emmons.
12mo, pp. ii, 20-84. Boston: Congregational PubUshing Society, Beacon Street,
1855.
Clark, Joseph S. Historical Sketches of the Congregational Churches in Massachu
setts, from 1620 to 1858 ; with an Appendix. 12nio, pp. 344. Boston: Congre
gational PubUshing Society.
Contributions to the Ecclesiastical History of Connecticut ; Prepared under the
Direction of the General Association, to Commemorate the Completion of One
Hundred and Fifty Years since its First Annual Assembly. Svo, pp. 578. New
Haven: W. L. Kiugsley. 1861.
Dexter, Henry M. Congregationalism ; What it Is, Whence it Is, etc. Svo, pp. 338.
¦ Fourth edition. Revised and enlarged. 12mo.s Boston : Lockwood, Brooks &
Co. 1876.
Dexter, Henry M. A Monograph. As to Roger Williams and his "Banishment"
from the Massachusetts Plantation, with a Few Further Words Concerning the
Baptists, the Quakers, and Religious Liberty. Boston : Congregational Publish
ing Society.
Dexter, Henry Martyn. The Congregationalism of the Last Three Hundred Years,
as Seen in its Literature ; with Special Reference to Certain Recondite, Neg
lected, and Disputed Passages. In Twelve Lectures, Delivered, on the South-
worth Foundation, in the Theological Seminary at Andover, Mass., 1876-1879.
With a Bibliographical Appendix. Royal octavo, pp. 1082. New York, 1880.
Felt, Joseph B. The Ecclesiastical History of New England ; Comprising not only
Religious, but also Moral and Other Relations. Svo, 2 vols,, pp. 664, 721.
Boston: Congregational Library Association. 1855.
Goodwin, John A. The Pilgrim Republic : an Historical Review of the Colony of
New Plymouth, with Sketches of the Rise of Other New England Settlements,
the History of Congregationalism, and the Creeds of the Period. Svo, pp. 662.
Boston, ISSS.
Government and Communion, Practiced by the Congregational Churches in the
United States of America, which were Represented by Elders and Messengers in
a National Council at Boston, A. D. 1865. Boston: Congregational PubUshing
Society.
Marvin, Abijah P. The Life and Times of Cotton Mather ; or, A Boston Minister of
Two Centuries Ago. 1663-1728. Svo, pp. v, 582. Boston, 1892.
Mather, Cotton. Magiialia Christi Americana ; or, Ecclesiastical History of New
England, from 1620 to 1698. With Notes and Translations by Robbins and,
Robinson. Svo, 2 vols., pp. 626, 682. Hartford : S. Andrus & Son. 1853.
Minutes of the National Councils of the Congregational Churches of the United
States, from 1821 to 1883. Boston; Congregational PubUshing Society.
JInrton, Nathaniel. New England Memorial, with Governor Bradford's History; an
Appendix Containing the Views of the Pilgrims and Early Settlers on the

600 APPENDIX- AMERICAN CHURCH HISTORY.
Subject of Church Polity. Svo, pp. 536. Boston : Congregational PubUshing
Society.
Palfrey, John G. History of New England During the Stuart Dynasty. Svo, 4
vols., pp. xxxi, 636 ; xx, 640 ; xxu, 659 ; xxiv, 604. Boston : Little, Brown &
Co. 1858-77.
Park, Edwards A. The Associate Creed of Andover Theological Seminary. Pub
Ushed at the Request of Drs. R. S. Storrs, Mark Hopkins, William M. Taylor,
A. C. Thompson, and many other Congregational Ministers. Boston, 1883.
Punchard, George. History of Congregationalism from About A D. 250 to the
Present Time. Second editiou. 12mo, ' 3 vols., pp. xvi, 562 ; xiii, 519 ; xxn,
455. New York, 1865-67.
The Congregational Year-Book. 5 vols. 1854-69, New York. Also of Succeed
ing Years.
Tracy, Joseph. The Great Awakening : A History of the Revival of ReUgion in
the Time of Edwards and Whitefield. 12mo, pp. 433. Boston : Congregational
PubUshing Society.
Tyler, Bennet. Memoir of Asahel Nettleton, D.D. 12mo, pp. 376. Boston: Con
gregational PubUshing Society.
Uhden, H. P. The New England Theocracy : a History ofthe Congregationalists in
New England to the Revivals of 1740. Translated from the German by H. C.
Conant. 12mo, pp. 303. Boston: Gould & Lincoln. 1858.
Young, Alexander. Chronicles of the Pilgrim Fathers of the Colony of Plymouth,
from 1620 to 1628. Boston, 1841.
Young, Alexander. Chronicles of the First Planters of the Colony of Massachu
setts Bay, from 1623 to 1636. Boston, 1846.
Lutheran.
Ayres, Anne. The Life and Work of WiUiam Augustus Muhlenbel'g. Svo, pp.
xiv, 524. New York, ISSO.
Bernheim, G. D. History of the German Settlements and of the Lutheran Church in
North and South Carolina. 12mo, pp. 558. Philadelphia : Lutheran Book Store.
Hazelius, E. L. History of the American Lutheran Chureh, from its Commence
ment in 1685 to the Year 1842. Pp. 300. Zanesville, 0., 1846.
Jacobs, Henry Eyster. A History of the EvangeUcal Lutheran Church in the United
States. Svo, pp. xvi, 539. New York, 1S92. (The American Chureh History
Series.)
Morris, J. G. Bibliotheca Lutherana : List of Publications of Lutheran Ministers in
the United States. ]2mo. Philadelphia: Lutheran Board of Publication, 42
North Ninth Street. 1876. (Contains notices of many local histories.)
Schaffer, C. W. Early History of the Lutheran Chureh in America to the Middle of
the Eighteenth Century. 12mo, pp. 143. PhUadelphia : Lutheran Board of
Publication. 1857. New edition, 1868.
Schmucher, S. S. The American Lutheran Church, HistoricaUy, Doctrinally, and
Practically Delineated. Fifth edition. 12mo, pp. x, 286. Philadelphia: E. W.
Miller. 1S62.
.Schmucher, S. S. Retrospect of Lutheranism in the United States. Baltimore:
1841.
Seiss, Joseph A. Ecclesia Lutherana. A Brief Survey of the Lutheran Church.
Thirty-second edition. 12mo; PhUadelphia, 1867.
Stoever, M. L. Memoir of the Life and Times of Henry M. Muhlenberg, D.D. Pp.
120. Philadelphia, 1856.

APPENDIX— AMERICAN CHURCH HISTORY. 601
Stoever, M. L. Reminiscences of Lutheran Ministers. EvangeUcal Review, v, 515;
vi, 1, 261, 412, 542 ; vii, 63, 151, 377, 527 ; viii, 106, 186, 398, 501 : ix, 1; xi,
202,428,585; xiii, 362, 561; xiv, 293; xv, 129,428, 365; xvi, 470; xvii, 390,
485 ; xviii, 26, 232 ; xix, 89, 405, 622 ; xx, 381 ; xxi, 24, 171, 374.
Stoever, M. L. . Lutheran Church iu the United States. Congregational Quarterly,
1S62.
Strobel, P. A. The Salzburgers and their Descendants : Being the History of a Col
ony of German Lutheran Protestants, who Emigrated to Georgia in 1734, and
Settled at Ebenezer. Pp. 308. Baltimore, 1855.
Mennonite.
BUis, Franklin, and Evans, Samuel. History of Lancaster County, Pa., with Bio
graphical Sketches of Many of its Pioneers and Prominent Men. Chapter xxvii.
Churches of the Mennonites, Dnnkers, Reformed Mennonites, River Brethren,
and Amish.
Funk, John F. The Mennonite Church and her Accusers. Elkhart, Ind. : Mennon
ite Publishing Co. 1878.
Martin, E. K. The Mennonites. Svo, pp. 17. Philadelphia: Everts <fc Peck.
1883.
Musser, Daniel. The Reformed Mennonite Church : its Rise and Progress, with its
Doctrines and Principles. Lancaster, Pa. : Inquirer Printing and PubUshing Co.
1878. Methodist.
Annals of Southern Methodism. 1855. 12mo, 1 vol., 1857. NashviUe, Tenn. ;
Publishing House of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South.
Archibald, F. A. Methodism and Literature. A series of articles from several
writers on the " Literary Enterprise and Achievements of the Methodist Episco-
pa IChurch." Edited by P. A. Archibald, D.D., with a Catalogue of Select Books
for the Home, the Church, and the Sunday-school. 12mo. Cincinnati, 1883.
Arnett, B. W. The Budget : Containing the Annual Reports of the General Officers
of the African M. E. Church, etc., with Facts and Figures, Historical Data of
the Colored Methodist Church, etc.. Together with Religious, Educational, and
Political Information Pertaining to the Colored Race. Pp. 136. Xenia, 0. .
Torchlight Printing Co. ISSl. The same for 1883, pp. 154. Dayton, 0. ;
Christian Publishing House Print.
Asbury, Francis, Journal of. 12rao, 3 vols., pp. 524, 492, 502. New York : Meth
odist Book Concern, 150 Fifth Avenue. 1S52.
Atkinson, John. Centennial History of Methodism, Inclusive of the Period of its
Ecclesiastical Organization in 1784, and its Subsequent Development under the
Superintendency of Francis Asbury. With Sketches of the Character and History
of all the Preachers known to have been Members of the Christmas Conference.
Also, an Appendix, showing the Numerical Position of the Methodist Episcopal
Church as cdmpared with the other leading Evangelical Denominations in the
cities of the United States, and the Condition of the Educational Work of the
Church. 12mo, pp. 559. New York, 1884.
Bangs, Nathan. A History of the Methodist Episcopal Church. 12mo, 4 vols.
New York : Methodist Book Concern.
Bascom, Henry B., Life of. 12mo. Nashville, Tenn.: PubUshing House of the
Methodist Episcopal Church, South.
Bascom, H. B., Greene, A. L. P., Parsons, C. B. Brief Appeal to Public Opinion in
a Series of Exceptions to the Course and Action of the Methodist Episcopal

603 APPENDIX— AMERICAN CHURCH HISTORY.
Church, from 1844 to 1848. Svo, pp. 202. Louisville, Ky. : Morton aud Gris
wold. 1848.
Bassett, Ancel H. A Concise History of the Methodist Protestant Church. from its
Origin. Introduction by William Collier. 12mo, pp. 424. Pittsburg : James
Robinson, 1877. Third ediuon, 1SS7.
Bennett,  . Methodism in Virginia. 12mo. Nashville, Tenn. : Publishing
House of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South.
Bond, Thomas E. The Economy of Methodism Illustrated and Defended : In a Series
of Papers. Svo, pp. 391. New York : Methodist Book Concern. 1852.
Colhouer, T. Sketches of the Founders of the Methodist Protestant Church and its
Bibliography. With an Introduction by Rev. J. T. Ward. 12mo, pp. xii, 466.
Pittburg, 1880.
Cornish, George H. Cyclopasdia of Methodism in Canada, containing Historical,
Educational, and Statistical Information, Dating from the Beginning of the Work
in Several Provinces of the Dominion of Canada and Extending to the Annual
Conferences of 1880. Svo, pp.'SSO. Toronto, ISSl.
Crooks, George R. The Life of Bishop Matthew Simpson, of the Methodist Episco
pal Church. Svo, pp. xii, 522. New York, 1887.
Deems, Charles F. Annals of Southern Methodism for 1856. 12mo,pp. 312. Nash
vUle, Tenn : ^ Stevenson & Owen. New York : .lohn A. Gray.
Drew, Samuel. Life of the Rev. Thomas Coke, LL.D. 12mo, pp. 381. New York:
Methodist Book Concern. 1837.
Elliott, Charles. History of the Great Secession from the Methodist Episcopal Chureh
in the Year 1845, Eventuating in the Organization of the New Church Entitled
"Methodist Episcopal Church, South." Svo, pp. 1143. Cincinnati, 1S55.
Emory, Robert. Life of the Rev. John Emory. With an Appendix. Svo, pp. 380.
New York: Methodist Book Concern, 1841.
Finley, J. B. Sketches of Western Methodism. Cincinnati : Methodist Book Con
cern. 1875.
Formal Fraternity. Proceedings of the General Conferences of the Methodist Epis
copal Church and ofthe Methodist Episcopal Church, South, in 1872, 1874, and
1876, and of the Joint Commission of the Two Churches on Fraternal Relations
at Cape May, N. J., August 16-23, 1876. Svo, pp. 87. New York: Meth
odist Book Concern. Nashville, Tenn. : A. H. Bedford.
Goss, C. C. Statistical History of the First Century of American Methodism. 16mo,
pp. 188. New York : Methodist Book Concern. 1866.
History of the Organization of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South : Comprehend
ing all the Official Proceedings of the General Conference, etc. Svo, pp. 267.
NashviUe: Published by Order of the Louisville Convention. William Came
ron, Printer. 1845.
HolUday, F. C. Indiana Methodism. Being an account of the Introduction, etc., of
Methodism in the State. Svo, pp. 360. Cincinnati, 1863.
Jones, John G. A Complete History of Methodism as Connected with the Mississippi
Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. Vol. I, 1799-1817,
pp. 461. Nashville, Tenn., 1887.
Journal of the General Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, for
1854, 1866, 1870, 1874, 1878, 1882. Nashville, Tenn.: Publishing House ofthe
Methodist Episcopal Church, South.
Lednum, John. A History of the Rise of Methodism in America. Containing
Sketches of Methodist Itinerant Preachers from 1736 to 1785, etc., etc. 12mo,
pp. 434. Philadelphia: John Lednum. 1859.

APPENDIX— AMERICAN CHURCH HISTORY. 603
Lee, L. M. Life and Times of the Rev. Jesse M. Lee. Svo, pp. 517. Nashville,
Tenn. : Publishing House of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South.
McClintock, J. Biographical Sketches of Methodist Ministers. Cincinnati: Western
Methodist Book Concern.
MoFerrin, John B. Methodism iu Tennessee. 1 2mo, 3 vols. NashvUle, Tenn. :
PubUshing House of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South.
McTyeire, HoUand N. A History of Methodism, Comprising a View of the Rise of
the Revival of Spiritual Religion in the First Half of the Eighteenth Century, and
of the Principal Agents by whom it was Promoted in Europe and America. With
Some Account of the Doctrines and Polity of Episcopal Methodism in the
United States, and Means and Manner of its Extension down to A. D. 1884.
Svo, pp. 688. NashviUe, Tenn.
Methodist Church Property Case. Reported by R. Sutton. Svo, pp. 372. Rich
mond and Louisville: John Early. 1851.
Mood, F. A. Methodism in Charleston. Edited by T. 0. Summers. ISmo. Nash
ville, Tenn. : Publishing House of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South.
Moore, M. H. Sketches of the Pioneers of Methodism in North Carolina and Virginia.
12mo, pp. 314. NashviUe, Tenn., 1884.
Myers, Edward H. The Disruption of tho Methodist Episcopal Church, 1S44-1S46.
Comprising a Thirty Years' History of the Relations of the Two Methodisms.
With an Introduction by T. O Summers. 12mo. NashvUle, Tenn. ; Publishing
House ofthe Methodist Episcopal Church, South.
Orwig, W. W. History of the Evangelical Association, from its Origin to the Year
1845. 12mo. Cleveland, 0., Publishing House. Lauer & Yost, Agents.
Paine, Robert. Life and Times of William MoKendree. 12mo, 2 vols. NashviUe,
Tenn.: Publishing House of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South.
Redford, A. H. History of Methodism in Kentucky. Third edition. NashviUe,
Tenn.. Publishing House ofthe Methodist Episcopal Church, South.
Ridgaway, Henry B. Life of Edmund S. Janes, Senior Bishop of tbe Methodist
Episcopal Church. 12mo. New York, 1882.
Rivers, R. H. The Life of Robert Paine, D.D., Bishop of the Methodist Episcopal
Church, South. With an Intioduction by Rev. W. P. Harrison, D.D. 12mo,
pp. 314. Nashville, Tenn.
Sherman, David. History of the Revisions of the Discipline of the Methodist Epis
copal Church. 12mo, pp. 422. New York: Methodist Book Concern. 1874.
Shipp, Albert; M. History of Methodism iu South Carolina. 12mo, pp. 652. Nash
ville, Tenn., 1884.
Simpson, Matthew. A Hundred Years of Methodism. 12mo, pp. 369. New York:
Methodist Book Concern. 1S76.
Simpson, Matthew. Cyclopsedia of Methodism. Revised edition. 4to, pp. 1031.
Philadelphia: L. H. Everts. 1880.
Stevens, Abel. Centenary of American Methodism : with an Introduction by John
McClintock. 12mo, pp. 287. New York : Methodist Book Concern. 1866.
Stevens, Abel. History of the Methodist Episcopal Church in the United States of
America. 12mo, 4 vols., 423, 511, 'siO, 522. New York: Methodist Book
Concern. 1867.
Stevens, Abel. Life and Times of Nathan Bangs. 12mo, pp. 426. New York:
Methodist Book Concern.
Summers, T. 0. Biographical Sketches of Itinerant Ministers, Pioneers Within the
Bounds of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. Third edition. Pp. 176.
Nashville, Tenn.: PubUshing House of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South.

604 APPENDIX— AMERICAN CHURCH HISTORY.
Thrall, H. S. Methodism in Texas. 12mo. NashviUe, Tenn. : PubUshing House of
the Methodist Episcopal Church, South.
Travis, Joseph, Autobiography of. Edited by T, 0, Summers. 12mo, pp. 331.
NashviUe, Tenn. . Publishing House of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South.
Wightman, Bishop. Life of William Capers, Including an Autobiography. Nash
ville, Tenn. : PubUshing House of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South.
Wood, E. M. Methodism and the Centennial of American Independence; with a
Brief History of the Various Branches of Methodism, and Full Statistical Tables.
12mo, pp. 412. New York: Methodist Book Concern. 1876.
Yeakel, R. Jacob Albright and his Colaborers. 12mo, pp. 329. Cleveland, 0.,
18S3. (Albright was the founder of the Evangelical Association.)
Moravian.
Moravian Historical Society, Transactions of. Vol. I. Containing all the Important
and Interesting Papers published by the Society from 1S57 to 1876. Svo.
Bethlehem, Pa. . Moravian Publication Office. E. G. Klose, Manager.
Ritter, A. The Moravian Church in Philadelphia from 1742. Svo, pp. xv, 281.
Philadelphia, 1858. (Has a curious account of Cornplanter, the famous Indian.)
Rondthaler, Edward, i Life of John Heekewelder. Edited by B. H. Coates. 1847.
Svo, pp. 150. Bethlehem, Pa. . Moravian Publication Office.
Schweinitz, Edmund de. The Moravian Manual, Containing an Account of the Mo
ravian Church, or Unitas Fratrum. Second enlarged edition; with Historical
Tables, Extending from the Foundation of the Ancient Church to the Present
Day. Svo, pp. 208. Bethlehem, Pa. : Moravian Publication Office.
The Provincial Digest. Supplementary to the Results ofthe General Synod of 1879.
Ordered by the Provincial Synod of the Northern District of the Province of the
Moravians, held at Bethlehem, Pa., May, 1830-1881. Bethlehem, Pa. . Mora
vian Publication Office.
The Text-Book for 1884 and subsequent years. EngUsh and German editions.
Bethlehem, Pa. : Moravian Publication Office.
Presbyterian.
Alexander, Archibald. Biographical Sketches of the Founder and Principal Alumni
of the Log College. Together with an Account of the Revivals of Religion
under their Ministry. 12mo, pp. 279. Philadelphia : Presbyterian Board of
Publication, 1334 Chestnut Street.
Alexander, Gross ; ScouUer, James B. ; Foster, R. V. ; Johnson, T. C. A History
of the Methodist Church, South ; the United Presbyterian Church ; Cumberland
Presbyterian Church; and the Presbyterian Church, South. Svo, pp. 487. New
York, 1894. (Vol. XI ofthe American Church History Series.)
Baird, Samuel J. A History of the New School, and of the Questions Involved in the
Disruption of the Presbyterian Church in 1838. Svo, pp. xii, 564. Philadelphia :
Claxton, Remsen, & Haffelfinger. 1868.
Bannerman, D, D. The Worship of the Presbyterian Church, with Special Reference
to the Question of Liturgies. Edinburgh, 1884.
Beard, Richard. Why Am I a Cumberland Presbyterian ? NashviUe, Tenn. 1872.
Blaikie, Alexander. A History of Presbyterianism in New England. Its Introduc
tion, Growth, Decay, Revival, and Present Mission. 12mo, pp. 512. Boston,
1881.
Breed, William P. Presbyterians and the Revolution. 16mo, pp. 205. Philadel
phia : Presbyterian Board of Publication. 1872.

APPENDIX— AMERICAN CHURCH HISTORY. 605
Briggs, Charles A. American Presbyterianism: its Origin and Early History.
12mo, pp. xvui, 373, cxUi. New York, 1885.
Brown, I. N. An Historical Vindication of the Abrogation of the Plan of Union by
the Presbyterian Church. Svo. Philadelphia: W. S. Martien. 1855.
Centennial Historical Discourses delivered in the City of 'Philadelphia, June, 1876. by
Appointment of the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the United
States of America. ]2mo, pp. 800. Philadelphia: Presbyterian Board of Pub
lication. 1876.
Crisman, E. B. Origin and Doctrines of the Cumberland Presbyterian Church.
2 parts. 12mo, pp. Iv, 150. Perrin & Smith. 1877.
Davidson. Robert. History of the Presbyterian Church in the State of Kentucky,
with a PreUminary Sketch of the Churches in the VaUey of Virginia. 18mo,
pp. 371. New York, 1847.
Division of the Presbyterian Church (A History of) in the United Statds, by a Com
mittee of the Synod of New York and New Jersey. 12mo, pp. vu, 278. New
York, 1852.
Gillett, E. H. History of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of
America. 12mo, 2 vols., pp. 576, 605. Philadelphia: Presbyterian PubUcation
Board.
Hodge, Charles. The Constitutional History of the Presbyterian Church in the
United States. Svo, 2 vols., pp. xxiv, 576 ; xu, 605. Philadelphia: W. S. Mar
tien. 1839-40.
Howe, George. History of the Presbyterian Church in South Carolina. Svo, pp.
xiii, 709. Columbia, 1870.
Moore, William E. The Presbyterian Digest of the Acts and Deliverances of the
General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America.
Svo, pp. 718. Philadelphia: Presbyterian Board of Publication.
Presbyterian Reunion: A Memorial Volume, 1S37-1S71, with Map, in separate vol.,
originally published in Ne^o York Evangelist. Svo, pp. viii, 568. New York :
D. C. Lent & Co. 1870.
The Confession of Faith of the Cumberland Presbyterian Church in the United
States of America. Pp. 286. Nashville, Tenn. : Board of Publication of the
Cumberland Presbyterian Church. 1S75.
Webster, Richard. A History of the Presbyterian Church in America, from its
Origin untU the Year 1760; with Biographical Sketches of its Early Ministers.
Svo. Philadelphia : J. M. Wilson. 1858.
Protestant Episcopal.
Aycrigg, Benjamin. Memoirs of the Reformed Episcopal Church, and of the Prot
estant Episcopal Church, with Contemporary Reports Respecting these and the
Church of England, extracted from the PubUo Press. Svo, pp. Ixvi, 373. New
York, ISSO. J
Beardsley, E. E. The History of the Episcopal Church in Connecticut from the
Settlement of the Colony to the Death of Bishop Seabury. Fourth edition.
Svo, 2 vols., pp. 470, 465. Boston, 1883.
Bolton, Robert. History of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the County of West
chester from its Foundation A. D. 1693 to A. D. 1853. Svo, pp. xxiii, 749.
New York, 1855.
Caswell, H. America and the American Church. Second edition. Svo. London :
Mozley. 1851.

606 APPENDIX— AMERICAN CHURCH HISTORY.
Collections of the Protestant Episcopal Historical Society for the Year 1851. Pub
lished by order of the Executive Committee of the Society. Svo, pp. xliii, 187.
New York, 1851.
Dalcho, Frederick. An Historical Account of the Protestant Episcopal Church in
South Carolina from the First Settlement of the Province to the War of the
Revolution. Svo, pp. vii, 613. Charleston, 1820.
Hawks, Francis L. Contributions to the Ecclesiastical History of the United States
of America. Vol. I. A Narrative of Events connected with the Rise and
Progress of the Protestant Episcopal Church in Virginia. Also an Appendix.
Svo, pp. xvi, 17, 286, 332. Vol. II. History of the Protestant Episcopal
Church in Maryland. Svo, pp. 524. New York : Harper & Brothers.
1836-39.
Lord, Samuel. A History of the Protestant Episcopal Church in America. 12mo,
pp. 357. New York: Stanford & Swords. 1849.
Meade, William. Old Churches, Ministers, and Families of Virjinia. Second edi
tion, revised. Svo, 2vols. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott &• Co. 1858.
Perry, WiUiam S. A Hand-book of the General Convention of the Protestant Epis
copal Church, giving its History and Constitution, 1785-1880. 12mo, pp. 365.
New York : Whittaker. 1881.
Perry, William S. Papers Relating to the History of the Church in Virginia, A. D.
1650-1776. 4to. New York: Protestant Episcopal Sunday-School Union.
1870.
Perry, William S. Same in Pennsylvania, A. D. 16S0-lV7S. 4to. New York :
Protestant Episcopal Sunday-School Union. 1S71.
Waylen, Edward. Ecclesiastical Reminiscences of the United States. Svo, pp.
501. New York. 1846. (Protestant Episcopal Church.)
White, William. Memoirs of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States
of America. Svo, pp. xiv, 474. New York : Stanford & Swords. 1836.
Wilberforce, Bishop S. A History of the Protestant Episcopal Church in America.
12mo, pp. 357. New York, 1849.
Reformed Church in America (Dutch).
Anderson. James. Appeal to General Synod of the Reformed Protestant Dutch
Chnrch on the Change of Name, November, 1867. Svo, pp. 15. New York :
Board of Publication, 34 Vesey Street.
Bentley, B. W. " The Classis of Orange." An Historical Discourse. Svo, pp. SO.
New York : Board of Publication.
Brinkerhoff, Jacob. History of the True Dutch Reformed Church of the United
States of America. 12mo, pp. 139. New York: Board of Publication.
Brownlee, WilUam C, Editor. Reformed Dutch Church Magazine. Svo, 4 vols.
New York : Board of PubUcation.
Centennial Discourses. A Series of Sermons Delivered in the Year 1876 by Order of
the General Synod of the Reformed (Dutch) Church in America. Svo, pp. 601.
New York: Reformed Church Board of PubUcation. 1877.
Collegiate Dutch Church. Proceedings at the Centennial Anniversary of the Dedi
cation of the North Dutch Church, May 25, 1869, etc. lUustrated. Svo, pp.
76. New York : Board of Publication.
Collegiate Reformed Protestant Dutch Church. Quarter Millennial Anniversary,
Nov. 21, 1S7S. Svo, pp. 104. New York: Board of Publication.
Centennial of the Theological Seminary of the Reformed Church in America,
1784-1884. Svo, pp. 626. New York, 1885.

APPENDIX— AMERICAN CHURCH HISTORY. 607
Oorwin, Edward T. Manual of the Reformed Protestant Dutch Church in North
America. Svo. New York, 1859. Third edition, 1879.
Demarest, David D. History and Characteristics of the Reformed Protestant
Dutch Church. 12mo. New York': Reformed Church Board of Publica
tion. 1856.
Ferris, Isaac. Memorial Discourse ; or. Fifty Years' Ministry in the Reformed
Church of America. February 26, 1S71. Svo, pp.38. New York: Board of
Publication.
First Reformed Church Memorial, Schenectady. New York. Two Hundredth Anni
versary, 1680-1880. Svo. New York : Board of Publication.
Hartley, J. S. Reformed Church, Uiica, New York. Semi-Centeuuial Discourse.
Svo. New York : Board of Publication.
Matthews, J. M. " Fifty Years in New York." A Semi-Centennial Sermon. Svo,
pp. 44. New York : Board of PubUcation.
Minutes of General Synod. Vol. I, 1771-1812. Svo. New York : Board of PubU
cation.
Stryker, Peter. Historical Discourse at the Last Service in the Reformed Protestant
Dutch Church, corner of Broome and Greene Streets, New York, April 15, 1860,
12 mo. New York: Board of PubUcation.
Taylor, B. C. Annals of the Classis and Township of Bergen. 12mo. New York:
Board of Publication.
Thompson, Henry P. History of the Reformed Church of Peapack, New Jersey.
Svo, pp. 68. New York : Board of PubUcation.
Thompson, Henry P. History of the Reformed Church of Readington, New Jersey.
1719-1881. Svo. New York : Board of Publication.
Wells, Theo. W. Brick Church Memorial, 1699-1877. Svo, pp. 96. New York:
Board of Publicntion.
Wells, Theo. W. The Classis of Monmouth, its Members, its Churches, and its
Work for Twenty-five Years. A Statistical History, with a Review of the
Past, by Rev. WiUiam ReUey. Svo, pp. 30. New York : Board of Publication.
The Reformed Church in the United States (German).
Dubbs, Joseph H. Historic Manual of the Reformed (German) Church. 12mo.
Lancaster, Pa., 1885.
Gerhart, E. V. Bibliotheca Sacra, Yol. XX, 1863. "The German Reformed Church."
Andover: TiVarren F. Draper.
Harbaugh, H. Fathers of the German Reformed Church. 12mo, 4 vols. Vol. I,
pp.394. Philadelphia: Reformed Church Publication Board, 907 Arch Street.
1857.
Mayer, Lewis. The History of the German Reformed Church. To which is pre
fixed a Memoir of the Life of the Author, by Elias Heiner. Vol. I, Svo, pp.
477. Philadelphia : J. B. Lippincott & Co. 1851.
Russell, George B. Creeds and Customs : A Popular Handbook Treating of the Doc
trines and Practices of the Reformed Church in the United States. 12mo.
Philadelphia : Reformed Church Board of PubUcation.
Roman Catholic.
Bayley, J. R. Early History of tbe Catholic Church in the Island of New York.
12rao. Second edition, 1870. New York,: Catholic Publication Society, 9 Bar-
clay'Street, New York, Lawrence Kehoe, Manager.

608 APPENDIX- AMERICAN CHURCH HISTORY.
Bayley, J. R. Memoirs of the Right Rev. Simon WiUiam Gabriel Brut6, D.D., First
Bishop of Vincennes. 12mo. 1876. New York : Catholic PubUcation Society.
Clarke, R. H. Lives of Deceased Bishops of the Catholic Church in the United States.
Svo, 2 vols. New York : O'Shea, 37 Barclay Street.
Finnotti, Joseph M. Bibliographia Catholica Americana. A List of Works written
by Catholic Authors, and published in the United 'States. Svo, pp. 318. New
York: Catholic Publication Society. 1872.
Grants of Land and Gifts of Money to Catholic aud Non-Catholic Institutions in New
York Compared. New York : Catholic PubUcation Society.
Hewit, P. A. The Life and Sermons of the Rev. Francis A. Baker. Svo, pp. 504.
New York : Catholic Publication Society.
Kehoe, Lawrence. The Works of the Most Reverend John Hughes, First Arch
bishop of New York, containing Biography, Sermons, etc. Svo, 2 vols. New
York: CathoUc Publication Society.
Murray, J. 0. A Popular History of the Catholic Church in the United States.
Svo, pp. 619. New York, 1876.
Official Report of the Proceedings of the Catholic Congress held at Baltimore, Md.,
18S9. Svo. Detroit, 1889.
Parkman, Francis. The Jesuits in North America in the Seventeenth Century.
Thirteenth edition, pp. Ixxxix,' 463. Boston: Little, Brown & Co. 1879.
Shea, J. G. History of CathoUc Missions Among the Indian Tribes of the United
States, fromA.D. 1529 to A. D. 1854. 12mo. New York : T. W. Strong. 1854.
Shea, J. G. History of the Catholic Church in the United States. 4to, 4 vols.,
pp. 663-732, 727. New York, 1886-92. (The first two volumes treat of the
life and times of- Archbishop Carroll. Vol. Ill, the period embracing the years
1808-1843; Vol. IV, 1844-1866.)
Spalding, J. L. Life of the Most Rev. M. J. Spalding, Archbishop of Baltimore.
Svo, pp. 465. New York : Catholic Publication Society. 1S74.
Spalding, J. L. Tlie Religious Mission of the Irish People, and CathoUc Coloniza
tion. 12mo. New York,: Catholic Publication Society.
Spalding, M. J. Sketches of the Early CathoUc Missions in Kentucky from 1787-
1827. 16mo. Louisville, no date.
Quakers (Friends).
Biokley, A. C. George Fox and the Early Quakers. 12mo, pp. xix, 426. London,
1884.
Biographies of WiUiam Penn, by Marsiliac (1791), Clarkson (1813), Ellis (1852),
Hepworth Dixon (1856).
HalloweU, Richard P. The Quaker Invasion of Massachusetts. Small Svo, pp. 228.
Boston.
Hodgson, WilUam. The Society of Friends in the Nineteenth Century. Svo, 2 vols.,
pp. 349, 441. Philadelphia, 1875.
Janney, S. M. History of the Friends to 1828. 12 mo, 4 vols. Philadelphia: C. H.
Davis & Co. 1859-67.
Janney, S. M. Life of WUliam Penn : With Selections from his Correspondence and
Autobiography. 12mo. Philadelphia: Friends Book Association, 706 Arch
Street.
Smith, Joseph. Bibliotheca Quakeristica. A BibUography of Miscellaneous Liter
ature Relating to the Friends (Quakers), chiefly written by persons not members
of their Society; also of publications by authors in some way connected; and
Biographical Notices. Svo, 2 vols., pp. 1027, 984. London, 1883.

APPENDIX— AMERICAN CHURCH HISTORY. 609
Smith, Joseph. Bibliotheca Anti-Quakeriana; or, A Catalogue of Books Adverse to
the Society of Friends, Alphabet'cally Arranged ; with Biographical Notices of
the Authors, together with the answers which have been given to some of them
by Friends and others. Svo, pp. 474. London, 1873.
Wagstaff, W. R. A History of the Society of Friends, compiled from its Standard
Records, and other Authentic Sources. Svo, pp. 400. New York: Wiley &
Putnam. 1845. Shakers.
Evans, F. W. Shakers.' Compendium of the Origin, History, Principles, Rules, and
Regulations, Government, and Doctrines of the United Society of Believers in
Christ's Second Coming. 16mo. New York: D. A|ipleton & Co. 1859.
Millennial Cliurch, A Summary View of ; or. The United Socioiy of Believers, com
monly called Shakers, comprising the Rise, Progress, and Practical Order of
the Society. 12mo, pp 320. Albany : P.ackard & Van Benthuyseu. 1823.
Universalist. '
Adam«, John G. Fifty Notable Years. One Hundred Biographical Sketches of
Well-known and Distinguished Universalist Minister.-*. (It also contains iho
rise and progress of the Universalist Church in America.) Pp. 336. Boston,
Mass. : Universalist Publishing House. 16 Bromfield Street.
Plddy, Richard. Universalism in America: a History. ]2mo, 2 vols. Boston,
1884-86. (Vol. II coutains a valuable bibliography of the subject in 115 pages,)
Eddy, Richard. Universalism in America. A Histo,ry. 2 vols. Vol. I, A. D.
1636-1800. 12mo, pp. 554. Boston, 1884-86.
Murray, Jolin, Life of. Written by Himself, with a Continuation by Mrs. J. S.
Murray. A new edition, with an Introduction and Notes, by G. L. Demarest.
Boston, Mass.: Universalist Publishing House.
Proceedings of the Universalist Centennial held in Gloucester, Mass,, September 20,
21, 22, 1870. Svo. Boston, Mass.: Universalist Publishing House.
Thomas, Abel C. A Century of Universalism. Boston, Mass.: Universalist Pub
lishing House. Unitarian.
Allen, Joseph Henry. Our Liberal Movement in Theology, Chjefly as Shown
in Recollections of the History of Unitarianism in New England; being a
closing course of Lectures given iu the Harvard Divinity School. Pp. v, 220.
Boston, 1882.
Prooks, Cliarles T. Channing. A Centennial Memorial. ]2mo, pp. 259. Boston,
1880.
Channing, W. E. Memoirs of. 12rtio, 3 vols., pp. 1400. Boston, Mass. : American
Unitarian .'\s.sociation, 7 Tremont Place.
EUis, George E. Half Century ofthe Unitarian Controversy, with Particular Refer
ence to its Origin, its Course, etc. Svo, pp.636. Boston, Mass. : American
Unitarian A.s.wciation.
Frothingham, 0. B. Transcendentalism in New England : a History. Svo, pp. ix,
396. New York : G. P. Putnam's Sons. 1876.
Gannett, WUliam C. Memoir of Ezra Stiles Gannett. Boston, Mass.: American
Unitarian Association. _
Peabody, Elizabeth Palmer. Reminiscences of Rev. WUliam EUory Channing, D.D.
12mo, pp. 459. Boston.
39

610 APPENDIX— AMERICAN CHURCH HISTORY.
Peabody, Elizabeth Palmer. Channing Centennial Celebration in Brooklyn, N. Y.
Svo, pp. 205. Boston, 1880.
iWare, William. American Biography. Memoirs of Individuals who have been
Distinguished in the Cause of Libt-ral Christianity. 12mo, 2 vols., pp. 396, 452.
Boston : J. Miinroe & Co. 1S50-51.
United Brethren in Christ.
Drury, A. W. The Life of Rev. Philip William Otterbein, Founder of the Church
of the United Brethren in Christ With an Introduction by Bishop J. Weaver,
D.D. 12mo, pp. 384. Dayton, O, 1884.
Lawrence, John. History of the Church of the United Brethren in Christ. Svo, 2
vols, in one. Dayton, Ohio: United Brethren PubUshing Houce. (The same in
German. Pp. 283.)
Reichel, William C. The Early History of the Church of the United Brethren in
North America. Svo. Nazareth, Pa., 1888.
Spayth, Henry G. History ,of the Church of the United Brethren in Christ. ]2mo,
pp.344. Circleville, Ohio : Conference Office. 1851.

INDEX.

Adhortatio, the, of Theobald Thamer,
122.
jEsthetic feeling not the same as religious
feeling, 34.
jEsthetic reUgion as deficient as a merely
legal religion, 21. '
Alexandrian classification of the Old Test
ament books, 155.
Allegorical interpreters, Origen the first
of the, 252.
Allegorical method of interpretation, rise
of the, 252.
Alsted, John Henry, the Methodus of,
124.
America, philosophical speculation in, 78.
theological encyclopsedia in, 133.
American Presbyterians, alliance of
Churches of the Reformed faith
with, 106.
Angelology and demonoiogy, 460.
Anthropology, 451.
the doctrine of sin, 452.
Antiquities, Hebrew, German and English
works on, 182.
Apologetics, 426.
an introduction to dogmatics, 427.
Clement and Origen, 430.
divinity and truth of Scripture in
volved in each other, 429.
earliest apologetics, the field of, 430.
German apologies, 432.
Grotius and Limborch, 431.
history of, 430.
literature of, 434.
must precede dogmatic science, 426.
philosophy and Christianity, conflict
between, 431.
relation of, to dogmatics, 426.
relation of polemics and apologetics
to dogmatics, 426.
remote beginning of all departments
in theology, 427.
separate science, not yet a, 433.
task of, a twofold one, 428.
Apologetics and polemics, Schleiermach
er's definition of the relations
of, 441.
Apostles, the, 306.
literature on, 307.
Apostolic age requires separate treatment,
307.
Vol. III.

Apostolos, meaning of the term, 306.
Arabic, a knowledge of, useful to the the
ologian, 168.
Archaeology, ancient writers on, 180.
classification of the material of, 176.
historical sketch of, 179.
includes more than Hebrew antiqui
ties, 176.
narrowness of the term, 175.
works on, of a general character,
181.
Archaeology, biblical, 176.
¦". related to exegesis and Church his
tory, 274.
scope of, 175.
Archajology, ecclesiastical, 410.
a history of worship, 411.
history of, 412.
necessarily related to the present, 411.
Architecture, sacred, as related to Protes
tant worship, 537.
Aristides, apology by, 430.
Art, Law, and Doctrine co-related, 23.
Artists and legislators the teachers of man
kind, 19.
Arts and sciences among the Hebrews and
kindred peoples, 178.
Asceticism and pedagogics, 489.
Astronomy not necessarily related to the
ology, 71.
Augustine, his instructions respecting the
proper mode of presenting Scrip
ture doctrines, 669.
qualifications of the minister accord
ing to, 118.
Auxiliary sciences, the five, 159.
Auxiliary sciences to Church history, 369.
Bacon, Lord, strongly against confounding
theology and phUosophy, 82.
Baden and the Palatinate, liturgical con
troversy in, 546.
Basle and Saumur, the theologians of, 12fi.
Bible, The :
constitutes a sacred literature, 149.
ethnography of, 177.
everywhere teaches a God for man,
448.
geography of, 176.
hermeneutics furnishes the key to,
236.

6ia

INDEX.

Bible, The :
historical form and development of
the doctrine of, 310.
its first exposition wholly practical,
261.
narratives of, are God's word to man-
kind, 149.
natural science of, 177.
nature of biblical narrative, 278.
the object of exegetical theology, 146.
original languages of, 160.
presents only a single body of truth,
148.
providentially guarded, yet subject to
human vicissitudes, 205.
reasons why it needs care in its inter
pretation, 236.
reverence for the letter and style of,
observable in English literature,
149.
study of the Bible, relation of ency
clopaedia to, 147.
the standard of judgment in Church
history, 327.
tie which binds the books of the Bible
together, 148.
Biblical archaeology, 175.
history of, 179.
related to exegesis and Church his
tory, 274.
scope of, 176.
the Old Testament, always its princi
pal source, 176.
Biblical characters, English and American
literature on, 282.
Biblical criticism :
historical sketch of, 216.
in the Middle Ages, 216.
no one need be startled by the phrase,
204.
objects contemplated by, 204.
often paltry, 206.
revival of, in the eighteenth century,
217.
Biblical dogmatics, the natural point of
transition from historical to sys
tematic theology, 144.
Biography of Christ, history of the, 290.
Briefe, defects of Herder's, 130.
Calixtus, separates ethics from dogmatics,
419.
Canon, changes in the, unlikely, 209.
New Testament canon in the early
Church, 194.
New Testament canon not formed at
one time, 159.
object of a history of the, 191.
period of the|first formation of the, 1 94.
Canonicity, conditions of, 206.
should criticism consider the question
of? 208.
Vol. III.

Canonics, the name proposed as a substi
tute for Introduction, 192.
biblical, 191.
Casuistry, 489.
Catechetical methods, 516.
Catechetics a part of pastoral work, 519.
demands a love for childhood, 520.
endowmeut for, mental and spiritual,
520.
function of catechetics, 517.
real art of the catechist, the, 518.
religious nature of youth should be
studied, 518.
Socratic method of, 517.
work of the catechist, 516.
Catechetics, 514.
literature of, 525.
scope of, 515.
difference between ethics and cate
chetics, 516.
Catechetics, history of, 521.
affected by sceptical pedagogics, 524.
authors, leading, between Luther and
Spener, 523.
catechisms, the first, 522.
early catechetical works, 522.
Heidelberg Catechism, the, 623.
Luther's two catechisms, 622.
" Philanthropic " method of, 624.
Roman Catholic catechetics, 625.
Schleiermncher, services of, to ciite-
chetics, 625.
Catechists, the older, did but little theo
rizing, 523.
Catechumens in the ancient Church, 521.
Categories of Practical Theology, 506.
Causality, twofold law of, in Church his
tory, 326.
Centuriai division of Historical Theology
wrong, 321.
Chaldee, certain portions of tbe Old Testa
ment written in, 160.
knowledge of, useful to the theolo
gian, 168.
Character, formation of, 55.
importance of, to the theologian, 55.
Characteristics of Hebrew, 161.
Characters, biblical, English and American
literature on, 282.
Christian Ethics, 379.
Christianity :
Church, the idea of a, eminently pe
culiar to, 527.
destined to develbp into a system, 416.
expansion and limitation of, 319.
moral power of, the universal, 486.
not chargeable with narrow Church
history, 330.
Wolfenbiittel assault on historical
Christianity, 66.
Christian language, the New Testament
obliged to create a, 170.

INDEX.

613

Christian philosophy, conditions of a, S6.
the only possible, theistic, 86.
Christian sermon, history of the, 56S.
Christian teaching : has superseded the old
conditions, 320.
Christian theologians should study the Old
Testament, and why, 161.
Christian theology conditioned by the his
tory of Christianity, 62.
Deism and Pantlieism antagonistic to,
84.
origin of formal, 64.
Christology, 453.
center of dogmatics, the, 463.
doctrine of the Church on, improperly
defined, 454.
life of Christ the basis of Christology,
453.
Chronology, ecclesiastical, 377.
Chrysostom, beginnings of theological en
cyclopaedia in, 118.
Church, the :
advantage of groupings iu Chureh life,
320.
both external and internal, 318.
constitution of the, 319.
guidance of the Church the object of
theology, 59.
historical development of the, 318.
must not be excluded from the school,
47.
not alone social or theocratic, 318.
not merely a society, 317. '
Pentecost the beginning of the, 317.
philosophy in, after the Reformation,
75.
sacraments, the Church and the,
458.
soul-life ofthe, 319.
the early theological science in, 63.
theological tendencies in the early
Chureh, 98.
theology and the Church, 44.
Church Fathers, the, 396.
Church History :
acquaintance necessary with Church
history of our own country, 333.
atomistic mode of treating, 325.
cannot be understood without a knowl
edge of ancient and oriental his
tory, 70.
causality, twofold law of, 325.
central point of historieal theology,
316.
centuriai division of, wrong, 321.
Council of Trent, the, an epoch in
Church history from the Roman
Catholic standpoint, 323.
denominational character of, 337.
extremes to be avoided in, 326.
God's word the standard of judgment
in, 327.
Vol. III.

Church History :
great and exciting events in, demand
a separate treatment, 321.
great epochs in,' 322.
historian, the best in sympathy with
the people, 329.
history of Church history, 335.
individual Churches demand a .sepa
rate treatment, 321.
.J Middle Ages, necessity of under
standing the, 333.
intimate relations of geueral and
Church history, 369.
Latin Church historians, the, 336.
literature of, general and special, 338.
Lutheran writers ou, 336.
method of, 331.
moral and religious disposition of the
historian, 329.
Mosheim the reformer of, 337.
Neander, the work of, 337.
obscure causes, true value of, 326
parallels, necessity of, 334.
prejudice in, damage from, 329.
principle of Christianity must be ever
present in, 328.
proper treatment of, 324.
Protestant emphasis on the history of
teaching, 334.
reciprocal influences in, 325.
requires a knowledge of the ancieut
world and its faiths, 370.
Reformation, effect of, upon, 336.
Reformed writers on, 336.
reports, difference in, 324.
sciences auxiliary to, 369.
sixteenth century, the division of the
Church in the, an epoch in
Church history, 323.
twofold criticism of sources, 324.
whole field of, must be understood,
331.
Church symbols, the three principal,
403.
Classic languages, value of the ancient,
69.
Clerg3', various designations of the, 48.
Commentaries not to be too much reUed
on, 249.
Commentator aud interpreter, their func
tions distinguished, 245.
Coifimonwealth, structure of the, 178.
Community, the religious, 42.
Concordances, Hebrew, Greek, and Eng-
glish, 230.
Confessionalism, ecclesiastical, 104.
Conscience, religious feeling becomes a
steadfast disposition through, 40.
religious feeUng not resolvable Into,
40.
Constitution, the, of the Church, 319.
Critical methods, 210.

614

INDEX.

Criticism, Biblical :
carefully defined limits to be fixed to
internal critiqjsm, 212.
conjectural attempts not forbidden in
needful cases, 213.
critical and exegetical skill the result
of practice, 214.
critical hypotheses, frequent fallacies
in, 2i3.>
criticism and exegesis act on each
other, 215.
destructive criticism as applied to
New Testament not yet success
ful, 207.
external criticism defined, 211.
first critical edition Of the New Test
ament, 217.
higher and lower criticism, 210.
historical criticism, the place for,
274.
history ot, 215.
hypotheses, critical, frequent fallacies
in, 213.
leadership in criticism maintained by
English scholars in the seven
teenth and eighteenth centuries,
218.
Middle Ages, criticism in the, 216.
mischief done by dabblers in, 214.
necessary for understanding of the
.Gospels, 287.
negative and positive criticism, func
tions of, 212.
negative criticism no ground for
alarm, 286.
objects contemplated by, 204.
office of internal criticism, 211.
often paltry, 206.
piDsitive and negative, 212,
prejudice, necessity of freedom from,
in criticism, 276.
relation of criticism to exegesis, 214.
revival of, in the eighteenth century,
217.
should criticism consider the question
of canonicity ? 208.
Sometimes employed for perverse and
frivolous ends, 205.
spu'ltual sympathy necessary to a cor
rect view of the life of Christ,
288.
though often perverted, yet of great
value, 205.
Tiibingen tendency critics, the, 218.
Culture, uses of Eesthetic, 72.
Danz's division of theology, 140.
Deism :
application of the term, 84.
incapable of Christian ideas, 84.
iu England ih the time of Charles
First, 76.
Vol. III.

Deism :
pantheism and deism antagonistic to
Christian theology, 84.
Demonoiogy, 450.
Denominational character of Church his
tory, 337.
DeWette aud Grotius, rise of the school
of, 255.
Didascalion, the, of Hugo St. Victor, 119.
Discussion, utility of oral, 64.
Disputes, disorderly, antidote against, 54.
Divine training of humanity, the notion of,
. 153.
Division of Historical Theology into pe
riods, 321.
Divisions of knowledge — philosophy, na
ture, history, 67.
Doctrine, development of, in the Protes
tant Churches, 65.
no cessation in the development of,
416.
relation of life and doctrine, 311.
Doctrine, Christian, ethical character of,
418.
Christian doctrine a unit, 387.
Doctrine, Law, and Art co-related, 23.
Doctrine of the Bible, historical form and
development of the, 310.
Doctrines, history of, 384.
arrangement controlled by dogmatic
character, 388.
Baur's division of, 390.
changes in, necessity of recognizing,
391.
definition of, 385.
difficulty of discovery of beginnings
of change, 389.
division of, into periods, 3891
dynamic principle, in, important, 391.
relation of history of doctrines to
symbolics, 404.
task of doctrinal history, the, 386.
Dogma, inability of philosophy to originate,
iUustrated, 81.
Dogmatical systems, interpretations should
be independent of, 248.
Dogmatics :
biblical, 310.
apologetics an introduction to, 427.
apologetics and polemics, relation of
to, 425.
a progressive science, 422.
began with the Reformation, 313.
both biblical and ecclesiastical, 438.
central point, the, of all theology, 421.
Christology the center of, 463.
defined, 421.
difference between dogmatics and
ethics, 419.
ecclesiastical dogmatics, 417.
ethics depends upon doctrine in the
last analysis, 421.

INDEX.

615

Dogmatics :
flexible tieatuieut of, 312.
history of biblical, 313.
history of doctrines presumes ac
quaintance with dogmatics, 386.
method of, 444.
objection to Schleiermaclier's defini
tion of, 423.
object of, 417.
outline of dogmatical system, 447.
"Schleiermacher's method In, 445.
Schweizer's method in, 448.
Dogmatics, history of:
Augustine's works. 466.
Calvin and his successors, 468.
degeneration of dogmatics, 467.
dogmatic literature iu the Reformed
Church, 468.
literature of, 472.
local or topical method, in, 445.
Lutheran dogmatic writers, 468.
Melanchthon the founder of Protes
tant dogmatics, 467.
progress of most recent dogmatics,
470.
reactionary tendency of dogmatics;
469. ¦
Roman Catholic dogmatists, 471.
Schleiermacher's dogmatics, 469.
scholasticism and mysticism, 466.
summaries, 467.
transition to rationaUsm, 469.
Twesten and Nitzsch, 470.
Dogmatizer, every judicious, a harmonizer,
439.
Doubt, temper iu which it should be met, 56.
Doubt, true method of dealing with, 107.
Early history of the Israelites, 279.
Ecclesiastical confessionalism, 104.
Eighteenth century, theology in the, 100.
Eloquence, the limit of sacred, 563.
Empirics theological, 12.
Encyclopaedia, Theological:
as treated by Harless, Lange, and
Pelt, 134.
as treated by Pfaff and Buddaeus,
128.
contributions of Semler and Mosheim
to, 128.
Gerhard, John, the Encyclopaedia of,
123.
in the early part of, the eighteenth
century, 132.
in the Lutheran Church, 126.
Isidore, the Encyclopaedia of, 119.
keeps pace with science, 11.
made independent by Schleiermacher,
132.
nature of, 9.
relation of encyclopsedia to the study
of the Bible, 147.

Encyclopsedia, Theological .
Roman Catholic encyclopsedia, 136.
study of encyclopsedia can never lie
exhausted, 11.
stud} of encyclopsedia necessary to
the theologian, 15.
England, theological encyclopaedia in, 134.
theological tendencies in, in the eigh
teenth century, 106.
English Deism aud Gibbon and Paine, 105.
Episcopos aud Presbuteros in tlie Apostolic
Church, 47.
Epoch, the Reformation a universal, 323.
what constitutes an epoch, 313.
Erasmus detennlues the proper aim of
theological study, 120.
merits of the work of, 121.
preface of Erasmus to the New Test
ament, 120.
rationalistic tendencies manifested bj',
99.
Erasmus Sarcerius, the Pastorale of, 683,
Ernesti the restorer of sound exegesis, 254.
Eschatology, 460.
Christian hope to be realized only in
Christ, 462.
immortality not to be confounded
with, 461.
Eschenburg the first to employ the title
Wissenschaftskunde, 8.
Ethics, Christian, 481.
analytical, philosophical, synthetical,
482.
based on dogmatics, 482.
casuistry, 489.
Christ not a mere moral and statutory
teacher, 486.
Christianity the universal moral pow
er, 486.
Christ's work the basis of ethics, 485.
division of ethics, 487.
ethical labors of the Fathers, 490.
ethical reaction in the Church, 491.
first separate treatment of, 492.
general and special ethics, 487.
harmony of philosophical and Christ
ian ethics, 483.
history of ethics, 490.
Humanism and ethics, 491.
includes duties which men owe to the
State, 484.
Kant's treatment of, 493.
literature of, 494.
distinguished from philosophical, 483.
liturgies, relation of, to ethics, 632.
place of Christiau ethics, 481.
positive element of, 486.
Protestant ethical writers, 492.
Reformers, the, and ethics, 491.
Roman Catholic ethics, 492.
Rosenkranz's .system, 488.
Schleiermacher's method, 488.
Vol. III.

616

INDEX.

Ethics, Christian :
transcends philosophical ethics, 485.
views of Rothe, Harless, aud others,
487.
works of early writers, 490.
Ethnography, biblical, 177.
Eusebius, work of, 335.
Eusebius thefirstof Bible geographers, 1 SO.
Evangelical Union of Prussia, 439.
Ewald's Life of Christ, 292.
Exegesis :
additional reasons for making it a
separate department, 142.
appli({atlou of exegesis, the, 247.
as much an ecclesiastical as a relig
ious science, 140.
complete exegesis dependent on re
ligious growth, 247.
critical aud exegetical skill the result
of practice, 214.
criticism and exegesis act ou eiicli
other, 215.
definition of, 244.
distinguished from hermeneutics, 244.
effect of the Reformation on, 2o4.
Eruesti the restorer of sound exege
sis, 254.
includes both interpretation and ex
plication, 244.
influence of the Reformatiop on, 336.
Kant's separation of dogmatical from
ethical exegesis, 255.
Latin Fathers, exegesis of the, 263.
method of applying, 249.
Middle Ages, exegesis in the, 253.
neologlcal exegesis, rise of, 265.
New Testament, a. knowledge of He
brew necessary to the exegesis
ofthe, 162.
practical exegesis the result of the
scientific, 247.
process by which exegesis is made
practical, 248.
Reformed and Lutheran exegesis, 254.
relation of criticism to exegesis, 214.
sciences auxiliary to exegesis, 159.
should not be studied alone with a
view to the pulpit, 660.
student's self-training iu, 250.
Exegete, the New Testament, should be
familiar with the Semitic lan
guages, 168.
spirit of the true, 246.
Exegetical theology, definition of, 146.
first in order, 143.
practical sciences auxiliary to, 175.
reasons why exegetical theology
should be a separate department,
141.
relations of exegetical theology with
historical theology, 273.
the Bible the object of, 146.
Vol. III.

Exposition of the Bible at first wholly
practical, 251.
False readings, how originated, shown by
internal criticism, 212.
Fathers, the Church, 396.
ethical labors of the, 490.
exegesis of the Latin Fathers, 263.
Feeliug, In what sense religion is rooted in,33.
Feeling, the theory of, 37.
Five auxiliary sciences, the, 159.
Founders of religions, 43.
France, theological encyclopsedia in, 134.
French pulpit, tlie, 665.
General history, importance of familiarity
with, to the Church historian, 369.
Genuineness of books and passages to be
determined by biblical criticism,
206.
Geography, biblical, 176.
writers on, in the eighteenth and nine-
teeuth centuries, ISO.
Geography, ecclesiastical, 376.
(ierhard, Andrew, the Theologus of, 123.
Gerhard, John, the Encyclopsedia of, 123.
German Catholic works on theological
encyclopasdia, 137.
Geseuius and DeWette, rise of the school
of, 255.
Gesticulation, pulpit, 669.
Glassius, Solomon, the first to bring to
gether the grammatical peculiari
ties of New Testament diction,
172.
God. See Theology.
God-man, objections to the term, 464.
Gospel, the :
does not contradict Itself, 286.
spoken first, then written, 15S. '
Gospels, the :
criticism necessary for understanding,
287.
discrepancies in the Gospel may be
admitted, 286.
expositiou of the Gospel an exeget
ical, not an historical, task, 273.
Grammars, Hebrew, 165.
Grammars of the New Testament, 173.
Greek, history of the exposition of the
character of New Testament, 172.
Greek wfards, new meaning given to some
current in the New Testament,
172.
Growth of biblical hermeneutics, 237.
Gymnastic exercises for students, advan
tages of, 67.
Halieutics and Keryktics, 614.
Harless, definition of encyclopaedia by, 10.
Harless, Lange, and Pel^, their treatment
of encyclopsedia, 134.

INDEX.

617

Harms's scheme of practical theology, 481.
Harmonies on the life of Christ, 226.
Hase, his definition of religion, 25.
Heads, theological, 444.
Hebraistic character of the language of
the New Testament, recognition
of, 171.
Hebrew antiquities, American aud English
works on, 182.
Hebrew commonwealth, structure of the,
178.
Hebrew grammars and chrestomathies, 165,
Hebrew language, a knowledge of, iiidis-
pensable to the exegesis of the
New Testament, 162.
characteristics of Hebrew, 161.
derivation of the word, 161.
historical sketch of the study of, 1 63.
included in school curriculum solely for
the sake of theology, 66.
necessity of a knowledge of, 161.
not perfected before the time of Da
vid, 163.
study of Hebrew in several ages of
the Church, 163.
Hebrew learning, Reuchlin the restorer of,
164.
Hebrew lexicons, 166, 168.
Hebrews, art and science among the, 178.
religious institutions of the, 178.
Hegelianisin, theological encyclopsedia
treated in the spirit of, 133.
Hegelian school, divisions of the, 76.
Heidelberg Catechism, the, 623.
Hellenistic-Greek the original language of
the New Testament Scriptures,
169.
Herder, great influence on theology of, 129.
Herder and Schleiermacher, new direction
given to theology by, 101.
Hermeneutics :
biblical hermeneutics a branch of
general hermeneutics, 235.
causes which make hermeneutics nec
essary, 235.
definition of, 234.
distinguished from exegesis, 244.
distinguished from rhetoric, 234.
furnishes the key to the Bible, 236.
gradual growth of, 237.
has the right to require unconditional
surrender to its rules by the ex
positor, 237.
literature of, 238.
Heterodoxy, 464.
Historian, the best, in sympathy with the
people, 329.
Historian, the, should be superior to the
appeals of party interest, 329.
Historical sketch of the study of Hebrew,
163.
Historical theology, 273.

History and literature of theological en
cyclopasdia, 118.
History, biblical :
difficulty connected with early periods
of, 275.
early history of the Israelites, 279.
general and special, 387.
must precede doctrine, 317.
Christ's life the center of, 285.
should precede dogmatics, reasons
why, 144.
study of, should follow philology, 69.
History of the exposition of the character
of New Testament Greek, 172.
History, sacred, place of, 274.
Hobbes, atheistic opinions of, attacked by
Cudworth, 77.
Holland, theological encyclopsedia In, 134.
Homiletics :
arrangement and material, 663.
artistic division of the sermon, 656.
art of preaching, the, a part of theo
logical science, 568.
Christian sermon, history of the, 563.
defects of first sermons, 661.
delivery, 656.
division of homiletics, 653.
early homilies, the, 663.
effect of a sermon to be studied by
the preacher, 568.
fanciful divisions, 666.
French pulpit, the, 565.
gesticulation, pulpit, 559.
history of homUetics, 563.
invention, 554.
lay preaching, 652.
lesson, every sermon may be a, 662.
liter.ature of, 571.
mediseval preaching, 563.
niethod of homiletics, 660.
Mystic preachers, the, 564.
not a theory of sacred eloquence, 547.
oratory a conversation, 551.
Pietists, sermons of the, 565.
preaching, history ot the theory of,
568.
pulpit, preparations tor, 560.
pulpit, the, should be always before
the mind, 561.
pulpit, the, bas its own peculiar style,
556.
Reformed writers on homiletics, 570.
Reformers, preaching by, 664.
relation of the sermon to the congre
gation, 651.
relation of, to liturgies, 647.
repentance, necessity of a continual
preaching of, 648.
Roman Catholic writers on, 671.
sacred eloquence, the limits of, 553.
secret of homiletical invention, tbe,
564. Vol. III.

618

INDEX.

Homiletics: sermon, the, not a lecture, 650.
sermon, the, should be mentaUy con
structed, 657.
sermonic division, 656.
synthetic and analytical methods, 556.
testimony to Christ, the sermon a,
551.
text, the, 649.
texts, conditions necessary for proper,
654.
useless ornament to be avoided, 557.
Homilist, the, needs to be an exegete, 502.
Hugo St. Victor, the Didascalion ot, 119.
Humanism and ethics, 491.
Humanity, notion of the divine training ot,
153.
Hymnology :
existing treasures gladly used by li
turgies, 539.
new hymns to receive recognition,
539.
old hymns not necessarily good, 539.
poetry of Protestantism culminates in
the Church hymn, 539.
Idealism and sensationalism both unchrist
ian, 83.
Idiom, the New Testament, based on the
later Greek, 171.
Individual, the, and his relations to science,
16.
Industry, private, the supplement to pub
lic instruction, 53.
Institutions, the religious, ot the Hebrews,
178.
Instruction, public, should be supplement
ed by private industry, 63.
Interpretation of the Scriptures :
a religious disposition essential to the
right, 246.
need for care in the, 235.
rise of the allegorical method of, 252.
should be independent of dogmatic
systems, 246.
sketch of the history of, 251.
Interpreter and commentator, their func
tions distinguished, 245.
Interpreters, the allegorical, Origen the
first of the,' 252.
Introduction, biblical :
American and English literature on,
195.
either general or special, 191.
properly limited to history of the
canon and criticism, 193.
relation ot general to special, 193.
scope and limits of, not precisely de
fined, 191.
Isagogics, biblical, 191.
Isidore, the EncyclopsEdia of, 119.
Israelites, early history of the, 279.
Vol. III.

Israelites :
nation, history of the, 275.
people ot God, the, 277.
people under the law, a, 21.
sources for history ot, 279.
Israelites, history ot :
begins with the head ot the race, 275.
literature on the, 280.
non-Jewish writers on, 279.
writers on, among Christian Fathers,
279.
Jansenists, the, opposed philosophy, 76.
Jesuits, the, favored philosophy, 75.
Jesus Christ :
different views of, 289.
his Ufe the center of history, 285.
his person the center of dogmatics,
446.
his walk the basis of ethics, 485.
Ufe of, the basis of Christology, 453.
not a mere moral and statutory teacher,
486.
parallels between Christ and Socrates,
291.
worship of, in hymns and prayers,
early manifestation of, 290.
Jesus Christ, life of :
absurdity of the mythical theory, 289.
diverse views ot different writers on,
289.
does not come within the range of
Church history, 317.
efforts to eliminate the miraculous
from the, 291.
English and American literature on,
293.
Ewald's Lite of Christ, 292.
harmonies of the, 226.
history of the biographies of, 290.
importance ot attaining to a satisfac
tory view ot, 286.
is matter tor history only so far as it
is definitely human, 287.
its own explanation, 288.
Keim's work on the, 293.
literature ot the, 293.
negative criticism ot, no ground for
alarm, 286.
Renan's Life of Christ, 292.
separate historical study, a, 290.
.spiritual sympathy necessary for cor
rect criticism of, 288.
Strauss's Life of Christ, 291.
Jewish Old Testament expositors in Mid
dle Ages, importance of, 253.
Jews. See Israelites.
Justification and Sanctification, 457.
Kant, categorical imperative of, 31.
his separation ot dogmatical fron
etliical exegesis, 255.

INDEX.

619

Kant :
his treatment of ethics, 493.
influence ot Kant on phUosophy, 76.
Keim, his work on the life ot Christ,
293.
Keryktics, 614.
Kliefoth, his division of doctrinal history,
390.
Knowledge, divisions of — philosophy, na
ture, and history, 67.
Knowledge of Hebrew a necessity, and
why, 161.
Lange, Harless, and Pelt, their treatment
ot encyclopaedia, 134.
Language ot the New Testament, not pure
Greek, 171.
Languages of the Bible, the original, 160.
Latin Fathers, exegesis of the, 253.
Latin writers of Church' history, 336.
Law and medicine, relations ot theology
with, 60.
Law, art, and doctrine co-related, 23.
Lay preaching, 524.
Learning and religion, a desire for both
needful to the study of theology,
17.
Lecture, preparation and repetition to be
added to thCj 54. »
Lectures, attendance on too many, works
injury and confusion, 54.
Lectures, true method of profiting by, 63.
Legend and myth, difference between,
277.
Letter, the, is not science, 14.
Lexicons of the New Testament, 174.
Lexicons, Hebrew, 166.
Life the object of all study, 12.
Liturgies, 526.
ba)sed on dogmatics, 459.
contrast between Protestant and Ro
man Catholic liturgies, 530.
ethics and ecclesiastical law, liturgies
in relation to, 632.
field of, 626.
homiletical and liturgical elements,
distinction between, 632.
limitations of, 538.
literature of, 545.
living worship, need of a, 629.
mechanical liturgy in Roman Chitholi-
cism, 530.
Protestant recognition of, 533.
Protestant liturgies, 631.
relation of worship to art, 627.
religious feeUng, necessity of in litur
gies, 531.
Roman Catholic and Protestant litur
gists, difference between, 531.
sermon, place of the, defined by,
528.
worship defined^ 499, 627,

Liturgies, history of:
Christian worship developed from the
Jewish, 543.
hymn-book controversy, the, In Baden
and the Palatinate, 646.
methodology of, 541.
rationalistic works, 544.
propriety, every thing depends upon a
sense ot, 542.
Scripture lessons, proper reading of
the, highly essential, 542.
service, every part of the, must be
minutely studied, 541.
singing, the preacher's relation to the,
642.
Logographs aud mythogriiphs, 276.
Lord's Prayer, the :
prayer should conclude with, 536.
Luther, Martin :
catechisms, his two, 522.
his opposition to philosophy, 75,
more practical than theoretical, 669.
Lutheran Church, encyclopaedia iu the, 126.
Lutheran dogmatic writers, 468.
Lutheran exegesis, 254.
Lutheran writers on Church history, 314.
Maccabees, First Book of, importance of
to the post-exilian period, 279.
Manuscripts, most important, of the New
Testament, 216.
Mai'heineke's method of practical theology,
508.
Mathematical knowledge, uses of, to the
theologian, 70.
Mathematics, has to do with form and
numbers, 70,
Mary Magdalene, her conduct iiicompre-
hensible to the banqueters, 32.
Mass, the:
Reformed theologians rejected the
name and the thing, 543.
transformed by Luther into a simple
observance ot the Lord's Supper,
543.
Mediseval preaching, 663.
Medicine and law, relations of theology
with, 60.
Melanchthon, apology of, 440.
founder of Protestant dogmatics, the,
467.
little tract of, the, 121.
recommends the study ot the Fathers
with that of the Bible, 121.
Methodologv, dangers in the treatment of,
ll'.
definition of, 11.
Methodology of missions, 514.
Methodology of systematic theology, the,
496.
moral growth needed for the study ot
ethics, 499. Vol. III.

030

INDEX.

Methodology of systematic theology :
of dogmatics both historical and phil
osophical, 497.
religious experience necessary for the
understanding of dogmatics and
ethics, 498.
Methodus, the, ot John Henry Alsted, 124.
. Middle Age sense ot the word theology, 63.
Middle Ages, biblical criticism in the, 216.
biography ot Jesus Christ iji the, 290.
dogmatic tone ot the, 64.
exegesis in the, 253.
necessary for Church historian to un
derstand the, 333.
theological tendencies in the, 99.
Ministerial trainiug, sketch of the history
of, 51.
Ministry, an undoubted religious impulse
to the, has enabled many to sur
mount great difficulties, 17.
Missions, history of, 379.
Missions iu Theological Encyclopsedia, 50.
Missions, methodology ot, 614.
Moiibite Stone, works concerning, 182. '
Mohammed, appearance of, an epoch in
secular history, 322.
Mohammedanism, history of. important to
Church historian, 370.
Modern rationalism, the, 106.
Moll's niethod of practical theology, 509.
Moral action determined by outward con
ditions, 32.
Moral feeling not identical with religious
feeling, 36.
Morality and religion have been found sep
arated, 31.
Morality based on independence, 33.
Mosheim and Semler, contributions ot, to
encyclopaedia, 128.
Mosheim the reformer of Church history,
337.
Music in worship, 537.
Myth :
difference between myth and legend,
277.
meaning of the term, 276.
Mysticism, 466.
the preparation for the Reformation,
64.
Mystic preachers, the, 564.
Mystic tendency, the, in theology, 104.
Mystics unconsciously borne in the direc
tion ot rationalism, 99.
Mystics, the, their understanding of the
term theology, 63.
Mythical theory ot Strauss, 291.
Mythical theory of the Ufe ot Christ, ab
surdity ot, 289.
Narrative, the Bible, nature ot, 278.
sacred narrative as compared with pro
fane, 278.
Vol. III.

Natural science of the Bible, 177.
Natural sciences, acquaintance with the,
important, 71.
Neander, work of, as a Church historian,
337.
Negative criticism ot Christ's life no ground
for alarm, 286.
Neologlcal exegesis, rise of, 266.
Nestorius and the school of Antioch, 100.
New Covenant, revelations of the, 278.
New Testament, a knowledge of Hebrew
necessary to the exegesis of the,
162.
concordances of the, 230.
covers only a single generation of
men, 156.
embraces but few nations, 167.
Erasmus's preface to his Greeks 120.
first critical edition of the, 217.
giaminars of the language of the,
173.
Greek of the, varies with the writers,
172.
Greek synonymes ot the, 174.
Greek text-books on the, 173.
Hellenistic-Greek the original lan
guage of the, 170.
history of the exposition of the Greek
of the, 172.
its sub-divisions — history, doctrine,
and prophecy, 158.
lexicons of the, 174.
most important manuscripts of the,
216.
new meaning given in the, to some
current Greek words, 172.
Scrivener's introduction to the, 219.
Tregelles, text of, 219.
critical editions of the, 221.
Westcott and Hort's text of the,
219.
New Testament canon, the :
in the early Church, 194.
,not formed at one time, 159.
New Testament thought, form of, derived
from the Old, 153.
Nosselt's Introduction to Theology, 130.
Old Catholic Party, the, 46.
Old Testament :
Alexandrian classification of the
books ot the, 155.
always the principal source for bib
lical archseology, 176.
contents of the, 154.
covers a period of several thousand
years, 156.
critically revised editions .of the, 219.
different views as to the value of the,
152.
Its leading object visible throughout
Its contents, 166.

INDEX.

021

Old Testament :
Schleiermacher's treatment of the,
152.
written mainly in Hebrew, 160.
Oral discussion, utility of, 54.
Oratory, a conversation, 561.
Origen :
chief ot the allegorical interpreters,
252.
his threefold sense of Scripture, 253.
Origin of formal Christian theology, 64.
Origin of the term theology, 62.
Original languages of the Bible, the, 160.
Orthpdoxy and heterodoxy :
orthodoxy not to be confounded with
supernaturalism, 464.
rationalism a heterodox phenomenon,
465.
Palatinate, liturgical controversy in the,
645.
Pantheism and Deism antagonistic to
Christian theology, 84. ¦'
Pantheism, theological and moral outcome
of, 85.
Pantheistic spirit has often donned the
garb of superior orthodoxy, 102.
Parallels in Church history, necessity of,
334. ,
Patristics :
Church Fathers, 396.
Classic, the term, 398.
history of, 399.
limits of, in time, 397.
literature ot, 400.
other terms for Church Fathers, 397.
relation of, to doctrinal history, 398.
the best works ot the Fathers, 398.
Patrology, 397.
Pauline epistles, exposition of the, 306.
Passion-plays, the, 290.
Pastoral Theology, 574.
Pastors, terms by which they are known,
47.
Paul the apostle, 306.
the founder of a body of doctrine,
306.
Pedagogics, 489.
Pelt, Lange, and Hariess, their treatment
of encyclopsedia, 134.
Pentecost the beginning of the Church,
317.
People ot God, Israelites the, 277.
Philology, ecclesiastical, 377.
Philology, the first of the preparatory stud
ies, 68.
Philosophic speculation in America, 78.
Philosophic thought in England much in
fluenced by Mills and Coleridge,
77.
Philosophy ;
branches of, important to theology, 87.

Philosophy :
cannot originate theological doctrine,
81.
divisible into that of nature and that
of mind, 88.
hard terms ot, should not be feared,
80.
history of, 374.
importance of a sound psychology to,
SS.
inability of philosophy to originate
dogma Ulustrated, 81.
influence of Kant on, 76.
in the Church after the Reformation,
76.
leading object iu the study of, SO.
literature of, 374.
Luther's opposition to, 76.
no sound objection to philosophy
from the variety of systems, 83.
philosophy, object of all, 79.
Platonic and Aristotelian division of,
88.
Schleiermacher's division as to, 76.
sense iu which it must be Christian,
86.
should be pursued in connexion with
other studies, 80.
theology not bound to any one philos
ophy, 82.
value ot the several branches of phi
losophy, 87.
Philosophy and Christianity, conflict be
tween, 431.
PhUosophy and theology, early relations
of, 64.
their relations traced historically, 74.
Philosophy of religion — German literature
on, 89.
Physical qualifications demanded of the
future servant ot God, 67.
Pietism :
fondness of, tor dabbling with phUoso
phy and natural science, 103.
joins the older supernaturalism, 103.
position of, in the current conflict,
103.
Spener's pietism, 313.
Pietists, sermons of the, 665.
Piety cannot take the place of learning, 18.
Polemics, zeal for, diminished after the
middle of the eighteenth century,
442.
Polemics and Irenics :
every judicious dogmatizer a harmo-
'nizer, 439.
history of, 441.
literature of, 443.
not separate departments, 438.
Reformed writers on, 442.
Roman Catholic and Protestant po
lemics, modification of, 440.
Vol. HI.

023

INDEX.

Positive science, theology as a, 88.
Positive theology :
all divisions of, relative only, 144.
departments of, 139.
Rosenkranz's threefold division of,
140.
Schleiermacher's division of, 140.
Practical theology, 500.
Prayer :
closing prayer, the, should have di
rect bearing on the sermon, 636.
effeminacy and insipidity to be ex
cluded, from prayer, 540.
public prayer, 54li.
should conclude with the Lord's
' Prayer, 536.
Prayer and singing :
as forms of worship, 536.
should precede and follow the ser
mon, 636.
Preacher, the :
should never cease to be a teacher,
24.
should study the possible effect of a
sermon, 558.
Preaching: art of preaching, the, a part of theo
logical science, 568.
history ot the theory of, 568.
Predestination, 462. ,
Predisposition, the so-called avoidance of,
a prejudice, 245.
Preparation and repetition to be added to
the lecture, 54.
Preparatory and auxiliary sciences, dis
tinction between, 66.
Preparatory sciences, the, 66.
Preparatory studies, philology the first of
the, 68.
Presbyterians, American, 106.
PievaUiug tendencies ot theological
thought, 98.
Priest, the title of, cannot be entirely appro
priated by Protestant clergy,
48.
Propasdeutics, theology as related to, 66.
Protestant Churches, development of doc
trine in the, 65.
Protestant emphasis on the history ot
teaching, 334.
Protestant student, the, during his aca
demical studies, 50.
Prussia, Evangelical Union of, 439.
Psychology, importance ot a sound to phi
losophy, 88.
Pulpit, the :
has its own peculiar style, 566.
preparations for, 560.
Qualities which should be united in the
theologian, 61,
Quadratus, Apology of, 430.
Vol III.

Rational criticism, beginning of the, with
Semler, 217.
Rationalism :
a heterodox phenomenon, 486.
chief traits of modern rationalism,
100.
has ceased to dispose of miracles,
245.
largely a question of method, 109.
modern rationalism, 106.
Rationalism and supernaturalism :
approaches of, to each'other, 103.
literature of the conflict, 109.
Reason co-operative with religious feeUng,
38.
Recent theology, latest representatives ot,
102.
Rector, proper meaning of the term, 49.
Reformation, the :
a universal epoch, 323.
effect of, on Church history, 336.
effect of, on exegesis, 254.
niystieisin, , the preparation for the,
64.
sprang from moral, not doctrinal,
causes, 418.
Reformed and Lutheran exegesis, 254.
Reformed Church, dogmatic literature in
the, 468.
Reformed writers on Church history, 336.
ou homiletics, 570.
Reformers, the, and ethics, 491.
preaching by the, 564.
theological spirit of the, 99.
Relation of life and doctrine, 311.
Relations of philosophy and _ theology
traced historically, 74.
Religion a feeling of dependence upon
God, 36.
Religion and learning, u desire for both,
needful to the study of theology,
17.
Religiou and morality, reasons tor distin
guishing, 30.
ReUgion :
a religion df reason impossible, 39.
a subject in which the whole inner
man is engaged, 41.
based on dependence, 33.
definition of, 25.
evidence that it is not exclusively the
product of the intellect, 28.
in what sense is religion rooted in
feeling, 33.
is original spiritual power, 31.
not a transcendental knowledge, of
the absolute, 27.
not bare knowledge as grounded in
the memory, 27.
not bare knowledge as grounded in
the understanding, 27.
not identical with morality, 30.

INDEX.

633

Religion :
not identical with a supposed spirit
ual activity, 30.
not merely action, 29.
not nierely knowledge, 26.
requires more than action for its ex
pression, 32.
scope of the word, and distinction be
tween it and other terms, 25.
seeks to manifest Itself symbolically
in terms and imagery, 32.
ReUgion, Philosophy of, German literature,
89.
Religious disposition essential to the right
interpretation of the Bible, 248.
Religious disposition the only one that
can apprehend a reUgious writer,
248.
Religious doctrine, superiority ot the teach
ing of, to law and art, 20.
Religious feeling :
becomes a steadfast disposition
through conscience, 40.
connects itself with the understanding
and the will, 38.
common to a community, 43.
is aided bV the imagination, 38.
not identical with moral feeling, 36.
not mere sensibility, 34.
not resolvable into conscience, 40.
not the same as sesthetic feeling, 34.
school and home culture of, 73.
synthesis of, with our other faculties,-
37.
the root of the I'eligious life, 39.
twofold character in, 36.
Religious teacher, the :
position as to other teachers, 24.
threefold task ot the, 42.
Remonstrants, the, 254.
Renaissance of learning prepared the way
for the Reformation, 28.
Renan's Life of Christ, 292.
Reuchlin the restorer of Hebrew learning,
164.
Revelation, a belief in, requires criticism
of the historical books of the
Bible, 276.
Koman Catholicism, mechanical liturgy of,
630.
Roman Catholic dogmatists, 471.
Roman Catholic encyclopaedia, 136.
Roman Catholic ethics, 492.
Rojpan Catholic theologians, scientific ch.ar-
acter ot, 46.
Roman Catholic writers on homiletics, 671.
Roman Empire, overthrow of the Western,
forms an epoch In secular his
tory, 322.
Rosenkranz's threefold division of positive
theology, 140.
Rubrics, 320.

Sacraments, the Church and the, 458.
doctrine of the Church can only be
understood through the doctrine
of Clirist, 459.
faith the connecting medlimi, 460.
Sacred history, place of, 274.
Sacred writings :
integrity of, necessary to their canon
ical reception, 209.
not the exclusive property of a priest
ly order, 45.
Salvation not dependent on subtleties,
463.
Sanctification, 467.
Saumur and Basle, the theologians of,
126.
Schleiermacher :
desired that philosophy and theology
should remain distinct, 76.
did not advocate mere sensibility, 34.
division of positive theology by, 140.
dogmatics of, 469.
definition of dogmatics by, 422.
early life nourished in piety, 11.
his aim as to philosophy, 76.
his definition of the term religion,
26.
his system of ethics, 488.
his preaching, introduced new life into
the method of, 567.
his treatment ot Old Testament,
162.
made encyclopaedia independent, 132.
objection to his definition of dogmat
ics, 423.
relations of apologetics and polemics,
his definition ot the, 441.
reserved for him to allay the conflict
between rationalism and super
naturalism, 101.
services of, to catechetics, 525.
the whole of theology greatly indebt
ed to, 10.
Schleiermacher and Herder, new direction
given to theology by, 101.
Scholar, every, should be familiar with the
history of the Church, the Ref
ormation, and Protestantism in
his country, 332.
School and home culture of religious feel
ing, 73.
Scholasticism and mysticism, 466.
Schoolmen and positive theologians, the
quarrel between, 74.
School, the, must not be bolted out of the
Church, 47.
Schweizer :
airaugement of practical theology by,
607.
defect of his division of practical the
ology, 508.
dogmatical system of, 448, Vol. III.

634

INDEX.

Science and learned pedantry, diffeieuce
between, 11.
Sciences auxiliary to Church history, 369,
Sciences auxUiary to exegesis, 169.
Sciences, the natural, acquaintance with
important, 71.
Sciences, the practical, auxiliary to exe
getical theology, 176.
Scientific instruction can only be conveyed
in connected discourse, 62.
Scientific spirit, dangers ot the excess of
the, 59.
Scripture history, Christ's life the center
of, 285.
Scripture lessons, proper reading of, highly
essential, 542.
Scriptures, the:
considered as the object of exegesis,
147.
Origen's threefold sense of, 253.
when Interpreted to be practically ap
plied, 247.
Self-trainiug, helps to, 250.
Semitic languages, 161.
Semler, beginning with, ot the rational
criticism, 217.
Semler and Mosheim, contributions ot, to
encyclopaedia, 128.
Sensationalism and Idealism, both un
christian, 83.
Sensibility, religious feeling not mere, 34.
Sermon, the :
a testimony to Christ, 551.
detects of first sermons, 561.
effect of a sermon should be studied
by the preacher, 558.
essential element of Protestant wor
ship, an, 534.
fanciful divisions of, 665.
history of the Christian sermon, 563.
not a lecture, 660.
not to become a mere inteUectual dis
course, 24.
place of the sermon in worship, 636.
praj'er and singing should precede and
follow the, 536.
relation ot the sermon to the congre
gation, 551.
sermonic division, 566.
should be mentally constructed, 557.
should be sustained by the whole
economy of the worshiii, 532.
the delivery of, 556.
useless ornament In to be avoided,
557.
Seventeenth century, theology in the, 100.
Sin and repentance religious ethical ideas,
31.
Sin, the doctrine of, 452.
Singing and prayer as forms of worship,
536.
Singing, the preacher's relation to the, 642.
Vol. III.

Society, the Church not merely a, 317.
Socrates and Christ, parallels between,
291.
Soteriology, 465.
Christ the mediator, 456.
justification and sanctification, 457.
subjective soteriology, 456.
Spanish Jews, grammatical studies revived
by, 163.
Special Theological Encyclopaedia, 146.
Specialty, devotion to a, should not begin
too early, 1 6.
Spener :
^ contributions to theological encyclo
psedia, 126.
pietism of, 313.
value ot the work of, 127.
Spurious works in the early Church, 206.
Statistics, ecclesiastical, 412.
best source for, 413.
history must furnish statistics, 413.
literature of ecclesiastical, 414.
travel, shallow books of, 414.
Strauss :
mythical theory ot the life of Christ,
291.
numberless works issued in reply to,
292.
Strife, the old, in its newer forms, 102.
Student, the :
relation of; to rationalistic tendencies,
107.
self-training of the student in exegesis,
250.
teacher and student, relations ot, 55.
Supernaturalism, orthodoxy not to be con
founded with, 464.
Supernaturalism and rationalism :
approaches of, to each other, 103.
literature ot the conflict, 109.
Sweden, theological encyclopisdia iu, 134.
Symbolics :
a broad science to-day, 403.
definition ot, 402.
integral part ot the history of doc
trines, an, 402.
literature, 406.
Lutheran and reformed views, opposi
tion between, 406.
Lutheran symbols, 403.
origin ot modern symbols, 405.
pragmatic method ot discussing, 405.
principal symbols, the three, of the
Church, 403.
relation of symbolics to the history of
doctrines, 404.
symbol, first and later office of, 402.
Synonymes, Greek, of the New Testament,'
174.
Synopses aud Harmonies, 226.
Synthesis of religious feeUng with our
other faculties, 37.

INDEX.

625

Syriac, knowledge of, useful to the theo
logian, 168.
Systematic and historical theology, relative
positions of, 144.
Systematic Theology, 416.
Teacher, the :
qualifications of the religious, 44.
religious teacher, the, must be pene
trated by religious principle, 42.
student and teacher, relations ot, 56.
Teachers :
an order of, necessary to the culture
ot mankind, 20.
not an isolated order of society, 19.
order of teachers, the, highest in so
ciety, 18.
Teaching function, the :
superiority of, to law and art illus
trated, 22.
more prominent in Protestantism than
in Romanism, 23.
Teaching, relation of, to art and legisla
tion, 19.
Testaments, the Old and the New :
differences in the scope of, 157.
relations ot, 151.
Text, a pure, indispensable, 210.
Text-books, elementary, 166.
Texts, the, conditions necessary for proper,
654.
Thamer, Theobald, the Adhortatio ot,
122.
Theistic method, the, in Church history,
327.
Theologian, the :
a knowledge of Chaldee, Syriac, and
Arabic useful to, 168.
Hebrew, a knowledge of, indispensa
ble to, 163.
qualities which should be united in
the, 61.
relation of the theologian to school
and Church, 50.
uses of mathematical knowledge to
the, 70.
'obliged to give attention to human
matters, 62.
personal character in, necessity of a
pure and well-endowed, 403.
should be thoroughly famUiar with
the Scriptures, 121.
Theologians and practical Church teachers,
how distinguished, 46.
¦-Theologians, scientific, and pastors co-
related, 46.
Theologians, testimonies of great, 108.
Theologians, the, of Saumur and Basle,
136.
Theological doctrine, philosophy cannot
originate, 81.
Theological empiricism, 12.
40

Theological Encyclopaedia :
both general and special aim to con
centrate the mental faculties, 8.
definition ot, 7.
demand for a proper science of, S.
differs trom the Real Encyclopsedia,
or Dictionary, 9.
German Catholic works on, 137.
history and literature of, 118.
history of, noticed, 8.
in Holland, France, Sweden, England,
and America, 134.
its position, 7.
missions as treated in, 50.
relation ot, to the body of theological
science twofold, 10.
separate contributions to, 138.
Spener's contributions to, 126.
treated in the spirit of Hegelianism,
133.
Theological heads, 444.
Theological learning rests on a classical
basis, 67.
Theological school, the, and the clergy, 46.
Theological Science :
in the early Christian Church, 63.
must achieve its results through the
Word, 14.
true method of making it practical, 1 4.
Theological spirit ot the reformers, 99.
Theological student, true spirit of the, 44.
Theological study will increase faith, 108.
Theological tendencies :
in England in the eighteenth century,
106.
in the early Church, 98.
iu the Middle Ages, 99.
in the seventeenth century, 100.
Theological thought, bias ot, 98.
Theologus, the, of Andrew Gerhard, 1 23.
Theology :
angelology and demonoiogy, 450.
approached by many with false ex
pectations, 107.
as a positive science, 68.
as a practical art, 61.
as related to the preparatory sciences,
66.
centuriai division of, wrong, 321.
conditions of a fully developed the
ology, 45.
Danz's division of, into a religious and
a Churchly science, 140.
departments in theology, remote be
ginning ot, 427.
departments of theology, and their re
lation to each other, 139.
does not stand or fall with any one
system ot philosophy, 83. '
great influence ot Herder upon, 129.
has never been able to separate itself
from philosophy, 78. Vol. III.

636,

INDEX.

Theology :
historica. development of, 62.
historical and exegetical theology, re
lations of, 273.
influence of the Wolfian philosophy
on, 65.
Middle Age sense ot the word, 63.
Nosselt's Introduction to, 130.
not bound to any one philosophy, 82.
origin of formal Christian theology,
64.'
origin of the termj 62. >
premonitions ot a vocation to, 18. '
relation of to the arts and general cul
ture, 72.'
relations of, with law and medicine,
60.
relations of, to phUoSophy, 74.' ¦
religious element of a doctrine should
be prominent, 450.
representatives of the recent thebl-
ogy, 102. '
the Mystic tendency in, 104. '
Theology, Historical :
worldly motives tor the study of,' not
sufficient, 16.
archaeology, 410.
doctrines, history of, 384. -
doctrinal history, province of, 386;
general history, elastic treatment of,
necessary, 388.
history and revelation, problem of,-
386.
missions, literature of, 380. ¦
missions, history of, 379.
Theology, Pastoral:'
biographies, value of reUgious, tp the
student) 583.
business forms, the pastor should
have acquaintance with, 681.'
charities, the pastor as related to, 577.
Christ-thc' first-instructor in, 583,-
congregation as a whole, relation of
the pastor to the, 577. '
English and AmerioaQ literature of,
584.
Erasmus Sawjerius,, the Pastorale of,
583.
experience, how it may,be utilized by
the pastor, 576.
family, relation ot the pastop'to the,
678.
history of, 683.
indefiniteness ot the term^ 675.
irreligious masses, problem of reach
ing the, 574, 678.
method of, 581.
objects ot pastoral theology; 574.' '
pastor, the, the head of the congrega
tion,, 677.
pastoral duties best learned from ex
perience, 575.
Vol. III.

Theology, Pastoral :
pastoral duties divided into tliree de
partments, 676.
pastorate, aids to a preparation for
the, 581.
pedagogics in relation to, 680.
people, personal relation of the pastor
to the,;577. '
practical sciences auxiliary to, 580.
practical training, what shall be done
to furnish a, 582. '
preacher distinguished from pastor by
Harms, 676.
scientific pursuits among the clergy,
best means of preserving, 686.
special events — marriage, baptism,
and death — position of the pas
tor in relation to, 678.
wasteful occupations ot pastors, 585,
Theology, Practical :
all modes ot division important, 506.
catechetical methods, 516.
catechetics, 614.
categories of , 606.
clerical Ufe, practical side of,'503.
completes the theological course; 602.
definition ot, 500.
former restriction of, 503.
Harms's scheme of, 509.
historical basis, of, 502.
history of, 510.
homiletics, 547.
literature of, 513.
liturgies, 526.
. Mai'heineke's distribution of, 508.
method of treatment, 606.
methodology of, 541.
Moll's method, 509.
necessity of emphasis on the practical
' side of clerical duties, 605.
rationalistic teaching'of, 611.
Reformers, works of the, 610.
relation ot the preacher to practical
theology and othet" departments,
506.
Schweizer's division of, 508. , «
scientific character of, 501.
systems of Nitzsch and others, 507.
universities, practical theology in the,
511.
worship, forms' of, and their relation
to art, 534.
worship, the' tlicoryr'of,e-i- liturgies,
526.
TheSlogy, Systematic :
anthropology, 451.
apologetics, 4^5.
CaHxtus emancipated' ethicfi from dog
matics, 419.
Christian ethics as a part of, 481.
Christianity destined to develop into
a system, 416.

INDEX

037

Theology, Systematic :
Christology, 453.
Christ's work the basis ot ethics,
483.
Church and the sacraments, the, 458.
dogmatics, 421.
dogmatics and ethics, difference be
tween, 419.
dogmatics, history of, 460.
dogmatic interest, predominance of
the, 418.
dogmatics, method of, 444.
dogmatics, object of, 417.
ecclesiastical dogmatics, 417.
eschatology, 460.
methodology of, 496.
orthodoxy and heterodoxy, 464.
polemics and irenics, 43'7.
soteriology, 448.
theology, meaning of, 448.
Trinity, the, and predestination, 462.
Theology and Astronomy, not necessarily
related, 71.
Theology and Philosophy, early relations
of, 64.
Thirty Years' War, the, 323.
Threefold sense ot Scripture, Origen's,
253.
Tractarian movement in the United States,
106.
Tractarian movement, the, 106.
" Tracts for the Times," the, 105.
Training, general, must precede special, 15.
Tregelles, basis of his text, 219.
Trinity and predestination;
salvation not dependent on subtleties,
463,
Trinity less emphasized than God's
relation to man, 483.
Tiibingen School, the:
destructive efforts of, 307.
elder, the, 313.
Tiibingen tendency critics, 218.
United States, the Wesleyan revival in the,
106.
Universities, the rise of, 51.
University, the, 52.

University lecture system, the, 52.
Utility of oral discussion, 54.
Value of Spener's work, 127.
Vocation, choice of the theological, 15.
Vocation to theology, premonitions of a, 18.
Wesleyan, revival, the, 106.
in the United States, 106.
Westphalia, peace ot, 322.
Wissenschaftskunde, Eschenburg the first,
to employ the title, 8.
Wolf opposed by the Pietists, 75.
Wolfenbiittel assault, the, on historiciil
Christianity, 65.
Wolfenbiittel Fragmentist, the, 290.
Wolfian philosophy, influence of, on the
ology, 65. I
Wolfian school, the :
homiletical writers, 670.
Works, a mechanical doing ot, not religion,
30.
Worldly motives for the study of theology
not sufficient, 16.
Worship altogether an expression ot the
feelings, 40.
architecture, sacred, as related to
Protestant worship, 537.
Christian worship developed from the
Jewish, 543.
elements of worship, 634.
euchai'istic element, the, 534.
Worship :
forms of worship and their relation to
art, 634.
music in worship, 537.
opportunity for attending public wor
ship when traveling should never
be neglected, 542.
prayer and singing, 636.
service, the order of, 536.
sermon, place of, in the, 535.
singing and prayer, 536.
theory of worship, 626.
Writing both profitable and Improving, 55.
Writings, the sacred, accessible to all, 45.
Zwingle more nearly related to rationalism
than Calvin, 99. Vol. III.

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