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A HANDBOOK OF THE LIFE OF THE
APOSTLE PAUL

A HANDBOOK

OF THE

LIFE OF THE APOSTLE PAUL

An Outline for Classroom and
Private Study

BY
ERNEST DeWITT BURTON
Professor and Head of the Department of New Testament and Early
Christian Literature in the University of Chicago

THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS

Copyright i8go Bv
Ernest DeWitt Burton

All Rights Reserved

First Three Editions Privately Printed
Fourth Edition Published September 1004
Fifth Edition July 1906
Second Impression April 1908
Third Impression July 1909
Fourth Impression September ion
Fifth Impression January 1913
Sixth Impression November 1913
Seventh Impression March 1917

Composed and Printed By
The University ol Chicago Press
Chicago. Illinois, U.S.A.

PREFATORY NOTE.
This little handbook is printed primarily for the use of my
own classes and correspondence students. Its specific aim is set
forth in the chapter on Method of Study, pp. g-i i ff. Teachers
and students using the book are urged to read this chapter at the
outset. The outline follows closely that presented in the volume
entitled " Records and Letters of the Apostolic Age," to the
publishers of which, Messrs. Chas. Scribner's Sons, I am indebted
for the privilege of reproducing it in this modified form.
The essays printed in Part II, with the exception of the last
one, which appears here for the first time, were first issued in the
Biblical World, and were published with the statement that
they were intended to furnish help in the intelligent reading of
the books of the Bible as books, and. aimed to present not so
much fresh results of critical investigation, as well established
and generally recognized conclusions. They are incorporated in
the present handbook with a view to giving the student in brief
form help in two directions ; first in bringing before his mind the
situation out of which each letter came, and second in following
the course of thought in the letter itself.
The present edition differs from the first issued in 1897, 'n
the arrangement of the material on the page, in the addition of
references to the literature which has appeared in the last two
years, in the addition of an Outline of " Forty Lessons " pp. 35-
41, and in the substitution of the present chapter on the Letters
to Timothy and Titus for that which appeared in the first
edition.
Ernest D. Burton.
October, 1899,
Publisher's Note to Fourth Edition: The present edition differs from that of 1899
only in the slight revision of the list of books printed on pp. 33, 34 and in the correc
tion of a few typographical errors.
September, 1904.

CONTENTS.

PART I.
THE LIFE OF PAUL.
FAG!
Map to Illustrate Paul's Journeys 
Method of Study  9
Outline of the Life of Paul, with Topics for Study . . 13
Books Recommended for Reference and Study . v . 33
Outline of Forty Lessons .  35
+#
PART II. /
THE LETTERS OF PAUL : THEIR OCCASION AND STRUCTURE.
The Letters to the Thessalonians  45
The Letter to the Galatians ...„,. 51
The Letters to the Corinthians ...... 59
The Letter to the Romans  71
The Letters from Prison  79
The Letters to Timothy and Titus  91

PART 1.
THE UFE OF PAUL.

nETHOD OF STUDY.
I. Study the historical background. Some knowledge of the
geography of the countries in which Paul lived and worked, some
acquaintance with their political condition and with the customs,
religion, and morals of the peopleis necessary to enable one to un
derstand the New Testament record of Paul's life. Some measure
of such knowledge every student who undertakes this course
will already have. The study may, however, properly begin
with a fresh survey of the whole field, such as is outlined in the
Topics for Study on pp. 13,14; and, as in the subsequent study
questions of geography and history arise, these should be investi
gated, as far as may be necessary in order to set the events of
the apostle's life in their true historical relation and perspective.
2. Fix in mind the facts recorded in the New Testament.
(a) Learn the titles of the chapters and sections of the out
line. This outline being for the most part simply a distribution
of the Scripture material into chapters and sections, with titles
to indicate the successive periods and events.the order of events
can be best fixed in mind by memorizing these titles. This will
be done to best advantage chapter at a time.
(b) As each narrative section is taken up, read carefully the
Scripture material, endeavoring to understand it and to fix the
facts in mind. Do not overlook the matter cited from the
epistles. When necessary, make an analysis of the section.
(c) Note, in writing, any points of obscurity or matters re
quiring investigation in order to understand the record. Ex
clude all questions of mere curiosity and those that pertain to
modern affairs only. Maintain the historical point of view.
(d) Investigate [these matters so far as time and facilities
permit. (e) Read, as time permits, the discussion of the successive

IO HANDBOOK OF THE LIFE OF PAUL.
events of the history in Conybeare and Howson, Farrar, McGiffert,
or other books at your command.
(/) Having re-read the Scripture narrative, write out a suc
cinct account of the event or events.
3. Study the letters of the apostle from the historical point of view.
That the apostle wrote this or that letter is itself a fact of his life.
Endeavor to weave this fact into the narrative of his life.
(a) Read the epistle to discover what evidence it itself
affords of the circumstances that gave rise to it.
(b) Read the section in Part II which treats of the occasion
of the letter under examination, or the corresponding section in
any " Introduction " to Paul's epistles which is within your reach.
(c) Write out a brief statement of the occasion and purpose
of the letter.
(d) Keeping in mind this purpose, read the letter again with
special reference to its course of thought. To facilitate this work
the student may use the analyses of the epistles printed in Part
II, or, better, make an analysis for himself, comparing it after
ward with the printed analysis, and revising either where it seems
not to represent correctly the apostle's course of thought.
4. Co-ordinate the results of your study. Bearing in mind that
the purpose of the whole course is to gain a true knowledge and
a just impression of the life, character, and thought of the apos
tle Paul, seek to bring all the results of your study into relation
to one another with this end in view.
(a) Make frequent reviews of the ground already covered,
especially at the end of the successive chapters, tracing the jour
neys of the apostle from point to point, connecting the events
together into a continuous narrative, and observing their relation
to one another. Take special pains in such reviews to connect
together the facts narrated in Acts and the data yielded by the
epistles.

METHOD OF STUDY. II
(6) Make special investigation of the more important topics
pertaining to the history and life of the times, the place or sig
nificance of events, or their relation to one another. Many such
subjects are suggested in the list of Topics for Study.
Blank numbers have been left at the end of each chapter to en
able the teacher or student to add other subjects. These topics
may be assigned by the instructor or selected by the student,
and brief essays or longer papers be prepared according as time
permits. (c) Bring all the material thus obtained into relation to the
life of the apostle. Make all memorization of facts and all in
vestigation of details contribute to the understanding of the life
and character of Paul himself.
5. After studying the historical background, as indicated in
I above, embody your results in a brief chapter or chapters de
scribing the world in which Paul lived and did his work. Then
as the study of each chapter of the Outline is completed, embody
the results of your study in a chapter on this period of the life of
Paul, dividing each chapter into sections according to the neces
sities of the case, and incorporating the work indicated under
2 (f ). Number these sections continuously. You will then
at the conclusion of your study have a "Life of Paul"
for your own use, the result of your own study of the original
sources.

OUTLINE OF THE LIFE OF PAUL.

UKAMOID JN CHAPTERS AND SECTIONS, WITH TOPICS TOR STUDY.

INTRODUCTION.
THE WORLD OF PAUL'S DAY.

A. The Roman World.
Acts 11:28-30; 18:2; 22:27; 24:27; 2 Cor. 11:32.1
TOPICS FOR STUDY.
I. The Roman World in the First Century.
Seidel, pp. 10-48; CH.2 chap, i; *Duruy, History of Rome, Vols. IV, V;
* Marquardt, Das Privatleben der Roemer; Priedlaender, Sittenges-
chiclite Roms ; *Inge, Rome in the Time of Csesar ; *Becker, Gallus.
a) Extent of the Roman Empire.
b) Means of travel and communication.
c ) Languages of intercourse and literature.
d) Rome and her dependencies: the policy of Rome in regard
to her dependencies; vassal kingdoms and provinces;
classes of prbvinces.
Arnold, Roman Provincial Administration ; A. I. Essays: Morey, Rome
and the provinces.
2. Religion and morals in the Roman Empire.
Fisher, chaps, ii-vi; Seidel, Pt. I., and other reff, under 1.
a) The policy of Rome in respect to Judaism: Religiona

1 The passages cited in this and the following section are not intended to give all the
Information the New Testament contains concerning Paul's relation to the Roman Empire and to
Judaism, but only to locate him in a general way in Roman and Jewish history.
2 For Explanation of abbreviations see p. 33.
13

14 HANDBOOK OI THE LIFE OF PAUL.
B. The Jewish World.
Acts 22:3 ; 12:1 ; 13:1 ; 25:13 , 14; Phil. 3:5, 6.
TOPICS FOR STUDY.
licitm and religiones illicitce; the privileges of Judaism.
b) Morality in Palestine and in the empire at large.
f ) Philosophy and its effect on religion.
FisHER, chap, v; Pressense. The Ancient World and Christianity, pp. 43a
ff . ; *Friedlaender, Sittengeschichte, Vol. Ill, chap. v.
d) The attitude of Greeks and Romans toward religion.
3. Judaism in the First Century.
Mathews; Seidel, pp. 49-188; CH, chap, ii; Farrar, chap, vii ; *Schuerer,
§§ 22, 31 ; Fisher, chap. vii.
a) Jews in Palestine: Languages spoken ; general type of
thought and religion ; parties and schools of thought.
6) Jews in other lands of the Empire : Extent of the disper
sion ; effect of travel and residence in non-Jewish lands.
e) Hellenism : In language ; in thought and practice.
d) Influence of Judaism on Greeks and Romans : The
Roman estimate of Jews as reflected in literature ; prose
lytes ; " the devout."

v ,-c OUTLINE OF HIS LIFE. X$
C. The Rise of the Christian Church.
Acts chaps, i — 8. TOPICS FOR STUDY.
II. Primitive Christianity.
Votaw, pp. 5-38 ; Lechler, Vol. I, pp. 5-108 ; McGiffert, chap, ii ; Nban-
der, Bk. I.
a) Christian Judaism.
b) Hellenism in the Jerusalem church ; the Stephen party.
Neander. Bks. I, II ; McGiffert, chap, ii ; Lechler, Vol. I.
12. Sources of the Life of Paul.
a) The Book of Acts as a source for the Life of Paul.
Salmon, Lecture xviii ; Ramsay, St. P. pp. 1-28, 383-390; Weizsaecker,
Vol. I, 208-213; Wendt. and other Comm. on Acts, Introd. ; McGif
fert, passim (see index), and authors referred to on p. 214; Gilbert.
appendix; Hastings, DB. ; Smith,3 DB., art. Acts.
b) The Epistles of Paul as sources for his life,
Weiss; Godet, pp. 35-60; Knowling, Witness of the Epistles,
chaps, ii, iii.
13. The Chronology of the Apostolic Age and of the Life of
Paul.
RL., 201-207; Harnack, Vol. 1, pp. 233-243, 717ft (the latter, a table,
which is translated in Biblical World, Vol. IX, pp. 385 ff.) ; McGiffert,
p. 673 and passim; see alsoreff. on topic 122.
a) The focal points of the chronology.
b) The leading theories.
c ) A working hypothesis.

16 HANDBOOK OF THE LIFE OF PAUL.
CHAPTER I.
LIFE BEFORE HIS CONVERSION TO CHRISTIANITY.
I. His childhood.
Acts 22: 3, 27, 28; 23:6, 16; Phil. 3:5.
2. His education.
Acts 18:3; 22:3; 26:4, 5; Gal. 1:14.
3. His career as a Pharisee and a persecutor.
Acts 7:58—8:3; 22:4, 5, 20; 26:5, 9-11; 1 Cor. 15:9; Gal. 1:13; Phil 3:5, 6j
1 Tim. 1:13. TOPICS FOR STUDY.
20. Jewish education in general and Paul's education in par
ticular.
Kitto, Cyclopedia of Bib. Lit, art. Education; CH, chap, ii; Farrar,
chap, iii; Simon, L'Education Juive; Gilbert, chap, iii; Abbott chap.
ii; Hastings DB., art. Education, Vol. I, pp. 649-651.
21. The moral character and religious experience of Paul before
his conversion to Christianity.
Farrar, chap. iii; A. I. Essays: Burton, Saul's Experience on the Way to
Damascus; Gilbert, chap. iii.

OUTLINE OF HIS LIFE. 17
I CHAPTER II.
CONVERSION AND EARLY CHRISTIAN LIFE.
4. His conversion.
(19)" Acts 9:1-190; 22:5-16; 26:12-18; Gal. 1:15-17; Gal. 2:19; 1 Cor
9:1; 15:8; 2 Cor. 4:6; Phil. 3:7-11.
5. In Damascus and Arabia.
(20) Acts 9 19^-25; 26:19, 20; Gal. 1:170, 18a; 2 Cor. 11: 32, 33.
6. In Jerusalem, Syria, and Cilicia.
(21) Acts 9: 26-31; 22:17-21; Gal. 1:18-24.
TOPICS for study.
30. The sources of information concerning Saul's conversion; the
relation of the three accounts in Acts to one another; the
relation of the testimony of the epistles to the narratives
in Acts.
31. The nature of Paul's conversion.,
a) Preparation for it in his previous life.
6) "The revelation of Christ."
c) The moral change involved.
d) The external features of the experience.
Farrar, chap, x; Sabatier, Bk. I, chap, iii; A. I. Essays: Burton, Saul's
Experience; Lechler, Vol. I, pp. 311-317; Gilbert, chap. iv; Abbott,
chap. ii.
32. The relation of the conversion to his "gospel."
Stevens, Pauline Theology, chap, i; Theology of New Testament, pp. 324
ff. ; A. I. Essays: Rhees, Saul's Experience as a Factor in his The
ology; McGiffert, chap. iii.
33. Paul's sojourn in Arabia, was it a period of meditation or of
evangelization?
34. The substance of his preaching in this early period.
35. Is the harmonization implied in § 6 correct.
Ramsay, St. Paul, pp. 60-64; Hackett on Acts 9:39 and other commen
taries ; Gilbert, chap. v.
1 The figures in parenthesis denote the corresponding sections in Burton, Records and
Letters of the Apostolic Age.

18 HANDBOOK OF THS LIFE OF PAUL.
CHAPTER III.
EARLY MINISTRY IN ANTIOCH.
7. The beginning of the gospel in Antioch.
(26) Acts 11:19-24.
8. Paul's first ministry in Antioch.
(26) Acts 11:25, 26.
9. The relief visit to Jerusalem.
(27-29) Acts 11:27 — 12:25; [Gal. 2: 1-10].
TOPICS FOR STUDY.
40. Antioch, and the composition and Christianity of the Antioch
church.
Westcott and Hort, Greek Testament, Vol. II, Appendix, p. 93 ; Hort,
Judaistic Christianity, pp. 58-60; Wendt and other commentaries on
Acts 11:20; CH, chap, iv; Farrar, chap, xxi, esp. p. 160; McGiffert,
pp. io8f. ; Hastings, DB. art. Antioch.
41. The beginning of Gentile Christianity: was it at Caesarea
(Acts, chap. 10), or at Antioch in Syria, or at Antioch in
Pisidia?
Hort (pp. 57-65) and other authors cited under topic 40; also McGiffert
pp. 182-185), and commentaries on Acts 14:46 f.
42. Gal. 2:1-10 and its parallels in Acts,
a) Neander, Bk. III. chap, ii ; CH, note after chap, vii ; Lightf6ot,
on Galatians, pp. 123-128 ; Sanday, in Expositor, February and July,
1896 ; Gilbert, chap, viii ; Harnack, Vol. I, p. 234 n. 3. ; Lechler, Vol.
I, pp. 193 ff.
V) Ramsay, St, P., pp. 40-60.
c ) Weizsaecker, Vol. I, pp. 104 f., 200-208 ; Wendt on Acts 11 :2g f.
d) McGiffert, pp. 170-172.
e) Bartlet, in Expositor, October, 1899.
43. The date of Herod's death and the value of this datum for
the chronology of Paul's life.
RL.. pp. 201-203; WlESELER, pp. I29-I36; SCflUERER, Div. I, Vol. II, pp. 163-
165; Ramsay, St. P., pp. 48-69. (Observe the difference between
Ramsay's arrangement of events and that represented in our outline.)

OUTLINE OF HIS LIFE. 19
CHAPTER IV.
FIRST MISSIONARY JOURNEY.
10. Barnabas and Saul sent forth from Antioch.
(31) Acts 13:1-3.
11. Preaching the word at Salamis and Paphos.
(32) Acts 13:4-12.
12. At Pisidian Antioch.
(33) Acts 13:13-52.
Iji At Iconium.
(34) Acts 14:1-7.
14. At Lystra and Derbe, and the return to Antioch in Syria.
(35) Acts 14:8-28. TOPICS FOR STUDY.
50. The significance of this missionary journey as compared
with previous missionary work. Is it the first definitely
planned missionary work? Is it the beginning of missions
to the Gentiles?
51. The island of Cyprus; its physical character; political stat
us; cities.
CH, chap, v; Smith, DB. ; Hastings, DB. ; Davis, DB., art. Cyprus.
52. Paul's sermon at Antioch; its material, structure, aim; the
character of early Christian preaching in general.
Lechler, Vol. I, pp. 318-324.
53. The political divisions of Asia Minor at this period; the
physical character of the portions traversed in this journey.
CH, chap, viii; Ramsay, C. R. E., chaps, ii, iii, and map; Mommsen,
Provinces of the Roman Empire, chap. viii.
54. Were the churches at Pisidian Antioch, Iconium, Derbe, and
Lystra the "churches of Galatia"?
Lightfoot, Com. on Galatians, pp. 18-35; Ramsay, C. R. E., chaps.
iv-vi; RL, 212-216 and reff. on p. 216; McGiffert, pp. 178 ff ; Gilbert,
Appendix III; Hastings, DB., art. Galatia.

20 HANDBOOK OF THE LIFE OF PAUL.
CHAPTER V.
SECOND SOJOURN IN ANTIOCH, AND THE COUNCIL
AT JERUSALEM.
15. The council at Jerusalem.
(36) Acts 15:1-29; [Gal. 2:1-10].
16. Reportof the council's action to the church at Antioch.
(37) Acts 15:30-35.
17. Peter's visit to Antioch.
(38) Gal. 2:11-21. TOPICS FOR STUDY.
60. -Is Gal. 2:1-10 parallel with Acts 15:1-29? See topic 42.
61. The question at issue in the council at Jerusalem, and the
parties to the controversy.
CH, chap, vii; Farrar, chap, xxii; Weizsaecker, Vol. I, pp. 175-200;
McGiffert, pp. 192-202; Commentaries on Acts, chap. 15, and Gal.,
chap. 2; Lechler, Vol. I, pp. 201-229; Gilbert, chap. viii.
62, The, question raised by Peter's visit to Antioch; its relation
to that discussed at Jerusalem; its significance.
Farrar, chap, xxiii; McGiffert, pp. 202 ff; Commentaries on Gal.
2:11-21; Lechler, Vol. I, pp. 229 ff.

OUTLINE OF HIS LIFE. 21
CHAPTER VI.
SECOND MISSIONARY JOURNEY.
1 8. The dissension between Paul and Barnabas.
(39) Acts 15:36-41.
19. The churches in southern Asia Minor revisited.
(40) Acts 16:1-5.
20. The journey to Troas, and the vision of Paul.
(41) Acts 16:6-10.
21. The beginning of the gospel in Philippi.
(42) Acts 16:11-40.
22. The planting of the church in Thessalonica .
(43) Acts 17:1-9; 1 Thess. 1:2-2:14; 2 Thess, 3:7, 8; Phil. 4:15, 16.
TOPICS FOR STUDY.
70. The various interpretations of Acts 16:6, and the bearing of
them on the location of the Galatian churches.
Ramsay, C. R. E., chap, iv; also in Expositor, 1894, 1895; Chase in
Expositor, Dec, 1893, May, 1894; and reff. under topics 53, 54-
71. The so-called "we-sections" of the book of Acts; their ex
tent, character for accuracy, and authorship.
Weizsaecker, Vol. I, pp. 241-246; Wendt, pp. 16 ff; Ramsay, C. R. E.
pp. 6-8 and Index; McGiffert, pp.. 234 ff.
72. The political status of Macedonia and Achaia, and of the
cities Philippi, Thessalonica, Athens, Corinth.
CH, chaps, ix and xii passim; A. I. Essays: Morey, Rome and the
Provinces ; arts, in Smith, DB. ; Hastings, DB. ; Davis, DB. ; Bur
ton, art. The Politarchs, Am. Jour. Theol., July, 1898.
73. The founding of the church in Thessalonica as reported in
Acts, and as told in i Thess.
Bornemann, Kommentar ueberdie Thessalonicherbriefe (Meyer Series),
pp. 11-29.
74. The missionary policy pursued by Paul under the guidance
of the Spirit.

22 HANDBOOK OF THE LIFE OF PAUL.
23. Preaching in the synagogue at Bercea.
(44) Acts 17:10-15.
24. Paul at Athens.
(45) Acts 17:16-34; 1 Thess. 3:1, 2.
25. First ministry in Corinth; the two letters to the Thessa
lonians.
(46) Acts 18:1-17; 1 Cor. 9:1, 2; 3:5, 6, 10; 1:14-16; 2:1-5; 3:1, 2; 9:11.
12; 2 Cor. 11:7-9, l9> ' Thess. 3:6, 7; Phil. 4:15.
¦ Thessalonians; a Thessalonians.1 TOPICS FOR STUDY.
75. Paul's attitude toward heathen peoples and their religion, as
shown in the speech at Athens and the epistle to the
Romans.
76. Where and before whom was Paul's speech in Athens de
livered?
Ramsay, St. Paul, pp. 241 f, 260 f, and in Expositor, September and
October, 1895 ; Manatt, Must we give up the Pauline Areopagus?, in
Andover Review, Nov., 1892.
TJ. Communication between Paul and the church in Philippi.
Phil. 4:15; 2 Cor. 11:9, 1 Thess. 3;6, compared with 1:1; Part II of this
book, section on Philippians.
78. The occasion, purpose, and date of First Thessalonians.
On this and all subsequent similar topics see Part II of this book,
Gloag, Godet, McGiffert, notes in RL. Cf. Method of Study, 3.
79. The analysis of First Thessalonians.
On this and all similar topics see Part II of this book, Abbott, Godet,
and the Commentaries on the respective books. But see Method of
Study, 3 (d).
80. The occasion, purpose, and date of Second Thessalonians.
81. The analysis of Second Thessalonians.

1 The insertion of the name of a letter in bold-face type indicates that the letter was
written In the period covered by the section under which it stands. Cf. Method of Study, 3.

OUTLINE OF HIS LIFE. 2$
26. Return to Syria, and third sojourn in Antioch; the letter to
the Galatians.
(47) Acts i8:i8-23«.
Oalatians. TOPICS FOR STUDY.
82. The expectations of the apostle Paul concerning the com
ing of Christ reflected in 1 Thess. and 2 Thess; the distinc
tion between expectation and definite teaching; the rela
tion of his expectations and teaching to the teaching of
Jesus; the point of view of the two letters compared.
83. The genuineness and integrity of the letters to the Thessa
lonians.
Salmon, Lect. xx; Juelicher, pp. 34-44; Weizsaecker, Vol. I, pp. 293-
298; Schmidt, Der Erste Thessalonicherbrief, nebst einem Exurs
ueber den zweiten gleichnamigen ; Weiss, pp. 6 ff ; Bornemann, Kom-
mentar (Meyer Series), pp. 300-317 ; 498 ff.
84. The occasion, purpose, and date of Galatians.
See under topic 78, and as respects date cf. reff. under topic 42.
85. The analysis of Galatians.
86. The genuineness of Galatians, First and Second Corinthians,
and Romans; the attitude of modern criticism since Baur.
Baur, St. Paul, chaps, i— iii ; Salmon, Lectures ii and xx; Knowling,
Witness of the Epistles, chap, ii, iii; Weiss, pp. 19-46.

24 HANDBOOK OF THE LIFE OF PAUL.
CHAPTER VII.
THIRD MISSIONARY JOURNEY.
27. The churches of the Galatian region and Phrygia revisited.
(48) Acts 18:23.
28. Apollos in Ephesus and Corinth.
(49) Acts 18:24-28; 1 Cor. 3:5, 6.
29. Paul's ministry in Ephesus: the first letter to the Corin
thians.
(50) Acts 19:1-20:1.
(1) Twelve disciples baptized by Paul.
Acts 19:1-7.
(2) The gospel preached in Ephesus and made known in all
Asia.
Acts 19:8-10; 19:26; 20:18-35; 1 Cor. 4:11-13.
(3) Miracles wrought.
Acts 19:11-20.
(4) Communication with Corinth.
1 Cor. 5:9; 7:1; 1:11; 16:17; 4:17; 16:10; 16:8; cf. also 2 Cor. 12:14;
13:1.
¦ Corinthians. TOPICS FOR STUDY.
90. The regions referred to in Acts 18:23; cf. topics 53, 54, 70.
91. The province of Asia : its extent and political status. ,
CH, chap, xvi; Smith, DB. ; Hastings, DB. ; Davis, DB., art. Asia.
92. The city of Ephesus : its political status, characteristics,
and religious condition.
CH, chap, xvi; Smith. DB. ; Hastings, DB. ; Davis, DB., art. Ephesus;
Ramsay, C. RvE., chap. vii.
93. Sorcery and magic among the Greeks and Jews.
CH, chap, xiv; Doellinger, Gentile and Jew, Vol. II, pp. 210 ff;
Lightfoot, Com. on Colossians, pp. 375 ff.
94. The occasion, purpose, and date of First Corinthians.

OUTLINE OF HIS LIFE. 25
(5) Plans for the future.
Acts 19:21,22; 1 Cor. 16:3-11; 2 Cor. 1:15-17, 23.
(6) The riot of Demetrius, and PauFs departure.
Acts 19:23 — 20:1: cf. 1 Cor. 15:30-32; 2 Cor. 1:8. 9.
30. From Ephesus into Macedonia; the second letter to the
Corinthians.
(51) Acts 20:1.
a Corinthians.
31. In Macedonia and Achaia; the letter to the Romans.
(52) Acts 20:2, 3.
Romans. TOPICS FOR STUDY.
95. The- analysis of First Corinthians.
96. The occasion, purpose, and date of Second Corinthians.
97. The analysis of Second Corinthians.
98. The unity of Second Corinthians.
Clemen, pp. 57-66, esp. 66; Weiss, pp. 30 ff; Kennedy, in Expositor,
September, 1897, pp.' 231 ff, October, 1897, pp. 285 ff, and October,
1899, pp. 182 ff; McGiffert. pp. 311 ff.
99. The communication between Paul and the Corinthians in
this period : a connected account, including discussion
of the lost letter or letters.
RL, pp. 216 ff; CH, chap, xv; Farrar, chap, xxiii; Gloag, pp. 174-
180; Godet, pp. 295 ff ; Weiss, pp, 28 ff ; McGiffert, pp. 310 ff.
100. The Christ-party at Corinth.
Baur, Die Christus-partei in der Corinthgemeinde, Tuebinger Zeit-
. schrift f. Theologen, 1832 ; in this essay Baur first set forth the
elements of his theory of the apostolic history; though not easily
accessible, it is cited here because of its historic significance;
Neander, Bk. Ill, chap, vii, med. ; Godet, pp. 250-256; Weiss, p. 29;
McGiffert, pp. 295 ff; Weizsaecker, Vol. I, pp. 354 ff; Lechler,
Vol. I, pp. 182 ff.
101. The situation of the apostle when he wrote Romans; the
occasion and purpose of the letter.

26 HANDBOOK OF THE LIFE OF PAUL.
32. The journey from Corinth to Jerusalem.
(53) Acts 20:4 — 21:16. TOPICS FOR STUDY
102. The analysis of Romans.
103. The integrity of the epistle to the Romans.
Baur, Part II, chap, iii ; Weiss, p. 45 ; Sanday and Headlam, Com. on
Romans, pp. lxxxv-xcviii ; Lightfoot, Bib. Essays, pp. 285-374;
Schuerer, art. Romans, in Encyclopedia Britannica; Gifford,
Romans, pp. 20-30; Clemen, pp. 94-99.
104. Paul's collection for the saints of Jerusalem; the churches
from which it was obtained; the method and agencies
employed; the motives appealed to; Paul's own motive
in making it.
105. Paul's position concerning the relation of Christians to the
heathen, their idols, and their sacrifices. Cf. topic 75.

OUTLINE OF HIS LIFE. 27
CHAPTER VIII.
LAST VISIT TO JERUSALEM.
33. Paul's reception by the church in Jerusalem.
(54) Acts 21:17-26.
34. His arrest in Jerusalem.
(55) Acts 21 .27-36.
35. Address to the people in the Hebrew language.
(56) Acts 21:37-22:29.
36. Address before the Sanhedrin.
(57) Acts 22:30 — 23:11.
37. The plot of the Jews, and Paul's removal to Caesarea.
(58) Acts 23:12-35. TOPICS FOR STUDY.
1 10. The attitude of the Jerusalem church and of Jewish Chris
tians of the apostolic age toward the observance of the
law, and the historical effects in the post-apostolic age.
Schaff, Church History, Vol. II, pp. 431 ff ; Moeller, Church History,
Vol. I, pp. 72 ff, 94 ff ; Lechler, Vol. I, pp. 172-189, 246 ff; Vol. II,
pp. 261-292.
III. Paul's principles and policy with reference to the observ
ance of the Jewish law, (a) by Gentiles, (b) by Jewish
Christians in general, (c) by himself.
112. Paul's relation to the Roman authority.
Acts, passim; Romans, chap. 13; Philemon; 1 Cor. 7:20; Ramsay,
St. P., pp. 304 ff.
113. The chronology of the period, as indicated in Acts 21:27;
24:1, 11.
114. The languages spoken by Paul.
115. Paul's addresses to the Jews.
(a) His address to the people; its material, structure, aim,
rhetorical characteristics.
(b) His address before the Sanhedrin, treated as above. ,

28 HANDBOOK OF THE LIFE OF PAUL.
CHAPTER IX
TWO YEARS' IMPRISONMENT IN CiESAREA.
38. Examination before Felix.
(59) Acts 24:1-23.
39. Appearance before Felix and Drusilla.
(60) Acts 24:24-37.
40. Examination before Festus; appeal to Caesar.
(61) Acts 25:1-12.
41. Before Agrippa and Bernice.
(62) Acts 25:13 — 26:32. TOPICS FOR STUD if.
120. The political status of Palestine at the time of Paul's arrest,
changes since the death of Herod (Acts 12:20-23); and
the trial of Paul as related to these facts and to Roman law.
Schuerer, !Div. II, Vol. II, pp. 166-191; Mathews; A. I. Essays:
Morey, The Trial of Paul.
121. Herod Agrippa II; his relation to the other Herods of the
New Testament; his jurisdiction and relation to the pro
curators; his personal character.
Farrar, The Herods; Hastings, DB. ; Smith, DB., art. Herod.
122. The date of the accession of Festus, and its bearing on the
chronology of the life of Paul.
WlESELER, pp. 66-99; SCHUERER, § 19 (Div. I J Vol. II, pp. l82 ff.);
Holtzmann, Neutestamentliche Zeitgeschichte, pp. 128 ff; Harnack,
Vol. I, pp. 233-239; McGiffert, pp. 356 f (see also Am. Jour.
Theol., Vol. I, pp. 145-149); Rhees, § 30; Mathews in Biblical
World, Nov., 1897; Harnack, Vol. I, pp. 234-239; Gilbert, App.
II; Hastings, DB., arts. Chronology and Festus.
123. Paul's sources of income.
Ramsay, St. P., pp. 310 ff.
124. Paul's addresses before the Roman authorities, studied in
the manner suggested in topic 115.
125. Paul as an orator: based on topics 115 and 124.

OUTLINE OF HIS LIFE. 2Q
CHAPTER X.
VOYAGE TO ROME.'
42. The voyage from Caesarea to Fair Havens.
(63) Acts 27:: 1-8.
43. The storm and the shipwreck.
(64) Acts. 27: 9-44.
44. On the island of Melita.
(65) Acts 28:1-10.
45. From Melita to Rome.
(66) Acts 28:11-15. TOPICS FOR STUDY.
130. The maritime commerce of the first century.
Zahn, Weltverkehr und Kirche waehrend der drei ersten Jahrhunderte
Ramsay, St. P., chap, xiv; CH, chap, xxiii.
131. The accuracy of the Acts narrative of the voyage.
Smith, Voyage and Shipwreck of St. Paul; CH, chap, xxiii; Ramsay,
St P. chap. xiv.

30 HANDBOOK OF THE LIFE OF PAUL.
CHAPTER XI.
TWO YEARS' IMPRISONMENT IN ROME.
46. The conference with the Jews in Rome.
(67) Acts 28:16-28.
47. Two years' labors in Rome; the epistles of the imprison
ment.
(68) Acts 28:30, 31; Phil. 1:1, 12-17; 2:19-30; 4:18, 21, 22; Philemon, 1,
10, 12, 22-24; Col. 1:1; 4:7-14; Eph. 3:1; 4:1; 6:21, 22.
Phllippians, Philemon, Colossians, Ephesians.
TOPICS FOR STUDY.
135. The occasion, purpose, and date of Philippians.
136. The analysis of Philippians.
137. The genuineness of Philippians.
Baur, Part II, chap, v; Salmon, Lect. xx; LightfoOt, Com. on Phil.;
Weizsaecker, Vol. II, pp. 131-137 ; Juelicher.^pp- 78-82 ; Weiss, 59-67.
138. The date of Philemon, Colossians, and Ephesians.
Lightfoot, Com. on Colossians; Meyer, Com. on Colossians; Haupt,
Die Gefangenschaftsbriefe (in the Meyer series) Einleitung; Gloag,
pp. 275 ff ; Godet, pp. 427 ff; RL, note 12 and reff.
139. The occasion and purpose of Philemon.
140. The occasion and purpose of Colossians.
141. The analysis of Colossians.
142. The occasion and purpose of Ephesians.
143. The analysis of Ephesians.
144. The genuineness of Philemon, Colossians, and Ephesians;
criticism since Baur.
Baur, Part II, chap, iv, vi; Salmon, Lect. xx; Weizsaecker, Vol. II,
pp. 240-246; Juelicher, pp. 82-97; Weiss, pp. 46-59; Rhees. §32;
Abbott, T. K., Introd. ; Godet, pp. 435-450; 478-490; Hastings,
DB., arts. Colossians and Ephesians.
145. The Rome of Nero's day.
Duruy, History of Rome, Vol. IV, pp. 571-618 ; Vol. V, pp. 1-53.
146. The state of Christianity in Rome as it is reflected in the
letter to the Romans and in Acts, chap. 28.

OUTLINE OF HIS LIFE. 31
CHAPTER XII.
FOURTH MISSIONARY JOURNEY AND SECOND
ROMAN IMPRISONMENT.
48. The fourth missionary j'ourney.
(69, 70) 1 Tim. 1:3; Titus 1:5; 3:12, 13; 2 Tim. 1:15-18; 4:13-151 20.
¦ Timothy, Titus.
49. The second Roman imprisonment and death.
(71) 2 Tim. 4:6, 9-14, 16, 17, 21.
2 Timothy. TOPICS FOR STUDY.
150. The evidence of Paul's release from the Roman imprison
ment recorded in Acts; (a) independent of the pastoral
epistles; (b) in the pastoral epistles.
Spitta, Geschichte und Litteratur des Urchristenthums, Vol. I, pp. 1-
108; cf. Findlay's review in Critical Reviews. Juty. i894. PP- 276 ff;
Harnack, pp. 239, 718; Salmon, Lect. xx, fin.; RL. 224-226; Gil
bert, App. II, pp. 253 ff; MacPherson, Was there a second Imprison
ment of Paul in Rome ? Am. Jour. Theol., Jan., 1900.
151. The genuineness and integrity of the pastoral epistles.
Baur, Part II, chap, viii ; Sabatier, Bk. IV, chap, iv, and appendix by
G. G. Findlay; Weiss, pp, 67-68; McGiffert, pp. 398-419; andpther
reff. in RL, p. 226.
152. The condition of the Pauline churches as reflected in the
pastoral epistles.
153. The time and manner of Paul's death.
CH, chap, xxvii; McGiffert, pp. 414 f., 419, 422; Harnack, Vol. I,
pp. 233-244; Ramsay, St. P., chap. xv.
154. Possible relations of Paul and Peter in Rome.
155. Occasion and purpose of I Timothy.
156. Analysis of I Timothy.
157. Occasion and purpose of the letter to Titus.
158. Analysis of the letter to Titus.
159. Occasion and purpose of II Timothy.
160. Analysis of II Timothy.

32 HANDBOOK OF THE LIFE OF PAUL.
SUPPLEMENTARY TOPICS FOR STUDY.
165. Paul's knowledge of the events of Jesus' life as reflected in
his letters.
166. Paul's estimate and conception of Christ.
167. The distinctive features of Paul's conception of Christianity,
especially as compared with the conceptions of other
apostles and with those of the Judaizers.
168. An estimate of Paul, intellectually and morally, and of the
distinctive character of his service to the church.

BOOKS RECOMMENDED FOR REFERENCE AND STUDY.

Conybeare and Howson, Life and Epistles of Paul (CH), vari
ous editions.
Weiss, Genuineness of the Epistles of Paul; Univ. of Chicago
Press. $0.50.
McGiffert, The Apostolic Age; Scribner. $2.50.
Burton, Records and Letters of the Apostolic Age (RL)1; Scrib
ner. Si. 50.
Seidel, In the Time of Jesus; Randolph. $0.75.
Schuerer, The Jewish People in the Time of Christ, 5 vols.;
Scribner. $8.00. (Third edition of the German original in
process of publication.)
Mathews, New Testament Times in Palestine; MacmiUan.
Fisher, Beginnings of Christianity; Scribner. $2.00.
Morev and others, American Institute Essays on the Apostolic
Age (A. I. Essays); Univ. of Chicago Press. $1.00.
Neander, Planting and Training of the Christian Church; various
editions.
Weizsaecker, The Apostolic Age of the Christian Church, 2
vols.; Putnam. §5.00.
Thatcher, The Apostolic Church; Houghton, Mifflin & Co. $1.00.
Votaw, The Primitive Era of Christianity; Univ. of Chicago Press.
80.40.
Ramsay, St. Paul the Traveler and the Roman Citizen; Putnam.
$3 00.
Ramsay, Church in the Roman Empire; Putnam. $3.00.

1 These books (except In cases where a special abbreviation is given in parenthesis) are re
ferred to in the pages of this handbook by names of authors only, an abbreviation of the title being
added in the cases in which two books by the same author are named. Other books, referred to
on social points, are named in full. Works marked with * are books of special value on the
nu...er referred to, but not supposed to be consulted for the purposes of this course.
33

34 handbook of the life OF PAUL.
Farrar, St. Paul ; Dutton & Co. $2.00.
Baur, St. Paul, Eng. Trans., 2 vols.; Williams & Norgate.
Lechler, Apostolic and Post- Apostolic Times, 2 vols.; T. & T.
Clark, Edinburgh.
Bartlet,1 The Apostolic Age ; Scribner. $2. 00.
Wieseler, Chronologie der apostolischen Zeitalters.
Sabatier, The Apostle Paul; Pott & Co. $3.00.
Rhees, Notes on the Life of Paul.
Salmon, Introduction to the New Testament ; E. & J. B. Young
& Co. $3.00.
Juelicher, Introduction to the New Testament ; Putnam. $4.50.
Gloag, Introduction to the Pauline Epistles ; T. & T. Clark. $3.00.
Godet, Introduction to the New Testament; St. Paul's Epistles ;
T. & T. Clark. S4.50.
Hackett, Commentary on Acts ; various editions.
Wendt, Die Apostelgeschichte ; in Meyer's Kommentar; Van-
denhoeck u. Ruprecht.
Knowling, Commentary on Acts (in "The Expositor's Greek
Testament"); Dodd & Mead. #7.50.
Harnack, Chronologie der altchristlichen Litteratur; Hiniichs.
Gilbert, Student's Life of Paul; MacmiUan. $1.25.
Abbott, L., Life and Letters of Paul (Abbott); Houghton,
Mifflin & Co. $1.50.
Stevens, Theology of the New Testament; Scribner. $2.50.
Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible ; Scribner. $24. 00, in cloth.
Smith, Dictionary of the Bible (Smith2, Am. Ed.; Smith3,
Revised Eng. Ed.).
Lightfoot, Biblical Essays; MacmiUan. $3.00.
Clemen, Die Einheitlichkeit der paulinischen Briefe ; Vanden-
• hoeck u. Ruprecht.
Abbott, T. K., Commentary on Ephesians and Colossians
(Abbott, T. K.); Scribner. $3.00.

* References to Bartlet may be substituted by the teacher for those to Neander and McGiffert, as
given in the preceding and following .pages.

FORTY LESSONS.

CONSTITUTING THE OUTLINE OF
A CONSTRUCTIVE STUDY OF THE LIFE OF PAUL.

General Directions.
Each student should have access, if possible, to at least the
following books: (i) RL1, (2) CH, or Farrar, (3) Neander,
McGiffert, Gilbert, or Abbott.
References to Outline, §§ 1, 2, etc., are to the scripture ma--
terial cited under the indicated sections of the Outline in this
Handbook, and indicate that the material is first of all to be
thoroughly studied as indicated in Method of Study, 2. Refer
ence to CH, Neander, etc., signify that the student is to read
with care the portions of the indicated chapters which bear upon
the subject under consideration. It is not expected that each
student will have all the books referred to, but that each will use
those which are at his command. References to Topics 1, 2, etc.,
signify that the student is to investigate, with the resources at his
command, the topic so numbered in the Topics for Study. Notice
especially Method of Study, 5. The results of each student's
work should take shape in a "Life of Paul" of his own writing.
He should aim to make this true to fact and clear in style, rather
than striking and original. It should be written as carefully as
if intended for publication.
Any teacher who judges that this last requirement is too
severe for his students, may, of course, omit this feature of the
work. That which ought never to be omitted, and on which all
other work should be based, is the thorough study of the scrip
ture material.

* For explanation of abbreviations see p. 33.
35

36 handbook of the life OF PAUL.
LESSON I.
Read carefully the chapter on Method of Study, pp. 9- 1 1.
Study the scripture material cited under Introductory (A, B.).
Write an introductory chapter for your "Life of Paul" on "The
World of Paul," following somewhat the outline indicated in
Topics 1, 2, 3. LESSON II.
Read Acts, chaps. 1-8. Investigate Topic 11. Write a brief
chapter on "Primitive Christianity," covering the period before
Paul's conversion. LESSON III.
Investigate Topic 12 and write a brief section on "The Sources
of the Life of Paul." Investigate Topic 13, and prepare for your
own use a chronological table, showing only the chief points. .
LESSON IV.
Outline, §§ 1, 2, 3; Neander, Bk. Ill, chap, i; Farrar, chaps.
ii, iii, iv, ix; Topics 20, 21. Learn chapter and section titles of
chap. I of the Outline. (See Method of Study, 2 (a).) Write
chapter on "Paul's Life Before His Conversion."
LESSON V.
Outline, § 4; CH, chap, ii; Neander, Bk. Ill, chap, i; Topics
30, 3»- LESSON VI.
Outline, §§ 5, 6; CH, chap, iii; Farrar, chaps, xi-xiii; Gil
bert, chap, v; Topics 33-35. Learn chapter and section titles of
chap. II of the Outline. Write chapter on "Paul's Conversion
and Early Christian Life." LESSON VII.
Outline, §§ 7, 8; CH, chap, iv; Neander, Bk. Ill, chap, ii;
Farrar, chap xvi; Gilbert, chap, vi; Topic 40.

forty lessons. 37
lesson viii.
Outline, § 9; CH, chap, iv; Neander, Bk. Ill, chap, ii;
Farrar, chap, xvii; Gilbert, chap, vi; Topics 42, 43. Learn
chapter and section titles of chap. Ill of the Outline. Write
chapter on "The Early Ministry in Antioch."
LESSON IX.
Outline, §§ 10-12; CH, chaps, v, vi; Neander, Bk. Ill, chap.
iii; Farrar, chaps, xix-xxi; Gilbert, chap, vii; Topics, 50-52.
LESSON X.
Outline, §§ 13, 14; Topics 53, 54. Learn chapter and section
titles of chap. IV of the Outline. Write chapter on "Paul's First
Missionary Journey." LESSON XI.
Outline, §§ 15, 16; CH, chap, vii; Neander, Bk. Ill, chap.
iv; Farrar, chap, xxii; Gilbert, chap, viii; Topics 60 (cf. 42), 61.
LESSON XII.
Outline, § 17; CH, Neander, and Gilbert as above; Farrar,
chap, xxiii; Topic 62. Learn chapter and section titles of chap.
V of the Outline. Write chapter on "Second Sojourn in Anti
och," etc. LESSON XIII.
Outline, §§ 18-20; CH, chap, viii; Neander, Bk. Ill, chap.
vi; Farrar, chap, xxiv; Gilbert, chap, ix; Topic 70. Begin the
writing of the chapter on "The Second Missionary Journey."
LESSON XIV.
Outline, §§ 21-23 (giving special attention to the historical
data furnished by the letters of Paul); CH, chap, ix; Neander,
and Gilbert as above; Farrar, chaps, xxv, xxvi; Topics 71-73
LESSON XV.
Outline, §§ 24, 25 (making full use of I and II Thess. for the

38 handbook of the life of PAUL.
history, but not including the detailed study of them); CH,
chapters x-xii; Neander and Gilbert, as above; Farrar, chaps.
xxvii, xxviii; Topics 76, yy. LESSON XVI.
Topics 78, 79. See RL, p. 210; Hdbk. Pt. II. pp. 45'47 ; CH.
chap. xi. Farrar, chap. xxix. In this case and hereafter, as
the successive letters are reached, first get before the mind a
clear idea of the circumstances under which the letter was writ
ten, and then make a careful study of the letter itself, either
following the analysis given in the Hdbk. Pt. II, or constructing «
an analysis of your own. Remember that the purpose of such an
analysis is to show the plan and structure of the letter as it lay
in the mind of the writer. LESSON XVII.
Topics 80, 81; RL, p. 211; Hdbk. Pt. II. pp. 47 49.; CH. chap.
xi; Farrar, chap. xxx. See suggestions above.
LESSON XVIII.
Outline, § 26; Topics 84, 85; RL, pp. 212-216; Hdbk. Pt. II,
PP- 51-57; CH. chap, xviii; Farrar, chap, xxxv, xxxvi. Notice
the difference of view as to the time and place of this letter.
LESSON XIX.
Learn chapter and section titles of chap. VI. Complete
the writing of the chapter on " The Second Missionary Journey."
LESSON XX.
Outline, §§ 27, 28, 29 (1) — (3); CH. chap, xiv; Neander, Bk.
III. chap, vii; Farrar, chap, xxxi; Gilbert, chap, x; Topics
90-93- LESSON XXI.
Outline, § 29(4); CH. chap, xvi; Farrar, chap, xxxii;
Topics 94, 95; RL, Note 8; Hdbk. Pt. II, pp. 59-64. See sugges
tions on Lesson xvi.

forty lessons. 39
LESSON XXII.
Outline, §§ 29(5), (6), and 30; CH. chap, xvi, xvii; Neander
as above; Farrar, chap, xxxi, xxxii; Gilbert, chap. xi. Topics
96, 97; RL, Notes 9, 10; Hdbk. Pt. II. pp. 65-69.
LESSON XXIII.
Outline, § 31; CH. chap, xix; Neander and Gilbert as
above; Farrar, chaps, xxxiv and xxxvii-xxxix- Topics ioi,
102; RL, Note 11; Hdbk. Pt. II. pp. 71-78.
LESSON XXIV.
Outline, § 32; CH. chap, xx; Farrar, chap, xl; Gilbert, as
above. Learn chapter and section titles of chap. VII of the
Outline. Write chapter on " The Third Missionary Journey."
LESSON XXV.
Prepare appendix to the above chapter on Topic 104.
LESSON XXVI.
Outline, §§ 33-35; CH. chap, xxi; Neander, Bk. III. chap
viii; Farrar, as above; Gilbert, chap, xii; Topics no, 11 1.
LESSON XXVII.
Outline, §§ 36, 37; CH. chap, xxi; Farrar and Gilbert, as
above. Learn chapter and section titles of chap. VIII of the
Outline. Write chapter on " Paul's Last Visit to Jerusalem."
LESSON XXVIII.
Outline, §§ 38, 39; CH. chap, xxii; Farrar, chap, xii; Gil
bert as above; Topics 120, 121.
LESSON XXIX
Outline, §§ 40, 41; CH. and Gilbert as above; Farrar,
chap, xiii; Topic 122. Learn chapter and section titles. Write
chapter on " Paul's Imprisonment in Cassarea."

40 HANDBOOK OF THE LIFE OF PAUL.
LESSON XXX.
Outline, §§ 42-45; CH. chap, xxiii; Farrar, chap, xliv; Gil
bert, chap, xiii; Topic 131. Learn chapter and section titles.
Write chapter on the " Voyage to Rome."
LESSON XXXI.
Outline, §§ 46, 47 (including the use of the historical data
from the epistles, but not the detailed study of the letters them
selves); CH. chap, xxiv; Neander, Bk. III. chap, ix; Farrar,
chaps, xliv, xiv; Gilbert, chap. xiv.
LESSON XXXII.
Topics, 135, 136; RL, Note 12; Hdbk. Pt. II. pp. 79-82. CH.
chap, xxvi; Farrar, chap, xlvi and xlvii.
LESSON XXXIII.
Topics 138, 139, 140, 141; RL, Note 12; Hdbk. Pt. II, pp.
83-85; CH. chap, xxv; Farrar, chaps, xlviii-li.
LESSON XXXIV.
Topics 142, 143; RL, Note 12; Hdbk. Pt. II, pp.85-89; CH.
chap, xxv; Farrar, chap. Iii. Learn chapter and section titles.
Write chapter on " Paul's Two Year's Imprisonment at Rome."
LESSON XXXV.
Outline, § 48; CH. chap, xxvii: Neander, Bk. III. chap, x;
Farrar, chaps, liii-liv; Gilbert, chap, xv; RL, Note 13; Hdbk.
Pt. II. pp.giff.; Topics 150, 155-158.
LESSON XXXVI.
Outline, § 49; CH. and Neander as above; Farrar, chap, lv-
lvii; Gilbert, chap, xv; Topics 159, 160; Hdbk. Pt. II. pp. 98-100.
Learn chapter and section titles. Write chapter on " The Last
Days of Paul." LESSON XXXVII.
Test your knowledge of the external facts and general outline
of Paul's Life by fhe following questions:

FORTY LESSONS. 41
I. Name the chapters into which the life of Paul is divided
in the Outline, and give the sections under each.
2. Give the probable terminal dates of each period of his
life. 3. Name the epistles of Paul in the order in which they
were written, state the place and date of writing of each, the oc
casion and general purpose of each.
4. Give the names of all of Paul's companions and fellow-
workers. LESSON XXXVIII.
Write chapters for your Life of Paul on Topics 165 and 166.
LESSON XXXIX.
Write a chapter on Topic 167.
LESSON XL.
Write a chapter on Topic 168.

PART II.
THE LETTERS OF PAUL: THEIR OCCASION AND STRUCTURE.

LETTERS OF PAUL TO THE THESSALONIANS.

At the head of the Gulf of Salonica lies today the city of Salonica,
next after Constantinople the most important city of Turkey in Europe.
Beautiful for situation, admirably located for maritime commerce, the
southeastern terminus of a railroad, recently completed and connecting
it with central Europe, it seems destined to be with every passing
decade a place of greater importance. Twenty-four centuries of con
tinuous history are behind it, through twenty-two of which it has
borne substantially the same name. For the modern Salonica is but
the abbreviated form of the name Thessalonica, which Philip of Mace
donia is said to have given to his daughter in commemoration of a
victory over the Thessalians won on the day of her birth, and which
when this daughter had grown to maturity her husband, Cassander, gave
in honor of his wife to the city which he built on the site of the ancient
Halia. Three centuries and a half after Cassander named it Thessalonica,
Paul the Apostle visited this city bringing to it the message of the
gospel. He was making his first preaching tour through Macedonia
(his second missionary journey as we commonly reckon the missionary
journeys), and had just come from Philippi and the evil treatment to
which he had been subjected there (I. Thess. 2:1, 2).
His labor here, or at least his success, was chiefly among the Gen
tiles, and these indeed not proselytes of Judaism either in the stricter
or the looser sense of the term, but worshipers of idols. Paul and
his companions Silas and Timothy spoke the word with power and the
Holy Spirit, and with much assurance, confident that God had in that
city a people for himself ; and when the Gentiles heard them they
turned from their idols to worship a living and true God and to wait
for his Son from heaven (I. Thess. 1 : 5-10). The book of Acts speaks
.indeed only of work in the synagogue; but this, in view of Paul's own
45

46 PAUL'S letters to the thessalonians.
definite statement, cannot be regarded as a complete account of his
work in Thessalonica. THE FIRST LETTER.
Driven out after a time from the city, Paul and his companions con
tinued southward. The next point which Paul mentions is Athens
(i Thess. 3:1), but Acts tells of a visit to Bercea preceding that at
Athens. But though engaged in efforts for the inhabitants of these
latter cities, the apostle's heart yearned over the converts whom he had
left in Thessalonica, comparatively inexperienced in the Christian life,
exposed to persecution from their Gentile neighbors (2:14), and with no
mature Christian to instruct or encourage them. Disappointed in his
own repeated attempts to visit them (2:17, 18), Paul at length sends
Timothy back to Thessalonica to learn how it is going with the young
Christians there, remaining himself alone at Athens (3:1). In the
interval of Timothy's absence Paul apparently left Athens and went to
Corinth ; and there Timothy, and at about the same time Silas also,
joined him, the former bringing news which on the whole was reassur
ing and comforting to the apostle concerning the steadfastness of the
Thessalonian Christians (3:6-8; cf. 1:1). There are, indeed, indica
tions that they needed some admonition and instruction from the
apostle — it would have been strange indeed if converts so lately
emerged from heathenism had not needed both. They were exposed
to persecution (3:4) and temptation (4: 1-8), and their not wholly intel
ligent expectation of the coming of the Lord had made them mourn
unduly over the death of their friends (4: 13). Yet while a portion of
the letter is occupied in instructing and admonishing the Thessalo
nians concerning these things, taken as a whole it makes the impression
of being a spontaneous outpouring of the apostle's heart to a church
which he loved with deep affection, and in whose well-being he was
profoundly interested.
The course of the apostle's thought is apparently as follows :
analysis of 1. thessalonians.
I. Salutation. 1:1.
II. Reminiscence and Narrative ; the apostle recounts his relations to
the church of the Thessalonians up to the time of writing. 1:2 — 3:13.

PAUL S LETTERS TO THE THESSALONIANS. 47
I. Reminiscences of his first preaching to the Thessalonians. 1:2-10.
2. Review of his unselfish and sincere labor among them. 2: 1-12.
3. Thanksgiving to God for their acceptance of his message. 2: 13-16.
4. His desire to visit them. 2: 17-20.
5. Timothy's visit and Paul's joy at the news he brought. 3: 1-10.
6. Benediction. 3:11-13.
III. Instructions and- Exhortations. 4:1 — 5:24.
1. Exhortation to pure and upright Christian living. 4: 1-12.
2. Comfort and exhortation concerning Christ's coming again. 4 : 1 3 — 5 : 1 1 .
a. Comfort concerning them that fall asleep. 4: 13-18.
b. Exhortation to watchfulness and sobriety. 5: 1-11.
3. Sundry brief exhortations. 5:12-22.
4. Benediction. 5:23, 24.
IV. Conclusion. 5:25-28.

THE SECOND LETTER.
The second letter to the church in Thessalonica is manifestly closely
connected with the first.
The very occurrence of the name of Silas in the salutation of both
letters tends to connect them in time, since there is no intimation in
Acts or the letters of the apostle that Silas was with Paul except on his
second missionary journey. The situation at Thessalonica depicted in
the second letter also reminds one of that which the first letter presents.
In certain respects it is nearly the same. As in the first letter the
apostle gives thanks for their work of faith, and labor of love, and
patience of hope, so here he mentions with thankfulness that their faith
js--growing exceedingly, and that their love to one another abounds
(1:3). The persecutions which the first letter mentions still continue,
but they are enduring them with patience and faith (1 : 4). The coming
of the Lord is again the subject — indeed the chief subject — of instruc
tion. But in respect to this the situation is considerably changed and
the instruction quite different from that of the first letter. While in
the former letter Paul had occasion to comfort them in their grief over
the death of some of their number by the assurance that they who thus
fell asleep should suffer no disadvantage at the coming of the Lord, he
now finds it needful to correct a tendency in the church to restlessness

48 Paul's letters to the thessalonians.
and perturbation of mind under the influence of the thought that the day
of the Lord is already present (2:1, 2) — apparently in the sense, not
that the Lord had come as predicted in I. Thess. 4:16, but that the period
to which this event belonged had already set in. He also reproves
those, seemingly only a small part- of the church, who are disposed
to be idle and disorderly (3:6-13). This last evil is indeed men
tioned in the first letter (4:11, 12; 5:14). but much more briefly
and less emphatically. It would seem that it had increased in the
interval between the two letters. Neither letter directly associates
this tendency to idleness, with the expectation of the coming of the
Lord, but the suggestion is obvious that the two were in fact con
nected. It would be easy to reason that if the Lord was speedfty
to come, if indeed the period of his coming had already set in, all
labor for this world's goods was useless toil. So only they could
from one day to another obtain bread from those who still had some
thing to spare, this was enough, and daily labor was needless.
The apostle writes, accordingly, chiefly to correct these two errors,
one of doctrine and one of lifei Concerning the day of the Lord,
he assures them that it is not, as they suppose, already present, but
that certain things must occur before it comes. His language concern
ing these antecedents of the day of the Lord is to us now extremely
obscure, and has given rise to varied interpretations which it is beyond
the scope of this book to discuss.' The idlers and busybodies he
sharply reproves, bidding them work with quietness and eat their own
bread. The total effect which the letter seems intended and adapted
to produce is to steady and quiet the immature and easily excitable
body of Christians at Thessalonica. The lessons it teaches are of per
manent value, and in the main clear, independently of the difficult
problems of interpretation, the key to which we have possibly lost.
Courage and faith under persecution, calmness, quiet industry in the
presence of the greatest expectations — these are duties that never grow
obsolete. The plan of the letter is simple, about as follows :
1 The student who wishes to grapple with the problem of the interpretation of this
passage will find needed help, through a confusing variety of opinion, in the commen
taries on the epistle. AlforoTs Greek Testament, Vol. III., Introduction to II. Thes
salonians, gives an account of the various views that have been held.

Paul's letters to the thessalonians. 49
analysis OF II. thessalonians.
I. Salutation. Chap. 1:1, 2.
II. Thanksgiving for the Progress of the Church and
Comfort to them in their Persecutions.
III. Errors concerning the Day of the Lord Corrected.
1. Exhortation not to be disturbed by the false notion that
the Day of the Lord is already present.
2. Events that must precede it.
3. Thanksgiving that the Thessalonians were chosen unto
salvation.
4. Benediction.
IV. Conclusion. 1. Request for their prayers and prayer for them.
2. Instructions concerning disorderly busybodies.
3. Autograph salutation and benediction.

1:3-

12.

Chap

2

2:1

2.

2:3-

12.

2:13.

14.

2:16,

'7-

Chap

3-

3=1

-5-

3'-6-

16.

3:17.

18.

LETTER OF PAUL TO THE GALATIANS.

It is always a matter of interest in studying a letter to know
as much as possible concerning both the writer and the persons
addressed, especially of their relations to one another; and since a
knowledge of the time and circumstances of the writing of the letter
frequently helps in defining to us the situation from which the letter
came, it becomes desirable to determine these also. In the case of
Paul's letter to the Galatians there are special difficulties in the way of
determining these things. We know the writer, indeed, and much of
his history. But we cannot determine with certainty who the persons
addressed were, or when the letter was written, or where.
Our uncertainty with reference to these matters springs from an
uncertainty as to the precise meaning of the term Galatia as used in
the salutation of the letter.
Three centuries before Caesar wrote his Commentaries, in which he
described all Gaul as divided into three parts, certain members of those
tribes which the Romans included under the general name, of Galli, left
the territory in western Europe where they had lived, and turned east
ward and southward seeking new lands to conquer. In 390 B.C. they
came into Italy; a little more than. a century later they — or to speak
more accurately, their descendants — were repulsed at Delphi, and at
about the same time (278 B.C.) a detachment of the same stream came
into Asia Minor. For a time they overran the whole peninsula, but
about 230 B.C. Attalus,king of Pergamum, inflicted a decisive blow on
them and confined them within a territory in the interior of the penin
sula, somewhat north and east of the center. Thus there was produced
in the heart of Asia Minor an eastern Gaul, or as the Greeks called it,
Galatia. Forty years later (189 B.C.) Galatia shared the fate of the
rest of the peninsula and fell under the power of the Romans, who
however left to the Galatian kings a certain degree of independence.
Still later, in the latter part of the first century B.C., the Romans
51

52 paul's letter to the galatians.
granted to the last of these vassal Gallic kings gifts of territory lying
further south and west, including Lycaonia, Pisidia, Pamphylia and a
portion of Phrygia.
From this act of generosity, or of prudence, on the part of Rome
springs our present perplexity. For, on the death of Amyntas in 25
B.C. the Romans converted what had been the kingdom of Amyntas
into a Roman province under the name of Galatia. The word thus
had — to say nothing of its possible reference to the Gaul of western
Europe, which the Greeks commonly called Galatia also — two possible
senses as applied to territory in Asia Minor. It might designate the
whole of the Roman province, or it might describe the northern por
tion which was inhabited by the Asiatic Gauls.
Now, if when Paul wrote to the churches of Galatia, he meant by
the term to designate the Roman province, he undoubtedly included
the churches which he established on his first missionary journey in
Pisidian Antioch, Iconium, Lystra, and Derbe (Acts, chaps. 15 and 16);
indeed for reasons that need not be given here, we must conclude that he
refers to these alone. But if he used the term to designate the terri
tory inhabited by Gauls, the churches above named are excluded,
because they lie in the non-Gallic part of the province. In what
cities the churches addressed were located we can in this case only
conjecture, since the apostle never names them separately, and the
book of Acts likewise uses only very general terms (Acts 16:6; 18:23).
From 1863, when the English scholar Lightfoot published his
commentary on the epistle, maintaining that Acts 16:6 refers to a jour
ney into northern Galatia, and that the letter is addressed to the churches
established on that journey, there was until lately, among English and
American scholars especially, but little dissent from this theory.
Recently, however, Professor W. M. Ramsay, having accumulated fresh
evidence by exploration in Asia Minor, has propounded anew the
theory which had previously been maintained by some but without
gaining many adherents, that the Galatian churches of the New Testa
ment were those at Pisidian Antioch, Iconium, Lystra and Derbe.
According to this theory, we know nothing of churches in the Gallic
portion of the province. Acts 16:6 is either a recapitulatory statement
of the journey through the southern part of the province, or refers to
a rapid journey from Iconium, Antioch, or other point in that region.

PAUL'S LETTER TO THE GALATIANS. 53
to the place at which the roads to Bithynia and Troas parted; and Acts
18:23 describes a journey through the southern portion of the prov
ince. Deciding where the churches were located decides also when they
were founded, and in part when the letter was written. The churches
of southern Galatia were established on the first missionary journey
(Acts, chaps. 13, 14). If there were any churches in northern Galatia
established by Paul, he planted them on the second journey, at the
time indicated by Acts 16:6. In the former case, since accordingto
Gal. 4: 13 Paul had been in Galatia twice and only twice when he wrote
the letter, the writing must have occurred after the journey narrated in
Acts 16:1-6, and before that referred to in Acts 18:23. But if the
letter was addressed to churches in northern Galatia, the letter must have
been written after the journey of Acts 18: 23.
These questions are still in dispute, and an altogether certain con
clusion does not seem as yet attainable. At present the probability'
seems to lie on the side of the South-Galatian view, though perhaps
not in precisely the form advocated by Ramsay.
But while we are thus unable to locate the letter exactly in the life
of the writer, or even to determine to whom it was written, we are
fortunate in being able from the letter itself, to determine with a good
degree of definiteness, the previous relations of the writer and his
readers, the circumstances which gave rise to the letter, and the pur
pose for which it was written.
The Galatians to whom the letter was written were Gentile Christians,
converted from heathenism (4:8), and evidently under the preaching of
Paul (1:8, 9; 4: 13; cf. 3: 1. ff.). Paul's first preaching to them was
^occasioned by illness on his part (4: 13). Apparently he had intended
to go in some other direction, but was led by illness either to go to
Galatia, or being on his way through it to tarry there. He proclaimed
to them Jesus Christ and him crucified, preaching salvation through
him by faith apart from works of law (3:1, 2). He had evidently
imposed no Jewish ordinances, but had taught a purely spiritual
Christianity (3:4; 4:8-11; 5:3, 4). The Galatians had received him
and his gospel with enthusiasm (4: 12-15). They had been baptized
(3:27) and had received the gift of the Spirit (3 : 2-5). Paul had visited
them a second time, as is implied in his speaking of "the former"

54 PAUL'S LETTER TO THE GALATIANS.
visit (4:13). Possibly before the second visit there had been false
teachers among them (1 : 9), but if so the defection had not been
serious (5:7). More recently, however, a serious attempt had been
made to draw them away from the gospel as Paul had preached it to
them (1:7; 5:12). This new doctrine opposed to Paul's, was of a
judaistic and legalistic type. Its advocates had endeavored to win
the Galatians by appealing to the promises of the Old Testament to
Abraham and his seed, evidently teaching them either that salvation
was possible only to those who were, by blood or adoption, children of
Abraham, or that the highest privileges belonged only to these. Though
the letter makes no definite statement on this point, it easily appears
from the counter argument of the apostle in chapters 3 and 4. (See
especially 3:7,9, 14; 4:21-31). They had laid chief stress upon
circumcision, this being the initiatory rite by which a Gentile was
adopted into the family of Abraham. Though they had cautiously
abstained from endeavoring to impose the whole Jewish law, or from
pointing out that this was logically involved in what they did demand,
they had induced the Galatians to adopt the Jewish feasts and fasts
(4: 10). That they denied the apostolic authority of Paul was a neces
sary consequence of their denial of all the distinctive doctrines of his
preaching. This denial seems to have taken the form of representing
Paul as a renegade follower of the Twelve, a man who knew nothing
of Christianity except what he had learned from the Twelve, and who
had perverted this. This appears from the nature of Paul's defense of
his independent authority as an apostle in the first two chapters of the
letter. This assault of the judaizers upon the Galatians was upon the very
point of succeeding when Paul learned of the state of affairs. They were
already removing from the gospel which Paul had taught (1:6); he feared
that his labor on them was wasted (4: 11); yet in a hopeful moment he
was confident in the Lord that they would not be carried away (5:10).
Such is the situation that gives rise to the letter. If it seems to
have a double purpose, partly to defend himself, partly to defend his
gospel, this is only in appearance. The defense of himself is forced
on him by the relation in which the question of his authority stands to
the truth of his gospel. Considerable space is necessarily devoted at
the outset to this matter, since it was of little use to argue, and of no

paul's letter to the galatians. 55
use to affirm, while his readers doubted his claim to be an authorized
expounder of the gospel. The apostle carefully guards his doctrine
from certain specious but false and mischievous inferences from it
(5: x3 ff)> and a few other minor matters are touched upon. But the
one central purpose of the letter is to arrest the progress of that
perverted gospel of salvation through works of law, which the Galatians
were on the very point of accepting, and to win them back to faith
in Jesus Christ apart from works of law, — the gospel which Paul
himself had taught them and which he believed to be the only true
gospel of Christ.
Incidentally the letter affords us most important information which
we cannot suppose to have been any part of the apostle's plan to transmit
to us, but which is not on that account the less valuable. Thus no other
letter contains so full and objective a piece of autobiography as that
which he has given us in the first two chapters of this letter. Not less
valuable is its contribution to the history of the apostolic age. It
carries us into the very heart of the controversy between the narrow,
judaistic conception of the gospel, and that more enlightened, broader
view of which Paul was the chief champion in the first age of the church.
The story is told indeed in part in Acts; but in the letter we have not
so much an account of the controversy as a voice out from the conflict
itself. The information is first hand; the colors have the freshness and
vividness of nature. Not least important for us today is the testimony
which the letter bears to the limits of that controversy. A just inter
pretation of the second chapter shows most clearly not that Peter and
Paul were in sharp antagonism lo one another, representatives of
opposing factions, but that while they did not see altogether alike, and
while, especially, Peter lacked the steadiness of vision necessary to make
him stand firmly for the more liberal view, yet neither he nor even
James opposed Paul. The opponents of Paul were certain " false
brethren privily brought in ... to spy out our liberty". They had
indeed influence enough with the Jerusalem apostles to lead them to
urge Paul to pursue a compromising course; but when Paul refused,
the pillar-apostles virtually took his side and gave to him hands of
fellowship, recognizing the legitimacy of his mission to the Gentiles.
From a doctrinal point of view the letter lacks the fullness and
balance of the letter to the Romans. Yet its very heat and impetuous-

56 Paul's letter to the galatians.
ness give it a value of its own. There are doctrinal passages in this
letter which, on the points of which they treat, have no equal in any
other letter of the New Testament.
The first task of the student of the letter, however, is not to cull out
the biographical matter of the letter or to master its doctrine, but to
gain a clear conception of its course of thought. This is in the main
easy to do. Such obscurities as exist pertain to details only. The plan
of the letter is as follows :
analysis of galatians.
I. Introduction. 1:1-10.
1. Salutation, including assertion of apostolic authority. 1:1-5.
2. Indignant rebuke of the Galatian apostasy, virtually
including the theme of the epistle: The gospel which
Paul preached the true and only gospel. 1:6-10.
II. Apologetic (personal) Portion of the Letter.
The general theme established by proving Paul's inde
pendence of all human authority and direct relation to
Christ. IM I — 2:21.
1. Proposition: Paul received his gospel not from men,
but immediately from Christ. 1:11, 12.
2. Proof : drawn from various periods of his life ; includ
ing also in the latter part an exposition of his gospel. 1: 13 — 2:21.
a. From his life before his conversion. 1:13, 14.
b. From his conduct just after his conversion. 1:15-17.
c. From his first visit to Jerusalem. 1:18-24.
d. From his conduct on a subsequent visit to Jerusalem. 2: 1-10.
e. From his conduct in resisting Peter at Antioch. 2: 11-14.
f. Continuation of his address at Antioch so stated as to
be for the Galatians also an exposition of the gospel
which Paul preached. 2: 15-21.
III. Doctrinal Portion of the Letter.
The doctrine of justification by faith (the distinctive
doctrine of Paul's gospel as against the judaizing
heresy) defended on its own merits, chiefly by showing
that the " heirs of Abraham " are such by faith in Christ,
not by works of law. chaps. 3, 4.
1. Appeal to the early Christian experience of the Gala
tians. 3:i-S«

Paul's letter to the galatians. 57
2. Argument from the fact of Abraham's justification by
faith. 3 : 6-g.
3. Argument from the curse which the law pronounces. 3: 10-14.
4. Argument from the chronological order of promise and
law. 3:15-22.
5. The temporary and inferior nature of the condition
under law. 3:23 — 4:11.
6. Fervent exhortation, appealing to the former affection of
the Galatians for Paul. 4: 12-20.
7. Allegorical argument from the two branches of the
family of Abraham. 4:21-31.
IV. Hortatory Portion of the Letter. 5:1 — 6: 10.
1. Exhortations directly connected with the doctrine of
the epistle. chap. 5.
a. To stand fast in their freedom in Christ. 5: 1-12.
b. Not to convert liberty into license. 5 : 1 3-26.
2. More general exhortations. 6:1-10.
V. Conclusion. 6:11-18.
1. Final warning against the judaizers. 6:11-16.
2. Appeal enforced by his own sufferings. 6:17.
3. Benediction. 6:18.

LETTERS OP PAUL TO THE CORINTHIANS.

History has left us no record of the first settlement made on the
site of what in classical and New Testament times was known as
Corinth. It was in the nature of the case that a city should very
early be founded on the isthmus that joined the Peloponnesus to At
tica and separated the Corinthian and Saronic Gulfs, and on that
isthmus there could hardly be a more attractive spot for a city than
at the foot of that remarkable rock citadel, afterward known as the
Acrocorinthus, rising 2,000 feet above the surrounding region.
But the Corinth with which the reader of the New Testament
has to do is not the Corinth of pre-historic or even of classical
antiquity, but one which was in New Testament times a compara
tively modern city. The Corinth of the Achaean League, of
Thucydides and Xenophon, was destroyed by the Romans under
Mummius in 146 B. C. A century later, in 46 B. C, Julius Caesar
rebuilt and repopulated it. It grew rapidly, and another century
later — it was almost exactly one hundred years later when Paul first
visited it — it had perhaps 100,000 inhabitants. Its population was
heterogeneous, including, almost as a matter of course in that day,
many Jews. It was a wealthy, and a highly cultivated city, though
possibly both in wealth and cultivation inferior to the Corinth which
Mummius destroyed. It was so infamous for its vice that a word
meaning to practice licentiousness was coined from the name of the
city. Today there is upon the site of this city only a village of
five or six hundred people, the modern Corinth being four miles
distant on the Bay of Corinth. Until recently the only important
remnants of the former splendor of the ancient city visible above
ground were seven Doric columns, once part of a temple.
Excavations now in progress, however, promise to uncover a
large part of the city. The American School of Classical Studies
59

60 paul's letters to the Corinthians.
having obtained permission to make excavations upon the site of
the ancient city, began work in 1896. Writing in June, 1899, Pro
fessor Rufus B. Richardson, Ph. D., says : " When we began work
in 1896 not one point in the full and explicit description of Corinth
by Pausanias was fixed. . . . Now we have in three campaigns
fixed the theatre, Peirene, Glauke, the Agora, and the Apollo Tem
ple. We have unburied a city, or at least the heart of it, and have
created a topography of Corinth."1
The epistles of Paul, even apart from the book of Acts, yield us
considerable information concerning Paul's first visit to Corinth. A
comparison of Phil. 4: 15 ; 1 Thess. 1:1; 2:2 ; 3: 1, 6 ; and 2 Cor. 11:9
enables us both to reproduce the itinerary of Paul's first journey
through Macedonia and Achaia, and to recover a number of other
important facts concerning it. We see that Paul visited Philippi,
Thessalonica, Athens, and Corinth. It is also evident that being
left alone at Athens while Timothy (probably Silas also) returned
to Macedonia, he was afterward rejoined at Corinth by these help
ers of his, Timothy coming from Thessalonica, and he or some one
else bringing him a gift of money from Philippi. As the bearer of
this gift we can think of no one else so likely as Silas ; both he and
Timothy were with the apostle when he wrote his first letter to the
Thessalonians (1 Thess. 1:1), though but a little while before he
bad been alone (1 Thess. 3:1); it seems most likely that when Timo
thy was sent to visit Thessalonica, Silas went at the same time to
Philippi, the two perhaps returning together (cf. Acts 18:5). With
what anxiety Paul awaited the return of Timothy and with what
emotions he received the news from his converts in Thessalonica,
we have already seen in his letter to them written at this time (1
Thess.). But must he not also have written a letter to the Philip
pians at this time, thanking them for their gift? Certainly it would
be unlike the apostle to make no acknowledgment of this gift, if he
had opportunity to do so. "And we know that he had opportunity,
for some one must have taken the letter to the Thessalonians to
Thessalonica, and could also have borne a letter to Philippi. If
tliere was such a letter, it must be counted among the treasures lost
* See The Independent, July 13, 1899, P- 1869.

PAUL'S LETTERS TO THE CORINTHIANS. 6l
to us. But the two letters to Corinth which we have furnish us no little
information concerning Paul's work in that city. That he was the founder
of the church, he says plainly in i Cor. 3:6, 10 and 9:1, 2. That with
fear and trembling he preached in Corinth the gospel of a crucified
Saviour with unadorned simplicity and without attempt to commend it
by giving it the appearance of a philosophy, he declares 1 Cor. 2 : 1-5 ;
cf. also 3:1, 2. He baptized but few of his Corinthian converts, not
regarding this as a part of his special work (1 Cor. 1 : 14-17). He was
supported while in Corinth, not by his converts there, but in part at
least by the gifts sent to him from Philippi (Phil. 4: 15 ; 2 Cor. 11:9).
All this we learn from the existing letters of Paul. The book of
Acts tells in part the same facts, and adds some others of interest.
Thus we learn that Paul labored with his own hands to support himself,
that he began his work in the Jewish synagogue, but was constrained
at length to turn from the Jews to the Gentiles, that he remained in the
city eighteen months, and that before he left he was at the instance of
the Jews brought before the proconsul Gallio, who, however, dismissed
the case as having nothing in it demanding his attention. See Acts
18:1-17. FIRST CORINTHIANS.
There are several indications that a considerable interval elapsed
between Paul's first ministry in Corinth and the writing of the letter
which we call First Corinthians. Yet this interval was by no means
one of neglect of the church by the apostle or of the suspense of
communication between him and them. The letter which we commonly
call Second Corinthians refers to the visit which the apostle is then
about to make to Corinth as the third (2 Cor. 12:14; 13:1). This
implies that one visit had already been made since the founding of the
church. Most scholars have judged it impossible to find place for this
second visit between our two letters, and hence have held that it must
have taken place before First Corinthians was written. First Corinthians
refers also to a previous letter of the apostle to the Corinthians (1 Cor.
519). This letter is now lost. It probably followed the visit referred to
above, since otherwise the visit would have furnished ample opportunity
to correct the misunderstanding of its meaning. Still, later members
of the household of Chloe brought the apostle news of the state of
affairs at Corinth (1 Cor. 1: 11). Stephanas, Fortunatus, and Achaicus

62 paul's letters to the Corinthians.
also visited him (i Cor. 16:17), and they or others brought a letter from
the members of the church (7 : 1) to the apostle. The letter which we
have from the apostle was written from Ephesus (1 Cor. 16:19; 16:8,)
but the apostle was expecting before long to leave there. The resi
dence in Ephesus thus referred to must certainly be that recorded in
Acts chap. 19, and as that lasted between two and three years (Acts 19:8,
10; 20:31), and was preceded by journeys from Corinth to Jerusalem
and Antioch, and thence across Asia Minor (Acts 18: 18-19: i)„ the
letter must have been written about three years after Paul left Corinth.
During all this time the apostle had undoubtedly borne the Cor
inthian Christians upon his heart, and as we have seen had several
times had communication with them, in person, or by messenger, or by
fetter from them or to them. Just now there were several matters
which urgently called for attention from him. The members of the
household of Chloe had brought him news of the existence in the
church of four parties. These parties called themselves by the names
of Paul, of Apollos, of Peter, and of Christ, though there is no indica
tion that any one of the three Christian preachers whose names were
thus converted into party-cries approved of this use of their names.
The Apollos party seems to have been made up of those who were
captivated with the preaching of Apollos. Paul had studiously
abstained from catering to the Corinthian love of philosophy, and had
set forth the simple, to many repulsive,, doctrine of a crucified Christ.
Apollos coming after Paul (1 Cor. 3 :6) had preached, it would seem,
substantially the same doctrine, but had adopted a different method of
presentation. Perhaps quite as much because of the cast of his own
mind, as from a desire to win the attention or admiration of the Cor
inthians, he had translated the gospel into the terms of philosophy.
Such preaching always attracts a certain class of minds — those who
have, or fancy they have, a natural taste for philosophical methods of
statement. It attracted some of the Corinthians, and this gave rise to
the Apollos-party. The Paul-party was probably composed simply of
those who stood by the apostle, the founder of the church and its first
pastor. Of the Peter-party we have no definite information. The
Christ-party we shall have occasion to speak of in connection with
Second Corinthians. The references to it in First Corinthians would
scarcely enable us to determine its character at all.

Paul's letters to the Corinthians. 63
But other evils existed also in the church of the Corinthians. The
vices of Corinth as well as its philosophy affected the life of the
Christian community. One conspicuous case of immorality, surpassing
in grossness even that which prevailed among the heathen, called for
prompt attention and stern rebuke (1 Cor. chap. 5). The spirit of
litigiousness prevailed too among the brethren, leading them to carry
their quarrels into the courts of law, where they must of course be tried
before heathen tribunals, to the disgrace of the new religion (6 : 1-11).
Nor was the sinfulness of unchastity clearly enough recognized among
the new converts. -The apostle's own teaching that all things are lawfu1
had apparently been turned into' an excuse for sin, and he was compelled
to interpret it, and to insist upon those other complementary truths
which save it from becoming a principle of immorality (6 : 12-20).
In the letter which the Corinthians had written to the apostle they
had asked him questions concerning marriage (chap. 7). Probably
also the matters discussed in chaps. 8-14, things sacrificed to idols, the
customs of public worship, spiritual gifts, were suggested to him by
their letter. From some source unknown to us the apostle had still
further learned that some among the Corinthians were affected with the
Sadducean tendency and denied the resurrection of the dead.
It is evident that these various matters furnish ample occasion foi
this letter of the apostle ; and in the light of the situation thus depicted,
it becomes intensely interesting even at this day so long after it was
written. In the following analysis the ten topics which the letter dis
cussed are grouped according to what seems to be the source of the
apostle's information, but are for convenience numbered consecutively
in one series :

64 paul's letters to the corinthians.
analysis of i. corinthians.
i. introduction, including salutation and thanks
GIVING. 1:1-9.
II. Concerning Matters Reported to the Apostle by
the Household of Chloe. 1:10 — 6:20.
1. Concerning the factions in the church. 1 : 10 — 4 :2l.
a. The situation stated. 1 : 10-17.
b. Justification of the simplicity of his preaching among
them. 1:18 — 3:4.
c. Explanation of the relation between himself and
Apollos, and of the relation of both to the gospel
work. 3 : 5— 17.
d. How in view of these facts the Corinthians ought to
act. 3:18—4:13.
e. Concluding appeal. and warning. 4:14-21.
2. The case of incest. chap. 5
3. Lawsuits between members of the church. 6 : 1-1 1.
4. Fornication. 6:12-20.
III. Concerning Matters Spoken of in their Letter. chaps. 7-14,
5. Concerning marriage. chap. 7.
6. Concerning the eating of things sacrificed to idols. 8 : 1 — 1 1 : 1.
a. General principles : such eating is lawful, but is not
in accordance with love. chap. 8.
b. Appeal to his own example in waiving his rights. chap. 9.
c. Warning, derived from the Old Testament, against
pride and self-conceit. 10 : 1-13.
d. Argument from the communion table. 10 : 14-22.
e. Conclusion : recognize Christian liberty, but let
Christian love be supreme. 10 :23 — 11 : 1.
7. Concerning women praying and prophesying unveiled. 11 :2-l6.
8. Concerning disorder in connection with the Lord's
Supper. 11 : 17-34.
9. Concerning spiritual gifts. chaps. 12-14.
a. The diversity of gifts. chap. 12.
b. Love greater than all gifts. chap. 13.
c. Prophecy better than the gift of tongues. 14:1-25.
d. Concerning the exercise of gifts in their assemblies. 14:2 6-36.
e. Conclusion. 14:37-40.
IV. [Source of the Apostle's Information not Indi
cated.] 10. Concerning the resurrection. chap. 15.
V. Conclusion: Sundry Minor Matters, and Final
Injunctions. chap. 16.

Paul's letters to the Corinthians. 65
SECOND CORINTHIANS.
Our First Corinthians is not a letter which could be the last word
of the correspondence between the apostle and the Corinthian church.
It called for an answer of some sort. That answer would naturally be
awaited by the apostle with no little anxiety. Our Second Corinthians
tells of the great anxiety which he had had after writing a certain letter
(2 Cor. 7 : 8), and especially of the suspense with which he had awaited
news from Corinth (2 Cor. 2:12, 13; 7:5), and the great joy with
which he had at length received good news (7 :6 ff.). It is natural to
infer at once that the letter which for a time he regretted having
written was our First Corinthians, and that our Second Corinthians is
the next in the series, expressing his joy on the receipt of welcome
tidings from Corinth. This seems all the more probable if we recall
that First Corinthians was written at Ephesus when the apostle was
expecting before long to leave there (1 Cor. 16:8) for Macedonia
and "Corinth (16:5), and then observe that when he writes Second
Corinthians he has arrived in Macedonia (2 Cor. 7:5), having come
thither via Troas, evidently from some point further south, and is on
his way to Corinth (2 Cor. 14:12; 13:1). The journey which in
Second Corinthians is in progress is precisely the one which in First
Corinthians was contemplated.
But there are other facts abou\ Second Corinthians which suggest
that there has been more intervening history than this simple expla
nation of the relation between the letters would imply. Thus the first
letter speaks of Timothy as about to come to Corinth, though his
arrival there is not regarded as quite certajn (1 Cor. 4:17; 16:10).
When the second letter is written, Timothy is with the apostle again
(2 Cor. 1 : 1), but there is no reference to any news brought by him :
either he has not been in Corinth or the situation has so changed as
not to call for any reference to him. Titus, who is not mentioned at
all in the first letter, has just made a visit to Corinth, and the apostle
has' been anxiously waiting his return (2 Cor. 2:12, 13; 7:5). The
references to the letter of the apostle to which Titus was apparently to
bring an answer do not, on second consideration, seem perfectly to fit
our First Corinthians. The letter to which Second Corinthians refers
seems to have been severe against the church as such (2 Cor. 2 : 1-4 ;
7:8-11). But this can hardly be said of the first letter. Especially

66 'PAUL'S LETTERS TO THE CORINTHIANS.
does it seem difficult to suppose that what the apostle says in this
second letter about the individual offender applied to the offender
spoken of in the first letter (i Cor. chap. 5). Second Corinthians
speaks of one who had evidently committed some offense against the
apostle personally, and against the church only in the fact of the
offense against the apostle (2 Cor. 2:5-11; 7:11, 12). But the
offense of the wrong-doer spoken of in the first letter, could scarcely
by any straining of language be thus described. His sin was against
an individual, against the church, and against God, but only in a very
indirect sense against the apostle.
It must be observed also that the situation in respect to the parties
has greatly changed in the interval between the two letters that we now
have. In the first letter we read of four parties, though the apostle
has little to say directly concerning any but the Apollos-party and the •
one which bore his own name. But in the second letter there are
apparently but two parties, and it seems to be the Christ-party that is
most bitterly opposing the apostle (2 Cor. 10:7; 11:23).
These considerations have led to the supposition that there was
communication both ways between the apostle and the church in the
interval between our First Corinthians and our Second Corinthians.
The history may be reconstructed somewhat as follows : Our First
Corinthians was taken to Corinth, but failed to accomplish its whole
purpose. In some way, perhaps because the incestuous man was
offended at the apostle's rebuke of him and succeeded in gathering a
party around him which was able to control the action of the church
for a time, perhaps because the leaders of the Christ -party took offense
at even the mild and indirect reproof of them, and possibly gathered
to themselves some of the members of- the Apollos and Peter parties,
— for some reason which we cannot state with positiveness, — the church
virtually rebelled against the apostle. In connection with the discus
sion of the matter one man made himself conspicuous by his opposi
tion to the apostle, apparently openly insulting and defying him.
News of this was carried back to the apostle, perhaps by Timothy, who
if he came to Corinth was unable to carry the case for Paul. When
this sad news reached the apostle, he wrote another letter, more severe
than the former, and with it sent Titus that he might, if possible, by
personal entreaty and argument persuade the church to adopt the

Paul's letters to the Corinthians. 67
course which the apostle enjoined. This letter — on this view the third
which we know of the apostle's writing to the Corinthians — is the one
referred to in our Second Corinthians (which might therefore be desig
nated as Fourth Corinthians). The misson of Titus required a longer
time than Paul had anticipated. It had been arranged that Titus should
come to Troas, evidently by way of Macedonia. The apostle went
thither from Ephesus, but being unable to compose himself to work
there because of his distress of mind about the Corinthians he went on to
Macedonia, hoping there to find Titus. Again he was disappointed,
and his anxiety increased. At length, however, Titus arrived, bringing
the long-desired report of affairs at Corinth. On the main question,
and with the' majority of the church, the efforts of Titus reenfbrqng
the letters had been successful. The church had repudiated the action
of the leader of the opposition to the apostle, and had inflicted a
punishment so severe that the apostle was constrained, now that the
essential point was gained in securing the renewed allegiance of the
church, to turn and beg them to have mercy on the offender (2:5-11;
7:9-12). But the news of Titus was by no means wholly of a reassur
ing character. On the one side the church, though returning to their
loyalty to the apostle, were still offended at his failure to keep his
promises in the matter of visiting them (1:15-23). On the other
hand, it is evident that there still remained at Corinth a party who were
bitterly opposed to Paul, ridiculed him, and denied altogether his claim
to be an apostle (chaps. 10 and 11). These opponents of the apostle
evidently claimed to be Christ's in a sense in which he was not such
(10:7; 11:23). It seems clear also that they claimed to be themselves
apostles (11:5, 13 ; 12:11). This is, then, in all probability the Christ-
party referred to briefly in First Corinthians (1 :i2, cf. also 3:22). And,
indeed, in the light of these references to this party in the later letter,
we are able to see that the defense of himself which the apostle intro
duced incidentally into his former letter as an illustration of the prin
ciple of waiving rights for the sake of love (1 Cor. chap. 9), had a real
and vital interest of its own, and was in fact a defense of himself
against the Christ-party. In respect, then, to the opposition from this
party, matters have not at all mended since First Corinthians was writ
ten. It must be noticed, indeed, that this party was, as respects its
leaders at least, composed not of members of the Corinthian church,

68 paul's letters to the corinthians.
but of those who claimed a special relationship to Jesus, hence, in all
probability, Jewish Christians from Palestine, who had seen Christ in
the flesh. Yet they must have gained some following in Corinth, or
the apostle would have had no need to make so extended a reply to
them. Such is th/ situation which gives rise to the fourth of the letters
which we have reason to believe that Paul wrote to the Corinthians,
our Second Corinthians, so-called. The news that Titus brings gives
the apostle occasion for the expression of his joy that the church has
at length renewed its allegiance to him, and calls also for an explana
tion of his seeming vacillation in reference to the visit to them, and
for a vigorous defense of himself against his opponents, the members
of the Christ-faction. He employs the opportunity also to urge the
completion of the offering for the saints at Jerusalem.
The letter stands in one respect in sharp contrast with First Cor
inthians. That is simple and clear in its structure. This is broken,
involved, full of digressions. Some scholars have held, indeed, that it
is not one letter, but a combination of several letters of the apostle to
this Corinthian church. Nor is it indeed impossible that there are pas
sages of the letter, as we now have it, which are in reality fragments of
some of the lost letters of the apostle to the Corinthians. Perhaps the
most probable instance of this is in 6:14 — 7:1, a passage which seems to
have little connection with what precedes or what follows, and the
removal of which certainly leaves the course of thought more clear and
straightforward. The remainder of the letter, however, despite its
somewhat tortuous course of thought, seems quite explicable as a single
letter written under considerable stress of feeling and of conflicting
^motions. Its plan seems to be as follows :

Paul's letters to the corinthians. 69
analysis of ii. corinthians.
I. Introduction, including Salutation and Thanks
giving, 1:1— ii.
II. The Apostle's Feelings and Conduct toward the
Corinthians, particularly in the matter of his proposed
visit to them, and of his former letter. 1:12 — 7:16.
1. Declares that he had acted holily and sincerely. 1: 12-14.
2. Explains his change of purpose respecting his prom
ised visit to them, and the motives of his former letter,
and bids them now forgive the one whose wrongdoing
had occasioned the letter. 1 : 1 5 — 2: 11.
3. His anxious suspense while waiting at Troas for Titus
to bring news from them. 2: 1 2-1 7.
4. [Digression — a partial anticipation of his self-defense:
See IV. below.] The manner and motives of the
apostolic ministry. 3: 1 — 6: 10
a. Not with self-commendation or with letters of com
mendation from othsrs, but in reliance on God, hav
ing been made by him ministers of a new covenant. 3: i-n.
6. Using the boldness of speech appropriate to the new
hope. 3:12-18.
c. Without craftiness, preaching Christ only as Lord. 4:1-6.
d. Weak and afflicted, yet living for others unto the
glory of God. 4: 7-15.
e. Fainting not at persecutions, but looking unto the
eternal things which are to come. 4: 16 — 5: 10.
f. As ambassadors for Christ, responsible to God, living
and suffering for men. 5:11 — 6: 10.
5. His love for the Corinthians and appeal for their love. 6:11 — 7:4.
6. His anxious suspense while he waited in Macedonia for
Titus, (cf. 3 above) and his great joy when Titus brought
good news. 7:5-16
III. Concerning the Ministering to the Saints (cf. 1
Cor. 16:1-3; Rom. 15:25,26). chaps. 8, 9.
IV. Defense of himself against his Opponents. 10:1 — 12:13.
1. Repels the charges of his opponents, intimating charges
against them, and affirms the authority given him by
Christ. chap. 10.
2. With repeated apologies for boasting, and mingled
denunciation of his opponents, he boasts of his Hebrew
blood, his relation to Christ, his sufferings and labors,
and his visions. 11: 1 — 12:13.
V. Transition to the Conclusion : his intention to come
to them ; the motives and manner of his coming. 12: 14 — 13: 10.
VI. Conclusion : parting Injunctions,- Salutations and
Benediction. 13:" — '*¦

LETTER OF PAUL TO THE ROMANS.

The letter of the apostle Paul to the Romans differs from all his
earlier extant letters in that it is written to the Christians of a city
which up to the time of the writing of the letter he had never visited.
To whose labor or to what causes the beginnings of Christianity in
Rome were due, it is impossible to say with certainty. Residents of
Rome, Jews or Jewish proselytes, visiting Jerusalem and hearing the
gospel preached there ; travelers hearing of the new religion in the lands
about the ^Egean Sea, where Paul and his companions had preached
it ; preachers of the gospel who went to Rome for the very purpose of
carrying the gospel to the capital city — all these may have had part in
bringing it about that before the apostle of the Gentiles found himself
free to visit the great Gentile capital there was already there a band of
believers whose faith was spoken of far and wide (Rom. i : 8-13). But
it is a noticeable fact that the apostle makes no reference to any pre
vious connection, direct or indirect, between himself and the church
as such. Probably neither he nor any one closely associated with him
had taken any leading part in the founding of the church. Equally
noticeable is the absence of any reference to any other person as the
founder of the church. The view that it was planted by Peter finds no
hint of support in the letter — indeed seems plainly excluded by the
apostle's conduct and his principle of not building on another man's
foundation, which he announces in this very letter — 15:20. The view
most consistent with the internal evidence is that the church was in a
peculiar sense an independent body, owing its existence to various
influences rather than to the labors of a single apostle or missionary.
Indeed it seems probable that the Christians in Rome constituted
several groups or communities rather than one organized body. The
letter is addressed to all Christians in Rome (1:7), but the word church
occurs only in the 16th chapter, and then refers, as concerns Rome,
to a local group of Christians rather than to the whole body of Christians
in the city. 71

72 paul's letter to the romans.
Concerning the character of the community the letter affords us
somewhat more definite information. The Christians in Rome were
evidently in large part of Gentile blood. Addressing himself to all
Christians in the city the apostle definitely speaks of them as Gen
tiles (1:5,6, 13). That there were also Jews or Jewish proselytes among
the Roman Christians is indeed probable. Setting aside 2:17, which
is merely an apostrophe, and 7: 1, which rightly translated contains no
reference to the Jewish law in particular, and 4:1, in which the apostle
perhaps merely speaks from his own point of view, it still remains that
Paul assumes in his arguments and references an acquaintance with
the Old Testament on the part of his readers not likely to have existed
if the church were simply and purely Gentile (the similar element in
Galatians is to be explained from the Jewish influences to which the
Galatians had been subjected), and especially that the scruples about
food and days spoken of in chaps. 14, 15, are much more likely to have
existed among Jews than among Gentiles. Yet the paucity of this
evidence and the definiteness of the expressions referring to the per
sons addressed as Gentiles, leaves no room for doubt that these latter
constituted the prevailing element of the Christian community. It
was moreover as Gentiles that they became Christians. There is nothing
in the letter to indicate that they had as yet come under such a juda-
izing influence as that, for example, to which the Galatian churches
had been subjected. All that the apostle says concerning what they
had been taught is in approval (1:8; 6:17; 15:1 4). This is not indeed
enough to show that he was entirely satisfied with them. Yet when
taken with the silence of the letter concerning any serious errors prev
alent among them, and with what we know of the apostle's view of the
judaizing heresy as being for Gentiles an utter perversion of the
gospel (Gal. 1:7; 5:2 ff .), it goes far toward proving that the Christians
in Rome already held a type of Christianity not widely different from
that which Paul preached; it makes it quite certain that they had not
accepted circumcision and the ordinances of the Jewish law as
the foundation stone of their Christianity. This existence in Rome
of a Christian community, not only predominantly made up of Gentiles,
but holding a non-Jewish type of Christianity, yet not established by
Paul, is itself an interesting fact and one which throws light upon the
progress of Christianity in the apostolic age. '

paul's letter to the Romans. 73
There is at first sight something rather perplexing in the evidence
concerning Paul's relations to the Romans, and his reasons for wishing
to visit them. On the one side it is evident that he regarded the
Roman Christians as within the scope of his apostleship just because
they were Gentiles (Rom. 1:5,6, 13; 15:14-16). On the other side
he declares that he has made it his aim so to preach the gospel not
where Christ was already named, that he might not build upon another
man's foundation, and that this has prevented his coming to Rome
hitherto (15:20-22). There is an apparent inconsistency between this
principle and his then present intention to go to Rome, which he has
already announced and which only a few lines later he announces again.
But this appearance of inconsistency is turned into a means of
gaining a more exact knowledge of the apostle's principles and
methods when we observe that in writing Rom. 15: 20 Paul really has
before his mind two closely related, yet distinguishable, principles
respecting his choice of places of labor. The one pertains to the con
dition of the place in itself considered, the other to the relation to
other Christian workers into which labor in a given place will bring
him. The latter of these two principles is expressed in the words
"that I might not build on another man's foundation." Its precise
significance is made clearer by the comparison of 2 Cor. 10 : 13 ff.
At Corinth other men had encroached on Paul's field of labor, seeking
to pervert his followers, and thus to find occasion of glorying in things
made ready to their hand by him. Of such conduct Paul declares
himself not guilty. He would not encroach on another man's territory,
or, as he says in Romans, he would not build on another man's founda
tion. Yet this principle does not exclude him from Rome. The
avowal of the principle is followed immediately by the announcement
of his intention to come to Rome. Moreover, he had long wished to
come to Rome, and had been hindered not by anything in the history
or constitution of the Christian community there, but by a temporary
obstacle now removed (1 : 13), viz., the pressure of work further east
(15 : 20-23). Indeed, he evidently feels it necessary to explain why he
had not come before rather than why he comes at all. It is evident,
therefore, both that Rome is not in the territory of another and that
his principle respecting his fellow-workers, was not that he would not
take up the work another had laid down, or carry forward what he had

74 , PAUL'S LETTER TO THE ROMANS.
not himself begun, but that he would not encroach on a territory that
belonged to another, would not seek to proselyte a church founded on
different lines from those which he approved. His principle of choice
of fields, so far as it pertained to the condition of the field, is expressed
in the words, " making it my aim so to preach the gospel not where
Christ was already named." Obedience to this principle had kept him
in the East till he had fully preached the gospel from Jerusalem round
about unto Illyricum; and even now that his work in the East is
finished, he can gratify his long-cherished desire to visit Rome only on
his way to unevangelized Spain (15 : 24). Yet the fact that he writes
to the Romans and that he plans to visit them even on the way, shows
that his principle was not that he should never do any work in a field
where Christ was already known, but that he should not allow such
work to interfere with his own special task oi planting Christianity in
new fields. Combined into one the two principles become a deter
mination to give the preference to unevangelized fields and never to
labor in places where Christ has already been preached, either when
this would be encroaching on another man's territory or when it
would interfere with his own proper pioneer work. The former condi
tion had apparently never existed in the case of Rome. We have at
least no intimation in the letter or elsewhere of its existence. We are
led to believe that though the field was not Paul's by right of having
planted the seed there, yet it was his by virtue of its Gentile character,
and belonged to no one else by any conflicting claim. The second
obstacle had till now hindered him from going to Rome, but was now
removed by the completion of his work in the East, and the fact that
Rome could be visited on the way to Spain.
But why then does not the apostle start at once for Rome? Why
did he write this letter instead of going? He had reached a turning
point in his work as a Christian missionary. From Jerusalem round
about even unto Illyricum he had fully preached the gospel, so that
he had no longer any place in these regions (Rom. 15: 19-23). The
missionary journeys in Asia Minor, Macedonia, and Greece, of which
we read in the letters to the Thessalonians, Galatians, and Corinthians,
were all past, and by them he had lighted the light of the gospel in
the centers of influence throughout the Greek world. His face is
toward the West as never before. But one thing hinders him. He has

PAUL'S LETTER TO THE ROMANS. 75
an errand to accomplish in Jerusalem. It is a matter of great conse
quence. Eager as he is to reach Rome, eager as he is to preach the
gospel to regions beyond, the long journey to Jerusalem must first be
made in order to carry to the poor among the saints there the offering
of the Gentile Christians in Galatia, Macedonia and Achaia, and thus
to bind together by bonds of love and gratitude the two great divisions
of thechurch and to avert a schism of the body of Christ. How long
time this journey would occupy it was of course impossible to foresee.
Meantime he knows only too well that the same party whose influence
he has reason to fear at Jerusalem, and who have for several years been
moving westward along the line of the Gentile churches, is not likely
to be inactive. The judaizers who have so nearly succeeded in cor
rupting the churches of the Galatians, and who have so bitterly opposed
him at Corinth have not yet given up the fight. They do not seem to
have reached Rome ; certainly they had made no marked impression
there. But no one could tell how soon they might take ship for Italy.
The time which Paul's journey to Jerusalem would necessarily occupy
would give them time to anticipate him in Rome.
The occasion of the letter, then, seems to be furnished by the coin
cidence of these facts : the completion of the apostle's work in the
East leading him to turn his face toward the West; the necessity of
postponing his journey thither long enough to make a visit to Jeru
salem; and the activity of the judaizers, involving the danger that
before he should reach Rome they would be there perverting the
Christians of the capital from the liberal type of Christianity, which
up to this time they had held, to the narrow, judaistic view of the nature
of the gospel's mission. That the letter to the Romans was written to
prepare the Roman Christians against a possible attack of the judaizers,
is indeed nowhere explicitly stated, but the epistle is certainly admirably
adapted to this end, and no more probable view of its main purpose has
ever been "suggested.
"""Thisdoes not, however, quite account for the whole letter. The
practical ethical portion of the letter (12: 1— 15: 13) bears no special
marks of being directed against judaistic errors. It dea's in part with
broad principles of Christian morality appropriate to any church ; in
part with the relations of Christians to the stjrte, a matter of special
importance to" Christians in Rome ; in part with the conscientious

Paul's letter to the romans.
Iiples, felt by some but not at all appreciated by others, concerning
the eating of meat and the observance of certain days. Such differ
ences of opinion on matters of conscience might easily become the
occasion of dissension and division. Yet it does not appear that such
division had actually occurred. In general purpose, therefore, this
portion of the letter is akin to the earlier chapters. It seeks to build
up and fortify rather than to correct or to rebuke ; only the dangers which
it foresees are from within rather than from without, and are moral
rather than doctrinal.
Taking the whole letter together it is evident that it was written
when the apostle was looking forward to visiting Rome, yet was tempo
rarily hindered from going at once, and that its purpose was to set before
the Roman Christians a clear exposition of the gospel of salvation foi
both Jews and Gentiles by faith apart from works of the law, and tc
enforce certain great principles of Christian morality, in order to
protect them against the possible assault of judaizing error and to
build them up in Christian character, particularly in the matters affect
ing their relation to the state and their internal harmony.
, The course of thought is orderly and systematic, and in the main
so clear as to leave but little room for difference of opinion concern
ing it. ANALYSIS OF ROMANS.
I. Introduction. 1:1-17.
1. Salutation, including description of the author's apostle-
ship. 1 : 1-7.
2. Thanksgiving for the faith of the Christians in Rome,
and expression of his deep interest in them. 1 18-15.
3. Theme of the Letter : The Gospel the power of God
unto salvation to everyone that believes, both Jew and
Greek. I : 16, 17.
II. Doctrinal Portion of the Letter: Defense and
exposition of the theme. 1 : 18 — 11 136.
A. Sin and guilt universal, and hence justification by works
of law impossible. 1 : 18 — 3 : 20.
1. The guilt of the Gentiles. 1 : 18-32.
2. The guilt of the Jews. 2 : 1 — 3 :20.
B. But now a righteousness apart from works of law,
available through faith, for both Jews and Gentiles,

21-

-5:21.

3

: 21-26.

3:

27-3°-

3i-

-4:25.

ch. 5.

PAUL'S LETTER TO THE ROMANS. "JJ
has been revealed ; this righteousness described and '
explained. I. This righteousness comprehensively described.
2. Bearing of this on Jewish pride and exclusiveness.
3. Accordance of this teaching with law (i. e., with the
Old Testament conception of the nature and office of
law) shown from the case of Abraham.
4. Blessedness and excellence of this salvation.
a) Blessed consequences of justification : peace ; joy
in tribulation; hope of final salvation, fully assured
^ since it rests on God's love manifested in our justi
fication and proved by the death of Christ for us. 5 : 1-11.
b) Excellence of this salvation shown by comparing
and contrasting the sin and death that came
through Adam with the righteousness unto life
that came through Jesus Christ. 5 : 12-21.
C. The changed relations of those that are justified, to
sin, and law, and death. chaps. 6, 7, 8.
1. To sin. chap. 6,
2. To law. chap. 7.
3. To death. 8 : 1-30.
4. Triumphant summing up of the blessedness of God's
elect. 8:31-39.
D. The rejection of Israel. chaps. 9, 10, 11.
/ 1. The apostle's grief over the fact. 9 : 1-5.
1 2. Yet God is justified therein. 9:6-33.
[ a) It violates no promise of God. 9 : 6-13.
b) It involves no intrinsic unrighteousness in God. 9:14-24.
V c) It was foretold by the prophets. 9 : 25-29.
d) The failure of the Jews to attain righteousness is
due to their own lack of faith. 9 : 30-33.
3. The apostle's desire that they may be saved. \ 10:1.
4. The fault of the Jews shown more explicitly. 10:2-21.
a) Ignorance of the divine way of righteousness. 10 : 2-1 5.
b) Wilful resistance : they heard but obeyed not. 10 : 16-21.
5. The nature of this rejection explained. 1 1 : 1-32.
a) Not of the nation in toto but consisting rather
in the election of a part and the hardening ot
the rest. 11:1-10.
b\ Not absolute and final. 1 1 : 1 1~32-

yS PAUL'S LETTER TO THE ROMANS.
6. Ascription of praise to God for his unsearchable
wisdom. 1 1 - 33-36.
III. Hortatory Portion of the Epistle.
1. The believer's offering of himself to God.
2. His duty as a member of the body of Christ.
3. His duty as a subject of civil government.
4. His duty as a member of society.
5. Enforcement of all these exhortations by the nearness
of " the day."
6. Concerning them that are weak in faith.
IV. Conclusion : Personal matters, final injunctions,
AND DOXOLOGY-

12

:i— 15

:i3

12 :l

, 2.

12:3-

-21,

13:1

'-7.

13=8-
-10.
5
13: 1 1-
¦14.
14
:i— 15:
'3.
1.5:1
4— :i6:
27.
LETTERS OF PAUL FROM PRISON.

THE LETTER TO THE PHILIPPIANS.
The two Macedonian cities to which the apostle Paul wrote letters
that are still in existence, are both associated in history and by their
names with Philip of Macedon. Thessalonica was named by Cassander
for his wife, who had herself been named Thessalonica by her father
Philip, in commemoration of the victory which he gained over the
Thessalians. Philippi was the name which Philip himself gave to the
city which he built upon the site of the ancient Krenides. Most stu
dents of ancient history will think of it chiefly as the site of the battle
in which Brutus and Cassius were defeated by Octavian and Antony,
and the Republic of Rome finally overthrown.
The earliest mention of this city in the New Testament is in
i Thess. 2 : 2, where Paul says, " having suffered before and been shame
fully entreated, as ye know, at Philippi, we waxed bold in our God to
speak unto you the gospel of God." Of the experiences at Philippi
on his first journey through Macedonia, thus briefly referred to by the
apostle, we have a full account in Acts, chap. 16. Indeed, Luke him
self was probably an eyewitness of these events, as is implied in his
use of the pronoun "we" in vss. n-18.
The letter to the Philippians which we have in our New Testament
was written from Rome when Paul was a prisoner there (Phil. 1: 13-
17 ; 4:22). But since as late as when Paul wrote to the Romans he
had not yet seen the capital city, it is evident that between the found
ing of the Philippian church, and the writing of our Philippian letter
there lie not only all the labors of which Acts 1 7 : 1-20 : 3, and the letters
to the Thessalonians, Galatians, Corinthians and Romans tell us, but
the voyage to Rome as well. The long cherished hope of seeing
Rome (Rom. 15:22-30) has at length been realized, so far at least as
the arrival at Rome is concerned. How he reached there Acts, chaps.
20-28, tell us. 79

80 Paul's letters from prison.
But this long interval between the visit to Philippi mentioned in
i Thess. 2 : 2 and the writing of the letter before us, was by no means one
of silence on his part or theirs. Twice, at least, while he was still in
Macedonia, the Philippians sent him money to Thessalonica (Phil.
4:16) and still again when he passed beyond Macedonia, and was
laboring in Corinth (Phil. 4: 15 ; 2 Cor. 11:9). Is it not altogether
probable that on each of these occasions Paul sent back some word,
perhaps a brief letter at least, in acknowledgment of these gifts? This
seems particularly probable in the case of the gift sent to Corinth,
since we know that at about this time he sent a letter into Mace
donia, our First Thessalonians. But it was not by letters only that
communication had been kept up between the apostle and the church.
Twice, it seems, he had visited them. When he left Ephesus after
writing First Corinthians, he came into Macedonia (2 Cor. 7: 5 ff), and
doubtless to Philippi, since both the convenience of following
the main roads of travel and the desire to see the brethren whose
relations to him had been so peculiarly close, would lead him thither.
Again, on returning from Corinth, on his way to Jerusalem for the last
time, he stopped at Philippi (Acts 20f6). Coming still nearer to thft
time of the writing of the letter — we learn that since Paul's arrival
in Rome the Philippians have sent Epaphroditus to him with a gift,
and that word has been carried back to Philippi of the sickness of
Epaphroditus at Rome (Phil. 2:25 ff; 4:108). During all these
years, therefore, Paul has been well informed concerning the affairs ol:
his brethren in Philippi. His relations to them have been, moreover,
especially intimate and friendly. The freedom with which he accepted
money from them, while refusing it from the Thessalonians (1 Thess.
2:9; 2 Thess. 3:8), and the Corinthians (2 Cor. 11:7-9; concerning
the, Ephesians see Acts 20:34), testifies to his perfect confidence in
them ; and the silence of this letter concerning any serious error of
doctrine or life indicates that the church had been exceptionally free
from those things which had made the "care of all the churches"
such a burden of anxiety and responsibility to the apostle.
The special occasion of this particular letter — perhaps the fourth
that Paul wrote the Philippians — is evidently furnished by the gift
which Epaphroditus brought, and by the fact that he, now recovered
from his illness, is about to return to Philippi (4: 10-18; 2:25-30).

PAUL S LETTERS FROM PRISON. 51
The gift itself Paul may already have acknowledged, since he could
probably have done so by the same messenger who carried to Philippi
the news of the illness of Epaphroditus. But now that Epaphroditus
is about to return he seizes the opportunity to tell the Philippians of
his present situation, hopes and fears, to exhort and warn and encour
age them, and in closing, once more to express his gratitude for their
thoughtful remembrance of him and supply of his need. A definitely
marked purpose controlling the whole letter is scarcely discernible.
The dangers against which he warns are those which proceed from the
judaizers, and from those who, going to the other extreme, perverted
the Pauline doctrine of the sufficiency of faith either into an easy con
tentment with their present attainments, or into a still grosser justifica
tion of the indulgence of sin (chap 3). But this whole chapter was
apparently introduced as an after-thought, and of the errorists to
which it refers, we gain the impression that only those who too easily
t;ounted themselves perfect (3:15) are represented among the Philip
pians- themselves ; the judaizers and the sensualists constitute as yet
only a danger from without. Aside from this, the only fault which is
mentioned in such a way as to suggest that it existed among the Philip
pians is that of pride and factiousness (2: 1-11 ; 4:2, 3), and even this
is so lightly touched upon as to imply that it was not present to a
serious degree. In the main the letter is simply the natural outpour
ing of the apostle's heart to a church with which he has always had
the pleasantest relations, and with which he has little fault to find.
But if any one hastily concludes that a letter written thus without
sharply defined and single purpose is necessarily tame and common
place, he will greatly err. Whether Paul ever wrote a dull and uninter
esting letter we do not surely know. Certain it is that the letter which
Epaphroditus carried back to Philippi was not of that character.
Interesting glimpses into the apostle's situation and experiences in
Rome, and a still more interesting revelation of some of his deepest
thoughts concerning Christ, warm personal affection and lofty reli
gious aspiration, flashes of indignation against the mischief makers, and
tears of grief over those who pervert the doctrine of Christ, combine
to make a letter of surpassing charm and interest. Were it the only
Pauline letter extant we should still be able to form a fairly true picture
of Paul, and a fairly just conception of what he believed and what he

82

Paul's letters from prison.

stood for. For its information concerning the life of the apostle and
its light upon his character, for its contribution to a knowledge of his
doctrinal conception of Christianity, and for its more general testi
mony to the history of the Apostolic Age, the letter will richly repay
careful study. The following outline will show its course of thought :

ANALYSIS OF PHILIPPIANS.
I. Introduction. i:i— ii
i. Salutation. I: I, 2
2. Thanksgiving and prayer for the Philippians. 1 : 3-1 1
II. Account of his own Affairs and Expectations. 1:12-26
III. Exhortations to the Philippians. 1:27 — 2:18
1. (Closely connected with II.) To live worthily, even
in the midst of persecutions. 1:27-30
2. To live in unity and love, enforced by the example of
Christ. 2:1-11
3. In general, to live a worthy Christian life. 2:12-18
IV. Concerning Timothy and Epaphroditus, and Paul's
own hope to come to Philippi. 2: 19-30
[Concluding exhortations begun, but immediately broken
off. 3:1]
V. Warning against the error of the Judaizers and
AGAINST THE OPPOSITE ERROR OF ANTINOMIANISM. 3:2 — 411
1. Against the Judaizers, enforced by his own experience
and example. 3:2-11
2. Disclaimer of the (Antinomian) error that the begin
ning of salvation is also its end. 3: 12-16
3. Against a self-indulgent (Antinomian) manner of life. 3:17-21
4. Concluding exhortation to stand fast in the Lord. 4: 1
VI. Various Exhortations. 4:2-9
1. To Christian unity. 4:2, 3
2. To Christian joy and trust. 4:4-7
3. To all virtue. 4:8, 9
VII. Thanks for the gift of the Philippians. 4:10-20
VIII. Conclusion : Salutations and benediction. 4:21-23

PAUL'S LETTERS FROM PRISON. 83
THE LETTERS TO COLOSSvE.
Several circumstances combine to indicate that the letter to Phile
mon and that to the Colossians were sent at the same time and to the
same place. Thus both were written when Paul was a prisoner (Philem.
1:1; Col. 4:10, 18); in both he joins the name of "Timothy the
brother" with his own in the salutation; in both he sends the saluta
tions of Aristarchus, Mark, Epaphras, Luke, and Demas (Philem. 23;
Col. 4:10-14); in the letter to Philemon, Archippus is joined with
Philemon in the address, and in Col. 4:17 it is implied that he is in
Colossse ; and, what is most conclusive, Onesimus accompanies both
letters, and is distinctly designated as a Colossian (Philem. 10; Col.
4:9). We have, therefore, in this case two letters to Colossse, one to
the whole Christian community, the other to a single man on private
business. Where was Colossse, and what were Paul's relations to the Colos
sians? Of the four rivers of some importance which empty into the
^Egean Sea from Asia Minor, the southernmost is the Msander, near
the mouth of which lies Miletus. Some ninety miles from the sea it
receives the waters of its tributary, the Lycus. On the banks of the
Lycus, twenty miles or so from its junction with the Maeander, in the
uplands of the province of Asia, lay the ancient Phrygian city of
Colossse. Its neighbors, Laodicea and Hierapolis, are both mentioned
in Paul's letter to the Colossians (2:1; 4: 13, 15). Had Paul not been
constrained to change the plan which he had formed for the second
missionary journey (Acts 16:6) he would probably have visited all these
cities at that time; for one of the main roads from Pisidian Antioch
to Ephesus ran through the Lycus Valley. But though he neither thep
nor later labored personally in these cities (Col. 2: 1), it was doubtless
through the indirect influence of his work in Ephesus that the Colos
sian church was founded (Acts 19:10,26). Among the members of
this Christian community were Archippus, who had somewhere, prob
ably in Ephesus, been associated with Paul in Christian service (Col.
4: 17 ; Philem. 2); Epaphras, who seems to have been chiefly instru
mental in preaching the gospel in Colossse (Col. 4:12; 1:6, 7); and
Philemon, at whose house the Christians or a portion of them were
accustomed to assemble (Philem. 1). Probably all of these had been
converted under Paul's influence (Col. 1:7; Philem. 2, 19).

84 Paul's letters from prison.
The letter to Philemon tells plainly the story of its occasion.
Onesimus, a runaway slave of Philemon, had drifted to the city of
Paul's imprisonment, Csesarea, or more probably Rome, and coming
under the apostle's influence was converted. Paul sends him back to
his master, but with him a letter to Philemon, in which, with infinite
tact and most gracious courtesy, he bids Philemon receive the runaway
no longer as a slave, but as a brother beloved. Nothing could more
beautifully illustrate the skill and gentleness of Paul, or the way in
which the principles of Christianity softened and mollified those harsh
institutions of ancient life for the full abolition of which the time had
not yet come.
The occasion of the letter to the Colossians also appears, though
somewhat less clearly than in the case of that to Philemon, in the letter
itself. Epaphras had brought Paul word of "the love in the Spirit"
of the Colossians (1:8). But from the same source, or from some
other, Paul had evidently learned of certain men who had been dis
seminating. false teaching among them (2:8 ff). This leaven of false
teaching must have been in part Jewish and legalistic, as the reference
to circumcision, new moons and Sabbath days (2:11, 16) implies, yet
was characterized also by philosophical speculation (2:8), the worship
of angels (2: 18), and asceticism (2: 20-23). Whether these new ele
ments were also of Jewish origin, or whether they reveal the influence
of Greek thinking is not easy to determine. But whatever the source
of this new teaching, it is evident that the tendency was to rob Christ
of his preeminent place as the perfect revelation of God, the all-
sufficient Saviour, the head of the church. To check these errors
before they assume serious dimensions is plainly the chief purpose of
the letter. The first chapter emphasizes the corrective truths, setting
forth the exalted nature and office of Christ and the sufficiency
of his work, and the latter part of the letter adds practical exhorta
tions ; but it is the second chapter that most clearly reflects the situa
tion which the letter is intended to meet, and furnishes the key for the
understanding of the whole. The plan of the letter is somewhat as
follows : analysis of colossians.
I. Salutation. 1:1,2
II. Pfhsonal portion of the Letter: The apostle's rela-

paul's letters from prison. 85
tion to his readers, his thanksgiving, prayer, sufferings for
them, and deep interest in them, with which is also blended
exalted description of the office and nature of Christ, and
of salvation in him. 1:3  2:5
1. The thanksgiving for the faith and love of his readers. r.3-8
2. Prayer for them, passing into description of Christ
according to his nature and office. 1:9-23
3. The apostle's sufferings/on their behalf and his office as
a minister of the gospel. 1 : 24-29
4. His deep interest in his readers and other Christians not
personally known to him. 2: 1-5
III. Doctrinal Portion of the Letter. Warning against
the false teachers who, by philosophy, would lead them
from Christ. 2:6-23
JV. Hortatory portion of the Letter. 3:1 — 4:6
1. Exhortation to live a heavenly life on earth. 3: 1-4
2. To put away the earthly deeds of the unrenewed nature. 3:5—1 1
3. To put gn the things which belong to God. 3: 12-17
4. Respecting domestic relations. 3:18 — 4:1
5. Prayer and other Christian duties. 4:2-6
V. Conclusion. 4:7-18
1. Concerning Tychicus and Onesimus. 4:7-9
2. Salutations from those with him. 4:10-14
3. Salutations to brethren at Colossse and instructions con
cerning the reading of the letter. 4:15-17"
4. Signature and benediction. 4:18

THE LETTER TO THE EPHESIANS.
At the mouth of the river Cayster, on the western coast of Asia
Mr, or, almost directly across the ^Egean Sea from Corinth, was the
ancrent city of Ephesus. Admirably situated for commerce, both by
sea and by land, the capital of the Roman province of Asia, the seat of
the world-famous' Temple of Diana, it was next to Rome itself the most
important city in which Christianity was planted in the lifetime of Paul.
The letters of Paul are singularly silent concerning his work in
Ephesus. Aside from two passing allusions to it in 1 Cor. (15:32;
16:8) he never mentions it in any letter preceding the one now before
us. What we know of the early history of the church we learn from

86 Paul's letters from prison.
the book of Acts. Though there were Christians in Ephesus before Paul
entered upon his labors there on his third missionary journey, yet it
was doubtless due chiefly to these labors that there grew up in this
great city a strong Christian church, and that Christianity obtained a
strong foothold in the province of Asia (Acts, chap. 19 and 20: 17-35).
But was the letter known as the Epistle to the Ephesians really
addressed to this church in Ephesus with which Paul lived and labored
for more than two years? Most of the manuscripts, indeed, contain
the words "at Ephesus" in 1:1. Yet three of the most trustworthy
manuscripts omit these words, and there is other ancient evidence
against them. This external evidence and the absence of personal
references and of that tone of intimacy which so strongly characterizes
all the letters of the apostle to the churches with which he had labored,
has led many to conclude, probably rightly, that it was a circular letter
addressed to a group of churches with most of which Paul had no per
sonal acquaintance. It is not, however, necessary to exclude Ephesus
from the list of churches addressed, since a circular letter must evidently
be written upon the plane, so to speak, upon which all the churches
addressed stand in common.
The fact that the same messenger, Tychicus, accompanied both this
letter and that to the Colossians, and is in both commended in almost
identical words (Col. 4:7, 8; Eph. 6:21, 22), together with the strong
similarity of the two letters in other respects, makes it practically cer
tain that this letter was sent at the same time with the two to Colossse.
Indeed, it is more than possible that this is the letter referred to in
Col. 4: 16 which the Colossians were to get from Laodicea and read.
And this fact respecting the time of writing may furnish us a clue
to the occasion and purpose of the letter. Paul was sending two letters
to Colossse. The messenger would naturally pass through Ephesus,
and near to other cities in which there were Gentile Christian churches,
indirectly the product of the apostle's labors. Here then was a favor
able opportunity to address to them words calculated to strengthen
their faith and build them up in knowledge and Christian character.
There is, indeed, a noticeable absence of any reference to the false
teaching of which the Colossian letter speaks, and this undoubtedly
indicates that the error was not as yet widespread. Neither is any
other error of doctrine or of life directly criticised. The Ephesian

PAUL'S LETTERS FROM PRISON.

57

letter is positive and constructive, not polemical or even distinctly cor
rective. It reminds us in this respect of the first chapter of the Colos
sian letter, though the range of thought is wider in the Ephesian than
in the Colossian letter.
While, therefore, the sending of the Colossian letter may have
suggested the sending of this also, and while the thoughts called
forth in the correction of the Colossian error seem to have given color
to the encyclical epistle also, its purpose is not identical with that of
Colossians, but somewhat broader and more general. Possibly we may
discern two influences at work, and giving character to the writing.
First, we must recognize the movement of the apostle's own thought.
Both the Colossian and the Ephesian letter, the latter especially, show
that he has been dwelling on the loftiest and broadest themes of Chris
tian thought.^ He has risen above the controversies of the hour.
Christ and his church are seen in their relation to the eternal divine
plan, that plan itself seems spread out before his eyes. The purpose
of God, formed from eternal ages, now revealed as never before,
destined to be fulfilled in ages to come ; the Son of God, in whom
dwells all the fulness of the Godhead bodily, and in whom it is the
divine purpose to sum up all things ; the universal church, which is the
body of Christ, and includes both Jews and Gentiles ; the ideal of per
fect Christian character to be attained through Christ in us — these are
the themes that have occupied his thought. The very thinking of
these thoughts would carry with it for him the desire to share them
and their uplifting power with his brethren, and would impel him to
seize the opportunity afforded by the going of Tychicus to Asia to
write them down in a letter for these distant fellow believers.
But an additional motive reenforcing this impulse may well have
been furnished by the situation at Colossse. Though the Colossian
error is as yet confined to Colossse or to its immediate vicinity, so that
it would be unwise to make any definite reference to it in a circular let
ter, yet the very existence of it would remind the apostle how subject to
the attack of error all the churches are, and would impel him to do
what he could to prepare them against every form of false teaching.
A letter having that purpose must necessarily be general in character;
yet if one was to be written what could it better contain than an
exposition upon a broad and lofty plane of the glories of salvation in

88 Paul's letters from prison.
Christ — a salvation provided in the eternal counsel of God, rich with
present blessings, pure and high in its moral teachings, most glorious
in its hopes and promises for the future, even for the ages to come?
Nor is there altogether lacking a hint that he has somewhat specially
in mind the danger that the Colossian heresy itself will spread. The
heart of that error was too low a conception of the nature and office of
Christ ; and this letter, like that to .the Colossians, exalts Christ,
showing how the whole plan of salvation centers in him.
If the Christians of Asia can be made to see the glories of salva
tion in Christ, if they can gain something of Paul's own vision of the
unsearchable riches in Christ, and can perceive that they are truly in
Christ and in him only, then there is little danger that any teaching,
though coming with the specious names of philosophy and asceticism,
will be able to seduce them from the gospel which they have heard
and accepted. With some such thought and purpose, we may believe,
the apostle wrote this remarkable letter to the churches of Asia ; least
personal of all his letters, telling us little either concerning the apostle's
own situation or that of his readers, but giving us the broadest view of
Christianity, as it appeared to Paul, of anything that we have from his
pen. Such passages as Rom. 11:33-36; 16:25-27; Phil. 2:5-11;
Col. 1:9-29 have shown the apostle's capacity for this sort of writing,
but no other letter furnishes so long-sustained an example of it. The
apostle himself almost disappears from view, leaving us face to face
with this wonderfully uplifting and broadening view of Christ and the
salvation that is in him. The following analysis is an attempt to show
the course of thought of the letter :
ANALYSIS of ephesians.
I. Salutation. 1:1,2
II. A description of Salvation in Christ, expressed in
praise, thanksgiving, prayer, reminder ; laying emphasis on
the eternal purpose of God, on the richness of Salvation, '
on the supremacy of Christ over all things, and on the
unity of the church in Christ. * 1:3 — 2:22
I. Ascription of praise to God for the blessings of salva
tion in Christ. 1:3-14
2. Thanksgiving for the faith of those to whom the letter
is sent, and prayer for them that they may know the
riches of this salvation. 1 : 1 5-23

PAUL'S LETTERS FROM PRISON.

89

3. Reminds his readers how great a change has been
wrought for them by the life-giving grace of God. 2: 1-10
4. Reminds them of their former state of separation from
Christ, and declares that in Christ all former distinc
tions between Jew and Gentile are abolished, both being
reconciled in one body unto God through the Cross. 2: 11-22
III. Transition to the hortatory portion of the Let
ter : the apostle's right to pray for them and exhort them,
and his prayer for them. chap. 3
1. The stewardship given to him for them — The mystery
of Christ which has been revealed to him. 3: 1-13
2. The prayer for them that they may know the fulness
of blessing in Christ. 3: 14-19
3. Doxology. 3:20, 21
IV. Hortatory portion of the Letter. 4: 1 — 6:20
1. To maintain unity in Christ. 4: 1-16
2. To forsake the old impure heathen life and put on the
new man. 4:17-24
3. Warning against falsehood, anger, theft, malice, evil-
speaking. 4:25-32
4. Exhortation to love, and warning against uncleanness
and covetousness. 5:1-14
5. Exhortation to be wise and sober. 5: 15-21
6. Concerning domestic relations. 5:22 — 6:9
a. On the relations of husband and wife as parallel
to that of Christ and the church. 5: 22-33
b. On the relations of parents and children. 6: 1-4
c. On those of master and servants. 6:5-9
7. Concluding exhortation to put on the whole armor of
God. 6: 10-20
V. Conclusion. 6:21-24
1. Concerning Tychicus. 6:21,22
2 Final Benediction. 6:23,24

Coin of Ephesus.

,J

LETTERS OF PAUL TO TIMOTHY AND TITUS.

In discussing the letters of Paul thus far considered nothing has
been said concerning their genuineness; it has been taken for
granted that they were real letters of the apostle Paul. This course
has been pursued partly because the purpose of this Handbook is
not to discuss critical questions, but on the basis of the results of
criticism to present the Scripture material for the life of Paul in a
form for study, partly because scholars are so nearly unanimous in
their opinion that all the letters we have thus far considered are
genuine.1 With respect to the letters to Timothy and Titus, however, the
case is different. The evidence of their genuineness is not wholly
clear and decisive, the difficulties in finding a place for them in the
life of Paul, as we are able with certainty to reconstruct it, are
considerable, and modern scholars • are by no means unanimous
respecting their genuineness. Intimately associated with this ques
tion is the question whether Paul was released from the Roman
imprisonment mentioned in the last chapter of Acts, and whether, if
1 The genuineness of I Thessalonians, Galatians, I and II Corinthians,
Romans, and Philippians is now admitted and maintained by practically all
scholars of every school save a few Swiss and Dutch scholars ( Loman, Pier
son and Naber, Steck, Voelter) whose extreme views involving the denial of
any genuine letters of Paul or even his historical existence, and accompanied
in the case of Loman by the denial of the historic existence of Jesus, has won
no following in Germany, France, England or America. With the death of
Holsten (1897) there passed away the last distinguished representative of
Baur's opinion that Romans, I and II Corinthians, and Galatians are the only
genuine letters of Paul. While there is not the same unanimity respecting II
Thessalonians, (Menezog doubts both I and II Thess. ) Philemon, Colossians,
and Ephesians, these also are severally maintained to be genuine by the great
majority of scholars of all schools (Loman, etc. excepted). See Weiss,
Present Status, pp. 46-59; Rhees, p. 45; Stevens, N. T. Theology pp. 325,
326. 91

92 LETTERS OF PAUL TO TIMOTHY AND TITUS.
so, these letters (or the genuine portions of them) were written
before or after such release. With the question of the time at
which the letters were written, that of their occasion and purpose is
of course connected, and it becomes difficult to deal with this last
question without first considering those previously named.
The genuineness of the letters as we have them, is defended by
many scholars, including Conybeare and Howson, Farrar, Dods,
Gloag, Godet, Lightfoot, Salmon, Weiss.' They are regarded as
wholly spurious by Holtzmann, Davidson, Sabatier, Weizsacker."
By julicher, Harnack, McGiffert it is maintained that an author
later than Paul probably made use of genuine brief letters of the
apostle or fragments of such letters, building about them material
which adapted them to his own purpose.4 Those who deny the gen
uineness of these letters in whole or in part usually maintain that
the apostle was put to death at the end of the Roman imprisonment
narrated in Acts, and there was therefore no second Roman im
prisonment. Harnack, however, though regarding but small parts
of the pastoral epistles as genuine, maintains that for the
events implied in these genuine portions, no place can be found
in the period of Paul's life covered by the book of Acts. To
this argument adding also that the statement of Clement of
Rome (ad. Cor. ch. 5) that Paul went to the "extremity of the West"
cannot be understood in a Roman writer to refer to Rome, but
must imply a journey farther west, and that there are five years of
Paul's life to be accounted for between the end of the two years of
Acts 28 30 and the year 64 in which we must suppose the apostle
2 See CH. App. I. ; Farrar, Excursus xxvi, xxvii, Huther, in Meyer's
Commentary, 4th ed. Introd.: Dods, Introd, to N. T. pp. i67ff; Gloag, pp.
369-391; Godet, pp. 558-611; Findlay, Appendix to Sabatier; Lightfoot,
Biblical Essays, pp. 397-437; Woodruff, in Andover Review. Sept. 1886,
pp. 61-78. 3 See Holtzmann. Einleitung in das N. T., 3rd ed. pp. 279-392 ;
Davidson, Introd. to the Study of the New Testament, 2nd ed. Vol. II, pp.
21-73; Sabatier, Bk. IV, chap, iv; Weizsaecker, Apostolic Age, Vol. I.
? Hesse Die Entstehung der neutestamentlichen Hirtenbriefe. Jueli-
cher, Einleitung in das N. T. pp. ii2ff. esp. 127; Harnack, Vol. I p. 239, note)
McGiFFERT,[pp. 398-419.

LETTERS OS PAUL TO TJMOTHY AND TITUS. 93
to have died, 6 Harnack maintains that the release of Paul from
his first Roman imprisonment is an assured fact (Chronologie,
Vol. I, p. 240.) Spitta, discussing the question from a quite differ
ent point of view, holds also that the release of Paul can be proved
independently of the question of the genuineness of the Pastoral
Epistles. (Urchristenthum, Vol. I, pp. 1-108; cf. Critical Review,
July, 1894, pp. 276ff.)
The tide of opinion seems, therefore, to be setting toward the
recognition of the genuineness of portions of the Epistles to Timothy
and Titus, and at the same time, in part independently of this judg
ment, toward the belief that Paul's life and missionary activity did
not end at the point at which the book of Acts closes, but that he
was released and after further missionary labor rearrested and put
to death. The first of these propositions it seems scarcely possible to
doubt. Who can believe that any one invented and put into the
apostle's mouth the words of 2 Tim. 4:5-21? What words in any
of Paul's letters are more worthy of him, more characteristic of the
man whom those letters reveal to us than these in vss. 5-8 ?
'But be thou sober in all things, suffer hardship, do the work of an evan
gelist, fulfil thy ministry. For I am already being offered, and the time of my
departure is come. I have fought the good fight, I have finished the course,
I have kept the faith: henceforth there is laid up for me the crown of right
eousness, which the Lord, the righteous judge shall give to me at that day:
and not to me only, but also to all them that have loved his appearing."
If the second proposition is perhaps a little more open to doubt
than the first, yet this also must be regarded as more probable than
its opposite. And if it be true, as it doubtless is, that some por
tions of these letters surprise us by the diversity of their vocabulary
and style from the vocabulary and style of the earlier Pauline let
ters, as well as by the condition of the church which they reflect,
yet these arguments are by no means decisive against the gen
uineness of the letters as they stand, and only a criticism at the
same time most acute and most sober can draw the line between the
S This third argument is of course of weight only on the supposition
that the Harnack chronology can be established, or at least the older chro
nology which places the accession of Festus in 61 or 62 can be disproved.

94 LETTERS OF PAUL TO TIMOTHY AND TITUS.
genuine and the spurious.'
Since the evidence against the genuineness of the letters and
the obstacles to placing them substantially as we have them in the
later years of the apostle's life, viz. : in that period which both the
evidence of the letters and some other outside evidence tends to
show followed the two years of his first Roman imprisonment, is
indecisive and mainly negative, arising from the absence of other
sufficient evidence that the churches were at that time in the condi
tion here portrayed, it seems wholly legitimate to adopt as our
working hypothesis (a) the release of the apostle from imprison
ment, (b) the substantial genuineness and integrity of the letters.
Upon the basis of this hypothesis, we may attempt .to reconstruct
from the letters themselves, the situation out of which they arose,
and to state as clearly as may be the purpose and plan of each.
The possibility of such construction will itself test the hypothesis
to a certain extent, though until fuller light is thrown upon the evi
dence than we now possess it must probably remain to some extent
hypothetical. It will be useful first of all from the data of the apostle's letters
and the slight outside evidence to draw up an outline of the apostle's
journeys in this closing period of his life, even though such an out-
8 Perhaps no attempt at analysis has more verisimilitude than that of Mc
Giffert, who recognizes as genuine r. Tim. i:i-3a; 2 Tim. 1:1-11; 15-18; 2:1-13.
4:1, 2, 5-21; Titus 3:1-7, 12, 13, and possibly part of the first chapter..
These portions were not, however, in precisely this order. The original let-
letters McGiffert reconstructs somewhat as follows:
(a) Note to Timothy written about the time of Acts 20:1, containing
I Tim. i:i-3a (in a somewhat different form.) 2 Tim. 4:9, n-15, 20, 21a.
(b) A letter to Titus, written from Macedonia or thereabouts, at about
the same time as the preceding, and containing Tit. i:i-6(?) ; 3:1-7, 12, 13.
(c) A letter to Timothy just before his death at the end of the Roman
imprisonment, and containing 2 Tim. 1:1-12; 2:1-13; 4:1. 2, 5-8, 16-19, 21b;
4:10; 1:15-18.
Yet one cannot but feel, and McGiffert distinctly admits, that there is
a considerable element of conjecture in such a theory. For further details of
this reconstruction, and for his statement of the occasion of the original letters
see McGiffert, pp. 404-409.

LETTERS OF PAUL TO TIMOTHY AND TITUS. 95
line must necessarily be provisional and in part conjectural
i. In accordance with the intention expressed in Phil. 2:24, and Philem. 22, he,
perhaps, went, upon his release, to Asia and Macedonia.
2. After such eastward journey, or without it, he probably fulfilled his intention
of going to Spain. See Romans 15:24-28, and Clem. Rom. 1 ad Cor. 5.
3. He returned to the East and visited Ephesus, leaving Timothy, in charge.
(1 Tim. 1:3.)
4. He went into Macedonia; thence, or soon after leaving there, he wrote to
Timothy. (1 Tim. 1:3.)
5. He went from Macedonia to Miletus, stopping at Troas on the way. (2 Tim.
4:13.) At Miletus he left Trophimus. (2 Tim. 4:20.)
6. From Miletus he went to Crete, where he left Titus. (Tit. 1 : 5.) 1
7. From Crete he went to Corinth, where he left Erastus (2 Tim. 4:20), and
thence probably wrote to Titus.
8. From Corinth he went to Nicopolis (Tit 3:12.). Here, quite possibly, he
was arrested and sent hence to Rome.
9. In Rome he wrote Second Timothy, and here he was put to death.

FIRST TIMOTHY.
It has been pointed out in the discussion of the epistles of the
imprisonment that the apostle had already had occasion to combat
in Asia certain influences in part Jewish and legalistic in character,
in part ascetic, and in part speculative — in the broad sense of the
term philosophic. The language of i Tim. 1:3-11 and 4:1-3
points to the existence when this letter was written of tendencies
similar in character. All three elements, the legalistic, the ascetic
and the speculative, appear, as in Col. 2:8-23. In these facts is
doubtless found one occasion for the letter. The apostle desires
to instruct and encourage Timothy to maintain the pure and simple
gospel against the legalistic, speculative, and ascetic influences which
tend to corrupt it.
In 3:1-13 the writer deals somewhat in detail with the qualifi
cations of church officers, and in 5 = 3-16 the place and duty of widows
is discussed. It is evident that the churches to whose condition
the letter applies are somewhat fully organized and that the apostle
feels it necessary to insist upon those who hold official positions in
the church being persons of high and pure character.

96 LETTERS OF PAUL TO TIMOTHY AND TITUS.
As in all the letters of the apostle, so in this he is concerned with
the right conduct and pure life of the members of the church in
general. In this particular letter he apparently is especially con
cerned with the danger arising from the love of money (6:5-10,
17-19). To Timothy himself, moreover, he addresses fervent exhor
tations to maintain a pure life and to give himself diligently to his
work in behalf of the church (4:12-16; 5:17-23; 6:11-16).
Thus it appears that the occasion of the letter is found in the
existence in the church of Ephesus, and perhaps in others of that
region, of influences of a legalistic, ascetic, and speculative character,
which the apostle desires Timothy to oppose and correct; in the
necessity of selecting and training men of high and pure character
to be bishops and deacons of the church, and of women to be workers
in the church; in the necessity of inciting Timothy himself to main
tain a high type of Christian life; and in the need of correcting
the ordinary tendencies to low morality in the church, especially
the spirit of avarice. The purpose involved in this occasion is through
the instruction and exhortation of Timothy to purify, strengthen, and
elevate the Christian life of the church in Ephesus.
The plan of the letter is as follows:

ANALYSIS OF I TIMOTHY.

I.

Salutation.

1:1, 2

¦i.

Timothy's mission at Ephesus.

1:3-11

3-

Thanksgiving for his own (Paul's) call into Christ's service.

1:12-17

4-

General charge to Timothy to war the good warfare.

1:18-20

5-

Concerning the conduct of Christians. a

: 1— 3:16

(0) Prayer and conduct of public worship.

chap. 2

(6) Qualifications for church officers.
3:i-i3
(c) Conclusion.
3:14-16
6.
Prediction of future heresies.
4--I-5
7-
Exhortation to Timothy concerning his personal conduct and example.
4:6-16
8.
Treatment of the various classes in the church.
5:1-25
(a) In general.
5:1. »
(6) Widows.
5:3-16
(c) Elders.
5:17-25
9-
The duties of servants.
6:1, 2
10.
Concerning false teachers.
6:3-10
LETTERS OF PAUL TO TIMOTHY AND TITUS. 97
xi. Another personal charge to Timothy, emphasizing purity and
uprightness of lif e. 6:11-16
12. Charge for the rich. 6: 17-19
13. Final charge to Timothy. 6:20, 21

TITUS.
The letter of Paul to Titus was written when Titus was in Crete
(1:5), that large island south of the .<Egean Sea (called in modern
times Candia, but often spoken of still as Crete), which even in
Homeric times was inhabited by a people of Hellenic blood, and
which in very recent times has played a conspicuous part in Euro
pean politics, giving occasion to the Greco-Turkish war.
Of the planting of Christianity in Crete we have no definite record.
Cretans are mentioned among those who were in Jerusalem on the
memorable day of Pentecost (Acts 2:11). It is quite among the
possibilities that Paul visited the island from Corinth during one
of his periods of residence there (Acts 18:11; 20:3; cf. 2 Cor.
11:25-27). The ship in which Paul was carried a prisoner to Rome
lay for some time at Fair Havens, on the southern coast of Crete
(Acts 27:8, 9), and it is possible, though hardly probable, that at
that time Paul or some of his companions were able to preach the
gospel to the Cretans. That to which we have definite testimony
is the fact that shortly before the writing of this letter Paul and
Titus had been in Crete together (1 : 5), and that at this time Chris
tianity was already both established and to a certain extent cor
rupted (1:10-13; 3:9-11). It is improbable, therefore, that on
the occasion of this visit the gospel was for the first time preached
tp the Cretans. More likely this visit was intended to correct and
strengthen the Christians already there who had been converted
at some previous time and under some influence not definitely known
to us. N
Titus had been left in the island "to set in order the things that
were wanting and to appoint elders in every city." It appears then
that Christians were to be found in several cities, but that the churches
were nqt completely organized. Doctrinal errors were somewhat

98 LETTERS OF PAUL TO TIMOTHY AND TITUS.
prevalent, akin to those existing at Ephesus, but perhaps more
strongly Jewish in character (1:10-13; 3:o)- ^n morals, too,
they were in need of sharp reproof and exhortation (1:10 — 2:15).
The repeated insistence upon sober-mindedness (1:8; 2:2, 5, 6, 12)
indicates that the Cretans were disposed to frivolousness and fickle
ness, lacking in moral earnestness and steadfastness. These facts
respecting the Cretans who had accepted the gospel, and the presence
of Titus among them for the purpose of correcting these evils, furnish
the occasion of the letter. Doubtless Paul had said nearly all these
things to Titus before he left him. But having opportunity to
send him a letter, he confirms in writing what he had said in word,
and adds at the end a few words on personal matters. Its purpose
is evidently to strengthen and encourage Titus in the difficult and
responsible task committed to him.
The structure of the letter is as follows:
ANALYSIS OF TITUS.
1. Salutation. 1:1-4
2. Titus's mission in Crete, especially the appointment of elders. i:5-9
3. The vices of the Cretans. i:ic— 16
4. Instructions to Titus concerning the things he is to teach the
Cretans. 2:1 — 3:8
(a) Sober and upright living. 2: i-io
(6) This exhortation enforced by the past and future coming
of Christ. 2:11—15
(c) Subjection to rulers and good works toward all, enforced
by appeal to the goodness of God. 3 : 1-8
(d) Questions to be avoided, and the treatment of the factions. 3:9-"
5. Conclusion. 3:12-15
SECOND TIMOTHY.
The second letter of Paul to Timothy is of a more purely per
sonal character than either of the other two pastoral epistles. It
has almost throughout the distinct character of a last word of the
aged apostle to his younger colleague in the work of the gospel.
His own work for the churches is over. He is in prison, having
already keen put on trial once (4:16), and though he has escaped

LETTERS OF PAUL TO TIMOTHY AND TITUS. 99
condemnation for the time being (4:17) he anticipates nothing but
a speedy sentence of death (4:6) and entrance into the heavenly
kingdom (4:18). For himself he has no anxiety, but looks forward
without fear to his death and with joyous anticipation to the reward
which he will receive from the Lord, the righteous Judge.
Yet almost alone, Luke only being with him, he longs to see
Timothy once more, and writes urging him to come to him. Yet
he will not simply beg of him to come. Timothy may not reach
him before death supervenes; and there are many things that he
would say to him. There are perilous times to come, all the more
perilous for Timothy that he is naturally of a somewhat timid dispo
sition (1:6-8; 2:3; 4:5; cf. 1 Tim. 4:12). Already there have been
apostasies and false teachings (1:15; 2:18). Nor is there any hope
that these will cease. Rather will they "proceed further in ungodli
ness" (2:16), and "evil men will wax worse and worse, deceiving
and being deceived" (3:13). The errors here depicted seem to
have no special relation to those of which the earlier letters have
spoken. They are, as befits the fact that they pertain to no particu
lar region, but refer in general to what may be looked for in the
future, for the most part of a general character. In these facts
and in the apostle's eager desire' to see Timothy once more lies the
occasion of the letter and the indication of its purpose. Before
the dying soldier of the cross passes away he will send to his beloved
Timothy one more message of warning, encouragement, incitement,
and, if possible, impart to him something of his own intrepid
courage. If his life is prolonged till Timothy can reach him all these things
and more will be said viva voce. But against the possibility that
this cannot be, this letter shall carry to him these fervent words,
the inspiring message of the veteran apostle to his younger comrade,
warning him of the foes he will have to contend with, and bidding
him suffer hardship as a good soldier of Jesus Christ.
.The following analysis is intended to show the structure of the
letter:

IOO LETTERS OF PAUL TO TIMOTHY AND TITUS.
ANALYSIS OF II TIMOTHY.
x. Salutation. i:x, a
2. Mingled thanksgiving, reminiscence, and exhortation; designed
to encourage Timothy to live faithfully and truly. X!3~i4
3. Concerning Phygelns and Hermogenes, who turned away from
him, and the kindness of Onesiphorus. 1 : 15-18
4. Exhortation to soldierly courage, enforced by his own example. a : 1-13
5. Instruction concerning them that are in danger of being led
away, and his own conduct in relation to them. 2: 14-26
6. Prediction of coming evils and exhortation to steadfastness. chap. 3
7. Solemn charge to Timothy concerning his future work, and an
nouncement of the approaching end of the apostle's own course. 4:1-8
8. Conclusion: Personal matters, salutations and benediction. 4:9-22