§18 / /yr///cf 'vff /a X THE RISE AND GROWTH ENGLISH NATION WITH SPECIAL "REFERENCE TO EPOCHS AND CRISES. A HISTORY OF AND FOR THE PEOPLE BY W. H. S. AUBREY, LL.D. Popular Edition. in three volumes. VOLUME III. A.D. 1658-1895. LONDON : ELLIOT STOCK, 62, Paternoster Row. 1899. CONTENTS OF VOLUME III. JPntoti XI.— jfcUbolutton. fLD. 1658-1702. Chapter LIX. — A Lost Cause, a.d. 1658-1660. PAGE England's Maritime Greatness 2 Admiral Blake 2 Disputes with Holland 2 Massacre at Amboyna 3 Van Tromp and the Broom ... 3 Dutch Supremacy broken ... 3 Blake defeats the Spaniards ... 4 Naval Renown 4 Richard Cromwell Protector... 4 Subsequent Career 5 Army Cabals : Rump restored 6 Milton's Fruitless Appeals ... 6 PAGE Military Dictatorship 7 Royalist Hopes and Schemes... 7 Character of Charles II 8 Perfidy of General Monk ... 8 Milton's Last Efforts , 9 Monk for the Stuarts 9 Convention Parliament 9 Declaration from Breda 10 "Liberty to Tender Consciences" 10 Recall of the Stuarts 10 The Explanation 11 But not the Old Monarchy ... i\ Chapter LX. — The Stuart Restoration, a.d. 1660-1666. The Stork and the Frogs ... 11 Loyalist Craze: Profuse Grants 12 Treatment of Regicides ... 12 And of Presbyterians 13 The Healing Declaration ... 14 Episcopacy restored 14 Quakers persecuted 15 George Fox's Account 16 Instances of Literalness 16 Baptists : Spies and Informers 17 The Savoy Conference 18 Microscopic Objections ... 18 No Concessions granted ... 18 Sheldon's Intolerance 19 The New Prayer Book 19 Six Hundred Alterations ... 19 A Lost Opportunity 19 The Pensionary Parliament... 20 Sacramental Test 20 Dr. Robert South 20 Corporation Act 21 Absurd Official Oaths 21 Act of Uniformity 21 " Unfeigned assent " 22 Opposition aroused The Ejected Clergy ... Prominent Victims Contemptible Successors Maeaulay 's Estimate ... "A Schismatical Act" ... Effects upon the Church A Broad Line of Dissent 23 232425 25 25 26 26 Nonconformist Narrowness... 27 Royal Dispensing Power ... 27 Triennial Act repealed 28 Conventicle Act : Renewals... 28 John Bunyan's Characters ... 29 Clarendon's and Pepys' Views 29 Burlesque at Lambeth 29 Great Plague of London ... 30 Heroism of the Ejected ... 30 Revenge taken : Five-Mile Act 31 Victims of Persecution 31 Bunhill-fields 32 Some Illustrious Dead 32 Their Public Services 32 Great Fire of London 32 The Monument : Benefits ... 33 CONTENTS. Chapter LXI. — National /Degradation, a.d. 1660-1688. PAGE Triumph of the Strumpets ... 33 A Costly Progeny 34 Samuel Pepys' ' Diary ' 34 A Licentious Outbreak 34 Milton's Belial 35 Court Scandals 35 Unreadable Dramas 35 Disgraceful Incidents 36 Charles a French Pensioner... 36 Dutch Invasion 36 The Triple Alliance 37 Fall of Clarendon 37 Administrative Changes ... 38 The Cabal : Andrew Marvell 38 His ' Rehearsal Transprosed ' 38 Milton's Later Days 39 1 Paradise Lost' : Other Works 40 Dryden's Brilliant Career ... 41 Bunyan and the Quakers ... 42 ' Pilgrim's Progress ' 43 Bunyan and the Baptists ... 44 Robert Boyle : Newton ... 44 The Royal Society 44 PAGE Ray : Willoughby : Burnet... 45 Exchequer closed 45 " Dispensing Power claimed ... 45 Test Act of 1673 46 Effect on Nonconformists ... 46 Popish Plot of 1678 46 The Exclusion Bill 47 Habeas Corpus Act 47 Freedom of Juries 47 Bushel's Case 47 Statute of Frauds and Perjuries 48 Vestiges of Feudalism 48 Scottish Covenanters 49 Torture : Murder : Revenge 49 Parliament of Eight Days ... 49 Charters annulled 50 Rye-House Plot 50 Russell and Sidney beheaded 50 Baillie of Jerviswood 50 University of Oxford and Pas sive Obedience 50 Death of Charles II 51 Romanist or Deist ? 51 Chapter LXII. — The Glorious Revolution, a.d, 1685-1689. Accession of James II 51 The Monmouth Rising 51 Battle of Sedgemoor 52 The Bloody Assize 53 Victims and Slavery 54 Court Ladies' Perquisites ... 54 Jeffreys and Baxter 54 Dragonnades in France ... 55 Edict of Nantes revoked ... 55 An Illegal Army 55 Resistance : Prorogation ... 55 Papists appointed 56 Clerical Indignation 56 Penal Laws suspended 56 Dissenters not deluded 57 Seven Bishops arrested ... 57 Trial and Acquittal 57 Passive Obedience ended ... 58 William of Orange invited ... 58 His Manifesto and Arrival ... 59 ' Lilliburlero ' Ballad 60 James and Jeffreys flee 60 A Convention Parliament ... 60 King de Jure or de Facto ... 60 Bill of Rights 61 Offer of Crown to William and Mary 61 The Revolution Settlement ... 62 Ancient Rights asserted ... 62 Character of William III. ... 63 His Difficult Position 63 ' The True-Born Englishman ' 63 Prevalent Corruption 64 Speaker Trevor expelled ... 64 Bishop Stillingfleet 64 Occasional Conformity 64 A Comprehension Bill 65 Prayer Book revised 65 The Scheme defeated 66 Archbishop Tillotson 66 Toleration Act : Its Defects... 67 Nonconformist Mistakes ... 68 Scepticism penal 69 Quakers' Affirmations 70 Restrictive Acts remain ... 70 John Locke on Toleration ... 70 His 'Essay' 70 Limits and Reservations ... 71 CONTENTS. Chapter LXIII. — Protestant Ascendency in Ireland. a.d. 1689-1702. The Nonjurors An Illogical Position ... King and Clergy Louis XIV. and Palatinate Horrible Cruelties Refugees in England ... War with France James II. in Ireland Siege of Derry Battle of the Boyne James flies to France ... Treaty of Limerick The Penal Code Its Drastic Provisions PAGE • 71 • 72 • 72 • 73 • 73 ¦• 73 ¦• 74 ¦• 74 ,. 74 •• 75 ¦• 75 •• 75 .. 7676 Civic and Social Ostracism ... 77 A War of Creed and Race ... 78 Irish Land Forfeitures 79 A Resumption Bill 80 Troubles in Scotland 81 Highland Clans : Glencoe ... 81 William and the Coalition ... 82 Battle of La Hogue 82 Heavy Taxes : New Imposts 83 Land Tax evaded PAGE ... 83 Succession Duties ... 83 Death of Queen Mary ... ... 84 Greenwich and Chelsea ... 84 Act of Settlement, 1701... ... 84 Hanoverian Succession... ... 84 Elastic Royal Creeds ... ... 85 Special Provisions ... 85 Property Qualification ... ... 85 Treaty of Ryswick ... 86 The Army reduced ... 87 William's Resentment ... ... 87 Louis XIV. and Spain ... ... 87 The Austrian Line ... 87 A New Coalition ... 88 The Old Pretender ... 88 Death of William III. ... ... 89 A Great Monarch ... 89 Things accomplished ... ... 89 Press Censorship ended ... 89 Bank of England founded .,. 89 The National Debt ... 90 Board of Trade ... 90 ^eriol) XII.— ©onstitutionalt'ssm. *3*.1B. 1702-1760. Chapter LXIV.-^-Whigs and Tories, a.d. 1702-1714. Queen Anne 92 Fierce Party Contests : Defoe 92 Duke of Marlborough 92 His Treachery and Avarice... 93 War of Spanish Succession... 94 Blenheim : Ramilies, &c. ... 94 Gibraltar taken 94 Oppressive Taxation 95 Fictitious Stock 95 More Clerical Intolerance ... 96 Latitudinarian Writers 96 Sacheverell's Sermons 96 Occasional Conformity Bill... 97 Defoe's ' Shortest Way ' ... 98 ' Hymn to the Pillory ' 99 His ' Review of the Nation '... 99 Origin of Newspapers ; 99 Taxes on Knowledge 100 Defoe's Subsequent Career.,. IQi ' Robinson Crusoe ' 101 Judges' Salaries and Fees ... 102 Act of Union with Scotland 102 Dr. Johnson and Scotchmen 102 Ecclesiastical Affairs 103 Convocation Quarrels 103 Queen Anne's Bounty Fund 104 Fifty New London Churches 104 Life Assurance begun 105 Sacheverell again 106 The Tories victorious 106 General Election of 1710 ... 106 Jacobite plots : Bolingbroke 107 Schism Act : Its Iniquity ... 107 Death of Queen Anne 108 Burnet and Bradbury 108 The Jacobites foiled 109 Flight of Conspirators no Nonconformist Loyalty ... no CONTENTS. Chapter LXV. — Literature and Manners, a.d. 1702-1760. PAGE 'Tatler,' and 'Spectator' ... no New School,: Steele : Addison 1 1 1 "NambyPamby" in Dean Swift: Alexander Pope 112 Profits of Literature 113 The ' Dunciad ' • Arbuthnot 114 Poetical Degeneracy 115 Science and Music: Handel 115 The Drama and Opera ... 116 Actors and Authors 116 Gay's ' Beggar's Opera ' ... 116 Hogarth's Ridicule 117 Jeremy Collier's Criticism ... 117 Industry and Trade 118 The Caricaturists 118 Caprices of, Fashion 119 Social Manners and Habits 119 Daily Life of a Beau Richardson : Fielding Other Novelists Prevailing Coarseness Thackeray's Judgment Country Gentlemen Drunkenness and Roystering Gin-drinking Tea : Coffee : Clubs Amusements Fleet Marriages Funerals : Rings High Play : Heavy losses ... Preposterous Bets Lotteries : South Sea Bubble Company Mania High Officials impeached ... PAGE 120121121122122122123124 12512512612612/127128 128128 Chapter LXVI. — An Industrial and Social Picture. a.d. 1702-1760. Houses : Furniture 129 Snuff and Tobacco 129 Watches : Umbrellas 129 Hanway.: Philanthropy ... 129 London Streets : Sewers ... 130 Watchmen : Water-supply 130 Roads and Conveyances ... 131 Hackney Coaches.: Mails ... 131 Population in 1714 131 Medicine and Quacks 132 King's Evil, or Scrofula ... 133 Mineral Spas 133 Innoculation : Vaccination... 133 Condition of Peasantry ... 134 Criminals : the Gallows ... 134 Prisons : John Howard ... 135 Imprisonment for Debt ... 136 Capital Offences 136 Thief-takers and Trainers ... 136 Chapter LXVII.— The O Alien Royalty : George I. ... 144 Hanoverian Court Morals ... 145 Swift's ' Lilliput ' a Satire' ... 145 Outbreaks, and Riot Act ... 145 Jacobite Rising of 1715 ... 146 The Pretender : John Byrom 146 Septennial Act 147 Proposed Limit of Peerage 147 Pensioners and theCommons 147 Rogues and Vagabonds ... 137 Press-Gangs : Pauperism ... 137 Law of Settlement 138 Adam Smith's Opinion ... 138 Effects on Labourers 138 The Game-Laws 139 West of England Industries _ 139 And Midland Counties ... ' 140 Frame-weaving: Lead-mines 140 The Protective Spirit 140 Salt-Tax : The Potteries ... 140 Manchester : Liverpool ... 141 Tonnage of Shipping 141 Coal Industry and Tax ... 141 Shipping and Exports ... 141 City Corporation 141 Savery and Steam-Engine... 142 Agriculture : Jethro Tull ... 142 Eastern Counties : The Fens 143 ld Dissent, a.d. 1714-1724. Bangorian Controversy ... 148 Bishop Hoadly 148 William Law, the Nonjuror 148 Jacob Behmen, the Mystic 148 Dissenting Sheriffs fined ... 149 Lord Mansfield's Decision... 149 Nonconformists' Influence... 150 Wealth and Endowments... 150 Dr. Watts and Hymnody ... 150 CONTENTS. vn PAGE Eminent Dissenting Divines 152 Agitate for Civil Rights ... 152 But timid 152 Earl Stanhope's Action ... 153 Ineffectual Attempts 153 The Dissenting Deputies ... 153 The Rcgium Domini 154 Walpole's Attitude 154 Later Efforts for Relief ... 154 Divided Councils Defunct Laws Self-permitted Ostracism Trinitarian Controversy Doctrinal Changes Presbyterianism extinct Antinomianism : Baptists Decadence of Dissent... Trivial Quarrels PAGE 155155155 150 156 '57 158 159 159 Chapter LXVIII.— Religious Torpor Character of the Age 160 Deistical Controversy 160 Chief Disputants : Bolingbroke 161 Christian Apologists 162 Articles formally subscribed 163 Bishop Warburton 164 His Style and Method ... 164 Bishop Cumberland 165 Theology : Politics : Morals 165 Berkeley's Idealism 166 His American Project 166 Evangelical Movement ... 167 Pluralities and Nepotism ... 168 Character of Clergy 168 Worship a Performance ... 169 a.d. 1720-1760. State of the Churches Preaching a Lost Art Frigid Moral Essays Clerical Types Societies for Reformation of Manners Parochial Charity Schools... Dr. Bray's Library Scheme The Wesleys Opposed by the Clergy George Whitefield Influences on Wesley Countess of Huntingdon ... Spread of Methodism Driven from the Church ... Chapter LXIX. — Parliamentary Rule. a.d. 1727-1760. George II 177 Frederick, Prince of Wales 178 Queen Caroline 178 Walpole, Prime Minister ... 178 His Financial Genius 178 Restrictions on Trade 179 A Policy of Expediency ... 180 Political Corruption 181 Secret Service Money 181 Patriots and their Price ... 182 Dr. Johnson's Definitions ... 182 Walpole's Character 183 Burke's Opinion 184 Ministerial Responsibility ... 184 Parliamentary Reports ... 185 Johnson and the Debates ... 185 Attempts at Suppression ... 185 The Commons and the City 185 Hansard v. Stockdale 185 Division Lists published ... 186 Monthly Magazines : Critics 186 Walpole's Excise Scheme ... 186 Interested Opposition 187 War with Spain 187 The Right of Search Pragmatic Sanction broken Dettingen and Fontenoy . . . Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ... The Calendar Reformed ... The Ecclesiastical Year ... Popular Prejudice Jacobites and Pretender ... Battle of Preston Pans Highlanders at Derby Battle of Culloden Cumberland, " the Butcher " End of the Stuarts : Ballads Highland Loyalty The Dundas Despotism Cabinet Changes Pitt, Earl of Chatham His Imperiousness East India Company Struggles with France The People of India England and Sea Power ... Consolidation of the Navy... Pitt's Statesmanship 170170171171172173173 f/3 174 174 '75 176176 177 187188188188189189189 190 190 190190lyo 191191191192192 192193 193193194 194194 CONTENTS. Clive's Conquests 195 The French in Canada ... 196 Law's Mississippi Scheme... 196 Sir James Wolfe : Quebec... 197 Acquisition of Canada Other Territories Admiral Byng shot Death of George II. .. PAGE 197198198198 pfiiob XIII.— ffiepreissstou. 3.1*9. 1760-1820. Chapter LXX. — Renewed attempts at Personal Rule. a.d. 1760-1782. Sixty Years of Blundering... 200 Georgetll.and Personal Rule 200 Interferes with Elections ... 201 The Peerage flooded 201 His Dislike of Able Men ... 202 Crown Patronage : Royal Income 202 Irish Pension List 202 Prince of Wales' Debts ... 203 Burke on ' Discontents ' ... 203 The Commons' Resolution 203 The Court's Countermovc... 203 Burke'sMotion:GordonRiots 204 The King's Marriage 204 A Dull, Stupid Court 204 Frances Burney 204 The King's Narrowness ... 205 House of Commons corrupt 205 Sinecures : Pocket Boroughs 205 Unequal Representation ... 206 Seats bought and sold ... 207 IndianNabobs: Foote'sSatire 207 Cost of Elections Unblushing Bribery An Eruption of Virtue Benjamin Franklin's Views Earl of Bute, Premier Wilkes and the 'NorthBriton ' Charles Churchill Caricatured by Hogarth ... General Warrants Resisted by Wilkes Lord Camden's Decision ... Wilkes prosecuted Law of Libel Erskine's Declaratory Act... Wilkes and Middlesex Unconstitutional Procedure Similar Case of Bradlaugh Public Meetings initiated ... Changes in Procedure Letters of Junius Peter Pindar (Dr. Wolcot) 208208208208 -208 209 209 209209210210210210 211211 211212212212213214 Chapter LXXI. — American Declaration of Independence. a.d. 1760-1782. Treaty of Paris 214 The Family Pact ... .;. ... 214 Result of Seven Years' War 215 Growth of the Colonies ... 215 Various Settlers 216 Salutary Neglect 217 Restrictions on Trade 217 Irritating Customs' Dues ... 218 Benjamin Franklin 218 The Stamp Act 218 Taxation and Representation 219 Successive Ministries 219 Townshend's Import Duties 219 Colonists to be crushed ... 220 Troops sent out 220 Resistance : The Leaders ... 220 Cavaliers of Virginia 220 Partial Concessions 220 Lord North's Cabinet 221 Thurlow and Wedderburn 222 " Boston Tea-Party " 222 ' Taxation no Tyranny ' ... 223 Burke's Early Career 223 His Vast Attainments 223 In Advance of his Times ... 224 Eulogy by Fox 224 His Doctrine of Expediency 224 A Colonial Congress 225 Hostilities commenced ... 225 The Thirteen States 226 George Washington 226 Battle of Bunker's Hill ... 226 CONTENTS. ix PAGE Mercenary Troops 226 Declaration of Independence 227 Modelled on Holland 227 Compromise on Slavery ... 227 State Constitutions 227 Religious Liberty guarded 228 Episcopal Relations 228 Washington's Military Skill 229 Difficulties and Heroism ... 229 PAGE Ferocity of the War 230 Death of Earl of Chatham... 230 War with France, Spain, and Holland 231 Privateering and Piracy ... 231 Cornwallis defeated 232 North Ministry overthrown 232 Peace concluded 232 Effect on Public Liberties ... 233 Chapter LXXII. — India and the Colonies, a.d. 1760-1S00. More Cabinet changes ... 233 " Fox's Martyrs " 233 William Pitt the younger ... 234 Early Training 234 Changes Opinions : Oratory 234 Borrows his Policy 235 Sinking Fund : Dr. Price ... 235 Customs and Excise 236 Consolidated Fund 236 French Commercial Treaty 236 Indian Affairs : Warren Hastings 237 Chief Justice Impey 237 Macaulay's strong Whig Bias 238 Resolute Rule of Hastings... 238 His Trial and Acquittal ... 239 What he accomplished ... 239 Anson's Circumnavigation 240 Captain James Cook 240 Australian Discoveries ... 240 South Sea Islands 240 Quebec Act of 1791 241 The Slave-Trade 241 Middle Passage Horrors ... 241 Attempted Abolition 241 Opposed by the King 241 Pitt's Trimming Policy ... 242 Clarkson, Sharp, and others 242 Negro Somerset's Case ... 242 Sierra Leone Colony 242 The Traffic suppressed ... 242 Bondage in Scotland 243 Insanity of George III. ... 243 A Regency proposed 243 Treatment of Lunacy 243 Illegal Acts of Chancellors 244 Palmer's Postal Reform ... 244 Opening Letters 244 The Franking System ... 245 Roads: Young's Tours ... 245 Canals : James Brindley ... 245 Manufacturing Develop ments 245 The Textile Trades 246 American Cotton 246 Eli Whitney's Invention ... 246 Application of Steam 246 James Watt : Irontounding 246 Pottery; Wedgwood 247 Agriculture : Gas-lighting... 247 Chapter LXXIIL— The Arts, Literature, and Science. a.d. 1760-1820. Painting : the Drama 248 Comedy : David Garrick ... 248 Dr. Samuel Johnson 249 His Conversational Powers.. 249 Tobias Smollett 250 Laurence Sterne 250 His Plagiarisms 251 Horace Walpole 252 The ' Annual Register ' ... 252 Edmund Burke 252 His Early Works 253 Goldsmith : Cowper 253 Robert Burns : Gibbon ... 253 'The Decline and Fall ' ... 254 Archdeacon Paley 254 Hume's Historical School ... 255 Sir William Blackstone ... 255 Adam Smith 255 ' Wealth of Nations ' 256 Four Formative Books ... 256 Other Writers 257 Encyclopaedias 258 Physical Science 258 " The Father of Geology "... 258 Influence of Astronomy, Geo logy, and Biology 259 CONTENTS. Newspapers and Magazines . Education : Sunday Schools Raikes : Hannah More Ignorance and Superstition. . Attitude of the Clergy PAGE 25926026l26l26l Opposition to Science Resistance of Universities ... Benevolent and Religious Societies founded Foreign Missions PAGE 262 262263263 Chapter LXXIV. — The French Revolution, a.d. 1789-1793. Its Causes Burke on Louis XIV A Splendid Wicked Court ... Extravagance and Misery of the Poor Foreseen by Observers Misgovernment Democracy v. Feudalism ... Philosophic Speculations ... The Encyclopedists English Influence Especially on Rousseau Indebted to Hobbes and Locke Louis XVI. : The States- General The Constituent Assembly... Outburst of a Tornado The Bastille stormed 'The Rights of Man' A Revolutionary Propaganda Inactions : The Convention . . Some Reforms effected 264 265 265265 266 266 266266 266266267267 267 267 268 268268268 Reign of Terror Panic in England Arrest of Progress Burke breaks from his Party His Characteristics His ' Reflections ' Mistakes and Fallacies Real Point at Issue Later Career : Court Rewards Replies to his Book Mackintosh : Young win : Paine Dynastic Coalition Declaration of Pilnitz Brunswick's Manifesto Hostilities commenced The Drama widens Feeling in England Caricatures and Lampoons . . French Ambassador dismissed Pitt yields to the Panic The Grave Results God- 268269269269270270271271 272 272273273273 273 2/42742742/4274275 275 Chapter LXXV. — The Great War with France, a.d. 130 Battles in 22 Years ... 275 Napoleon Bonaparte 276 His Meteor Course 276 The Addington Ministry ... 277 Treaty of Amiens, 1802 ... 277 An Armed Truce 277 Mutiny at Nore and Spit- head 277 Crimping and Press-gangs... 277 Indian Affairs .277 Colonel Arthur Wellesley ... 277 Annexation Policy 278 Napoleon made Emperor ... 278 Second French War 278 Addington resigns 278 Pitt Premier : Fox excluded 278 Napoleon's Successes 279 Checked by Nelson . Tra falgar 279 Sea-Power asserted 279 1793 Death of Pitt and of Fox All-the-Talents Ministry Why Fox failed Short-lived Cabinets ... Spencer Perceval shot The Liverpool Ministry The Berlin Decrees ... Difficulties with America Vessels searched Canada invaded Ashburton Treaty Copenhagen bombarded Peninsular War Corunna and Walcheren Duke of York's Scandal More Battles : Torres Ve dras Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz Flint-Lock Muskets ... Napoleon invades Russia 1815. 280 280280 2S1 281 281281 282 282 282283283284284284 284 285285285 CONTENTS. Disastrous Failure Peninsular Reverses Abdication : The Bourbons . Escape from Elba Battle of Waterloo PAGE 286286286286 287 The Holy Alliance The Spoil Austrians in Italy Imperialism in France M. Thiers and M. Guizot PAGE 287 287 287288288 Chapter LXXVI. — Fiscal Burdens and the Act of Union. a.d. 1793-1820. Enormous War Costs 289 Landowners benefit 289 And Military and Navy ... 289 Instances : Contrasts 289 National Debt increased ... 290 Ruinous Loans 290 Fictitious Stock created ... 290 Cash Payments suspended... 291 Heavy Taxation 291 Sufferings of the Poor ... 291 Sydney Smith's Enumeration 292 Manufacturing Developments 292 Luddite Outrages 292 Subsidies 292 How the Expense met ... 292 Railroads : The Locomotive 293 Inventors and Improvers ... 293 George Stephenson : Smiles 293 Thomas Gray, Nottingham 294 Early Lines 294 Liverpool and Manchester... 294 Fears and Prejudices 295 Rivalry and Speculation ... 295 Cost of Private Bills 295 Steamboats :LaterInventions 296 State of Ireland 297 Chesterfield, Lord-Lieutenant 297 Resistance to Oppression ... Whiteboyism Tithes and the Land Lord Chancellor Clare Flood : Grattan : Curran ... Partial Relaxations But Free Trade refused The Grattan Parliament ... What it effected : Pitt's attitude United Irishmen : Wolfe Tone Earl Fitzwilliam Viceroy ... Rebellion of 1798 Used by the Government ... Vengeance exacted Testimony of Abercromby... And of Cornwallis Toler, Earl of Norbury Union effected by Bribery... Terms of Settlement Catholic Emancipation pro mised Resisted by George III. The Coronation Oath pleaded The King's Lunacy Pitt abandons the Catholics Reign of Coercion The Regency Chapter LXXVII. -Repressive Measures in England. a.d. 1791-1820. Purchasing Power of Money 305 Enclosure of Commons ... 306 Depletion of Rural Districts 306 Statute of Merton, 1236 ... 306 Wages regulated 307 Grants-in-aid 307 Terrible Suffering 308 The Bastardy Laws 308 Misery and Sedition : Riots 308 Repression of Opinion ... 309 War of Classes 3°9 Bishop Horsley : Robert Hall 310 Society of Friends of People 310 George Tierney, M.P Gagging Act of 1795 John Walter and ' The Times ' Universal Espionage Habeas Corpus Act suspended Imprisonment without Trial Tooke: Thelwall: Hardy... Montgomery : Winterbotham Leigh and John Hunt Francis Place's MSS William Cobbett: Corn Laws High Prices and Starvation Doctrines of Malthus 297297297 298298298298299299300300300300301 301 3013023023°3 303304 304 3043043°4305 3103103H3H 3H 3"312312 3133i33i4 3i5 315 Further Repression Hone : Ellenborough ... Sir Samuel Romilly .. Capital Punishment .. A Draconian Code Attempts at mitigation The Moral Effects Manchester Blanketeers CONTENTS. PAGE PAGE . ... 316 Peterloo Massacre 318 . ... 3l6 Cato-street Conspiracy 319 . ... 316 The Six Acts 319 . ... 317 Ebb-Tide of Liberty 319 • .« 317 Sidmouth and the Dissenters 320 »• 317 Defence Societies formed ... 320 •» 317 The Blasphemy Laws 320 » ... 318 Church Building Acts 320 IPetiot XIV.— *Kf6tbal. 3.19. 1820-1840. Chapter LXXVIIL— The Reform Era. a.d. 1820-1835. Character of George IV. ... 322 Death of Princess Charlotte 322 George Canning : Duelling 323 William Huskisson:Goderich 324 Wellington : Peel 324 Test and Corporation Acts repealed 325 Quakers and Affirmations ... 325 Catholic Disabilities 326 Continued Agitation 326 Wellington's Resistance ... 326 Election of O'Connell 326 Emancipation conceded ... 327 Peel's Reasons 327 He is Rejected by Oxford ... 327 Other Ostracisms 328 Irish Disfranchisement ... 328 No Conciliation 328 Under-Secretary Drummond 329 Subsequent Coercion 329 Isle of Man absorbed 329 Parliamentary Reform ... 329 Abandoned by Pitt 330 Flood : Burdett : Russell ... 330 The Whig Scheme 330 Popular Excitement 331 Accession of William IV. ... 331 Ominous Mutterings 331 Wellington's Defiance ... 331 The Grey Cabinet : Althorp 332 The Reform Bill 332 Repeatedly defeated 332 Becomes law : Its Provisions 333 Bribery and Corruption Irish Franchise remains ... Revising Barristers Political Power and Middle Class Hopes and Fears First Reformed Parliament Robert Owen and Socialism Other Schemes Abuses : ' The Black Book ' Pensions and Sinecures Jobbery and Nepotism Legal Scandals : Civil List... Poor Law Amendment Act Truck and Factory Acts. ... Prominent Workers Children's Employment ... Manufacturing System Combination Laws Six Dorset Labourers Trade Unions Conspiracy Laws Capital and Labour Disputes Impossible Aims Strikes : Losses sustained ... Board of Trade Report Modern Labour Theories ... Later Reforms Close Civic Corporations ... Commission of Inquiry Municipal Reform Act London exempted Lords' Hostile Amendments Chapter LXXIX.- -Church Reform and Emigration. a.d. 1833-1843. The Irish Church : Its Wealth 343 Incomes with no Duties ... 344 Beresfords and Plunkets ... 344 Vast Patronage Absentees and Pluralists The Tithe War 333 334334 334334335335 335 330336330337337337338338338338339 33933933933934034034i341342342342343 343 344345345 CONTENTS. Kill Time-serving Whig Policy... Church Temporalities Act... Evils only mitigated Dispute over the Surplus ... Secessions from the Cabinet King and Prelates The Melbourne Ministry ... Dismissed by William IV. ... Cabinet of Peel Melbourne's reinstated Lord Brougham's Career ... Howard Association Tallack on Penology Lichfield House Compact PAGE 345 345 34634')346 346346 346 347347 347348 348348 Whig Perfidy: English Church 348 Commissions of Inquiry ... 348 Incomes of Prelates 348 Character of Appointments 349 Clerical Pluralisms 349 The Working Clergy 349 Bishoprics created 349 Ecclesiastical Commission... 350 Lord Russell's Criticism ... 350 Ecclesiastical Courts: Tithes 350 Jewish Disabilities 350 Action of City of London ... 350 Parliamentary Oaths 350 Elementary Education ... 351 Pestalozzi : Lancaster : Bell 351 FrSebel's Kindergarten ... 351 British and Foreign Schools 351 The National Society 351 Sectarian Disputes 352 Ignorance and Superstition 352 Joanna Southcott : Irvingites 352 Parliamentary Grants 353 Revised Codes 353 Unwise Nonconformists ... 353 Graham's Proposal 353 A Storm of Opposition ... 354 Objections urged 354 Unworthy Wranglings ... 354 John Foster's Warning ... 355 Clergy also oppose 355 Effete Grammar-Schools ... 355 Wasted Endowments 355 Charity Commission 355 Births and Deaths registered 356 Dissenters' Marriage Act ... 356 Public Cemeteries 356 Resistance to Reform 356 Dr. Arnold's Testimony ... 357 Chapter LXXX.- -Literature, Science, and Philanthropy. a.d. 1820-1850. Crabbe : Campbell : Moore 357 Rewards of Literature ... 358 Coleridge : De Quincey ... 358 Wordsworth : Southey ... 359 Poets-Laureate 359 Scott : Historical Romances 359 Lytton : Thackeray : Galt... 360 Austen : Marryatt 361 Essayists and Critics 361 Byron : Shelley : Keats ... 361 Hartley Coleridge 361 Charles Lamb: Other Writers 362 Lady-Authors: "Blue-Stock ings" 362 Disraeli : Maeaulay : Lytton 363 Dickens : Carlyle 363 Drama and Art 363 Quarterly Reviews 363 Jeffrey and Gifford 363 The 'Eclectic' : John Foster 364 Stamp Duties : Repression... 364 Men of Science 365 The Electric Telegraph ... 365 Fire Signals : Semaphores... 365 A Long Line of Experiments 366 Simultaneous Discoveries ... 366 Photography : New Industries 366 Gutta Percha : Submarine Cables 367 Other Scientific Applications 367 Anassthetics : Comfort diffused 367 Philanthropists 368 Slavery abolished 168 The Blind and Deaf 368 Mechanics' Institutes 368 Useful Knowledge Society... 368 Cheap Publications 369 Improvements in Printing... 369 Edward Cowper 369 London University 369 Political Economy 369 Horner : Bentham 37° Signs of Social Growth ... 370 Greatest-Happiness Formula 371 CONTENTS. Public Buildings Music and Singing Police Force established PAGE 371 3723/2 PAGE Temperance Reform 373 Health of Towns : Local Boards 373 Chapter LXXXI. -The Chartist Movement and the Corn Laws. a.d. 1837-1841. Death of William IV 374 Separation of Hanover ... 374 Queen Victoria : Orange Plot 374 Civil List : Privy Purse ... 375 The Royal Duchies 375 The Prince Consort 375 Court Domestic Life 375 Origin of Chartism : Six Points 376 Vote by Ballot : Grote ... 376 Parliamentary Panaceas ... 376 Appeal of the Chartists ... 376 " Finality John " 377 Distress and Suffering ... 377 Physical Force Advocates ... 378 Others Fair and Reasonable 378 Vindictive Prosecutions ... 378 Vincent : Cooper : Holyoake 378 Ernest Jones : Richard Lovett 378 Excitement and Outbreaks... 379 French Revolution, 1848 ... 379 " Bomba " of Naples 379 Gladstone and its Prisons ... 379 Influence on England 379 Chartist Procession 380 End of the Movement 380 Further Reform demanded... 380 Household Suffrage " Inhabitant Occupiers " ... Redistribution Scheme Chiltern Hundreds Corn Laws Selfishness of Protection ... Enhanced Prices Bankruptcy : Poor-Rates ... A Starving Population Contemporary Pictures Fever-stricken Towns The Pauper Stone-heap Inquiry refused Anti-Corn-Law League Its Seven Years War Cobden : Bright :Wilson : Elliot Spread of the Agitation Whigs propose Fixed Duty Their Overthrow • The Reasons Afghan War: Repeated in 1878 Territorial Extensions Illustrious Proconsuls Penny Postage : Rowland Hill Letter-writing a lost Art ... Pens and Envelopes Chapter LXXXII. — Irish Famine and Emigration. a.d. 1841-1846. Peel's Cabinet 386 Gladstone : Sidney Herbert 387 I ncome-Tax revived 387 Sliding-Scale for Corn ... 387 Continued Distress 387 Budget of 1842 388 Bids of Rival Parties 388 Failure of Potato Crop ... 388 Irish Famine and Fever ... 388 Starvation and Emigration... 388 The Land Question 389 Devon Commission 289 Legislative Palliatives 389 Landlord and Tenant Act ... 389 Bessborough Commission ... 389 Suffering in England 389 Stones offered for Bread ... Peel's Decision Declares for Repeal Assailed by Disraeli Peel's defeat on Ireland ... His Tribute to Cobden Trust in Posterity Accident and Death Navigation Laws repealed... Bank Act : Financial Crises Limited Liability Act The Russell Ministry Irish Repeal Movement Young Ireland Party Evictions and Crime Dwindling Population ... 38038i381381381381382382 382382 182 3833833833833»4 3843»4384385 385385386 386386 390390 39i 391 392392392392393293 393393 393 393 394 394 CONTENTS. xv Grudging Concessions Maynooth Grant Fanatical Resistance Supposed Divine Judgments Gladstone's ' Essay ' Queen's Colleges, Ireland ... More Scotch Evictions Australian Colonies Reckless Land-Grants Dates of Settlements Protests and Warnings Transportation System 394 394395395 395 395395 395 396396 396397 Parliamentary Inquiries ... Free Colonists resist Home Penal Servitude South Africa : Explorers ... David Livingstone Canadian Rebellion, 1837 ... Lord Durham : The Dominion Canada Clergy Reserves ... Colonial Religious Equality Also Local Autonomy Gold and Diamonds Protection : The Aborigines PAG51 397398398 398398 399 399400 400400400400 VenoU XV.— 3ctual anD potential. 3.D. 1846-1895. Chapter LXXXIII. — Modern Ecclesiastical Affairs. a.d. 1846-1874. Broad Church Party 402 Church Rates : Braintree Case 402 The Liberation Society ... 403 Principle and Grievances ... 403 Scottish Church Divisions ... 403 Old and New Lights 403 Marrow Controversy 404 Patronage : Ten Years' Con flict 404 Disruption : Free Church . . . 404 Voluntaryism repudiated ... 405 Tractarian Movement 405 Causes and Occasion 405 Keble : Newman : Pusey ... 406 Prayer Book Teaching ... 406 ' Tract No. XC 407 Appeals to the Fathers ... 407 Doctrine of Reserve: Perverts 407 Bishop Hampden's Case ... 408 A Modern Hildebrand ... 409 Shore and Gorham Cases ... 409 Baptismal Regeneration ... Archdeacon Denison The Papal Aggression Clerical Indignation Fanatical Meetings Lord Russell's Panic Ecclesiastical Titles Bill Record of Human Folly ... Religious Worship Census... Non-Church Goers The Practical Question 'Essays and Reviews ' Convocation re-assembles ... A Synodical Censure Bishops Colenso and Gray- Zulu and Ashanti Wars Transvaal : Dutch Boers ... Irish Church Disestablished Ritualism : Futile Measures Ecumenical Council The Vatican Decrees Chapter LXXXIV— French Coup d'Etat ... . Louis Napoleon's Career . Palmerston's Methods... . Aberdeen Coalition ... . Gladstone's Budgets ... . Great Exhibition of 1851 . Russia and Turkey ... . Essence of the Dispute England drifts into War . Muddle : Waste : Sufferin The Crimean War. a.d. 1851-1857. ,. 416 Parliamentary Inquiries ... .. 416 Florence Nightingale ,. 416 Patriotic Fund .. 417 Palmerston Ministry ,. 417 End of the War : Its Cost... ,. 417 Later Phase of Question ... .. 418 Montenegro and Bulgaria ... ,. 418 Intervention of Russia . 418 San Stefano Treaty g 419 Cyprus ceded: Suez Shares 40940D401 ) 410410 410 410410 410411411 411412412412 413413413414 415415 419 419420420420421 421421421422 CONTENTS. Chapter LXXXV. — The Indian Mutiny, a.d. 1857-1865. PAGE Sepoy Army: Earlier Revolts 422 The Greased Cartridges ... 423 Seizure of Delhi 423 Cawnpur and Lucknow ... 423 Sir John Lawrence 423 Canning : Havelock ; Clyde 424 Mutiny suppressed 425 The Queen intervenes ... 425 East India Company ended 425 Royal Proclamation 426 National Indian Congress ... Conspiracy to Murder Bill... Ministerial Changes Relief from Indirect Taxes... Conflict with the Lords American Civil War Effects on Lancashire Course of the Struggle Affair of the " Trent " Alabama Claims: Arbitration 426426 427427 427 427 427428 428429 Chapter LXXXVI. — Cabinet Mutations, a.d. 1866-1895. Fitful Public Opinion 430 Gladstone Ministry 431 Elementary Education Act... 431 Nonconformist Revolt ... 432 Vested Interests attacked ... 432 Rout of the Liberals 433 Disraeli Ministry 433 Foreign and Home Events .. . 434 Judicature Act : Legal Reforms 434 County Courts extended ... 434 Mid-Lothian Campaign ... 434 Second Gladstone Ministry 435 Irish Questions : Parnell ... 435 Parliamentary Obstruction... 435 Rules of Procedure 435 Chapter LXXXVII. — Summary Sources of Information ... 439 Slow Progress of Reform ... 440 Recent Measures 440 Consumption of Spirits ... 441 Grocers' Licences 441 Tea and other Articles ... 441 Growth of Expenditure ... 442 National and Local Debts ... 442 Functions of Government ... 443 Census, 1891 : Greater Britain 444 Alphabetical Index Forster, Irish Secretary ... 436 Cavendish-Burke Murder ... 436 Salisbury Cabinet 436 Gladstone's Cabinet 436 Home Rule Bill defeated ... 437 Dissentient Liberals 437 General Election of 1886 ... 437 ' Parnellism and Crime ' ... 437 Special Commission 437 Election of 1892 438 Gladstone's Fourth Ministry 438 Home Rule again defeated 438 The Rosebery Cabinet ••• 439 Election of 1895 439 Lord Salisbury in Office ... 439 and Conclusion, a.d. 1895. Outlay on Railways 444 Accumulated Wealth 444 Marvellous Development ... 445 Agriculture : Minerals ... 440 PostOffice: Persons employed 446 Social Improvements 447 Diminished Crime 447 Things accomplished 448 Work to be done 449 A Review of the Past 450 45!-49I Period XL— REVOLUTION. A.D. 1658-1702. CH 4PTER. 59. — A Lost Cause. 60. — The Stuart Restoration. 61. — National Degradation. 62. — The Glorious Revolution. 63. — Protestant Ascendency in Ireland VOL. III. CHAPTER LIX. A LOST CAUSE. A.D. 1658-1660. The death of Cromwell had been preceded by another heavy and irreparable loss to the country. A year before, Admiral Blake ended an illustrious career. One of the finest portraitures of the many drawn by Clarendon is of this brave, honest, God-fearing Englishman, who did so much to maintain the national safety and to extend the national renown. He might have served for the original of the popular nautical hero, Tom Bowling. He was the first since the clays of the Plantagenets to conduct an English fleet into the Mediterranean. In 1650, he blockaded in the Tagus, and then utterly routed, a number of vessels that Prince Rupert and his brother Maurice had assembled for a piratical raid. He coerced Portugal into neutrality by seizing her richly-laden fleet from Brazil. He compelled both Spain and France to accept his broad interpretation of the law of nations, and to stop a system of privateering by which the latter ccuntry had captured within twenty-one months five thousand tons of English shipping, and goods valued at half a million. But his chief fame is connected with his successful expeditions against Spain and Holland. The Dutch were jealous of the growing commercial power of England. From the early part of the century there had been complaints of the manner in which they treated its merchants and seamen trading to the East. The Colonial Series of State Papers contain many contemporary re cords on the subject. It is manifest that the object of the Dutch was to compel the English to relinquish their trade in the Spice Islands, so as to secure a monopoly of this remunerative traffic. So long before as 1623, the a.d. 1658-1660.] VAN TROMP AND THE BROOM. 3 country was stirred to angry protest by the massacre of certain Englishmen at Amboyna, after they had been repeatedly subjected to horrible tortures by water and fire by the Dutch. With his notorious pusillanimity, James I. refrained from exacting justice, nor was any thing done during the next reign. But the people did not forget or forgive the alleged wrong ; and Cromwell was determined to redress it. The attacks of Blake upon Dutch ships were, in part, reprisals for the old antagonism, and, in part, the assertion of a right to par ticipate in the Eastern trade. After several ineffectual attempts by the Dutch to contest the naval supremacy, they tried finally to assert it in a sea-fight off Dover, May 18, 1652. Admiral van Tromp was beaten by Blake, who captured forty of their merchant ships that Summer, cleared the Channel, sailed Northwards and dispersed the herring-fishery, and concluded his exploits by another successful naval engagement in September, in the Downs. A temporary reverse occurred in November off the Goodwin Sands, through Blake accepting battle with a fleet double his own in strength. Van Tromp sailed through the narrow seas in bravado, with a broom at his mast-head, in token that he had swept the Channel ; but in the following February, a great battle waged for three days, and the Dutch were beaten off with a loss of seventeen ships and thirty merchantmen. The insult of the broom was avenged, and was never repeated. Three months later, Blake sent to Cromwell a despatch announcing a great naval victory off the North Foreland ; eleven ships being sunk, and six others taken, with more than a thousand prisoners. Another engagement was fought, July 29, off the Holland coast, by Blake's subordinates, as he was incapacitated through illness ; when van Tromp was killed, and the Dutch supremacy was finally broken. A treaty was effected, which embraced Holland, Denmark, the Hanse Towns, and the Swiss Protestant Cantons. England awoke to a consciousness of her advantageous insular position for maritime trade. The power then asserted has never been lost. Two more naval engagements increased Blake's re nown. He captured two richly-laden Spanish galleons 4 A LOST CA USE. [chap. lix. at Cadiz, in September, 1656, and in the following April waylaid their annual fleet from South America. It sought safety in the Canary Isles, under the shadow of the Peak of Teneriffe, in the harbour of Santa Cruz ; but Blake dashed in, and captured the ships, with an immense booty ; said to exceed a million sterling in value. It filled thirty-eight waggons, and excited in tense enthusiasm on its triumphal way from Portsmouth to London. At the same time came news of Lima being swallowed up by an earthquake, with further immense loss to Spain ; which was, of course, interpreted' as a Divine judgment. Blake's achievement, comparable to Drake's spoil from his circumnavigation of the globe eighty years previously, increased the respect already inspired for the English flag on the high seas ; but the victory was dearly won by Blake's death, just as his ship sighted land, August 17, 1657. His fame is immortal'. He conducted the heroic defence of Taunton during the Civil War ; for it was the custom to serve on sea or land. He contributed more than any other admiral before the days of Nelson to render England Mistress of the Seas. His courage and maritime skill were mingled with dis interested patriotism, sterling honesty, and love of justice. He not only gained an unquestioned superiority over the mightiest naval opponents of his country, but by his bold tactics and his able seamanship he infused into the Navy that intrepidity and enterprise by which it has ever since been distinguished. In conformity with the powers entrusted to him by the Petition and Advice, Cromwell is said to have nominated his son Richard to succeed him as Lord Protector ; but the letter of appointment could not be found. Richard was proclaimed ; and for five months public affairs were outwardly tranquil. Then it became evident that his hands were not strong enough to hold the reins of government, or to control the turbulent spirits whom, his father had kept in check. He was an amiable, accomplished, but somewhat indolent country gentleman ; with no capacity for ruling, no special force of character, and no taste for public affairs ; though he had been a member of Parliament and of the Upper House, Strictly speaking, he never possessed supreme a.d. 1658-1660.J RICHARD CROMWELL. 5 authority ; for he was supplanted before acquiring it. He could not bend the bow of Ulysses. If he was timid, inert, and irresolute, he was also disinterested and patriotic. He did not use his high position for his own advantage, nor secure a competence prior to his own retirement, as he might have done. He quietly stepped aside, May 29, 1659, into the private life and the rural pursuits that he loved. The men who profited by his self-abnegation afterwards wrote of him as a milksop, a poor creature, a poltroon, and as Tumble-down Dick. In Dryden's trenchant satire of ' Absalom and Achi- tophel,' he stands for Ishbosheth ; as his father is represented by Saul. Such epithets and such a cha racterization of Richard are wholly undeserved. True, he had not a scintilla of his father's genius, nor any of his firmness of purpose and resolute action ; but he was by no means a fool or a coward. He fell, not for what he did, but from sheer lack of administrative ability to do what was needful at the right' time. John Howe, who had been domestic chaplain to Oliver, writing to his friend Richard Baxter on May 21, in the midst of all the agitation and stress in London, vividly describes the circumstances, and places Richard's conduct in a noble light. When Howe lay dying, in 1705, the ex-Protectoi saw him, and the two old men took a solemn farewell. On his abdication, Richard went to his family estate at Hursley, Hants ; afterwards the scene of John Keble's labours, author of ' The Christian Year ' ; but embar rassed finances, chiefly caused by having to meet the public funeral expenses of his father, which Parliament undertook to defray, compelled a withdrawal to the Continent. He resided for the most part in Paris until 1680, when he returned to England, and died at Ches- hunt, in 1712, at the age of eighty-six. Dr. Isaac Watts, an intimate friend, says that only once did he allude to his former brief greatness, and then indirectly. His mother, the great Protector's widow, Elizabeth Bour chier, died October 8, 1672, at Narborough, near Market Deeping, in the house of her son-in-law, Claypole. Henry Cromwell was detained in Ireland by his duties as Lord Deputy. He was a true son of his father ; and his conduct and his letters show how bravely and skil- 6 A LOST CAUSE. [chap. lix. fully he would have upheld the popular cause. When he reached London it was too late. Faction had done its work, and the mischief could not be remedied. He retired into Cambridgeshire, and died March 23, 1674, and was buried in Wicken Church. The remainder of the year 1659 witnessed repeated disputes between the Army Cabal and the Rump Parliament. The latter, to the number of ninety-one, had been re-instated on the second of May by Fleetwood, Lambert, and others of the Army Junto ; after the collapse of a Parliament convened in January ; the members having spent three months in heated disputes over the old questions of the status of the Other House, Government by a Single Person, Model Governments, and other visionary schemes. A number of self-seekers and disguised Royalists had secured election for obscure and rotten boroughs, which were, unfortunately, again allowed to send representa tives. But the military dangers were the most ominous. The old patriotic sentiment of the citizen-soldiers in the early days of the Commonwealth had been weakened, if not supplanted, in a number of cases, by a selfish professional feeling ; as dangerous to the public peace and safety as the conspiracies and intrigues of the armed cohorts of ancient Rome. Oliver Cromwell had learned, for good reasons, to dread the predominance of that martial force which, at an earlier period, proved a suc cessful weapon when wielded by himself. A military dictatorship has always been perilous to States. Milton's sightless eyes perceived the danger. Imme diately after Cromwell's death, he issued another edition of his ' First Defence,' with a brief postscript. He addressed the Parliament, in February, in 'A Treatise of Civil Power in Ecclesiastical Causes.' It was more than a plea for toleration. The existence of any State Church whatsoever was condemned. He sent forth in August another pamphlet : — 'Considerations touching the Likeliest Means to remove Hirelings out of the Church.' Age and adversity had not chilled the ardour of his love for freedom, or lessened his hatred of priestly intolerance of every form and creed. With all his admiration for Cromwell, the scheme of comprehension, however broad, was shown to be a delusion and a blunder , A.d. 1658-1660.] THE RUMP AND THE ARMY. 7 impossible in itself, and opposed to the genius of Christianity. The late Protector, owing to the stress of circumstances, had failed to fulfil Milton's expectations, set forth in the glowing Sonnet to the "chief of men," with regard to the delivery of the Church from " hireling wolves," whether Episcopalian or Presbyterian. Milton felt bound to place his opinions on record once more ; even if the effort was like that of the dying swan. In these trenchant tractates he strikes two-handed blows at the system of clerical force and clerical hire ; of intoler ance and patronage in matters of religion ; out of which sprang many of the troubles of the Commonwealth. The warning and the protest were unheeded. In the seething tumult of human passions then waging, it would have been as easy to lull to rest the troubled sea. Moreover, Milton made the mistake, so common with men of pro found thought and of earnest convictions, but sedentary and reflective habits and inexperienced in affairs, of sup posing that all men are swayed by high principle and by reason, instead of being mainly the creatures of impulse and selfishness ; of prejudice and habit ; of circum stance and opportunity. Once more the Rump was ejected by the Army, October 13, 1659, when a Committee of Safety, of twenty- three members, was nominated, in feeble imita tion of Cromwell's procedure. The Rump was again restored December 26th. Nearly every week developed some new scheme. Each faction suspected and de nounced the others. The Royalists were plotting for a Restoration. Messengers and letters in cipher passed to and from St. Germains, where Charles Stuart was living ¦ as a French pensioner. People wearied of the tyranny of the Army Officers, and also of the shadowy authority of the contemptible Rump. The immediate danger arose from threatened anarchy. Negotiations were secretly opened by the Stuart exiles with such as were supposed to favour a monarchical revival. Leading Presbyterians were tickled with vague promises of an ecclesiastical settlement in their favour. Honours, promotions, offices, and emoluments were held out to the Army, to aspiring lawyers, and to the clergy. There was no haggling ever terms, which subsequent events showed a shameless pre- 8 A LOST CAUSE. [chap. liX. determination to repudiate as soon as convenient, with the usual Stuart perfidy. The agents of Charles readily agreed to everything that was asked or suggested by a few, by way of securing Parliamentary government and freedom of Protestant worship. He was represented as willing to throw a veil of oblivion over the Past, and to rule in a strictly constitutional manner ; and as occupy ing himself with anxious endeavours to promote the honour and happiness of his people and the spread of religion. In reality, he was spending his time, as he spent the greater part of his life, in frivolity, gambling, and debauchery. He possessed considerable natural talents, but was too indolent and pleasure-loving to use them. Buckingham said that he could do well if he would ; while his brother James would do so if he could. Burnet records him as saying that Presby terianism was a religion quite unfit for a gentleman. One man is entitled to the crown of apostasy for his share in the Restoration. General Monk (1602-1670) had, first of all, deserted the Royalist cause and joined that of the Parliament. Though filling high commands in Ireland and in Scotland, Cromwell never trusted him. Cautious, taciturn, and self-seeking, he now sided with neither party, while secretly bargaining for himself with Charles. It was a question of title and of price ; and he gained his point. On his dilatory march from Scot land, in January, 1660, at the head of seven thousand men, and with a well-stored military chest, he gave no sign of his ultimate intentions, but professed to be in favour of a free Parliament, to determine as to the future. Amidst the shoals of pamphlets then being issued on all sides, Milton, with a courage sublime in its audacity, published one in February, entitled, ' A Ready and Easy Way to Establish a Free Commonwealth.' Its central idea was a membership for life of a permanent Council of the fittest men ; with a smaller Council of State as an Executive ; and an elected body for each county and large city or town to manage affairs strictly local. This pre supposed virtues and a patriotism that did not exist. Yet, in asserting the superiority of a healthy civic life, and of \yhat in modern phrase is termed Local Self-Government, over a centralized and bureaucratic system, Milton anti- A.D. 1658-1660.J MILTON'S LAST EFFORTS. 9 cipated the judgment of the wisest publicists and adminis trators of recent times. He sent a copy, with a letter, to Monk, who probably did not read them ; being too busy, feasting in the City, making things safe and pleasant there, and intriguing for his own position and emoluments. Milton had previously issued, October 29, 1659, ' A Letter to a Friend concerning the Rupture of the Commonwealth ' ; expressing indignation at the outrages of professional soldiers, and gloomy forebodings of the immediate future ; and propounding a scheme adapted to meet present exigencies. Once more, on the eve of the Restoration, true to his life-long principles, like his own Abdiel, " faithful found among the faithless ; faithful only he," Milton wrote a reply to a truculent Cavalier sermon, ' On the Fear of God and the King.' The insolent and venal Roger L'Estrange (1616-1704), a lite rary parasite, afterwards rewarded with the post of Licenser of the Press, made a vulgar and brutal rejoinder, under the title of ' No Blind Guides.' Another edition of the ' Ready and Easy Way,' with copious additions, was Milton's last controversial work. It appeared in April, 1660, while the elections for the Convention Parliament were proceeding ; and it bears a significant and daring motto, adapted from Juvenal : " We have addressed Sulla " — i.e., Monk — " himself ; advise we now the people." Like Samson Agonistes, he stood alone ; foiled and disarmed, yet dauntless ; though his cherished cause was humbled, his ideals were shattered, his prin ciples execrated, and his friends threatened with imprison ment, banishment, or death. He secreted himself for a time, and resumed the immortal works which he had repeatedly laid aside at the call of public duty ; thereby enriching and ennobling English literature. After Monk's arrival in London, when all his plans were laid, and when terms were 'finally secured with Charles, he still declared himself in favour of retaining the Commonwealth : a verbal trick belied by his actions. A man of silence and of mystery, as inscrutable as the Sphinx, he would not yet openly commit himself to the royal cause. The Convention met on the twenty-fifth of April. Charles sent from Breda, whither he had gone for facility of departure for England, Declarations and 16 A LOST CAUSE. [chap. liX. Addresses, to be used at the proper time ; promising, " on the solemni word of a King," an amnesty for all offences, with certain exceptions ; government by a free Parliament, which should inquire into all grants, pur chases, and alienations ; and the same rates of pay then enjoyed by soldiers, with the discharge of all arrears. One clause is significant, because of the barefaced manner in which it was violated : — " We do declare a liberty to tender consciences, and that no man shall be disquieted or called in question for differences of opinion in matters of religion which do not disturb the peace of the king dom." These documents were made known in due course, by a pre-arranged theatrical scheme, after a majority in the new Parliament had been secured to declare in favour of a monarchy. An humble reply was ordered to be sent to Breda. Sir Matthew Hale, and a few other wise and experienced members, urged that certain necessary conditions should be imposed, so as to ensure ancient rights and liberties ; but the reasonable precaution was clamoured down as unnecessary. The Presbyterians were chiefly responsible ; and they were made to pay a terrible penalty. The mistake was not repeated twenty-eight years later ; for the Declaration of Rights was presented to and accepted by William of Orange before an offer of the Crown was made. In the case of Charles II., the unthinking crowd was delirious with expectancy of a vague something to accrue from a Happy and Glorious Restoration ; with all the other Court rhetoric and hollow pomp. With the letter sent to Charles was voted, what he valued much more, a present of fifty thousand pounds, and large sums to his impecunious brothers and courtiers, who were delighted at the unexpected turn of fortune, and at the prospect of more money. Milliners, jewellers, tailors, mercers, wig-makers, upholsterers, decorators, portrait-painters, orators, poets, fiddlers, actors, and other persons skilled in fashioning Court baubles, in torturing language into the garb of abject adulation and flattery, and in arranging Court histrionics and empty pageants, were instantly set to work ; regardless of cost. Charles was proclaimed, May 8, 1660, on the assumption that his reign had begun in 1649. A flood-tide of verbal and a.d. 1658-1660.J PANIC. 11 hollow loyalty set in for awhile. The reasons lie on the surface. Tacitus remarks that it is more easy to praise a Republican reform of government than to establish one ; and, when established, it cannot be of long duration. There was no one, like Cromwell, with the capacity to rule ; nor was the country prepared for the Reign of the Saints. Itwas vainly hoped that Charles II. had learned salutary lessons in the school of adversity. The event showed that, like all the members of his luckless and graceless family, he acquired no wisdom. Immediate perils had to be avoided, and escape was thought to be possible only by the way of monarchy. A panic-stricken people, like a flock of sheep, never stops to reason. Before a generation had passed away, it was found that Stuart imbecility, corruption, falsehood, and tyranny were in curable ; and the hated race was again and finally driven from the throne its members had disgraced, and from the land they had brought to the verge of ruin. But the men of the Commonwealth, it must be repeated, were fully vindicated in the Glorious Revolution of 1688. They for ever shattered the old idea of monarchical power in England, notwithstanding its temporary revival ; and that at a time when the same power was bearing down all opposition in other European countries. CHAPTER LX. THE STUART RESTORATION. A.D. 1660-1666. The fable of the Stork and the Frogs aptly represents the condition of affairs in England at the Restoration. Macaulay's scornful delineation of the mean spirit and the degraded manners of the time is fully corroborated by contemporary records. Charles II. and his seraglio, with an expectant and hungry crowd of courtiers — the Corydons and Foppingtons, the Phrynes and Moll Flanders of that debauched age — landed at Dover, May 25, 1660. A whole people, with few exceptions, 12 THE STUART RESTORATION. [chap. lx. grovelled at the feet of an easy-tempered libertine ; causing him to express surprise that he had not returned long before ; " for I find nobody who does not tell me he has always longed for my return." Samuel Pepys (1632-1703), who was present, records that the mayor gave a Bible to Charles, who took it with an avowal that it was what he loved above all things in the world. The progress to London was an unbroken series of carousings, junketings, the bellowing of ultra-loyalist songs, uproarious drinking on the knees of the King's health, trumpet-blowing, bell-ringing, cannon-firing, banners, bands, and decorations ; with addresses in the customary sycophantic phraseology, and gracious replies that meant nothing. The assembly known as the Con vention, then sitting at Westminster, was henceforth to be called a Parliament. Tunnage and Poundage were granted to the King for life ; heedless of the disputes on this very point between his father and previous Legis latures. The royal revenue was voted at twelve hun dred thousand pounds annually ; being one-third more than was considered necessary for Charles I. An Act of Indemnity was passed, after much disputa tion ; excepting from its provisions, however, most of the judges of the late Monarch — in defiance of a Proclamation of pardon to those who surrendered — and all who had converted to their own use property alleged to belong to the Church. The Restoration was inaugurated by a butchery of ten of the so-called Regicides. After a per functory trial they were hanged and quartered ; avowing to the last a conviction that what they had done was right. As Harrison, one of Cromwell's Major-Generals, was being drawn on a hurdle to the gallows, a bystander asked, in derision, where was the good old cause ? Smiling, he struck his breast, and replied, — " Here it is • and I am going to seal it with my blood." He was regarded as a martyr by the Fifth-Monarchists ; who believed that he would rise again, judge his judges, and restore the Kindgom of the Saints. Cowley refers to this in 'The Cutter of Coleman-street' Sir Harry Vane, who had opposed the execution of Charles I. and incurred the displeasure of Cromwell and the Army leaders because of his stern Republicanism, was kept in a.d. 1660-1666.] TREATMENT OF REGICIDES. 13 prison for two years, and was then beheaded, though the King and the Commons had expressly promised exemp tion. " He is too dangerous a man to let live, if we can safely put him out of the way," wrote Charles. Vane met his doom like a Stoic. His last words were silenced by the drums of the soldiers. Henry Marten was incar cerated for twenty years in Chepstow Castle, and died there. Twenty-two others lingered out their lives in prison ; and a score who escaped capture were tracked to the Continent and to America by Royalist bullies, and most of them were assassinated or brought home and executed. The property of every member of the High Court, living or dead, was confiscated. By a special order of the two Houses, on January 30, 1661, the remains of Cromwell — or what were supposed to be his — were ex humed from Westminster Abbey, with those of Bradshaw, Ireton, Pym, Admirals Blake and Popham, Thomas May, the historian of the Long Parliament, Stephen Marshall, the Puritan divine, Isaac Dorislaus, the learned Dutch man, and of the Protector's mother and daughter. Some of these relics of the dead were hung and beheaded at Tyburn ; the rest were flung into a pit in St. Margaret's Churchyard. Court ladies witnessed the revolting sights, and laughed at the ribald jokes made by Court witlings. Ecclesiastical troubles arose immediately. Within six weeks of the landing at Dover, the remaining peers having re-assembled, the two Houses discussed the subject of religion. The Presbyterians were numerous and influential in London, and they looked for compre hension. For a short time they were encouraged to hope ; but nothing was conceded ; and it is impossible to avoid the conclusion, judging from subsequent events, that nothing was meant to be conceded. Nor did any practical results follow repeated conferences in Sion College, and in Worcester House, Strand, during the latter part of 1660, between the King, Clarendon, and certain peers and bishops on the one side, and a few leading Presbyterian clergymen on the other. At one of the meetings, Clarendon read the draft of a Declaration of Indulgence which the King proposed to issue ; that other persons, meaning Romanists, should be permitted to meet for worship, provided they did not disturb the public 14 THE STUART RESTORATION. [chap. lx. peace. It was a trap, into which Baxter's eagerness for disputation, and his hatred for Popery and Socinianism, led him to fall. He resolutely opposed the plan. Charles was annoyed ; the courtiers were startled ; but the bishops were triumphant. The very thing which they desired had been said ; yet they had avoided the odium of saying it. A Healing Declaration appeared, October 25, 1660, promising a revision of the Liturgy and of ceremonies ; and urging all parties meanwhile to live in peace. It was of no force in law ; and an attempt to embody it in an Act of Parliament failed. But the object was achieved of lulling the Presbyterians into false security until such time as the storm, then in secret preparation, was ready to break. The nine surviving prelates had resumed their titles, as a matter of course ; with a fixed resolve to seize upon their emoluments, which had been alienated or sold ; to assert the unbroken existence of the old Episcopacy ; and to thrust out all who had been inducted to clerical offices during the Interregnum, unless episcopally or dained. Burnet (1 643-1 7 1 5) , Bishop of Salisbury, says, that the fines on the renewal of the leases of Church estates, after the interval of nearly twenty years, amounted to a million and a half ; equal to at least six or seven millions of modern money. The whole of this vast sum was appro priated by the restored prelates and other dignitaries ; who, as usual, took care of themselves and their families ; regardless of the Church and the nation. The State Papers of 1660 contain numerous letters from clergymen asking to be restored to their benefices or to be given higher preferments. Pepys records, March 20, 1661, — " Indeed, the bishops are so high, that very few do love them." The restoration of a secularized and autocratic episcopate gave just offence to many who had no objection to prelates in their legitimate capacity. But, ever since the Reformation, they had been left independent of their clergy, and were empowered to rule without reference to Synods. While the Presbyterians were thus being toyed with, in the vain hope of a reformation in ceremonies, Orders in Council were issued, commanding justices to see that the public use of the Liturgy was restored. Numbers of clergymen were ejected and imprisoned by a.d. 1660-1666.] CHURCH'S NURSING FATHER. 15 this procedure, but not for intellectual or moral obliquity, more than two years before the new Act of Uniformity. In a few cases the local authorities connived or winked at evasion of the order. Clarendon told Parliament that the King — whose time was notoriously spent with gamblers, ribalds, and profligates, in mad and wasteful revelry — was " busying himself, like a second Constantine, with learned and pious men, for the settlement of the languishing Church." A partial attempt was made to pla cate some of the leading Presbyterians ; which only serves to deepen the disgrace of their subsequent treatment. Besides ten who were appointed royal chaplains, several were offered deaneries, and five bishoprics were reserved for their party. Baxter was nominated for that of Hereford. Reynolds consented to fill the See of Norwich. Calamy was offered Lichfield, but his Presbyterianism was too pronounced. Some of their brethren displayed their loyalty in extravagant fashion ; by preaching eulogistic and ecstatic sermons on the coronation. The spirit of intolerance was directed in a marked and cruel manner against the Society of Friends, whose doctrines were unpalatable to the men in power, and especially to ruling ecclesiastics. Undeserved reproach was cast upon Quakers by the extravagance and absurdity, and what was called the blasphemy of another sect, known as Muggletonians ; the leaders of which set up for the two Last Witnesses, and claimed absolute power to extend salvation or damnation to whom they pleased. Their teaching was an extraordinary farrago of mysticism, anthropomorphism, and grotesque allegorical interpre tations of Scripture. Early in 1661, an engine was forged against the Quakers by an Act providing that any persons refusing to take the prescribed Oaths of Supremacy and Allegiance, or asserting their unlawful ness, should be fined or imprisoned ; and for a third offence should abjure the realm or be transported to the Plantations. Similar penalties were incurred by attending unauthorized meetings for worship. The ' History of the People called Quakers,' by Sewell, the ' Journal ' of Fox, the ' Minutes of the Committee for Sufferings,' the biographies of Robert Barclay and William Penn, Besse's ' Sufferings of the Quakers,' 16 THE STUART RESTORATION, [chap. lx. the ' Letters ' of Steven Crisp of Colchester (1628-1692), and many similar works, contain harrowing descriptions of the wrongs committed ; while they also reveal the struggles, the endurance, and the fidelity of the victims, and the labours and sacrifices they underwent in pro pagating their views. Juries were packed ; witnesses were suborned or browbeaten ; the accused were denied the common rights of Englishmen ; and the judges were bent on securing convictions ; even though the law was strained and equity was outraged. A list was drawn up in 1662, and signed by twelve trustworthy persons, of four thousand two hundred Quakers then in prison, for refusing to take oaths, or for privately meeting for worship. Both sexes were often thrust together into damp and unwholesome cells ; in some cases in such numbers that they could not lie down. Many were scourged, and not a few perished through their sufferings. Fox underwent an imprisonment of nearly three years' duration, first in Lancaster, and then in Scarborough Castle, under cii cumstances of brutal severity. The gaols became in a less degree places of punishment for criminals, than receptacles for what was noblest and bravest in the manhood and womanhood of England. Among the many public services rendered by the early Friends, that of compelling attention to the state of the common gaols must not be overlooked ; even if a remedy was not devised until the time of John Howard, and only partially applied after his terrible exposures. There were, however, few instances of defection or of cowardice amidst the pitiless storm of persecution. Their enemies wondered at the nobility, the disinterestedness, and the sincerity of their conduct. Admitting no weapon but the tongue, it must be admitted that some of them used it unsparingly, and with exasperating effect ; going to the " steeple- houses " to testify against or to interrogate the clergy man ; refusing to leave at the close of the service, " because they had not liberty in their minds to depart" ;. puzzling sapient Justice Shallows by urging that when they sat in silence in their own meetings, the Spirit not moving them to speak, this could not be prohibited as a religious exercise ; and insisting, when gaolers were ordered to carry them to prison, that this literally meant a.d. 1660-1666.] QUAKER PECULIARITIES. 17 that they should not walk there. Fox records, among many pathetic recitals, several droll instances of the kind. On one occasion, when the oath was vexatiously tendered, he asked for a Bible, and, holding it up, said, " This book commands me not to swear" ; whereupon it was snatched away, and he was hurried to prison. By their method of passive resistance to laws which they could not conscien tiously obey, and which no man respecting himself and fearing God could be expected to obey, the Quakers rendered a patriotic service which has never been suffi ciently recognised. The mild, pleasant, neatly-dressed, educated, modern Friends present a marked contrast in bearing to their early members ; many of whom were coarse, obtrusive, and disputatious. Peace and quietness did not distinguish them. They loudly protested against formalism and officialism in religion, and appeared as persistent brawlers in churches ; interrupting the preachers ; challenging their statements ; putting inconvenient questions at unseasonable times ; and protesting against what they held to be errors and mistakes. To the official mind, all this was insufferable, and their ex travagances and indiscretions furnished a pretext for intolerance. They were stigmatized as contemners of authority ; as opponents of the Government ; as ignorant fools, and dangerous fanatics. Even their refusal to take off the hat in token of respect ; to use the plural pronoun when addressing a single person ; to utter customary salutations ; or to speak of the days of the week and the month, were twisted into grave offences ; just as their conscientious objection to take oaths involved them for many years in severe pains and penalties. After making every deduction for early excess of zeal and for questionable methods, it is a pleasant duty to concur in the opinion of competent judges as to the noble and self-denying labours of this excellent body in the cause of education, benevolence, and humanity. Few persons have any conception of the extensive and valuable contributions to literature, as shown in the descriptive catalogue of Friends' books, compiled by Joseph Smith. The Baptists, also, who have been designated the High vol. m. 3 18 THE STUART RESTORATION. [chap. lx. Ritualists of Dissent, were harshly treated ; and furnished numerous inmates to the prisons. They were veritable Ishmaels ; in the sense that the hand of every man was against them. In one of their petitions to the King, they said, — " They call us ' peace-breakers ' ; when, in the , sincerity of our hearts, we peaceably meet to worship God. We have been much abused as we passed the streets and as we sat in our houses ; being threatened to be hanged, if only heard praying in our families. We have been stoned when going to our meetings ; the windows have been broken down ; we have been taken as evil-doers, and imprisoned, and represented under the odious terms of knavish, juggling, impudent, and fanatic fellows." Such abominable proceedings furnished lucra tive employment to an infamous class of spies and informers. In the ' Somers Tracts ' is one which gives a vivid description of some of these execrable wretches in Devonshire. They were the scum of the country. Their language and conduct were revolting, especially towards women and girls. They were addicted to con spiracy and perjury in order to procure convictions, and so obtain the reward of their iniquity. The justices connived at their proceedings and screened them from the consequences of illegal acts. With the professed object of arriving at grounds of settlement in church affairs, conferences were begun on April 1 5 , 1 66 1 , between twenty-one leading Episcopalians, mostly prelates, and the same number of eminent Pres byterian clergymen, in the Savoy Palace in the Strand ; of which Gilbert Sheldon (1598-1677) was Master, in addition to being Bishop of London. Independents and Baptists were not represented ; though, in the irony of events, the former had met in the same building, thirty- one months before, and drawn up their Confession of Faith and Order. The Presbyterians, named in equal terms in the Royal Commission, claimed, as it set forth, to advise and consult with the Bishops ; who, however, maintained that they sat as judges to hear and determine objections to the Prayer Book ; which they demanded in a written form. Baxter, with all his keenness as a metaphysician, was so ignorant of men and of affairs as to induce his colleagues to concede a point that opened up such a a.d. 1660^1666.] COMPREHENSION EVADED. 19 boundless vista for his skill in casuistry. The real desigu of the prelates was to discover the demands in the way oi Church reform in order to refuse them ; as appeared from the simultaneous action of Convocation, and as was afterwards shamelessly avowed by Sheldon. It was a repetition of the Hampton Court Conference of 1604 ; and the secret purpose was the same. The prelates did not desire reconciliation or comprehension ; and it must be owned that the Presbyterians failed to exhibit the wisdom of the serpent. They would have been content with the adoption of Ussher's scheme of modified Epis copacy ; but every concession was peremptorily refused. Sheldon was the main instigator and contriver of the policy that drove the Presbyterians forth from the Church. He openly declared, — "Now we know their minds, we will have matters so fixed that not one shall be able to keep his living." They were to be driven into Nonconformity ; and this was made criminal. The Savoy Conference ended in the middle of July. Convocation, in which none were allowed to sit who had not been episcopally ordained, was simultaneously busy devising new gags and fetters, so as to render clerical subscription more stringent. Nearly six hundred alterations were introduced into the Book of Common Prayer ; mostly suggested by Cosin (1594-1672), Bishop of Durham, the greatest living authority on Liturgies. Many of the changes were verbal, petty, and irritating ; avowedly to render the Prayer Book yet more objectionable to the Presbyterians. An opportunity was afforded to undo the mischief and the wrong of previous Acts of Uniformity, and to heal the wound that had been open since the Reformation ; so as to unite the two great parties who had opposed and vexed each other for a century, and to secure a comprehensive and truly National Church ; but the opportunity was deliberately thrust aside, as had been done on former occasions, and as was to be the case once more, and for the last time, under William III. No attempts were made to reform scandalous abuses, or to meet the altered condition of affairs. The ancient system was revived, with all its hoary iniquities. The course taken by Convocation was an expiring effort to set in motion the old and hated ecclesiastical machinery. 20 THE STUART RESTORATION. [chap, lx The new Parliament which met on May 8, 1661, paved the way for reaction. The utmost pains had been taken by the Court and the clergy to influence the elections, by the customary methods of cajoling, bribing, or intimida ting the voters. The Presbyterians seem to have been cowed and despondent. They mustered only about fifty. The small and corrupt boroughs returned a majority of the members ; men who knew nothing of the Stuart tyranny, but whose families had smarted under the Commonwealth. From the fact that many of them received salaries for sinecure offices at Court, or accepted gifts from the royal purse, the assembly, which lasted, with frequent prorogations, for nearly eighteen years, earned the disreputable title of the Pensionary Parlia ment ; in like manner as the one that met in Edinburgh in January was called the Drunken Parliament, because, as Burnet says, the members were perpetually inebriated. The initial act was to order all the members, including profligates, blasphemers, and atheists, of all of whom there was an exceptional number., to partake of the Sacrament according to the Episcopal form ; under pain of exclusion. The Solemn League and Covenant, the Act appointing the judges of Charles I., and all the Acts constituting the Commonwealth, were burned by the hangman. The Ecclesiastical Courts were restored. Legislative power was declared to reside in neither House, nor in both united, without the King. Whoever affirmed the contrary was to be liable to the penalties of Praemunire. The slavish doctrine of non-resistance to regal authority was taught without any qualification. Even Dr. Robert South (1633-1716), who, as a young Bachelor of Arts, when it was the fashion to eulogize Cromwell, had composed a Latin poem in his honour, now preached Passive Obedience without reserve, as may be seen in his published sermons. He so far forgot himself as to descend to vulgar abuse of the Protector, in a discourse before a crowded congregation of courtiers and people of fashion, in Westminster Abbey. His sermons are distinguished for vigour of thought, and still more for their racy style. The vituperative rhetoric which he poured on the heads of the Puritans gave keen delight to his royal and courtly auditory. A.D. 1660-1666.] ABSURD OATHS FOR OFFICE. 21 Before the close of 1661, the Corporation Act was passed ; to compel every member and officer of munici palities not only to take the Oaths of Allegiance and Supremacy, but to swear that it was not lawful under any pretence whatever to take arms against the King. The Solemn League and Covenant was to be abjured, and all persons were declared ineligible for any corporate office who had not within a year received the Sacrament according to the rites of the Church of England. The measure was aimed at the strongholds of the Presby terians in the boroughs, and was enforced with rigour by commissioners specially appointed. Every functionary was required, ere long, under this and similar Statutes, to take sundry oaths and to subscribe various declarations of implicit belief in an elaborate series of dogmatic statements concerning abstruse theological, speculative, and psychological matters, such as human reason can never understand ; still less explain or determine. In attestation of all this, and to qualify themselves for their official duties as lawgivers or administrators ; as Privy Councillors, judges, or magistrates ; as soldiers or sailors ; as mayors or parish constables ; as Excisemen or beadles, they had to bring certificates of having duly partaken of the Sacrament. This blasphemous travesty, stigmatized by Cowper as " an office key ; a picklock to a place," was continued for , more than a century and a half. By another Act of the same Session, it was declared that the sole authority over the Militia rested in the King. All lords-lieutenant, justices, officers, and private soldiers were required to subscribe the oath that it was unlawful under any circumstances to bear arms against him. The right of petition was restricted ; and more stringent laws were enacted against printers. In these ways the usual machinery of political reaction was set in motion ; as in the latter portion of George the Third's reign ; and as in recent times on the Continent of Europe. Meanwhile, the new Act of Uniformity was being secretly prepared. For this insensate course, pre-doomed to ignominious failure, the responsibility rests, partly with Clarendon, but chiefly with Sheldon ; a fierce, narrow, scheming : prelate of the Whitgift and Laud type ; with the air of an episcopal police-constable. 22 THE STUART RESTORATION. [chap. lx. Burnet says, — " He seemed not to have a deep sense of religion ; if any at all ; and spoke of it most commonly as an engine of government and a matter of policy." The Earl of Manchester, Lord Chamberlain, and himself a Presbyterian, told the King, while the Bill was being debated, that its terms were so rigid he was afraid many of the clergy would not comply. Sheldon rejoined, — " I am afraid they will. Now we know their minds, we will make them all knaves if they conform." After the Act was in operation, he said, in reply to an expression of regret that the door was so strait as to prevent many sober ministers from gaining admission, — " It is no pity at all. If we had thought so many of them would conform, we would have made it straiter." He pressed the measure through the Legislature, as he had super vised the Prayer Book in Convocation, so as to render both as obnoxious as possible to the Presbyterians. The Bill, first introduced June 29, 1661, provoked much resistance. The debates were prolonged and vehement; The fires of religious strife, like Nebuchadnezzar's furnace, were seven times heated. The Bill was sent up to the Lords on the tenth of July, but lay untouched for five months, because the revision of the Prayer Book was not completed. After the prorogation, the Lords took up the measure on January 14, 1662, but progress was slow, owing to the resistance of the few Presbyterian noblemen to some of the more drastic provisions. The majority were obstinate ; being determined to end the strife that had so long waged within the Church. The numerous changes made in the Bill were sent down to the Commons, who had really passed a dummy measure. They adopted the new clauses, and added some of their own, extending the scope of the Bill, and increasing its harshness. They struck out a proposal to allow one-fifth of the income to ejected incumbents ; as had been the case under the Long Parliament. Not until May 19 was the measure ready for the royal assent. It prescribed that every minister, before St. Bartholo- mew's-day, August 24, " shall openly, publicly, and solemnly read the Morning and Evening prayers in the Prayer Book, and shall openly and publicly, after a prescribed form, declare his unfeigned assent and consent A.b. 1660-1666.] STRINGENT SUBSCRIPTION. 23 to the use of all things in the said Book " ; which was affixed to and became part of the Act, on the established principle that the national faith and worship must be defined and enforced by the Legislature. Default was to be followed by deprivation. For the first time, ministerial orders not episcopally conferred were declared invalid. The Act provided that all clergymen, heads and tutors of colleges, and schoolmasters " shall subscribe a declaration that it is not lawful under any circumstances to take up arms against the King ; that they will conform to the Liturgy ; and that the Solemn League and Covenant, being an unlawful oath, has no obligation." Fine or three months' imprisonment was the penalty for dis obedience to this drastic measure ; one incidental evil of which was that it isolated the clergy into a separate class, as of old, and fostered a theory that their Order is exclusive and mysterious. The stringent terms of sub scription were maintained until 1865 ; when a verbal modification was enacted, to the effect that the doctrine set forth in the Prayer Book, and not all and everything therein contained, is agreeable to the Word of God. Hitherto, the Universities had extended a welcome to all comers ; but they now became sectarian ; for rigid tests were enforced until 1871. Three anxious months were spent between the time of the passing of the Act and its coming into force. Burnet was told by some of the bishops that many clergymen subscribed on trust. John Locke declares that the new Prayer Book was So tardily printed that not one in forty of the men who assented could have seen it. He did not agree with the theology of the Puritans ; and to his calm and logical mind their fervour, and lengethened sermons, and tedious extemporaneous prayers were distasteful ; but he says, — " Bartholomew Day was fatal to our Church and religion, in throwing out a very great number of worthy, learned, pious, and orthodox divines." Some conformed, just as Reynolds retained his bishopric, and it is not for moderns to judge them. The time fixed was with a view to prevent the recovery of tithes for the ecclesiastical year then expiring. It is commonly said, though without adequate proof, that two thousand clergymen, or about one-fifth of the entire body, resigned 24 THE STUART RESTORATION. [chap. LX. their preferments rather than take an oath and make a declaration alien to their convictions. The largest number were in London, the Eastern Counties, Yorkshire, and the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge. Samuel Palmer, in his ' Nonconformist Memorial,' based upon Calamv's ' Account,' gives the names of two thousand two hundred and fifty ; but he includes those who were ejected immediately after the Restoration, and some who on conscientious grounds were unable to accept livings. A fierce controversy has waged ever since over the actual number. Apologists have sought to minimise it ; but the infamy of the Act is unaffected by the question of a few hundred victims more or less. Among those ejected at the time or since the Restora tion were such illustrious men and theological Titans as Dr. John Owen, whose great doctrinal treatises and polemical writings are monuments of erudition ; the pro found Dr. Thomas Goodwin ; the seraphic John Howe, from whom Robert Hall said that he had learned more than from any other author ; the silver-tongued Dr. William Bates, whose farewell sermons at St. Dunstan's- in-the-West are described by Pepys ; Joseph Caryl, the commentator on Job ; Matthew Poole, author of the ' Annotations ' and of the ' Synopsis Criticorum ' ; Dr. Lazarus Seaman, the Orientalist ; and Theophilus Gale, the learned author of ' The Court of the Gentiles,' sug gested by a hint in ' De Veritate,' by Grotius. Other honoured names were Dr. Thomas Manton ; Stephen Charnock ; Richard Baxter ; Dr. William Spurstowe, one of the authors of ' Smectymnuus ' ; William Bridge, of Yarmouth, and Philip Nye, two of the five Dissenting Brethren in the Westminster Assembly ; John Wesley's paternal grandfather, of the same name, and his maternal grandfather, Dr. Samuel Annesley ; Philip Henry, father of the commentator ; and distinguished groups like John Flavel, David Clarkson, and Thomas Doolittle ; Edmund Calamy, father and son ; Thomas and Nathaniel Vincent ; Joseph Alleyne, author of ' The call to the Unconverted,' Oliver Heywood, and Henry Newcome. In point of moral, character, mental endowments, solid learning, University position, pulpit ability, and social standing, they had few equals and no superiors. A.D. 1660-1666.] EFFECTS OF THE EJECTMENT. 25 No difficulty was experienced in filling the vacated places. Men in abundance were found ready to take upon themselves the priest's office for the sake of its emoluments. Burnet declares that they were mean and despicable in all respects ; the worst preachers he ever heard ; ignorant to a reproach ; many of them openly vicious, a disgrace to their order, and the dregs of society. John Oldham (1653-1683), who, in the opinion of Hallam, " is far superior in his satires to Marvell, and ranks perhaps next to Dryden," who eulogized him in terms of affectionate admiration, has left an unflattering portrait of a nobleman's chaplain, which stands for a numerous class. The accuracy of Maeaulay' s famous de lineation has been angrily challenged, but not disproved ; even by Gladstone's able and well-known criticism. The Act has not secured uniformity ; any more than was the case with two previous measures in the time of Edward VI., and the one under Elizabeth. One effect of what Archdeacon Hare calls ' ' this most disastrous, most tyranni cal, and schismatical Act " was to doom the ministry to in tellectual barrenness and spiritual lethargy for nearly two centuries. As an ecclesiastical Establishment it ceased to be national. Formalism, immobility, exclusiveness, and narrowness were enshrined. All power of expansion, of adaptation, and of self-government was surrendered. Vital religion was almost extinguished. In many country parishes the lamp of God went out. With rare excep tions, down to a comparatively recent period, the English Church contributed no original and productive thought to the great domains of religious literature, of philosophy, of science, or of ecclesiastical history, from the time of Jeremy Taylor and of Isaac Barrow ; the first of whom died in 1667, and the second ten years later. The mental and moral torpor that followed upon the last futile attempt to enforce an outward uniformity, and that re acted upon other religious bodies, is shown in the sixty- seventh and sixty-eighth Chapters. Dr. John Stoughton gives an able sketch of the theological writers of the period in his ' Church of the Restoration.' From the Ejectment of 1662 maybe dated the separa tion of the English people into two camps of Conformists and Nonconformists ; in a sense more marked and dis- 26 THE STUART RESTORATION. [chap. Lx. tinct than before. The great Puritan party, which had taken so prominent a share in the work of the Church, was sternly and finally driven out. An end was put to the attempts made since the Reformation by Cranmer, Latimer, Jewel, Hooper, Ridley, and other Fathers of the Church of England, to complete the work then initiated, and to effect an intimate relationship with the Reformed Churches of the Continent. It was now decided that England should stand aloof from Christendom. She had broken with the Papacy. She was henceforth to be detached from all other non- Episcopal Protestant com munions. It was a fatal policy, which recoiled upon herself, upon the nation, and upon religion. The ejected clergy regarded themselves as the true representatives of the Protestant Reformed Church of England ; but wrongfully and illegally thrust outside its pale ; as was the case with those who left the Kirk of Scotland at the Disruption in 1843. They were compelled by the force of circumstances, like the Puritan settlers in Massa chusetts, to take up, under protest and most unwillingly, the ground of the despised and persecuted Separatists, who, for more than a century, had borne their testimony. The unintended effect upon national religious thought and upon popular liberties has been incalculable, in pro mulgating the Divine idea of freedom, and in strengthen ing the moral fibre of the English race. At the same time, it is impossible not to regret the spirit of isolation, of suspicion, and, sometimes, of anta gonism forced upon the great body of Nonconformists by their persistent exclusion for nearly two hundred years from the national seats of learning, and from civic offices to which their character, attainments, and position en titled them. Nor is a word of excuse to be found for the manner in which they were treated by intolerant ecclesi astics—often their inferiors in piety, in learning, and in diligence — as if they had been unworthy of citizenship and outcasts from society and from the pale of religion. When the prejudices, the narrowness, the sectarianism, and the bitterness of Nonconformists are held up to reproach, it is only just to remember that, in so far as the charge is true, it is mainly owing to the treatment ex perienced at the hands of a bigoted priesthood ; aided by A b. 1660-1666.] NONCONFORMIST NARROWNESS. 27 unscrupulous, time-serving politicians, who sacrificed the great future of England for the sake of a temporary triumph. It is easy to bring a charge of schism ; but it is a two-edged weapon, without a handle, and is apt to maim the hand that uses it. Episcopalians who so regard Nonconformists, are themselves stigmatized as schismatics by Rome, which refuses to admit the validity of their ministerial orders. Justice may not always approve of Nonconformist policy, and taste may object to some utterances. The lack of sweetness and light may pro voke a sheer ; and nothing is more common than to regard exceptional instances of prejudice, narrowness, and fanaticism as typical and universal ; like the rigid Covenant of the Independent Church in Cambridge, in 1696, which continued to be enforced for about half a century. The members mutually agreed not to go to " any human worship, or worship corrupted with the superstitions and inventions of men " ; which must be understood as referring especially, if not exclusively, to Episcopalian churches. No member was to marry " without first desiring the prayers of the Church therein." The penalty was excommunication. The motive, undoubtedly, was good, but this was carrying to an extreme the idea of separation. Such a spirit, how ever deplorable and censurable, is not confined to one party, or creed. Contempt for the opinions of others ; jealousy of every difference of religious sentiment ; the disposition to arrogate a monopoly of truth ; and a sus picion of every one else as acting under the shackles of bigotry or the mask of hypocrisy, are not peculiar to any class, or dogma, or community. There is no prejudice so strong as that which arises from a fancied exemption from all prejudice. Charles had promised the Presbyterian ministers of London, who formed a majority of its beneficed clergy, that he would suspend the operations of the measure. Clarendon and Sheldon strenuously opposed a course that was really beyond the King's power ; because un constitutional. Not that he cared for the opinions or the wrongs of the Presbyterians ; but he wished to favour : the Roman Catholics, and he could not do so alone, or ' avowedly. However, he issued a Delaration 28 THE STUART RESTORATION. [chap. lx. the day after Christmas, that he would invite the Legis lature to concur in an Act to enable him to exercise a dispensing power on behalf of peaceable persons who could not conform. Parliament met, February 18, 1663, and much alarm was expressed when a Bill to effect this was introduced by the King's friends. It was opposed by his Chancellor, Clarendon, and by the bishops ; and had to be dropped. A similar fate befell renewed attempts in subsequent years. During the Session of 1664, Parliament repealed with indecent haste, on an open threat from the Court, the Triennial Act of 1641 ; which Charles had the effrontery to declare he should disregard, even if it remained on the Statute Book. It was re-enacted after the Revolution. Then the congenial work of hunting Sectaries was resumed. The Conventicle Act was passed, with but little debate ; extending the measure of the same kind adopted under Elizabeth, by which Recusants were to be imprisoned for not attending their parish churches. Not more than five persons above sixteen years of age, besides the household, might be present at any meetings for worship other than those prescribed by the Act of Uniformity ; under penalty of fine or imprisonment, with transportation or slavery for a third offence ; return to England being felony. Noble men incurred double penalties. All such assemblies were to be dispersed by force of arms ; the leaders arrested ; and the owners of the building made liable to similar pains and penalties. The Act was to be in force for three years. It was renewed in 1667, and again in 1670, with stringent additions. The whole bench of Bishops, with the two exceptions of Wilkins of Chester and Rainbow of Carlisle, voted for this inhuman Act, which was enforced with rigour, to the utter ruin of many families. Virginia and New England were ex pressly exempted as places of exile, to prevent the victims from receiving help from sympathising friends. After 1688, the measure fell into desuetude. Baxter says that some, who had been loudest in advis ing their ministers to go to prison rather than submit to the Act of Uniformity, would not act upon the advice when the sword was turned against themselves by the Conventicle Act. John Bunyan, in his immortal work. A.D. 1660-1666.] CONVENTICLE ACT. 29 depicts Lord Turnabout, Lord Timeserver, Mr. Any thing, Mr. Worldly- Wiseman, and the rest ; all of whom were drawn from the originals of the trimmers of his day. His ' Life and Death of Mr. Badman,' is a vivid and faithful portraiture of a vulgar, unprincipled trades man in a provincial town. The usual style of indictment may be gathered from the one preferred against Bunyan : — " That he hath devilishly and perniciously abstained from coming to church to ,hear Divine service, and is a common upholder of several unlawful meetings and con venticles, to the great disturbance and distraction of the good subjects of this kingdom ; contrary to the laws of our sovereign lord the King." The description given by the Immortal Dreamer of the trial of Faithful in Vanity Fair, is a keen satire upon the parodies of justice which constantly took place at the time : — " They brought them forth to their trial in order to their condemna tion." Bunyan draws a truthful and a graphic picture of the odious mummeries in the name of law. Not a single detail is forced or lacking. Clarendon applauds the Act, and says it would have ensured thorough uniformity if it had been vigorously executed. There was, however, no lack of vigour. Search-warrants were readily granted by bigoted justices, and executed by brutal emissaries. Hundreds of persons were driven along the roads like cattle ; sometimes in chains ; sometimes tied to the troopers' horses, which were.kept at a trot. The gaols were crowded, especially with Quakers, who would not resort even to a venial subterfuge in order to escape. Pepys, under date of August 1, 1664, makes this entry, — " I saw several poor creatures carried by, by- constables, for being at a Con venticle. They go like lambs, without any resistance. I would to God they would either conform, or be more wise, and not be catched." On September 4, 1668, he witnessed Ben Jonson's ' Bartholomew Fair,' which he describes as " an excellent play ; the more I see it, the more I love the wit of it ; only the business of abusing the Puritans begins to grow stale and of no use ; they being the people that at the last will grow the wisest." At another time, May 14, 1669 he records how, in Lambeth Palace, in the presence of Sheldon, " one 30 THE STUART RESTORATION. [chap. lx. Cornet Bolton did pray and preach like a Presbyter Scot, with all the possible imitation in grimaces and voice . . . till it made us all burst." Towards the close of the year 1664, the dreaded Plague once more broke out in London. There had been three great attacks within living memory, besides many local cases. With the Summer heat of 1665 the mortality rapidly rose. In the first and third weeks of September, nearly eight thousand three hundred died } so far as the Bills of Mortality extended. The total deaths within that year were nearly one hundred thousand ; or more than one-fifth of the population of, London. Numerous cases occurred also in the provinces.1 Whole families were swept away. In some streets there was scarcely a survivor, or one able to nurse the sick; Interments had to be rapidly made in great pits. Houses, furniture, and property were abandoned. Some of the City parishes were almost deserted. Grass grew in the chief thoroughfares, and business was suspended. Though called the Great Plague, former attacks in 1407,- 1479, 1500, 1513, 1563, 1603, 1625, and 1636, had proved nearly as fatal, in proportion to the inhabitants. Pepys* and Evelyn have frequent entries relating to it iri their Diaries. Defoe depicted the calamity in his ' Journal of the Plague Year ' ; a marvellous piece of realism that imposed upon many persons, including Dr. Richard Mead, the physician. Defoe was not born until 1661, but he used available printed information, and numerous incidents heard in his boyhood ; combining the whole into a narrative more picturesque even than the famous one left by Thomas Dekker of the outbreak of 1603. The King and his Court removed to a safe distance; as did most of the London clergy. The places of tlie latter were taken by some of the silenced and ejected ministers, who, at the hazard of their own lives, braved the dangers of the pestilence, and ministered to the dying and the bereaved. One of them, the Rev. Thomas . Vincent, of Christ Church, Oxford, who had been deprived of his living of St. Mary Magdalen, Milk-street, issued ' God's Terrible Voice in the City,' often reprinted. A dastardly revenge for this voluntary religious and. humane service was taken by the Parliament, which met a.d. 1660-1666.] FIVE MILE ACT. 31 in safe seclusion at Oxford, in October. Its chief work was the fabrication of a Bill restraining Nonconformists from inhabiting Corporations ; commonly known as the Five Mile Act, from one of its provisions which forbade all persons in holy orders, who had not taken the prescribed Tests, from coming within that distance of any corporate or borough town, or of any place where they had formerly officiated ; under penalty of forty pounds ; one-third of which, as usual, was to go to the informer. A like penalty attached to their teaching in any public or private school, or taking boarders into their own houses for education. The object of this malignant Statute was to cut off friendly supplies from the ejected clergy, and to deprive them of the only remaining method of gaining a livelihood. A motion to extend the Act to the laity was defeated by only six votes. Sheldon is mainly responsible for the enactment ; which he instantly proceeded to enforce with rigour. He had succeeded Juxon in the archbishopric in June, 1663. It was calculated at a later period by Jeremy White, who made a careful enumeration, that fifteen thousand families had been ruined, and that five thousand persons had died in prison for conscience' sake between the Restoration and the death of Charles II. ; while untold sums of money were exacted in the shape of fines and confiscations from the victims. How the Act was enforced appears in the cases of such saintly men as Joseph Alleyne, who died at the age of thirty- six from sufferings endured in Taunton Gaol ; or Vavasor Powell, the Apostle of Wales, who spent eleven years in various prisons, and at last perished in the horrible Fleet; or of William Jenkyn, a learned and an accomplished clergyman, who had not favoured the Commonwealth, yet was ejected from the living of Christ Church, Newgate-street. He was rigorously confined in Newgate for conducting illegal worship ; and died there in January, 1685, at the age of seventy- two. At his funeral in Bunhill-fields, City- road, his daughter distributed mourning-rings bearing the motto, — " Mr. William Jenkyn : murdered in Newgate." These three instances of clergymen imprisoned to death for preaching are typical of many. Bunhill-fields were first set apart 32 THE STUART RESTORATION. [chap. lx. as a place of interment in 1665 by the Corporation of the City of London. Southey termed the spot the Campo Santo of the Dissenters ; and although many others have found in it a last resting-place, Nonconformists have always regarded it as the Holy Field of their illustrious dead, whose remains were in many cases refused admis sion into the grave-yards of the churches where they had ministered or worshipped. In it repose the dust of men whose writings are among the most precious of the national heirlooms, like John Bunyan and Daniel Defoe ; celebrated divines like Dr. John Owen, Dr. Thomas Goodwin, Nathaniel Vincent, Dr. Isaac Watts, Thomas Doolittle, Thomas Bradbury, William Kiffin, Hanserd Knollys, Theophilus Gale, Dr. John Gill, Dr. John Rippon, Dr. Daniel Williams, and Theophilus Lindsey ; learned men like Dr. Nathaniel Lardner and Dr. Abraham Rees ; Thomas Stothard and William Blake, the painters ; Thomas Hardy and John Home Tooke, the reformers ; Ritson, the antiquary ; Daniel Neal, the historian of the Puritans ; Charles Fleetwood, Cromwell's son-in-law ; John Wesley's mother ; with other worthies and con fessors, fearless advocates of civil and religious liberty, whose personal character and public service not only adorned the age in which they lived, but conferred permanent benefits upon the land of their birth. The terrible epidemic of 1665 was followed in the next year by what is known as the Great Fire of London ; described with such graphic force in the Diaries of Pepys and Evelyn, and part of the theme of Dryden's ' Annus Mirabilis.' Eighty-nine churches, including St. Paul's Cathedral, with most of the public buildings, thirteen thousand dwelling-houses, and vast quantities of mer chandize, were destroyed. The total loss was roughly estimated at seven millions and a half. A space of four hundred and thirty-six acres, or two-thirds of the whole area within the City walls, was left in ruins. Sir Christopher Wren's (1632-1723) plans for reconstructing London on a magnificent scale, with wide streets, an open space on the South side of St. Paul's down to the river, and a broad quay along the banks, were frus trated ; but the stamp of his genius remains on the new Cathedral and on numerous churches. Party feeling and a.d. 1660-1666.] GREAT FIRE OF LONDON. 33 religious antipathy attributed the fire to incendiarism by the Catholics ; but no proof was ever forthcoming in support of what came to be regarded as a baseless calumny. Antecedent probability is against the charge. The Monument at London Bridge, that marks the spot where the conflagration began, bore for many years an inscription to the effect that it was due to Popish malignity ; giving rise to Pope's famous phrase, — " Like a tall bully, lifts its head, and lies " ; but the objection able words were subsequently effaced. One beneficent and unexpected result of the Great Fire was that by destroying so many of the narrow and crooked streets and alleys, it occasioned the rebuilding of a large part of the City on a plan more spacious and airy. Prior to this, the Plague was almost perpetually lurking, ready to break out at any time. The attacks became less frequent and fatal, although zymotic diseases continued to rage at intervals for nearly two centuries, on account of insanitary conditions and a fitful supply of impure water ; excepting within the limited district in the North of London supplied by the New River. CHAPTER LXI. NATIONAL DEGRADATION. A.D. 1660-1685. The history of the Stuart Restoration is wearisome, nauseous, and disgraceful. Enough has been written of Court intrigues and cabals ; of political tergiversation and literary profligacy ; of reckless waste and scandalous mal administration ; of jobbery, simony, and corruption ; of suffering at home and disgrace abroad. The King and his courtiers ; high officers of State and members of Parliament ; the judges, and the clergy, were tainted, with few exceptions, by the greed, the flippancy, the lewdness, and the villainy of the age. Brazen-fronted Vice was insolent and clamorous. The debauches of Commodus and of Heliogabalus were revived, under the vol. in. 4 34 NATIONAL DEGRADATION. [chap. lxi. disguise of rustling silks and waving plumes. King and nobles led frivolous and useless lives. Painted harlots flaunted in the palace, and squandered money for lack of which soldiers and sailors starved. Sir Peter Lely's portraits of these Court strumpets, with their tawdry, theatrical airs, their half-clad, sensuous, meretricious beauty, and the vulgar splendour of their surroundings, reveal their shameless magnificence and the public de gradation. By seventeen known mistresses, called, in the language of the day, " the chargeable ladies about the Court," Charles was reputed to have had thirteen children ; several of whom were created earls or dukes, with ample incomes out of the public purse, charged in perpetuity ; and still paid, where not recently commuted on a generous scale. Defoe, in ' The True-Born English man,' satirises such results of the "lazy, long, lascivious reign." One courtesan was sent over by Louis XIV. as a spy and an agent. She is the Bathsheba of Dryden's satire. Evelyn says that her apartments were furnished " with ten times the richness and glory of the Queen's ; with massive services of plate, and whole tables and stands of incredible value." Another concubine appeared at one of the Court masques blazing with diamonds to the value of forty thousand pounds, and it was roughly calculated that she had absorbed half a million of money. Her presence was forced by Charles on his wife, Catherine of Braganza, daughter of John IV. of Portugal, whom he married in 1662 for political reasons. John Evelyn (1620-1706) and Samuel Pepys (1632-1703) record scenes, conversation, and habits that create a shudder of disgust ; yet some parts of the ' Diary ' of Pepys still repose in their original stenographic disguise ; as it is impossible to print them. H. B. Wheatley's edition contains much matter that had been suppressed in previous issues, but some crude and coarse passages have had to be omitted. The large additions reveal Pepys in an unfavourable light, not only as regards his private character, but as participating to the utmost in the public corruption, bribery, and waste. The Restoration flooded the country with licentious ness. Gambling, ribaldry, drunkenness, and profligacy ran riot. Perfumed beaux and belles, enamoured of one another's follies and vices, killed Time in feeble, intel- a.d. 1660-1685.] UNREADABLE PLAYS. 35 lectual efforts over far-fetched images, ingenious phrases, keen thrusts of cruel irony, smart epigrams, highly- seasoned scandal, and brutal practical jokes. There was not even the thinnest veneer of propriety. Vulgar witti cisms, course lampoons, and blasphemous parodies were invented ; their authors seeking to outvie one another in filthiness and profanity. A new oath ; a vile song ; an outrageous tale ; some lewd gossip ; a salacious play, were sure passports to Court favour. The King attended the Council meetings only to be amused, and could with difficulty be induced to apply to serious business. "Jilts ruled the State, and statesmen farces writ." Milton's delineation of Belial, in ' Paradise Lost,' is an awful picture of the times. Many of the dramas, however sparking with wit, and even after allowing for what has been written in their praise by Charles Lamb, by William Hazlitt, and by Leigh Hunt, are the foulest productions of the English or of any other Stage. The light and graceful songs of a few writers like Sir Charles Sedley cannot redeem them. Love disappeared, and re volting animalism took its place. Even glorious John Dryden (1631-1700) degraded himself and his art by pandering to the low tastes of the age. " A ribald King and Court bade him toil on to make them sport." Most of his plays are devoid of character ; false to Nature ; and feeble in expression, where they are not gross or exagge rated. His true renown lies away from the drama. No decent man would now witness— he would even blush to read — such representations as were then highly popular, after having passed through the immoral Gehenna of the French Court, and which fine ladies witnessed with erotic delight. It is part of the eternal praise due to the Later Puritans that they ceaselessly protested against these vulgar and unwholesome productions. Thackeray, in his ' English Humorists,' describes the Comic Muse of that day as " a disreputable, daring, laughing, painted French baggage " ; and J. R. Green, in noble words, vindicates the protest of the Puritans. It was bitterly remarked that a tithe of the sums lavished in Court revels and buffoonery would have saved from want many loyal Cavaliers — the originals of Sir Mungo Malagrowther, in ' The Fortunes of Nigel ' — 36 NATIONAL DEGRADATION. [ch vp. lxi. who had melted their plate, cut down their timber, mortgaged their estates, and ruined themselves for the Stuarts ; but were now forgotten and left to starve. In another of his novels, ' Peveril of the Peak,' Scott has sketched the manners of the Court ; gathering up and concentrating the information left by such contemporary writers as Grammont, Pepys, Burnet, and Clarendon. Charles commenced early and continued long his train ing in debauchery. He surrounded himself with like- minded companions. Sir John Coventry, a member of Parliament, was assailed in the street by Court ruffians, and his nose was mutilated, because of some words that were construed into being a reproach of the royal amours. George Villiers, the second Duke of Buckingham, and son of the favourite of Charles I., killed the Earl of Shrewsbury in a duel, while the Countess, his paramour, held his horse and watched the murder that was to loose her marriage-bond. His abandoned life and his disgrace ful death, "in the worst inn's worst room," are described by Pope. In his burlesque of ' The Rehearsal,' Bucking ham caricatured Dryden as Bayes, who took full revenge in his trenchant satire of ' Absalom and Achitophel.' In it, Buckingham figures as Zimri, upon whom are poured the vials of wrath and contempt. The Earl of Rochester, who aspires to be a poet, and who hired bravoes to cudgel Dryden for a satire that he never wrote, was addicted to the lowest debauchery ; and was worn out, infamous, and dead, at thirty-three. These are but a few types out of many that might be cited, of the prevalent corruption, waste, degradation, and moral putridity. Dunkirk, with its renowned memories of Cromwell's rule, was shamelessly sold to the French ; whose tool and pensioner Charles became to an increasing extent. By secret treaties, Louis XIV. undertook to pay amounts which in some years were as much as a quarter of a million ; in return for hostility towards Holland and for assistance against Spain, and in order to help to suppress discontent in England. Charles was also to avow himself a Catholic as soon as expedient. The Dutch rallied from their crushing defeats by Blake ; chased English vessels from the narrow seas ; sailed up the Medway in June 1667, andburned the ships at Chatham. London was in A.D. 1660-1685.] FALL OF CLARENDON. 37 a state of panic. The nation was moved as it had not been since the time of the Armada. Pepys records how everybody reflected upon Cromwell's brave deeds, and wished that he was still living. Happily, the Dutch were ignorant of the defenceless state of England — though millions had been voted for the Army and Navy — and they withdrew, after committing much damage. But the disgrace was indelible. Sir William Temple (1628-1698) was despatched to effect a Triple Alliance with Holland and Sweden ; ostensibly against the aggressive designs of Louis XIV. upon Flanders ; but Charles and his Ministers had no intention to break with their French paymaster. The Triple Alliance was made, to placate the angry feeling of Parliament in the Session of 1667 ; but was soon dis solved. The French overran Holland, and its people opened the sluices for the second time, inundated their country, and purchased present escape by the sacrifice of an enormous amount of property. Then began the heroic struggle for liberty with which is for ever as sociated the name of William of Orange, afterwards William III. of England. The public indignation fell upon Clarendon. His magnificent new mansion, near St. James's Palace, popu larly stigmatized as Dunkirk House, from his supposed perfidy in selling to France the only remaining English possession, was attacked by a mob, and a gibbet erected before the door. Abandoned by his graceless master to the intrigues of the Court Jezebels and Delilahs, after thirty years' unscrupulous service, he was deprived of the Great Seal in November, 1667, and impeached for high treason. He fled to the Continent, and occupied himself for seven years in composing his ' Memoirs ' and his ' History of the Rebellion.' His delineations of the actors in those memorable scenes, apart from manifest bias, unjust insinuations, glaring inaccuracies, and wilful sup pressions, resemble Plutarch's ' Lives ' in their sharp clearness. He never returned to England, notwithstand ing all his attempts and submissions ; but died at Rouen, December 9, 1674. Of his abilities there can be no question. Personally upright, and outwardly decent in a gross age, he connived at his daughter becoming a mis tress of the Duke of York, as a step towards wifehood ; 38 NATIONAL DEGRADATION. [chap. LXl. and he showed himself a willing advocate and a pliant tool of arbitrary government. With his fall, came an important change in the administration ; towards which the course of events had been tending for fifty years. An inner body within the Privy Council, afterwards known as the Cabinet, became the centre of government ; although unrecognised by the Constitution down to the present day. Bacon says, in his twenty-first ' Essay,' that the practice was introduced from Italy and France ; and he calls it " a remedy worse than the disease." For some time, the word " Cabal " was employed synony mously ; but with a sinister meaning. It was originally composed of the initial letters of the names of the five men who formed the Ministry in 1670 ; Lord Clifford, Lord Arlington, the Duke of Buckingham, Lord Ashley — afterwards Earl of Shaftesbury — and the Duke of Lauderdale. The great administrative and judicial officers were in receipt of enormous salaries ; mainly derived from fees. Some of the posts were held during the royal pleasure. Others were patent offices, that could be tranferred or sold at high prices. One of the few exceptions to the unscrupulous partisan ship and self-seeking was Andrew Marvell (1620-1678), M.P. for Hull ; in which capacity his constituents paid him six and eightpence a clay. He is worthy of the name of the English Aristides. His patriotism is far superior to much of his poetry. He would not sully the white robe of his independence by accepting Court favours. In the ' Rehearsal Transprosed,' he nobly vindicated and eulogized Milton, whose colleague he was for a time in the Latin Secretaryship ; and effectually answered the foul-mouthed Samuel Parker, an apostate Puritan, who was rewarded with the see of Oxford for maintaining, in a ' Discourse on Ecclesiastical Polity,' in 1670, "the authority of the civil magistrate over the consciences of subjects in matters of external religion, and the mischiefs and inconveniences of toleration " ; with the slavish dogma that " princes may with less hazard give liberty to men's vices than to their consciences " ; and that " it is better to submit to the unreasonable impositions of a Nero and a Caligula than to hazard a dissolution of the State." This crawling sycophant, a a.d. 1660-1685.] MILTON'S LATER DAYS. 39 type of a numerous class that continued to speak and write in the same vein until their own emoluments were endangered under James 1 1., is described by Baxter as writing "the most scornfully, rashly, profusely, and cruelly against the Nonconformists of anyiman that ever yet assaulted them." Marvell's reply was read with delight by all classes, and it overwhelmed Parker with derision. Like the proverbial fool, he was answered according to his folly, in the style then prevalent. Marvell will always be remembered, in common with Thomas Ellwood the Quaker (1639-1713), as John Milton's friend and defender. The blind bard, after having been secreted by faithful protectors at the time of the Restoration, continued to live in obscurity in London, chiefly in Jewin-street and Artillery-walk ; with a retire ment to Chalfont St. Giles, in Bucks, in 1665, on account of the Plague. He had been molested for a time, and was for six months in the custody of the Sergeant-at- Arms of the House of Commons, because of the ' Defence of the People of England.' He was released, it is said, mainly through the influence of the playwright, Sir William Davenant, whom he once befriended when in great peril, and a pardon was granted. To the credit of Charles II. , when pressed to inflict signal punishment on the poet, lie refused ; saying that he was sufficiently punished by being old, blind, and destitute. It was Milton's habit to spend the morning in study, with the aid of readers ; and to dictate to an amanuensis the results of his profound meditations ; his accurate ear determining the rhythm with nice adjustment. He is described as sitting in the afternoon at the open door of his house, when the sun shone ; his eyes revealing no trace of his affliction ; his auburn hair hanging round classic features that still showed his early beauty ; his cheeks fresh and tinted ; and often visited by admiring and distinguished strangers from foreign lands. He gently passed away, November 8, 1674, in his sixty-sixth year. His last resting-place is in St. Giles's, Cripplegate, where Cromwell was married. A monument marks the spot ; one of the shrines to which English and American pilgrims resort. A memorial window was placed in 1887 in St. Margaret's Church, Westminster, by G. W. Childs, 40 NATIONAL DEGRADATION. [chap. lxi. of Philadelphia ; and the poet, J. G. Whittier, composed for it a quatrain. No longer able to take part in public affairs, and the cause of which he was the literary champion being, for the time, lost, Milton gathered his singing-robes around him during the troubled days, and, rivalling Scio's Blind Old Bard, poured forth the majestic strains of ' Paradise Lost ' ; taking, as of right, his seat with the Immortals on the Sacred Mount. With fit friends, though few, so far as concerned mundane affairs and the contemptible politics of a degenerate age, " his soul was like a star, and dwelt apart " ; as Wordsworth sings. Like one of the old prophets, he consoled himself with celestial images, amidst a world given over to baseness and frivolity. Though sightless, he soared and basked in the eternal light ; and his inward eye ranged over universal Nature. God and Man ; Heaven and Hell ; Creation and Paradise ; Providence and Redemp tion, with their sublime and awful mysteries, were open to him ; and future ages of liberty and glory appeared in radiant vision. In the maturity of his powers, his massive thought, his affluence of learning, his lofty imagination, and his pomp and felicity of diction, produced one of the few really great poems of the world ; like the sound of rolling organs and cathedral choirs. His carefully-chosen, long-projected epic, probably commenced in 1658, though not seriously undertaken until 1661, was published seven years before his death ; not without difficulty from the Licenser, who suspected treason, for instance, in lines 594-9 of the First Book. Other portions had to be toned down. Its partial simi larity in theme and in style to Caedmon, the Saxon poet, was pointed out in the fourth Chapter ; and his genius did not disdain to borrow from his Dutch contemporary, Justus van den Vondel, whose masterpiece was the tragedy of ' Lucifer,' and who wrote a poem on Samson. The character and fame of Milton's work were estab lished on an indestructible basis long before Addison wrote his elaborate analysis in the ' Spectator.' Thomas Rymer (1638-1713), better known as the compiler of ' Foedera ' than as the incompetent critic of Shakspere, pronounced " our poetry of the last age as rude as our architecture " ; and ridiculed " that ' Paradise Lost ' of A.D. 1660-1685.] 'PARADISE LOST: 41 Milton which some are pleased to call a poem." Few persons suspect how far the popular conception of the Creation and the Fall have been influenced by Milton's epic ; in the splendour and majesty of which the dim outline of the Hebrew story is enlarged and filled up. The only other book, except the Bible, which has done so much to mould the religious opinions of the English people, is 'The Pilgrim's Progress.' Two other works by Milton appeared in 1669 and 1670 ; the manuscripts of which had long awaited issue : his ' Latin Grammar,' and a ' History of Britain to the Norman Conquest.' He also sent forth, September 20, 1670, in one volume, ' Paradise Regained,' and ' Samson Agonistes.' The first was suggested by his young and staunch Quaker friend, Thomas Ellwood, when returning the earlier manuscript lent to him by the poet : — "Thou hast said much here of ' Paradise lost ; what hast thou to say of Paradise found ? " Milton's ' Samson ' con tains, as the nature of the theme suggests, numerous pathetic references to his own blindness, and is a vivid portraiture of himself and the times in which he lived. It is spoiled in the adaptation to Handel's oratorio. The above, with those named in preceding Chapters, comprise Milton's best-known works issued during his lifetime ; but he left in the hands of his latest amanu ensis, David Skinner, a Cambridge scholar, a compila tion of his celebrated Latin Letters of State, and a ' Treatise of Christian Doctrine,' also in Latin. An im perfect edition of the former appeared surreptitiously in London, in 1676. The latter, after lying unsuspected in the State Paper Office, was found by Robert Lemon and published in 1825. Surprise was expressed at its Arianism, although any careful reader of ' Paradise Lost' must have been prepared for this. Dryden was a King's Scholar at Westminster, under the renowned Dr. Richard Busby, and graduated at Cambridge in 1657. His first literary production of any note was in the form of heroic stanzas on the death of Cromwell ; but his somewhat vagrant Muse, with equal splendour of diction, and perhaps with equal sincerity, extolled the Stuart Restoration. He devoted himself to the Stage, as already mentioned, and then he discovered 42 NATIONAL DEGRADATION. [chap. lxi. his great powers as a satirist. In his ' Absalom and Achitophel,' the latter is intended for the Earl of Shaftesbury, whom also he fiercely assailed in a biting lampoon, ' The Medal.' When Elkanah Settle, Thomas Shadwell, and other gad-flies of literature buzzed around him with their ineffectual attempts at retaliation, he finally crushed them with his ' Mac Flecknoe.' What ever may be thought of the arguments with which he vindicated his conversion to Romanism, in ' The Hind and the Panther,' and however absurd as an allegory, it is a brilliant specimen of his unrivalled powers. His ' Ode on St. Cecilia's Day ' is one of the finest pieces of exact lyrical poetry in the language. Pope speaks of his " long, majestic march, and energy divine." Gray depicts him in the phrase, — " In thoughts that breathe and words that burn ; " and told his friend, James Beattie, to remember Dryden, and be blind to all his faults ; adding, that if there was any excellence in his own numbers, he had learned it wholly from that great poet, whose choice of words and versification were singu larly happy and harmonious. One of the best modern criticisms is in Russell Lowell's ' Among my Books.' John Bunyan (1628-1688), had suffered nearly twelve years' imprisonment in Bedford for conscience' sake, because he would not promise to abstain from what was deemed unauthorized preaching. He was released by the general pardon granted in 1672, under the illegal Declaration of Indulgence ; designed to favour the Romanists. Within ten months, three thousand five hundred licenses to preach and hold religious meetings were granted ; showing the extent to which Noncon formity had spread. To the Quakers belong the honour of having his name inserted in a measure ostensibly granted in answer to their petition. Probably he was not aware of this, for he strongly denounces what he styles their vile and abominable errors. He regarded their light within as only "the subtlety of the devil," who made them " even to forbear wearing hat-bands." "They will speak such sad blasphemies, and vent such horrible doctrines, that it makes me wonder to see the patience of God." To his stern Calvinism and vivid realism, much of the Quaker teaching was meaningless, where a.d. 1660-1685.] ' THE PILGRIM'S PROGRESS.' 43 it was not false and pernicious. For three years, Bunyan remained at liberty, but his license to preach was then revoked, in common with many others, when renewed attempts were being made to enforce the Act of Uni formity. He was again arrested, and was imprisoned for six months in the town gaol on Bedford Bridge. An early tradition represents him, attended by his little blind girl, making laces for the support of his wife and family, and selling them at the prison door. It is supposed that he wrote during his incarceration his immortal allegory, 'The Pilgrim's Progress.' He had already published various works ; the most celebrated being, in 1666, his ' Grace Abounding.' Whether his great dream was completed in prison, where one-fifth of his life was spent, does not appear ; but its autobio graphical allusions prove that it was begun there. The First Part was entered at Stationers' Hall, December 22, 1677 ; a second edition appeared a few months later ; and a third in 1679 ; so that it leaped at a bound into the popularity which it has retained for more than two centuries. Bunyan was a man of deep feeling, of strong convic tions, and of fervid imagination ; which he possessed the faculty of conveying to others in realistic form. The greatest popular preacher since Latimer, or before Whitefield, Wesley, or Charles Haddon Spurgeon, he clothes arguments in the guise of parables. Abstract terms elude him. He grasps the concrete when dealing with the spiritual realm, and hears audible sounds and contemplates visible forms. As a rule, the characters in an allegory are cold, stiff, and unnatural ; but his glow with life and reality, so that all sense of illusion vanishes. His renowned book is an idealization of human life in its spiritual moods ; with its struggles, failures, and suc cesses. Some of his portrayals, as already shown, are vivid delineations of the men and the events of his time. He drew his inspiration frorh the same source as the great Florentine whose ' Divina Commedia ' appeared three centuries before, though probably he never heard the name of Dante. Bunyan's second chief work, ' The Holy War,' was published in 1682. In all, sixty known works, including tracts, issued from the pen of one of 44 National degradation. [chap. lxi. the greatest writers of nervous, forcible, colloquial, and idiomatic English. It is the simplest and the homeliest style ever used ; because its imagery and diction are those of the English Bible. Bunyan, though a Baptist, broke away from the narrowness and rigidity of his sect ; to whom, as to the Romanist and the High Churchman, the outward rite was the only entrance into the fold of the Church. Before his time, Open Com munion was scarcely known among Baptists; and it is still, strange to say, the exception with the numerous adherents of that body in the United States and in Canada, whose rigidity is alien alike to the national spirit of freedom, to the popular civil institutions, and to the genius of Christianity. Bunyan boldly denied that the Ordinance of Baptism, however and to whomso ever applied, was an initiation into the Christian Church; and he took a decided and consistent stand against Sacramentarianism in any form. The literary character of the latter part of the seven teenth century has been indicated by the mention of its prominent writers. In the domain of science, Robert Boyle (1627-1691), founder of the lecture that bears his name, stands pre-eminent. He began those chemical investigations which, continued by others, went on accumulating, until, a century later, they furnished Anthony L. Lavoisier and Sir Humphry Davy with the means for their great discoveries. Inferior only to Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727), though in a marked degree, Boyle was the most distinguished Englishman in his sphere since the days of Bacon, and was certainly the most illustrious at the time the Royal Society received its charter in 1662. It was the outgrowth of meetings of learned persons during the previous fifteen years in London and in Oxford ; if, indeed, it was not the result of those held in Gresham Colle :-;e in the time of Eliza beth. Newton, the greatest mathematician and natural philosopher of his own or any other age, was born in the year of Galileo's death. Burnet said, " He had the whitest soul I ever knew ; and his goodness was equal to his greatness." His Doctrine of Fluxions, his Binomial Theorem, his investigations into the nature of light and the construction of telescopes, and his discovery of the a.d. 1660-1685.] THE DISPENSING POWER. 45 Law of Universal Gravitation — alleged by Leibnitz, out of jealousy, to be subversive of religion — are expounded in the ' Principia,' and in his other scientific treatises. The great theologian, Dr. John Owen, boldly venturing out of his proper sphere, had the temerity to say that the Newtonian philosophy was "built upon fallible phe nomena, and advanced by many arbitrary presumptions against evident testimonies of Scripture." John Ray (1627-1705), another early member of the Royal Society, renowned for the patience, minuteness, and accuracy of his observations, is deemed by Cuvier the founder of modern zoology. He -was also a distinguished botanist, and his method of classifying plants became the basis of the Natural System of Jussieu and others. Ray also brought out the elaborate works on birds and fishes by his pupil and friend, Francis Willoughby (1635-1672) ; the materials for which were in part collected and wholly arranged by himself. Linnasus and Buffon borrowed largely from Ray. Thomas Burnet (1635-1715), Master of the Charterhouse, the friend of Cudworth and of Tillotson, published, first in Latin, and then in English, his ' Sacred Theory of the Earth ' ; written to justify the doctrines of a paradisaical state, a universal deluge, and a final conflagration. It resembles in prose the once- famous apocalyptic paintings by John Martin, such as ' The Plains of Heaven,' and it fired the imagination of Addison, when a youth. The Cabal Ministry extended over two years from 1670. It was devoid of statesmanship, patriotism, or morality. Most of its members formed part of the next Cabinet, in 1673, which committed a scandalous breach of public faith, and inflicted a staggering, blow on public credit, by shutting the Exchequer for five months. Money that had been advanced to the Government by goldsmiths and others, to the extent of nearly a million and a half, was virtually confiscated. Trade and industry were disorganized, and there were numerous bankruptcies. It was a wanton act of robbery, under the royal prerogative. There were other attempts to restore the old Stuart despotism. Chief among these was the repeated assertion of a dispensing power by the King, who claimed the right to suspend penal Statutes against Nonconfor- 46 NATIONAL DEGRADATION. [chap. lxi. mists and Romanists ; in the interests of the latter. The Commons declared that such suspension could not take effect without the consent of Parliament, and refused to pass a Money Bill until the Declaration was rescinded. They were willing, in a legal way, to grant relief to Protestant Dissenters ; who, however, were not prepared to have Papists, Quakers, and other " intolerable per sons" included ; and so the matter dropped. The licenses to preach, mentioned in the case of Bunyan, became void, and the action taken by Charles led to the passing of the Test Act, in 1673, as a protest. All officers and place-holders were again required to receive the Sacrament according to the forms of the Church of England, and to declare disbelief in the dogma of Transubstantiation. In default, they were declared incapable of civil or military employment. One effect, in conjunction with the Cor poration Act, was to disqualify Nonconformists for a century and a half from all public positions ; except by the clumsy and unworthy expedient of an annual Act of Indemnity. The Duke of York resigned the office of Lord High Admiral ; and Clifford that of Treasurer ; and hundreds of other open or secret Romanists had to retire. The almost universal hatred and dread of Popery can scarcely be understood at the present day, but it exerted a potent influence on events, and was directed against its known and treacherous support of arbitrary regal power, and its perpetual interference with the internal affairs of nations. This explains the panic caused by what was called the Popish Plot of 1678 ; got up by the infamous Titus Oates, a repeated renegade and pervert, of vile personal character. Through him, and a set of suborned and perjured ruffians, a number of innocent victims perished on the scaffold as traitors. The Parliament elected in 166 1 had continued to meet at varying intervals, chiefly regulated by the pecuniary aid which Charles extorted from Louis XIV. of France, who always yielded, after more or less of haggling, rather than have the relations with France discussed, and his hold upon Charles loosened ; dreading lest England might be aroused to interfere with his schemes of European aggrandizement. At length it was needful to dissolve the Parliament, in January, 1679. Its tone a.d. 1660-1685.] HABEAS CORPUS ACT. 47 and temper had greatly changed, owing to the Court tactics ; but Charles would not risk an open collision. His indolent good nature — mere selfishness at its root — shrank from it. He had drunk deep and long of the bitter cup of foreign exile, and often declared that he would never again set out on his travels. Hence he was determined not to risk his Crown, while trying to have his own way. The new Legislature that assembled on March 6, 1679, was still more hostile to the Court, and still more suspicious of the Duke of York. One of its first measures was a Bill to exclude him from the succession ; owing to apprehensions which his subsequent conduct fully justified. To prevent this, a prorogation was suddenly ordered ; but Charles was first constrained by pecuniary necessities to assent to the Habeas Corpus Act ; although he often said that a Government could not subsist with such a law. It is a constitutional land mark ; not as conferring new rights or liberties, and not as bestowing for the first time immunity from illegal arrest and arbitrary imprisonment, for these were already secured by franchises more ancient than Magna Charta ; though often ruthlessly thrust aside by despotic power. The new Act defined with precision the rights of subjects, and furnished a summary and an effectual method of procedure by way of strengthening old safe guards ; with heavy penalties for violation. Shaftesbury, with all his trickery and vacillation, is en titled to the credit of introducing the Bill, and also one for making judges independent of the Crown. Another guarantee to public rights was furnished by a famous decision of Chief Justice Vaughan, in 1679. William Penn and William Mead, two celebrated Quakers, were tried at the Old Bailey under the Conventicle Act. One of the jury, Edward Bushel, whose name deserves honourable remembrance, resisted the browbeating of the Recorder, Thomas Howell, after a verdict had been repeatedly brought in of " Guilty of speaking in Grace- church-street," which was not enough to secure a conviction. Each of the jurors was fined forty marks for perverseness and contumacy. Bushel refused to pay, and was committed to prison. He appealed to the Court of Common Pleas, and Vaughan, one of the rare 48 NATIONAL DEGRADATION. [chap. lxi. instances ol honour and integrity on the Bench at that time, in an elaborate judgment declared the fine and the imprisonment illegal. Such assertions of the liberty of the subject were unpalatable to the Court party. Attempts were made to control the Bench, as in former days. No fewer than three Lord Chancellors, three Chief Justices, and six puisne Judges were deprived of their offices on political grounds, and were supplanted by subservient tools who strained the law to suit the purposes of their creators and patrons. In the end, this policy defeated itself. Lessons of liberty acquired during the struggles with James I. and Charles I. were never forgotten. Notwithstanding all that brands the Restoration period with infamy, there were indications of better things at hand. The clergy were deprived of the privilege of taxing themselves in Convocation. The right of the Commons to initiate Money Bills, and to regulate the amount of imposts, was finally conceded ; the Peers being obliged to be content with the acceptance or rejection of such mea sures as a whole. The Upper House was also forced, after a sharp struggle, to yield its pretensions to an original jurisdiction in civil suits. By the Statute of Frauds and Perjuries, called by Blackstone " a great and necessary security to private property," and by Lord Campbell " the most important and most beneficial piece of juridical legislation of which we can boast," a security hitherto unknown was given to personal ownership. General impeachments were abolished, whereby un scrupulous and powerful men had ruined political adversaries. To crown all, as confirming and completing the work of the Long Parliament, most of the remaining vestiges of Feudalism were swept away ; such as the dormant claims of the Crown to Purveyance, pre emption, and military tenure ; the abominations of the Court of Wards ; fines or alienation of land ; with the Aids, Homages, and other dues, alike despotic in theii origin, barbarous in language, and irritating in operation. All these changes were the results of that spirit of bold inquiry in the great domains of politics and of theology which had undermined old traditions and dogmas. Another appeal to the constituencies was made during a.d. 1660-1085.] SCOTTISH COVENANTERS. 4y 1679, but the new Legislature was not convened for more than a year. Feeling ran high concerning the Duke of York and the succession. People were divided into Exclusionists and into Abhorrers of such a policy. He was sent out of the way ; first, for six months, to Brussels, and then, for two years, to Scotland, where his administration was marked by a fresh outbreak of per secution against those adherents of the Solemn League and Covenant who sturdily refused, as their fathers had done, to submit to Episcopacy. Dragoons were sent to enforce compliance. Many innocent victims were tortured and murdered. Women and girls were flogged, branded, or tied to stakes, to be drowned by the rising tide. Dunnottar Castle, on the coast of Kincardineshire, and the submarine dungeons of the Bass Rock in the Firth of Forth, were crowded with prisoners, whose only crime was their religious constancy, and whose heroic endurance can never be forgotten. Ruffian and drunken soldiers, and savage Highlanders scarcely removed from barbarism, were let loose upon the people, and did as they chose ; devastating the country, burning houses, stealing property, torturing men, and ravishing women. A reign of terror prevailed for six years ; especially in Ayrshire, Dumfriesshire, and Galloway. In retaliation, Sharp, Archbishop of St. Andrew's, was assassinated on May 3, 1679, for alleged perfidy, apostasy, and cruelty. Public sentiment approved of the deed, which of course provoked fiercer treatment. The Duke of York found a ghoulish pleasure in witnessing the application of the horrible implements of torture known as the thumb screw and the boot ; listening to the agonizing shrieks of the sufferers, as if he were watching some curious scientific experiments, when others fled, horror-stricken, from the scenes. The full story is told in James Dodds' ' Lays of the Covenanters,' and in his ' Fifty Years' Struggle ' ; in George Gilfillan's ' Martyrs, Heroes, and Bards' ; and it is the subject of ' Ringhan Gilhaize,' one of John Gait's novels, and of Scott's ' Old Mortality.' Parliament met in Oxford, March 21, 1681. The Ex clusion Bill was again pressed forward. To prevent its being carried, the Session was ended in eight days ; and no other Legislature was convened during the short vol. m. 5 SO NATIONAL DEGRADATION. [chap. LXl. remainder of the reign. An increased pension was applied for and received from Louis XIV. Writs of Quo Warranto, brought forth from the rusty legal armoury of the Middle Ages, deprived the City of London and many boroughs of their Charters, and amerced them in heavy fines for pretended infractions of the law. Close Corporations were formed of Crown nominees ; in the realistic and dramatic fashion described by Bunyan in the ' Holy War.' The evils thus inflicted were not wholly remedied until the Parliamentary Reform Act of 1832 ; with its companion measure for Municipal Reform in 1835. The occurrence in 1683 of what is known as the Rye House Plot, alleged to have been designed to assassinate Charles and his brother on their way from Newmarket to London, led to the mockery of a trial before the infamous Jeffreys and to the execution of Lord William Russell (1639-1683), of the great House of Bedford, and of Algernon Sidney (1617-1683), grand-nephew of Sir Philip Sidney, on a constructive charge of high treason. No proof exists of a statement that they accepted French money ; which rests on the bare word of Barilly, the ambassador ; or that they were involved in the Plot in any way. The true reason was that Russell always opposed the un constitutional measures of the Court, and promoted the Exclusion Bill ; and that Sidney was obnoxious because of his philosophical Republicanism. There was neither legal nor moral guilt ; but suborned witnesses, a packed jury, and a venal judge secured the desired end. The attainder was reversed after the Revolution. Among other victims was Robert Baillie, of Jervis- wood, great grandson of John Knox, and a cousin of Burnet. On the day of Russell's execution, in Lincoln's Inn Fields, opposite his father's house, as if to intensify his anguish and to mark the rejection of his offer of one hundred thousand pounds for the life of his son, the University of Oxford issued its notorious Declaration in favour of Passive Obedience of the most slavish kind. Four years later, its members were required by James II. to put their own dogma into practice, by admitting Papists to rich collegiate preferments. Then they re nounced both their opinions and their loyalty. The A.D. 1660-1685.] DEATH OF CHARLES II. 51 crisis was nearer than any could have supposed at the end of 1683. Within thirteen months, Charles was dead, after being hurriedly shriven by a priest brought up the back-stairs for the purpose, while the Anglican prelates waited in vain in an ante-room to help him make a pious and decorous end according to the regu lation forms of the Protestant Episcopal Church of England ; in which he never believed, although he was its legal head, and was prayed for in ten thousand churches as " our most Religious and Gracious King." Buckingham and Halifax, who knew him well, both declared that he was a Deist. His final avowal of Catho licism, like the analogous devotion and blind zeal of Louis XIV. of France, was probably the result of super stitious dread on the part of a worn-out libertine, no longer able to find satisfaction in low and grovelling animal pleasures, but anxious to make the best possible arrangements for the Dark Unknown. CHAPTER LXII. THE GLORIOUS REVOLUTION. A.D. 1685-1689. Three hours after the decease of Charles II. , his brother was proclaimed King, under the style of James II. (b. 1633, r. 1685-8, d. 1701). His pledge to maintain the laws inviolate, and to uphold the Church, did not allay the apprehensions that led to repeated attempts to pass the Exclusion Bill. Some opposition was mani fested ; resulting in the futile and disastrous rising in Scotland, under the Earl of Argyle, who was arrested and executed, upon evidence on which, as Halifax said, " we should not hang a dog here." The rising in the West of England was more serious, and went far to be successful. Nominally under the Duke of Monmouth, the eldest of the late monarch's numerous bastard progeny, and the Absalom of Dryden's powerful satire, a poltroon and an adventurer, it was really an attempt 52 THE GLORIOUS REVOLUTION, [chap. lxiI. of the Puritan farmers, artisans, and labourers to sup plant James because of his religion, and to escape from Stuart oppression and Popish superstition. They were deluded into supporting Monmouth as the champion of Protestantism, and their zeal and fervour nearly won the day at the Battle of Sedgemoor, near Bridgewater, on July 6, 1685. Nothing but the skill and courage of John Churchill (1650-1722), afterwards Duke of Marl borough, the second in command, prevented irre trievable disaster to the royal troops. Monmouth, worthy of being compared to Bob Acres, was in one of his craven moods, and fled from the field ; to be cap tured, condemned, and executed, after abject appeals for mercy, which the pitiless James contemptuously spurned. The battle became a rout and ended in indiscrimi nate butchery. Two thousand fell, or were cut down or hanged on the following day, without any form of trial, against a loss of only four hundred on the royal side. Churches and public buildings were crowded with prisoners, reserved for deliberate vengeance. " Colonel Kirke's lambs," as the brutal dragoons were called, were let loose on the surrounding district. Houses were pillaged and burned. Growing crops were trampled clown. Men were tortured, shot, roasted alive, half hung, and then cut down for further cruelties, in sheer wantonness. Women were outraged and flogged. Little children aroused no pity in these in carnate fiends. The terrible story is treated in such realistic novels as Walter Besant's ' For Faith and Free dom,' Blackmore's ' Lorna Doone,' and Conan Doyle's ' Micah Clarke.' All this was a prelude of diabolical revenge upon some fifteen hundred who survived the battle, or who were arrested on suspicion. Numbers had taken no part in the rising ; but it was enough that their relatives and friends had done so. The intention was to strike terror and dismay. The district around Taunton and Bridgewater was made an Aceldama. A Special Commission was appointed by James II., with Chief Justice Jeffreys at its head. Sir William Scroggs, his predecessor, was infamous ; but Jeffreys was far worse. His name is synonymous with cruelty, mean- a.d. 1685-1689.] THE BLOODY ASSIZE. 53 ness, and illegality. It was once said of him in the House of Commons that he behaved more like a jack- pudding than with the gravity that beseemed a judge. His appointment in 1683 was a reward for his obse quiousness in straining the law against Corporations and individuals in the interest of the Court ; though Charles II. declared that he had "no learning, no sense, no manners, and more impudence than ten carted street walkers." Lord Campbell draws an unflattering por trait of him, both as Chief Justice and as Lord Chan cellor ; to which high post he was advanced avowedly as a further reward for unscrupulous and disgraceful services. Late in August, 1685, began what has ever since been known as the Bloody Assize. It was a travesty of justice. Swift convictions were secured from packed juries. Evi dence was dispensed with. Witnesses for the accused were not allowed to testify. Jeffreys revelled and gloated in his task. He bullied and cursed the prisoners ; who were tried in batches of ten, twenty, or more. He alternated vulgarity and abuse with maudlin tears and blasphemous invocations. He delighted in giving what he called "a lick with the rough side of his tongue." He boasted that he had hanged more than all the judges put together since the Conquest. It was a gross exaggera tion, but it revealed the nature of the man. The victims were strung up in dozens and in scores. Their dis membered limbs were exhibited at every cross-road and in every market place and village ov§r an area of sixty square miles. One of the most illustrious was Lady Alice Lisle, who, at an advanced age, was beheaded ; nominally for harbouring a Nonconformist minister, but really because she was the widow of one of the judges of Charles I. Elizabeth Gaunt, for a similar act of womanly charity in befriending a fugitive, was burned at Tyburn. At Dorchester, three hundred and fourteen were sentenced to death ; more than one-fourth of whom were hanged and quartered. It was the same throughout the South- Western counties. Yet, to their eternal honour, not one of the helpless victims faltered. Some of them avowed, until drums and trumpets silenced them, that they would repeat what they had done, for the sake of 54 THE GLORIOUS REVOLUTION. [chap. lxii. their country and its liberties. After three hundred and thirty in all, according to the general estimate, had been executed in less than a month, there was imminent danger of a revulsion of feeling ; though James peevishly complained that the victims were insufficient. With a refinement of cruelty, more than eight hundred of the survivors were sold into a living death as slaves in the Barbadoes. Perfumed courtiers and the frail ladies of St. James' received grants of prisoners, whom they assigned from ten to fifteen pounds a head, or for as much more as they could obtain from coarse pirates and freebooters, who were left to make what they could by re-sale to the planters. Tied in gangs, numbers of men and women were driven on foot to Poole, and thence shipped to the West Indies in irons. Of the remaining prisoners, heavy fines, whipping, and long terms of close imprisonment were the portion. To Jeffreys also attaches the infamy of insulting, mimicking, and sentencing Richard Baxter, on a pre tended charge of sedition. Baxter was only one out of many Nonconformists — though the most conspicuous — who suffered at that time. The Rev. George Fownes died in Gloucester goal, in November, 1685, after a long and severe imprisonment ; which his physician pro nounced to be a murder. John Howe and others took refuge in Holland. It is now known that the covert design of James II. was to render their position intoler able, in order to compel their assent to the repeal or suspension of the laws against Popery; He aimed to establish an arbitrary monarchy, and to reconcile England to the Romish See. In defiance of law, he had the Mass ostentatiously celebrated in the Chapel Royal on the second Sunday after his brother's death. At the corona tion ceremony Archbishop Sancroft was ordered to omit the Communion Service. James failed to understand the Protestant instinct of the nation. It was to be bound hand and foot, and subjected to the Crown, which was to be held under fealty to the Pope. It was a final effort on the part of a manikin monarch, feebly treading in the steps of his father, to extinguish popular liberties. The judicial bench was packed. More than a third of the lords-lieutenant and of the sheriffs were a.d. 1685-1689.] A POLICY OF ABSOLUTISM. 55 displaced, because they were Protestants. The militia force of the counties was disbanded, as inimical to the royal despotism. More Charters were revoked, and the members of municipal corporations were repeatedly changed. Threats and cajolery were employed with the country gentry. The clergy were ordered to preach the dogmas of Divine Right and of Passive Obedience ; and at the same time were required to share their emolu ments with their ancient ecclesiastical foes. This in sensate scheme was devised at a time when the country was being stirred to its depths by the arrival of many thousands of industrious and thrifty French Protestants, expatriated by the infamous Dragonnades of 1684, and by the sudden Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, on October 15, 1685 ; which forms the theme of Conan Doyle's ' Refugees,' with its wealth of description. The immigrants, like the Dutch and Walloon exiles who found an asylum here in Elizabeth's reign, settled in Spital fields, in Norwich, in Coventry, in Canterbury, and other towns, establishing local silk-weaving industries. Other bands of fugitives crossed the Atlantic, founded New Rochelle, near New York, and were welcomed in Massachusetts, Virginia, South Carolina, and elsewhere, as the Huguenot societies still commemorate. Three years afterwards, James II. was a fugitive. When his first and only Parliament met, November 9, 1685, after shameless attempts to pack it, he showed plainly what he hoped and meant to do. Under pretext of the Monmouth rising, he demanded an adequate vote for the maintenance of an Army which he had covertly and illegally increased to twenty thousand men. The chronic jealousy of the Legislature with respect to mer cenaries was aroused ; and the expected vote was reduced by nearly one-half. Still more alarm was caused by the admission of Catholics to the Privy Council ; by their open employment as officers, in defiance of the Test Act ; and by the royal declaration that their services should not be dispensed with. A similar course was pursued in Scotland and in Ireland ; awakening in the former country the old spirit of indignant opposition. So reso lute was the attitude of both Lords and Commons, that a prorogation took place within eleven days ; and they 56 THE GLORIOUS REVOLUTION. [chap. lxii. were never allowed to assemble again. The small amount voted could not be collected ; but Tunnage and Poundage yielded a present supply, and some of the old and illegal Stuart methods of raising money were resorted to. Additional sums were secretly furnished by Louis XIV. of France. The Court was filled with priests ; and James openly announced his intention to set aside the Test Act by the exercise of his mere prerogative. His right to do this was obsequiously affirmed by eleven out of the twelve judges on the bench, at the instigation of Jeffreys. A new ecclesiastical court, modelled on the old and hated High Commission, was instituted under his presidency, and included several known Papists. This was an express violation of the law. Among other illegal jurisdictions, it sought to enforce the appointment of such persons as heads of colleges at Oxford and Cam bridge ; provoking a storm of resistance from Tory Anglicans. They had loudly asserted the extreme theory of Divine Right and Passive Obedience, which was directed against Nonconformists, whom they had been too eager to persecute to the utmost, simply because they worshipped God other than in the prescribed mode. It was a widely different matter now that the clergy were required to exemplify the theory in their own persons, and to acquiesce in the nomination of Romanists to lucrative posts in the Established Church. It was like laying sacrilegious hands upon the ark ; and these self- appointed exclusive guardians of the temple and its treasure prepared to resist any encroachments on their monopoly. They even invoked the assistance of their quondam victims, the Nonconformists, in the emergency ; not for the only time. The next step of James in the same direction was taken early in 1687, by the issue of a Declaration for Liberty of Conscience, following the illegal example set by his brother in 1672, and in defiance of the resolute action of Parliament in the next year, and of the known feeling in the country. All penal laws against Nonconformists were suspended ; all religious tests as qualifications for offices were abrogated ; and Roman Catholic worship was expressly permitted. Daniel Defoe (1659-1731) warned the Protestant Dissenters that, this was a trap to ensnare a.d. 1685-1689.] THE SEVEN BISHOPS. 57 arid ruin them, and that the pretended Dispensing Power was illegal. Men like Baxter, Owen, Howe, and Bunyan refused to avail themselves of it. They pointed out that if the monarch, by mere proclamation, could set aside one law, he could also sweep away all the Statutes of the Realm ; and they pertinently asked how much English rights and liberties would then be worth ? They de clared that the enjoyment of religious toleration would be dearly purchased at the sacrifice of civil freedom and of ancient constitutional safeguards. They rightly de nounced the project as a cunning scheme to delude Dissenters, by holding out to them a promise of imme diate relief from grievances in order to cover the ultimate design of restoring the Papal supremacy and a royal despotism in England. It was a crafty scheme to create a feud between the Established Church and the Noncon formists, in order to destroy both in the end. It is not surprising that some of the latter, smarting under their sufferings and wrongs, welcomed even this illegal method of escape ; but it was well for the future liberties of the country that the project signally failed. An Order in Council commanded the Declaration to be publicly read during the time of Divine Service on two specified Sundays. The bishops were enjoined to secure compliance ; but they hesitated, and at length asked to be excused. A petition and remonstrance was presented by Sancroft (1616-1693) and six of his suffra gans, viz., Lloyd, of St. Asaph ; Turner, of Ely ; Lake, of Chichester ; White, of Peterborough ; Trelawney, of Bristol ; and Ken, of Bath and Wells. Six other bishops concurred in the protest. James charged them with raising a standard of rebellion, and ordered an indict ment for high treason. They were committed to the Tower ; but their progress thither was an ovation. Tried in the Court of King's Bench on a charge of presenting a seditious libel, their counsel impugned the Declaration as illegal. The bold defence alarmed the Crown lawyers, and such of the judges as were prepared to uphold the Crown policy. The jury acquitted the Seven Bishops. A shout of triumph arose from a distinguished crowd in Westminster Hall, and was taken up by thousands wait ing in the adjacent streets. Bells were rung, and bonfires 58 THE GLORIOUS REVOLUTION. [chap. lxii. Idndled ; and there was universal rejoicing when the news spread through the provinces. The Declaration became a dead letter. Of nearly ten thousand clergymen, not two hundred, it was said, obeyed the royal mandate to read it from their pulpits. James was surprised, dis appointed, and angry ; not without cause, remembering how they had upheld his pretensions. The first and only time that the Church made war upon the Crown was when its own monopoly was threatened by a toleration of what were regarded as rival religions. Macaulay's famous censure is not one whit too strong, when the antecedent circumstances are considered. " Never were principles so loudly professed, and so shamelessly aban doned. . . . The King laid his hand upon them, and they cursed him to his face." The conduct of James II. was a fortunate circumstance, judged by the ultimate results, for the civil liberties of England. His determination to pursue the usual despotic course of the Stuarts, and to set up a personal govern ment, led to negotiations being opened by the Whig party with William, Prince of Orange, Stadtholder of the United Provinces. Born in 1650, he was grandson of William the Silent, the illustrious liberator of Holland from the yoke of Spain. He was also nephew to James II. , whose daughter he had married in 1677. Ever since, his palace at Loo had been the meeting-place of English men who dreaded the downfall of their country's liberties by the re-establishment of Popery ; and he had constantly intervened in English affairs by remonstrance and advice. Cool, reserved, patient, far-seeing, and rashly-cautious, the leading purpose of his life was to resist the insatiable ambition of Louis XIV. of France, by forming an offen sive and defensive alliance among the other European nations. Personal animosity had not a little to do with it ; for the French King was furious because William had scornfully refused to marry his illegitimate daughter ; and never forgave him. The League of Augsburg was effected in 1686, after repeated failures and disappoint ments ; surmounted by the consummate statesmanship and unwearying energy of William of Orange. At the end of June, 1688, a request was sent to him by a number of English leaders, to place himself at the head of a a.d. 1685-1689.] WILLIAM LANDS IN TORBAY. 59 movement to restore the constitutional monarchy on sure foundations. The States-General promised armed assis tance, if this should become necessary by the threatened intervention of France. For more • than a century, Holland had been, almost alone of all Europeans countries, the asylum of liberty, and had rendered inestimable service by the freedom there allowed to the Press. She gave shelter to Puritan and Separatist exiles from England, to expatriated French Huguenots, and to philosophers like Descartes ; and now gave to England one of her greatest monarchs. James was repeatedly warned of the impending danger, but would not believe it. He announced in August, 1688, his intention of convening a Parliament in the following month ; but the assigned day passed ; and then a Proclamation was issued, that universal liberty of con science was to be legally established, while the Church of England should remain inviolate. This further and final attempt to lull the storm wholly failed. On the tenth of October, William launched a Manifesto from the Hague ; reciting the just causes of complaint of the English people ; enumerating fifteen particulars in which constitutional law had been set at nought ; and declaring that his sole purpose in responding to their appeal to him to visit the country at the head of an armed force was that a free Parliament might be called to determine the course of affairs. On Monday, the Fifth of Novem ber, he landed in Torbay with ten thousand foot soldiers and four thousand cavalry. He at once set forth by way of Exeter and Salisbury towards London, and was joined on the road by many of the nobility and gentry of the West. The pusillanimous James was urged by his friends to adopt bold and decisive measures, by placing himself at the head of the forces they were prepared to raise, and seizing upon strong strategical points. He delayed, promised, and prevaricated. When he summoned his adherents, he found that most of them had then cast in their lot with the other side, from weariness or disgust ; or had sought safety abroad. He was abandoned by his son-in-law, the dull, stupid, torpid glutton, who lived only for the pleasures of the table, Prince George of Denmark ; known in history by his nickname of Est-il- 60 THE GLORIOUS REVOLUTION. [chap. lxii. possible 1 This exclamation was as common with him as the " Prodigious ! " of Dominie Sampson in ' Guy Mannering.' It was said that James was driven out of the kingdom by the popular song of ' Lilliburlero,' or, as it is often written, ' Lillibullero,' a catching tune by Henry Purcell (1658-1695), set to nonsensical words attributed to Lord Wharton ; a man of great wit and versatile cleverness ; afterwards Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland. Swift attacked him in the fourteenth number of his ' Examiner,' in one of his masterpieces of characterization ; disfigured, as usual, by partisan hatred. Addison dedicated the fifth volume of the ' Spectator' to Wharton ; delineating him in flattering and eulogistic terms. His song had a more powerful effect than the philippics of Demosthenes or Cicero. According to Burnet, everybody sang it, in city and in country. The effect is comparable to the doggerel refrain of ' Tippecanoe and Tyler too,' a noted Presidential song in America fifty years ago. On the eleventh of December, James secretly withdrew from Whitehall, like a thief in the night. After sundry escapades he was allowed by connivance to go to France. Fooled, morti fied, and defeated, he threw up three kingdoms for a Mass. Nature designed him for an Inquisitor ; but the accident of birth made him a King. His tool, Jeffreys, tried to escape in the garb of a seaman, but was detected and maltreated by the mob ; and shortly afterwards, affrighted and panic-stricken like the coward and bully that he was, ended his infamous life in the Tower. Of the ten judges then in office, not one was found worthy of being retained after the Revolution ; and six of them were expressly excluded from the Act of Indemnity. Technically, there was an Interregnum for three months ; until the acceptance of the Crown by William and Mary on February 13, 1689. An informal assembly, or Convention, elected in the same manner as a Parlia ment, but without the customaiy issue of writs, met in London. There was much pedantic quibbling over words ; as to whether James had " abdicated " or " deserted " the throne ; as to whether it was actually vacant ; as to the difference between a King de jure and de facto ; and as to whether a Regency should be A.D. 1685-1689.] THE BILL OF RIGHTS. 61 formed ; but the difficulties were at length surmounted. The Parliament of Scotland cut the matter short by affirming that he had forfeited the throne. A Declara tion of Rights, drafted by a Committee of which that great jurist and patriot, Lord Somers (1650-1716), was chairman, was presented by both Houses of the Con vention to William and Mary, who concurred in the constitutional principles enunciated in this famous document. It was the logical sequence of ancient Charters and of former struggles ; and was based upon the Declaration by which the United Provinces of Holland asserted their freedom from Spain, in 1581 ; which also formed, a century later, a model for the Declaration of American Independence. It recited the illegal and arbitrary acts of the late King ; and made an offer of the Crown to William and Mary, subject to certain defined limitations for the purpose of preserving the ancient rights and privileges of the people. The fatal blunder of an unconditional monarchy was not repeated, as at the Stuart Restoration. Among those who presented the document was Sergeant Maynard ; then in his eighty-eighth year. When William con gratulated him on having outlived so many rivals at the bar, the reply was, — " I had like to have outlived the law itself, had not your Highness come over." By a vote of both Houses, the Convention was declared to be a lawful Parliament. The 'Act for Declaring the Rights and Liberties of the Subject and Settling the Succession to the Crown,' embodied and confirmed the Declaration of Rights, explicitly asserted the fundamental principles of a limited monarchy, and re-affirmed the historic privileges of the nation. Its will, as expressed through its chosen representatives, was enshrined in this State document ; worthy to be grouped with the Grand Remonstrance, the Petition of Right, and the Great Charter and its numerous confirmations. The Bill of Rights restored to the monarchy the posi tion and the restricted powers which had been changed for the worse under the Tudors and Stuarts ; and to the people their ancient liberties, which were clearly and boldly stated, in matters of elections, petitions, speech, jurors, open trial, and frequent meetings of Parliament. 62 THE GLORIOUS REVOLUTION. [chap. lxiI. The latter were secured by the necessity of passing an annual Mutiny Act ; without which the Army must be disbanded. The royal revenue was fixed and apportioned, instead of voting enormous sums as heretofore, to be disbursed at the discretion of the monarch. The effect is succinctly stated by Hallam : — " The Lords of the Treasury, by a clause annually repeated in the Appro priation Act of every Session, are forbidden, under severe penalties, to order by their warrant any monies in the Exchequer so appropriated to be issued for any other purpose, and the officer of the Exchequer to obey any such warrant. This has given the House of Commons so effectual a control over the executive power, or, more truly speaking, has rendered it so much a participator in that power, that no administration can possibly subsist without its concurrence." The ancient constitutional principle of the Parliamentary title of the monarch was clearly recited and finally established, instead of the fig ment of Divine Right, or the plea of hereditary succession independent of the law, or the monstrous assertions of personal rule, as made by some of the Tudors and by all of the Stuarts. Ever since, the occupants of the English throne have ruled through their responsible advisers ; directly accountable to the Legislature. By the simple process of stopping the Supplies, the administrative machinery can be brought to a stand. It is, however, a popular error to suppose that the national liberties were secured and established by the Revolution. They are of far more ancient date, as has been continually pointed out in preceding Chapters. It was always carefully insisted upon by its promoters, by its great advocate and defender, John Locke, and by Burke, its illustrious apologist in the next century, as being, above all things, a Revolution within the pale of the law and of the Constitution. All that the men of the Common wealth had contended for was now substantially secured ; which forms their ample vindication. Moreover, the whole history of English progress since the Revolution, on its moral and spiritual side, has been the history of Puritanism. Thus, after tremendous struggles, involving the expen diture of untold wealth and the sacrifice of innumerable lives, the doctrine that governments exist for the sake A.D. 1685-1689.] CHARACTER OF WILLIAM lit. 63 of the governed, and are to be vindicated only by their utility, was affirmed, in spirit, if not in words. Consti tutional changes in England have usually takeii place gradually, and almost imperceptibly ; like the great processes of Nature in the march of the Seasons. There has seldom been a sharp dividing line, a sudden wrench, or a formal new departure. William III. occupies a worthy place among few real kings of men ; yet, after the Revolution Settlement, he became, perhaps, the most unpopular of English monarchs. It was his misfortune to possess a phlegmatic and reserved temperament ; although he was tenderly loved by those who knew him best. Like his ancestor, William the Silent, he was noted for taciturnity and reserve. He did not understand and he could not practise those arts by which shallow and selfish natures often earn for themselves a cheap popularity. The facile obsequiousness that attracts the unreflecting crowd is usually the mixed product of impudence and insincerity. A statesman and a general, with wide and penetrating vision, absorbed in great schemes for curbing the ambition of Louis XIV. of France, and for securing the liberties of Protestant Europe, William could not con descend to the pettiness and insularity of his new subjects. They failed to understand him, and became jealous and suspicious ; while he was at a loss to account for their narrowness and prejudice. Burnet (1643-1715), who was intimate with him for sixteen years, has left on record a discriminating estimate of his character ; and his worth was understood by Sir William Temple (1628-1698), the chief author of the Triple Alliance of January, 1668, and the promoter of the marriage between William and Mary. The new King was more fitted to save a nation than to adorn a Court. He had no sym pathy with political hucksters and tricksters ; eager only for places and emoluments. There is no alchemy by which golden conduct can be transmuted out of leaden instincts. In revenge, they ridiculed his lineage and thwarted his policy. His Dutch origin and his Dutch friends were the subjects of numberless lampoons ; which provoked Defoe's nervous, caustic, and scathing satire of 'The True-Born Englishman.' It instantly became 64 THE GLORIOUS REVOLUTION. Lchap. lxii. popular, and effectually destroyed the cant against which it was directed. The entire reign was harassed by faction. William's life was assailed by base plots of assassination by Jacobites ; and his throne by projects of invasion by Louis XIV. Twenty-eight years of Stuart misrule, corruption, and waste in the public service had left their mark ; and it was impossible to avoid giving offence to those who had profited by former abuses. From the palace, the chief seat of this pestilence, the taint had diffused itself through every office ; producing feebleness, disorganization, and fraud. The evil crop was perennial, long after that generation passed away. Sir John Trevor (1633-1717) was an extreme type of the public men of the day. He was Master of the Rolls and Speaker of the House of Commons during the reign of James II., and contrived to retain those offices after the Revolution. He was so hideously cross-eyed that it was said of him, — " Justice is blind, but Equity squints in the Rolls Court " ; for his physical infirmity was reproduced in his judicial conduct. This moral deflection led to his being expelled from the House in March, 1695, for accepting a bribe of one thousand guineas from the Corporation of London, to promote a local Bill. He had to put the motion that he had been guilty of high crime and mis demeanour, and to declare that it was unanimously carried. But he retained the patent office of the Master ship of the Rolls until his death, in 1717 ; " to the great encouragement," says Roger North, "of prudent bribery for ever after." Trevor was the worst of a numerous class of offenders ; but chanced to be detected. The religious question soon cropped up, as was in evitable. Stillingfleet (1635-1699), Dean of St. Paul's, and afterwards Bishop of Worcester, had published sermons and pamphlets on ' The Mischief and Un reasonableness of Separation.' He was answered by Baxter, Owen, Howe, and others. Then arose the wearisome Nonjurors' controversy, with collateral dis putes about schism, and a great discussion on the Trinity. The Nonconformists were also torn by the Antinomian controversy, and the one that waged foi years around the vexed question of Occasional Con- a.d. 1685-1689.] COMPREHENSION REJECTED. 65 formity. It is impossible to glance through the acres of printed matter issued on both sides of these disputes, or of the one provoked by the ' Heads of Agreement,' in 1691, with a view to secure a working union between the Presbyterians and the Congregationalists, and not be struck by the narrowness, the suspicion, and the ill- temper displayed. One of the opponents of compre hension, writing of a suggested scheme, said, with a free use of Italic type, — " It is no more than a Verbal Composition, or a number of Articles industriously and designedly framed with great Ambiguity, that Persons retaining their different Sentiments about the same Things might yet seem to Unite." The King, like Cromwell, favoured toleration to the utmost possible extent ; but to this the majority of the Legislature and of the clergy were no more inclined than during the Commonwealth. Otherwise, England might have been spared a century and a half of persecution, arising from the attempted suppression of conscientious scruples and diversities in matters of religion. An attempt was made in 1689 to carry a Compre hension Bill, embodying such changes in ritual and discipline as would satisfy moderate Nonconformists ; most of whom, like the early Methodists, were willing and anxious to return to the bosom of the Church whence they had been driven forth. Howe, Bates, and other dis tinguished leaders, declined to take part in ordinations, because they would not perpetuate a schism, but hoped for comprehension. The Bill was designed to accomplish, in substance, all that Baxter and his friends had asked in 1662. The last clause was in the form of a petition for the appointment of a Royal Commission of thirty divines to revise the Liturgy and the Canons. Although the Bill was introduced at the special desire of the King by the Secretary of State, the Earl of Nottingham, and was supported by Compton, Bishop of London, and by other peers, the party of resistance was too strong, and suc ceeded in mutilating and rendering it inoperative, Burnet declares that Nottingham was disingenuous. A proposal to include laymen in the Commission was defeated. The truth is, however, that the time for com prehension had long passed by. The Tudor statesmen VOL. III. 6 66 THE GLORIOUS REVOLUTION. [chap. lxii. and pi elates left a legacy of difficulty and calamity ; which was aggravated by the unhappy Uniformity Act of 1662. Five years later, Sir Matthew Hale and Wilkins, Bishop of Chester, had presented a workable scheme, but it was rejected. The Comprehension Bill was dropped, and with it the scheme for a reform of the Liturgy, prepared by the Royal Commission, which held eighteen sittings in October and November, 1689. The various modifications, five hundred and ninety-eight in all, dealing solely with matters of ritual, are contained in an interleaved copy of the Prayer Book, placed in the Lambeth Library by Archbishop Tillotson (1630-1694) ; then Dean of St. Paul's, and an active member of the Commission. It was printed among the Parliamentary Papers (No. 283) of 1854. The project failed, although the more liberal Noncon formists and prelates, with the statesmen of the day, hailed it at first as a solution of all difficulties ; urging, as Polycarp and Irenseus did in the second century, that those who agree in doctrine must not fall out for rites. The Upper House of Convocation was disposed to grant concessions ; but the Lower House too faithfully repre sented the ignorance and narrowness of most of the inferior clergy. It was said at the time that the scheme would have brought back to the Church two-thirds of the Dissenters ; and its defeat was a sore disappointment to Tillotson, Tenison, Burnet, Stillingfleet, Patrick, and the liberal section, who were prepared to show a con ciliatory spirit, and wished the Church to be contermi nous with the nation. South, of whom Tillotson said that he wrote like a man but bit like a dog, rejoiced, in one of his sermons, that the rabble were excluded, and the thief prevented from obtaining an easy entrance by the Church door. No concessions would be made by Convocation, and that body remained silent and in operative for ten years. It had no wisdom or breadth, and would not be guided or controlled. Tillotson's nature was gentle and tolerant. He held that charity is above rubrics. William III. declared there was no man more honest, nor had he ever a better friend. The literature of the time abounds with expressions of respect for his character and of admiration for his sermons. a.d. 1685-1689.] THE TOLERATION ACT. 67 They were favourites with Addison's Sir Roger de Coverley ; and the ' Tatler ' regarded him as the most eminent and useful author of his age. Yet the Nonjurors pursued him with unrelenting vindictiveness ; charging him with being an Arian, a Socinian, and a Deist ; and calling him Undipped John, from a supposed informality in his baptism ; an intruder, a robber, and an ecclesiastical usurper. But they could not provoke his meek spirit to retaliate. His sermons in Lincoln's Inn attracted the most learned and accomplished persons of the time, and their publication established his fame. Dryden said that he learned English prose from his style. Addison thought to compile a dictionary from his writings. Strange to say, Hume avowedly founds his ' Essay on Miracles ' upon Tillotson's favourite argument against Transubstantiation ; that it is contrary to the testimony of most of the senses, whereas the evidence in its favour can rest only on one. Anthony Collins (1676-1729) spoke of him as one whom all English freethinkers own as their head ; not that he in any way shared their opinions, but because they made use of his methods of argument. It was Collins who said, sarcastically," that nobody doubted the existence of the Deity until the Boyle lecturers undertook to prove it. Tillotson filled his high office of Archbishop only for three years and a half. He was succeeded by Thomas Tenison (1636- 1715), Bishop of Lincoln ; a man of like gentle and generous spirit. A feeble scheme of legal indulgence to Dissenters, a narrow, partial, and jealously- worded concession, dates from 1689. It is commonly styled the Toleration Act, and is sometimes lauded as the Great Charter of Religious Liberty. True, it spiked some pieces of eccle siastical ordnance ; but it was done, not from inherent justice and as a citizen right, but as a favour, and on the mere ground of expediency. Certain persons who worshipped elsewhere than in the regulation places and according to the regulation patterns were tolerated, as a matter of sufferance, provided that they were willing to subscribe most of the Thirty-nine Articles, and to take the Oaths of Allegiance and Supremacy. They were also required to pay all clerical dues ; as were Roman 68 THE GLORIOUS REVOLUTION. [chap. lxii. Catholics, and all who denied the doctrine of the Trinity, but who were expressly excluded from the Act. The former remained beyond the civil pale until 1829 ; Unitarians until 1813 ; and Jews until 1858. Nor did this appear strange, inconsistent, or unjust in the eyes of orthodox Nonconformists, who, throughout that century, as many of them do now, vainly imagined that subscription to some doctrinal schedule, couched in archaic legal forms, is essential to the maintenance of religion. Even John Locke drew the line above Atheists and Romanists. A large-hearted and intelligent man like Defoe, who had spent his life and suffered much in asserting the right to Toleration, would not include any "who denied the essentials of Christianity," that is, who did not entirely agree with him. Such a proviso excluded Socinians, Anabaptists, and even Quakers. But the latter were required by the Act to do no more than declare adherence to the Government ; to abjure Tran substantiation ; and to profess belief in the Trinity and in the Inspiration of the Bible. The result was that, within two years, licenses were taken out for one hundred and eighteen permanent places of worship for this body, and for one hundred and thirty-one temporary places ; sixty-four being in Lancashire. The total number of Nonconformist places licensed within the same period was nine hundred and thirty-nine. During the next ten years it rose to twenty-four hundred and eighteen. Thus Toleration was extorted without obtaining equality. The principle of the Establishment, however, was thereby abandoned for ever. The Church ceased to be national, in fact, by the rigid enforcement of sub scription that led to the Great Ejectment in 1662. Henceforth, it could not claim to be national, even in name. The divergence between the High and Low sections became more marked and strained. The old persecuting spirit survived, but it had to be satisfied with comparatively impotent legislation, or with exhibitions of social insolence-and exclusiveness. So late as the year 1697, a man named Aikenhead was condemned and executed in Scotland for profane language uttered to the Edinburgh students. In England, sceptical works were sometimes burned by the hangman ; which probably a.D. 1685-1689.] SCEPTICISM PENAL. 69 served to advertise them ; and there were occasional instances of fine, the pillory, or imprisonment inflicted upon their writers, whose notoriety was thereby assured. Men in that age did not perceive the futility of seeking to defend the Gospel by measures like an Act of 1698, which was intended to uphold what were regarded as orthodox opinions, but which remained a dead letter until its repeal in 1813. John Asgill was expelled from the Irish House of Commons in 1703, and from the English one in 1707, and was financially ruined, for writing an eccentric book designed to prove that men might be translated without dying ; which the sapient orthodoxy of that age chose to regard as blasphemous. William Whiston, translator of Josephus, and Lucasian Professor of Mathematics, was expelled from his chair and from Cambridge University, in 1711, for Arianism. The hare-brained Thomas Woolston, who would now be regarded as a harmless lunatic, or treated with silent contempt, was fined one hundred pounds and imprisoned in 1729 ; nominally for his absurd interpretation of Scripture miracles, but chiefly for ironical attacks on some of the bishops and clergy. Peter Annet, a link between the older deistical school and Tom Paine, was pilloried and imprisoned in 1762 for vulgar and insulting language about Christianity. There have been similar prosecutions, at intervals, since that time ; the most recent being the case of George Jacob Holyoake, who was imprisoned for six months in 1842 for alleged heresy or irreligion ; of a half-witted and ignorant man, who was sentenced in 1857, by Mr. Justice Coleridge, at the Bodmin Assizes, for an offence under the Blasphemy Laws ; and of G. W. Foote and two others, who were imprisoned in 1883 under the same Acts, after a trial before Mr. Justice North, whose interruptions and summing - up aroused severe and deserved criticism. The latest similar instance in America occurred in Massachusetts, in 1834, when a journalist was imprisoned for three months, for having advocated atheistical opinions. Dr. W. E. Channing and other influential persons, while disavowing all sympathy with the views propounded, and with the offensive language chosen, urged a remission of the sentence in 70 THE GLORIOUS REVOLUTION. [chap. lxii. language worthy of Milton's ' Areopagitica.' Though the petition did not gain its immediate end, future prosecu tions of the kind were rendered impossible. Another measure was carried in 1695, enacting that the solemn affirmation of Quakers should be regarded as equivalent to an oath in legal cases ; giving them, for the first time, the power of protecting their property against fraudulent attacks ; and delivering them from petty annoyance at the hands of malicious informers and ignorant justices. Relief was also afforded in the mode of levying tithes, by giving jurisdiction to two justices, instead of subjecting Quakers — who always refused pay ment on conscientious grounds — to the costly and tedious litigation of the higher Courts. In spite of this, however, such proceedings were not infrequently taken, avowedly to punish recusants and to deter others by the exorbitant costs ; often as much as fifty times the amount of the claim. But the Test and Corporation Acts remained in full force. Hence no Nonconformist was eligible for civil offices ; contrary to the expressed wish of King William, who would have admitted all able and willing to serve. This was not to be. For nearly a century and a half clerical intolerance triumphed. The loyalty of the Non conformists was unquestionable ; while of the loyalty of the Church there were grave doubts ; yet the former were ostracized. True, their existence could no longer be prevented ; but pains were taken to make their civil and social status as low as possible, and to compel a surrender of a large portion of their rights as citizens. John Locke issued, in 1689, the first of his noble ' Letters concerning Toleration ' ; written in a garret in Holland, whither he had to flee during the Stuart despotism. They exhibit the same enlightened and liberal views which had been advocated by Jeremy Taylor, and are worthy successors of Milton's magnificent arguments and appeals ; basing the plea upon reason and equity ; sup porting its claims by history, by experience, by Scripture, and by conscience ; and dealing with the subject on the lofty ground of philosophy and patriotism, in a manner worthy of the author of the ' Essay on the Understanding.' He spoke to deaf ears. His ' Essay,' begun twenty years before, appeared in 1690, and instantly became famous. A.d. 1685-1689.] THE NONJURORS. 71 It marks an epoch in the history of philosophy, though Coleridge maintained that the system pre-existed in the writings of Descartes, in a more pure and elegant form. The design is to clear away the rubbish of scholastic phraseology and baseless theories ; and to show that truth is only to be found by the exercise of observation and of common sense. He repudiates any instinctive sources of knowledge or ideas ; but maintains that they are derived from the twofold experience of Sensation and Reflection. His political writings expound the principles of the Glorious Revolution, and may be regarded as a formal defence of Whiggism. Yet Locke nowhere opposes the principle of a State Church. He simply advocates freedom ; but with the reservations already mentioned. Even the gentle- spirited Tillotson, preaching before the House of Commons, said that their duty was to make effectual provision against Popery, which was more mischievous than irreligion itself. CHAPTER LXIII. PROTESTANT ASCENDENCY IN IRELAND. A.D. 1689-1702. The Oath of Allegiance, ordered by the Legislature to be taken before August 1, 1689, merely promised loyalty to William and Mary, omitting the old phrase about their being true and lawful sovereigns. It was accepted with out demur by nearly all the clergy, but was a stumbling- block to those who remained Jacobites at heart. Only about four hundred refused the oath, and declined to offer publicly what they called the " immoral prayers " for the King and Queen. Among them were Sancroft and eight of his suffragans ; including four who had been sent to the Tower by James II. They had strenuously opposed the offer of the Crown to William and Mary ; from an exaggerated notion of its inalienability. They were left unmolested in the enjoyment of their palaces and emoluments until the early part of 1691, though 72 PROl^ESTANT ASCENDENCY. [chap, lxiii. their functions ceased to be exercised ; but at that time they were deprived of their offices, because some of them were in secret correspondence with James, to effect his restoration by means of a French army. Then they renounced communion with their old associates, and attempted to set up a schism ; claiming to be the true episcopate, wrongfully dispossessed. Among the ablest were William Law, the Mystic ; Jeremy Collier ; Thomas Carte, the historian ; and George Hickes, Dean of Worcester, author of the ' Thesaurus,' who relinquished his offices and was chosen by his associates as Bishop of Thetford. Robert Nelson, Henry Dodwell, and others, returned to the communion of the English Church after the decease of Ken, the last of the Nonjuring prelates; This mock succession of imaginary and spurious bishops, like the great schism between two sets of rival Popes three hundred years previously, lingered in a flickering and undignified manner for more than a century ; but the supposed benefits of episcopal succession do not appear to have been in the slightest degree affected. Hundreds of books and pamphlets issued in connection with this pitiful and fruitless controversy have long since passed into merited oblivion. The whole scruple of the Nonjurors was about the title of King. They were prepared to take the regal powei from James II. and bestow it upon William as Regent. Frederick Denison Maurice said, in his incisive but in- discriminating manner, that their theory of the civil power was an absolute king, money-bags, and a hang man. It certainly tended to the political enslavement of the country, and sapped the foundations of the Constitu tion. Yet the Nonjurors were animated by an intensely religious spirit, if it was prejudiced, ignorant, and trouble some in its political form. So far as they suffered for conscience' sake, and had the courage to abide by their belief, they are worthy of respect ; but this cannot be awarded to those of the clergy who, under a subterfuge, took the oaths in order to keep their places — as their predecessors had done repeatedly under the Tudors — and who continued to intrigue against the Government, and read the prayers for the new Sovereigns in a manner and with an intonation understood in an opposite sense. A.D. 1689-1702.] LOUIS XIV. OF FRANCE. 73 According to Burnet, " the prevarication of too many in so sacred a matter contributed not a little to fortify the growing atheism of the age." He adds that William's " indifference to forms of Church government, and his being zealous for Toleration, together with his cold behaviour towards the clergy, gave them generally very ill impressions of him." No thanks to them that the constitutional settlement of 1688 was not overthrown, or that numerous Jacobite plots were frustrated. By a kind of poetical justice, they were required once a year to lead their flocks in the utterance of devout thanksgiving for the deliverance of the Church and nation from Popish tyranny and arbitrary power. At the same time, the incongruity was observed of retaining the services of humiliation for the martyrdom of Charles I. and for the Restoration of his graceless son. No difficulty was experienced in supplying the places of the Nonjuring prelates. Then, as both before and since, politics and Court influence mainly determined the appointments. The House of Commons resolved, April 15, 1689, on an address to the Throne, with an assurance of hearty support whenever it was deemed fitting to declare war against France, whose vast power and ceaseless intrigues were a menace to Europe. Louis XIV., knowing that a confederation of the Northern Powers would be formed to check his ambitious plans, had wantonly caused the Lower Palatinate to be devastated during the previous Winter, for the second time, under circumstances of peculiar atrocity, in order that supplies might not be furnished to the Germans, and to wreak his vengeance upon the Protestants. He signed a decree that the country was to be made a desert. Fiendish cruelties were inflicted.; similar to those experienced by the French Huguenots during the Dragonnades of 1684, and at the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. Half a million of people are said to have been ejected, or to have expatriated themselves, to escape the gibbet, the wheel, the stake, or the diabolical tortures which Elie Benoit (1640-1728) narrates in horrible detail. All who could escape, found refuge in England, Holland and America; carrying with them, like the other Huguenots, habits of industry, sobriety, and thrift, and enriching the people who gave 74 PROTESTANT ASCENDENCY. [chap. lxiiI. them an asylum. In the cry that arose for vengeance, England loudly joined ; as she had done thirty years before, when Cromwell so effectually interposed on behalf of the persecuted Vaudois. It was not alone a protest against the outrages in the Palatinate, but the indignant recollection of how the last two English monarchs had meanly sold themselves to the ambitious and unscru pulous Louis XIV. James arrived in the harbour of Kinsale on the twelfth of March, with thirty-seven French vessels and five thou sand French soldiers. His titular Viceroy, the Duke of Tyrconnel, a bigoted Roman Catholic, had the whole of the three Southern Provinces on his side. Such of the Protestants as he had not disarmed, imprisoned, or ruined, were shut up in Londonderry and Enniskillen. Then ensued the famous siege of Derry, greater than that of Troy ; with the heroic defence and ultimate relief, after one hundred and five days of extreme suffering. A mock Parliament was held under James in Dublin, but the Exchequer was empty, and all attempts to replenish it by confiscation and plunder, and by a sweeping Act of Attainder against some thousands of persons, utterly failed. The coinage was debased. The plate of Trinity College, Dublin, was appropriated. Trade, commerce, agriculture, and industry were at a stand. Disputes and wrangles broke out among his adherents. The Duke of Schomberg (1619-1690), half-German, half-English, one of the ablest military adventurers of that day, who had soldhis services to the Prussians, French, and Portuguese, successively, and had fought both for and against William, was sent over with ten thousand men, hastily levied with much difficulty, and imperfectly armed and equipped. He landed in Antrim in August, 1689, but could do nothing, owing to the inefficiency of his troops and to the outbreak of disease ; so he took up Winter quarters in the towns and villages of Ulster. William himself arrived in Carrickfergus in the following June ; having been hampered by the French war in the Netherlands, which detained most of his troops. It was both a military and a political blunder to have two campaigns at the same time. He reached Drogheda on the last day of that month. The army of James was encamped on A.d. 1689-1702.] TREATY OF LtMERtCK. 75 the opposite bank of the Boyne, and a famous and deci sive battle was fought near Oldridge on the first of July. William's great victory was dearly purchased by the death Df Schomberg ; who was shot in mistake by some of his own troops. It was also tempered by the French naval victory on the preceding day over the combined English and Dutch fleets off Beachy Head ; but, fortunately, the French were unprepared to follow it up by an invasion of England. Such things are not so easy as military alarmists and swaggerers imagine. Without waiting for the issue, James fled to Kinsale, escorted by French cavalry, and embarked on board a French ship for Brest ; whence he had sailed sixteen months before with much pomp and inflated expecta tions. He again took up his abode at St. Germains as a pensioner of France, and continued there until his death in 1701 ; despised by those who sheltered him, and execrated by most of his late subjects : one of the most signal instances of monarchs who have failed in business. William marched upon Dublin and secured the castle ; and thence to Waterford, which capitulated ; but the final stand at Limerick was not overcome until October, 1691, long after he had returned to England, and after Marlborough had taken Cork and Kinsale. A specimen from one of his letters will serve to show the acquire ments in orthography possessed by gentlemen in his day ; for Marlborough was by no means singular in this respect : — " If I had not bene very much disappointed by the Canon, I should have by this time have bene nier master of this place, which now we must have patience for on eight days longer, for the Canon will not be here till to-moroe, and then you may be ashured that ther shall be noe time lost. ... I send you a letter I recived last night from M. de Genkle, which I desier you will show the king, soe that his majistie may see they think itt necessarie to have some ships." By the Treaty of Limerick, the Irish were to enjoy the same privileges with respect to religion as they had done in the time of Charles II. , and to be reinstated in their property and rights on taking the oath of allegiance to William and Mary. The worst and saddest outcome of this insensate 76 PROTESTANT ASCENDENCY. [chap, lxiii Jacobite attempt was the inauguration, in flagrant elis regard of the above Treaty, of Protestant ascendency in Ireland, by means of the Penal Code. It required, indeed, according to Lecky, "four or five reigns to elaborate a system so ingeniously contrived to demoralize, to degrade, and to impoverish the people of Ireland." Concerning this, Burke ironically remarks : — " It was a complete system ; full of coherence and consistency ; well-digested and well-composed in all its parts. It was a machine of wise and deliberate contrivance ; and as well fitted for the oppression, impoverishment, and degradation of a people, and the debasement in them of human nature itself, as ever proceeded from the perverted ingenuity of man." He contrasts the operation of the Revolution in England and in Ireland. In the former country, it was a struggle of the great body of the people for the establishment of their liberties against the efforts of a very small faction of oppressors ; whereas, in Ireland, it was the assertion of the power of the smaller number, at the expense of the civil liberties and property of by far the greater part, and at the expense of the political liberties of the whole. Persecution and ostra cism of Catholics, commenced a century before, were carried out to the fullest extent. Superadded to this was a spirit of revenge for what was being done to Protestants on the Continent. The policy served equally the purposes of religious fanaticism, of political rancour, and of territorial greed. William III. was no bigot ; but the ruling class thwarted his good intentions ; and, moreover, he was chiefly occupied with Continental affairs. The eternal odium mainly attaches to the Whigs. Some of the articles of the Penal Code are absurd and outrageous. It stands as a terrible monument of the cruelty and vileness into which men may be led when religious bigotry degenerates into diabolical hatred, and when they persuade themselves that the indulgence of malignant passions towards their fellow-men is acceptable to God. It was a Code of degradation and proscription ; religious, political, and social. Ireland was treated as a subjugated country, and its people were trampled upon and insulted by the a.d. 1689-1702.] FANATICISM AND INJUSTICE. 77 victors, and were denied, not only any participation in the government, but the enjoyment of the elementary rights of Citizens. They were placed under a ban of universal disqualification. A little junto distributed among themselves and their followers all the honours and patronage of the,State, and grasped the emoluments derived from the taxation and robbery of their helpless victims. The Protestants, including the Presbyterians, numbered less than one-seventh of the population. They had enriched themselves by forfeitures and fraud ; yet they compelled the six-sevenths, being Catholics, and for the most part poor, to support a dominant Church which they believed to be heretical, and which was a badge and an instrument of subjection. Cattle, sheep, wool, and dairy-produce might not be exported to England ; nor could any goods be brought direct from the Colonies to Ireland. Not more than two apprentices might be taken, except in the linen trade. Some of these Acts, intended to crush native industry, had been passed twenty years or more prior -to the Revolution of 1688 ; a few were of much earlier origin, and others were enacted at the beginning of the eighteenth century for a similar purpose. The industries of Ireland were prohibited and ruined ; and then the people were calumniated for being idle ; just as the Jews were by their Egyptian taskmasters. The Penal Code, by proscribing, robbing, and humiliating the . Catholics, at once ministered to the cupidity of the ruling minority, and ensured a con tinuance of power. Under the provisions of that drastic series of measures, worthy of a Torquemada or an Alva, and awakening horror and indignation by their ferocity, Catholics in Ireland were denied the right to educate their children at home by one of their own faith ; and yet, with a refinement of cruelty, they were prohibited, under penalty of forfeiting all their goods and chattels, and of perpetual outlawry, from sending them abroad for education. For a Catholic to teach in a private family, or as usher in a Protestant school, was felony. The national Universities and other gates of knowledge were closed and barred against them ; and then they were taunted with being ignorant. They were deprived 78 PROTESTANT ASCENDENCY. [chap, lxiii. of the guardianship of their own children ; and if the latter, however young, were induced to declare themselves Protestants, they could at once, as wards in Chancery, demand the fee simple of their fathers' estates. A wife who apostatized could leave her husband and claim a portion of his property. No lease could be held for a term of more than thirty-one years. If a farm yielded a profit greater than one-third of the rent, any Protestant might seize it. Land might not be purchased, or money lent on mortgage by Catholics. Those in business were subject to the special tax of quarterage. Their houses could be appropriated as free billets by the Militia. They could not succeed to the property of Protestant relatives. No horse could be kept of more than five pounds in value, and any Protestant offering that sum might enforce a sale. Intermarriages with Protestants were forbidden. Any priest officiating at such marriages was to be hanged. Catholics were excluded from the learned professions, from the shrievalty, from every civil office of trust and profit, from all corporate privileges, from the magistracy, and from the Legislature. They were denied the Parliamentary franchise, or even a vote in a parish vestry ; nor could they become freemen of a municipality. The possession of arms was forbidden, and any justice could issue a search-warrant, night or day. They could not act as constables, or jurymen, as gamekeepers or watchmen, or serve in the Army or Navy. A sacramental test, to which it was known they could not conscientiously submit, was imposed, expressly to disqualify them from every public post, however insignificant ; and the oath of abjuration was perpetually and capriciously administered. Their bishops and other ecclesiastical dignitaries were banished. Their priests had to be registered, and were forbidden to leave their parishes. Only a certain number were allowed ; and unlicensed priests were deported ; under penalty of branding on the cheek, and then of death, if they returned. A priest abjuring his religion received a pension from the Government, ot from twenty to thirty pounds, as the reward of his apostasy. The whole system was designed to foment family discord, to snap the most sacred and tender ties, a.d. 1689-1702.] WAR OF CREED AND RACE. 79 and to reward hypocrisy. Yet, to their honour, few such instances are recorded. To convert a Protestant to Catholicism was a capital effence. The chapels might not have bells or steeples, and no crosses might be publicly erected. Observance of religious festivals not sanctioned by the Government was punishable by heavy fines. Pilgrimages to the holy wells were forbidden. All advowsons to Protestant livings held by Catholic laymen reverted to the Crown. It is not surprising that the Anglican Church did nothing in Ireland, either for religion or for civilization. It never made genuine converts ; where fervent and unselfish Protestantism might have produced an impression and exercised an influence like that of the preacher delineated in Francis Newman's ' Phases of Faith.' In the case of alleged offences against this Penal Code, half the mulct went to the informer. The burden of disproof was thrown upon the accused ; in flagrant violation of one of the elementary rules of law. Any attempt to obtain from the Courts redress for injustice or wrong was certain to be met, both by persecutors and judges, with the religious difficulty, for the purpose of arousing prejudice. The fact of the complainant being a Catholic was held to be a presumption against him. Thus he was reduced to the condition of a helot, for the avowed purpose of crushing and ruining him. The atrocious system, inaugurated in 1692, was aggravated by subsequent Acts of Parliament, especially by two passed in 1703 and in 1709, creating fresh offences and imposing heavier penalties. The former was a Test Act, almost as severe against Protestant Dissenters as against Catholics ; while no Toleration Act, as in England, mitigated the severity. With its enforcement, a rapid emigration set in to America, and paved the way for the War of Independence seventy years later, in which the Scotch-Irish colonists took a leading part. With those who remained in Ireland, both Catholics and Dissenters, the system prevailed, so far as such a crusade against an entire people could be carried on without provoking civil war, during the whole of the eighteenth century, and for some time into the nine- teeth, though its excessive savagery made it gradually So PROTESTANT ASCENDENCY. [chap, lxiii. inoperative. Restrictions less malignant, but still severe and unjust, were also imposed upon English Catholics, who were deprived of civil rights, and persecuted in a variety of ways. The spirit of recent legislation has been, on the whole, one of justice and mercy towards Ireland ;, atoning, in some measure, for previous cruelty and wrong. Yet it is impossible to deny that along the whole line of English policy in that country, the war has been one not only of creed but of race. Hallam says, — "To have exterminated the Catholics by the sword, or to have expelled them like the Moriscos of Spain, would have been little more repugnant to justice and humanity, but incomparably more politic." Swift grimly suggested that four-fifths of the children born should be fattened and sold for ten shillings each ; this kind of food " being very proper for landlords, who, as they have already devoured most of the parents, have the best title to the children." The severity of the persecution of the Catholics of Ireland by the Protestants equalled, if it did not exceed, that of the ten historic persecutions of the primitive Christian Church. An incidental but grave difficulty arose out of the Irish campaign. Enormous estates were declared for feited ; in pursuance of the policy of five hundred years. William III., when thanking Parliament for a generous Supply, volunteered an assurance that it should be consulted in the bestowal of the land. After a time, ugly rumours arose, and a lengthened investigation took place. It was found that out of more than a million of Irish acres, said to be worth two hundred thousand pounds per annum, grants had been made under the Great Seal to the King's Dutch favourites and others. Bentinck, Duke of Portland, had 135,280 acres ; the Earl of Albemarle 103,633 ; Lord Romney 49,517 ; with varying but large grants to other persons. The report raised a storm when presented to Parliament, December 6, 1699. There was a threat of resuming all grants of land and pensions made during the previous sixteen years, and devoting them to the public use. A personal collision with the King appeared inevitable, through the unwise course taken by some of his own friends ; when his good sense and magnanimity ended the crisis. Like A.b. 1689-1702.] MASSACRE OF GLENCOE. 81 all true rulers of men, he knew when to yield, and how to do so with grace. He caused it to be intimated that he wished the Resumption Bill to pass ; yet he keenly felt the rebuke, which showed, however, that arbitrary action like that of Henry VIII. in dividing the spoil was no longer possible with the free English people. The nominal Union of Scotland with England under James I. had not secured a real union of the two nations ; and the unwise attempts of the Stuarts to force Episco pacy had induced sullen 1 esentment. Black Prelacy was hated as much as ever ; for the old Covenanting spirit, if quelled, was not broken. On the other hand, the ancient intolerance of the rigid Presbyterians, with their impos sible ideals, was not one whit abated. They hoped to see revived the palmy days of their Kirk. To this William would not consent. He did not believe in the divinity of any particular form of ecclesiastical polity ; but thought that circumstances must determine the choice. His own views were broad, not to say latitudinarian ; and he differed from extreme men of all parties. If a compromise could not be effected, so as to decide the vexed question in Scotland, he was willing to suffer both Episcopalians and Presbyterians, but without giving to either the power to persecute. This luxury he was resolved to deny ; as he plainly intimated in a letter to the General Assembly : — " We never could be of the mind that violence was suited to the advancing of true religion, nor do we intend that our authority shall ever be a tool to the irregular passions of any party. Moderation is what religion enjoins ; what neighbouring Churches expect from you ; and what we recommend to you." There is a ring of Cromwell's style in this communication. The initial trouble arose with the semi-savage Highlanders, who flourished by plunder and anarchy, and among whom James had many adhe rents. Attempts were made to propitiate them by gifts of money, and when these failed, it was sought to put down their turbulence and lawlessness by force. Some of the agents chosen were unfortunate and dishonourable. They used their official position for personal ends. Old feuds of families and of clans had been transmitted from one generation to another, with all the relentlessness of the Corsican vendetta ; leading to terrible scenes. The vol. hi. 7 82 PROTESTANT ASCENDENCY. [chap. Lxiii. worst was the massacre and pillage of the Macdonalds of Glencoe, early in 1692. They had submitted to the Government ; but the fact was deliberately suppressed by their rivals and enemies. It is an awful story ; though, as in the case of Herod and the Innocents, the number is exaggerated or left vague. Forty-eight were slaughtered in cold blood, and nearly three hundred are said to have perished from hunger and exposure. The King and his immediate advisers in London cannot be exonerated, in spite of the special pleading of Maeaulay and of other Whig apologists, by casting the blame upon Dalrymple of Stair and other instruments in Scotland. While the campaign was proceeding in Ireland, under Schomberg, active preparations were being made to commence hostilities against France. On October 2, 1690, Parliament voted upwards of four millions for the purpose. Burnet calls this " the vastest sum that ever a King of England had asked of his people." In the following January, William went to the Hague, to meet the representatives of the leading powers in the great Coalition of which he was the head and soul. During the years of its continuance, incessant demands were made upon his patience, skill, resources, and statesman ship. He had to exercise constant vigilance and tact in order to maintain, in the face of mutual suspicion and rivalry, the barrier he was determined to erect against the inroads of France. Before he could take the field, the important fortress of Mons, in the Spanish Nether lands, surrendered to the French, to escape the horrors of capture ; but the subsequent defeat of the French fleet in the great naval battle of La Hogue, on May 19, 1692, was a signal check to the invasion schemes of Louis XIV. He was besieging Namur, in Belgium, at that time ; and in August the drawn battle of Steinkirk took place. There were other engagements on sea and land, with varying results. The graphic description by Corporal Trim, in Sterne's 'Tristram Shandy,' must have been derived from eyewitnesses. William's task was beset with difficulties, arising from disputes among his Allies ; from Jacobite plots at home ; and, most of all, from the enormous expenses of the war. The great increase of taxation gave rise to much complaint and A.D. 1689-1702.] EVASIONS OF LAND TAX. 83 hardship. A fixed tax of two shillings on houses was imposed ; in lieu of a like sum on every hearth and fire place, which had been exacted since 1662 under the name of hearth-money. A higher rate than two shillings was levied upon houses having more than ten windows. The light of heaven continued to be thus taxed until the year 1 85 1. The avowed object of the house- duty was to pro vide for loss on the clipping of coin under the last two Stuarts. A tax of four pounds and upwards was laid upon hawkers and pedlars, according to the number of beasts of burden used. Considerable additions were made to the Excise ; especially on beer and spirits. More obnoxious still, the tax on salt, originally imposed under the Commonwealth, was enormously raised, and con tinued down to 1825. Various Customs' duties were also increased ; and special levies were made on coal, glass, and other articles. The landed interest, then and long after dominant in the Legislature, contrived to evade its proper share of the public burdens, at the expense of the people at large. For a century and a half after the Conquest the whole of the revenue of the country was derived from taxes upon land, which yielded nineteen-twentieths for another like period. It fell to nine-tenths a century later ; and continued to diminish until at the time of the Revolution itwas only a fourth. Yet a new arrangement was made in 1692, whereby the then-existing value of land was fixed in perpetuity as the basis of the tax ; thus defraud ing the revenue, of the benefit accruing from the enor mous increase in value in subsequent years. Before the end of the century, it was settled by Act of Parliament that a sum of nearly half-a-million should be raised as Land-Tax by apportionment on the various counties. The plan was continued until 1798, when Pitt, under the form of a redeemable rent-charge, made the tax perpetual, at four shillings in the pound on the capital value as this stood a century earlier. Thus, in considera tion of a sum of about two millions annually paid, in lieu of the old feudal duties and charges, landowners con trived to escape all further direct liability. They also evaded until 1853 the payment of Succession Duty on real estate ; and even then, when forced to submit, 84 PROTESTANT ASCENDENCY. [chap, lxiii. foisted in a scheme whereby they paid much less in pro portion than was levied on personal property. Nor was the injustice wholly remedied by the Act of 1894. There has been a further downward tendency since 1692, so that at the present time the Land Tax, including the whole of the Property Tax on Lands and Tenements, yields less than one-twentieth of the public revenue ; in spite of the enormous increase of land values. A crushing domestic calamity befell the King three days prior to the close of the year 1694, in the death of his wife, in the thirty-third year of her age, from the terrible disease of small-pox, that so frequently swept like a scourge over Europe, sparing neither high nor low. Burnet says that William was overwhelmed with sorrow, although his marital fidelity was far from irre proachable. In her memory, and in pursuance of her wish, he instructed Sir Christopher Wren greatly to enlarge the royal palace at Greenwich, for the purposes of a hospital for sailors of the Navy ; and he liberally endowed it. He also finished the companion hospital at Chelsea, for soldiers ; commenced in the time of Charles II., traditionally, at the request of his mistress, Nell Gwyn, the actress. The real founder was Sir Stephen Fox (1627-1716), Paymaster of the Forces during three years, and grandfather of Charles James Fox. How much Charles II. contributed is not known, but his munificence was usually of a cheap kind, at others' expense. On the death of Queen Mary, the Jacobites pretended that William had no remaining title to the Crown, which, they said, ought to devolve at once upon the Princess Anne. The event proved that his position was never more secure ; and so the hopes of the faction at the mock Court of St. Germains were frustrated. Six years later, the untimely death, at the age of eleven, of the Duke of Gloucester, the only one of the seventeen children of Princess Anne and of Prince George of Denmark who survived infancy, and the fact of William and Mary having no issue, led to the passing of the Act of Settlement in 1701. The Crown was thereby devolved upon the Electress Sophia of Hanover, granddaughter of James I., and upon her children. Her elder brothers and sisters, being Roman Catholics, were a.d. 1689-1702.] ACT OF SETTLEMENT. 85 ineligible. Her own Protestantism was of a flaccid type. Being asked what was the religion of her daughter, a girl of thirteen, the reply was that she had none, as yet, for " we are waiting to know what prince she is to marry, and when that is determined, she will be instructed in the religion of her future husband " ; a maxim that has been observed in recent years with Anglo-German princesses marrying into the royal family of Russia. Her niece, the second wife of the Duke of Orleans, brother of Louis XIV., went through a similar process of conver sion. Three bishops were sent to meet her on the frontier, but they did not agree among themselves as to the grounds of belief ; so she sarcastically relates that she pursued an eclectic system, taking a little from each, and framing a creed that passed muster. She went to Mass every week, " but that does not deprive me of the edifying consolation of the Lutheran prayers." Thus a new royal line was once more created by the will of Parliament, as representing the nation. To con firm and strengthen the provisions of the Bill of Rights, eight articles were embodied in the Act of Settlement, providing that future Sovereigns must be in commu nion with the Church of England ; that the defence of their foreign possessions should not be engaged in by England without Parliamentary sanction, nor might they leave the country without such consent ; that no alien should be of the Privy Council, or a member of either House of Parliament, or hold any office, or trust, or gift ; that no official or pensioner should sit in the House of Commons ; that judges should be appointed during good behaviour, on fixed salaries, and removable on an address of both Houses ; and that no pardon under the Great Seal be pleaded in bar to impeachments. Some of the above provisions were modified or repealed in the course of a few years ; but most of them remained in force, and proved to be salutary. One significant addi tion was made by the Tory landed interest in i7ii,when a property qualification was set up for members of the House of Commons. It was then enacted that no one should represent a county unless he had real estate pro ducing six hundred pounds per annum ; or a borough, unless he had half that amount. This measure was not 86 PROTESTANT ASCENDENCY. [chap, lxiii. repealed until 1858, after many severe struggles ; though it had been repeatedly evaded by colourable transfers of property during the occupancy of a seat in the Legislature. One circumstance that frustrated the hopes of the Jacobites on the death of Mary, in 1694, and that ensured to her husband peaceable occupancy of the throne, was that success had crowned his energy and perseverance on the Continent. He recaptured Namur from the French, in August, 1695, though it had been strongly fortified by Sebastian Vauban (1633-1707), the most renowned mili tary engineer of that age. The struggle continued with varying results until the Spring of 1697, when Louis XlV. made overtures for peace ; offering to relinquish all conquests made during the war, and to acknowledge the existing English government. The result, on September 20, was the treaty of Ryswick ; so called from the village between the Hague and Delft, where the nego tiations were carried on. There were great rejoicings in London and throughout the country. A solemn day of thanksgiving was observed on the second of December, when the new cathedral of St. Paul's, erected after the Great Fire, was first opened for worship. The protracted duration of such campaigns, as in the Middle Ages, is explained by the fact that the troops always went into Winter quarters ; so that the actual operations were confined to less than half of each year, and were only then carried on in a stately and ceremonious fashion, according to rules laid down by tradition and usage, very much like a military promenade or minuet. It was at this time that the Czar Peter I., commonly called the Great (1672-1725), spent some months in London and in Deptford, working in the dockyard, and collecting information and agents for the plans he had formed in Russia, partly for its development, but chiefly to gratify his own ambition, and to prepare for his long-meditated attack on Sweden. Evelyn records in his ' Diary,' that he let his house at Sayes Court, Deptford, to Peter, who left it in such a condition that Evelyn obtained a hundred and fifty pounds as compensation from the Lords of the Treasury. Never was there such a compound of boorish- ness, savagery, and lust, with thirst after knowledge, and a genius for governing. He initiated a policy that yielded terrible fruit during the century. a.d. 1689-1702.] A STANDING ARMY DREADED. 87 Almost the first use made in Parliament of the Peace of Ryswick was to compel a reduction of the Army, and especially to send out of the country the regiments of French Huguenots and the Dutch Guards. This, with other mortifications connected with the revenue, extorted from the King an expression of regret at having interfered in the affairs of a people whom he regarded as ungrateful and suspicious. Disappointed hopes are often fatal to generous ideals. He is even reported to have threatened to follow his Guards to the Continent, and to return no more to this country. It was natural that he should resent the separation from a body of tried and faithful soldiers who had bravely fought under him for years in Holland, in Flanders, and in Ireland, and also that he should have felt their number to be too incon siderable to furnish cause for alarm to the English. On the other hand, there was a strong and justifiable dread of a standing army, which might become the instrument of despotism ; although the danger was minimized, if not removed, by the provisions of the Bill of Rights ; by the annual Mutiny Act ; and by the necessity for obtain ing votes of money from the Legislature. The effect was to disband all troops raised since 1680 ; thereby reducing them to ten thousand men ; the annual ex penditure being fixed at three hundred and fifty thousand pounds. William submitted to the inevitable, though he was far from acquiescing in the arrangement. Graver matters demanded his attention. Charles II. of Spain, the last of the Austrian line, had long been imbecile, and was dying, in 1700, at the age of thirty-eight ; a victim to the unnatural system of attempting to establish powerful dynasties by the constant intermarriage of a few families in defiance of the elementary laws of physiology. His sister was the wife of Louis XIV. of France, and the Emperor Leopold was the son of Charles' aunt. Both of these monarchs had renounced any rights to Spain in virtue of such relationship. Louis, however, was intri guing to increase his family power by the absorption of a large part of the Spanish dominions, in both hemi spheres, and this eventually plunged Europe into the War of the Spanish Succession, that lasted ten years. Parliament was divided in opinion as to the new 88 PROTESTANT ASCENDENCY. [chap, lxiii. Coalition formed by William ; but the country at large was unmistakably in its favour. In the Session held in the Summer of 1701, a sufficient vote was passed to enable him to aid the States-General of Holland against an impending attack by France. The immediate occasion of this hostility towards Louis XIV. was his intemperate and offensive action with regard to the Prince of Wales. Considerable doubt was expressed at the time of his alleged birth, in 1688, about his being the son of James and of his second wife, Mary of Modena. Stories were currently rumoured and commonly believed that a sup posititious child had been introduced into the bedroom in a warming-pan ; for which there is no credible evidence. Indirect testimony is furnished of the true lineage of this child, afterwards known as the Pretender, from the fact, altogether apart from certain physical resemblances, that he exhibited throughout his useless life, protracted until 1765, all the bigotry, obstinacy, false hood, licentiousness, and other bad qualities that marked most of the Stuarts. His father died at St. Germains, September 16, 1701. On the evening of that day, the son was proclaimed King of England, with much pomp, by the express orders of Louis, contrary to the advice of his ministers. As soon as the act was done, he perceived his mistake, and sought to explain it away ; but it was too late. The English ambassador was recalled, and the French representative was ordered to leave London. The outburst of indignation at the conduct of Louis effectually cowed and silenced the Jacobites at home, and did more than anything else to establish beyond all cavil the position of \Villiam III. But the great monarch's clays were numbered. Never strong, he had for some time been suffering from a com plication of disorders, aggravated by the tension and anxiety of public life, and by the hardships of his numer ous campaigns. On February 20, 1702, when riding in Hampton Conrt Park, his horse stumbled over a mole hill, and threw him, fracturing his collar-bone. For years afterwards, one of the Jacobite toasts was, — " To the little gentleman in black velvet that works under ground," as they drank the royal health after passing the glass across a tumbler of water, to denote the sup- a.d. 1689-1702.] BANK OF ENGLAND. 89 posed monarch across the Channel. To a young and vigorous man, such an accident would have involved nothing more than slight inconvenience ; but to the weak frame of William III. it proved fatal. After much suffering, he passed away on the eighth of March, at the age of fifty-two, amidst the lamentations of a crowd of faithful friends, many of whom had known and loved him from early boyhood. When every deduction is made for blemishes and defects, and when every just censure of enemies and detractors is admitted, he still remains on a lofty pedestal, as one of the greatest, wisest, and truly regal wearers of the English crown, even if Macaulay's esti mate errs on the side of excess, and amounts to the adulation of a hero. He has been eulogized as the Great Deliverer, and extolled as if the liberties of England would have been hopelessly ruined but for his interven tion. It does not derogate from his renown to say that he was the figure-head ; but that the real work had been accomplished by the men of the Commonwealth. Notwithstanding the necessary and frequent absences of the King, the great expense caused by foreign wars, and the incessant vigilance required to counteract Jacobite plots at home, some valuable improvements were effected. Unlicensed printing, for which Milton pleaded in vain with the Long Parliament, in his noble ' Areopagitica,' had been forbidden with increased rigour at the Restoration. The censorship established over the Press by Elizabethan statesmen and prelates, was renewed from time to time until 1693, when the Commons, by a special vote, struck it out from the list of temporary measures to be continued ; thereby preparing the way, in spite of the reflux of the tide in following reigns, for the modern newspaper, and for the free discussion of topics of the day. With the founding of the Bank of England, a system of public credit was established, on a plan first mooted in 1658 by Samuel Lamb, a sagacious and enter prising London merchant. He published a pamphlet, in the form of a letter to Cromwell, urging the formation of a bank in London, similar to the successful one at Amsterdam ; and giving reasons to explain the vast superiority of Holland as a commercial nation. William Paterson (1658-1719), a Scotchman, has the credit of the 90 PROTESTANT ASCENDENCY. [chap, lxiii. actual formation of the Bank, which received its Charter as a joint-stock association, July 27, 1694, with a capital of twelve hundred thousand pounds ; being the amount lent to the Government, at eight per cent., to relieve existing embarrassments. This character of financial agent has been maintained ever since. In this way the National Debt was created ; the money being lent on condition that the principal could not be demanded, although power was reserved to pay it off. At the end of the reign the amount was sixteen millions. Certain privileges and immunities were granted in return, which have been extended and varied from time to time, in the issue of notes ; in managing the Public Debt and paying the dividends ; in holding the State deposits and making temporary advances to it ; and in aiding in the collection of the revenue. Paterson's connection was brief ; and his later scheme for forming a trading colony on the Isthmus of Darien ended in total disaster and ruin in 1701, though sanctioned by an Act of the Scottish Parliament, and supported by a large subscription ; the whole of which was lost. A Board of Trade and Planta tions was organized in 1695, being a revival of what had fitfully existed since 1660. At the time of its formation, the North American and West Indian colonies were greatly extended ; and the few and scattered East India settlements were placed under better management. The coast fisheries were much improved, the shipping was doubled, and inland water communications were com menced. Preliminary steps were taken for effecting a legislative union with Scotland ; and the national power and influence were advanced to the first rank in Europe. All this was accomplished, notwithstanding the pressure of almost continual war, and the heavy burdens thereby imposed on trade and industry. With the passing of the measures detailed in this Chapter and the one preceding, and with the reign of William and Mary under a Parliamentary title, ends the long period of Revolution that commenced with suc cessful resistance to personal and arbitrary government. It was followed by a formative Constitutional Period, Period XIL— CONSTITUTIONALISM. A.D. 1702-1760. Chapter. 64. — Whigs and Tories. 656667 6869 — Literature and Manners. An Industrial and Social Picture. — The Old Dissent. — Religious Torpor. -Parliamentary Rule. 92 WHIGS AND TORIES. [chap. lxiv. CHAPTER LXIV. WHIGS AND TORIES. A.D. 1702-1714. The reign of Queen Anne (b. 1664, r. 1702-1714) was marked by ceaseless and bitter contests between the two factions of Whigs and Tories. The poisoned arrows of falsehood and of misrepresentation of opponents were freely used ; to an extent and in a spirit unparalleled in any other age. The details of backstairs intrigues and party squabbles need not be brought forth from their deserved oblivion ; nor is the extinct Grub-street litera ture of hack-pamphleteers worthy of revival. In the early part of the reign, and towards its close, the Tories were in the ascendent ; but, in the interval, for about nine years, the Whigs regained their influence. Between the two sets of mere placemen and self-seekers there is not much to choose ; accidents of birth, of marriage, and of circumstances mainly determining their course. Pope says that party is the madness of the many for the gain of the few. The treatment of Daniel Defoe (1663-1731) shows the rampant partisanship that prevailed. That able and fearless writer was attacked by Whigs and Tories alike ; most of whom were political magpies, repeating monotonous and meaningless chatter. If the researches of his biographer, William Lee, are held to establish the theory that Defoe afterwards sold his fluent and forcible pen to the Government, however this may be regretted and censured, it serves to exhibit in a strong light the degraded state of public feeling. The royal speech to Parliament, March 11, 1702, declared a continuance of the existing foreign policy. Marlborough (1650-1722) was appointed captain-general, and sent to Holland on a special mission ; retaining, through his wife's influence over the Queen, virtual control over matters at home. Anne's weak and flaccid nature rendered her a mere puppet in their hands, until the presuming and tyrannical conduct of the Duchess provoked resistance, under the incentive of rivals, and led to a final rupture. Attempts have been made to a.d. 1702-1714.] DUKE OF MARLBOROUGH*. 93 rehabilitate her clever, self-seeking, avaricious, over praised, and amply-rewarded husband ; the latest being by Lord Wolseley ; but all the facts are against him, even if Macaulay's denunciations are too strong. He betrayed the confidence of James IL, with treachery beyond the gross turpitude of that venal age. Next, he sold himself to William III. ; but abandoned him, and offered his services once more to James. He then intrigued for and against Anne ; but always with the main object of promoting his own interests, and especially to minister to his greed of gold. Thackeray's characteri zation of him in ' Esmond,' if severe, is merited. It was said that he was false to every woman and to every cause. His undoubted military talents, glorified by Addison in ' The Campaign,' in the famous comparison to an angel guiding the whirlwind, suggested by the great storm of 1703, cannot condone repeated political apostasy ; though the glamour of his achievements on the battlefield, and the dignities and emoluments showered so lavishly upon him, have done much to blind posterity to his demerits. His mission to Holland re sulted in a joint declaration of hostilities by that country, England, and the German Diet, against France, which lasted until 1713. In the course of a few years, Marlborough was in receipt of nearly fifty-five thousand pounds per annum ; and his wife had nine thousand five hundred for various Court sinecures and pensions. Besides this vast regular income, worth three or four times as much as in the present day, there were special Parliamentary grants ; gifts by the Queen ; marriage portions to his daughters ; two and a half per cent, on the pay of foreign troops supported by England ; large sums from Army con tractors, and payments from Continental princes, as generalissimo ; with presents of hundreds of pounds' weight of costly plate. To crown all, nearly a quarter of a million was expended for the purchase of the estate of Blenheim, at Woodstock, and the erection by the Queen of the rambling and hideous palace from the designs of Sir John Vanbrugh (1672-1726), architect of Castle Howard, and of other mansions of the ponderous and useless order. The above emoluments did not satisfy 94 WHIGS AND TORIES. [chap. lxiV. Marlborough. " He is as covetous as hell, and as ambitious as the prince of it," Swift remarked, in his venomous style ; and by way of satirical Contrast to the great sums lavished on this one general, he gave particulars of the probable cost of an ancient Roman triumph. Marlborough was charged in the House of Commons, December 21, 1711, with having appropriated more than half a million of the public money, in addition to his salaries. He virtually admitted the charge ; pleaded usage and the Queen's leave in the matter of commis sions and contracts ; but judged it prudent to withdraw to the Continent until the storm subsided. The return for all this outlay upon Marlborough, and upon obliterated heroes of the hour, and for the fifty millions expended by England in prosecuting the war, was the ravaging of Bavaria, which equalled in ferocity and cruelty that of the Palatinate by the French ; the Battles of Blenheim (August 13, 1704), in Bavaria, of Ramifies (May 23, 1706), and of Oudenarde (July 11, 1708), in Belgium, and of Malplaquet (September 11, 1709), in Flanders ; with the capture of Gibraltar and of various French towns. The Key to the Mediterranean was finally ceded to England, and has been retained ever since ; notwithstanding several attempts at recapture by the Spaniards and the French. The successes were great and dazzling, and the ambitious schemes of Louis XIV. were checked ; but the effects were largely neutra lized by the Treaty of Utrecht, which Bolingbroke negotiated in April, 1713 ; a peace that was commonly said to be a base crime as well as a gross blunder ; and of which everybody was ashamed, except its author. The avowed object of the war was tacitly surrendered, and the principle of the original Partition Treaties was restored ; only with a flimsy proviso that France and Spain should never be united under one monarch. Southey has sung, in his 'Battle of Blenheim,' — " It was a famous victory" ; though old Kaspar found it im possible to tell " what good came of it at last." These brilliant campaigns blinded the eyes of most people to the real points at issue ; but a rude awakening came ere long. The enormous expenses incurred were met, partly by increased taxes upon numerous articles in A.D. 1702-1714] THE DRAG-NET OF TAXATION. 95 common use, but chiefly by loans on stringent terms. The National Debt rose during this reign from sixteen to fifty-four millions. By a system of financial legerde main, which has always been extensively practised under similar circumstances, the country was made to con tribute to the benefit of contractors, speculators, loan- mongers and jobbers ; by means of bonuses, discounts, deferred payments, and compound interest. When, for instance, in 171 1, a sum of nine millions was raised, the nominal stock issued was eleven millions and three quarters, bearing interest at six per cent. Among the taxes levied were the following : — sixpence in the pound on stock in trade ; threepence on money at interest ; and four shillings in the pound on annuities, pensions, stipends, incomes, fees, perquisites, and profits in all offices and professions. Duties were imposed upon hops, malt, beer, mum, cider, perry, wines, vinegar, tobacco, starch, coffee, tea, chocolate, spices, pictures, silks, linens, muslins, calico, soap, drugs, coal, cinders, candles, whale bone, salt, paper, hides, vellum, windows, cards, dice, and hackney chairs. There were also licenses to hawkers and pedlars ; increased rates of Tunnage and Poundage ; and stamp duties on a great variety of articles. The numerous taxes, of which those recapitulated are but a few, are comprised in two of the most lengthy Acts in the Statute Book. Limited in time at first, they were subsequently renewed, or fresh taxes were granted year by year. Financial ingenuity was exercised in devising new expedients to raise mone}1'. Of the Customs' duties, imposed in the preceding reign for a restricted period, to meet special expenditure, nearly all were made perpetual, or were fixed for a much longer term. In addition, a vast number of articles used in manufactures and for domestic purposes were made to bear a heavy load of taxation. To enumerate them would be to mention nearly every commodity of trade, and nearly every ne cessity of daily life. Some were repealed by Walpole ; others continued to be exacted for generations ; long after the inducing circumstances ceased to operate. A new Parliament had assembled in October, 1702. In an address to the Queen, the Tory majority expressed g6 whigs and Tories. [chap. ixiv. a confident hope that as she had always been an illus trious ornament of the Church — Horace Walpole calls her, " the Church's wet-nurse, Goody Anne " — it would be restored to its due rights and privileges. When the representatives of the large body of London Noncon formist ministers offered their congratulations on her accession, she received them in ungracious silence. The dogma of Passive Obedience was again asserted. Igno rant country magistrates enforced Conformity, without much regard to the Toleration Act. Clamorous demands were made for further restrictions upon trade and com merce. A millennium of Tory rule and of clerical bigotry was anticipated. Known Dissenters, against whose loyalty and rectitude nothing could be alleged, were openly insulted ; and ballads, ending with the refrain, "Down with the Presbyterians ! " were sung by drunken and excited mobs. This outbreak of fanaticism was, in part, a reaction from an attempt made at the close of the seventeenth century to build up what was called a rational system of religion, which might win over sceptics and inquirers, and promote peace in the Church. Friendly relations were cultivated with Dissenters, with a view to soften the asperities engendered by the Puritan controversy and the Civil War. The most eminent writers of this school were Ralph Cudworth (1617-1688) ; Henry More (1614-1687), the Platonist ; John Norris (1657-1711), who wrote the 'Theory of the Ideal and Intelligible World ' ; and Theophilus Gale (1628-1678), author of 'The Court of the Gentiles.' Archbishop Tillotson, with his clear intellect, prudence, and sweet ness of temper, and Bishop Patrick (1626-1707), with his simple devoutness, favoured the Latitudinarians, as they were called, of whom Jeremy Taylor, John Hales of Eton, and William Chillingworth were the precursors. In one sense, they were in advance of their time ; but, in another sense, they were too late, for all hope of comprehension had vanished under the Elizabethan and Carolinian Acts of Uniformity, with the drastic rule of ecclesiastical martinets like Whitgift, Sheldon, and Laud, and with the rejection of the Bill of 1689. Proof of this appeared in an unpleasant and a disgraceful out break. An intolerant cleric, Henry Sacheverell (1672- a.d. 1702-1714] OCCASIONAL CONFORMITY BILL. 97 1724), a worthless charlatan of the popular preacher variety, of smirched character, slender abilities, but of boundless assurance, who might have stood for the original of Parson Trulliber, gave expression to the opinions and wishes of the extreme High Church faction, in two sermons before the University of Oxford and before the assize judges in that city. He branded all Dissenters as enemies to the State, and boasted that he " hung out a bloody flag and banner of defiance " against them. He denounced their academies as dangerous to both Church and State, and as " fountains of lewdness," from which issued " all descriptions of heterodoxy, and atheistical books." Other preachers, including Samuel Wesley, father of John and Charles, adopted a similar strain, but in a less offensive manner. As the result of the passion aroused, a Bill was in troduced within eight months of the death of William III., to prevent Occasional Conformity ; with a view to restrict the holders of all offices, by enforcing the rigorous provisions of the Test Act. Electors for boroughs were also to be made subject to them. For any one holding a civil, military, or naval office to enter a Nonconformist meeting-house after having once partaken of the Sacra ment in the Established Church, was made punishable with heavy fines. A repetition of the offence involved transportation. To their honour it is recorded that the Lords, under the inspiration of the illustrious Somers and of Tenison, inserted various amendments, depriving the Bill of its sting ; notwithstanding the angry resistance of the Tory majority in the Commons. The latter carried a similar Bill in 1703, as soon as the Session opened ; but again it was rejected by the Upper House ; fourteen bishops voting against it, and nine for it. A third time the Bill was passed, in 1704 ; but once more it was thrown out by the Lords. The scandal was witnessed of the Queen's husband, Prince George of Denmark, voting for it, though himself a Lutheran, and a very occasional Conformist. The measure was then laid aside for seven years ; to be revived and carried under circumstances that reflect disgrace upon the Whigs, who consented to it as the price of a Pilate-and-Herod coalition. vol. ih. 8 98 WHIGS AND TORIES. [chap. lxiv. Alert to discern the signs of the times, Defoe made a strenuous effort to disperse the threatened storm of per secution, by issuing anonymously, in 1703, his famous satire, ' The Shortest Way with the Dissenters ' ; one of the ablest and most seasonable political pamphlets ever written. It is a perfect specimen of irony, and ranks in literature with Dryden's ' Absalom and Achitophel ' ; or with Swift's ' Tale of a Tub ' and ' Gulliver ' ; or with Arbuthnot's ' History of John Bull.' It cleverly person ates the opinions and style of the most bigoted of the Tories ; and sets forth with mock earnestness the in tolerant measures they desired. With covert gravity, Defoe recommended a war of extermination ; yet no one suspected the lurking satire, nor who was the author. At this distance of time it is not possible to read the clever squib without being amazed at the dense stupidity of all parties. Yet, at later periods, critics were deluded by the irony of Burke's ' Vindication of Natural Society,' and by Whately's ' Historic Doubts.' As soon as it was suspected that the object was to expose High-Church designs, and when the author's name leaked out, the note suddenly changed. The Tories were furious at being caught in such a trap, and clamoured for his punishment ; and some Dissenters joined in the cry. Both parties took revenge for their own dulness. As the Government of the day was inimical to the man, al though not to the assumed principles, it was resolved to crush him by a State prosecution. The House of Commons ordered the book to be burned by the hang man, as being " full of false and scandalous reflections on the Parliament, and tending to sedition." This was a sample of the way in which public writers were treated for a lengthened period. Sir Richard Steele was expelled from the House in March, 1713, for writing two pamphlets on the succession to the Crown ; in which he warned the nation that the Protestant cause was in danger. The powers of the law were always strained to repress free criticism. Defoe surrendered, in order to protect his printer, and was indicted at the Old Bailey ; the Attorney-General, Sir Simon Harcourt, treating him in the style of Judge Jeffreys. Defoe was sentenced to pay a fine of two a.d. 1702-1714.] •HYMN TO THE PILLORY.' 99 hundred marks ; to stand thrice in the pillory ; to be imprisoned during the royal pleasure ; and to find sureties for good behaviour during seven years ; equiva lent to a sentence of perpetual incarceration. In his ' Hymn to the Pillory,' he vindicated his pamphlet, sati rized his opponents, and upheld the principles of liberty ; for which, as he recited, so many had already suffered. So popular was he that the ordinary nauseous accompani ments of the pillory were lacking, and his triple exposure was an ovation. Usually, the miserable occupants of " the wooden ruff " were hooted and pelted by the crowd, who regarded it as fine sport to hurl mud, rotten eggs, decayed vegetables, sticks, stones, dead cats and dogs, and other missiles. Sometimes the victims died under the infliction. Burke commented in 1780 in the House of Commons on such a result of the brutality of a savage mob ; and he was assailed with virulent abuse by some of the newspapers. Nothing daunted, he repeated his criticisms five years later, when a similar fatality occurred at Bristol. Degrading as this punishment was, though more so to the nation than to the delinquents, and tending as it did to brutalize the people, it was considered throughout the eighteenth century as an appropriate mode of dealing with what was termed sedition ; or with any persons convicted of having written or pub lished what was twisted into a libel against Church or State. After Defoe had undergone this part of his sentence, he discussed from his prison, as he had done once before, in 1697, with the great John Howe, Occa sional Conformity with Dissenters, and the grounds of popular right with Tories. He took part in the boldest questions of Scotch and Irish policy ; canvassed with daring freedom the measures of the Court party ; and finally, in 1704, while still in prison, he set up his ' Review of the State of the English Nation.' This marks an era in the history of English literature. It was the precursor, in an inchoate form, of the modern newspaper ; with the possible exception of the ' Daily Courant,' first issued on March 11, 1702, on a single folio page, containing only six paragraphs of so-called news, translated from French and Dutch sources. ' Ber- row's Worcester Journal,' still published, dates back to 100 WHIGS AND TORIES. [chap. lxiv. 1709, under the familiar name of the ' Postboy,' and claims to be the oldest existing weekly journal, unless the palm be conceded to the ' Lincoln, Stamford, and Rutland Mercury,' as it is now called. The ' Newcastle Courant,' the ' Hereford Journal,' the ' Norwich Mercury,' and the ' Leeds Mercury,' all appeared before 1720. The cha racter of the intelligence was meagre, and there were no comments. Under the old Licensing Act, which expired in 1693, the only issue allowed was the ' London Gazette,' containing nothing but what the Secretary of State wished to be known. This was so partial and vague a chronicle that, though it had no competitors, the circulation was very restricted. The only other means of disseminating information was through the gossip of the coffee-houses ; the ephemeral and apo cryphal news-sheets ; and the written news-letters sent from London to country subscribers. The few periodical issues, like Roger L'Estrange's ' Observator,' in 1681, or John Dun ton's 'Athenian Mercury,' of nine years later, were essays and dissertations, rather than news, in the proper sense of the word. The latter publication was continued for six years. A curious collection of questions and answers, extracted from it, was afterwards issued in four volumes, throwing much light upon social manners and usages. Dunton was the prolific writer of a number of forgotten works on the politics of his day. He married an aunt of the Wesleys, and died in 1733. When the Press censorship was partly withdrawn, a number of short-lived ' Intelligencers,' ' Packets,' ' Posts,' and similar papers were sent forth. They were diminu tive and mean-looking ; in the style of modern street- ballads and other catchpenny publications. They had to struggle against the Stamp Duties that were avowedly imposed as much to suppress them, in order to stifle public discussion of national affairs, as with a view to the revenue. Every copy had to bear a fourpenny stamp. The paper-duty was threepence per pound. Each advertisement had to pay three and sixpence. These Taxes on Knowledge, to use Leigh Hunt's phrase, con tinued, with occasional modifications, until the middle of the nineteenth century, when public opinion, which they were intended to curb or silence, indignantly swept A.D. 1702-1714.] DEFOE'S ' REVIEW. 101 them away. They are largely responsible for the dense ignorance that prevailed. Itis not surprising, considering the financial struggles and the legal risks of newspapers, that their matter was on a par with their mean and shabby appearance. Defoe's ' Review ' was much above the average. It appeared thrice a week for nine years, and was written solely by himself ; dealing with all subjects then engaging public attention ; criticizing them with humour and satire ; making fearless attacks upon political jobbery ; and carrying on the work of political education. He sought to give variety by articles on social topics ; which Addison and Steele afterwards made the staple of their essays, and treated so effectively. Seldom has there been such a versatile writer. He produced one hundred and thirty known books, great and small, besides many anonymous works that are reasonably ascribed to him. From his ' Essay on Pro jects,' Benjamin Franklin derived hints and impressions that influenced some of the principal events of his life ; and later inventors and projectors have been largely in debted to Defoe. In August, 1704, after an incarceration of thirteen months, he came forth from Newgate. He suffered im prisonment again in the closing months of the reign for other political pamphlets ; but when the principles and the policy for which he had striven and endured so much became triumphant with the accession of the House of Brunswick, he addressed himself, as a vivid story-teller of powerful imagination, to the writing of ' Robinson Crusoe ' and of the other works of semi-fiction which have made his name immortal, as the sovereign lord of illusion and realism. To have pleased all the boys in England, and multitudes abroad, for nearly two hundred years is a remarkable feat. He is the father of the modern British novel. The nearest parallel is found in the case of William Cobbett, who wrote still better English, though he could not have written ' Crusoe.' One of the most illustrious members of the Harley Ministry that secured Defoe's release and enlisted his services was Lord Cowper, the Lord Keeper, and then Chancellor (d. 1723). Among other abuses to which he put an end was the pernicious custom of receiving gifts 102 WHIGS AND TORIES. [chap. lxiv. from the subordinate judges and from barristers. But the usage continued for puisne judges, whose salaries were only one thousand pounds, to accept fees and presents, which formed the chief part of their remune ration. In the following reign their salaries were raised to fifteen hundred. This sum was doubled in 1799, and was increased to four thousand ten years later. Fees and perquisities continued to be accepted until 1826, when all such payments were ordered to be handed over to the Exchequer ; and the salaries were again raised, with increased retiring allowances. The project for a Legislative Union with Scotland, attempted in 1604 and 1670, but delayed so long by national antipathies and jealousies, was again revived. The great Somers took a leading part in the arrange ment of a basis of negotiation. Commissioners were appointed to treat. The best account is contained in the ' History of the Union,' by Defoe, who spent much time in Scotland as a confidential agent of the Government, and rendered great service in the protracted and difficult task. Not until May 1, 1707, was it brought to a close by the royal assent being given to a Bill passed by the English Legislature ; embodying the various provisions agreed to by the Estates of Scotland. Chief among these was the saving of the rights of the Established Kirk of that country, so as to secure the maintenance of Presbyterianism. The General Assembly of 1702 had solemnly protested against tolerating Prelacy. The Scottish Courts of Law were continued, with their peculiar procedure and still more peculiar phraseology ; both of which are a standing puzzle to Englishmen. The proverbial thriftiness of the people, and their keen ness in making a bargain, appear in the assumption by England of the public debts, and in the substantial sums paid for alleged losses by private persons through equalizing the value of the currency, and the cessation of the African and Indian Company of Scotland. One payment of ^398,085 was made as " an equivalent," to keep the merchants quiet. Dr. Johnson's oft-expressed dislike of Scotchmen was the utterance of a prejudice common enough from the days of his youth, when Englishmen resented the arrival of swarms of needy A.D. 1702-1714] CONVOCATION QUARRELS. 103 adventurers, talking with a strange accent, and displaying a clannishness which, however natural, was sometimes vexatious in its pertinacity after lucrative posts. Ecclesiastical affairs continued to occasion trouble. So intolerant and perverse were the clergy that Convo cation had fallen into general and deserved contempt. It had not been allowed to meet for eleven years prior to 1700, and then its proceedings were most unseemly. The Lower House flouted the bishops ; one of whom charged the Prolocutor with prevarication, and with " telling a very great untruth." Burnet also taxed him with insolence, and a painful scene ensued. More than once, the proctors had prayers separately ; to show their independence of the Upper House. They repeatedly refused to adjourn, and carried on their debates in a tumultuous and disgraceful manner. It is not sur prising, therefore, that another long prorogation took place from 1706 to 1710, and that after repeated recur rences of such a mutinous and litigious temper, Convoca tion, whose existence had long been shadowy and purposeless, was silenced in 1717 for a hundred and thirty-five years. There was the less necessity for meeting, because the ancient powers of self-taxation by the clergy, for the exercise of which Convocation was chiefly valued by needy monarchs, were surrendered in 1665, when spiritual as well as secular persons were for the first time made liable for the Money Bills of the Commons, and when parochial ministers acquired the right of voting for members of Parliament. A change of the kind must have been made ere long, for it was anomalous and inconvenient to allow a particular class to tax itself ; but the change helped to sink Convocation into neglect and disuse ; which was consummated by its own contentiousness and disloyalty after the Revolution. At its first meeting in Anne's reign, a long paper of alleged grievances was drawn up, relating to what were called the licentiousness of the Press, the inefficiency of the laws respecting the collection of church-rates, the neglect of baptism, irregularities in mariages, and other matters ; but, as Burnet remarks, they "took care to mention none of those greater ones of which many among themselves are eminently guilty, such as pluralities, non- 104 WHIGS AND TORIES. [chap. lxiv. residence, the neglect of their cures, and the irregulari ties in the lives of the clergy, which were too visible." He comments with equal severity on the fact that means had not been devised for providing a better subsistence for the poorer clergy ; " we having then amongst us some hundreds of cures that had not of certain provision twenty pounds a year ; and six thousand that had not fifty pounds." His remarks arose out of a proposal made by the Queen, on clerical instigation, to surrender the Firstfruits and Tenths of livings, reserved in perpetuity to the Crown in the time of Henry VIII. ; amounting in 1703 to about sixteen thousand pounds annually. Pro bably this act of vicarious generosity on her part was regarded as a condonation of her slipshod and irreverent method of having prayers read in an adjacent room while she was dressing, so as to save time. A Bill was introduced in November, 1703, to enable this branch of the Crown revenue to be alienated, and to create a corporation for applying the money to the augmentation of poor livings. The Statute of Mortmain was relaxed so far as to permit gifts or bequests for the same purpose. This was the origin of what is known under the anomalous and misleading name of Queen Anne's Bounty ; the administration of which, like so many trust funds — where they have not disappeared in the lapse of time, through neglect or malversation — is a standing instance of the expenses being wholly dispro portionate to the accruing advantages. By the Statute of 1534, the sums payable were to be revised from time to time ; but a clause was foisted into the new Act, by which the old rates were fixed in perpetuity, irrespective of growing values. The richer clergy contrived to evade their share of the obligation. There was, however, no unwillingness to accept as much financial aid as could be extorted from the Legislature ; and to clamour for more. In 1710, a sum of three hundred and fifty thousand pounds was voted for building fifty new churches in London, where it was said that a quarter of a million of people were religiously unprovided for. The sum was to include in each case a parsonage and burial-ground. By a scandalous piece of jobbery, only twelve churches were erected with the money, and no more could be obtained, a.d. 1702-1714-] LIFE ASSURANCE 105 even from that Tory and High Church Parliament. Fergusson says, in his ' History of Architecture,' that between the Reformation and the Great Fire of London, no church of the smallest pretensions to design was erected, save the small one by Inigo Jones in Covent Garden, in 163 1. Wren, with all his taste and talent, had but a dim conception of Christian architecture. The straitened circumstances of many of the working clergy led to the adoption of what became eventually a general scheme of life assurance. In Saxon times, the guilds had secured their members, in return for certain fixed payments, against loss from fire, flood, robbery, and other calamities. Insurance against maritime risks had also been common through the Middle Ages. When Opening Elizabeth's first Parliament, Sir Nicholas Bacon, the Lord Keeper, asked, — " Doth not the wise merchant, in every adventure of danger, give part to have the rest assured ? " A system of insurance had generally pre vailed since the Great Fire of London, in 1666. Another system of annuities, based on a mathematical calculation of ihuman life, was submitted to the States-General of Holland by John de Witt, the Grand Pensionary (1625- 1672). It may have led the Rev. William Assheton, D.D. (1641-1711), rector of Beckenham, Kent, to propound a tentative scheme whereby clergymen might secure some provision for their widows. After numerous rebuffs, failures, and modifications, he succeeded in inducing the wealthy Mercers' Company of the City of London to take up the matter, in 1698, and to issue what may be de scribed as bonds or policies, on the security of their large estates, to all persons, lay as well as clerical, who paid any sum from fifty to one thousand pounds, being under thirty years of age, or, if older, but not exceeding sixty years, a sum of not less than fifty pounds or more than three hundred. The benefit secured for a widow or a nominee was fifteen pounds for each fifty paid irrespec tive of age ; an obvious defect that was remedied ere long, by the adoption of a system of graduated payments. The success of the Mercers' Company led to the speedy formation of Life Assurance Companies on lines that approximated to equity and science ; although later io6 WHIGS AND TORIES. LCHAP- LXIV- experience has devised great improvements. The first was the " Amicable," founded in 1706, now known as the " Hand-in-Hand." But to Dr. Assheton the main credit is due. Defoe, in his versatile fashion, advocated the promotion of societies formed by mutual assurance for the relief of the members in seasons of distress. Before long, as Sir F. M. Eden, Charles Hardwick, and other writers show, they had extended to most parts of the country. Not a few of them still exist, and many more have since been established on a sound basis. The Oddfellows, the Foresters, and other Orders, with many subsidiary and local bodies, now have a membership of upwards of four millions, and accumulated funds and property amounting to twenty-two millions ; not includ ing unregistered societies, of which even an approximate estimate cannot be made. The Rev. J. Frome Wilkinson, in ' Mutual Thrift,' gives much valuable information on an important subject. The old cry of " Church in clanger ! " was again heard. Incendiary sermons were preached, and the clergy used their official influence at the General Election in 1710. Money was freely distributed among the debased and ignorant mob ; ribald songs were sung in the streets ; Dissenting meeting-houses were broken into and gutted ; their ministers were lampooned in pamphlets and openly assaulted ; and numerous gross caricatures and inflam matory tracts appeared. At Cirencester a match was got up between two fighting-cocks, who were named respectively after the High Church Sacheverell and the Nonconformist Daniel Burgess ; butthe latter vanquished and killed the former. By one of the sudden revulsions of political prejudice that sometimes occur, the Whig majority was scattered, and the Whig power was broken. The inflated and turgid ecclesiastic who was the occasion of all this excitement improved his opportunity and went on a sort of triumphal progress. He found numerous dupes, and gained much from their credulity ; just as George Psalmanazar was doing at the same time with his fabulous account of the Island of Formosa, of which he pretended to be a native. Sacheverell soon lapsed into the obscurity from which he should never have been dragged. However, he was rewarded with the rich A.D. 1702-1714.] JACOBITE PLOTS. 107 Crown benefice of St. Andrew's, Holborn ; and having gained what he most coveted, the world heard no more from him of the dangers of the Church and the nation. There is ample proof that during the last four years of the reign, designs were cherished and plans were laid to secure the accession of the Pretender, by the brilliant but unscrupulous Bolingbroke (1678-1751), then one of the Secretaries of State ; aided by his rival, Harley, Earl of Oxford (1661-1724), with whom he afterwards quar relled ; and by Atterbury, Bishop of Rochester (1662- 1732), by Butler, Duke of Ormond (1665-1745), and other Tories and Jacobites. Bolingbroke's great abilities made him essential to his party. Like Canning and Disraeli at a later day, he became its spokesman, and directed its dumb power. The confederates hoped to set aside the arrangements of the Act of Settlement. Nor were their opponents much better, when judged by the canons of strict political morality. Throughout the reign there were ceaseless intrigues, such as professional partisans delight in. The Queen was known to favour the claims of her half-brother, the Pretender. She had no love for her distant Hanoverian connections, and would not allow them to visit England. She never forgot or forgave the manner in which she had been courted and then jilted, as a girl of fifteen, by her future successor, at the behest of his father, the Elector. It was also known that her personal sentiments were in favour of royal absolutism and of High Church Toryism. If she had dared, every measure of civil liberty would have been withdrawn from Nonconformists. Happily for the country, she was a woman of strong prejudices, but of no ability ; and her mediocrity and stupidity con duced to public freedom. The last year of her reign was rendered infamous by the passing of an Act as tyrannical as any that had disgraced the worst years of the preceding century. The Occasional Conformity Act had failed to accomplish its intended purpose. The Schism Bill was therefore introduced, May 12, 1714, to vest the monopoly of education in the Church of Eng land. No person was to keep a school, or act as private tutor, without an episcopal license, which was only to be granted on a certificate of strict conformity, and on sub- 108 WHIGS AND TORIES. [chap. lxiv. scribing the oaths of allegiance and supremacy. The alternative was imprisonment without bail. The peculiar atrocity of the measure appears in the indisputable fact that it was a covert plan to bring in the Pretender, by a systematic attempt to instil Jacobi tism into the youth of England. In the charity schools founded by the Christian Knowledge Society, liberally aided by wealthy Dissenters, according to Lord Cowper and Dr. Isaac Watts, the children were taught to hate the Revolu tion and the existing Constitution ; as Wake, Archbishop of Canterbury, and Gibson, Bishop of London, severely animadverted upon. By the Schism Bill, Dissenter: were not to be allowed even to educate their own chil dren ; and their Academies for training ministers would have been stopped, although they were rigidly excluded from the national Universities by the Act of Uniformity. The Bill was carried through the House of Commons by nearly two to one, and passed all the stages on one day, notwithstanding the strenuous opposition of the minority. The House of Lords, which had protected the illustrious Somers from a scandalous prosecution instituted by the Lower House, again displayed a greater sense of justice, and modified in some degree the strin gent provisions of the Bill ; though it passed by a majority of five. Thirty-three peers, including five bishops, entered on the Journals a strong protest against the measure, as needless, unjust, and pernicious. But it was zealously supported by the other prelates and by the clergy, and was even extended to Catholic Ireland, against the advice of the Duke of Shrewsbury, the Lord- Lieutenant. It was to come into operation on the first of August ; but on that very day the Queen died. Under tlie opposite policy which was immediately initiated, it remained inoperative, and was formally repealed in 1718. It is recorded in Walter Wilson's ' History of Dissenting Churches,' published in 1808, that Thomas Bradbury (1677-1759), a renowned Independent minister of that day, and a personal friend of many leading states men and bishops, walking through Smithfield on the way to his chapel in Fetter-lane, met Bishop Burnet in his carriage going to Court to inquire after the Queen. A.D. 1702-1714.] THE SCHISM ACT. 109 He noticed Bradbury's depression, and was told that he was musing upon the martyrs who had suffered on that spot, and wondering whether he should display similar constancy under the persecution of the Schism Act. Burnet told him the news, and arranged to send to the chapel a messenger, with instructions to drop a handker chief from the gallery in the event of the Queen being dead. This was done, and Bradbury at once asked the congregation to join in prayer for King George. He used to say that he was the first to proclaim the acces sion of the House of Hanover. When he and other Dissenting clergymen went to Court to present a con gratulatory address to the new monarch, a nobleman sneeringly asked if it was a funeral ; referring to the black cloaks worn in accordance with usage. Bradbury replied, with his ready wit, "Yes, my lord, it is the funeral of the Schism Act, and the resurrection of liberty." The Queen called him " bold Bradbury," and Harley is said to have tried in vain to silence him by the offer of a bishopric. Queen Anne's death occurred unexpectedly. She was only in her fiftieth year, but her health had failed for some time, and she was a victim to gluttony and obesity. Her embonpoint was colossal. A popular sobriquet applied to her was Brandy Nan, because of her potations. She was seized with apoplexy at the end of July, 1714. Bolingbroke, and other Jacobites in the Cabinet, were unable to mature their plans in the in terests of the Pretender ; for the maintenance of their own power ; and for perpetuating the Church and Tory policy. They tried in vain to influence the Presbyterians, through Dr. Daniel Williams (1644-1716), who resented the attempt. At a Privy Council meeting, held on the day of her fatal seizure, two of the great Whig peers, the Dukes of Argyle and of Somerset, took their places, though not specially summoned ; the custom then, as now, being to invite only known adherents of the Ministry. The sudden arrival of the two noblemen disconcerted the conspirators. At an adjourned meeting in the afternoon, other Whig lords came, and vigorous measures were taken to carry out the provisions of the no WHIGS AND TORIES. [chap. lxiv. Act of Settlement, and to secure the control of the ports and the fleet. The Elector, George of Hanover, had become heir-apparent by the death of his aged mother, two months previously. He was proclaimed King of England as soon as Queen Anne had passed away. The Jacobite plotters were frustrated. Bolingbroke, and others like him, soon after sought safety in France. He remained there eight years ; emulating the spirit and conduct of Alcibiades. His flight was naturally con strued to imply guilt. He had expressed his deliberate approval of the Revolution Settlement, as the guarantee of civil and religious liberty ; yet he set himself to over throw it. Atterbury, continuing to intrigue for the Jacobites, was at length impeached and exiled in 1722. He always declared that the best cause in England was lost for lack of spirit. He would have had the Pretender proclaimed at once. Happily, true Constitutionalism once more triumphed, mainly owing to the loyalty and firm attitude of the Nonconformists. The blindness bf the Tories in upholding Church supremacy at all hazards, and in scheming for the Stuarts, saved the Protestant Succession, and secured a continuance of Parliamentary and representative government. In Ivimey's ' History of the Baptists ' it is said that the death of Anne was in answer to the Dissenters' prayers. Whatever may be thought of the taste of such a state ment, or of a common rumour, for which there is no evidence, that Bradbury preached a funeral sermon from 2 Kings ix. 34, they indicate the irritated and soured feelings of many under a long course of insult and injury. CHAPTER LXV. LITERATURE AND MANNERS. A.D. 1702-1760. Richard Steele (1671-1729), "a warm-hearted, im petuous, typical Irishman," as Leslie Stephen describes aim. issued, April 12, 1709, the renowned ' Tatler.' It a.d. 1702-1760.] 'TATLER' AND 'SPECTATOR.' in was a small folio half-sheet of four columns, and con sisted of a colloquial essay on some topic suggested by the dress, manners, foibles, or amusements of society, with items of gossip and news. It created and satisfied a popular taste, and was read with an avidity exceeded only by the Waverley Novels a century later. It ap peared thrice a week until the early part of 171 1, giving place to the still more famous ' Spectator.' Joseph Addison (1672-1719), usually designated the English Atticus, had sometimes contributed to Steele's little paper, but wrote much more for this. His articles, two hundred and seventy-four in number, bear one of the letters forming the word Clio, the Muse of History. This most kindly and delicate of humorists is deservedly praised by Young, Tickell, Gay, Pope, and Cowper. He is better known in literature by his charming and finished Essays than as the author of the political play of ' Cato,' the characters in which have faded away into nonenti ties. His name is immortalized in the ' Spectator.' It continued to appear daily until December 6, 1712, and was followed for a short space by the ' Guardian,' and then by the ' Freeholder,' which were also adorned by his pen. But the Stamp Duties proved fatal to all such periodical issues. Addison founded a school of popular and elegant writing, superseding the cumbrous, involved, pedantic sentences of the preceding age, which Johnson and Gibbon, with all their transcendent ability and sonorous phrases, were unable to restore. He has never been surpassed, and but rarely equalled, in his peculiar vein. Johnson's dictum was that any one wishing to attain an English style must give days and nights to the study of Addison. Yet his style, though correct and refined, is as cold as an icicle and as formal as a Dutch garden. Even the passion of love is described in a periphrasis. One of his friends and imitators, Ambrose Philips, gave rise to the epithet of Namby Pamby, from his feeble and jejune compositions, written in short lines, with an affected, infantine simplicity of diction. The advent of a writer of a far different order, and the greatest master of modern satire, with all his fierce grotesqueness, was heralded by the issue, in 1704, from the pen of Jonathan H2 LITERATURE AND MANNERS, [chap. lxv. Swift (1667-1745), of ' The Tale of a Tub ' and ' The Battle of the Books.' The latter arose out of a contro versy as to the superiority of ancient over modern learn ing. The former was an arraignment of the corruptions and pretensions of the Church of Rome ; of the folly and extravagance of Dissenters ; and of the solemn and empty formulas that passed current in literary circles. As a satire, it would have added to the reputation of a Lucian or an Erasmus. The dunderheads of that day concluded that the author must be an infidel ; but this was not the sole or the chief bar to his promotion. Coarseness, cynicism, and downright brutality charac terize many of his writings. He displayed a special faculty for extracting diversion out of gross and sen suous images, and appeared to revel in their foulness, like his contemporary, Bernard Mandeville (1670-1733), in the ' Fable of the Bees ' ; though the latter was a scoffer, and not a misanthrope ; whereas Swift was both. His ambition to attain to political power and an English mitre being disappointed by the Whigs, he transferred to the Tories his incisive, truculent, and libidinous pen ; but he never rose above the Deanery of St. Patrick's, for no statesman, even in that venal and shameless age, would have dared to make him a prelate. His sole conception of religion was political, like Fielding's Thwackum. He became more embittered and cynical, sank into the imbecility of dementia, and spent the last three years of his life in almost total silence — " a dri veller and a show." His modern fame mainly rests on 'Gulliver's Travels,' the object of which, as he said, apart from the three hundred pounds realized, was to vex the world. The sixth chapter of ' A Voyage to Brobding- nag ' in this immortal book stands unrivalled, unless by More's 'Utopia,' as an ironical description of English political institutions of the time. If Swift was the English Juvenal, Alexander Pope (1688-1744) was its Horace. His ' Essay on Criticism,' written in his twentieth year, was followed by other works which brought both fame and money, and mark the commencement of a new literary era. His ostracism, as the son of a Roman Catholic, his physical deformity, his weak constitution, and his extreme A.D. 1702-1760.J POPE'S ' HOMER.' 1 13 sensitiveness, explain his virulence and occasional savagery, though he was tolerant of all forms of faith, and admitted that his own sat lightly upon him. Atterbury, not unkindly, described his diminutive figure in his little chariot as " Homer in a nutshell." In middle life he issued a translation, or, rather, a paraphrase, of Homer, which Johnson called the noblest version the world had seen. Gray declared that no' other translation would ever equal it ; while Gibbon said that it had every merit except faithfulness to the original. The learned Bentley told Pope it was a very pretty poem, but must not be called Homer ; but this was fair retaliation for the attack upon himself as the tasteless mutilator of Milton. However, Pope secured eight thousand eight hundred pounds by the then popular method of publishing by subscription, the odd hundreds being given to William Browne and Elijah Fenton, who assisted him, as he knew but little Greek. His pecuniary success was in marked contrast to the miserable pittance furnished by literature to some of his predecessors, like Dekker, Ben Jonson, Spenser, Milton, Dryden, Otway, and Samuel Butler, or to contempora ries and successors, like Richard Savage, William Collins, of the exquisite ' Odes and Eclogues,' Dr. Samuel Johnson, Samuel Boyse, who wrote ' The Deity,' Oliver Goldsmith, and Henry Fielding, all of whom knew what it was to lack a meal. Samuel Foote (1720-1777) lays bare as with a scalpel, in his farce of ' The Author,' the struggles, and ex pedients, land humiliations of the literary profession ; and Hogarth depicts them in the garret scene of the Dis tressed Poet, with his abject, grinding poverty. There are exceptions. Addison, after filling several offices, became Secretary of State, through the influence of political friends. He had married the Dowager Countess of Warwick, and Dryden espoused a daughter of the Earl of Rochester, each, according to Pope, " marrying discord in a noble wife." Nicholas Rowe was Surveyor of Customs, and held other posts, as well as being poet- laureate, realizing in all twelve hundred pounds a year. Sir Isaac Newton was Master of the Mint. David Hume was Secretary to the Embassy to France, and, for a short vol. m. 9 ti4 Literature and manners, [chap. lxv. time, Under-Secretary of State. Matthew Prior was Ambassador at Paris, after being one of the Com missioners of Trade. Sir John Vanbrugh, author of ' The Relapse,' 'The Provoked Wife,' and other witty, satirical, but loose plays, besides his profession as an architect, was Secretary of Greenwich Hospital and Clarencieux King-at-arms. Steele, William Congreve, Thomas Tickell, John Gay, and some others held lucrative sinecures. These were chiefly rewards or retainers for political services. James Thomson, of ' The Seasons,' had an annuity of one hundred pounds, and thrice that sum for the titular governorship of the Leeward Islands ; but, before this, he had to drain the cup of misery to the dregs. It is pitiful to reflect how many immortal com positions, that have done so much to enlighten, to soothe, and to elevate, were written by men with aching hearts, in the midst of perplexities and worries. No sum com parable to Pope's remuneration was received by a poet, a novelist, or any author, until the advent of Sir Walter Scott and Lord Byron, of Dickens and Thackeray, of Bulwer Lytton and Maeaulay, of Tennyson and George Eliot. The moral and satirical works by which Pope is best known were composed, for the most part, in his later years. His ' Essay on Man' exhibits his conspicuous excellences and his conspicuous faults, apart from its being a versifi cation of Bolingbroke's sceptical teaching. Of his other writings, the ' Dunciad,' an imitation of Dryden's ' Mac Flecknoe,' stands in the foremost rank among satires. It was a trenchant attack upon the pretended wits and poetasters of that day. Additions were made in sub sequent issues to this unenviable gallery of portraits. Many of the denizens of Grub-street would have other wise remained unknown. In destroying the vermin who then infested literature, he raged with superfluous vehemence. It was like crushing a noxious insect with a Nasmyth hammer. ' Martinus Scriblerus,' commonly attributed to him, was probably written by Dr. John Arbuthnot (1675-1735) ; of whose wit and humour Swift, Pope, and Johnson speak in terms of high praise. As a medical man, he may be said to have laid the foundation of the science of vital statistics. Perhaps no a.d. 1702-1760.] POETICAL DEGENERACY. 115 author, save Shakspere, Milton, or Wordsworth, furnishes so many familiar and apposite quotations as Pope. His felicitous phrases are often ascribed to others. His con temporary, Dr. Edward Young (1684-1765), of the ' Night Thoughts,' in spite of his mock-tragedy airs, and the hollow ring of insincerity in his notes, enjoys a similar distinction in a lower degree, though his writings often descend to bombast and turgidity, and abound in sins against the literary canons of taste. He is not a seer, or a prophet, or an enthusiast ; but a clever phrase monger and a disappointed place-hunter, who, in his extreme verbal solicitude about the next world, contrived to keep a sharp eye upon present interests. Pope wielded great influence in his day, and, like Dryden before him, and like Johnson subsequently, was the arbiter of lite rary fame. But the real character of what is sometimes vaunted as the Augustan Age of English literature, with the "mob of gentlemen who wrote with ease," is shown by the fact that Shakspere was driven from the Stage. He is not even mentioned in Addison's work ' On the Greatest English Poets,' which also describes Chaucer's " unpolished strains" as hopelessly rustic and obscured by Time, and Spenser as having no charm for an under standing age, however he may have amused one that was barbarous and uncultivated. Addison himself speaks of Milton in glowing terms of eulogy ; but the blind bard had few admirers and no influence in that age of wits, and beaux, and macaronis, and dandies, with their wigs and canes, their patches and powder, their muffs and painted heels. Science had worthy exponents in John Flamsteed, Sir Isaac Newton, and Edward Halley ; and music in the two Purcells, "William Croft, and William Boyce. George Frederick^ Handel (1684-1759) found a home and patrons in England, first for his operas, and then for his sublime oratorios. They revealed the hidden soul of harmony, even if Dr. Crotch's allegation be true, that Handel freely appropriated the compositions of Stradella, Erba, and others. But the English people were by no means musical. Only the wealthy few appreciated the art. Fiddling, as it was termed, was held in special contempt, as being effeminate. By those who really loved music, 116 LITERATURE AND MANNERS, [chap. LXV. or who professed to love it as a matter of fashion, foreign singers alone were tolerated. Hogarth ridicules this in one of his pictures of the Marriage a la Mode, and in that of the Enraged Musician — supposed to represent Handel — with its overflowing and uproarious fun. The drama was fairly supported, if not distinguished by immortal plays or by renowned actors. The usual hour of commencement at theatres was five o'clock, and the performance ended before nine. Prices ranged from one shilling to five. The upper gallery was reserved for the gratuitous admission of footmen, until their disorderly conduct led to a withdrawal of the privilege. Nicholas Rowe stole the plot of ' The Fair Penitent,' by which he is best known, from Massinger's ' Fatal Dowry,' and freely appropriated anything that served his purpose. His diffuse translation of Lucan's ' Pharsalia' was highly valued ; but his edition of Shakspere, in 1709, contained numerous emendations which he presumed to regard as improvements. John Gay's (1688-1732) ' Beggar's Opera,' a Newgate pastoral, suggested by Swift, was brought out in 1728, and achieved a popularity which is now difficult to explain. It ran for sixty-three nights, amidst a tempest of laughter, and brought the author sixteen hundred pounds. Wealthy and polished society applauded its own infamous portrait ; and leading statesmen were quizzed under the guise of pickpockets and highwaymen. Gay impudently said, — " It is difficult to determine whether the fine gentlemen imitate the gentlemen of the road, or these the fine gentlemen." He was called the Orpheus of Highwaymen. Sir John Fielding said that this play was never represented without creating more thieves. The sequel, ' Polly,' suppressed by the Lord Chamberlain, because of its alleged satire on the Ministry, was published by subscription, and realized ^2000. by Pope famous epitaph in Westminster Abbey, where he was interred. Italian Opera, introduced soon after the Restoration, was still waging its long struggle for success. An exotic in England, it was a plant of slow growth. Among a.d. 1702-1760.] THE DRAMA : JEREMY COLLIER. 117 noted managers were Christopher Rich, who invented the English form of pantomime, and CoUey Cibber (1671-1757), who was also an actor, and a playwright, or, rather, a mutilator of plays. His best comedy is 'The Careless Husband' ; but the one that brought him most money was an adaptation of Moliere's ' Tartuffe,' entitled 'The Nonjuror,' on which Isaac Bickerstaff founded ' The Hypocrite.' As poet-laureate, Cibber's flattering encomiums on royalty, and his far-fetched comparisons, merit the palm for absurdity. His acting version of Shakspere's ' Richard III.,' imperfect and un worthy though itwas, long held possession of the Stage. One of Hogarth's plates represents the works of Shak spere, Ben Jonson, Dryden, and others, being carted away as waste-paper. In another, Parnassus is turned into a bear-garden ; Pegasus is drawing a dust cart ; and the Muses are employed in sifting cinders. No improve ment occurred until David Garrick appeared in London, and began his distinguished and successful career in Drury-lane Theatre. Before his time, the lengths to which political allusions were carried on the Stage furnished Sir Robert Walpole with a pretext for the Licensing Act of 1737, which required every manuscript to be submitted to the censorship of the Lord Chamber lain before being presented in public. Most of the plays produced during the first half of the century, including what Cowper terms, "smart and snappish dialogue that flippant wits style Comedy," where not irredeemably dull, were nauseating to modern ears by their vulgarity. In order to appreciate this school of writers, prurience and cynicism are needed. Grave matrons and young girls laughed at the broad and coarse jokes, and heard without a blush the language of the stables and the stews. Pope says, — "The modest fan was lifted up no more, and virgins smiled at what they blushed before." Jeremy Collier (1650-1726), author of the ' Ecclesiastical History,' a divine of great learning and high character, but of intense pugnacity, to whom controversy was a delight, published in 1698 his ' Short View of the Immorality and Profaneness of the English Stage.' A Jacobite and a Nonjuror, he cannot be charged with Puritan fanaticism ; but he strongly 118 LITERATURE AND MANNERS, [chap. lxv. censured the plays of that time, for their indecent phraseology, their oaths, their abuse of the clergy, and the gross libertinism of the plots and characters. The 'Spectator's' well-known description in 1712 is fully confirmed by numerous incidental references in con temporary Diaries and Letters, which show how the Stage was still suffering from the enervation and de bauchery of Stuart times. Copious information respecting industry, trade, manu factures, and social life is to be found in such works as Charles Davenant's ' Discourses ' ; Adam Anderson's 1 Deduction ' ; David Macpherson's ' Annals ' ; Charles King's ' British Merchant ' ; Wood's ' Survey ' ; Macky's ' Journeys ' ; William Maitland's and Thomas Pennant's ' London ' ; and Gregory King's ' State and Condition of England.' A synopsis of the country and its people in the eighteenth century is given in a work by William Connor Sydney. The history of its thought has been elaborately traced and brilliantly shown by Leslie Stephen. In his ' Tour of Great Britain,' Defoe relates with his usual perspicuity many facts which his wide and close observation had collected during frequent journeys, concerning agricultural, commercial, domestic, and social life. The works of Ned Ward, author of the ' London Spy,' notwithstanding their grossness, furnish curious particulars. Numerous references to prevailing manners and customs, which remained substantially the same throughout the century, are made by the Essayists already mentioned ; in Swift's ' Letters to Stella,' and by other contemporary authors. But for the period immediately preceding and following Defoe's death, in 1 73 1, down to his own in 1764, William Hogarth's well- known works depict, with inimitable skill, and with a minute accuracy that is sometimes ruthless, if amusing, the life of England in his day. He was a wit and a caricaturist ; but he was much more, both as a picture- historian and as a moralist. He limned a true portrait of his times, and it still exists for instruction and amuse ment. Other pictures we look at ; his prints we read, as Charles Lamb says. After Hogarth came James Sayers, Henry William Bunbury, James Gillray, with his truculent satire, Thomas Rowlandson, George Cruik- a.d. 1702-1760.] HOGARTH : CARICATURISTS. 119 shank, the Doyles, John Leech, John Tenniel, and other delineators in ' Punch.' The history of caricature and grotesque has been ably narrated, with copious illustra tions, by Thomas Wright, who has also compiled the ' Caricature History of the Four Georges,' from the in numerable squibs, broadsides, burlesques, and street literature of the period ; exhibiting the petty but viru lent party warfare that prevailed. As usual, the caprices, the vagaries, and the extrava gances of fashion gave rise to much satirical comment. The daily course of life of fine ladies, with their patches and powder, their pyramidal head-dresses and enormous hooped petticoats, their high-heeled shoes and crutched sticks, their decorated fans and their lap-dogs, was, for the most part, as shallow as that of the beaux and the wits. Addison and Steele in vain lashed their absurdities with the whip of satire. Drums, routs, masquerades ; visits to Vauxhall Gardens or Ranelagh ; hours spent in auction-rooms, shops, and hot baths ; with tea, scandal, and frolic, made up the sum of existence. Addison also censured, but without effect, the oaths with which fashionable dames interlarded their frivolous chatter, and which Young declared were used to supply the vacancy of sense. It was a profane age. " Our armies swore terribly in Flanders," said Uncle Toby, maintaining the character for which Joan of Arc twitted the Duke of Bedford and the Earl of Warwick, that they could not conquer France, even though they had "a hundred thousand Goddams," the usual nickname given on the Continent to the English. When ladies went to church, it was to see and to be seen ; to ogle, and flirt, and gossip. Steele reproves their practice of knitting in the Chapel Royal, St. James's, because they were "then in the imme diate presence of God and her Majesty, who were both affronted together." Women were regarded as mere puppets and playthings. The high-flown classical and pastoral imagery in which they were addressed was notoriously insincere. Their education was grossly neglected. Scarcely one good house in a hundred pos sessed a musical instrument. Walpole's letters to Queen Caroline, his reported conversation with her, and the topics discussed at his own table, so long as the guests 120 LITERATURE AND MANNERS, [chap. lxv. had power to articulate, are but instances of the pre vailing style. Young recapitulates, in a satire upon the women of his clay, the numerous stages of vacuity through which they ran, and the laborious trifles that occupied them, as Pope does, less minutely, in his ' Mrs. Blount.' The fashionable beau, like the fine ladies of that period, received his visitors in bed until noon ; and then, after a long time devoted to his toilet, with its scents and perfumes, its pomatum and powder, its velvet and silk garments of bright hues, a huge wig, a three- cornered hat, and a sword, he dined at two ; repaired to one of the coffee-houses or chocolate-houses where reputed wits resorted ; or lounged in the Park and ogled the ladies ; or went to some place like Hockley-in-the- Hole, where cock-fighting or pugilism might be witnessed and freely gambled on, until it was time to go to the theatre ; not to attend to the play, but to see and to be seen, and to laugh and talk with acquaintances as empty- headed as himself. The performance ended, he strolled into Clare Market, and paid a shilling to amuse himself with the fantastic, impudent burlesques of Orator Henley (1692-1756), gibbeted by Pope, as " embrowned with native bronze," and by Hogarth as the roystering parson who presides over the veteran topers in a Modern Mid night Conversation. Finally, he went to a fashionable party where high play formed the chief amusement. If he wrote a letter it was with difficulty, and the words were spelt in an arbitrary and phonetic fashion. He had no envelopes, and the missive had to be folded and sealed with a huge blob of wax, and entrusted to the uncertain mercies of the post, unless sent by hand. If he was of the type of the Rake delineated by Hogarth, he surrounded himself with jockeys, musicians, fencing and dancing-masters, bullies, and prize-fighters, and other needy and greedy adventurers, who made him their prey ; or he sought to retrieve his shattered for tunes in a gambling-hell like the one shown in the same series of prints. The froth and scum that floated to the surface, and the inanity and hollowness, the vice and heartlessness of fashionable life, with its baseness and debauchery, and its craving after riot and excitement, are shown by a.d. 1702-1760.] RICHARDSON : FIELDING. 121 Horace Walpole and many other writers, and, still more vividly, in the exact though minute and tedious portraiture of the times given in such works as Samuel Richardson's (1689-1761) ' Pamela,' ' Clarissa Harlowe,' and ' Sir Charles Grandison.' Much of the sentiment is hollow, and the morality is mawkish, giving rise to the revolt which produced Henry Fielding's (1707-1754) works, with their vigorous outspokenness. Coleridge said that to take up Fielding after Richardson is like emerging from a sick-room heated by stoves into an open lawn on a breezy day in May, because of the agreeable transition from excited sensibilities and over powering pathos to light humour, lively description, and keen but sportive satire. Fielding's strong, healthy, unconventional nature revolted from the moral priggish- ness of ' Virtue Rewarded.' It angered him that crowds of ladies sighed and wept over Richardson's ponderous, long-drawn, and fictitious tales, with their wearisome platitudes, itheir attenuated moral maxims, their morbid tone, and their impossible situations. Fielding resolved to write a contrast and a correc tive, purporting to be the adventures of Pamela's brother, ' Joseph Andrews ' ; but, in quizzing Richardson, he opened up an original vein of his own. His ' Jonathan Wild ' is a masterpiece of irony. ' Tom Jones ' is a marvel of invention, character, and wit, of which readers never weary ; with its amusing scenes and adventures, its sparkling sketches of high and low life, its genial satire, and its scorn of meanness and hypocrisy. He has stronger claims to be a writer of history than the authors of many elaborate fictions known under that name. Before he discovered the true bent of his genius, he wasted his powers in writing third-rate plays until he was thirty-five. He died twelve years later in Lisbon In like manner, Sir Walter Scott was forty-three when he entered the field of his greatest literary renown, and all his best work was accomplished within ten years. From such novels, and from others of inferior rank, like the once popular but now forgotten ' Life and Opinions of John Buncle, Esq.,' by the eccentric, if not insane, Thomas Amory (1691-1788), modern readers may learn what were the manners, the opinions, and the 122 LITERATURE AND MANNERS, [chap. lxv. topics of conversation of the squirearchy and gentry, and how elegant and high-born dames wrote and talked. The ' Letters ' and ' Memoirs ' of the Lord Fribbles and the Lady Frails of the period contain phrases and descriptions for which the word " indelicate " is far too mild. All this detracts from the boasted literature of the greater part of the eighteenth century. De Quincey stigmatizes " its extreme artificiality, its sheepish reserve upon all impassioned grandeurs, and its shameless outrages upon the decencies of human nature." The guilt or innocence of manners very much depends upon conventional standards. Dress and speech which would be deemed disgraceful in one age or country are respec table in another. There may not have been more of actual vice, but there was far less regard to outward proprieties. Thackeray says, in 'The Virginians,' — " The finest folks, and the most delicate ladies, called things and people by names which we never utter in good company now-a-days. And so much the better on the whole. We may not be more virtuous, but it is something to be more decent ; perhaps we are not more pure, but of a surety we are more cleanly." The style and the undoubted genius of the great writers of the age are marred by moral putridity. The Romans of the time of the Caesars prided themselves upon the refine ment and urbanity of their speech, which scarcely veiled hideous grossness, brutal jesting, abominable cruelty, nameless vices, and revolting crimes. The great mass of eighteenth century novels are contemptible in plot, poor in incident, insipid as narratives, stupid in dialogue, of interminable length and ponderous dulness, and false in sentiment. The men riot in dissipation, and the women indulge in intrigue. Sir Walter Scott, no mean authority, describes them as "huge folios of insanity, over which our ancestors yawned themselves to sleep." Yet, in spite of their repellent dreariness and coarseness, they delineate the age. Its general features are also described with inimitable force and skill in Thackeray's ' English Humorists,' in his ' Esmond,' and, partly, in his ' Four Georges.' Country gentlemen, as a class, were ignorant and boorish, loud-voiced and blasphemous, devoted to drink- A.D. 1702-1760.] COUNTRY GENTLEMEN. 123 ing and the chase, and to what Leslie Stephen calls " the boisterous humours of ponderous, well-fed masses of animated beefsteak." The ' Connoisseur ' of 1755 draws an unlovely picture of their habits. What they were then, they continued to be for generations. Addison's charming creation of Sir Roger de Coverley, and Richardson's pompous and ceremonious Sir Charles Grandison, with his self-consciousness and moral aphorisms, are not typical English gentlemen of that day, either in town or country. Their actual character, manners, and attainments can be appreciated only by force of exact contrast with such delineations, or with Fielding's Alworthy, or Goldsmith's Sir William Thorn ton. Of the average squire, sport was the chief occupa tion and the consuming passion. He read nothing, and could scarcely write. He presided at the market dinner ; dispensed justice in a rough fashion, and hos pitality with a free hand, if somewhat coarse in style ; lived an easy, jolly, roystering life among his tenants and neighbours ; knew and cared nothing about the outside world ; voted stolidly with his party, and uttered their parrot-cries ; despised learning, intelligence, and refine ment ; and after heavy feeding in the day, contrived to go to bed drunk every night. His wife and daughters were chiefly occupied in cooking and preserving ; in the preparation of cordials ; in needlework and tattling ; and in acting the part of Lady Bountiful to their poorer neighbours, or dosing them with home-compounded medicines. The consumption of strong October ale and of other potent liquors was enormous. Harley, after wards Earl of Oxford, whose private character stood high for that age, not infrequently entered Queen Anne's presence intoxicated. Bolingbroke often spent the night in a drunken debauch, and proceeded to discharge his duties as Secretary of State by means of a wet napkin bound round his head. Addison, Steele, and most persons having any pretensions to literary or social position, were freely addicted to the bottle, and the punchbowl. The dinner described in Swift's ' Polite Conversation' is but a slightly exaggerated picture. The coarse, hilarious entertainments of Walpole, at his Norfolk country seat, were matters of common talk, but 124 LITERATURE AND MANNERS, [chap. lxv. they awakened no surprise in an age accustomed to the speech and habits of the Westerns and the Topealls. Indeed his own capacity in this respect made him popular. Carteret's brilliant intellect was clouded, and Pulteney's life was enfeebled in the same way. Hard drinking continued to be fashionable for more than a century. No social stigma attached to habitual intoxication. Gillray's caricatures freely expose the prac tice. Sheridan's bibulous face was a stock subject of ridicule, and lent itself to the exaggerations of lampoons. Pitt's indulgence in port was not singular. George Selwyn and other gossips give many instances of baccha nalian revels, aped by the lower orders, with coarser drinks, so far as their means allowed ; and by domestic servants, whose extravagance and affectation are ridiculed by the Rev. James Townley (1715-1778), in his farce of ' High Life Below Stairs.' A passion for gin-drinking broke out after 1724, when the distilling trade was thrown open on payment of certain duties, giving rise to Hogarth's Dantesque pictures of Beer-street and Gin- lane, and to Smollett's rhetorical description, — " Here you may get drunk for a penny, and dead drunk for twopence, with clean straw to lie upon for nothing." Sir John Fielding, brother to the novelist, and himself a London magistrate, in a pamphlet ' On the Increase of Robbers,' published in 1751, declared that gin was "the principal sustenance (if it may be so called) of more than one hundred thousand people in the metropolis." It was computed, on the Excise returns, that more than eleven million gallons of spirits were consumed in that year, being a six-fold increase in forty years. There were seventeen thousand gin-shops in London. One effect was to check the growth of the population, both in the birth-rate and by increased mortality. Remedial measures were attempted ; such as restricting the power of magistrates to issue licenses, subjecting public-houses to stringent regulations, and increasing the penalties on surreptitious sales. Nothing came of all this, or of Fielding's exposure. Nearly fifty years later, Dr. Patrick Colquhoun, another magistrate, in a work that went through four editions before 1800, gave appalling details of the various crimes and misdemeanours by which life A.D. 1702-1760.] COFFEE-HOUSES : CLUBS. 125 and property in London were endangered, and suggested remedies that were left unheeded. Tea was introduced from China in the second half of the seventeenth century. Pepys records his having first tasted it in 1660, as a rarity. Its use did not become general for a long time, owing to the high prices, ranging from sixteen to fifty shillings a pound. Coffee began to be used about the same period. Both were assailed as outlandish and unhealthy drinks, strong ale in copious draughts being the usual beverage. The opening of coffee-houses was regarded with suspicion and dislike ; partly on this ground, but chiefly because it was feared they would be centres of sedition. A duty of eighteenpence a gallon was imposed in 1670 upon the makers and sellers of chocolate, sherbet, and tea. The excisemen had great difficulty in levying this tax, and the results were incommensurate with the trouble and expense, so that a Customs' duty of five shillings a pound on tea was substituted in 1688. This plan con tinued, with various fluctuations of the rate, for nearly two centuries. The principal coffee-houses in London were Will's, Button's, Child's, Garraway's, White's Jonathan's, the Grecian, Lloyd's, and the Smyrna. Of well-known clubs there were the Calves'-Head — said to have been instituted in ridicule of Charles I. — the Kit- Cat, the March, the October, the Beefsteak, the Saturday, and many others. These clubs and coffee-houses were political, literary, professional, or social, but many of them degenerated into resorts for gambling, just as the saloons of theatres become places of assignation. Gentle manly bullies, known as Mohocks — a generic term derived from a tribe of Indians of North America — or their rivals, the Scourers, or the Hectors, " sons of Belial, flown with insolence and wine," made the streets unsafe at night with their rough practical jokes, breaking windows, removing shop-signs, upsetting sedan-chairs, beating passers-by, pricking them with swords, muti lating their features, and committing indecent assaults upon women. Another instance of ruffianism was fur nished by the Hell-Fire Club, suppressed by the Privy Council in 1721. The lions and the armoury in the Tower were not more popular than a visit to the 126 LITERATURE AND MANNERS, [chap. lxv. unhappy lunatics strapped, manacled, and chained in Bedlam, one of the show-places of the day, of which Hogarth gives a realistic scene in the last print of the Rake's Progress. Foreign animals, giants and dwarfs, monstrosities and freaks of Nature, were eagerly gazed at then, as formerly. Bartholomew and Southwark Fairs were in their glory, as places where vulgar fun ran fast and furious amidst a , throng of peddlers' stalls, raffling-tables, and drinking booths, besides the usual shows of conjurors and acrobats, puppets and wax figures. Horse-racing was coming into vogue ; and the out-door sports of bear or bull-baiting, prize-fights, wrestling, and trials of skill with weapons, completed the ordinary round of amusement. Irregular and clandestine marriages were a crying evil, in spite of legislative attempts to stop them by heavy penalties. Unions, perfectly legal and binding, took place, not only in churches, but in the Fleet and other prisons, in taverns, and elsewhere ; performed as a means of livelihood by dissolute and bankrupt clergymen. The scandal was terminated by an Act passed in 1753 ; but a new injustice was inflicted, by requiring all persons, including Nonconformists and Roman Catholics, to be married according to the rites of the Established Church. The fresh disability remained so late as 1836. Pepys describes the coarse usages that prevailed, even at stately and ceremonious weddings ; and they continued for a lengthened period. There was also lavish display at funerals, and no pains were spared to render them miserable and ghastly, as well as expensive. The custom of giving hatbands, gloves, and mourning-rings was carried to an extreme. At the funeral of Pepys, in 1703, one hundred and twenty- three rings, of from ten to twenty shillings in value, were given, besides suits of clothes or pieces of broadcloth. To check the importa tion of linen, and to encourage the use of home woollens, it was enacted in 1679, and again in 1685, that the dead were to be buried only in woollen cloth. The clergy were to keep a record of proper affidavits of this being done. A fine of five pounds was to be levied for infringe ment ; half to go to the informer, according to the usual hateful method. These Acts were not repealed until A.D. 1702-1760.] GAMING HOUSES. 127 1815, though, like all sumptuary laws, they had long fallen into desuetude and become inoperative. The passion for gaming continued and intensified, in defiance of prohibitory laws. It was as strong among ladies,, who spent night after night in excited and eager play. Lady Cowper's ' Diary ' records that the lowest stake at fashionable tables was two hundred guineas. Ombre superseded Primero. It is vividly described iu the third canto of Pope's ' Rape of the Lock,' unapproach able as the epic of artificial life at that time. Piquet was also introduced. Basset was a popular and exciting game, resembling Faro. Other games were Cribbage, All- Fours, French Ruff, and Putt. A- Duke of Devonshire staked and lost an estate on a game of Basset. Lord Chesterfield was a slave to the vice. Charles James Fox, in early life, was notorious for his long and high play, if, indeed, he ever wholly emancipated himself from the habit. He was initiated into it as a boy by bis father, the first Lord Holland (1705-1774), who amassed a colossal fortune in devious ways as Paymaster of the Forces. His vast accumulations were rapidly dissipated by his sons. Charles once played at Hazard for twenty- two hours, and lost upwards of ten thousand pounds. His brother Stephen lost thirteen thousand at one sitting, and the two sons ran through a quarter of a million in this way in a short period. High bets were made on chance occurrences, often the most absurd and improbable. Heavy shakes were deposited that certain persons would or would not marry by a given clay ; or that a child would be born ; or about its sex, or the colour of its hair and eyes ; or as to the prices of com modities ; or respecting the state of the weather, the arrival of a vessel, or many other hypothetical events ; with lotteries for almost every conceivable object, from houses, land, plate, or jewels, to advowsons and ships. An Act was passed in 1712 to put a stop to many of these schemes, under a penalty of five hundred pounds ; yet, with gross inconsistency, lotteries for raising large sums for national purposes, including Marlborough's wars, and the war to prevent American Independence, were sanctioned by Parliament, and were continued almost annually down to 1824. 128 LITERATURE AND MANNERS, [chap. lxv. The gambling spirit broke out in an extreme form in 1720. What is known as the South Sea Bubble, blown with the active connivance of the Government, led to the floating of a large number of companies, some being absurd, and many fraudulent. Among them, like those so graphically described by Maeaulay in connection with the mania of 1688 and the following years, were insurances against highwaymen, against lying, against death by drinking Geneva gin ; schemes for the cure of broken-winded horses and of lunatics ; for melting saw dust and shavings into deal boards of any length and free from knots ; for the more effectual blacking of shoes ; and for the transmutation of animals. England be came a country of projectors, like Balnibarbi in Swift's ' Gulliver.' The usual mad course was pursued, as in the case of the tulip mania of Holland in 1636. Prices of stocks ran up, a few clever speculators made large fortunes, but the many were plunged in disaster and ruin when the reaction began. For a time business, and even pleasure, were neglected in the keen pursuit of wealth, to be suddenly acquired by a stroke of luck ; but the bubble burst, and then ensued a time of exhaustion, misery, and vain repentance, to be followed, when the lesson was forgotten, by other wild seasons of specula tion, like that of 1825, or the Railway craze of 1846. Not in connection with this particular mania, although the product of the spirit of the day, and as a victim demanded in a fit of panic and resentment, the Earl of Macclesfield was impeached in 1725 for nepotism and malversation in his office of Lord Chancellor. He suffered, not so much for his actual faults, as for the evils connected with a bad system of ancient date, under which subordinate offices were sold. Being declared guilty, he was fined thirty thousand pounds, and was struck off the Privy Council. James Craggs, Secretary of State, of whom Pope writes in high terms, frightened himself into the grave at the prospect of an inquiry into his share of the South Sea scheme. Ais- labie, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, was sent to the Tower for complicity, and was expelled from the House of Commons. The Earl of Sunderland, who received £50,000 of stock without any consideration, had to resign his post as First Commissioner of the Treasury. A.D. 1702-1760.] HOUSES AND FURNITURE. 129 CHAPTER LXVI. AN INDUSTRIAL AND SOCIAL PICTURE. A.D. 1702-1760. Houses and furniture in the eighteenth century were for the most part solid and plain. The modern rococo revival known as the Queen Anne style of architecture is a resemblance in little more than in name. Mahogany from Honduras and other parts of South America was coming into use. A rage prevailed for Chinese porcelain. Flint-glass was extensively made in England, but Venice still supplied most of the plate-glass for mirrors. The art of making what are called Brussels carpets was intro duced into Kidderminster, from Tournay, in 1745. All these articles were confined to the houses of the nobility and of wealthy merchants. Black footmen and page boys were all the fashion. They were, in reality, slaves, and often wore a silver collar round their necks, as a badge of servitude, if not actually sold in this country. Snuff was freely used by both sexes, and the boxes were elaborate and costly. Smoking was much more common than it had ever been since the first introduction of tobacco. Every gentleman wore a sword and carried an ornamental cane. His watch was attached to a ribbon in the fob of his breeches, with a seal or two hanging down outside. The size and style may be judged of from numerous specimens in the Library of the Corpora tion of London, and in the collection of the Clockmakers' Company. Umbrellas, of a rough and clumsy pattern, are spoken of, though of much greater antiquity else where. They were not generally carried in England, and not at all by men, being regarded as effeminate. They were also unpopular, because used by the French, then, and for a lengthened period, the national antipathy. Jonas Hanway (1712-1786), a retired Russia merchant, whose name is honorably connected with the Marine Society, the Magdalen Hospital, the Foundling, and other benevolent institutions, was one of the first to brave the ridicule of the ignorant, by availing himself of the con venient shelter of an umbrella, if he did not actually vol. 111. 10 130 INDUSTRIAL AND SOCIAL PICTURE, [chap. lxvi. introduce it. Sedan chairs were the common mode of street travel for those who did not possess coaches. They were often gorgeously painted and upholstered, and could be hired, with the bearers, for a guinea a week. The silent highway of the Thames was not so much used as formerly. Coachmen, chairmen, and watermen were notorious for their bad language and ruffianism. London streets were ill-paved, and foot-paths were only beginning to be introduced. A row of posts and chains roughly indicated the line. Foul kennels were filled with refuse, and overflowed with liquid filth after every storm. The surface drainage ran into channels like the Old Bourne, Ty Bourne, the West Bourne, and the Fleet Ditch, which was the main sewer for the City, and discharged itself into the Thames at Blackfriars. Swift describes in revolting terms the state of this pestilen tial ditch, in his ' City Shower,' as Pope does in the ' Dunciad.' Passengers had to thread their devious way as they best could along streets, lanes, and alleys reek ing with mud and garbage, to avoid which they wore pattens or clogs. There were perpetual contests for the wall, so as to escape vehicles and the rain discharged from spouts and overhanging eaves of houses. From the labyrinthine mazes of fetid courts and dingy alleys, the abodes of crime and misery, even under the shadow of lordly mansions, issued the footpad, the cutpurse, and the pickpocket, to prey upon passers-by. John Gay's ' Trivia,' published in 1716, and Hogarth's pictures, reveal the horrible and perilous condition of the City streets. The first Paving Act for Westminster was not passed until 1762. Twenty-six years earlier a systematic attempt was made to light the chief London thoroughfares by means of flickering and unsavoury oil-lamps at intervals. Linkmen or boys, with their torches, had to be hired by those who were compelled to be out after dark. Houses were not numbered. Tradesmen displayed swinging and creaking signboards. The water-supply was inadequate and unhealthy. Wells and pumps, in a crowded city full of graveyards and cesspools, were supplemented in some districts by water taken from the Thames, which was a common sewer. The pipes were small hollowed 1 trees. The supply to the houses was intermittent, and A.D. 1702-1760.] LONDON STREETS. 131 was kept in barrels or in leaden cisterns, a prolific source of the epidemics that periodically raged for more than two hundred years. Country roads were almost invariably bad. In many districts they were mere tracks, reduced to a state of sludge by rain. Even those in the Home Counties resembled bogs. Sussex enjoyed an unenviable notoriety in this respect. Vehicles had to be made heavy and strong, to endure the rough usage through deep ruts and tenacious mud, and over faggots and stones. A long journey was a penance. Six or eight horses were usually required to drag the lumbering coaches or waggons through the quagmires and dust-heaps called roads. To accomplish thirty miles in fine weather during a long summer day was regarded as a wonderful feat. The journey was always suspended at sunset for safety. Country districts were isolated from one another and from London, and a journey to the county town was a formidable undertaking. The advent of a stranger aroused curiosity and wonder, and sometimes led to brutal violence. Postmasters were authorized to charge threepence a mile for a horse, with fourpence each stage of ten miles for a guide. The cost of carriage by waggon or packhorse was five shillings per hundredweight for a hundred miles. Stage-coaches were beginning to be intro duced early in the century, amidst much selfish opposi tion and ignorant prejudice. Not until 1774 did one run between Manchester, Warrington, and Liverpool, and then only thrice a week. One reason was the expense, and time was not then an object. The number of hackney coaches for London was fixed in 1693 at seven hundred. An additional hundred were assigned in 1710. They were clumsy, rickety, creaking vehicles, to hold four persons, and drawn by two horses. Fares were a shil ling a mile, or ten shillings for a day of twelve hours. Not every town could boast, like Manchester, in 1750, of a stand of hackney coaches in one of the principal streets. The mails arrived in and departed from London on alter nate days, weather, roads, and robbers permitting. Remote towns and villages were fitfully supplied. No Census was taken before 1801 ; but the population at the close of Queen Anne's reign is estimated at about live millions 132 INDUSTRIAL AND SOCIAL PICTURE, [chap. lxvi. for England and Wales, two millions for Ireland, and one for Scotland. The proportion in the agricultural districts was much larger than in the towns, as compared with modern times. London extended in two long and straggling lines, five miles from East to West, and two from North to South. It had about seven hundred thousand people, which was thought to be too vast. Medical science had but slightly advanced since the Middle Ages. Hogarth satirized it in the Undertakers' Arms, a print in which are given the portraits of a dozen well-known doctors, each wearing the five-storied wig then in vogue, and holding the traditional and in separable gold-headed cane with a vinaigrette as defence against infection. - Bleeding, as had been the case for ages, was a universal remedy, and was resorted to periodi cally as a supposed precaution. Numbers must have died from depletion, and from violent purgatives freely administered. Adam Smith, writing a little later, com putes the value of all the drugs and appliances in the shop of a country apothecary at no more than twenty- five pounds. The treatise on ' Domestic Medicine,' by Dr. William Buchan (1729-1805), ran through numerous editions and was diligently studied for generations. Steele has embalmed in one of his Essays amusing anec dotes of the empirics of his day. The ' Gentleman's Magazine ' of 1740 gives a list of nearly two hundred then practising, successors of the impudent Dr. Rock. Garrick transfixed with an epigram one John Hill, a pseudo-medical man, whose sole merit was his knowledge of botany, and who aspired to literary fame : — " For physic and farces his equal there scarce is ; his farces are physic ; his physic a farce is." Cowper gibbeted one Katerfelto, a notorious quack. Goldsmith's death was attributed to his persistence in taking James's Fever Powders, which were for a long time popular. Horace Walpole declared that Poor Noll would not have died if he had taken more. John Newbery, the publisher, was proprietor of some of these specifics. Fielding, Gray, and many celebrities believed in them. George III., according to Mrs. Delany, dosed the princesses with them. Mention is made in the pharmacopoeias then used of red coral, earth-worms, tips of crabs' claws, elk- A.D. 1702-1760.] MEDICINE AND QUACKS. 133 hoofs, boar's teeth, frog's fiver, and other repulsive ingredients. Sympathetic pills, tar-water, and stomach brushes are among the articles commonly advertised and strongly recommended. Queen Anne was the last of the English sovereigns who employed the royal touch for the cure of scrofula, or King's Evil ; and Dr. Samuel Johnson, when a child, was one of the last to undergo the process. Only once could William III. be prevailed upon to perform the ceremony, from which he revolted with instinctive disdain ; and then he added, — " God give you better health, and more sense." Russian influ enza was very fatal in London in 1720, the first instance on record of a long series. The uncertain period between the old empiricism and modern science is bridged over by the names of Thomas Sydenham (1624-1689); John Radcliffe (1650-1714), founder of the Library, the Observatory, and the Infirmary at Oxford ; Richard Mead (1673-1754) ; Sir Hans Sloane (1660-1753) ; and William Heberden (1710-1800). The collections made by Sloane formed the basis of the British Museum. They were purchased under an Act of Parliament in 1753, and exhibited in Montague House, Bloomsbury. Bath, as described in the bright satire and rattling rhymes of Christopher Anstey, the place where Beau Nash ruled with a rod of iron as master of the ceremonies, with Tunbridge, Epsom, and Harrogate, were the most frequented Spas. Mineral springs of old date flowed at Hampstead, Islington, Sadler's Wells, Sydenham, and elsewhere round London. Those of Cheltenham were discovered about 1730, and soon became popular, until a rage set in for Buxton, in the changing fashion of the hour. Sea-bathing is rarely mentioned before the middle of the century, when Brighthelmstone, Margate, and Weymouth attracted many persons who were weary of the Spas. Cowper censures, in his poem on ' Retirement,' the eagerness with which all classes and ages rushed to the coast, "ingenious to diversify dull life." The clever but flighty Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, on her return from the East in 1722, introduced inoculation for the fearful scourge of small-pox, which swept away many thousands annually. This means of preventing the spread of 134 INDUSTRIAL AND SOCIAL PICTURE, [chap. lxvi. contagion had been practised in China and in India from remote antiquity, whence it was carried to Syria. It did not become general for a quarter of a century, being opposed, not only by the medical profession, but by the clergy. One preacher asserted that Job's distemper was confluent small-pox, and that he was inoculated by the devil. Dr. Edward Jenner's discovery of vaccination, made in 1796, after a prolonged series of observations and experiments, was rewarded with thirty thousand pounds by Parliament. The manners of the peasantry exhibited a roughness, a stolid apathy, and a cheerless monotony of which Gay furnishes a sombre description in 'The Shepherd's Walk.' The chief relief to the dreary round of toil was found in drinking to soddenness in the village ale-house, and in wakes and itinerant fairs, where rustics contended with each other in wrestling, cudgel-playing, foot-races, grinning through a horse-collar, climbing a greasy pole, whistling, or eating hot hasty-pudding against time. A common sport at Christmas was yawning for a cheese, the prize being awarded to the one who gave the widest and most natural yawn, so as to set the company agape in sympathy. There was a shocking amount of coarse ness and savagery, especially at elections, at the public whipping of men and women, and before the perennial gallows. The latter demoralizing exhibition, often with several victims, was to be seen at Tyburn every month on a Monday morning. It was the resort of fashionable idlers, of the type of Lord Tomnoddy, in Barham's ' Ingoldsby Legends,' who paid high prices for eligible seats in adjacent houses. George Augustus Selwyn (1719-1791) had a morbid appetite for such spec tacles, which he never missed, and also for seeing deceased friends and acquaintances. He called to inquire after the first Lord Holland, during his fatal illness, and orders were given that he should be admitted the next time : " If I am alive, I shall be delighted to see him ; and if I am dead, he will be pleased to see me." Below such favoured spectators, in the roadway, surged a rough mob, who regarded the horrible show as a delectation belonging to them by right. It was usual to manifest approval at the bearing of some hardened and defiant A.D. 1702-1760.] CRIMINALS : THE GALLOWS. 135 scoundrel, whose crime was peculiarly atrocious ; and to assail with execrations and filthy missiles any miserable wretch who chanced to be unpopular, or who made a craven end. Death must have been a welcome escape to many from the crowded and fever-stricken gaols where prisoners of both sexes, including the innocent, the mere novices in crime, and those of every shade of wickedness, were confined with political offenders, debtors, and lunatics. Treated like wild beasts, they became such. - Newgate, in particular, was a Pandemonium. The gaolers had no salaries. Some paid large sums for their places, reimbursing themselves by fees, bribes, and extortion. They sold bad food and worse drink to the prisoners at exorbitant prices, appropriated the contributions of the benevolent, and reduced or in creased the punishments, especially in wearing fetters, at their own pleasure, but always for a money considera tion. They made large sums by exhibiting notorious felons, and were under no supervision or restraint. The living were sometimes locked up with a corpse. The sick were left to die untended. The filth, disease, wretched ness, vice, and mortality that prevailed were shocking. When a prisoner's term of sentence had expired, he was detained until monstrous illegal prison fees were paid. Instances occurred of friendless victims pining for months, and even for years, because of inability to meet the demands of these harpies. Nor were the Queen's Bench, the Marshalsea, and other prisons, any better. Those in the provinces were worse, if possible. Not until 1728 was a Committee of the House of Commons appointed to inquire into the state of the prisons, through the energy and courage of General James Oglethorpe. A festering mass of iniquity and suffering was brought to light ; but, meanwhile, hundreds had rotted, perished, and been utterly forgotten, including many whose only crime was being poor and friendless. No effectual remedy was even then devised. Fielding's 'Amelia,' published in 175 1, was avowedly designed to expose some of the more glaring evils of the prison system, and the corruption of the few stipendiary or trading magistrates, as shown in Justice Thrasher. In ' Jonathan Wild ' are described the knavery and in- 136 INDUSTRIAL AND SOCIAL PICTURE, [chap, lxvi humanity of the gaoler who keeps Heartfree's reprieve a secret until he has exacted twenty pounds from Friendly as the price of an hour's respite. Goldsmith narrates what his Vicar had to endure in the debtors' prison. John Howard (1726-1790) had not begun his great work of prison reform, which has justly earned for him the title of Philanthropist, in spite of Carlyle's sneering tribute in ' Model Prisons,' where he calls Howard " the innocent cause ... of the Benevolent- Platform Fever." What he saw during his tenure of office as high sheriff of Bedfordshire in 1773, led him to devote his life and his fortune to an inquiry into the prisons at home and abroad. He pursued his quest with unwearying benevo lence until he succumbed, January 23, 1790, at Kherson, in Southern Russia, to a malignant fever, contracted in his ministrations. Nor was any distinction observed between prisoners for debt and those for criminal offences. Indeed, debt was regarded as a heinous crime. Creditors could gratify their vengeance, and condone their own recklessness, by incarcerating debtors for years, and even for life. At that very time, a woman died in Derby Gaol, after a detention of forty-five years for a debt of nineteen pounds ; and the barbarous law of imprison ment for debt continued in operation long subsequently. The criminal code was written in characters of blood, and constant additions were made to the list of capital offences. By the end of the century they numbered more than two hundred. Pope's satire was too true : — "Wretches hang, that jurymen may dine." Perjury was a recognised trade. Those who followed it, and who waited to be hired, were known in Westminster Hall by wearing a straw in their shoes. Thief-takers, who were also thief- makers and trainers, formed a profession, and were usually in league with the scoundrels at whose rascality they connived so long as it suited their purpose. Bow- street Runners, nicknamed Robin Redbreasts, from their scarlet waistcoats, were appointed in 1749, and they continued to be the chief agents for arresting criminals until the establishment by Sir Robert Peel of a police- force in 1829. Stephen's ' History of the Criminal Law ' reveals the monstrous absurdity and barbarity that prevailed. Severe a.d. 1702-1760.] HIGHWAYMEN. 137 punishments did not act as a deterrent to crime. The main roads swarmed with highwaymen ; in sight of the remains of such of their fraternity as had been captured and were swinging in chains at many a four-wont way. Desperadoes, mounted on fleet horses, infested such open spaces as Hampstead, Hounslow, and Bagshot Heaths, Finchley and Wimbledon Commons, over which the chief lines of travel led through acres of furze and bulrushes. It was the same in the neighbourhood of large provincial towns. Frequenters of markets and fairs had to journey in companies for mutual protection. The continued and aggravated evils caused by the existence of numerous rogues, vagabonds, and sturdy beggars led to a consolida tion in 1713 of existing Statutes. Justices were authorized to make searches by night, in order to apprehend such persons, and transmit them to their places of legal settle ment, after they had been publicly and severely whipped, unless it were deemed fit to send them to a House of Correction. Any incorrigible beggars or vagabonds might be made over for seven years as servants — i.e., slaves, either in Great Britain or the Colonies. When these were closed by the American War, convict-galleys were established in the Thames, at Portsmouth, and elsewhere, which gave place to transportation to Australia. Batches of prisoners were sometimes given the option of serving on board the Royal Navy. Their desperate character furnished a pretext for the brutal discipline that prevailed. The chief source of supply, however, was found in the abominable press-gangs which prevailed throughout the eighteenth century. Hundreds of men, whether seafaring or not, were seized at a time, dragged from their homes and families at a moment's notice, or takeii from merchant ships on returning from . lengthened voyages, and in numerous cases were never more heard of. In ' Roderick Random,' Smollett de scribes the system, and the awful life on board the floating hells. His account is partly autobiographical, and is confirmed on unquestionable authority. With this question of crime arose the ever-recurring and perplexing subject of pauperism. The famous Poor- Law Statutes of Elizabeth contain no definition of parochial settlement. In the long course of legislation, 138 INDUSTRIAL AND SOCIAL PICTURE, [chap. lxvi. a person had been regarded as appertaining to the parish where he was born, or where he had dwelt for three years. In the case of vagabonds whose place of birth could not be ascertained, one year was the limit. The Act of 1662 sets forth, in the customary phraseology, that the continual increase of the poor throughout the country "had become very great, and exceedingly burdensome," and that they resorted in crowds to certain places. The direct purpose of the Act, stripped of all qualifications and technicalities, was to enable justices, on complaint of the churchwardens or overseers, to remove any new-comer from a parish, though not applying for relief, if they thought that he was likely to become chargeable ; unless he rented a tenement of ten pounds a year, or could furnish sufficient security as to his means of livelihood. Forty days' undisturbed residence were to constitute a legal settlement. The system gave rise to much collusion and fraud among officials, and to gross injustice and hardship to the industrious poor, who were virtually kept prisoners in the locality. Attempts were made before the end of the century to relax the stringency of the law. It was perceived that pauperism was being extended, and the consequent misery intensified. But the clumsy machinery for remedying the evil would not act ; and the state of semi-slavery continued. As Adam Smith pointed out, in his first edition of the 'Wealth of Nations,' issued in 1775, it is an evident violation of natural liberty and justice to remove a man, who has committed no mis demeanour, from a parish where he chooses to reside, or to forbid his entry into another parish where work is abundant and wages are higher. Practically, it was impossible for him to pass such an artificial boundary of his own free will, or at the call of the necessities of labour ; though he might be driven out and chased on at the caprice of parochial officers, or by their selfishness. Costly litigation arose between parishes ; hundreds of pounds being sometimes spent in determining the proper legal residence of a pauper. This must have been like the mines of Potosi to lawyers ; but it was an intolerable burden to the ratepayers. The evil has been greatly mitigated in recent years, but England still suffers from the effects of this hateful law. A.D. 1702-1760.] THE GAME-LAWS. 130 The game-laws were the remnant of the old Norman forest-laws. Blackstone says that both were " founded upon the same unreasonable notion of permanent property in wild creatures, and both productive of the same tyranny to the Commons ; but with this difference, that the forest-laws established only one mighty hunter throughout the land ; the game-laws have raised a Uttle Nimrod in every manor." In 1706, an Act was passed for the better preservation of game. A similar Act of 1692 imposed a penalty alike upon the poacher and the receiver, of from five to twenty shilUngs, or imprison ment, in default, of from ten days to one month, with hard labour. The new Statute increased the penalty to five pounds, and the imprisonment to three months ; but it held out to the poacher the inducement of half the penalty, and of pardon for himself, if he would within three months inform against the purchasers. Three years afterwards, this Act was made perpetual, with some additional provisions. During its operation, the gaols were filled with offenders ; profligate habits were induced ; violence was committed ; and dreadful misery caused by the temptations to infringe the enactments. Yet the landed proprietors continued to uphold the system, regardless of its evils and wrongs ; until again Parliament was obliged to interfere. By a Statute passed in 1831, the old system was materially changed ; though the sentences still passed by country justices for infraction of the game-laws are often marked by excessive severity, as compared with offences involving other descriptions of property. The West of England was the seat of the great wool trade, which continued to be its staple industry, as in former times, until it was transferred to Yorkshire. At Taunton, Defoe found eleven hundred looms at work, weaving common stuffs. The Forest of Dean was still the centre of the iron manufacture ; the forges of the Midland Counties being supphed with pig-iron, though an inferior kind was produced in Shropshire and Worcestershire. The railings round St. Paul's Cathedral were cast in Lamberhurst, Sussex, at a cost of eleven thousand pounds. The surface of the vast coal and iron field around Birmingham was then scarcely penetrated, icjo INDUSTRIAL AND SOCIAL PICTURE, [chap. lxvi. and the mineral treasures of Yorkshire were unknown. Great complaints continued to be made of the destruc tion of timber, as the iron in the West was chiefly made with charcoal. An Act of 1688 recites that most of the timber belonging to the Crown in the Forest of Dean had been used for this purpose. The method of smelting iron ore with coal was not fairly tried until after 1740, when the annual produce of iron throughout the country was only seventeen thousand tons. In 1893 it was seven millions. Leicestershire was renowned for sheep and horses, and was the seat of the worsted stocking- trade. Frame-weaving was general through the district that extended to Nottingham and Derby. The lead-mines around the High Peak were worked in primitive fashion, without mechanical aid. Not until 1699 was the ancient law against " multiplying gold and silver" relaxed, so as to allow of the refining of lead ore. Its vexatious and absurd restrictions were enforced so late as 1892 against attempts to open up a new and important industry in Wales. The Statute Book abounds with such instances of blind legislation, the outcome of the old Protective Spirit. One other instance occurs at this period, in connection with the salt industry. Indig nant pubUc opinion eventually swept it away, with many other iniquitous imposts. The district now known as the Potteries had a limited manufacture of common cooking ware. Owing to a recent discovery that brown-ware could be glazed with salt, instead of powdered lead, Burslem, in 1700, had twenty-two glazing ovens. Suitable clays abounded, but the art of producing the finer sorts of earthenware was unknown, until smaU quantities began to be made about the time of the Revolution. The famous ware of Holland, caUed Delft, was a luxury for the rich. Wooden trenchers and common brown earthenware were still used by the cottager and the small tradesman. After tUe middle of the century, Josiah Wedgwood brought science and taste to the manufacture, producing speci mens admirable alike for beauty of design and for their general utility. The trading and social condition of Manchester was primitive. The population was under fifty thousand, including the scattered suburbs. The A.D. 1702-1760.] SHIPPING AND EXPORTS. l4l manufacture of fustian, girth-webs, dimities, ticking, and tapes was carried on by small masters, with the aid of apprentices residing with them. Liverpool built its first dock in 1700. Nine years later, it had eighty-four ships and nine hundred sailors. Its trade and Customs' receipts rapidly grew, and the American traffic was diverted from Bristol, which gradually declined from its ancient renown as a port, mainly from neglect to improve the estuary of the Avon, and to provide needful docks. The advan tages of its natural position did not avail against the enterprise of Liverpool. The trade of the Port of London must have appeared large when the Pool was crowded with colliers and vessels from abroad. There was only one small dock. The tonnage of English shipping, which had declined by more than one-half during the disgraceful reign of Charles II. , speedily- revived after the Treaty of Ryswick, in 1697. For each of the years 1713-5 the average of the ships cleared out wards was 448,000 tons, nineteen-twentieths being native. The value of the exports was nearly seven milUons. From Durham to Newcastle, the coal-industry gave employment to what was then deemed a large number of persons. It is mentioned as a matter of wonder that the quantity sent to London "by prodigious fleets of ships " was nearly three hundred thousand tons every year ; not one-twentieth part of the consumption of the metropolis at the present day. The total output of coal in 1893, for the whole of the United Kingdom, was one hundred and sixty-four million tons. The price in London in April, 1702, was thirty- three shillings a chaldron of thirty-six bushels, besides a tax of two shillings, imposed for seven years in the previous November, towards finishing St. Paul's Cathedral. It was increased in 171 1 to three shillings, to aid in build ing the fifty new churches in the metropolis (ante, p. 104). A further levy of one shilling was continued down to 1890 by the Corporation of the City of London, who were to use the money for purposes of local improvement. It had expended, within a comparatively recent period, six and a half millions upon new streets, markets, schools, Ubraries, art-gaUeries, and music ; in helping to acquire for the public open spaces like Epping Forest, Burnham 142 INDUSTRIAL AND SOCIAL PICTURE, [chap. lxvi. Beeches, and suburban parks ; in freeing bridges on the Thames, and in contributing to the enormous cost of the Embankment. When this tax was repealed, the coal- owners and merchants, and not the consumers, reaped the benefit. The population of the Tyneside towns is now greatly in excess of the inhabitants of the whole of Northumberland and Durham two hundred years ago. The expansion of mining and manufacturing industry may be dated, in great part, from a private Bill of icjp8, entitled, — ' An Act for the encouragement of a New Invention of Thomas Savery, for raising Water, and occasioning Motion in all sorts of Mill-work, by the impellent force of Fire.' To Savery belongs the merit of producing a vacuum by the condensation of steam. Denys Papin was carrying on similar experiments in France ; and in 1705, Thomas Newcomen, a working blacksmith, carried out the principle of the piston in his atmospheric engine, the first that was made practi cally and extensively useful. Little more land was under cultivation than at the beginning of the seventeenth century. Field-turnips were introduced from Germany by Viscount Townshend, but it was long ere their cultivation became general. The growth of clover had been advocated before the Revolution, but the value of green crops was not known. The old system of fallows, by which half of the culti vated land lay idle, was doggedly adhered to. Horse- hoeing was deemed a costly experiment which had ruined its originator, Jethro Tull (1680-1740). The description of his system of husbandry was translated into French by Duhamel, with notes and records of his own experi ments, and was largely used by Diderot in his article on agriculture in the ' Encyclopedie.' Cobbett, with his practical common-sense, perceived the merits and the defects of Tull's method, when issuing in 1822 a new edition of that unfortunate projector's works. His mistake lay in supposing that constant pulverizing of the soil would suffice for the growth of plants set in rows, without manuring. Sir Humphry Davy (1778- 1829) was the first to explain the close connection of chemistry with husbandry, and to instruct farmers as to the use of fertilizers. A.b. 1702-1760.] FARMING STOCK: THE FENS. 143 Improvement in the breeding of cattle was not attempted until the middle of the century. In 1710, Davenant estimated the average net weight of the cattle sold in Smithfield at three hundred and seventy pounds. A century later it was eight hundred. The sheep were twenty-eight and eighty pounds respectively. Without a rotation of crops, stock could not be supported through the Winter, or adequately fattened at any time, except in low meadows and marshes, as in the Eastern Counties, which were also noted for their rich corn lands. Norfolk was still partly agricultural and partly manu facturing. It is described by Defoe as having " a face of diligence ; the vast manufactures carried on by the Norwich weavers employ all the country round in spinning yarn for them ; besides many thousands of packs of yarn which they receive from other countries. . . . Put it all together, the county has the most people in the least tract of land of any county in England, except about London, Exeter, and the West Riding." The Eastern Counties were also famed for poultry, " infinite numbers being carried to London every year." The fens of Cambridgeshire and Lincolnshire were the resort |of innumerable wild-fowl ; but the bittern and the heron are now scarce, and the vast meres and decoys, once swarming with aquatic birds, have been mostly swept away with the wide extension of drainage. The work begun by the Romans ; continued by the skilful monks of the Middle Ages ; resumed by spirited adventurers in the reigns of James I. and Charles I., until interrupted by the rapacity of Court harpies ; again commenced during the Commonwealth, and which formed an especial object of legislation in 1697, has since steadily advanced. Many thousands of acres have been reclaimed, and are now rich and fertile ; in the same way that large tracts in Holland have been created by the ingenuity and patient industry of its people, who are now occupied with the revived project of draining the Zuyder Zee, and converting it into solid land. 144 THE OLD DISSENT. [chap. LXvli. CHAPTER LXVII. THE OLD DISSENT. A.D. 1714-1724. For half a century after the death of Queen Anne, the English throne, as in the case of the early Plantagenets, was occupied by aliens in speech, in lineage, and in manners. The first George had to hold blundering conversations in Latin with his Ministers, and the second spoke English so badly as to be almost unin telligible. Both were compeUed to leave to their re sponsible advisers the conduct of public affairs ; for they could not preside at Cabinet deliberations as their prede cessors had done. Happily, the custom has never been restored. Gladstone remarks, — " It is a curious but little observed fact in our history, that the office of First Minister only seems to have obtained regular recognition as the idea of personal government by the action of the king faded and became invisible " (' Gleanings,' i. 84). Advantage also accrued to the country from the Hanoverian sympathies and the Continental engage ments of the first and second Georges ; for they were left to manage the affairs of their petty PrincipaUty while the foundations of home government by a Cabinet responsible to the House of Commons were being firmly laid. The control of the public purse was more strongly asserted. The office of Lord High Treasurer gave place to a Commission, and has never been revived. There was no personal sentiment of loyalty. The old feeUng of blind homage towards the occupant of the throne had died out under the Stuarts. All that the country desired was a stable administration. George I. (b. 1660, r. 1714-1727) was fifty-four years old at his accession. He could not adapt himself to foreign habits and to altered conditions so readily as he abjured his Lutheranism and declared himself a member of the Church of England, as a necessary quaUfication for the Crown. A stoUd German, addicted to coarse feeding and heavy drinking, narrow and obstinate in his views, separated from his wife, who was a virtual A.D. 1714-1724.J HANOVERIAN COURT MORALS. 145 prisoner for thirty-three years, he lived in England as little as possible, the law being altered to enable him to go abroad. He was happiest in his native Hanover, or when philandering with his ugly German mistresses. One of them, from her great height and leanness, was irreverently named the Maypole ; another was the Elephant, on account of her vast breadth. Horace Walpole, in his cynical manner, worthy of Sir Benjamin . Backbite, described her as having two acres of cheeks, spread with crimson, and an ocean of neck. They and the German retinue that flocked over took all that they could get in the shape of sinecures, grants, patents, reversions, and pensions, and extorted gifts, bribes, and commissions from the holders and expectants of offices. Political and ecclesiastical jobbery and corruption were unblushingly practised. It was an age of lax professions and hollow formulas, of affected speech and mincing manners, typical of its character. Peculation and nepotism ran riot in every branch of the public service. Swift's ' Lilliput ' is mainly a satire on the manners of the Court. At the General Election of 1715, the Whigs obtained an overwhelming majority, and retained it for forty years. The Tories were discredited, because their leaders were identified with the Jacobite cause at the phantom Court of the Pretender, in St. Germains. They attempted to arouse the populace. Incipient riots occurred in some large towns, by the use of money, and by appeals to ignorance and prejudice. The King's orthodoxy was challenged. Insinuations were made that Puritan in tolerance would be restored. It was said that England would be eaten up with Hanoverian rats and other vermin. Cries of "(Church in danger ! " and " Down with Dissenters !." were again raised, provoking scenes . of outrage and violence, to suppress which the Riot Act was passed in June, 1715, treating rioters as felons, and compelling the Hundred to repair any damage. Among the Jacobite plotters was Marlborough, who, with custom ary perfidy, and piqued at the loss of his lucrative appointments, after having opened negotiations with the Court of Hanover, which failed to meet his terms, now secretly communicated with the Pretender. It was re- VOL. III. II 146 THE OLD DISSENT. [chap, lxvii. solved to attempt a Jacobite rising among the wild High land clans of Scotland, mere half-starved and half-savage cattle-stealers, whose only impulse was to follow their chiefs for the sake of bloodshed and robbery. It was also hoped that ancient jealousy of England, and prejudice against the recent Union of the two kingdoms, might be successfully invoked. The so-called Rebellion of 1715, which forms the theme of Walter Besant's novel of ' Dorothy Forster,' was not general, even in Scotland. The townsfolk and the Lowlanders held aloof, and the leaders miscalculated the extent of support in the Northern counties. The Highlanders, to the number of about eight thousand, marched as far as Preston, but were abandoned by most of their officers, and fifteen hundred had to surrender unconditionally. The gallows and the Plantations received their complement of victims. Temple Bar was, as usual, adorned with heads, and curious persons were accommodated with spy-glasses for a halfpenny, in order to examine them. The Pretender had landed at Peterhead, and took up his brief residence at Scone, but judged it expedient to withdraw to France, and resume as its pensioner his pasteboard and tinsel Court functions. After the excitement of this foolish escapade had subsided, the politics of the day became a monotonous war of newspaper abuse, varied by an occa sional outburst of violence. The English Jacobites who had anything to lose, contented themselves with drinking to the success of the cause. They are ridiculed in the lines : — " God bless the King ! God bless our Faith's Defender ! God bless — no harm in blessing — the Pretender ! But who Pretender is, or who is King, God bless us all ! — that's quite another thing." The author of this quip was John Byrom (1691-1763), who also wrote the excellent apologue of ' The Three Black Crows.' His ' Journals,' published by the Chetham Society, furnish interesting particulars of his times. He alsoiwrote some tedious theological poems ; and, with his morbid faculty of rhyming, versified the sentiments of William Law, the Mystic. He was the inventor of a system of shorthand in vogue for a time ; one out of a.d. 1714-1724.] SEPTENNIAL ACT. itf some two hundred systems or modifications that have been used in England during the last three centuries. The Septennial Act was passed in 1716, because it was alleged that the occurrence of elections under the revived Triennial Act of 1694 occasioned much greater expense and more violent animosities than before. The Earl of Peterborough sarcastically remarked that he was at an utter loss to describe the nature of this prolon gation of Parliament unless he borrowed a phrase from the Athanasian Creed, for it was " neither created nor begotten, but proceeding." The change had the un looked-for effect of emancipating the Commons from dependence upon the Crown and the House of Lords. But it was a high-handed procedure on the part of men who, having been chosen for three years, appointed themselves for four more years. They might as well have voted their sitting perpetual. It was remarked upon at the time as being as violent a stretch of power as the creation of twelve new peers in the late reign for the purpose of carrying the Treaty of Utrecht. The precedent thus set was felt to be so dangerous that a Bill was brought in to place a restriction upon the power of making peers, by providing that the number should never be enlarged beyond two hundred and twenty-two. The Bill was defeated by a masterly speech from Wal pole ; one of the rare instances in which a decisive vote has thus been secured in the House of Commons. He was right in his line of argument. The Upper House would have become a close corporation, and its members a caste of political Brahmins. They would have acquired a dangerous preponderance of power in the State ; being freed from the salutary check imposed by a threatened increase of their number, in order to secure the carrying of measures demanded by the country ; while the Commons could always be influenced by the prospect of a dissolution, subject only to its restraint upon the Crown by a refusal of Supply. Such a disturbance of constitutional equipoise was prevented. A practice had grown up during the time of the Tudors, and had been extended in subsequent reigns, of creating new offices, with extravagant salaries, for the sole object of securing through the incumbents the Parliamentary 148 THE OLD DISSENT. [chap, lxvii. influence of the Crown. Several attempts were made, but unsuccessfully, after the Revolution, to provide a remedy. When the Act of Settlement was under dis cussion, a clause was inserted, excluding all placemen from the House of Commons after the accession of the House of Hanover ; but it was modified in 1705, on a debate upon a Regency Bill, and the acceptance of any office from the Crown, except a new or a higher com mission in the naval or military service, was to disqualify for a seat. Owing to the exceptions, and to the number of ancient posts to which the measure did not apply, the first Parliaments of George I. and II. were half made up of servants or pensioners of the Crown. Some reduc tion was effected in 1743 by Walpole's Place Bill, but the evil continued, with slight modifications, throughout the century, in spite of such schemes as Burke's on Economical Reform. Not before 1833 was the number reduced to sixty. What is known in ecclesiastical polemics as the Ban- gorian Controversy broke out in 1717. Hoadly (1676- 1761), Bishop of Bangor, and then of Winchester, a dull, ponderous writer, extremely lax in his theology, issued a severe pamphlet against the Nonjurors. His ablest opponent was William Law (1686-1761), the devout Mystic and Nonjuror,! author of a once popular work, ' The Serious Call,' eulogized by Johnson and Wesley. He acted for a time as tutor to Edward Gibbon, leaving in the family, on Gibbon's explicit testimony, the reputa tion of a worthy and pious man, who believed all that he professed, and practised all that he enjoined. He was greatly influenced by Jacob Boehme (1575-1624), known by eight variations of his name, but commonly described in English as Behmen, the German theosophist, and the precursor of Benedict de Spinoza, of Immanuel Kant, of Hegel, of Frederick Schelling, and of Boader. A man of mild, humble temper, working in patient obscurity as a shoemaker at Gorlitz, he spent his life in grappling with the deepest problems that perplex humanity. His writings contain many bold suggestions which have profoundly influenced later philosophical systems. Not withstanding his abstruse speculations and his peculiar terminology, his works excited much interest in Ger- A.D. i7i4-!724.] BANGORIAN CONTROVERSY. 149 many, in Holland, and in England. Sir Isaac Newton studied them, and Law issued an English translation. Hoadly also asserted, in a sermon preached before the Court, on ' The Nature of the Kingdom or Church of Christ,' what were then viewed with alarm as the prin ciples of religious liberty. Whether he perceived the logical conclusions from his premisses is doubtful. His sermon and pamphlet alike gave great offence to the High Church clergy and the Jacobites, who endeavoured in Convocation to obtain a synodical censure ; alleging that the tendency of the sermon was to undermine the consti tution of the Church, and to impugn the royal supremacy. A virulent paper war ensued. Seventy pamphlets on both sides appeared within a month. They have long since gone the way of all such heated controversies. The three huge folios of Hoadly's ponderous wranglings are styled by Leslie Stephen " a dreary wilderness of now profitless discussions. A vast debt of gratitude, however, is owing to the bores who have defended good causes ; and, in his pachydermatous fashion, Hoadly did good service by helping to trample down certain relics of the old spirit of bigotry." Other distinguished writers took the side of freedom, like Warburton, the last of the great divines and theologians of that age ; though Dr. Samuel Parr (1747-1825) had learning enough to main tain the succession, had he so chosen. The way was prepared for the famous dictum of Lord Mansfield (1705- 1793), fifty years later, that Nonconformity is recognised and protected by the law, instead of being regarded as an offence and a crime. The Corporation of London, in a spirit of chicanery, that showed how it had fallen from its old patriotism and love of liberty, chose Dissenters for a long series of years for the office of Sheriff, knowing that they could not conscientiously serve because of the Test Acts. The accumulated fines levied on their re fusal were applied to the building of the Mansion House, which stands as a perpetual monument of injustice and trickery. In 1754, three Nonconformists, Messrs. Sheafe, Streatfield, and Evans, were successively nomi nated. As they could not accept, and as they refused to pay the fines of two hundred pounds, legal proceedings were taken for enforcement. After thirteen years' 150 THE OLD DISSENT. Lchap. lxvii. wearisome and costly litigation, the House of Lords, on final appeal, decided in their favour. Such a recog nition of common citizen rights might have been secured long before. Nonconformists filled municipal offices in London and other large cities, by occasionally conform ing to the Established Church, so as to escape civic and social ostracism. The City of London was largely Puritan and Presbyterian at the close of the seventeenth century and the beginning of the eighteenth. The halls of many of the Livery Companies were freely lent as places of meeting. Large sums were given, or left by bequest for the support of Dissenting worship, and for the relief of poor members. Much of the money, as is the case with endowments of every kind, has been squan dered or misappropriated. Where it remains intact, the results are dubious, if not pernicious ; for endowment of every kind, whether of religion, the arts, science, or the poor, is an opiate that lulls all exertion to sleep. Every attempt to crystallize creeds and to impose them upon posterity, by making their avowal a condition to the enjoyment of property, has signally failed. Some members of the nobility and many wealthy merchants were munificent supporters of eminent Non conformist ministers who flourished during the two generations that followed the Ejectment of 1662. Lord Mayors like Sir Humphrey Edwin, Sir John Hartopp, and Sir Thomas Abney, were intimate friends and gene rous adherents of men like Dr. Isaac Watts, who, in Johnson's opinion, was one of the first to teach Dissenters to write and speak like other men, by showing them that eloquence might consist with piety, and that pure religion need not be divorced from the best literature. They had gone, as usual, to the opposite extreme, in the rebound from the excessive formalism of the Estab lished Church ; and their modes of worship, formal enough of their kind, were bald and bare, cold and repellent. But anything that resembled a Liturgy was an abomination. The minister was the sole mouthpiece of the congregation, in prayer, in the reading of the Scriptures, and in preaching. The straiter sort had scruples about public singing. Where it was allowed, women were sometimes expected literally to obey the A.D. 1714-1724.] ISAAC WATTS: HYMNOLOGY. 151 Apostolic injunction, and keep silence ; or it was arranged to sing only once, and that at the conclusion of the service, so that those who objected might withdraw. If vocal praise was permitted it was in the doggerel of Tate and Brady, of Francis Rous, or the version of the Psalms which Dr. John Patrick had rendered into limping metre. The sublime strains of the ancient and mediaeval Church were lost or forgotten ; and the rugged but stirring hymnody of Protestant Germany had not been translated into English. Not until the Muse of Watts struck the tuneful lyre was any worthy vehicle furnished for congregational praise. To use Pope's phrase, he " lisp'd in numbers, for the numbers came." His psalms, and hymns, and spiritual songs, though gene rally welcomed with delight and gratitude, occasionaUy provoked opposition and criticism like that ascribed to the eccentric genius, Thomas Bradbury. Unable to repress the desire of his people to join in public praise, he used to invite them "to sing one of Dr. Watts's whims." Yet they made their way, and long held a place of supremacy, until the advent of the feminine, gushing, super - sensuous jingle that has become so popular ; expressing an impossible condition of ecstasy that finds no actual counterpart in daily life. Although Watts wrote unequally, many of his compo sitions are unique and sublime, and are interwoven with the religious sentiment of the nation. His verse is often faulty in rhythm. He wrote far too much, and many of his productions are rhymed prose effusions, devoid of poetical afflatus. He lacked the musical ear and the deli cate judgment of Addison ; but his imagination was con trolled by deep conviction and by profound reverence. He gave to the universal Church a collection of hymns which has been rivalled by no single pen since his day. With the dignity and gentleness of a truly great mind, he also wrote ' Divine and Moral Songs for Children,' and books couched in easy language for their instruction in useful knowledge. His limited acquaintance with elementary facts in natural history sometimes betrayed him into mistakes, and caused him to draw grotesque analogies and lessons ; yet, after making every deduction and allowance, he stands alone. His ' Logic,' though 152 THE OLD DISSENT. [chap, lxvii. now superseded, was a text-book at Oxford. For years he was deservedly ranked next to Locke in mental philosophy, and was esteemed for his efficient services in defence of Revealed Religion. He was one of a group of distinguished divines and scholars who swayed great influence beyond the bounds of Nonconformity ; like Dr. Daniel Williams, Dr. Edmund Calamy, Nathaniel Taylor — styled the Dissenting South — Matthew Henry, Dr. Benjamin Grosvenor, Philip Doddridge, Dr. John Gale, and many others. Without the aid of such eminent men, and of their numerous associates and followers, the Whigs would have been powerless in their long and severe contest with Tories and Jacobites. The Glorious Revolution and the peaceful accession of the House of Hanover would have been impossible. It was secured mainly by their loyalty and patriotism, as Charles James Fox testified in the House of Commons. Both in 1715 and in 1745 regiments were raised at the expense of wealthy Nonconformists, to oppose the Pre tender. As this was, technically, levying war, the clumsy expedient had to be resorted to of passing an Act of Indemnity for their loyalty, at a time when hundreds of the clergy were Jacobites at heart. If the Nonconformists failed to reap the benefits and to secure the political freedom to which they were en titled, they had themselves to thank for the perpetuation of their grievances. The iniquitous Test and Corporation Acts would have been swept away long before the year 1828, if they had possessed the courage of their convic tions. They meekly waited a hundred and sixty years for the convenience of the Whigs. The High Church and Tory party would not have dared to propose the Occasional Conformity Bill and the Schism Bill, if they had asserted their civil rights. They could have exacted justice from the pinchbeck statesmen of the time of the Georges, who were perplexed and thwarted by the Non jurors and Jacobites. But it was the mistaken policy of the leaders to advise moderation, and not to ask too much in the way of concessions. However such a policy may have been applauded by politicians who did not wish to have their party moves deranged, they did not hesitate to sacrifice Dissenters to their own ends ; and A.D. 1714-1724-] FURTHER TOLERATION. 153 the timid policy largely contributed to the decline of the political manhood and of the spirituality of Dissent throughout the eighteenth century. The first Earl Stanhope (1673-172 1), when Secretary of State, favoured toleration of all sects, including Romanists, and pro posed to sweep away all distinctions and exclusions. His colleagues, and especially the Earl of Sunderland (1674- 1722), thought " it would be difficult enough to repeal the Schism and the Occasional Conformity Acts, but any attack upon the Test Act would ruin all." Stanhope therefore submitted a modified measure, December 13, 1718, entitled, ' An Act for Strengthening the Protes tant Interest,' with a view to allow Protestant Dis senters to undertake civil offices. After keen discussion, and the usual assertions that the restrictive Acts were " the main bulwarks and supporters of the Church," the measure was carried. During its progress, the Earl of Nottingham made his notorious assertion that " Dis senters were an obstinate set of people ; never to be satisfied." The fact is that they might have gained more had they been less satisfied. Every slight mitiga tion of the penal laws from which they suffered was conceded as a sop thrown to Cerberus, and was ac cepted with humility and thankfulness. Fitful efforts were made from time to time, often at long intervals, to secure a recognition of civic rights. Thus, in November, 1732, meetings were held in Silver- street Chapel, London, to consider the advisability of applying to the Legislature for a repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts. This was the origin of the body known as the Dissenting Deputies of Presbyterian, Congregational, and Baptist churches within ten miles of the metropolis, for the purpose of watching over and guarding their common rights as citizens. Conferences were held with Cabinet Ministers and with members of Parliament, and the conclusion reached was that there was no prospect of success. Sir Robert Walpole would not interfere, unless compelled by circumstances. He professed to dislike the restrictive laws. He once declared the Schism Act to be worthy of Julian the Apostate. He admitted the obligations of the Crown and of the Government to the steadfast loyalty of Noncon- 154 THE, OLD DISSENT. [chap, lxvii. formists. But he dreaded a revival of the old cry of " Church in danger." He never forgot the fury of ignorant fanaticism aroused by the Sacheverell trial ; and he would not risk a repetition. This incident, described by Bolingbroke as the Whigs " having a parson to roast, and burning their hands in the fire," gave Walpole an invincible repugnance to touch Church questions. He had flung a bribe of a few hundred pounds in 1723, to keep the Dissenters quiet. It was continued year by year under the name of the Regium Donum ; ostensibly as a matter of benevolence towards the widows of their ministers, but really to purchase silence and submission ; and the ignominious compact was continued until 1 85 1. When he was urged to consent to a repeal of the obnoxious Statutes, after the whole strength of the Nonconformists had been exerted on behalf of his party at the General Election of 1734, he gave an abrupt and positive refusal, saying, as Ministers usually answer all reformers, that the season was inopportune. Being told that such an answer had been given for a long time, and asked when the convenient opportunity would arrive, he replied, — " If you require a specific answer, I will give it you in a word — Never ! " He resisted a proposal made in the House by a friendly member, and it was rejected with contumely. All that he would do, when the High Court party permitted, was to connivs at a lax enforcement of the laws against Dissenters. Forty-five years afterwards, in 1779, a slight measure of relief was conceded, after repeated attempts and igno minious failures. Leave was then granted to substitute a general declaration of being Christians and Protestants, and of belief in the Holy Scriptures, for subscription to the doctrinal articles, as required by the Toleration Act from all Dissenting ministers, tutors, and schoolmasters. The result might have been greater but for the action of certain Scotch ministers resident in London, who, from ecclesiastical prejudices, favoured a rigid subscrip tion after their own pattern ; and but for the intolerance and jealousy of Dissenters towards one another. At the same time, the Irish Parliament gave similar relief to Protestant Nonconformists in that country. Once more, A.D. 1714-1724.] DEFUNCT LAWS. 155 in 1787, and again in 1789, the repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts was proposed in the Commons, but was rejected. In the latter year, the third Earl Stanhope (1753-1816), true to his family traditions, brought into the House of Lords a Bill for the repeal of a number of ancient and obsolete laws that infringed upon religious liberty, excepting, however, the Test and Corporation Acts. He recited numerous enactments that had fallen into desuetude ; such as those imposing fines, ranging from twelve pence to twenty pounds, for each occasion of neglect or refusal to go to church on Sundays and saints' days, with imprisonment until payment and com pliance, and banishment and confiscation of goods for contumacy. It was still illegal to eat meat on fast days, and offenders were liable to costly and vexatious pro cedure in the ecclesiastical courts. Other legislative cannon were mentioned, which, though not loaded, still disfigured the Statute Book, and might be used to gratify the malice or the greed of informers. The Bill was designed to destroy these ancient and rusty weapons of intolerance ; but it was defeated in the House of Lords, mainly by the bishops. They could not defend them, but urged the inexpediency of their sudden removal, because then no established religion would be left. The episcopal bench has never been noted for the strength of its logic, or for exuberant Christian charity. The de funct and worse than useless laws were not repealed until 1844 and 1846. In the course of the debate, Earl Stanhope uttered the significant warning which, derided at the time, showed a remarkable degree of prescience and a prof ound knowledge of human nature ; that the time was when toleration was humbly accepted as a boon ; then it was demanded as a right ; but a clay would come when it would be spurned as an insult. For the last time, in 1790, a motion for the repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts was submitted, under the charge of the great Whig leader, Fox. He was opposed by Pitt, and, strange to say, by Wilberforce and Burke. The motion was lost by nearly three to one, in the panic aroused by the French Revolution ; and the matter again slept for thirty-eight years. If, instead of confining themselves to the 156 THE OLD DISSENT. [chap. lxVU. redress of minuter grievances, and waiting in the ante chambers of time-serving politicians as needy suppliants for bare permission to exist, Nonconformists had struggled with persistency and determination for their just rights, no power in England could have withheld them. But they were halting, timid, irresolute ; humble hangers- on of the great Whig official party, the cardinal article of whose creed was that England and all its good things- existed for the Whigs ; and they were divided in opinions and in counsels. They failed to perceive that their Dissent was either a solemn duty or an awful crime. They only sought for present relief, and they were careful not to embarrass party moves on the political chessboard. Hence, however they are to be commiserated for their prolonged ostracism, they are also blamable for having submitted. It was, perhaps, inevitable that a removal of some of the theological and social restrictions of two centuries should be followed by a corresponding reaction, and that there was some tendency towards Latitudinarianism. It had largely appeared, by the third decade of the eighteenth century, alike within the Established Church and among the Protestant communities beyond its pale. None of the existing legal tests were found sufficient to protect the former ; nor were voluntary creeds and mutual arrangements effectual to preserve what was regarded as the orthodoxy of the latter. Clergymen who had subscribed the Thirty-nine Articles, who used the same Liturgy, who were bound by the Act of Uniformity, and who repeated the Athanasian Creed, hesitated not to avow disbelief in the doctrine of the Trinity and in other cardinal points of the prescribed theology. Among Non conformists, also, not a few of the ministerial descendants of the old Presbyterians drifted away from the Calvinism of their predecessors, and became Arians, after a series of keen doctrinal disputes. Chief among these was the out break at Exeter, in 1719, of what was known as the Trinitarian controversy, which soon spread to the metro polis, and split up many of the Presbyterian, Independent, and Baptist churches. Itwas no more possible for them to impose unalterable dogmas upon their historic des cendants, for all future time, by means of trust-deeds A.D. 1714-1724] HOPED-FOR CONCESSIONS. 157 with rigid schedules of doctrine, than it was to secure undeviating belief and practice in the Established Church by successive Acts of Uniformity. The new generation of Presbyterians still scrupled about conforming, but lived in the vain hope of con cessions that would enable them to do so ; a dream that has not wholly vanished after the lapse of nearly two centuries. They are not to be always definitely marked off on grounds of doctrine from the Independents and the Baptists. Each body has had at times repre sentatives of Calvinists, Arminians, Arians, and Socinians — to use objectionable terms — exactly as has been the case within the Church of England. It was a common phrase that Arminianism was a shoe-horn to draw on Socinianism. The latter misleading word was often applied to such as did not agree with the doctrine of Faustus Socinus (1539-1604), who propagated views first broached by his uncle, Laelius. Such epithets were tossed about as terms of reproach, as Puseyism, Rationalism, and Neology have been in recent times. The Presby terians continued to decline throughout the century ; partly from social and partly from doctrinal causes. The more liberal spirit of the Episcopal Church rendered a return more easy ; and escape was thereby found from the inconvenience and losses entailed by such measures as the Test and Corporation Acts. Moreover, like the Puritans before them, and like the Wesleyan Methodists a little later, and like those who formed the Free Church of Scotland in 1843, they were not avowed Separatists, but preferred a legalized spiritual community. Dr. Edmund Calamy the younger (1671-1732), in his ' Life and Times,' gives a list of twenty-five ministers and students of the body who had conformed during the second decade, including the future Bishop Butler, and Seeker, afterwards Archbishop of Canterbury. Others, who held strong doctrinal views of an Evangelical type, if they could not conform, joined the Independents, while many more became Arian, and, ultimately, Uni tarian. English Presbyterianism of the original order was absolutely extinct, though the name was retained for some time, because of the fabrics and their endow ments. Richard Price (1723-1791) and Joseph Priestley 158 THE OLD DISSENT. [chap, lxvii. (1733-1804) are the two representative men among the Unitarians, when that body was definitely marked in tlie second half of the century. A similar change took place in New England, especially in and around Boston, where most of the Congregational churches became Unitarian. With an opposite theological trend, many of the Independents and Baptists, and a few of the Episcopal clergy likewise, carried the dogmas of the great theo logian of Geneva to the absurd and immoral extent known by the ugly name of Antinomianism. One of the most prominent was an eccentric, self-conscious, and self-seeking rough genius, originally a sUoemaker, who paraded himself as William Huntington, S. S. (" Sinner Saved"), and left numerous narrow-minded and com placent adherents on his death in 1813. The Baptists were still split up into the two camps of Particular and General, from opposing views on the nature of the Atonement, as to whether it was specific and limited, or universal. Some Particular Baptists declined to accept extreme or ultra-Calvinism ; and most of the General Baptists became Unitarian in doctrine. Three eminent types of the respective schools were Andrew FuUer (1754-1815), Dr. John Gill (1697-1771), and Robert Robinson of Cambridge (1735-1790). It is said that Nonconformist quarrels are characterized by peculiar acerbity. Probably they are not more so than is the case with theological gladiators of every creed and in every age. It would have been well, both for Episco palians and others, as Baxter once said, if the devil had never put on his gown, stepped into the infallible chair, and, in a fit of reverend zeal, taken upon him to preserve and perfect the faith of the Church. Time was wasted in useless logomachy, and bad temper was aroused without any useful result. Dr. Edmund Calamy, one of the ablest and most estimable apologists for Protestant Nonconformity, writing in 1730, said that while there were sensible advances in some places in Dissenting circles, a real decay of serious religion, both in the Church and out of it, was very visible. Watts bore similar testimony about the same time from his valetudi nary retirement at Abney Park, Stoke Newington. a.d. 1714-1724.] ITS DECADENCE. 159 The amiable and devout, but complacent and opti mistic Dr. Philip Doddridge (1702-175 1), author of some popular hymns, of a ' Family Expositor,' and of ' The Rise and Progress of Religion in the Soul,' writing from his Northampton Academy, which took the highest rank among similar institutions, on the most probable means of reviving the Dissenting interest, recommended its ministers to become all things to all men, and try to please everybody. Dr. John Guyse (1680-1761), a learned Independent divine, expressed an opinion that "the religion of Nature made up the darling topic of the age." Mosheim, the ecclesiastical historian, wrote in 1740, — " Those who are best acquainted with the state of the English nation tell us that the Dissenting interest declines from day to day." Dr. John Stoughton, who has the reputation of being a moderate and mild Dissenter, admits, as the result of a careful survey of the state of religion during the reign of Anne and of the first George, that, "with certain exceptions ... a spirit of indifference respecting the masses of the people infected the respectable congregations gathered within the walls of Protestant meeting-houses." In them, as in the churches, religion became little more than a tradition and a formality. Angry disputes were carried on over the pubUc use of the Lord's Prayer ; over " dumb read ing " of the Scriptures, that is, without a, running com ment of more or less attenuated exposition ; over such frivolous points as whether sitting or standing was the proper attitude in prayer — kneeling was out of the question, as savouring of Popery — or whether hymns should be used. For a lengthened period, what is now universally regarded as the decorous observance of public worship was deemed a badge of fanaticism, and was branded with opprobrious names. " Be not righteous overmuch " was literally construed. A general torpor and coldness spread over all the reUgious com munities of the land, until Whitefield and the Wesleys appeared to arouse it with their energy and devotion. A full and just account of Nonconformity from 1688 to 1891 is given in the ' History of the Free Churches of England,' by Herbert S. Skeats and Charles S. Miall. 160 RELIGIOUS TORPOR. [chap, lxviii. CHAPTER LXVIII. RELIGIOUS TORPOR. A.D. 1720-1760. Ecclesiastical matters remained through the greater part of the eighteenth century in the state described in the last Chapter. It was a time, as Maeaulay says, when poetry sank into dull prose ; when philosophy rarely soared above the material, or the purely logical ; when the only earnestness existing took the direction of greed or of self-indulgence ; when the public service was corrupt, when public morals were licentious, and when common language was profane. Religion was no excep tion to the prevalent degeneracy. Never was there an age of more vehemence and less zeal; of more demonstra tion of revelation and less faith ; of more controversy and less charity. The deistical school of writers made their appearance, and the ethical school of divines laboriously trifled in answering them. The former are traceable from Lord Herbert of Cherbury (1581-1648), whom Robert Hall designated " the first and purest of our English Freethinkers," through a succession of writers like Hobbes of Malmesbury and Charles Blount (1654- 1693), who aimed at establishing what they called Natural Religion upon the basis of reason and free inquiry, and bringing positive or Revealed Religion to the test of this. Among the leading names, most of them men of great intellectual attainments and of high personal character, are Matthew Tindal (1657-1733), who described himself as a Christian Deist, author of an extraordinary book, ' Christianity as Old as the Creation,' which evoked no fewer than one hundred and fifteen replies ; John Toland (1669-1722), scarcely a Deist, but the solitary English Pantheist, who wrote ' Christianity not Mysterious ' ; the eccentric, if not mad clergyman, Thomas Woolston (1669-1733) ; Bernard MandeviUe, of ' The Fable of the Bees ' (1670-1733) ; Anthony Collins (1676-1729) ; the third Earl of Shaftesbury (1671-1713), ofthe 'Characteristics' ; Conyers Middleton (1683-1753) ; and, most prominently, Lord Bolingbroke (1678-1751). a.d. 1720-1760.] BOLINGBROKE. 161 In Shaftesbury's famous book, if there lay any mean ing, it was one, according to Carlyle, " of such long- windedness, circumlocution, and lubricity, that, like an eel, it must for ever slip through our fingers, and leave us alone among the gravel." To the trancendent abilities of Bolingbroke all his contemporaries bear witness. His speeches are said to have been extra ordinary in their construction, delivery, and effect ; but not a vestige of them remains, any more than of Cicero's translation of Demosthenes. Bolingbroke's rhetorical gifts were vitiated by his manifest lack of sincerity. When his posthumous works were published in 1754, Dr. Johnson, according to Boswell, gave one of his characteristic judgments : — " Sir, he was a scoundrel and a coward ; a scoundrel, for charging a blunderbuss against religion and morality ; a coward, because he had no resolution to fire it off himself, but left half-a- crown to a beggarly Scotchman to draw the trigger after his death." Though a Theist, after a fashion, he had not emotional depth or logical coherence enough to be Pantheistic. His works, some of which, it must be admitted, were distinguished for feebleness of thought and beauty of diction, and for a superficial and flippant philosophy clothed in all the harmony and graces of language that ran into a quagmire of rhetorical diffuse- ness, continued popular for a lengthened period after his death. They are said to have been the chief models on which Burke founded his style ; probably because of his ironical imitation in his earliest work ; but he calls him " a presumptuous and superficial writer, whom no one reads through." The only contemporary view of this class of writers is given in a dull and dreary book by John Leland (1691- 1766), which, with the ' Short and Easy Method ' of Charles Leslie (1650-1722), were, for a long period, sup posed to be conclusive refutations, until later and abler assailants of Christianity demanded a different order of apologists. The chief exceptions, prior to Paley's advent, were Thomas Sherlock (1678-1761), Bishop of Bangor, and then of Salisbury and of London, with his 'Trial of the Witnesses of the Resurrection ' ; Dr. Nathaniel Lardner (1684-1768), whose exhaustive 'Credibility of the Gospel vol. 111. 12 162 RELIGIOUS TORPOR. [chap, lxviii. History ' occupied thirty years of a laborious life, and who also defended the Miracles from Woolston's attack ; Dr. Zachary Pearce (1690-1774), Bishop of Rochester ; Dr. Daniel Waterland (1683-1740) ; Dr. James Foster (1697-1753), an Addison in the pulpit ; Dr. William Harris, one of the most accomplished scholars and one of the greatest masters of the English language of his time ; Dr. Isaac Watts ; William Law, the Mystic, whose assaults upon Mandeville and Tindal were forcible and skilful ; and, finally, Joseph Butler (1692-1752), the Prince-Bishop of Durham, whose ' Sermons,' and the 'Analogy,' place him among the most original and candid of philosophical theologians. Though often eulogized, like Shakspere, Milton, Addison, and other classics, he is seldom read, amidst the daily debauch of modern newspapers and other ephemeral literature. In the average writers of that time there is much elaborate argument and speculation concerning the Divine existence and perfections, and concerning the nature and obliga tions of virtue in the abstract, and much that was de signed to show the reasonableness of morality ; but the essence of Christianity, and the practical effects which it should produce, were strangely overlooked. Dr. Johnson remarked of the apologetic style of preaching then in vogue, that the Apostles were tried regularly once a week on the charge of committing forgery. To what ever causes the decline of Deism after 1750 is to be assigned, the books polemically written against it cannot be included. The more these demonstrated, the less did people believe. The real causes of the decline were two fold : the inherent weakness and coldness of Deism ; and the diversion of the public mind into active politics by the American War of Independence and by the outburst of the French Revolution. Burke, writing in 1790, said that these authors, who made some noise in their day, then reposed in lasting oblivion ; and that no one, " born within the last forty years, has read one word of that whole race who called themselves Freethinkers." As was stated in the last Chapter, few clergymen seemed to believe in or to care for the doctrinal Articles of the Established Church, in spite of stringent verbal subscription. The disastrous effects of Acts of Uni- a.d. 1720-1760.] FORMAL SUBSCRIPTION. 163 formity were manifest. The High Church party, using the phrase in its historic sense, restricted their devotion by the formal ritual of the Prayer Book. Low Church men were more than suspected of having gone far beyond Arminianism towards Arianism or Pelagianism. Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, in a letter of 1723, tells a current joke that certain statesmen were then engaged in preparing a Bill for excising the word "not" from the Decalogue, and inserting it in the Creed. Butler remarks, in the Preface to the ' Analogy,' that it had " come to be taken for granted, by many persons, that Christianity is not so much as a subject of inquiry, but that it is now, at length, discovered to be fictitious." He declared, in his Charge of 175 1 : — "The deplorable distinction of our age is an avowed scorn of religion in some, and a growing disregard of it in the generality." Seeker, Bishop of Oxford, afterwards Primate, said in 1738, in one of his Charges, — " An open and profound disregard to religion is becoming the distinguishing characteristic of the present age." Gibson (1669-1748), Bishop of London, Berkeley (1684-1753), Bishop of Cloyne, and numerous other clerical dignitaries, attest the same thing. It confirms Burnet's remark at the commencement of the century, that of all whom he ever knew, the English clergy of his day were the most remiss of any in their labours among the people ; adding, " I must own that the main body of our clergy have always appeared dead and lifeless to me ; and, instead of animating, they appear to send one another to sleep." The Established Church was fast settling down to the torpor and dulness which, with a few honourable excep tions, characterized it during the greater part of the century. There was light, but no life ; great debating about religion, but little or no religion itself ; pulpit and press controversies in abundance, but the battle was chiefly between a petrified orthodoxy and a cold ration alism. Pope remarks, in his ' Essay on Criticism ' : — "Then unbelieving priests reformed the nation, And taught more pleasant methods of salvation ; Where Heaven's free subjects might their rights dispute, Lest God Himself should seem too absolute." 164 RELIGIOUS TORPOR. [chap, lxviii. Warburton (1698-1779), Bishop of Gloucester, attained his mitre in 1760 ; the climax of preferments that rewarded his literary and controversial writings. The greatest is ' The Divine Legation of Moses ' ; designed to prove that the Pentateuch must be a Divine revelation because it is silent on the subject of a future state of rewards and punishments. As this doctrine must be regarded as the chief bond of human society, its alleged omission from the Mosaic economy proves, according to Warburton, that it came from Heaven, and must have been maintained by a Divine or a miraculous influence. Only a bold and daring mind could have seized on such a position ; but he sustains it by copious and plausible arguments, and the involutions and intricacies of the chain hide its weaknesses. Apart from its theological purpose, his book contains marvellous excursions over the wide fields of philosophy and of literature. Critics were not lacking who said that his apology and argu ments were more damaging to the cause of orthodoxy than Swift's burlesque of 'The Tale of a Tub.' Learned, after a fashion of his own ; following Burton's ' Anatomy of Melancholy ' in multifarious citations which bewilder and astonish, if they do not convince ; positive and dogmatic to the last degree ; and original and vigorous in style, Warburton displayed the worst forms of the polemical temper, in his truculent abuse of adversaries. Bishop Lowth (1710-1787), of London, with whom he became involved in one of his endless literary disputes, ironically suggested that he brought to them the habits of mind acquired in an attorney's office, in which he had begun life. He was impelled to enter the lists against Bolingbroke, Conyers Middleton, David Hume, and writers of that school ; and his swashbuckler style sometimes inflicted as much damage on friends as foes. All wUo differed from him were treated as fools or liars, deserving only to be cudgelled. Never was episcopal crozier wielded with such energy. He pursued his ponderous way, like an elephant crushing through a jungle. He had no sense of the value of words. Every thing was magnified or denounced in the superlative degree. Bentley characterized him as a man of mon strous appetite and bad digestion. Unfortunately, the a.d. 1720-1760.] BISHOP WARBURTON. 165 style was that of the age. Theological literature was a Babel of loud vociferation, vulgar contradiction, and imputation of bad motives. Accurate knowledge and the judicial faculty of weighing evidence had vanished, and a voluble opinionativeness filled the world of books. In his famous but thoroughly Erastian treatise on ' The Alliance between Church and State,' first published in 1736, Warburton abandoned the argument from antiquity and from essential truth, and laid down the proposition that the Church and the State, as two separate and independent powers, having united for purposes of convenience and utility, the State must consider religion in reference to expediency, and not to revelation ; and that it should favour any particular creed, not in proportion to its truth, but because it was the strongest, and solely with a view to its general utility. This was only another mode of stating what Gibbon re duced into his well-known aphorism, about the systems of religion which prevailed in the Roman world being respectively regarded as equally false, equally true, and equally useful. Warburton's book, one of the most masterly statements of the subject from his point of view, aroused great scandal and provoked keen controversy ; but its influence was abiding. He was the first prominent writer to separate theology from politics ; just as Cum berland, Bishop of Peterborough (d. 1718), was the first to separate it from morals. Cumberland's views, as Buckle shows, were pushed to their farthest extent by Hume, with his more comprehensive mind, and were shortly afterwards applied to practical conduct by Paley. His ' Moral and Political Philosophy,' published in 1785, became a standard book at Cambridge in the following year, and passed through fifteen editions within two decades. Jeremy Bentham and James Mill still further applied Cumberland's teachings to speculative jurispru dence, as Burke applied Warburton's theory to politics. Another kind of influence was exerted by Berkeley, who published a treatise concerning the principles of human knowledge, with a view to undermine the Materialism of Hobbes and his followers, by denying, on received principles of philosophy, the reality of an external world. If this be so, then he argued that the 166 RELIGIOUS TORPOR. [chap, lxviil phenomena of sense can be explained only by supposing a Deity continually necessitating perception. His system of revived Nominalism has been ridiculed as an idle dream by those who failed to perceive the character and the drift of much of the so-called philosophy of his day, which was nothing else than a dreary labyrinth of meta physical puzzles ; but it is a monument of marvellous subtlety of mind and of pious devotion of intellectual powers to the cause of religion. He was the first to propound a scheme of absolute Idealism. His principal doctrine has been styled " the touchstone of metaphysical sagacity." In following out a laudable purpose, he unconsciously prepared the way for a subtler form of scepticism, in Hume's philosophy, than the world had previously known. The peculiar nature of the subjects which Berkeley treated has caused him to be misunder stood, notwithstanding the clearness of his style and the vigour of his thinking. Byron ridiculed him in ' Don Juan.' Even Dr. Johnson, who was usually quick to perceive verbal distinctions, said that he refuted Berkeley's theory by stamping with his foot on the ground, imagin- ingithat the Bishop denied the existence of the perception of solidity, which was not the case. Many of his maxims and suggestions on economic subjects anticipated the theories of Hume and of Adam Smith. Pope ascribed to him every virtue under heaven. In middle life, when enjoying leisure and opulence as Dean of Derry, he dreamed that a new Golden Age might be witnessed across the Atlantic, with the supposed Westward course of Empire ; and that a fifth act, the noblest of all, might close the drama of Time. He proposed to found a college in the Bermudas, for educating the children of planters in America, and for training native teachers and missionaries to labour among its aborigines. He obtained a Royal Charter, relinquished his deanery, and induced learned persons to join him. Delays and obstacles arose. Promised financial aid by the Government was not forth coming. But he settled in Newport, Rhode Island ; writing, planning, working, and hoping for the realization of his scheme, into which he put aU his large private fortune. It had to be abandoned after three years ; and he returned home in 1734, to be appointed to the See a.d. 1720-1760.] EVANGELICAL MOVEMENT. 167 of Cloyne, through the influence of Queen Caroline, wife of George II. By her recommendation, also, Butler was given the See of Bristol, which he filled for twelve years before his translation in 1750 to Durham. To her enlightened patronage the Churches of England and Ireland owe the two most distinguished bishops of the century. Berkeley's farm at Newport was given to found a scholarship in Yale College, and he presented to its library and to that of Harvard large collections of books. Yale also treasures his portrait ; and his name is associated by his admirers with the more recent Uni versity in California. The great Evangelical or Low Church Movement within the Church of England, towards the close of the eighteenth century, is commonly identified with the name of what was called the Clapham Sect, described by Sir James Stephen and Mrs. Oliphant. It was a simple revival of religion, not a development of theological opinions. The stand taken was on the doctrinal teach ings of the Reformation. The Thirty-nine Articles were accepted in their natural and grammatical sense. It was a revolt against the formalism, the lack of fervour, and the scepticism that had so long prevailed. Its very intensity made it imperfect and one-sided ; and led to undue stress being laid upon certain truths, to the neglect of co-ordinate or correlative truths. By a natural swing of the pendulum, this helped to produce the revulsion of the Oxford Movement, fifty years later. Some of the clerical leaders of the Evangelical section were in sympathy with the Methodists, though not identical with them in views or practice ; but others were quite independent of the influence. William Romaine said that when he began his ministry there were not more than six or seven Evangelical clergymen ; but before his death, in 1795, he could enumerate five hundred. By that time, the party had become a power. Its patron among the bishops was Beilby Porteous, of London (1731-1808) ; and its great apostle was Charles Simeon (1759-1836), whose spirit still survives in the trustees who administer the presentation to a number of livings, acquired by the munificence of his friends and admirers. Its earnest laity were represented in literature 168 RELIGIOUS TORPOR. [chap, lxviii. by Hannah More (1745-1833), and by WiUiam Wilber force (1759-1833) in his ' Practical View,' once so popular. No surprise will be felt at the condition of the Church during the greater part of the century, when it is re membered that the social status of many of the clergy continued to be inferior to that of the yeomen and farmers. Parochial incomes widely fluctuated, but five thousand benefices were under eighty pounds in yearly value, so that, allowing for the difference in the value of money, the state of things was worse than that described by John Speed in 1623. Readers attached to metropo litan churches were generally paid one-fourth of that sum, and chaplains in private families had about thirty pounds, with board and lodging, and filled an inter mediate position between guests and servants. The prizes in the Church were reserved for the favourites of fortune, for dependents upon the Court, for younger sons of the nobility, sometimes for literary service, but chiefly for political and social rewards. Pluralities abounded. To them that had, more was given. A bishopric was usually held with a deanery, a canonry, a prebendal stall, or a rich living, and sometimes with more than one such office. The deanery of Westminster, worth seven thousand a year, always went with the bishopric of Rochester. One of the humblest of the Deists, Thomas Chubb, the tallow-chandler (1679-1747), applied a strong personal argument to Dr. Henry Steb- bing, one of Hoadly's opponents, by reminding him of the worldly advantages derived from the possession of not fewer than five rich pluralities. The biographies of Bishop Gibson ; of Cornwallis, Bishop of Lichfield, and then Primate ; of Archdeacon Paley ; of Newton, Bishop of Bristol ; of Brownlow North, Bishop of Winchester ; of Watson, Bishop of Llandaff, and many other digni taries, furnish instances of abounding sinecurism and plurality, of exorbitant payment and neglected work. Dr. Johnson lamented that few clergymen were promoted for learning and piety, their only chance depending upon family or political interest. Chesterfield spoke of them as, "with the most indefatigable industry and insatiable greediness, darkening in clouds the levees of A.D. 1720-1760.] STATE OF THE CHURCHES. 169 kings and ministers." Looking to such sources for promotion, when it came, they bestowed their own patronage with shameless nepotism upon members of their families, who were often non-resident and plura- lists. Pope might " goad the prelate, slumbering in his stall," sufficiently to produce irritation ; but the slumber was not interrupted for many moments. When episcopal duties were neglected, or discharged perfunctorily, it is not strange that many of the clergy were indolent and irregular. Public catechizing in Church, and the visitation of the sick, were neglected. Divine service was held once a week, or once a month, in many rural parishes, and was hurried through in an irreverent and slovenly manner. The flimsiest excuse sufficed to omit or curtail the performance. Church fabrics were allowed to fall into decay, or were aban doned to dust, damp, and insects, or were receptacles for lumber and rubbish. High, square pews, exceptional heretofore, were constructed and surrounded with cur tains ; the chief use being to insulate each family within a separate enclosure, or as Swift said, for the purpose of " lodging folks disposed to sleep." Wooden galleries disfigured the sacred edifices, and on the walls were unsightly monuments in which Death's heads and cross- bones, shields and escutcheons, medallion busts and life- size figures, mingled with Pagan emblems and pseudo- classical allegories, and fulsome and false eulogies in bad Latin. A tall structure, known as a three-decker pulpit, accommodated the clerk, the reader, and the preacher, one above another ; the whole being surmounted by a huge sounding-board. The surplice, often, as Cowper said, " as dirty as a farmer's frock," was exchanged for the Genevan gown for preaching. He appealed to the bishops not to " lay careless hands on skulls that cannot teach and will not learn," and he commented on " the divorce of the knees from the hassock," the custom being to sit during the Psalms and the singing by the charity children of the doggerel by Sternhold and Hop kins, or by Tate and Brady ; and to stand during the prayers, the responses being vicariously rendered by a droning clerk, whose miscellaneous functions are humor ously described by Pope. 170 RELIGIOUS TORPOR. [chap. lXViii. In more pretentious places, the monotonous duet between the parson and the clerk, or the melancholy solo of the latter, was varied by the noisy and discordant performance of a motley choir, aided by the fiddle, fife, bassoon, and other instruments, the congregation turn ing round and facing the loft or gafiery whence pro ceeded this marveUous ebullition of stertorous sounds. Baptism, marriage, the churching of women, and the burial of the dead were got through with the utmost possible speed, the fees being the chief consideration. The Communion was celebrated, as a rule, only at the three great festivals of the Church. The plainest direc tions of the Rubric were disregarded. An offertory was almost unknown. Sunday Schools were rarely found. Confirmations were held trienniaUy, after perfunctory preparation of the catechumens, or, sometimes, septen- nially. The neglected state of many of the fabrics is shown by Hogarth, in his satire of the poor-box covered with cobwebs, the Commandments cracked and broken, and the Creed obliterated by damp. He also depicts a too common circumstance in the Sleeping Congregation, in which the prosy clergyman can almost be heard, answering to the satirical description in Pope's ' Dunciad.' The hour-glass shown in Hogarth's picture was a relic of times when it was not uncommon to listen to dis courses of that length ; and when, occasionally, the glass was turned to enable a verbose preacher to complete his sermon. Samuel Butler satirizes, in ' Hudibras,' " gifted brethren preaching by the carnal hour-glass." Frequent entries occur in parochial accounts of the purchase of these time-registers, and of the iron brackets on which they stood. A fine specimen is preserved in the Church of St. Alban's, Wood-street, London. Among ancient doles, money was left to pay beadles and sextons for awakening sluggards, and for whipping dogs out of churches. Preaching was a lost art, with rare exceptions, both in churches and chapels. Cowper depicts, in ' The Time piece,' the state of the pulpit ; many of the occupants of which indulged in " attitude, and stare, and start theatric," as " odious as the nasal twang heard at con venticles." There were no successors to Jeremy Taylor's A.b. 1720-1760.] FRIGID MORAL ESSAYS. 171 briUiant flashes of fancy ; to Bernard Gilpin's apostolic zeal ; to Latimer's colloquial and forcible appeals ; to Richard Baxter's intense earnestness ; to Stephen Char- nock's sublime conceptions ; to Thomas Goodwin's massive thought ; to John Howe's seraphic fervour ; to Isaac Barrow's masculine reasoning ; to RichardiSibbes' pregnant quaintness ; or to Robert South's wit and wisdom. Hume lauded the Church as tending to keep down fanaticism, and therefore commendable for its indifference to zeal. For a man to be suspected of enthusiasm sufficed to condemn him socially. The brief, dry, frigid, moral essays, typified by the rhetorical inanity of Hugh Blair (1718-1800), or " the divinity of other days ground down to modern use," and often obtained for a small consideration, to be mumbled or gabbled from the pulpit, were not calculated or intended to move the hearers. Judging by copious printed specimens of dreary dulness and grotesque ignorance, in thousands of sermons entombed in such receptacles of pulpit morphia as the British Museum Library, or that in Sion College, or that of Dr. Daniel Williams, nothing was lost by their being inarticulate, or by non-delivery. Atterbury (1662-1732), Bishop of Rochester ; Samuel Clarke (1675-1729), author of ' The Scripture Doctrine of the Trinity,' upholding the Arian view, and of nume rous metaphysical and philosophical works, who might have been a prelate but for his lax opinions ; and Sherlock (1678-1761), Bishop of London, represent respectively the High and Low Church preachers and the judicious mean between the two. It is not surprising, therefore, to use Leslie Stephen's phrase, that " the scepticism widely diffused through the upper classes was of the indolent variety, implying a perfect willingness that churches should survive, though faith might perish." There were, it must be repeated, honourable exceptions, but they were conspicuous by rarity, like some already mentioned, or like Thomas Wilson, Bishop of Sodor and Man, or William Jones of Nayland, Gilbert White of Selbourne, Thomas Twining of Colchester, William Grimshaw of Haworth, and the friends and associates of the Wesleys. Clerical portraits drawn by essayists, novelists, poets, diarists, letter-writers, and dramatists are not mere ex- 172 RELIGIOUS TORPOR. [chap, lxviii. aggerated caricatures. Fielding's Mr. Supple and his Parson Trulliber were too representative, while his Parson Adams was exceptional, like Goldsmith's Dr. Primrose. Smollett's Mr. Shuffle was a dexterous cheat in canonicals, who held his own among the tipplers and gamblers of the village inn. Goldsmith's description of a visitation dinner ; Colman's Rev. Jack Quickset ; with the real characters of Dr. Warner, George Selwyn's friend, of Laurence Sterne, and of Charles Churchill, the associate of Wilkes, are undoubted types of a numerous class. Dr. Vicesimus Knox (1752-1821) declares in one of his ' Essays ' that the public had " long remarked with indignation that some of the most distinguished cox combs, drunkards, debauchees, and gamesters, who figure at the watering-places and all public places of resort, were young men of the sacerdotal order." Some of Cowper's delineations of the . priestly character are painful and shocking. His friend, John Newton (1725- 1807), says that his own examination prior to ordination lasted only an hour, and that was all he saw of his diocesan before being instituted to Olney. To meet this appalling condition of things, a different kind of agency was needed. In the closing decades of the seventeenth century, numerous Societies for the Reformation of Manners had been formed in London and in large provincial towns. The members assembled periodically for devotional exercises and conference, and for mutual vigilance and control. They relieved the poor ; sent their children to school ; released imprisoned debtors ; and supported lectureships in churches. They endeavoured to repress and punish vice, with a zeal that frequently outran discretion, and exposed them to a charge of acting in the spirit of the Three Tailors of Tooley-street. Their motive was good, but their methods were mistaken. It is unwise and dangerous for private individuals to constitute themselves censors of public morals, other than by personal influence and ex ample ; or by a system of amateur espionage, and of com mon informers plying for hire, to bring penal coercion to bear upon all whom they deem guilty of profaneness, gam bling, drunkenness, and immorality. But it was among the adherents of the Societies that a revival was initiated A.D. 1720-1760.] WESLEY AND WHITEFIELD. 173 which is in many respects the most interesting pheno menon of the eighteenth century. Charity Schools, as they were termed, from the gratuitous instruction in the mere rudiments of learning, and from the hideous dress worn by the boys and girls as part of the bounty, began to be formed at the close of the seventeenth century. Archbishop Tenison is said to have established the first of them, during his rectorship of St. Martin's-in-the- fields ; and there were a hundred and seventeen schools of the kind in London in 1712, besides those found in country towns. The instruction was exceedingly meagre, but there was a diligent inculcation of the Catechism, and constant attendance at church. It was the great era of school foundation or improvement in the North of Germany. Augustus Hermann Francke commenced his great educational work at Halle, in Saxony, in 1694 ; and the Jesuits were everywhere zealous in their endeavours to gain an influence over the young. To counteract them, if not in emulation of Francke, Charity Schools were begun in England. Their educational force may be appraised from the conditions set forth in the seventy- third and seventy-ninth Chapters. Nor were the well- meant endeavours of Dr. Thomas Bray, rector of St. Botolph, Aldgate, to establish parochial libraries, more successful in their abiding results. It has been already stated that there were more than five thousand livings under eighty pounds in annual value. Of these, two thousand were less than thirty pounds ; and the clerical occupants were in danger of both physical and mental starvation. To relieve the latter, he proposed to furnish commentaries, treatises on practical divinity, and other books, to assist them in preaching or catechizing. He gave and collected large sums ; and before his death, in 1730, he established libraries in sixty-seven parishes, and eighty-three circulating libraries, both being for the use of the clergy. The great religious movement with which the names of John Wesley (1703-1791), of his brother Charles (1708- 1788), and of George Whitefield (1714-1770), are so honourably associated, commenced about the year 1729, while they were students at Oxford. Their high personal character, and their efforts among the poor and the igno- 174 RELIGIOUS TORPOR. [chap, lxviii rant, led to their being taunted as Bible Bigots, the Godly Club, and Methodists ; a name of intended reproach that, like Christian, Lollard, Puritan, Nonconformist, and Quaker, was accepted as a crown of glory. While these devoted men and their associates laboured in a spirit and to an extent that was Apostolic, it is melancholy to know that the major part of the duly-appointed official religious teachers neglected their work, and were indifferent to the prevailing ignorance, vice, crime, and misery that threatened to sap the foundations of society. When the Wesleys and Whitefield were ordained, and began to preach, their bitterest opponents and calumniators were the beneficed clergy. Wesley narrates in his ' Journals ' many instances of the insults, falsehoods, abuse, threats, and violence to which he and his followers were sub jected. If they were assailed, pelted, dragged through the horsepond, or soused under the pump by a drunken mob, it was often led by the village parson. With noble exceptions, like John Fletcher of Madeley, John Berridge, Augustus, Toplady, John Newton, William Romaine, James Hervey, Richard Cecil, Charles Simeon, and Henry Venn — some of whom widely differed from Wesley on doctrinal grounds — the clergy at large cared not whether the people remained ignorant, drunken, and immoral, so long as their own monopoly was unassailed. Nor were the multitude likely to be attracted and influenced by the humdrum respectability and the frigid discourses of most of the Nonconf ormistchapels ; but they were aroused and won by the zeal of the Methodists. Driven out from many of the churches, the evangelists commenced field-preach ing, and achieved extraordinary success. Their lines diverged by a renewal of the ancient controversy known by the names of Calvinism and Arminianism ; which, it must be repeated, dates back, not only to the time of Augustine of Hippo, but to the Primitive Church. Whitefield was the prince of theological orators. His sermons, while marked by only a moderate degree of intellectual power, became, by constant repetition and improvement, marvels of dramatic art.. He swayed the emotions and passions of his vast audiences, whether drawn from fashionable circles or from the semi-savage colliers of Kingswood and the Forest of a.d. 1720-1760.] MORAVIAN INFLUENCE. 175 Dean, in a manner seldom equalled and never excelled. Even the cast in his eyes, as in the case of Edward Irving, was said to add to the effect produced. John Wesley, though also a great preacher, of a different type, was especiaUy an able organiser and administrator, Maeaulay considered his genius for government not inferior to that of Richelieu. Like dominant minds of his order, he had strong tendencies towards autocracy, if not to sacerdotalism. By a deed-poll enrolled in Chancery he imposed upon his Connection rules and regulations which modern circumstances render irksome and im practicable. He was by temperament, education, prefer ence, and habit a Tory and a High Churchman. He firmly maintained that none had authority to administer the Sacraments without Episcopal ordination. An extra ordinary feature of his character was that while he set others in motion that became enthusiasm, he remained calm, and almost phlegmatic ; and was what Robert Hall paradoxically described as the quiescence of turbu lence. As a study in psychology, it is curious to note that he was largely influenced by Thomas a Kempis, Jeremy Taylor, Jacob Behmen, William Law, and, for a time, by the Moravians, whose cradle, at Herrnhut, he visited in 1738. There he saw Count Zinzendorf, who refounded a community that traced its lineage to John Huss. The Moravian teaching on instantaneous conver sion, and an accompanying assurance of salvation, had a powerful influence on the doctrinal views and future work of Wesley ; though he subsequently broke away from them and also repudiated Law's teaching. Wesley believed in the supernatural, including ghosts and witch craft. His ' Journals ' contain many entries of what he regarded as modern miracles, wrought in confirmation of his teachings, for which Warburton vehemently rebuked him, and record a wide range of reading during his lengthened journeys on horseback, that would astonish and scandalize the more rigid of his followers. His younger brother, Charles, was closely associated with the movement, and is known as the author of some of the best hymns in the English language ; devout in sentiment and of much lyrical sweetness. It is remarkable that John Wesley, who was acquainted with Barclay's 176 RELIGIOUS TORPOR. [chap, lxviii. ' Apology,' never mentions Fox. Yet the early Quakers anticipated Methodism in some important points, as well as in the curious detail of conducting meetings for business by means of answers to specific queries. After the separation of Wesley and Whitefield, the latter was taken up by Selina, Countess of Huntingdon (1707-1791) ; a woman of extraordinary courage and energy, who ap pointed him her chaplain, and invited the nobility to her house to hear him preach. In strength of will she rivalled the Wesleys, and her faculty of organization was scarcely inferior. Her wealth, influence, and talents were freely given. She founded colleges at Trevecca and at Cheshunt ; built numerous chapels ; sent out and supported ministers and evangelists ; founded the Con nexion still known by her name and endowed by her munificence ; and she is the virtual originator of the Calvinistic Methodists in Wales. In that country, Griffith Jones, Howel Harris, and Daniel Rowlands had been carrying on, independently of the Wesleys, a work of religious revival which other clergymen, like William Wroth, Rees Prichard, and Walter Cradock had con tinued from the days of Vavasor Powell, perpetuating the labours of John Penry, one of the Elizabethan martyrs. They were cast out from the Established Church with contumely ; but their work remained. The fruits are perennial, tnrough the zeal and devotion of subsequent labourers, like Thomas Charles of Bala, John Elias, Ebenezer Morris, and Ebenezer Richard. Various branches of the great Methodist family now existing in all parts of the world have sprung from resistance^ to asserted priestly pretensions and claims, leading to repeated secessions. The first Conference was convened by Wesley in 1744, to settle questions of doctrine and discipline. His adherents bore to the Episcopal Church a relation analogous to that of the English Reformers of the sixteenth century to the Church of Rome. He called into existence a little army of field-preachers and class-leaders ; earnest, sturdy men, often of a narrow intellectual horizon, but of deep feeling and strong conviction, whoi stirred the masses by fervid appeals and by bold imagery. He disclaimed all intention of founding a sect. " My parish is the world," he said. a.d. 1720-1760.] Methodists buivEN forth. 177 He never regarded himself or his followers as Dissenters ; although, of course, they were so, both technically and reaUy. To the close of his life he cherished the illusion, shared by generations of his most distinguished ministerial successors, that he and they remained within the Estab lished Church. He dissuaded from and forbade separa tion ; but was compelled, in self-defence, and for the protection of his people, to register his chapels under the Toleration Act. He cordially worked with the few Evangelical clergymen, preaching in their pulpits when allowed to do so, and exhorting his adherents to attend the Church services on Sunday mornings. If its leaders and rulers had possessed understanding of the times, they would never have driven forth a large body of devoted and able men, whose banishment plunged it into profound torpor for nearly a century. But the English hierarchy, unlike its progenitor, the Romish Church, in the case of the Monks, the Friars, and the Jesuits, has seldom been wise in its generation, or known how to control the zeal or to use the novel methods of ardent enthusiasts. How Wesley was regarded by the leading men of his day sig nificantly appears from theletters of Horace Walpole, who so failed to understand the nature and to perceive the trend of the movement as to write of it in terms resem bling the cynical scepticism in which Pliny the younger refers to the early Christians. Indeed, the Paganism of Pliny was more reputable than the emasculated Chris tianity of Walpole. CHAPTER LXIX. PARLIAMENTARY RULE. A.D. 1727-1760. There is little else to record of the reign of George I., which ended June n, 1727. Stricken with apoplexy while journeying to Hanover, he never raUied. His son and namesake has been sketched in well-known terms by salacious scandal-mongers like Lord John Hervey, Horace vol. ni. 13 178 PARLIAMENTARY RULE. [chap. lxix. Walpole, and George Selwyn ; and by modern satirists and pessimists. Just as he had quarrelled with his father, so his son, Frederick, Prince of Wales, differed with and hated him ; and, as in the former case, the dislike was reciprocal. The feud continued until the death of the Prince in 1737. A vicious fool, mean and cowardly, and false to every one, his death was a relief to the nation. These Court scandals and family disputes are of no modern concern, any more than the sayings and doings of the stupid, pompous George II. (b. 1683, r. 1727-1760)^110111 his cousin, the terrible Frederick William of Prussia, sati rically styled, — " My brother the comedian." He was despised as well as disliked. He cared for nothing but women and soldiers, and the pleasures of the table. Nor are there any noteworthy events during the first fourteen years of the reign. Sir Robert Walpole (1676-1745) was the principal Minister. After filling various offices, he became First Lord of the Treasury and ChanceUor of the Exchequer in April, 1721. He was the first of that line of statesmen- Commoners who have been in recent times leaders of Parliament. He ruled the Queen, Caroline of Anspach (1682-1727), and, through her, ruled her hus band, who was vastly her inferior in intelligence and capacity. At her philosophical parties, questions of all kinds were discussed with a frankness that would astonish modern decorum. Not content with being, next to Wal pole, the chief political power in the country, she amused her leisure by dabbling in the theological and literary controversies of the day, and was the friend:and patroness of men like Bishop Berkeley, Bishop Butler, and Dr. Samuel Clarke. Walpole's great financial skill was taxed to the utmost in the crisis caused by the South Sea Bubble. He acted with commendable decision, and succeeded in restoring tranquillity ; thus giving promise, which was amply fulfilled, of being the greatest commercial Minister this country had ever seen ; as is attested by the opinion of the best economic writers. His attention was next turned to the heavy taxes upon trade. With a discernment and a courage far in advance of his age, he abolished Import Duties on thirty-eight articles of raw materials, and Export Duties on one hundred and six articles of British a.d. 1727-1760.] COMMERCIAL RESTRICTIONS. 179 manufacture. In this he partly anticipated the enlightened views of trade first propounded in systematic form half a century later by the genius of Adam Smith, and carried into practical effect by Sir Robert Peel and by his great pupil, Mr. Gladstone. He also largely freed the colonial trade of Carolina, Georgia, and the West Indies, thereby developing their exports. This was in marked contrast to certain Acts passed just before he took office, in homage to the old Protective Spirit. One of them, in 1720, was designed to preserve and encourage the silk and woollen manufactures, by prohibiting the use of printed or dyed calico in dress and furniture, under a penalty of five pounds. Such restrictions proved futile, as they have always done. Every legislative attempt to force trade and manufactures into other than their natural channels, to compel the use of articles which are less eligible or less liked, and to prohibit the use of other articles, is sure in the end to fail, and to aggravate the evils which it professes to remove. The extent to which the cotton manufacture of England has since grown, exhibits the prohibition in a most absurd light. A similar nugatory attempt was made by another Statute, passed in the same year, to compel the manu facture and use of buttons and button-holes made of silk, mohair, and thread, instead of those made of cloth, serge, camlet, and other stuffs. A third Act, which continued in force for nearly half a century, was designed to regu late j ourneymen tailors, by prohibiting trade combinations to advance the rate of wages and to lessen the hours of work, under a penalty of two months' imprisonment. This Act also prescribed the hours of work to be from six in the morning to eight at night, and the amount of wages to be two shillings a day for the four Summer months, and one shilling and eightpence for the remainder of the year. Workmen were not to quit their employment until the expiration of the term for which they were hired, nor to refuse work when offered, under pain of imprisonment. Master-tailors paying more than the regulated wages were to forfeit five pounds for each offence. A similar enactment was passed in 1725, " to prevent unlawful combinations of workmen employed in woollen manufactures," adding, however, a salutary i8o PARLIAMENTARY RULE. [chap. Lxix. provision, which subsequent efforts of the Legislature have had to enforce, against what is commonly known as " the truck system," or payment of wages in goods instead of in money. Walpole's uniform rule of action was expediency. Never popular, in the ordinary acceptation of the word, his strength lay in the unwavering support of the monied and commercial classes. It is usually said that he had no faith in human nature. He is supposed to be the author of the cynical apophthegm, — "Every man has his price." What he really said was,—" All these men have their price," referring to the ostentatious professions of unscrupulous and self-seeking placemen who had ratted several times for a consideration . If he gave bribes freely, he accepted none. In conformity with a baleful custom, he provided amply out of the public funds for his chil dren, even while at school, by giving them life appoint ments to sinecure offices. His own dominant passion was not avarice, but love of power. Scandalously ignorant of history and of literature, coarse, and even gross, in habits and in conversation, as was the custom of the age, he was a close observer of men, and he understood, better than any of his associates or rivals, the temper of Parlia ment and of the nation. No one was ever more skilful in humouring and managing the House of Commons, while contriving for the most part to carry his own policy. It was strictly accurate to say of him, as Disraeli remarked, in a rare fit of generosity, of Sir Robert Peel, that he played upon the House as if it had been an old fiddle. Walpole revived the Order of the Bath, which is said to have been in abeyance, as a cheap method of rewarding aifriend or buying off a possible foe. Bad precedents had been set before his time, and they were followed, in aggra vated forms, long after he left office. A low standard of public opinion and of political virtue prevailed. Gross corruptions had gathered round the representative and the administrative systems, inevitable results of the tergiversation and profligacy of the Stuart Restoration. Large sums had to be paid for every high office, as was openly and unblushingly recognised, just as, down to the year 1871, a commission in the Army could be obtained by purchase at or beyond a regulation price. A.D. 1727-1760.] CONTEMPORARY SKETCHES. 181 Cowper did not exaggerate when he wrote, sixty years later, that the legend, " Bankrupt and battered fortunes mended here," might be " charactered on every states man's door." The pages of Fielding and of Smollett exhibit in bold colours, what the more prosaic writers of the time hint at obliquely — that systematic corruption prevailed in every branch of. the public service. Fees were exacted and bribes had to be paid at every step by the office- seeker, who often found that all his hopes and expecta tions by means of gold and silver keys were in vain. The custom of guests giving "vails" to servants on leaving the host's dinner- table had its counterpart in political and official life. Cadwallader Crabtree, the cynical humorist in ' Peregrine Pickle,' mentions a great man who amused him for seven years with a promise of a commission in the Army. Parson Adams, in ' Joseph Andrews,' in return for some election work, receives from Sir Thomas Booby a promise, never kept, of a presentation to a bene fice. Tom Bowling hopes in vain to secure for his nephew, Roderick Random, a warrant as surgeon's mate, through his good friend the beadle at the Admiralty, who is sup posed to have gradations of influence in an ascending scale up to the Secretary. Lieutenant Booth, in ' Amelia,' wishing to be placed again on the active list, slips a bank note into the hands of a clerk, who takes it, but does nothing, for the sufficient reason that it was not within his power to do anything. Incidents such as these were drawn from the Ufe. Carteret, afterwards Earl Granville (1690-1763), declared, when succeeding Walpole, that it was impossible to govern England except by corruption. It flowed through a hundred ignoble channels. "Every one for himself, and the Exchequer for all," was an un written maxim for nearly two hundred years with those " who vote for hire, or point it with lampoon, the dear- bought placeman and the cheap buffoon." Walpole succeeded in using the Secret Service Money, to the extent of many thousands every year, more dexterously, and in obtaining as a return a larger measure of support, than any other Cabinet Minister of the century. It was no uncommon circumstance for a member to receive five hundred or a thousand pounds at the end of a Session, in 182 PARLIAMENTARY RULE. [chap. lxix. recognition of voting for the Government. Newspaper writers and pamphleteers were openly employed and liberally paid. The men who clamoured most loudly against Walpole practised the same system after his retirement. Not until the year 1887 was a pernicious and indefensible custom abolished, and then by a Con servative Government, of voting in the Estimates an annual sum of ten thousand pounds to the Patronage Secretary of the Treasury, who used the money at his sole discretion for party purposes, rendering no account. The system pursued by Walpole, following an evil custom, was not calculated to evoke high political aspira tions. Personally he was not tyrannical or unjust. He governed by corruption ; but it was not then, or for a long subsequent period, deemed shameful to buy the vote of a member of Parliament, any more than it was deemed shameful, until recently, for a member to buy the votes of electors, or than it still is for electors to exact money from members and candidates for a variety of selfish purposes. Having obtained Parliamentary supremacy, Walpole did not employ it to trample upon the liberties of his country. He laughed at or despised the noisy patriots, who have their prototypes in every age, whom he did not care to buy at their own valuation. He said, in one of his speeches, — " Why ! patriots spring up like mushrooms. I could raise fifty of them within the four- and-twenty hours. I have raised many of them in one night. It is but refusing to gratify an unreasonable or insolent demand, and up starts a patriot." Johnson held that patriotism is the last refuge of a scoundrel, and his famous definition of a pension, partly founded on the satirical verses by Pope, was true for nearly a century and a half : — " An allowance made to any one without an equivalent. In England, it is generally understood to mean pay given to a State hireling for treason to his country." The definition caused some qualms to Johnson when, in the early days of George III., he accepted a pension of three hundred pounds in recogni tion of literary merits. Some of the definitions in his ' Dictionary,' as in the case of the words Excise, Oats, Whig, and Tory, served only to introduce his strong personal opinions or prejudices ; while the meanings a.d. 1727-1760.] MERCENARY PATRIOTS. 183 attached to the words Lexicographer and Grub-street contain playful allusions to himself. The difficult circumstances in which Walpole was placed by the claims of the Pretender, and by the un popularity of the House of Hanover, may be pleaded in extenuation. Zeal for the Protestant Succession, and fai the maintenance of the peace of Europe, formed his guiding principles. He was, for his time, wonderfully averse to the extreme severities of the law. The sup pression of the Rebellion of 1745, when he was in his grave, was attended with much greater harshness than that of 1715, when he had a voice in the Council. He was magnanimous towards political opponents, and his clemency and absence of personal resentment have never been fully recognised. He recalled Bolingbroke from exile in France, and only smiled at the malice and the political plots with which the benefit was repaid, and at the ceaseless attacks made upon him for ten years in the weekly ' Craftsman,' founded in 1726 under Bolingbroke's management. Walpole showed many acts of kindness to irreconcilable enemies, and conferred numerous favours on ungrateful friends. He had special reason to despise the mob of toadies and place-hunters who dogged his steps, only to forsake him if greater advantages were likely to be reaped elsewhere. When it was thought that he would be displaced on the accession of George II. , his house was deserted, and the sycophants crowded his rival's antechambers. They trooped back in a few hours when they found that no change was intended. He knew it all, and estimated at their true value both the popularity and the odium. Fielding's Squire Western is the incarnation of old English tradition and obstinacy — a type of man who would rather be anything than a courtier, a Presbyterian, or a Hanoverian, who hated Whig finance, and would not grow turnips because they had been introduced by Lord Townshend, a Whig states man. All good Tories made a strong point of denouncing opponents as a German Ministry, who made English interests subservient to those of Hanover. The Whigs retorted by charges of Jacobitism, and said that if the Pretender were restored he would repudiate the National Debt and ruin the fundholders. It was urged that he 184 PARLIAMENTARY RULE. [chap. lxix. could only succeed by the aid of the French, who were ridiculed for their dress, manners, diet, and language. Burke, who vindicated Walpole from the charge of systematic corruption for his own benefit, sums up his great services : — "The prudence, steadiness, and vigilance of that man, joined to the greatest possible lenity in his character and his politics, preserved the Crown to this royal family, and with it the laws and liberties to this country." Burke was a youth of fifteen when Walpole died. He knew that the system of government by a Cabinet responsible to Parliament was largely due to Walpole, who gave the decisive bias at a critical moment. To him it is mainly owing that the English administra tion is carried on, not by a personal autocracy, as in Russia, nor by an Imperial Chancellor, as in Germany, nor by a party Cabinet excluded from the Legislature, as in the United States, but by direct Parliamentary control of the responsible heads of the great departments of State. Another thing that contributed to this was the publicity tacitly given to Parliamentary debates, which came to be fully conceded in due time. The question of reporting the proceedings had been frequently raised, and voted a grave offence. After the accession of George I., a colourless account appeared in Abel Boyer's ' Historical Register,' and then, at greater length, in the ' Gentle man's Magazine,' with its editorial pseudonym, still maintained, of " Sylvanus Urban, Gent." It was first issued by Edward Cave, in 173 1. The meagre report was given, under feigned names, as Debates in the Senate of Great Lilliput, partly from the pen of Dr. Samuel Johnson, who, from November, 1740, to February, 1743, concocted the speeches from slight hints and outlines furnished to him. The formal periods, the balanced antitheses, and the Latin phraseology are characteristic of the writer, for there is an utter absence of veri similitude. Some of the early speeches attributed to the elder Pitt and to Lord Chesterfield were thus compiled by Johnson, in a garret in Exeter-street, according to his own statement. But he fell into the mistake of "making the little fishes talk like whales." He said that he always took care to let the Whig dogs have the worst of it ; for his strqng Tory prejudices made him affirm, jn a.d. 1727-1760.] REPORTING THE DEBATES. 185 his own dogmatic fashion, that Whiggism was the nega tion of all principle, and that the first Whig was the devil ; yet with a special reservation in favour of Edmund Burke, whom he admired and loved. He was accustomed to speak of " the bottomless Whigs," meaning that their hollow formulas were a cloak for private interest. For a long period, reporters were obliged to trust to their memories, being forbidden to take notes of speeches in Parliament, as is stiU the case with that extremely limited portion of the public who are contemptuously permitted to gain access with difficulty to the Strangers' Gallery. It was the only place then available to re porters, who, like the public, were regarded as intruders, and admitted only on sufferance. George III. repeatedly urged Lord North to put a stop to the publication of debates in the newspapers, in order to prevent the speeches of Chatham and Burke from being known. He once wrote that the House of Lords was " the best Court to bring such miscreants before, as it can fine as well as imprison, and has broader shoulders to support the odium of so salutary a measure." Sometimes, an irascible or fussy member complained of inaccuracy or misrepresentation in these unauthorized reports, and then the printers were haled to the bar of the House, and were fined or imprisoned. One notorious case was in 1 77 1, when a messenger of the House of Commons attempted to arrest the printer of the ' London Evening Post,' within the Corporation limits, but without having his warrant backed by an alderman. He was committed to prison by Crosby, the Lord Mayor, and by Oliver and Wilkes, two aldermen, the two former of whom were sent to the Tower by the House. The arbitrary pro cedure was carried out under the plea of Privilege, which Burke called " the eldest son of Prerogative, inheriting all the vices of its parent." Another case, that of Hansard v. Stockdale, in 1838, for alleged libel, at length reduced the asserted privilege to an absurdity, and led to its virtual abandonment, so far as concerned the Press. But the assumption of penal power has not yet been renounced by the Legislature, although dangerous and unconstitutional. Ever and anon, Parlia ment renders itself ridiculous by citing to ifs bar and 186 PARLIAMENTARY RULE. [chap. lxix. incarcerating some person who is held to have offended its majesty or conceit. Not until 1833 was any provision made for reporters. Three years later, the division lists were first published. Hitherto, it had been a breach of privilege to announce how members voted. James Grant, in his work on ' The Newspaper Press,' gives amusing instances of the difficulties and struggles of Parliamentary reporting. Besides the magizines above named, others appeared by the middle of the century, including the ' London,' the ' British,' the ' Universal,' and the ' Traveller.' One issue, called ' The Magazine of Magazines,' gave the pith of its monthly contemporaries ; as Cave had first done with the essays in the weeklies. Another class of publications appeared, in reviews of books, such as the ' Literary,' and the ' Critical,' in 1752 ; the latter under Smollett's editorship. They were regarded for some time with a feeling of hostility by authors, and were the frequent occasion of quarrels, not only in the form of reprisals on paper, but by encounters in duels. Nor is this surprising, when the coarse savagery of men like John Dennis — a modern Thersites, remembered solely because Pope gibbeted him in the ' Dunciad,' and who found imitators in Richard Bentley, William Maginn, William Gifford, and John Wilson Croker — took pleasure in a style of vulgar denunciation and of truculent abuse that would have disgraced a Yahoo ; or when some critics displayed the ignorant self-complacency of Fadladeen, in ' Lalla Rookh.' Walpole's proposal, in 1732, to introduce an improved system of collecting Import Duties, so as to put a stop to prevalent waste and peculation, met with such interested resistance that he judged a withdrawal to be prudent. He could have carried it, but said he would not collect taxes at the expense of blood ; although retaining his opinion, in which the greatest modern financial authori ties concur, that the scheme, since adopted, would tend greatly to the public advantage, by increasing the pro ductiveness of the tax, while diminishing the cost of collection, and mitigating the pressure by allowing dutiable articles to remain in bond. But one of the epidemics of selfishness, unreason, and panic raged with a.d. 1727-1760.] WAR WITH SPAIN. 187 violence. The country resounded wilh shouts of " No slavery ! " " No wooden shoes ! " " Liberty ; Property ; and no Excise ! " and other blatant catch-phrases, equally intelligent and appropriate. Johnson's definition of Ex cise is but the echo of what was commonly said and believed. In this matter, however, and in his resistance for a time to the Spanish War, Walpole's attitude is now generally approved. He yielded, in the latter case, against his judgment, at the demand of Parliamentary faction, mercantile cupidity, and popular clamour. The ancient jealousy and hatred of Spain had smouldered since the time of the Armada, with occasional outbursts against the monopoly of trade with South America. The Spaniards always insisted on exclusive dealings with their own colonies, and on the right to search vessels suspected of infringement. By the Treaty of Utrecht, only one British ship was permitted to trade annually with Spanish America. As in the days of Elizabeth, not a few adventurers ran the risk for purposes of lucrative contraband trade. Sometimes, as is not surprising, the right of search was asserted in an arbitrary manner. One such instance, the case of Captain Jenkins, of the " Rebecca," is described by Carlyle, with grim humour, in his ' Life of Frederick.' It was made the pretext, after seven years, of another war with Spain, which was declared on October 19, 1739 ; a war for plunder, in the guise of exclusive markets, and with an eye to the fabled wealth of Peru. For that wanton war, Pope sung his dying strains, and Dr. Johnson, in more energetic and sonorous language, employed his genius. Fifty years later, Burke declared, after examining the original documents, and conversing with the principal actors, that he was " perfectly satisfied with the extreme injustice of the war, and of the falsehood of the colours which, to Walpole's own ruin, and guided by a mistaken policy, he suffered to be daubed over that measure." He bent before the storm of popular clamour ; but when the church steeples and the street bonfires proclaimed the mad delight, he punningly exclaimed, with remarkable prescience, — " They may ring their bells now, but they will soon be wringing their hands." It was a fatal mistake, and was the proximate cause of his fall three 1 88 PARLIAMENTARY RULE. [chap. LXIX. years later. He foresaw that a war with Spain would eventually involve one with France, and that other complications would bring on a European conflict. The death of the Emperor Charles VI., on October 20, 1740, was the signal for an outburst of perfidy and rapine. Arrangements which had been settled by all the Powers of Europe with so much diplomatic finesse, in 1713, under the title of the Pragmatic Sanction, were sum marily and unscrupulously set aside. A rival of Maria Theresa of Austria, Queen of Hungary and Bohemia, and daughter of the late Emperor, appeared in Frederick II. of Prussia, commonly called the Great. In the midst of the crisis, and before news could arrive of some decisive naval battles in the West Indies and on the Spanish American coast, Walpole was openly attacked in Parlia ment, where his majority had been dwindling. The contest continued during the Session of 1741, and in the following February he resigned, after an almost unbroken tenure of power for twenty-one years. Walpole lived but three years to enjoy his pension of four thousand pounds and his new title of Earl of Orford. England, as he foresaw, was drawn into the disastrous and costly War of the Austrian Succession, which lasted for eight years. She entered upon her usual course of subsidizing her Allies, and had to bear the chief expense of supporting mercenary troops. The Battle of Dettin- gen, for which Handel composed a Te Deum, was fought June 27, 1743, and was the last battle in which a King of England personally took part. It ended in the defeat of the French ; but the Battle of Fontenoy, May 11, 1745, was a drawn one, owing, partly, to the failure of Dutch support, but, chiefly, to the incapacity, if not to the cowardice, of the Duke of Cumberland, who commanded. No Te Deums appear to have been sung on this occasion. The practice is often of questionable propriety, especially when both sides sing them. Ghent, Ostend, and other towns yielded to the French ; and Frederick 1 1., having captured Silesia, continued his triumphal career against Austria, in pursuance of a scheme to raise his small kingdom to the first rank. The war waged with varying results until the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, in April, 1748, which provided for a mutual restitution of con- A.b. 1727-1760.] CALENDAR REFORMED. ifcj quests in every part of the world. Not a single point was gained for which England had been fighting with Spain. In particular, the right of search was not sur rendered. The cost to England exceeded forty-three millions, thirty of which were added to the National Debt. Frederick of Prussia pursued his chosen path of selfish rapacity and military aggrandizement, making alliances and breaking them to suit his convenience, until both Prussia and Austria had to terminate the strife for a time through common exhaustion. He retained Silesia, and that province, with Saxony, was desolated. Berlin itself had been more than once captured. Frederick was, in the end, successful ; but at an enormous loss of men and money, realizing the truth of the Duke of Wellington's sententious remark to Sir Walter Scott, that nothing is so dreadful as a battle lost, except a battle won. Traditional hostility towards France and Spain had not a little to do with deferring a much-needed altera tion of the Calendar, so as to bring the nominal and the actual time into accord. This had been generally done in Europe in 1582, under the influence of Pope Gregory XIII. ; but it remained in abeyance in England until 1752, when it was enacted that eleven days should be dropped in the reckoning after the second of Septem ber. At the same time, the old ecclesiastical usage of dating the year from the twenty-fifth of March, being Lady-day, or the Annunciation, was abandoned. Wherever both years are recorded in connection with a date from January 1 to March 24, both inclusive — e.g., February 10, 170^ — -the lower figure is the modern and correct year. Provision was made for omitting ileap- year from future centenniads, so as to ensure the true time, as regulated by the exact period occupied by the earth in its annual revolution round the sun. The change gave rise to much popular discontent ; the ignorant supposing that they were actually being de frauded of a portion of their life. Some clergymen denounced it as blasphemy and sacrilege, as their pre decessors did the first use of forks, and as some of them protested against inoculation as a tempting of Provi dence. Hogarth refers to the proposal in one of his l9o PARLIAMENTARY RULE. [chap. lxix. Four Prints of an Election, where the imbecile cry is raised, — " Give us back our eleven days ! " These pictures form a continuous panorama of a carnival of riot, greed, venality, drunkenness, and profligacy. They reveal the coarse humours, the brutality, and the cor ruption of such contests throughout the eighteenth century, and that survived within living memory Nominations were made from the hustings, amidst turbulent scenes ; and an open table for all comers was kept for the fifteen days of the polling. Hogarth depicts the Independent Electors' Arms, the sign of the public-house, as a shield bearing three guineas, with an open mouth, and the motto, "Ask, and Have!" The pipe-lights are made of the printed Act against bribery and corruption. In the street, two rival pro cessions are fighting. Candidates and agents are buying votes. Portly farmers and voracious tradesmen are eating and drinking to repletion. All the pictures are crowded with similar details. The Continental imbroglio was seized upon by the Jacobites as an opportunity for another rising in Scotland. The Pretender, son of James II. , was living in Rome ; but his son, Charles Edward, with a few adherents, landed in the Western Highlands in July, 1745. Troops were sent to quell the rising, but they were almost annihilated in the Battle of Preston Pans, near Edinburgh, on the twenty-first of September. Evading another army, the Highlanders marched as far as Derby ; and such was the panic — ridiculed in Hogarth's March of the Guards to Finchley, which aroused the ire of the King — that they might have reached London ; but a retreat was ordered, which proved fatal. They re-crossed the Border, and won the Battle of Falkirk, January 18, 1746. The Duke of Cumberland, one of the sons of George II. , was appointed to the supreme command, as a Court job. After the Battle of Culloden, near Inverness, April 16, 1746, he entered upon a course of brutal procedure which has affixed to him the infamous epithet of the Butcher ; and he is responsible for the deliberate acts of torture and murder, and for the wanton destruction of houses and property that marked the track of the soldiers. The a.d. 1727-1760.] THE PRETENDER. 191 scaffold and the gallows received a hecatomb of victims. The whole of the Highlanders were disarmed. Charles Edward, after many hair-breadth escapes during six months, went to France. On the death of his father, James Francis Edward, at Rome, December 30, 1765, he was mortified that none of the European Courts, and not even the Pope, would recognise his claims. They were deemed as shadowy as the seventy phantom peers whom he and his father pretentiously created. He became moody and discontented, addicted himself to drink and to low pleasures, was a slave to vices that seemed here ditary, and died at Florence, unpitied and obscure, January 30, 1788. His brother Henry, a mild and in offensive man, became a Cardinal at Rome, and received an English pension of four thousand pounds until his death in 1807. In Scott's 'Waverley,' the Pretender appears very much as he was ; and in ' Redgauntlet ' the last spark of the Jacobite rising goes out in utter darkness. Apart from the question of sentiment, of which far more has been made than the facts of the case warrant, it is needful to remember that since the Act of Union, except in a few instances when attempts were made to rule Scotland by English methods, raising only a storm and whirlwind of resistance, it had been found convenient to entrust the administration of affairs to a single Minister of Scottish birth and possessions, but with political con nections at Westminster. The powerful Whig family of Argyle long exercised this kind of authority. In the early part of the reign of George III. there were family and party fluctuations, until, with the Ministry of the younger Pitt, the local rule centred in one Tory family, and became what was known as the Dundas Despotism, exercised by the first Viscount Melville, and described in Lord Cockburn's ' Memorials.' It is impossible not to honour and admire the sentiment, so far as it really existed among a restricted few, that caused such attach ment to the unworthy representative of the exiled House of Stuart, even while censuring the attempts to disturb a settlement in which the great majority of the people concurred. The numerous Jacobite songs and ballads of the time — one of the most touching of which is Shen- i9i PARLIAMENTARY RULE. [cMaP. Lxix. stone's 'Jemmy Dawson' — and the pathetic stories which have come down to modern days, allowing for poetical colouring and embellishment, show the depth and tender ness of feeling entertained by those who were truly Jacobites towards a fallen and proscribed family. To its English partisans it was the overthrow of hopes cherished for sixty years ; and with that generation Jacobitism passed away, excepting as a tradition among a few enthusiasts. After the retirement of Walpole, in 1742, there were several Cabinets, including the Broad-bottom, under Henry Pelham (1695-1764) ; the Short-lived, under the Earl of Bath (1682-1764), lasting only two days ; and that of the Duke of Newcastle, from June, 1757. The name of William Pitt (1708-1778), afterwards Earl of Chatham, first appears prominently at this time. George II. was afraid of him, and could not under stand his long harangues, his sesquipedalian sentences, and his grand manner ; but was reluctantly compelled to consent to his having a subordinate post in the Ministry. In 1756, he became Secretary of State, and virtual Prime Minister. His will was law to his colleagues, none of whom could endure his imperious frown, any more than the House of Commons could withstand his august disdain or his vehement denuncia tions, or the Niagara of sounding words which he poured forth. One of his habits was to retire to his country seat, like Achilles to his tent, and refuse all interviews, letters, or messages ; or else to affect a convenient attack of gout, until his policy was implicitly adopted. A rhe torical artifice common with him was to assume the language, the tone, and the bearing of profound humility and self-depreciation, which is often nothing else than thinly-veiled egotism and self-seeking. The Great Commoner has been represented as an incorruptible patriot among a crowd of venal politicians ; but an examination of the ' Chatham Correspondence ' reveals a spirit of intrigue for place and pension, and a line of conduct strangely at variance with the received theory. His peerage was the reward conferred by George III. for retracting the verbal Liberal creed of earlier days ; but Chatham subsequently rendered signal service during the a.d. 1727-1760.] THE STRUGGLE FOR iNDlA. 195 first part of the American struggle, by his bold ane. magnificent utterances in defence of the Colonists. For upwards of a century, the English and French, the Dutch and Portuguese had been carrying on with varying success a trade with India. There were mutual jealousy and rivalry, and frequent collisions with native rulers. The English were barely tolerated, in 1640, in founding a settlement at Madras. Within fifty years, their influence had greatly extended ; and by the middle of the eighteenth century they were formidable and threatening to the ancient government of the Moguls. Between 1745 and 1761 they became the strongest power and laid the foundations of a mighty empire. Clive at Arcot and at Plassey, Stringer Lawrence at Trichinopoly, Sir Eyre Coote at Wandewash, and other capable and daring men, had the courage to undertake re sponsibilities from which weaker men would have shrunk. The powerful East India Company was established in 1702 by an amalgamation of two existing Chartered bodies. Ere long, this great trading corporation wiel ded sovereign authority over a distant empire ; set up and dethroned princes ; levied vast taxes ; made peace and war ; and exercised a commercial monopoly which no private persons could break through. Successive Charters were granted, conferring additional powers, always in return for valuable consideration, and reserving a quasi- control to the English government. When war was declared in 1744 between England and France, Joseph Francis Dupleix (1697-1764), governor of the French settlement of Pondicherry, formed a bold plan to drive the English out of India. Madras was besieged and captured ; but it had to be restored by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. Other disputes ended in an armed neutrality, the two nations taking opposite sides in native rivalries, and impatiently awaiting the crisis that was certain to occur. The people of India were not homogeneous, under one powerful ruler. They were divided into separate states and tribes, with rivalries dating back for centuries. Mohammedan marauders had established dynasties, and were, in their turn, overthrown. The great Mogul empire in the North was crumbling to decay. Powerful vol. in. 14 194 PARLIAMENTARY RULE. [chap. wax. tributaries had set up independent authority in the Deccan, in the Karnatic, and in Mysore. North-Western India was Hindu, and peopled by the Sikhs, South of whom was another Hindu state of Rajputana, and, still further south, were the powerful Marhattas. With all these the English eventually became involved, by conflict or by treaty ; but, at the outset, they were only brought into contact with the enfeebled and decaying Mogul empire. The real dispute lay with the French, and the determining factor was England's supremacy on the sea, which rendered her ultimate conquest of India not only possible but certain. If her navy had not proved superior to that of France, the Empire of India could never have been won, nor could it have been re tained without such supremacy when England was fighting there for life. The same policy was pursued with regard to supremacy in America. Pitt dis cerned alike the national danger and the only means of escape. His policy was to subsidize Frederick of Prussia, without involving England in active participa tion in the Continental war ; so as to concentrate all her resources for obtaining the dominion of the sea, with a view to the expulsion of the French from America. The plan laid down, and successfully accomplished, was to blockade the Channel and the Atlantic ports, so that no French ships could attack England or bring supplies into the River St. Lawrence ; to watch the Straits of Gibraltar, and keep the French fleet in the Mediterranean ; to prevent expeditions being sent to America and India ; and to attack the French settlements in the West Indies. No effort or money was spared to equip a powerful English Navy ; and, as a result, that of France was practically annihilated by Boscawen's attack upon Toulon and by Hawke's blockade of Brest, and by his victory in Quiberon Bay, November 20, 1759. Havre, Dunkirk, and other ports, were also invested, and all danger of an invasion by France passed away. Pitt had breathed a new spirit into the nation ; he initiated a great colonial policy ; and he developed the Navy, at a cost, and with a boldness, that staggered financiers, and that could only be justified by a successful realization of the momentous issues at stake. a.d. 1727-1760.] ENGLAND'S PLACE AND POWER. 195 Robert Clive commenced his marvellous career as a merchant's clerk in Madras. He entered the service of the East India Company at the age of twenty-one, and gave early promise of military and governing genius. At the head of a small force of two hundred English troops and three hundred Sepoys, he captured Arcot, a city of one hundred thousand inhabitants, within the French territory. By this bold act, followed by three other victories, he broke the spell of French authority over the natives. He recaptured Calcutta from Suraj-ud- Daula, in January, 1757, and was afterwards Governor of Bengal. He displayed vast administrative capacity, and raised the British name to an unexampled height of power and renown in the East. On his return to England, shortly after the accession of George III., he was received with much honour, and was created an Irish peer. Disturbances in Bengal, caused by incompetence and misrule, were so threatening that he was sent out again in 1765, armed with supreme authority. In eighteen months, he effected a settlement, checked abuses, suppressed mutiny, and placed the administration on a secure basis ; but, of course, made enemies of those whose nepotism and rapacity he had curbed. He was successively censured, pardoned, thanked, and rewarded by the Legislature. The fact of his having bought ten boroughs had not a little to do with the condonation of his undoubted stretch of authority. After several years of suffering from illness brought on by the Indian chmate and by his gigantic labours, he committed suicide in a fit of despondency, in November, 1774. Admitting the faults of such a man, under the special circumstances, he wiU ever be honoured as the founder of the English empire in the East. In this way was determined the question whether France or England was to rule India ; for the Dutch had gone to the Archipelago, with its rich spice islands, and the atrocities of the Inquisition at Goa had caused the Portuguese to lose India. Possibilities were opened up, such as not even the most adventurous and far-seeing could have anticipated, of a sovereignty or a protectorate embracing, within about a century, nearly three hundred millions of the human race. A large group of questions awaited solution at that 196 PARLIAMENTARY RULE. [chap, lxix time ; such as whether Spain was to continue to monopolize the commerce of the Tropics ; whether Germany should attain to a national existence ; which of the great Powers of Europe was to control the ocean- carrying trade, and thus secure the chief place in the markets of the world ; and whether the French language, laws, institutions, and usages, or those of England, were to prevail over the vast North American continent. The last question, which is discussed with care by Francis Parkman, was brought to an issue and decided about the same time that the struggle for the possession of India came to an end. Across the Atlantic, the French occupation of Canada for a century and a half had been more of the nature of a miUtary post than of a Colonial dependency. Like the Spaniards, they were so incurably infected with the passion for obtaining wealth, by means independent of regular and sober industry, that they never addressed themselves in earnest to the cultivation of the soil, and never attained to anything Uke a state of real prosperity. Courageous Jesuit missionaries, and adventurers like Louis Joliet, Marquette, and Nicholas de la SaUe had traversed portions of the interior, encountering great perils and privations. The gigantic bubble known as the Mississippi Scheme of John Law, a Scotchman settled in Paris, was blown in 1717, and burst in 1720. Its object was to develop that unknown tract of country, aUeged to abound in the precious metals. Exclusive trading privileges were obtained, with power to coin money and to levy and farm taxes. For three years France abandoned her self to the delirious excitement of speculation and gambling. A sudden coUapse brought about the ruin of thousands of credulous and avaricious persons ; at the same time that a similar calamity befell the gullible victims of the South Sea Bubble in England. The French movements in Canada were always viewed with dislike by the English settlers in New England and in Virginia. The feeling was intensified when the French aimed to establish a connection between the territories in the basins of the St. Lawrence and the Mississippi by the great intermediate lakes and waters lying to the West of the British possessions. They had ad. 1727-1760.] CANADA ACQUIRED. 197 penetrated by the middle of the century as far as the River Ohio, from the undefined region South and South- West, known as Louisiana, named after Louis XIV., which, however, could not be regarded as being even sparsely settled. There were hundreds of thousands of the aborigines, vaguely but incorrectly called North American Indians, and divided into great opposing tribes, who roamed over the pathless tracks which formed their hunting and fishing grounds ; but they were not taken into account by the ruling powers at St. James's or at Versailles, excepting when it was convenient to employ their tomahawks and scalping- knives, in return f or rum, gunpowder, blankets, tools, and cheap finery. Local collisions had frequently occurred between the French and the English in Canada long before Sir James Wolfe was sent in 1759 to lay siege to Quebec, where both he and the Marquis de Montcalm, the French commander, heroically fell ; as is commemorated on the monument erected in their joint honour. Though Wolfe was slain, " he feU upon the lap of smiUng victory " ; and his achievement led to the surrender of the whole territory to England, by the Treaty of Paris, February 10, 1763. Provision was made for a continuance of the laws, the usages, and the religion of the French residents. England took a leading place among European peoples. She had already given birth to two nations, in America and in India ; destined to become mighty empires, such as the world had never seen. She was also destined, ere long, to caU into being other settlements, in Africa and in Australia ; constituting, with older and later depen dencies, a Greater Britain on which the sun never sets. Nor are the political and the commercial results of the colonizing enterprise the most brilliant and important. Seeds of liberty have been planted in distant continents and islands, where patriotism, freedom, and self-govern ment are cherished as a priceless heritage. About the same time that Canada was acquired by England, the district of Louisiana was ceded to Spain, in whose nominal possession it remained until ceded back to France under Napoleon, in 1800. In his famous series of ' Leather-Stocking Tales,' such as ' The Deerslayer, ' The Pathfinder,' and ' The Pioneers,' Fenimore Cooper has 198 PARLIAMENTARY RULE. [chap, lxix, given highly-coloured vignettes of the fight for supremacy in America. Fort Duquesne, on the Ohio, which had been a constant menace to the English, was captured in 1753, and the name changed to Pittsburg by the grateful colonists, in honour of the great Minister who rolled back the tide of French conquest, and revealed possi bilities that led to the opening up of the vast Western territories. The cessation of French rule in Canada had important bearings on the struggle for American Independence that broke out within three years. England also acquired certain islands in the West Indies, and the Balearic Isles, including Minorca, in the Mediterranean, which had been captured by the French in 1756. The failure to prevent this, against an over whelming force, led to the trial of Admiral John Byng (1704-1757), by court-martial, for aUeged cowardice, and he was shot. The charge was alike false and absurd, and his memory was fully vindicated, to the disgrace of the Devonshire Ministry, who sacrificed him to popular clamour in order to cover their own ineptitude. The only analogous case was that of Lord Cochrane, Earl of Dundonald (1775-1860), the victim of a malignant poli tical persecution, which lost to the country for sixteen years the services of a brilliant, daring, and able naval commander, and inflicted upon him an undeserved stigma. In the midst of the stirring events in India and in Canada, and of the political complications in Europe arising out of the Coalitions of France, Austria, and Russia against Hanover and Prussia, which led to the Seven Years' War, George II. died October 22, 1760, and was succeeded by his grandson. In a general sense, this reign may be said to close the Constitutional Period that was initiated by the Bill of Rights ; although during the time of Queen Anne and of the first two Georges, attempts were made to in fringe that great settlement. Circumstances led to a dark and disgraceful Period of Repression. Period XIII.— REPRESSION. A.D. 1760-1820. Chapter 70. — Renewed Attempts at Personal Rule 7i727374. — The French Revolution. 75. — The Great War with France. 76. — Fiscal Burdens and the Act of Union 77. — Repressive Measures in England, — American Declaration of Independence. -India and the Colonies. — The Arts, Literature, and Science. >9» 200 PERSONAL RULE. [chap. lxx. CHAPTER LXX. renewed attempts at personal rule. a.d. 1760-1782. Expressed in concise terms, the long reign of George III. comprised sixty years of blundering, injustice, and repres sion. Of his dulness and obstinacy ; his narrow notions of the coronation oath ; his exaggerated ideas of pre rogative ; and his ludicrous but mischievous attempts at personal rule, much has been written. His persistent endeavours to establish an impossible autocracy render it needful to furnish some details, because of their bear ing upon English liberties. Cowper's delineation of the regal character, in the Fifth Book of ' The Task,' published in 1785, was from the life of George III., interpreted by contraries. Charity prompts the con jecture that he must have been insane long before the period certified by his physicians, and acted upon by the Legislature. Like most persons similarly afflicted, he had much secretiveness, was morbidly suspicious, and formed strong and unreasoning dislikes. Buckle says he was least mischievous when most incapable. Like most obstinate men, he did not hold his opinions, but was held by them. His correspondence with Lord North shows the littleness and the doggedness of his efforts to govern by his personal will. When the Royal Marriage Bill, giving him absurd and dangerous powers over the matrimonial arrangements of his family, was pending in the House of Lords, in February, 1772, he wrote, — " I expect every nerve to be strained to carry the Bill . . . and I shall remember defaulters." The measure was forced through, because one of his brothers, after a loose life, had contracted a distasteful marriage. The conse quences of the Act are set forth in Massey's ' History of George III.' In another letter on the subject he wished for a list of the peers who voted, in order that he might openly show his displeasure at the Drawing Room towards those who abstained, or who " deserted to the minority." He intervened in 1783 for the purpose of defeating in the House of Lords a Bill for the better A.D. 1760-1782.] AN IGNORANT DESPOT. 201 government of India, which Fox and Burke, as members of the Coalition Ministry, had carried through the Commons ; declaring that whoever supported it would be considered as his enemy. Many similar letters exist, all of them faulty in grammar and autocratic in tone. His education had been shamefully neglected, and he never tried to repair the loss. Despotic notions had been instilled into him by his mother, Augusta of Saxe- Coburg, who kept him in leading-strings, and continually urged him to be a king, in the sense of absolutism. According to those who knew him best, he was ignorant, narrow, and mulish. He thought everything good that was old, and everything right that was established. Whoever differed from him was disloyal and a reprobate. He delighted to exalt mediocrity, provided it was pliable and obsequious. It was a Golden Age for the Sir Pertinax Macsycophants, when North and Addington could be lauded as statesmen ; a Beattie pensioned as a philosopher ; a Pye chosen as poet-laureate ; a Louis Dutens as historiographer ; a Wyatt as architect ; and Capability Brown as the prim regulator of Nature. George III. constantly interfered with Parliamentary elections, in order to secure the return of members who would carry out his wishes. He began the practice with the initial Parliament of his reign, and never abandoned it. He closely watched the division lists to see who voted on measures which he chose to regard as personal. Admonitions, threats, promises, titles, offices, sinecures, lucrative contracts, and other substantial rewards were directly administered, as he judged needful, to the wavering, in order to fix them ; to opponents, if they could be won over ; and to " the King's friends," to encourage them. The Crown patronage was rigidly kept under his control. Bribes were profusely scattered in the gross form of bank-notes and guineas among expectant parasites. He wrote letters with his own hand, to accompany "boxes of gold pills," as he termed them, with plain hints that " the prescription " might be repeated as a reward for subserviency. The House of Lords was doubled in numbers, and its character under went a process of deterioration. Thirty dubious eleva tions occurred under North's Ministry. The younger 202 PERSONAL RULE. [chap, lxx Pitt was responsible for one hundred and forty, some of whom, as John RoUe declared in the House of Commons, were not fit to be his grooms. They owed their titles to party usefulness or unscrupulousness. Every Liberal sentiment, and the bare suggestion of remedies for flagrant abuses, were abominations in the King's eyes. He hated such men as the elder Pitt, Burke, and Fox, as much from dread of their ability as because he disliked their political principles. When Pitt modified his opinions, and when Burke abandoned his, then, but not till then, were they admitted to favour. What Burke said, in one of his great speeches on American taxation, April 19, 1774, accurately described an atti tude which it is to be regretted he ever saw fit to change : — " I know the map of England as well as the noble lord (North), or any other person ; and I know that the way I take is not the road to preferment." It is not true, in the case of Fox, as is sometimes alleged, that the King's leaden regard for the proprieties of life was shocked by his private character. The much more scandalous orgies of the titled blackguards who dubbed themselves the Franciscans, at Medmenham Abbey, did not prevent their appoinment to the highest offices. The disastrous and needless contest with America, as the result of which the United States won their inde pendence and England lost her fairest Colonies, was always called the King's War. " Stiff in opinion, always in the wrong," he forced it on, and was the last to yield. The royal income, derived from the swollen Civil List ; from the Duchy of Lancaster ; from the Duchy of Corn wall during the minority of the Prince of Wales ; from the Admiralty droits ; from American quit-rents, and from other sources, exceeded a million per annum, exclusive of the Hanover revenues, and the income of the Bishopric of Osnaburg. In addition, the hereditary revenues of Ireland amounted to three hundred thousand pounds. The Irish pension-list was a mystery of iniquity that furnished additional secret means of providing for a crowd of rapacious courtiers. No accounts were rendered of these various disbursements, or of revenues and grants from Crown lands, because they were supposed to be at his personal disposal. Vast debts were contracted from a.d. 1760-1782.] COST OF ROYALTY. 203 time to time, amounting in all, during the reign, to three millions and a half, which corrupt Parliaments paid, because much of the money was squandered among the members and their dependents. Copious streams of royal bounty were made to flow in judicious channels, in order to promote the authority of the Crown, as distinct from Ministerial responsibility and from the control of Parliament, as Burke clearly showed in 1770, in his 'Thoughts on the Cause of the Present Discontents.' Besides this swoUen outlay, the numerous royal progeny received lucrative appointments in the Army and Navy, and other rich sinecures, in addition to large allowances, amounting in all to three hundred thousand pounds yearly. Yet, with the solitary and honourable exception of the Duke of Sussex (1773-1843), the graceless and useless sons of George III. were always embarrassed, and were constantly applying as mendicants to Parliament. A common remark was — " This is the cheapest family to see, and the dearest to keep." The Prince of Wales, afterwards George IV., received between 1783, when he came of age, and 1810, special grants amounting to a million and a half, chiefly for gambling and other dis graceful debts ; in addition to an annual allowance that reached at length one hundred and twenty thousand. A faithful few in the Legislature had the courage to protest. The House of Commons resolved itself into a Committee, April 6, 1780, to consider petitions from Yorkshire and other places on Economical Reform. A motion by John Dunning, member for Calne, was carried by a majority of eighteen, in spite of strenuous resistance by the Court faction : — " That the influence of the Crown has increased, is increasing, and ought to be diminished." The House also reaffirmed its right to control the Civil List expenditure. Four days later, Dunning carried another motion, but only by a majority of two, that certain Court functionaries, so long as they held office, should be excluded from the House. Alarm was taken. Covert measures were devised to defeat two BiUs designed to carry the resolutions into effect. All the corrupt machinery was at once set to work to neutralize the former votes, and with success. The great influence and authority of Fox, as leader of the 204 PERSONAL RULE. [chap. lxx. Opposition, could only secure a hearing with difficulty. The Government used promises and threats to induce certain members to vote, brought up miUtary and naval members from distant stations, and ordered aU the Court underlings to be in their places. Fox indignantly taunted the turncoats with their inconsistency and venality. Burke once more brought in a Bill for the abolition of certain useless and costly offices and pensions ; but it was rejected. Then came the " No Popery Riots," provoked under the fanatical leadership of Lord George Gordon, followed, on the eighth of July, by a Dissolution and a General Election. As usual, Court influence was exerted, openly and unscrupulously, and the effect was seen when the new Parliament met in October. The same influence was employed to defeat Burke's BiU for the reform of Civil Establishments, introduced in Feb ruary, 1781. It was in support of this that the younger Pitt made his maiden speech. He was then a nominal Whig and a Reformer. Ere long, he saw fit to renounce the opinions of his youth, betraying first, and then persecuting, his early poUtical friends, falsifying every promise, and violating every engagement. Two reasons explain why this state of things was so long tolerated. The first is that, in his personal character and habits, George III. was an embodiment of stolid, humdrum respectability, and of the ignorance and prejudice of a large number of people. He was not a drunkard, a libertine, or a gambler. No scandals attached to him. It is confidently asserted that he secretly married Hannah Lightfoot, a beautiful and intelligent young Quakeress, but was made to repudiate her by his mother, in order to strengthen the German connection by a poUtic union with Charlotte Sophia of Mecklenburg-Strelitz (1744-1818). From prudential reasons, he dieted himself with Spartan severity. It was a standing joke to be offered a draught of his favourite beverage of barley-water at night. His domestic life was decorous, if dull almost to dreariness, and of the order that fascinates Mrs. Grundy in every age. Frances Burney (1752-1840), afterwards Madame D'Arblay, has revealed in her ' Diary and Letters ' the wearisome monotony and littleness of the Court ; its petty in- a.d. 1760-1782.] A STOLID, STUPID COURT. 205 trigues and spiteful jealousies ; its inane gossip and mental deadness. These dreary pursuits, as an attendant upon the Queen, wasted five of the best years of the life of the gif ted authoress of ' Evelina ' and ' Cecilia,' and arrested for ever the course of her genius. George and his wife spent a kind of Darby and Joan existence. Walking on the slopes at Windsor, or during rural rides, they nodded to the people and chatted with them about their domestic concerns, winning a cheap popularity because of this, and because they ate a plain dinner at one o'clock, took a nap afterwards, did nothing particular in the evening, and went to bed at ten, unless there was a State concert or attendance at the theatre. Their famiUar cognomen was Farmer George and his Wife, and the caricaturists depict them in every variety of grotesque attire and surroundings. The King went regularly to church ; used a large and handsome Prayer Book ; joined in a loud German voice in the responses ; commented audibly on the sermon, when he was awake ; insisted on the prelates wearing wigs ; and hated Dissent, and all independent thought or action, as subversive of authority. This made up his idea of Churchman ship, and was the sum of his religion. In private life, he would have been a stupid, testy, impulsive, overbearing, but, on the whole, good-natured squire, Uke Sir Anthony Absolute. As a sovereign, he was an anachronism and a blunder. " Stranger irony of fate," remarks Leslie Stephen, " can hardly be imagined than that which placed this stupidest of rulers at the head of a great people during one of its most trying crises ; as if to show how much mischief can be worked by wrong-headed honesty, and how little the mischief wrought by a ruler can affect loyalty." The other reason is that with the lapse of years, and under the influence of corrupt Ministers, the House of Commons had sunk into an assembly of placemen and time-servers, who perceived that the favour of the people was not so sure and pleasant a road as the favour of the Court. Sinecure offices, such as the turnspit of the royal kitchen, or the cofferer of the household, or the great patent offices in the Exchequer, with enormous salaries and fees, but with no duties, were bestowed on condition of Parliamentary support. In his famous speech on Civil 206 PERSONAL RULE. [chap. lxx. Establishments, Burke satiricaUy described the archaic titles, the useless or nominal functions, and the mon strous salaries attaching to numerous offices, " with their mock jurisdictions and laborious fooleries." The emolu ments were the price of corruption in the House of Commons, and the occupants defended every abuse, lest their own should be attacked. They also were able to recommend the corrupt and rapacious electors and their connections for lucrative posts, and to obtain for them numerous exemptions, indemnities, and advantages, while the independent and non-official members had nothing to offer. Robert Hall, in his ' Apology for the Freedom of the Press and for General Liberty,' published in 1793, characterized the tribe of placemen and pen sioners as " a noxious spawn, engendered by the corrup tions of government, and nourished by its diseases." Many members were direct nominees of the Crown, or of the close Municipal Corporations created in Stuart times. The electoral reforms of the Commonwealth were cancelled at the Restoration. No attempt had since been made to adjust the constituencies to the shiftings of the population, of trade, or of wealth. Grow ing mercantile towns, like Manchester, Leeds, and Birmingham, were unrepresented, while many pocket- boroughs, with a score or fewer puppet-electors, and places that existed only in name, without an inhabitant, like Gatton or Old Sarum, returned two members at the behest of the patrons. England and Wales, with an estimated population of eight millions, had only a hundred and sixty thousand electors, or one in fifty. The proportion settled by the Redistribution Act of 1885 was Qne in seven. In Scotland, thirty county members were returned by fewer than two thousand voters, and the fifteen borough members by self- appointed Town Councils. All of them, like most of the English Corporations, were under Government in fluence, directly and unblushingly used by means of patronage and bribes. So late as May, 1831, the Town Council of Edinburgh rejected Francis Jeffrey, though he was supported by a petition from seventeen thousand of the principal inhabitants, and chose as Member of Parliament an unknown and obscure man. \.d. 1760-1782.] SEATS BOUGHT AND SOLD. 207 So vast was the Crown influence and that of private patrons, that for the Parliament of 1761, the first of the reign, contests occurred only in Durham and in Herts, of all the counties ; in sixteen boroughs in England, and in none in Wales or Scotland. A similar condition of things prevailed at subsequent elections. In some places, there were no contests during the century, owing to the ruinous expense, or to the overwhelming power of patrons. A petition of the Society of the Friends of the People, in 1793, stated that eighty-four persons sent one hundred and fifty-seven members ; and that one hundred and fifty more were returned, not by the votes of those whom they were supposed to represent, but on the recommendation of seventy powerful individuals. Thus more than one-half of the members were chosen by private influence. Six peers had forty-five nominees in the Lower House, and other lords had one or more members returned in their interest. Fifty-six had con stituencies of less than thirty-eight each. Seats were openly bought and sold, and tliere were recognised brokers for the purpose. Thinly-veiled advertisements appeared in connection with the traffic, and the price ranged from ^2500 to ^6000 for a single contest. Gatton, in Surrey, was sold in 1774, in perpetuity, for ^75,000. Seats were treated as private property, and the nominees rarely went through the form of appearing on the hustings. Wealthy officials returned from India bought seats to give them social position, or to secure favour and titles at Court ; or to promote the interests of the East India Company. They are satirized in Samuel Foote's farce of 'The Nabob' ; the character of Touchit, and the doings in the borough of Bribe'em, being derived from the notorious practices at Shoreham, in Sussex, one of the most corrupt electorates. Burke denounced them in his speech December 1, 1783, on Fox's India Bill. Chatham said that they "forced their way into Parliament by such a torrent of corruption as no here ditary fortune could resist." His son exclaimed, in one of his Reform outbursts: — "This House is not the representative of the people, but of nominal boroughs, of ruined and exterminated towns, of wealthy indi viduals, of foreign potentates." 208 PERSONAL RULE. [chap. lxx. Incredible sums were spent in some contests, mainly in open and unblushing bribery. Venal electors demanded what they regarded as their birthright, in the f uU market prices for their votes. The great contest for Westmore land and Cumberland, in 1768, cost each side forty thousand pounds ; and that for Yorkshire, in 1807, more than one hundred thousand each. Families were straitened for generations, if not ruined, by such reckless outlay. Repeated protests were made by the patriotic few, but the evils continued and became intensified down to the Reform BiU of 1832, and were not effectuaUy checked until the passing of the Corrupt Practices Act, fifty years later. Occasionally, the House of Commons affected a show of virtue, as in the egregious farce per formed in 1783, when the Mayor and Aldermen of Oxford were called to the bar, and sent to Newgate, for pro posing a sum to be paid by the sitting members as a con dition for being again chosen. Every one knew that the procedure was a mockery, that the offenders chanced to be found out in doing clumsily what hundreds did with impunity, and that the covert but notorious design was to beat down the price of borough-jobbing in view of a General Election. ' Vathek ' Beckford, of FonthiU Abbey notoriety, introduced a BiU to check bribery and corrup tion, but had to withdraw it. Benjamin Franklin, who was in London at the time, from Philadelphia, wrote : — " This whole venal nation isnow at market, and will be sold for about two millions, and might be bought out of the hands of the present bidders by the devil himseff, if he would offer half a miUion more." The long rule of the Whigs came to an end in 1762. Their political opponents were instaUed, and retained office in an almost unbroken line for half a century. The Earl of Bute became Prime Minister, a dull, self-seeking Scot, who had been governor to George III. during his minority, and was supposed to be a favourite with his mother, ridiculed by the caricaturists under the guise of a jack-boot surmounted by a petticoat. In point of in tellectual capacity he was on a par with the King. Dr. Johnson, in spite of his own Toryism, said that Bute meant well, but that his blood was full of prerogative, and that he thought the country could be governed A.d. 1760-1782.] BUTE : WILKES : CHURCHILL. 209 solely by Crown influence. The inefficient Cabinet fell in April, 1763, but he nominated like-minded successors in George Grenville and the Earl of Halifax. Chief among Bute's numerous assailants was the notorious John Wilkes (1727-1797), then member for Aylesbury ; a man of great ability and fascinating manners ; of tran scendent wit and boundless impudence ; devoid of prin ciple and abandoned in character. His associate was Charles Churchill (1731-1764), author of 'The Rosciad,' a keen satire on theatrical managers and actors. Byron said that he " blazed the comet of a season." He was a renegade clergyman, of much cleverness, but of greater profligacy even than Wilkes. His pen was most potent when dipped in gall. He lampooned Warburton, and roared out full-mouthed abuse of bishops in general. His one redeeming feature was that he flung aside his cassock, and would not pose as a hypocrite. Hogarth hasf left an undying memorial of Wilkes in a famous print of him, crowned with a cap of liberty. This striking portrait, scarcely exaggerating his atrocious squint, was provoked by one of the political wrangles of the time. Churchill came to the rescue of his friend, in a virulent ' Epistle ' addressed to Hogarth, who retaliated in a portrait of Churchill as a bear, hugging a foaming tankard of porter, his favourite beverage. But Hogarth is said never to have raUied from the effects of the satire. Wilkes and Churchill issued the ' North Briton,' which bears the palm for scurrility and malevolence. The forty-fifth number appeared in April, 1763, and contained a severe criticism upon the royal speech at the opening of ParUament, with a violent attack upon Bute. " Number Forty-five " became a popular catch word, chalked on doors and windows, and shouted in the streets. The Government was indiscreet enough to commence a prosecution, which not only gave Wilkes the notoriety he coveted, but, incidentally, raised an important constitutional question. A General Warrant, laid without specific names or charges, was issued against the author, printers, and publishers of the obnoxious article. The House of Commons also voted it a scanda lous and seditious libel, ordered it to be burned, and expelled Wilkes. He afterwards instituted proceedings vol. in. 15 210 PERSONAL RULE. [chap. lxx. against Halifax, Secretary of State, who had signed the warrant, and obtained four thousand pounds damages. In summing up, Chief Justice Pratt (1713-1794) declared the warrant illegal. This great judge became Lord ChanceUor Camden ; but resigned in 1770, because he could not defend the action of the Cabinet on the American question, and on the exclusion of Wilkes when duly elected to the House of Commons. His ruling in the case of Wilkes, and also the verdict of the jury, were confirmed by Lord Mansfield when a Bill of Excep tions was tendered. The legality of General Warrants was keenly debated in the House of Commons, where the Ministry secured a majority of only fourteen. The King instantly resorted to his usual practice. Among the minority were Generals Conway and a Court. They were deprived of the colonelcies of their regiments. The royal resentment was displayed towards other members holding military and civil offices, for having presumed to vote contrary to his wishes. Because the Bishop of Lincoln voted in 1773 for a measure of tolera tion, the King said, — " Green shall never be translated " ; nor was he. This method of intimidation was carried to such excess that a writer in the ' Royal Magazine,' February, 1766, calculated that since Legge had thus been dismissed from the office of Chancellor of the Ex chequer, in May, 1761, no fewer than five hundred and twenty-three changes had occurred for political reasons. The same policy was pursued throughout the reign. WiUtes was next prosecuted in the King's Bench for criminal libel, and for an alleged obscene publication ; privately printed, but never issued. He was found guilty ; and was outlawed in November, 1764, for failing to appear. The doctrine then laid down from the Bench, following a long succession of judges, was that the sole duty of a jury was to determine the fact of publication, the decision as to whether it was a libel resting with the judge. As Junius truly said, — " In other criminal prosecutions, the malice of the design is confessedly as much a subject of consideration to a jury as the certainty of the fact." Lord Camden was the only occupant of the Bench who strenuously and persistently maintained that the whole matter rested with the jury. a.d. 1760-1782.] LAW OF LIBEL. 21 1 He lived to witness the triumphant establishment of his doctrine ; for, in 1792, Erskine's declaratory Act was passed, affirming that Camden's version of the law was, and always had been, correct, and that it is the right of the jury to take into account the character and tendency of the pubUcation. Prior to this, such illustrious judges as Holt and Mansfield, both of them regarded as up holders of civil liberty, refused to admit evidence tending to show that alleged libels were true ; and the outrageous practice was continued by some judges in spite of the above Act. Hence, " the greater the truth the greater the libel," became a maxim of judge-made law. Wilkes returned from France foiir years after his outlawry ; was arrested under the old conviction, fined one thousand pounds, imprisoned for twenty-two months, and ordered to find sureties for seven years. Meanwhile, he was elected to represent Middlesex in the House of Commons ; and that body, claiming a dispensing power as indefen sible as that of the Stuarts, declared him disqualified, and issued a new writ. This led to another struggle, involving grave constitutional questions, and giving Wilkes an importance whoUy undeserved by his worth less character. Thrice was he chosen by the electors of Middlesex, and thrice did the House refuse to accept the return to the writ ; in the last instance, May 9, 1769, substituting another name, and thus virtuaUy disfranchising a large and an important constituency. Burke boldly stigma tized it as " a hardy attempt by the corps calling itself the King's friends to alter the right of election, without any rule but their own pleasure." However, in 1774, Wilkes was aUowed to take his seat in the new Parlia ment ; and in 1781 the records against him on the Journals were expunged, "as subversive of the rights of the whole body of electors of this kingdom." Wilkes had then been Lord Mayor of London. He was chosen alderman during his imprisonment ; received large gifts, testimonials, and legacies ; and was the idol of the mob. He obtained the lucrative office of City Chamberlain, whieh he filled until his death. But his poUtical career and his popular influence ended with his release from prison. He was an unprincipled adventurer, as well as 212 PERSONAL RULE. [chap. lxx. a shameless debauchee ; but he was never a Wilkesite, as he told the King in after days, when he had gained his personal objects, and made his peace with the Court. A later House of Commons pursued a similar uncon stitutional course from 1880 to 1885, in repeatedly excluding — once, under circumstances of brutal and dis graceful personal violence — Charles Bradlaugh, member for Northampton, on the question of making an affirma tion, or of taking the oath, thereby setting aside the choice of his constituents, and disfranchising them for a lengthened period. It is a painful and a humiliating story, ending like the former case. Bradlaugh took his seat after the General Election of November, 1885 ; and while he lay dying, in January, 1891, at the age of fifty- eight, worn out by manifold public labours and by the hardships of his early career, a resolution was passed, cancelling the records of his former exclusions. The excitement caused by the Wilkes episodes led to the holding of public meetings for the discussion of political topics, the origin of modern platform agitation. Its history is given in Paterson's ' Liberty of the Press, Speech, and Worship,' and in Jephson's ' Rise and Pro gress of the Platform.' The day after the House finaUy rejected Wilkes, a great meeting of Middlesex freeholders was held at Mile End, to consider the proper measures to be adopted for maintaining their rights and privileges. Other meetings were convened ; and the example was speedily followed in various towns and counties. The method was not forgotten. Five years later, the Society of Supporters of the BiU of Rights was founded. In 1780, under the pressure of severe taxation, this safety- valve for public opinion was employed with much effect ; Fox and other public leaders appearing on the platform in London and Westminster. Its use, in the growing demand for Parliamentary Reform at the time of tlie great War with France, led to the passing of an Act in 1795, whereby all meetings were suppressed, under the specious plea of sedition. Some beneficial changes, however, were incidentaUy effected in Parliamentary procedure. In 1770, the method of deciding disputed elections by a strict party- vote of the whole House was abandoned in favour of a committee of fifteen, chosen a.d. 1760-1782.] ' LETTERS OF JUNIUS. 213 by ballot, and sworn to decide according to the evidence. In the same year, the immunity of members' servants from arrest on civil suits was abolished : an important step towards securing the universal supremacy of law. The antiquated and illegal usage was allowed to fall into desuetude, whereby the pergonal and private wrongs or complaints of members were arbitrarily punished as if dbne to the House ; and the ridiculous custom of com pelling aU persons to receive its censures on their knees at the bar was ended by a Standing Order in 1772. Richard Brinsley Sheridan brought this practice into contempt by dusting his knees on one occasion, and audibly remarking that it was the dirtiest place he had ever entered. During the Wilkes controversy, the celebrated ' Letters of Junius' appeared, from 1769 to 1772, in William WobdfaU's ' Public Advertiser.' They freely criticised the King and the leading statesmen of the day, whose ineptitude was boldly denounced. The Prime Minister, the Duke of Grafton, was chiefly singled out for attack. The portrayal of his character and policy, bitten into the public memory by the caustic acid of this invisible but dreaded censor, has never been obliterated. Grafton owes such dubious immortality as he possesses solely to the audacious sarcasm of Junius. It was the same with other prominent men. Not only their official acts and speeches, but their personal appearance, their style of address, their mannerisms, their past career, their follies, peccadilloes, and crimes, and their private habits, were treated with a bold freedom unequalled before or since ; often degenerating into infamous falsehoods, or coarse and acrimonious abuse. Of the talent of these pro ductions there can be no question ; but they were rancorous in the extreme. If the hatred sprang from detestation of injustice and contempt for incapacity, which is more than doubtful, it was intensified by personal animosity and party spirit. The terrible invective suggests personal iU-will, more than virtuous indignation or patriotism. Lecky says, — " The malignity of Junius was truly fiendish ; and it was utterly uncurbed by any restraint of truth, or decency, or honour." That such scurrility should have become popular is a disgraceful 2i4 AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE, [chap. lxxi. reflection upon the spirit and manners of the age. The style, though occasionally stiff and formal, often rises to lofty eloquence, and is always remarkable for closeness of argument, felicity of iUustration, brilliant epigram, and intimate political and official knowledge. The printers and publishers were indicted for libel ; but the jury would not convict. The ' Letters ' owe much of their renown to the mystery of their authorship. All attempts to discover it were vain. Burke was suspected ; but the style is not his, and he disclaimed aU knowledge or responsibility. Maeaulay thinks the circumstantial evidence confirms the general opinion that the author was Sir Philip Francis, who received a lucrative appoint ment in India ; the price of silence, as was commonly supposed. But the controversy threatens to be endless. It has a fascination for some minds, proportionate to 'he difficulty of arriving at certitude. Another satirical writer of the time was Peter Pindar, a pseudonym for Dr. John Wolcot (1738-1819), who, having failed as a physician and a clergyman, devoted himself to writing audacious squibs in verse on aU sorts of persons, from the King downwards. Unscrupulous, impudent, and coarse, Pindar was a master of burlesque humour and caricature, and excelled in producing ludicrous meta phors in a vigorous and idiomatic style. CHAPTER LXXI. AMERICAN DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. A.D. 1760-1782. The Seven Years' War waged by Frederick II. of Prussia against Austria, Russia, and France, and involving England through India and America, was terminated by the Treaty of Paris in February, 1763. The secret Family Pact was frustrated, whereby the crowned heads of the House of Bourbon — as selfish, absolutist, and degraded as the Stuarts — bound themselves to put an end to British maritime supremacy. In return for a A.d. 1760-1782.] GROWTH OF COLONIES. 215 hoped-for recovery of Gibraltar, Spain had undertaken to help France in obtaining control over North America. Nothing came of it ; for Canada was lost to France, and India was secured to England, though the Pact was not finally broken up until the Revolution of 1789 compelled the potentates to struggle for Ufe. The rapid growth of Colonial trade, as the result of the acquisitions of terri tory, is shown by the Customs' entries of 1761, which give the total Exports at fourteen millions and a half, and the Imports at nine and a quarter ; whereas, in 1754, they were eleven and three quarters and eight miUions respectively. But the immediate financial result to England was the nearly trebling of her National Debt, which stood at ^52,092,238 in 1727, and was swollen to ^138,865.430 by 1763. That amount was again nearly doubled between 1775 and 1784 by the American War, which cost one hundred and twenty-one miUions more. It was a war of pride and oppression, ending in humilia tion and disgrace. The American Colonies had greatly extended in area, in population, and in wealth since the beginning of the seventeenth century. At the accession of George III., they contained two millions of people, be sides half a million of negro slaves, distributed among the settlements mentioned in the fiftieth Chapter, and mainly occupied in the profitable employments of cultivating the rice-fields, the tobacco plantations, and indigo. Just as thousands of Puritans and Separatists found shelter in New England under the first and second Stuarts, many Cavaliers emigrated to Virginia during the Common wealth. Charles II. , with the lavish grants of territory that sprung from the prevalent ignorance of geography, gave to his cousin, Prince Rupert, and others, in 1670, that vast domain in the North- West which ultimately became the exclusive monopoly of the Hudson's Bay Company, or, as it was long called, Prince Rupert's Land. South Carolina, named after the same monarch, was settled, in part, in 1663, by a proprietary English Chartered Company. North Carolina was an offshoot from Virginia, in 1653. Georgia was founded so late as 1732 by General Oglethorpe, and was named after the reigning King of England. All these settlements were dependencies, rather than colonies in the true 216 AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE, [chap. lxxi. Hellenistic or Roman sense. Each regulated its own internal affairs, subject to the more or less vague terms of its Charter, and with a dim sense of allegiance to the British sovereign ; involving difficulties and troubles that were certain, sooner or later, to reach a crisis: The territory loosely assigned to each by royal grant, in the spirit of an outworn feudalism, was comprised within a comparatively narrow area, sparsely peopled, separated from its neighbours by dense forests and deep rivers, and skirting hundreds of miles of unknown coast along the Atlantic ; but extending inimitably towards the unex plored West. The enormous regions now partitioned among the Middle and the Western States of America were never traversed, save by an occasional white man, whose chances of escape from roving Indians were precarious. The governors of the Crown Colonies were appointed by the home authorities ; not, as Junius said, that they needed governors, but that the Court favourites wanted salaries. Local affairs were regulated by Assemblies chosen by the Colonists. These were by no means of pure English descent, for they included large numbers of Dutch lineage, of French Huguenots, and of Germans driven out of the Palatinate by Louis XIV. Many thousands of the Scotch settlers in Ulster had crossed the Atlantic, and founded new homes in Pennsylvania and the South ; being forced to do this by the ruin of the woollen trade in 1698, as the result ot the selfishness of English manufacturers, by the operation of the Test Act of 1704 against Irish Nonconformists, and by wholesale evictions of farmers who were rack-rented on their own improvements. Being Presbyterians, they were not attracted to the New England Colonies, where Congregationalism was dominant. It was largely through these Scottish and German immigrations that the popu lation of Pennsylvania rose from twenty thousand, in 1701, to twelve times that number in 1749. By the time of the American Revolution it had increased to three hundred and fifty thousand, one-third being Scotch- Irish. Flocking also into Western Virginia, they formed almost its entire population. It was the same in large districts of the Carolinas. Kentucky was, substantially, settled by them at a later date, as was Tennessee. Next to the a.d. 1760-1782.] SCOTCH-IRISH SETTLERS. 217 Pilgrim Fathers and the Puritans, they contributed to form the moral character of the United States. The type appears, in recent times, in Henry Clay of Virginia, author of the famous Missouri Compromise ; in John C. Calhoun, of South Carolina ; and in General " Stone wall " Jackson, the right arm of the Confederates in the Civil War of 1861, a deeply religious, earnest, valorous, and determined man. Driven from their own land by intolerance, by trade jealousy, and by agrarian injustice, they hated English institutions, both civil and ecclesi astical, with a bitterness elsewhere unknown, to which the Revolution gave vent. Of the fifty-six historic signers of the famous Declaration of Independence, one- fourth are said to have been Scotch-Irish by descent. For more than a century the Colonies had been left to themselves, unless paramount home interests and monopolies were in danger, or money was wanted, or some of the insatiable crowd of courtiers and officials turned hungry eyes across the Atlantic. The Duke of Newcastle, when a member of the Cabinet under Walpole, had a closet full of American despatches that remained unopened for years. Burke ironically described this as treating the Colonies with salutary neglect ; and it led to the paradoxical saying that George Grenville (1712-1770) lost America because he was foolish enough to read and answer the despatches. It may be admitted now that a severance from the mother-country was inevitable, and was only a question of time. The regret remains that it was not affected amicably. England had expended scarcely anything upon them. She did nothing for their defence, beyond maintaining a few regiments, in scattered companies, at widely separated points. In almost every war with the Indians, the brunt was borne by the local militia, whose services were also demanded in the in cessant conflicts with the French in Canada. The rela tions with the Home Government became strained, owing to unwise and unjust restrictions attempted to be placed upon the settlers. They were not allowed to send their products anywhere but to Great Britain, whence also supplies of many necessary articles had to be compulsorily brought, subject to heavy duties. Ireland and the Continent were expressly excluded from trade . No foreign 218 AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE, [chap. lxxI. ship might enter American harbours. Raw wool, woollen fabrics, beaver hats, and other things that could easily be produced, might not be carried from one province to another, lest the home trade might be injured. Burke remarks : — "A teasing Custom House, and a multiplicity of perplexing regulations, ever appear the masterpiece of finance to people of narrow views." Frequent com plaints were made, but no redress could be secured. Such were the real causes of the strife between the American Colonies and the mother-country. A feeling of irritation needed only an occasion to develop into open resistance. A proposal had been made during the preceding reign to increase the revenue by levying direct taxes in America. Walpole would not sanction it. He saw the danger of attempting to tax a pe6ple three thousand miles distant, who were unrepresented in Parliament, and for purposes in which they could not share. What he refused to do, because it was alike illegal, unsafe, and inexpedient, inferior men undertook with light hearts, because they said it was technically lawful. In 1764, Grenville, narrow, pedantic, and overbearing, submitted to the House of Commons a motion to charge certain Stamp Duties in America, for purposes of defence against expected attacks by the French, to the extent of about one hundred thousand pounds per annum. In itself, the proposal was fair ; and, with proper methods, it might have been carried out. Coming in the train of a long series of mistakes, it was certain to fail. As soon as the news crossed the Atlantic, memorials and representatives were sent to England in protest. Among the agents, the most celebrated was Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790), a memorable product of colonial civilization, a ohrewd printer and experimental philosopher from Pennsylvania, the original of the homely wisdom and practical morality of ' Poor Richard,' and one of the earliest investigators of the phenomena of electricity. In spite of all remon strances, and in a spirit that rejected every compromise, such as moderate and sagacious statesmanship prompted, the scheme became law. Without these stamps, sales, mortgages, notes of hand, marriages, inheritances, and law-suits were to be invalid. Determined resistance was a.d. 1760-1782.] THE STAMP DUTIES. 219 manifested by the Colonial Assemblies, in which a fierce spirit of liberty had grown up during more than a century of virtual self-government. When the obnoxious stamps arrived, they were seized and destroyed, in some cases ; and, in others, the distributors dared not act. The elder Pitt, emerging early in 1766 from a year's retirement and silence, vindicated the course taken by the Colonists, and scouted the plea that they were virtually represented. That great jurist, Lord Camden, afterwards maintained in the House of Lords the sound principle that taxation and representation are inseparable. The Stamp Act was repealed in March by the Rockingham Ministry, simply because it was found impossible of en forcement. At the same time, its rightfulness and legality were affirmed, in a futile attempt to cover a forced retreat. The King dismissed the Cabinet in July. There had been in sixyears as manynew or reconstructed Cabinets, which, as Carlyle says, " vehemently scrambled for the thing they called the Rudder of Government, but which was, in reality, the Spigot of Taxation." Then followed the brief rule of Pitt, who, to the surprise and anger of many, and to the temporary obscuration of his own popularity, accepted the title of Earl of Chatham. He retired in October, 1768, after an inglorious tenure of office, during which he seems to have been at times not responsible for his actions. During one of his prolonged absences, and when inaccessible to his colleagues, Charles Townshend (1725-1767), the brilliant but shallow Chan cellor of the Exchequer, commonly styled the Weather cock, vainly hoping to please all parties at home without estranging the Colonists, devised and forced upon the reluctant Cabinet a system of Import Duties on such articles as tea, painters' colours, wine, oil, fruits, glass, and paper, estimated to yield not more than forty thousand pounds a year. He did not live to witness the results 01 his plan, which, with its author, formed the theme of one of Burke's masterly characterizations in his great speech of 1774 on American Taxation. It was vainly hoped by Townshend that the Americans would not object to the proposal, instead of which they sent home respectful but firm remonstrances. When Par liament met, the burden of the King's speech was that 220 AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE. [chap. lxxi. faction had broken out afresh among the Colonists,and that some of them had proceededto acts of violent resistance to the laws, and had adopted measures subversive of the Constitution. They must therefore be punished as tur bulent and seditious persons. Not a word was said about inquiring into and redressing alleged grievances. It was assumed that the Colonists had no right to complain of or to resist anything that they were ordered to do or to pay. A musty Statute of Henry VIII. was revived, passed long before the first English settlement in America, and appUcable only to Ireland and the Continent, under which accused or suspected persons might be brought home and tried by a Special Commission, without a jury. The governors of the various Colonies were directed to influence the Assemblies, and to dissolve them if they would not yield. Troops were sent out, and billeted upon the people, with orders to use force, if necessary. When the news crossed the Atlantic, decisive action was taken. The House of Representatives of Virginia — the Old Dominion, in which so many proud aristocratic families resided — contained men like George Washington, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Harrison, George Mason, Richard Bland, John Marshall, James Madison, Peyton and Edmund Randolph, and Patrick Henry, who would not surrender their rights aud liberties. The spirit of that Cavalier State had broadened and deepened since 1661, when its Governor, Sir William Berkeley, wrote home,—" I thank God there are no free schools or printing-presses ; and I hope we shall not have them these hundred years ; for learning has brought heresy, and disobedience, and sects into the world, and printing has divulged them, and libels against the best Government. God keep us from both ! " The House of Representatives asserted its sole authority to levy taxes ; protested against the threatened application of the above obsolete Statute ; warned the King of the dangers that would ensue if any Americans were seized and taken to England for trial , and resolved on seeking joint action with the other Colonies in self-defence. The House was instantly dissolved, but its members continued to assemble as individual patriots. Pennsylvania, Dela- A.D. 1760-1782.] THE TEA-DUTY. 221 ware, and all the Southern provinces concurred in the action. There were not lacking qualified leaders in the emergency — able, patriotic, and resolute men like those already named, and like John Jay, Robert R. and Philip Livingston, Josiah Quincy, James Bowdoin, John Dickin son, Thomas Johnson, Gouverneur Morris, Fisher Ames, Elbridge Gerry, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney and his brother Thomas, Samuel and John Adams, John Hancock, James Otis, and, above all, Alexander Hamilton — mur dered in a duel by the infamous Aaron Burr, in 1804 — whose influence on American thought and institutions was equalled only by that of Thomas Jefferson. John Jay, eminent as a jurist and a diplomatist, was the first Chief Justice of the United States. Concerning him, Daniel Webster said, in his sonorous, Chatham-like style, — " When the spotless robe of the judicial ermine fell on John Jay, it touched nothing less spotless than itself." It was determined to purchase no articles from England. The home merchants were alarmed for their trade, and they brought the matter before Parliament. A partial and clumsy concession was made, by with drawing the Import Duties on all articles except tea, estimated to yield only three hundred pounds yearly, maintained " in order to assert the right of taxation." The levy was threepence per pound ; but a majority of the people abjured the use of tea, as a protest, and were determined not to pay any taxes, however small or indi rect, unless imposed with their consent. ' ' Taxation with out representation is tyranny," was the popular motto. There had been other shufflings of the official cards, and in January, 1770, Lord North (1732-1792) became Prime Minister. Junius made one of his vehement attacks in connection with what is known as the Horned- Cattle Speech, saying that Ministers made the King talk as a half-ruined grazier, rather than as the monarch of a vast empire, because the first and chief item of the royal speech at the opening of the 1770 Session was devoted to the murrain among horned cattle, when questions of enormous interest at home, in Ireland, and in the Colonies demanded attention. North was a man after the King's own heart, especially in his dogged opposition to all reform, and to every popular measure. 222 AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE. [chap. lxxi. Easy-tempered and amiable in private life, witty and ready in debate, and personally popular, he carried out the Court wishes tor twelve years by means of a venal and compliant majority in the Commons, which _ he debauched still further by corruption. Gibbon, himself a silent member and a placeman, describes how North slumbered on the Treasury Bench between the two great legal pillars of his Ministry, Thurlow (1732-1806), the Attorney-General, of whom Fox used to say that no one could be so wise as he looked, and Alexander Wedder burn (1733-1805), the Solicitor-General. The latter, after posing as a patriot, and making numerous speeches in defence of liberty, changed poUtical sides ini77i, under circumstances that have rendered his name a by-word for perfidy. He reaped further rewards for his apos tasy, with universal contempt superadded, and became Chancellor in 1793, under the title of Lord^ Lough borough. The King and Lord North, unfortunately, were in entire accord as to the policy to be pursued towards America. The former wrote that he regarded the repeal of the Stamp Act as " a fatal compliance," which had for ever "wounded the majesty" of this country and "planted thorns under his pillow." He was bent upon maintaining absolute authority, and on bringing the " rebels " to submit. On their side, partial success emboldened them to make further demands, as was inevitable. A crisis came on December 16, 1773. Three vessels, laden with tea, were in Boston harbour. A town's meeting resolved that the cargoes should not be landed. That night, forty or fifty men, disguised as Indians, went on board, and emptied into the water three hundred and forty chests of tea, without inflicting damage on other property. The first thing done when the news reached England was to remove the Custom-House from Boston to Salem, and to forbid the port to be used. Next, the Constitution of Massachusetts was swept away. In future, the Council was to be nominated, instead of elective, and aU judges, magistrates, sheriffs, and other officials were to be appointed by the Governor. Impunity was granted by anticipation to the troops, for any acts of violence in enforcing the new order of things. The Earl a.d. 1760-1782.] EDMUND BURKE. 223 of Chatham, who was himself again, protested, as did Burke, in masterly speeches, but in vain. The latter said, — "No one shall persuade me, when a whole people are concerned, that acts of lenity are not means of con ciliation" ; and he nobly added, — " I do not know the method of drawing up an indictment against a whole people." On the other side, Dr. Johnson wrote to order his pamphlet, ' Taxation no Tyranny,' and declared that the Colonists were a race of convicts who ought to be thankful for anything short of hanging. Burke's con ciliatory resolutions were rejected in 1775 by two hundred and seventy votes to seventy- eight. His uni form action was that of practical expediency. Though precedents existed for the taxation, he deemed it un desirable to assert a power that could n'ot be enforced. While secretary to the Marquis of Rockingham, the head of a short-lived Ministry, Burke had entered Par liament, in 1766, as member for Wendover. His first speech, on American affairs, drew marked commenda tions from the elder Pitt, and he attained at a bound to celebrity. His extraordinary gifts and acquirements were divided between poUtics and Uterature. It has been said that he was too literary to be a philosopher, and too philosophic to be a politician. His speeches were uttered dissertations, and his pamphlets were elaborate speeches. Yet no one has received or has merited such splendid panegyric, notwithstanding aU his faults of style and manner, and though he was the dinner-beU of the House. His influence upon political thinkers has been extensive and abiding, and he may be regarded as the greatest political writer that England has produced. He adorned every subject on which he descanted. His vast and varied intellectual powers ; his almost boundless know ledge of literature, the arts, and sciences ; his classical lore ; his vivid imagination ; his untiring industry ; his grasp of principles ; the cogency of his reasoning ; the boldness of his metaphors ; the exuberance of his language ; and the versatility of his style, stand forth pre-eminent, warranting the high eulogium pronounced by his friend, Dr. Samuel Johnson. Grattan considered him the best talker he had ever known. Goldsmith described him as winding into a subject like a serpent. 224 AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE. [chap. lxxi. Nor was his moral nature dwarfed by his vast intellectual powers. In a loose and corrupt age, he was transparently pure and upright, and his domestic life was without a stain. He never forgot the friends of his youth ; and, while struggling himself, he generously aided men like James Barry the painter and George Crabbe the poet, and was always ready to perform acts of unobtrusive beneficence. Adam Smith declared that he knew no other man who, without communication, had thought out the same conclusions in political economy as his own. Robert HaU (1764-1831), the renowned and accompUshed Baptist preacher of Leicester, Cambridge, and Bristol, whose attainments weU qualified him to be a judge, said of Burke, — " The excursions of his genius are immense. His imperial fancy has laid aU Nature under tribute, and has coUected riches from every scene of the Creation, and every walk of Art." WilUam Wilberforce bears similar testimony. During his brightest and best years, before the melancholy circumstances that clouded the end of his iUustrious life, Burke proved himself to be far in advance of most of his contemporaries, by advocating such measures as the abolition of the laws against forestaUing and regrating, the freedom of trade, just concessions to Catholics and to Dissenters, the mitigation of the penal code and of the barbarous laws affecting insolvents, the suppression of the slave-trade, and the introduction of measures of financial and administrative reform. As wiU be seen in the Chapter treating of the French Revolution in its influence upon England, he had the defects of his quaUties, and suffered from them in the arena of practical statesmanship. Fox used to say of him that he was a wise man, but was wise too soon. Speaking in the House of Commons, February 9, 1790, when the un fortunate and final breach was impending, and when Burke renounced the policy and the companionship of his old associates, Fox uttered a noble eulogy that is immortal and classical. Burke was the virtual founder of a new school of politics. He held it to be the duty of a government, not to aim at ideal and impossible perfection, but simply to be guided by the force of cir cumstances, and to be regulated by the power actually possessed, in acting for the pubUc good. a.d. 1700-1782.J HOSTILITIES COMMENCED. 225 Without the slightest hesitation, the other Colonies rallied in support of Massachusetts. A Congress of Delegates, representing all the Legislatures, save Georgia, which afterwards joined, assembled in Philadelphia, September 5, 1774, and condemned the violation of their rights as Englishmen. This federation came into being in the same way as the Achasan League, or the United Netherlands, or the Swiss Bund. It was agreed to suspend all trade with the mother-country, unless grievances were redressed. The Congress sat until the end of October, and adjourned to meet again in the following May. Virtually, it sat, at intervals, for seven years. Tidings of its action reached England just as Parliament met in November. The opening speech from the throne asserted a resolve " to with stand every attempt to weaken or impair the supreme authority of this Legislature over aU the dominions of my Crown." Chatham vindicated the Congress for its solidity of reasoning, force of sagacity, and wise con clusions, and urged the immediate withdrawal of the troops from Boston, and the adoption of a conciliatory poUcy, warning the Government that it was impossible to enforce submission to such violent and oppressive measures. His appeals and remonstrances were in vain. The King styled his utterance " a trumpet of sedition." Only a small minority voted with him in the House of Lords. Almost before the echoes of his speech had died away, or those of another delivered by Burke in the Commons, where tipsy squires and the dumb nominees of borough-mongers derided a genius they were too stupid to comprehend, the boom of the American War of Independence rolled across the Atlantic. HostiUties commenced at Lexington on the nineteenth of April, 1775. Emerson says, in his ' Poem on the Concord Fight,' — "The embattled farmers stood, and fired the shot heard round the world." Preparations had been made for resistance, if this proved inevitable. Committees of Safety were formed, the local militia enroued, commanders chosen, anby the Marquis of Hastings, Lords Auckland, Ellenborough, and Dalhousie, so that the original narrow fringe of territory grew into an absolute empire over a mighty continent, with nearly three hundred millions of people, including protected States. Napoleon was declared Consul for life, August 2, 1802, and became monarch of France in all but the name. Two years later, he was crowned Emperor by Pope Pius VII. (b. 1742, r. 1800-1823). Preparations for a renewal of hostilities were being made in England as well as by himself. One reason assigned was the refusal to reinstate the Knights of St. John in Malta. The Maltese resisted the transfer, and the stronghold was invaluable to England. The conflict was resumed in May, 1803, after a new Coalition by England with Prussia, Austria, and Sweden. The weakness of the Addington Cabinet led to the retirement of its nominal head ; a duU, plodding mechanical clerk nicknamed the Doctor, from his father being a physician. Not a single member of his Cabinet ranked higher than a second or third-rate politician ; and its head was no more competent to preside over the national affairs at such a crisis than Phaaton to drive the chariot of the sun. He was consoled with a peerage, and figures henceforth as Viscount Sidmouth (1755- 1844). It was said of him that he carried into politics the air of a village apothecary inspecting the tongue of the State. He was as stupid and as bigoted as his royal master. Pitt was again installed as Prime Minister in May, 1804, for the short remainder of his life ; but his colleagues were feeble and divided. He tried in vain to include Fox. The King would not hear of him, stating that Fox was kept out of office by his express command, and that he " had taken a positive determination not to admit him, even at the hazard of civil war." On another occasion, when his customary bluster about not wearing his crown subject to shackles, failed of its purpose, he sullenly yielded, to avoid a crisis ; and once, when he talked of retiring to Hanover because he could not have his own dogged way, a confidential adviser suggested that it might not be so easy for him to return. Nothing more was a.d. 1793-1815/J NELSON AND SEA-POWER. 279 heard of the tentative abdication. In the case of the refusal to accept Fox, Pitt did not show himself eager or firm in pressing it ; so an avowed Tory administration entered upon what proved to be, with brief interruption, a long lease of power. Napoleon began a new career of aggression, of con quest, and of annexation, which changed the entire character of the war, and compelled resistance to what threatened to be a military despotism over Europe. One of his arbitrary acts, contrary to the usages of warfare among civilized nations, was the detention of foreigners domiciled or travelling in France at the time of the renewal of the conflict, causing much loss and suffering to many non-combatants. Another course of procedure that aroused deep resentment was his habit of appropriat ing the archives and works of art in subjugated countries, and transporting them to Paris as spoils. They had to be surrendered and restored after Waterloo. He again invaded Austria in 1805 ; captured a whole army at Ulm ; took possession of Vienna, and won the decisive Battle of Austerlitz, December 2, against the combined Austrian and Russian forces. But the naval power of France was shattered in the action off Cape Trafalgar, on the twenty-first of October ; though Nelson fell in the moment of victory, as his great predecessor, Blake, had done. The battle was the final act in a strategic drama in which Napoleon and Nelson, the two greatest leaders of land and sea forces, were pitted against each other. Napoleon's aim was to unite in the West Indies the French fleets of Brest, Toulon, and Rochefort, together with a strong body of Spanish ships, so as to constitute an overwhelming force with which to return to the English Channel, and cover the crossing of his army for an intended invasion. Nelson pursued the Toulon fleet across the Atlantic, and chased it back to Cadiz, while Brest was being held in the tenacious grip of a blockade by another English fleet. On his return, he forced and won the engagement off Trafalgar ; pursuing his favourite tactical method, adopted from Admiral Rodney, of at tacking in column, so as to break the line, and then laying his ships alongside those of the enemy ; a method largely depending on the wind and on skilful seamanship, but no 280 THE GREAT WAR WITH FRANCE, [chap. lxxv. longer possible under the altered conditions of the Navy, with its steam-power. The whole subject of the naval contests of the last century and of the influence of the sea-power on history is ably treated in the works of Captain A. T. Mahan, of the United States Navy. Nelson's crowning victory led Napoleon to abandon the invasion of England for the series of movements that resulted in his victories at Ulm and at Austerlitz. Pitt's health had long been failing, and he never rallied from the effects of the Continental reverses. He died January 23, 1806, in his forty-seventh year. The melodramatic narrative of some dubious utterance at the last, respecting his country, was but a reproduction for party purposes of what had been said long before by Pope. His debts, amounting to forty thousand pounds, were paid by the nation ; but there are other vices than the sordid love of money, and other virtues besides that of dying poor. His colleagues were too feeble to carry on the government ; and so, with much reluctance and chagrin, the King had to yield for a few months to a Whig Cabinet under Lord Grenville, with Fox as Foreign Secretary. It is commonly known as All-the-Talents Ministry. But Fox died September 13, and was buried near to Pitt, his old rival, in Westminster Abbey, styled by Maeaulay " that great temple of silence and recon ciliation." The almost idolatrous attachment ofhis friends and followers is explained by his kindly disposition, his equable temper, and his winning manner, realizing Addison's famous description of agreeableness. Fox excelled most of his contemporaries in the range of his knowledge ; in the distinctness of his views ; in quick ness of apprehension ; in practical common sense ; and in his lucid arrangement of facts ; though it has been said he was ostentatiously ignorant of political economy ; a reproach which, if true, applies to many others. Burke remarked of him, at a time when the testimony was of the utmost value — " To his great and masterly under standing he joined the utmost possible degree of modera tion. He was of the most artless, candid, open, and benevolent disposition ; disinterested in the extreme ; of a temper mild and placable, even to a fault ; and without one drop of gall in his constitution." Among his greatest A.D. I793-I8I5-] THE BERLIN DECREES. 281 speeches were those on the Westminster Election Scru tiny, in 1784; on the Russian armament, in 1791 ; on Parlia mentary Reform, in 1797 ; and on the renewal of the French War, in 1803. His coalition with Lord North, whom he had strenuously opposed, and whose policy remained unchanged, is wholly indefensible, excepting on the low ground of party tactics, which also prompted most of his opposition to Pitt. It is painful to reflectupon what Fox might have been, and upon the influence he might have exerted, if only his character and habits had inspired even a moderate degree of public respect. Yet his defence of popular rights during the dismal period of repression at the close of the century will always be remembered to his honour ; for, with Erskine, he helped to keep alive the sacred fire of liberty when it was threatened with extinction. Within six months of Fox's death, George III. dis missed his Cabinet, on the Catholic question ; only too glad to reinstate the Tories under the Duke of Portland, whose Ministry, ridiculed as that of All-the- Hacks, lasted till November, 1809. He was followed by Spencer Perceval (1762-1812), a feeble, narrow, intolerant, and incapable man, of the Nisi Prius order of lawyers. Con cerning him Sydney Smith (1769-1845) said, in his ' Letters of Peter Plymley,' that in the crisis of Europe, he safely brought the Curates' Salaries' Improvement Bill to a hearing. He was shot by a madman, May 11, 1812, in the lobby of the House of Commons ; securing thereby a singular apotheosis, unmerited by his character and abilities. The Earl of Liverpool (1770-1828), who was obstinately opposed to every change tending to political or religious liberty, became head of the Cabinet, and continued to fill the office until stricken with apo plexy. Bonaparte pursued his marvellous and victorious career. Prussia was disabled by the Battles of Auerstadt and Jena, October 18, 1806. Berlin was seized, and the famous Decrees were issued in November, with a view to close every avenue into Europe against the trade of England, which was declared in a state of siege, in retaliation for her rigorous blockade of several hundred miles of French coast. The plan failed, from its very magnitude ; for it was impossible to build a Chinese wall 282 THE GREAT WAR WITH FRANCE, [chap. lxxv. around Europe, or to maintain an unbroken line of custom-houses from the Baltic along the German Ocean and the Mediterranean. The attempt to crush British commerce, and the general designs of Napoleon on the Continent, where he aimed at a universal dictatorship, explain the detestation and hatred with which he was regarded by the English, who nicknamed him Boney, the Armed Soldier of Democracy, the Little Corporal, and similar names. Gillray caricatured him in endless ways. He was the favourite bogey used to terrify children. The nation would hear of nothing short of the absolute and final overthrow of the Man of Destiny. Difficulties arose between England and the United States. Their vessels were stopped, and sometimes captured, by both French and English on the high seas. When searched by British ships, all on board suspected of having being born on British soil were impressed into the naval service ; a loose application of the old doctrine, " once a subject always a subject." American war-ships were not exempted. No respect was paid to the flag. The laws of nations were ignored. Claims for indemnity and demands for reparation were unheeded. In retalia tion, British ships were forbidden to enter American harbours. The irritating search of vessels and seizure of men continued at intervals until April, 1812, when an embargo was imposed by Congress, preparatory to a declaration of war against Great Britain in the following July. Canada was invaded at Detroit and at Niagara. York, now called Toronto, was captured ; and there were partial successes elsewhere ; but an attack upon Montreal failed. The Americans won several sea engagements, and repulsed attempts made by the English upon Boston, New York, Baltimore, New Orleans, and other places on the coast, although the blockade maintained against them was productive of much loss. The short but brilliant engagement in Delaware Bay, June 1, 1813, between the American frigate " Chesapeake " and the British "Shannon," ending in the capture of the former, was for a long period the theme of naval song and story. Peace was concluded in 1815, and the right of the Americans to resist the search of their vessels was con ceded. Twelve years earlier, the vast territory west of A.D. 1793-1815.] THE PENINSULAR CAMPAIGN. 283 the Mississippi, known as Louisiana, comprising nearly twelve hundred thousand square miles, was sold by Napoleon to the United States for fifteen millions of dollars. No further difficulty arose with the States, until the question of the boundary line with Canada, which was finally settled in 1842 by Lord Ashburton. If he conceded in Maine more than was natural and obvious, geographically, England gained some important points in the West, and finally ended a troublesome dispute. The original area of the Republic was 829,000 square miles. Florida was ceded in 1819, Texas was annexed in 1845, Mexico was acquired subsequently, and Alaska was purchased from Russia in 1867. These, and some minor additions bring the United States territory up to four millions of square miles, one-tenth being lakes and rivers. Though Napoleon failed in enforcing the Berlin Decrees, he was successful in the Polish campaigns of 1806-7 i resulting in the Treaty of Tilsit and his compact with Russia and Prussia. By agreeing to this the Czar Alexander I. showed his resentment towards England for not acceding to his insatiable demands for subsidies, like all the Continental despots during the prolonged war. England as the chief paymaster, asserted an influence and an authority which were sometimes resisted ; as in the case of the Danes, in September, 1807. To prevent a capture of their fleet at Copenhagen by Napoleon, an expedition was sent from England to destroy it, unless the ships were made over till the close of the war. As the Danes refused, the city was a second time bombarded. for three days, with terrible destruction to life and property. The vessels and naval stores were seized. Sweden also was powerless, when left to itself ; and Gustavus IV. was displaced in favour of his uncle, Charles XIII. He adopted, as Crown Prince, Bernadotte, one of the French marshals, who, however, did not prove subservient to Napoleon's schemes. Jerome Bonaparte had a kingdom of Westphalia carved out for him ; another brother, Louis, was made titular King of Holland ; and a third brother, Joseph, was placed on the throne of Spain. This act, with the invasion of Portugal, marked the turning-point in Napoleon's triumphant 284 THE GREAT WAR WITH FRANCE, [chap. lxxv. career, and led to the Peninsular War. The pride, jealousy, and greed of the so-called patriots in Madrid and elsewhere perpetually thwarted British movements and wasted British life and treasure, in spite of the early successes of Sir Arthur Wellesley. The unfortunate and disastrous retreat of Sir John Moore to Corunna, with his death, on January 16, 1809, and the still more dis astrous and the disgraceful termination of the Walcheren Expedition in December, owing to jealousy between the naval and military commanders, did much to neutralize the effects of the Spanish campaign. At the same time, the scandal caused by a mistress of the Duke of York (1763-1827) selling army commissions, with his con nivance, as was alleged, led to his enforced retirement from the office of Commander-in-chief. He was re instated in the following year by his brother, in defiance of public opinion. The mistresses of the Regent were guilty of similar mal-practices. High positions in Church and State were sold, or granted as rewards for dubious services. Twenty years later, the eccentricity, the in competence, and the extravagance of another brother, the Duke of Clarence, afterwards William IV., compelled his dismissal from the office of Lord High Admiral, which has ever since been administered by a Board. Napoleon had been recalled from the Peninsula by a renewed declaration of war on the part of Austria. The Battles of Aspern, of Essling, and of Wagram in May and July, 1809, brought about the Treaty of Schonbrunn, whereby Austria ceded Trieste and other districts to France, with two millions and a half of people. Their consent was not asked, and was not deemed necessary. Despots are accustomed in such cases to regard their subjects as mere pawns. The brave Tyrolese were abandoned to their fate. A large army was thus set free for the Spanish enterprise ; but Wellington pro ceeded to carry out at enormous labour, time, and cost, his great scheme for entrenching himself within the lines of Torres Vedras, so as to protect Lisbon, and in the hope of wearing out the superior French forces. For many months the campaign in the Peninsula was con tinued with alternating successes, though chiefly on the side of the Engl'sh. To this period belong the Battles of a.d. 1793-1815.] THE RUSSIAN DISASTER. 285 Barrosa, of Albuera, and of Salamanca, with the horrible atrocities attending the storming of Ciudad Rodrigo and of Badajoz, in 1812, of which no Englishman can read without shame and humiliation, any more than he can of the wanton bombardment of Alexandria, in July, 1882, by Sir Beauchamp Seymour, who was rewarded with a peerage and a pension by the Gladstone Ministry. The loss of life during the prolonged War is not known, and cannot be ascertained ; but it was greater from the attendant horrors of disease and famine than from actual fatalities on the numerous battlefields, or from the carnage of sea-engagements, terrible as these were. With the old flint-lock musket, accuracy of aim was impossible. It was roughly estimated that of aU the shots fired by the English and Spanish troops during the Peninsular cam paigns, only one in six hundred inflicted any damage ; and that for every foe slain, his weight in bullets had to be expended. This presents a marked contrast with modern arms of precision, and with the deadly machines which rain a shower of bullets every minute, and mow down hundreds at each discharge. The Peninsular War was left by Napoleon to be carried on by his marshals. He was busily occupied in vast preparations for invading Russia, to punish Alexander I. for having relaxed the Continental System, and for more than suspected treachery to the armed compact. Napoleon's action was contrary to the advice of his best friends and his most experienced generals ; but he was determined upon a course that precipitated his over throw. Probably the occult disease which proved fatal clouded his judgment and weakened his powers. With an army of 270,000 French, many of them mere lads, drawn by conscription from future years, and with 150,000 troops levied from various nationalities unwillingly in league with him, he entered Russia in June, 1812. The Czar adopted a Fabian policy. His Cossacks hung on the skirts of the invaders ; but no decisive battle could be forced. Moscow was abandoned and burned in September, on the approach of the French. The difficulties of obtaining supplies for such a host became insuperable. Famine, cold,and sickness cut down thou sands daily. A retreat was ordered ; but before it could 286 THE GREAT WAR WITH FRANCE, [chap. lxxv. be completed, the horrors of a Russian Winter broke forth. Of more than half a million of men, including reinforcements, who had crossed the Niemen, not one- fourth returned six months later. Marshal Ney was in command of the rear-guard ; and but for his skill and valour many more must have perished. Napoleon left the army early in December, and set forth with all speed to Paris. Political difficulties had arisen ; the state of affairs in Spain occasioned grave anxiety ; Russia and Prussia had again coalesced against him ; and Austria, after holding aloof, joined them and England in a new alliance. Wellington routed the French at Vittoria in June, 1813, and after a series of conflicts known as the Battles of the Pyrenees, drove them back and went into Winter quarters in the French valleys. Another series of battles occurred in Saxony ; resulting, on the whole, in great loss to Napoleon. He was threatened early in 1814 by a force of 160,000 Russians, Austrians, and Prussians, who were prepared to cross the Rhine, while Wellington was about to advance from the South. France was exhausted and impoverished, both in men and in materials of war. Napoleon abdicated, April 5, and was assigned the island of Elba, in the Mediterranean, as a residence, with a revenue of six millions of francs to be paid by France. The Bourbons were restored in the person of Louis XVIII. ; and by the Treaty of Paris, May 30, 1814, the French boundaries were fixed as on the first of January, 1792. Malta was ceded to England, and arrangements were made for a Congress at Vienna. While engaged in reconstructing on dynastic lines the map of Europe, as if it were a child's puzzle, news came that Napoleon had escaped from Elba, and was on his way to Paris. The magic of his name gathered numbers of his old soldiers — for Chauvinism prevailed among the veterans of the First Empire — and he speedily found himself at the head of 125,000 troops. He marched into Belgium, from which side the Allies were preparing an attack. He hoped to anticipate them by striking a bold and decisive blow, as he had so often done ; and by separating the Prussians, under Marshal Bliicher, from the English and the other Allies under Wellington, to defeat both. Bliicher had to fall back at Ligny, with a A.d. 1793-1815.] PARTITION OF THE SPOIL. 287 loss of twelve thousand men ; but the attack at Quatre Bras was repulsed. The English awaited the final battle at Waterloo on Sunday, June 18, 1815, and it was fought all day with obstinate courage, neither side gaining any advantage, though Wellington held his ground against a superior force. In the evening, the Prussians arrived on the field, and a combined movement was made, ending in complete victory. Napoleon abdicated a second time ; and was sent to St. Helena, where he died, May 5, 1821, in the fifty-second year of his age. Louis XVIII. was again installed as King of France. The allied monarchs once more addressed themselves, so far as petty jealousy and rivalry would aUow, to the congenial tasks of dividing the plunder, of strengthening their own authority, and of taking precautionary measures against popular risings in the future. By the second Treaty of Paris, November 20, 1815, the limits of France were once more restricted ; seventeen frontier fortresses were to be held by the Allies for five years ; an army of occupation, consisting of 150,000 men, was to be main tained at the expense of France ; and ^56,000,000 were to be paid towards the expenses of the war. The conduct ofthe great European Powers, excepting England, showed that territorial aggrandizement and despotic rule were the real objects sought throughout. Whole provinces were bartered away, and their inhabitants transferred from one despot to another. The Holy Alliance — a wicked mis nomer, like the equally infamous Holy League of 15 11 — was designed for the maintenance of kingly absolutism, which it invested with the sanctity of religion, as was ably demonstrated by Francis Horner in a debate in the House of Commons, early in the Session of 1816. The first thing done was to conspire against the liberties of the people. To this may be traced most of the armed suppressions of popular rights which the history of Europe has since witnessed. Russia and Austria finally partitioned Poland between them. Austria ruthlessly stamped out the independence of Hungary, and held Italy for thirty years as in a vice of military terrorism. The treatment of Silvio Pellico (1789-1854) was. only one instance out of thousands. That illustrious man and true patriot, author of ' Francesca da Rimini,' and 288 THE GREAT WAR WITH FRANCE, [chap. lxxv. other works, and the translator into Italian of Byron's ' Manfred,' was arrested in Milan in 1820, for editing a Liberal newspaper. He was consigned to a living tomb in the fortress of Spielberg for ten years, mostly alone, and in chains, ill-fed and ill-clad, deprived of books, and cut off from all knowledge of his family and of public affairs. This horrible treatment of Italy's best and noblest sons, numbers of whom were incar cerated for months and years without trial, in the hope, accomplished in many cases, that the dark dungeon, starvation, fetters, and torture might impose the silence of Death, with flogging and nameless indignities upon the wives and sisters of the victims of military despotism, was continued by Austria until the Revolution of 1848 led eventually to the unification and deliverance of Italy. Imperialism, however, was by no means extinct in France. It was afterwards intensified and strengthened by the manner in which the walls of the picture-galleries at Versailles, in the Louvre, the Luxembourg, and else where were covered with gigantic and highly-coloured delineations of battle-scenes, arousing the national thirst for glory. It was further gratified by the great work of M. Thiers (1797-1877), ' Histoire du Consulat et de l'Empire,' which did much to pave the way for the temporary and meretricious return of the Emperor's nephew, thirty-three years later. Even the warmest admirers of Thiers have never contended that he was animated by a scrupulous love of truth ; or that he was a careful collector of facts ; or that he possessed the critical power to judge of them when collected. In all these respects, as in the high qualities of statesmanship, he was inferior to his great rival, Guizot (1787-1874), whose political career was a splendid disaster, because he knew books better than men. The Revolution of 1848 was precipitated by his unwise action, as prime minister, in forbidding a banquet in Paris to advance electoral reform and to secure the right of holding public meetings. Of the writings of Thiers, the cynical criticism pronounced by Robert Lowe (Viscount Sher- brooke) was that every sentence is a complete answer to its neighbour, with this peculiar felicity, that he contrives to lay down contrary propositions on the same subject, loth of which are false. a.d. 1793-1820.] ARMY AND NAVY REWARDS. 289 CHAPTER LXXVI. FISCAL BURDENS AND THE ACT OF UNION. A.D. I793-182O. No figures can set forth the cost of the great French War ; in the deterioration of industry, in the checks to trade and commerce, as well as in the actual money expended, the property destroyed, the lives lost, and the bodies maimed. It is commonly asserted that the gigantic efforts made at the time were principally at the expense of the lords of the soil. If their condition had been one of sacrifice and privation, some valid reason would appear; but it is notorious that, owing to inflated prices, rents were more than doubled. The landed class also largely shared in the enormpus profits attending the issue of repeated loans at a heavy discount. Members of their families were gratified with, commissions in the swollen Army and Navy. Military and naval com manders received peerages and pensions. To the Duke of Wellington was voted ^400,000, in addition to former grants and to his large pay, prize-money, and other emolu ments. The estate of Strathfieldsaye was purchased f or him at a cost of ^200,000. An annuity of ^4,000 was granted for three lives, besides lucrative posts, including sinecures, as long as the Duke lived. It was estimated that he received upwards of two millions during his long career, in addition to handsome gifts from foreign princes. Nelson was voted ^2,000 a year after the Battle of the Nile, in 1798 ; to be continued during the lives of two of his successors in the title of baron, he being already in receipt of a pension of one thousand for the victory off Cape St. Vincent. He was awarded ^1,000 more by the Irish Parliament, and ^10,000 as a gift by the East India Company. For his services in expelling the French from Naples, he had permission to accept from its King a great landed estate worth .£3,000 per annum, with the Duke dom of Bronte. After his death at Trafalgar, an annuity of ^2,000 was settled on his widow, who enjoyed it, for twenty-six years ; ^5,000 were granted in perpetuity, ro the distant relative who succeeded to the title, ; an. 1820-1850.] REWARDS OF LITERATURE. 357 displayed open, active, and relentless opposition. Dr. Arnold of Rugby wrote : — " It is in vain to deny that the Church of England clergy have politically been a party in the country, from Elizabeth's time downwards, and a party opposed to the cause which, in the main, has been the cause of improvement. . . . Therefore it will not do for them to identify themselves with the nation, which they are not, nor with the Constitution, which they did their best to hinder. from ever coming into existence." CHAPTER LXXX. LITERATURE, SCIENCE, AND PHILANTHROPY. A.D. 1820-1850 The early decades of the nineteenth century were dis tinguished in a literary sense by a group of writers who had made their mark, in varying degrees, during the previous generation. Some of them continued to write until the middle of the century, though their best work lay in the earlier period. With mutations in style and in standards of taste, it is the inevitable lot of once popular authors to become neglected. They are now regarded with mild surprise when the story of their extensive popularity is told, with the large sums paid for their writings. George Crabbe (1754-1832), described by Byron as "Nature's sternest painter, yet the best," with his Dutch methods of poetry, and his minute delineations of rural life and character, received £3000 for his poems. But he had passed through a long and weary struggle, and Burke assisted him out of his own straitened means. Thomas Campbell (1777-1844), the dash and vigour of whose war-songs will always give him fame, similar to that earned by Charles Dibdin (1745-1814) and his sea-songs, issued ' The Pleasures of Hope ' in 1799. It passed through three editions in twelve months, and brought him £1050. His ' Gertrude of Wyoming ' yielded £i575- Thomas Moore (1779-1852), with play ful wit and graceful learning, if fussy and conceited 358 LITERATURE AND SCIENCE. [chap. lxxx. because of his aristocratic Whig connections, charmed the world in 1800 with his ' Anacreon ' ; followed at intervals by ' Irish Melodies,' and ' Lalla Rookh,' for the latter of which Longmans paid him £3150. A similar remark, as to popularity, applies to some extent to three other famous authors. Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834) was an omnivorous reader, a profound metaphysician, copious in monologue, and the writer of some of the finest poems in the language. Yet he was fitful and unpractical, and made no permanent contributions to literature worthy of his vast powers. He was a dreamer and a visionary, indulging in what Carlyle calls " transcendental moonshine " ; and was addicted to the free use of opium, probably to mitigate sufferings caused by an occult and life-long disease. In this he resembled his friend, Thomas De Quincey (1785-1859), who also planned a great work on Political Economy, and a still more wonderful treatise on ' The Emendation of the Human Intellect,' neither of which saw the light. De Quincey is known, apart from his ' Confessions,' only as the writer of brilliant magazine articles, necessarily ephemeral, in spite of their marvellous character as prose-poems. Coleridge was an excellent and inexhaustible talker, according to Hazlitt, if allowed to start from no premisses, and to come to no conclusions. His talk was described by Carlyle as " spreading every whither in inextricable currents and regurgitations like a lake or sea ... so that, most times, you felt logically lost ; swamped near to drowning in this tide of ingenious vocables, spreading out boundless, as if to submerge the world." He was the author of a method, rather than of a philosophy, and he spent his life in propounding questions which he never endeavoured to answer, and in projecting magnificent schemes which were never carried out. Charles Lamb compared him to an archangel a little damaged ; and once said, in reply to an inquiry from Coleridge as to whether he had heard him preach, that he had never known him to do anything else. William Wordsworth (1770-1850), the second of the triad, was the poet of common country life ; so pure and serene in consecration to a lofty purpose that it is needful to go back to the time of Milton to find a parallel. Early A.D. 1820-1850.] THE LAKE SCHOOL. 359 friendship with Coleridge induced the joint production of the 'Lyrical Ballads,' in 1798. Long pondering led to the issue of ' The Excursion,' sixteen years later. With his philosophic meditation and his mystical communings with Nature, Wordsworth revealed in new forms the wide and varied domain of poetry, and did much, following in the steps of Cowper and Burns, to rescue it from the highly artificial condition of the eighteenth century. Robert Southey (1774-1843), the third member of what was called, somewhat derisively, the Lake School, "rare architect of many a wondrous tale," though laborious and profuse in writing both prose and verse, and though some of his poetry is flowing and stately, produced too much for abiding fame. He yielded to the temptation of contributing fugitive articles to reviews, and of compiling biographies for a transient literary market. The one on Nelson is alone likely to survive, and, in its way, may be regarded as a model of what such a work should be. His poetry, excepting a few baUads, was at no time popular, and is now almost forgotten. Southey and Wordsworth were Poets- Laureate in succession ; but how little the Muse owes to royal patronage appears from the fact that the only other worthy occupants of the office are John Dryden and Alfred Tennyson. The Laureate's wreath, profaned by CoUey Cibber and rendered despicable by Nahum Tate, Lawrence Eusden, and Henry James Pye, was contemned by Gray and by Sir Walter Scott. That Great Magician, the Ariosto of the North (1771-1832), may be regarded as the creator of the modern historical romance, or the historical novel, which, in the sense of being fictitious history, is a contradiction in terms. Attempts in this direction had been previously made, especially in France by Voltaire and Rousseau, who have been followed, in different styles, and with varying degrees of success, by Alexandre Dumas, Eugene Sue, and Victor Hugo. Thiers and Lamartine wrote romance and called it history, as severe critics have alleged of Maeaulay. Germany, Italy, Russia, and other countries, furnish specimens in their respective literature. The 'Cyropasdia' and the 'Anabasis' of Xenophon are, in reality, historical romances ; as may be said of Livy's 360 LITERATURE AND SCIENCE. [chap. lxxx. pictured page, of Sallust' s inimitable sketches, and of the finished paintings of Tacitus. Scott, however, stands unrivalled, even if, for the purposes of his plot, or for the delineation of his characters, he used great freedom with historical facts. His affluence of knowledge and his power of imagination carried his readers captive. He had published in 1802 the ' Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border,' and in 1805 the ' Lay of the Last Minstrel,' by which he became, at a bound, the most popular author of his day. He was moved, as Tourgenieff was in his descriptions of Russian peasantry, by the success of Maria Edgeworth in delineating Irish life, to attempt a simUar task with Scottish character and history. In ' Waverley,' which appeared anonymously in 1814, he achieved the first of a new and splendid series of triumphs, and he continued to sway a large audience by his heroic verse and by his novels. If the latter have largely given place to other styles, and if Scott also, like Charles Dickens at a later day, wrote far too much for permanent renown, under the terrible incubus of debts and liabilities incurred in the ambition to become a territorial magnate, some of his works have a just claim to immortality. Though Scott is often inaccurate in details, sacrificing' truth to effect, and projecting modern opinions and sentiments into former times, he has probably influenced ordinary readers far more than any historian. Next to him stands Sir E. L. Bulwer, afterwards Lord Lytton (1803-1873), with his ' Harold,' and his ' Last of the Barons.' W. M. Thackeray achieved great success, in his own line, and for another purpose, with ' Esmond ' and ' The Virginians.' Harrison Ainsworth, with his New gate themes, and the highly sensational G. P. R. James, are extreme instances of prolific and diffuse romancists, whose mechanical productions, now fast passing into deserved oblivion, are wholly devoid of historical accuracy or verisimilitude. Many other writers have adventured themselves in this field, but none demand more than the incidental mention made elsewhere. Contemporary novelists like John Galt (1779-1839), Jane Austen (1775-1817), and Frederick Marryat (1792-1848) are so far eclipsed by Scott's great fame that full justice has not A.D. 1820-1850.] BYRON : SHELLEY: KEATS. 361 been done to their real merits. Gait's ' Annals of the Parish,' 'The Entail,' and 'The Provost,' abound in stirring scenes and in powerful delineations of Scottish character. Jane Austen broke fresh ground, and por trayed the every-day life of the middle classes of her time, in ' Pride and Prejudice,' ' Sense and Sensibility,' and similar works, of which Maeaulay never wearied. Henry HaUam (1778-1859) was the most iUustrious member, if not the founder, of the school of philosophic historians, biographers, essayists, and critics, which included WilUam Mitford, William Godwin, Sir James Mackintosh, John Foster, Dr, John Lingard, WiUiam Hazlitt, Isaac Taylor, and George Grote. Lord Byron (1788-1824) said that he woke up one morning and found himself famous. He gave early promise of marvellous powers ; combining, as in the case of Swift, extraordinary genius with a grossness that perplexed and pained ardent admirers, and that repelled many others, but attributable in each case to the taint of hereditary mental disease. Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792-1822) was, on the whole, the greatest poetical writer of the age. Unwisely and harshly treated, his sensitive nature was driven into revolt against human formulas that led him to confound the essence of religion with its simulacra. His works, published before his career was cut short in Italy, at the age of twenty-nine, exhibit an affluence of mental wealth, an exquisite sense of beauty, and a power of language that will always command wonder and admiration. John Keats (1796-1821) pub lished his fragments of ' Endymion ' and ' Hyperion,' teeming with luminous description and brilliant imagery, by which, rather than by actual performance, he must be judged. The idle tale is still repeated, that he was killed by the unjust and savage criticisms of irresponsible reviewers. Hartley Coleridge (1796-1849) was a genius and a dreamer, like his father, and, also like him, his own worst enemy. Some of his Sonnets are of remarkable beauty, and rank scarcely below those of Milton and of Wordsworth. Charles Lamb (1775-1834), the gentle Charles, whom everybody loved, the silent hero of a terrible domestic tragedy, the Prince of graceful Essayists, was the precursor of a school of writers that includes, 362 LITERATURE AND SCIENCE. [chap. lxxx. besides many Englishmen, such American representatives as Nathaniel Hawthorne, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Charles Dudley Warner, and James Russell Lowell. James Hogg, the Ettrick Shepherd ; Allan Cunning ham ; Robert Bloomfield, the Farmer's Boy ; H. F. Cary, the translator of Dante ; James Montgomery, the Moravian hymn-writer ; Dugald Stewart, Dr. Thomas Brown, George Combe, Jeremy Bentham, Dr. Thomas Chalmers, Dr. Thomas M'Crie, Dr. Adam Clarke, Sir William Hamilton, Bernard Barton, Bryan Walter Procter (" Barry Cornwall "), R. H. Barham of the ' Ingoldsby Legends,' Dr. Thomas Arnold of Rugby, Samuel Rogers, Walter Savage Landor, Robert Pollok of the ' Course of Time,' William Roscoe, Sharon Turner, and Thomas Hood comprise a galaxy of luminaries that shone resplendent in the literary firma ment. Among them was a well-known group of lady- authors, like Hannah More, Frances Trollope, Frances Burney, Lucy Aiken, Joanna Baillie, Elizabeth Inch- bald, Mary Russell Mitford, Felicia Hemans, Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley, Jane Porter, and her sister. Anna Maria. The name of Blue Stockings was applied in ignorant derision, from a supposed club of learned ladies and gentlemen ; one of the latter, Benjamin Stillingfleet, grandson of the Bishop, being accustomed to wear blue worsted stockings. He was one of the first to revive the Sonnet, which had fallen into disuse since Milton's day. Useful, plodding service was rendered in the bye- ways of literary inquiry by William Hone and Isaac Disraeli. The son of the latter, Benjamin, subse quently Lord Beaconsfield, issued so early as 1827, when barely emerged from adolescence (b. 1805), his novel of ' Vivian Grey,' the first of a series of briUiant but extravagant and rhetorical romances, including ' Sybil,' 'Coningsby,' and ' Tancrecl,' in which prominent men were burlesqued under transparent disguises, and the writer's schemes of government and of society were propounded. He aimed at the formation of a Young England party ; a curious and impossible attempt to combine Conservatism with Radicalism, and ended by becoming the leader of the Tories, the head of a Ministry, and the author of such florid and exaggerated novels with a purpose as ' Lothair ' and ' Endymion.' a.d. 1820-1850.] 'QUARTERLY REVIEW.' 363 The year of Queen Victoria's accession witnessed the advent of a quatrain of great writers ; viz., Thomas Babington Maeaulay (1800-1859), with his brilliant articles in the ' Edinburgh Review,' and his magnificent fragment of Whig history ; Lytton, already named, with his glittering sensationalism; Charles Dickens (1812-1870), with genial drollery that often became grotesque carica ture ; and Thomas Carlyle (1765-1881), with his pro testing Jeremiads, his laudation of the Veracities and the Eternities, his extraordinary liberties with the English language, and his worship of the hero and of force. His great prose-epic, the ' French Revolution,' appeared in that year, 1837, his ' Sartor Resartus ' having been published anonymously in ' Fraser' s Magazine.' During the next forty years he issued other renowned works ; but exposed himself to the charge of expounding in thirty-four volumes, and by incessant monologues that rivalled Dr. Johnson's, his favourite Gospel of Silence and the Everlasting No ! The Kembles and the elder Keen divided the empire of the Stage. George Colman the younger, appointed in 1824 to the antique but useless office of Examiner of Plays, displayed in that capacity, like a reformed rake, a regard for public morals and for verbal prudery which he had never shown as a prolific writer. Originally designed as a censorship and a restraint upon criticisms on the Government, the office degenerated into the attempted exercise of functions alike impossible and an anachronism. Sir Francis Chantrey and Sir Richard Westmacott left some grand conceptions embodied in sculpture. Sir Thomas Lawrence, William Etty, Benjamin Robert Haydon, Sir David Wilkie, A. W. Callcott, John Constable, J. M. W. Turner, and many more, were distinguished painters. Literature, science, and art, as well as politics, were treated with a breadth and a freedom of criticism, hitherto unknown, in the pages of the ' Edinburgh Review ' ; first issued in October, 1802, as the organ of the Whig party, under the editorship of Francis Jeffrey (1773-1850), whom Southey styled a mere homunculus, from his diminutive stature. It was fol lowed, seven years later, by its Tory rival, the ' Quarterly,' edited by WiUiam Gifford (1756-1826) ; a severe, if not 364 LITERATURE AND SCIENCE. [chap. Lxxx. a savage critic, the translator of Juvenal, and author of various satirical works, such as ' The Baviad,' which was directed against and completely crushed the romantic and ridiculous Della Cruscan school. The ' Eclectic Review' appeared about the same time, as a monthly issue, and for a lengthened period swayed literary and political opinion, mainly through the splendid articles, nearly two hundred in number, contributed by John Foster (1770-1843). His famous ' Essays ' showed their author to be,according to Mackintosh, "one ofthe mostpro- f ound and eloquent writers that England has produced." A selection from Foster's contributions was published the year after his death, and, with his ' Life and Corres pondence,' by Ryland, ranks among the classics. The quarterly periodicals, which Russell Lowell caUs the megatheria of literature, which various montnly magazines like the ' Christian Remembrancer,' and with the news papers, enlisted the services of the best writers of the day ; but the liberty of the Press continued to be restrained, partly by Government prosecutions, and partly by the oppressive Taxes on Knowledge. In 1834, Alderman Abel Heywood, of Manchester, was imprisoned for four months, by what was afterwards admitted to be a straining of the law, for refusing to pay cumulative fines for selling unstamped publications which were in no sense newspapers. Upwards of five hundred persons suffered for a similar reason during the fourth and fifth decades of the century, and some of them were ruined. Premises were searched, shopmen arrested,letters opened, presses and type confiscated, and repeated penalties and consecutive incarcerations were imposed by judges who acted with gross illegality, as was subsequently shown. Henry Hetherington, William Carpenter, Richard Carlile, John Cleave, and James Watson deserve to be remembered as pioneers of a free press in a time of calumny and peril. Cowper's noble tribute to patriots and martyrs, in the Fifth Book of ' The Task ' is both beautiful and true. The advertisement duty was not wholly removed until 1853 ' the last penny of the stamp duty in 1855 ; and the duty on paper five years later ; after long and hard struggles on the part of the friends of popular education and of cheap and wholesome literature, much of which was issued at a heavy loss. A.D. 1820-1850.] THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. 365 Science had distinguished votaries in Sir David Brewster, Sir John Herschel, Professor J. P. Nichol, Dr. Neil Arnott, J. C. Loudon, and Robert Mudie. Mary Somerville disproved the common prejudice as to woman's incapacity for scientific thought. The applica tion of steam to manufactures and to locomotion, and a cheap and expeditious system of postage, led to constant experiments and discoveries in electricity for purposes of swift communication. Gibbon narrates how, in the time of the Second Roman Empire, fire signals were transmitted from one mountain to another over a range of 500 miles. Similar means were employed down to the Spanish Armada, and subsequently. During the great French War, semaphores with moving arms were reared on the hill-tops, and by a code of signals messages were "telegraphed" between the coast and London. The word was in common use long before it was appUed in a modern sense. Thales, of Miletus, about 600 B.C., refers to the fact that amber, when rubbed, attracts light and dry bodies. This was the only circumstance con nected with electricity that was known for more than two thousand years, until the time of William Gilbert, a physician of Colchester, referred to in the forty-sixth Chapter. He invented the word " electricity," from the Greek form of the word " amber," and was the first to point out that this is not the only substance which, when rubbed, attracts light objects, but that the same property belongs to the resins, to sealing-wax, sulphur, glass, and other substances. He contrived the plan of measuring the excited electricity by means of an iron needle moving freely on a pivot. Galileo, his contem porary, pronounced him great to a degree that might be envied ; and the publication of his treatise, ' De Magnate,' will always be regarded as constituting an epoch in the history of magnetism, which, with elec tricity, he correctly regarded as allied emanations of a single force. The above work is the basis of aU subse quent investigation, and, according to Whewell, " con tains all the fundamental facts of the science, so fuUy examined, indeed, that even at this day we have little to add to them." By slow degrees, and at fitful intervals, electric 366 LITERATURE AND SCIENCE. [chap. lxxx. machines were constructed, the generation being effected usually by rubbing cloth upon glass. The Leyden Jar was accidentally discovered in that city by Musehenbroek, in 1746, although, as is the case with many scientific facts and methods, the honour has been claimed for others. Following out the hints dimly furnished by Boyle, Newton, and von Guericke of Magdeburg, Ben jamin Franklin, Hans Christian Oersted, Sir Humphry Davy, Andrew Ampere, and others made curious re searches soon after the middle of the eighteenth century. Franklin, by his famous kite experiments, in 1752, proved the identity of lightning and electricity. This was shown also, about the same time, by Romas, of Nerac, in France. Later researches led to the marvellous discoveries of Alessandro Volta and of Lewis Galvani, and to the addition of the new branch of the science which bears his name. Even now, only the fringe has been touched in the application of electricity. Its practical application for purposes of telegraphic communication was not effected before 1837, when Sir Charles Wheatstone, in London, Samuel F. B. Morse, in New York, Steinheil, in Munich, and other experimentalists, like Michael Faraday, Cooke, and Henry, independently of one another, made their discoveries about the same time. In a similar way, the Calculus was found by both Sir Isaac Newton and Baron Leibnitz ; and the place of Neptune or Uranus in the Solar System was determined among the planets by both John Crouch Adams and Urban J. J. Leverrier in 1846. Investigations into the properties of light, and its action upon chloride or nitrate of silver, first made by Thomas Wedgwood and Sir Humphry Davy, as published in the ' Journal ' of the Royal Institution of London in 1802, slowly led to the inventions of Lewis James Daguerre, in 1839, for fixing on copper plates images reflected in the camera obscura of Baptista Porta, of Padua, a method that graduaUy yielded to the cheaper and simpler process of photography. In this way, modern science calls into being great and lucrative industries. Railways created the profession of civil engineering, and gave a marvellous impulse to the production of iron and steel. The discovery of gutfa percha provided a tough, flexible, non-conducting sub- A.D. 1820-1850.] SCIENTIFIC APPLICATIONS. 367 stance for the electrician in his attempts to transmit messages through water. England and France were connected by telegraphic wires on August 28, 1850, and Europe and America in 1858, precursors of submarine cables aU over the world. The first half of the century was also distinguished by such ingenious and important inventions as Sir David Brewster's dioptric system for lighthouses, his kaleidoscope, and his researches into the polarization of light and other departments of natural philosophy ; by Schonbein's gun cotton, in 1845 ; Liebig's meat extract, in 1847 ; the general introduction of paraffin oil for iUuminating purposes, in 1850 ; and the employment of chloroform as an anaesthetic, by Sir J. Y. Simpson, of Edinburgh, in 1847, in lieu of ether. At the same time, Dr. W. T. G. Morton, of Boston, Massa chusetts, was carrying on investigations which led to his employment of ether in several critical operations that proved successful. Until these discoveries, there were no anodynes for mitigating human pain, and rendering sufferers unconscious beneath the surgeon's knife. Research and experiment have been busy during the second half of the nineteenth century, which has wit nessed numerous inventions and discoveries. Sir Henry Bessemer and Sir WiUiam Siemens brought the manu facture of steel to a high pitch of perfection. Frederick Krupp, of Essen, Sir Joseph Whitworth, and Lord Arm strong applied it to the fabrication of gigantic rifled ! cannon, the impact of which the makers of armour plates have set themselves to resist. Bechamp and Perkin evolved brilliant aniline dyes from the refuse of benzole and petroleum. Improvements have been effected in the illuminating properties of gas, and it is largely applied to cooking purposes. Electricity is employed not only for lighting but as a motor, and for the transmission of sound by means of the telephone, the microphone, and the phonograph, with which the names of Bell, Hughes, and Thomas Alva Edison are connected. The spectrum analysis/devised by Bunsen and Kirchhoff, following out the experiments of a long line of investigators from the time of Sir Isaac Newton, has had numerous applications. The supply of fresh meat is rendered practically inex haustible by means of artificial ice and a system of cold 368 LITERATURE AND SCIENCE. [chap. lxxx. storage. The cultivation of fruits and vegetables under glass has called a great industry into being and added to human health and enjoyment. New wants are created by the very abundance and variety, and comforts are diffused which were regarded, not many years since, as luxuries procurable only by the wealthy few. Philanthropists like William Allen, Joseph John Gurney, and Elizabeth Fry devoted life and fortune to the work of social amelioration and reform. Sir Thomas Fowell Buxton agitated for the abolition of slavery in the West Indies, against supineness and selfishness. Aided by such men as William Knibb, the Baptist missionary in Jamaica, a public sentiment was aroused, after repeated attempts and frequent defeats, that swept away the scandal. Parliament voted £20,000,000 as compensation, although, strictly and morally, the planters had no claim, and on August 1, 1834, a quarter of a miUion slaves were manumitted. Among other humane and benevolent movements, James Gall of Edinburgh invented a method for teaching the bUnd to read, and Dr. Joseph Watson gave forty-five years' labour to the instruction of deaf- mutes, at the same time that Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet was working on similar Unes in America. Fugitive efforts had been made at intervals on behaff of these afflicted classes of humanity, and recent years have witnessed a growing desire to mitigate their sad lot, with a development of scientific and systematic methods, and greater success in their application. Dr. George Birkbeck founded the London Mechanics' Institute, in 1823, the pioneer of hundreds established during the next few years in aU the large towns, in the hope of fostering a love for literature and science. Francis Place furnishes valuable information in his MS. CoUections concerning this movement. A like aim was sought by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, established in 1825 by such men as Henry Brougham, Dr. Stephen Lushington, Henry HaUam, James MiU, Charles Knight, and William Howitt. The idea and the object were good, although HazUtt said that the promoters confounded a knowledge of useful things with useful knowledge itself ; as was, perhaps, inevitable. With this body originated, among numerous valuable a.d. 1820-1850.] IMPROVEMENTS IN PRINTING. 369 publications, the ' Penny Cyclopaedia '—which paid £16,500 for Paper Duty — and the ' Penny Magazine ' ; pioneers of cheap and wholesome literature like the ' People's Magazine,' ' Leigh Hunt's Journal,' ' Hogg's Instructor,' ' Eliza Cook's Journal,' ' Tait's Magazine,' ' Chambers's Journal,' the ' Leisure Hour,' and a host of others. The rapid issue of large numbers of such periodicals was rendered possible by the mechanical invention of Edward Cowper (1790-1852), who may be said to have done for the printing-press what James Watt did for the steam-engine. He was the improver, as William Nicholson was the projector, and as Frederick Kcenig, who came to London from Eisleben, in Saxon Prussia, was the first inventor, of the steam printing- machine. So early as 1816, Cowper obtained a patent for the use of curved stereotype plates fixed on cylinders. Two years later he took out another for the better dis tribution of ink, and an improved method of conveying the sheets from one cylinder to another. This was the model of most of the perfecting machines, by which both sides of the paper are printed at once. Cowper and his brother-in-law, Augustus Applegarth, jointly invented the four-cylinder machine, in 1827, for ' The Times,' which printed what was then thought the marvellous number of five thousand copies an hour. The year 1825 witnessed a commencement of the undertaking that developed into the London University. It was designed to be open to persons of all creeds, so as to meet the case of many who were excluded from Oxford and Cambridge by theological tests. Thomas Campbell the poet, Brougham, James Mill, George Grote, Zachary Maeaulay, Thomas Tooke, all of them liberal in politics and zealous in the cause of education, promoted the scheme. Political Economy was a favourite subject of study in England from about 1810 to 1845. Inquiries and speculations were rife as to the causes of prevalent depression in trade and industry. Thomas R. Malthus, David Ricardo, Whately, James Mill, Mrs. Jane Marcet, J. R. MacCuUoch, and others, discussed the matter at great length, and propounded their respective theories. Francis Horner (1778-1817) rose to a high position of public influence, by his noble character and by his know- VOL. III. 2S 37o LITERATURE AND SCIENCE. [chap. lxxx. ledge of fiscal subjects. As chairman of the Parliamentary Committee for investigating the causes of the deprecia tion of bank-notes, appointed on his motion in 1810, he took a leading part in framing the famous Bullion Report. Chiefly through his efforts, the paper issue of the English banks was checked, and gold and silver were reinstated as circulating media. His views on Free Trade and commerce, as expounded in the House of Commons and in the pages of the ' Edinburgh Review,' have been generally accepted, but there has also been a revulsion from the teachings of Political Economy. Many deride it, with Carlyle, as " the dismal science," and relegate it to the planet Saturn. The excessive depreciation is a natural rebound from the undue exaltation of a former time, when the dicta of certain teachers were supposed to furnish rules from which there was no appeal. A standard of economic orthodoxy was set up, to deviate from which was as culpable as heresy or treason. Un bending formulae were propounded for every occasion and circumstance, by which all trade and social questions were to be automatically solved. People were repelled by such dogmatism and pedantry, and ignorantly con cluded that there were no social laws and no social science. Philosophic Radicals, of whom Jeremy Ben tham ( 1 748-1 832) was the founder and prophet, held that the wliole theory of government could be deduced from a few simple axioms of human nature. Certain rules were assumed as being to the interest of every one, which it was supposed would be universally followed. Facts were against the theory ; which, moreover, failed to recognise the power of human selfishness, the diversity of human needs, and the various and inscrutable motives that affect human conduct and that influence individual character and destiny. Bentham's favourite doctrine of Utility, the modern phase of which may be said to have begun with Hume, was developed at a later date into the Utilitarianism of John Stuart MiU. It is the revival of an ancient controversy, over which philosophers have disputed, as they will continue to do, in all probability, till the end of Time. The general review shows that marked political and social improvements were effected within twenty years A.D. 1 820-1850.] "GREATEST-HAPPINESS" FORMULA. 371 from the Battle of Waterloo. For nearly a century prior to that event, it is strictly accurate to say that class and professional interests were mainly studied. The aim of the series of legislative measures beginning with the Reform Bill of 1832 was to secure the greatest happiness of the greatest number, to employ a well-known phrase, commonly but erroneously ascribed to Bentham, who says that it first flashed upon him when reading Priestley's treatise upon civil government, published in 1768. But the phrase occurs, in identical words, in the work ' On Good and Evil,' by Francis Hutcheson (1694-1737), and the principle is thoroughly interwoven with his system. There is a similar expression in the subsequent work by Beccaria, ' On Crimes and Punishments.' Ais the results of the new policy, extravagant and un checked public outlay was arrested ; a commencement was made of law reform, that had lain in abeyance since the Commonwealth ; political power was no longer monopolized by a few thousand persons for their own advantage and that of their families ; the grosser civil and religious disabilities were swept away ; landowners lost the statutory right to defraud their creditors, through real estate not being liable for debt, and were deprived of the exclusive privilege of killing game ; the criminal law was shorn of some of its harsher features ; and a more humane, considerate, and equitable method of adminis tration was initiated. A National Gallery was com menced in London in 1824. The establishment of Schools of Design, urged long before by Bishop Berkeley, was first recommended in 1836 by a Select Committee of the House of Commons. Two years later, Hampton Court galleries and gardens were thrown open, having always been kept up at the public expense ; and the prohibitory fees for inspecting the Tower of London were reduced. Not until 1845 was free admission allowed to the nave and aisles of Westminster Abbey. For six years longer an elaborate tariff, amounting in all to four shillings and fourpence, for the benefit of the officials, regulated access to St. Paul's. In all the cathedrals, from the highest dignitaries down to the meanest vergers, the idea — not yet wholly extinct — was to exact as much as possible for perfunctory or useless 372 LITERATURE AND SCIENCE. [chap. lxxx. service, or for the inspection of edifices that belong to the nation. Another humanizing and elevating influence was the formation of popular classes for the study and practice of music, dating from about the year 1840, with which the names of John Hullah, J. J. Waite, and John Curwen are honourably associated. An impulse was also given to the pursuit of the higher branches of instruction in science and art, afterwards formed into a section of the Education Department, with its head quarters at South Kensington. A police-force was established in London by Sir Robert Peel in 1829, somewhat on the model of the Royal Irish Constabulary which he had formed fifteen years earlier. By the ready humour of the Irish populace, the names of the originator were attached, in the familiar words of " Bobby," and " Peeler," soon transferred to England, and still heard in the streets. The example of a local and efficient body of police was followed in the chief provincial towns. A county force was authorized in 1839, as a permissive measure, made compulsory in 1856 ; but the controlling power, as in the case of the boroughs, was centralized in the Home Office, in a way that is regarded by many with grave apprehension, as tending to create a quasi-military force under the authority of a department. With the excep tion of the police of the City of London, who are under the control of the Corporation, every other force in the counties and boroughs is virtually subject to the Home Secretary, who can prescribe regulations and withhold the Imperial grants-in-aid. At the time of the establish ment of the new system, there was need for vigilance in detecting and repressing crime, for it had nearly doubled in twenty years, mainly, doubtless, as the result of the prevalent distress and misery. Decrepit street watchmen, parochial constables, and the Bow-street Runners were unable to cope with the evil. Country gentlemen viewed the proposal with suspicion, until they found that the new rural police could be largely used in the appre hension of poachers and in preserving the coverts. Charles Kingsley (1819-1875) showed, in ' Yeast,' the working of the iniquitous and barbarous game-laws. Since that time, miscellaneous duties have been A.D. 1820-1850.] TEMPERANCE : PUBLIC HEALTH. 373 imposed upon the police. They have the regulation of public vehicles in the metropolis and in large cities, including cabs — an abbreviation of " cabriolets " — first introduced in 1823, and omnibuses, in 1829. The vice of drunkenness had long prevailed, as repeated references in former Chapters will have shown. The police were instructed to repress it, and to watch licensed houses, as being the source of many ills. Social reformers, however, are prone to forget that intoxication is often resorted to by the miserable and the despondent as a temporary means of escape into forgetfulness from the dull and intoleiable burden of life. Healthy dwellings, improved drainage, a pure water-supply, ample em ployment, cheap food, parks and recreation-grounds, baths and washhouses, innocent amusements, libraries; and reading-rooms, and the spread of useful knowledge, play an important part in securing better social condi tions, and in removing the temptation to drown care in ephemeral oblivion. Happily, a change had taken place among educated people, who came to regard the habit as disgraceful ; and the great bulk of the community were influenced by the Temperance crusade conducted by Father Mathew and his earnest colleagues, who relied upon moral suasion and individual conviction. The subject of the health of towns, with the preven tion of zymotic diseases, began to occupy public atten tion about the year 1840. The name of Edwin Chad- wick is honourably associated with the movement. Inquiries were instituted through the new Poor Law Board — the precursor of the Local Government Board — and by a Royal Commission, into matters connected with drainage and the supply of water. Many evils and dangers were brought to light ; such as the existence in crowded neighbourhoods of open gutters reeking with putrid matter, as stagnant and offensive as Avernus ; cesspools, dunghills, and pig-styes ; the absence of proper arrangements for the removal of dust, refuse, and garbage ; and the prevalence of intramural interments. The last-named offensive and dangerous practice was not stopped until a fresh outbreak of cholera in 1850 com pelled the devising of instant remedies. In 1780, so far as imperfect statistics are available, one in forty of the 374 LITERA TURE AND SCIENCE. [chap. lxxx. population, and probably a larger proportion, died annually. The average for the whole country now is one in forty-eight. Denmark and Switzerland alone have a lower rate of mortality. At the beginning of the century, the deaths exceeded the births in London, its growth depending solely on immigration. This was so large that Cobbett's favourite phrase for the metropolis was the Wen. At the present time, the annual increase by births is 30-9 per thousand, and the loss by deaths is 20-2. The first MetropoUs Buildings Act was passed in 1844, and, three years later, the Act for the Improvement of Towns. In 1848, a Board of Health was constituted, with general powers for the formation of Local Boards where Municipal Corporations did not exist ; a realization, in part, of Milton's scheme of devolution, as opposed to centralization. All these things were not effected at once, or without resistance ; and though much more has been accomplished in the intervening half-century, not a little remains to be done ere the greatest-happiness maxim is transmuted into an abiding reality, by arousing a sense of local and personal responsibility, and by increasing the powers of local control. CHAPTER LXXXI. THE CHARTIST MOVEMENT AND THE CORN LAWS. A.D. 1837-184I. William IV. died at Windsor, June 20, 1837, in his seventy- third year. If he accomplished no good, he was prevented from doing much harm. As the Salic law prevailed in Hanover, he was succeeded there by his brother, the Duke of Cumberland (1771-1851) ; the least reputable and the most unpopular member of his family. He had narrowly escaped a prosecution for high treason, as head of an illegal association of Orange lodges in England, one of the objects of which was to set aside the Princess Victoria, daughter of his elder brother, the Duke of Kent. Happily, the plot was a.d. 1837-1841.] PRINCE ALBERT: COURT LIFE. 375 foiled, and she was proclaimed on the morning after the decease of William IV. The coronation cost £70,000, less than one-third of the lavish and wasteful expen diture in the case of George IV. A sum of £385,000, which Joseph Hume and other Reformers tried in vain to reduce, was assigned for the Civil List. The sum, excepting £60,000 for the Queen's Privy Purse, was rigidly allocated among the various departments of the Royal Household. Her Majesty also received for her personal use the net revenue of the Duchy of Lancaster, then amounting to about £10,000, but long since in creased five-fold. In like manner, the net revenue accruing to the Prince of Wales from the Duchy of Corwall has risen to £70,000, besides the annual allow ance of £36,000 since 1889 to his children. Thus the ancient and wasteful custom was wholly abolished of voting a huge lump sum annually to the Crown for the discharge of personal and official claims. The archaic form still continues in the House of Commons of granting to the Sovereign in Committee of Supply specific amounts for the different branches of the public service ; but this is a mere verbal fiction that deceives no one. When the Queen announced her intention to marry her cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe- Coburg, which took place February 10, 1840, a sum of £30,000 was voted for his separate allowance. For a long time he occupied an anomalous and a trying position, and was regarded with insular suspicion and dislike. The pages of ' Punch ' indicate the unpopularity with which his German entourage was viewed, as men dicants soliciting British charity. His prudence and high character had almost lived down this feeling at the time of his premature and lamented decease, in December, 1861. Then, with the popular tendency to rush to extremes, a revulsion set in, and the eulogies were as extravagant as previous criticisms. Of the domestic life of the Court, it would be impertinent to say more than that it has set a noble example of home virtues ; and stands out in illustrious contrast to some former reigns, while the personal character and influence of the Queen have always been exerted on behalf of Constitutional rule, and of righteousness and mercy. 376 CHARTIST MOVEMENT: CORN LAWS. [chap, lxxxi. To the word Chartism, the utmost opprobrium attached at one time. The name was derived from what was called the People's Charter, with its Six Points : — Manhood Suffrage, Equal; Electoral Districts, Vote by Ballot, Annual Parliaments, Abolition of the Property Qualification, and Payment of Members. There was nothing startling or revolutionary in these demands. So far back as 1780, the Duke of Richmond introduced a Bill to grant universal suffrage and annual Parliaments. In the same year, Fox declared himself in favour of the identical Six Points. The Society of Friends of the People, formed in 1791 by Erskine, Mackintosh, Grey, and others, aimed at a wide extension of the franchise. Bentham first advocated, in 1817, vote by ballot on the American plan ; a revival of the ancient Greek and Roman methods. George Grote, the banker-historian, brought forward year by year from 1833 in the House of Commons a similar proposal, only to be defeated. It had been submitted three years before by O'Connell ; and it found a place in the original draft of the Reform BiU. Nearly all the objects of the Chartists have long since been attained, with much more than they hoped for or dreamed of. Their agitation, formally begun in 1838, was a protest against what they regarded as political and social injustice. In a vague, dumb fashion, it was thought that existing poverty and suffering would be mitigated, if not wholly removed, by legislation. The notion that Acts of Parliament furnish a panacea for all social ills is not confined to one age or country, or to the crude and the uninformed. In one of the many addresses issued by the Chartists, they pleaded : — " Let our rulers ask themselves, when they see our prisons filled with victims, our land covered with paupers, and our streets infested with intemperance and prostitution, how much these terrible evils are occasioned by ignorance ; the consequence of their own neglect ? How many millions of public wealth, arro gantly given and ungraciously received, might have been better appropriated in diffusing the blessings of educa tion ? " In vain were such pathetic appeals addressed to the dominant class, whether Whig or Tory. The customary method of reply is found in a sDeech by Lord A.D. 1837-1841.] " FINALITY JOHN." 377 John Russell, delivered in the House in 1839 :— " We have, particularly in the manufacturing districts, very large masses of people who have grown up in a state of society which it is lamentable, if not appalling, to contemplate. ... It is, in many instances, a society necessarily composed of the working classes, with certain persons who employ them, with whom they have little connection, regard, or subordination ; and, unhappily, neither receiving in schools nor in places of worship that religious and moral instruction that is necessary for knitting together the interests and classes of a great country." That such an utterance should have been made by a responsible Minister is startling and terrible ; the more so because he did not perceive the indictment thus brought against the clergy, the Government, and the Legislature, all of whom had allowed, and even fostered, such a condition of things by criminal neglect of elementary education, of moral teaching, and of just and equal administration. All that was attempted, even then, was a rigid enforce ment of the law, aided by the new police, in the hope of silencing complaints. The Whigs were satisfied, in common with the middle classes, having obtained their desire ; and they regarded with disfavour any projects for further extensions of political influence. " Finality John " was a name given in ridicule to Lord Russell, for a foolish speech in which he deprecated any more changes in the franchise, and advised the people to " rest and be thankful," adapting the title of one of Words worth's Sonnets. The official hierarchy of the Whigs treated the Chartist movement with contempt, until it threatened to become troublesome. Then they tried to stamp it out. The agitation was complicated with scarcity of work and dearness of food, arising from a long period of commercial depression and a series of bad harvests, following upon the terrible waste and exhaus tion of the great French War, and the permanent fiscal burdens thereby imposed. The toiling multitudes, half- starved in miserable attics and cellars, addressed piteous petitions to the Queen and the Legislature, which the former probably never saw or heard of, and which the latter treated with contempt. Meetings of thousands of 378 CHARTIST MOVEMENT ! CORN LAWS. [chap, lxxxi. people were held all over the country. In the lack of judicious guidance, an extreme party arose, under fluent, self-appointed, self-seeking leaders, who appealed to ignorance and passion, urging that, as moral means had failed to secure the desired objects, resort must be had to physical force. They inflicted irreparable injury upon the cause which they professed to champion, for it was judged and condemned by the measure of tlieir blatant folly ; as were men like the benevolent Joseph Sturge of Birmingham, Samuel Bamford, James Woodford, and many others, who were opposed to violence, but were alike upright and patriotic. To their labours and suffer ings modern English liberties owe much. Some prominent Chartists, like Henry Vincent, William Lovett, John Collins, Ernest Jones, and Thomas Cooper- all of them sincere, well-meaning, and estimable men, if mistaken in some of their views and methods — were prosecuted in 1838 ; but this only fanned the excitement. Cooper was the author of two novels, 'Alderman Ralph,' and 'The Family Feud,' which had considerable suc cess ; and, more notably, of a marveUous poem, ' The Purgatory of Suicides,' written during his imprisonment in Stafford gaol. One man, Bartlett, was incarcerated in Ilchester for nine months for saying at Newport, " It is a fact in history that all successful revolutions are lawful ; but the unsuccessful are criminal " ; a truism then held to be seditious. Their treatment in prison was infamous, as if they had been felons, instead of political prisoners, and it brands the Whig Government with indelible disgrace. It is detailed by Cooper and by George Jacob Holyoake, in their respective ' Remi niscences ' ; and more fully in Benjamin Wilson's ' Struggles of an Old Chartist,' and in the pathetic ' Life and Struggles of William Lovett in Pursuit of Bread, Knowledge, and Freedom.' Ernest Jones, a barrister and a poet, who had sacrificed his all in what he believed to be a righteous cause, was kept in solitary confinement for nineteen months, on the silent system — a cruel device that must not be confused with the modern separate system — and often on bread and water, because he would not submit to menial offices or to the degrading task of picking oakum. His constitution was broken and his a.d. 1837-1841.] REVOLUTIONS IN EUROPE. 379 life was shortened by the inhuman treatment. There were many such victims of political animosity in English prisons, provoking much excitement and irritation, and leading to lamentable excesses. Outbreaks occurred at Newport, Monmouthshire, and in the Midland and Northern districts, followed by more arrests and convic tions. Huge petitions were again transmitted to Parlia ment, praying for the reforms named in the Charter, which the existing Legislature was not prepared to grant. The Revolution in France, in February, 1848, drove the boasted Citizen-King, Louis Philippe (1773-1850) from his throne and from the country, and set up a temporary RepubUc. The reigning Orleans dynasty- fell after a short life, with a suddenness which aroused wonder, and with an ignominy that forbade pity. The Revolution was felt over Europe, like the shock of an earthquake. Charles Louis of Bavaria abdicated. The King of Hanover, and other petty sovereigns, had to make concessions. There were more or less successful revolutions in Vienna, Berlin, Venice, Prague, Cracow, and elsewhere, followed by a reaction as soon as military despots could collect their forces. Atrocious cruelties were perpetrated by the Austrians in the attempt to put down the assertion of Italian Independence. The scandalous misgovernment of Bomba — a contemptuous nickname for Ferdinand II., from his habit of blowing out his cheeks — in Naples, where thousands of poli tical prisoners, including many persons of rank and character, were immured for months in horrible dun geons, was exposed in 1851 by Mr. Gladstone, in his famous letters to the Earl of Aberdeen ; which were translated into every European language, and widely circulated. AU these things, with the heroic struggles for freedom carried on for years by the patriot party in Poland and in Hungary, against the crushing tyranny of Russia and Austria, caused great excitement in Eng land. London, in particular, was panic-stricken. The shopkeepers saw horrid visions of plunder. It was said that the extreme Chartists contemplated a forcible rising. They arranged to meet on Kennington Common, and to march to Westminster with a petition alleged to contain five miUion signatures. The number was exaggerated 380 CHARTIST MOVEMENT: CORN LAWS. [chap, lxxxi. threefold, and many of the names were fictitious or forged. A military force was concentrated, and special constables, including the exiled fugitive, Louis Napo leon, were sworn in. On the appointed day, April io, 1848, the procession was not allowed to cross West minster Bridge, only a small delegation being permitted to accompany the petition. The dreaded outbreak ended in smoke, and the whole Chartist movement was covered with undeserved ridicule through the folly and wilfulness of a section who held Communist ideas. The bulk of the Chartists did not favour such wild theories, and were not prepared to merge individual property and rights in those of an abstract State. Their movement, however, was virtually slain by internal dissensions, and by the absurdity of frothy declaimers who assumed the conduct of affairs for their own ends. There was, undoubtedly, a strong feeling among the intelligent and industrious artisan population that they were deprived of political rights. The question of elec toral reform was not allowed to slumber. Private members introduced Bills which the House of Commons refused to pass. Lord Palmerston, who hated Reform, and was essentially a Tory, staved off the inconvenient subject during his long tenure of office. Lord John Russell made several half-hearted attempts in 1854, in 1859, and in 1866. Disraeli submitted a proposal on the part of the Derby Cabinet in 1859, which was rejected. When again in office, in 1867, he brought forward another Bill, which was altered and enlarged by the Liberal Opposition, and carried. The Marquis of Salis bury, then Lord Cranborne, passionately disclaimed all responsibility for the measure, and seceded from the Cabinet, saying that Gladstone was the real author and sponsor. The Earl of Derby, the head of the Govern ment, described the Bill as " a great experiment," and as " a leap in the dark " ; while John Bright ridiculed what he termed its fancy franchises and three-cornered consti tuencies. It virtually created household suffrage, in cluding lodgers, in boroughs, but not in counties, and increased the electorate from less than one million to nearly three. Repeated attempts were made, chiefly by the annual motion of Sir G. C. Trevelyan, to apply the A.D. 1837-1841.] SCHEMES OF REFORM. 381 same principal to counties, but this was not done until the Act of 1884, which added more than two millions to the electoral roll, by assimilating the franchise in rural districts. Part of this addition, however, was due to judge-made law, through the interpretation put upon the Act, in a case of appeal, which caUed into existence a numerous class of voters, known as " inhabitant oc cupiers," as distinct from householders or lodgers. Conjoined with the Franchise Bill was the application on a much larger scale of the principle of the redistribu tion of seats, as first introduced in 1867. By an arrange ment between the two political parties, most of the large borough and county constituencies were divided into seats for single members. The Disraeli scheme of 1867 also provided that Parliament should not be dissolved on any future demise of the Crown, and that members holding offices of profit need not vacate their seats on accepting another post. But nothing was devised to enable a member to resign. He must still resort to the clumsy and fictitious method of applying for the Stewardship of the Chiltern Hundreds, a Crown estate in Bucks. Acceptance of this titular office is held to disqualify for a retention of a seat in the House. A chief cause of the political and social disquietude in the Chartist days was the operation of the Corn Laws, by which the prices of staple food were greatly enhanced. This artificial and prohibitory system, after many experiments, ending in dismal failure and awful suffering, was supposed to have been brought to a state of perfection in 1828, by means of a sliding-scale duty upon imported corn, working automatically according to the market price. The scheme was represented, with a plausibility that covered gross selfishness, as being calcu lated to promote the best interests of the country, by encouraging native growth, by keeping land in culti vation, by avoiding the necessity for foreign supplies of food, and by assisting landowners and farmers to patronize home manufactures and trade. It was urged that the abolition of Protection would ruin agriculturists and shopkeepers, throw numbers of workpeople out of employment, and lead to the withdrawal of capital. The real object was to maintain the high rents and 382 CHARTIST MOVEMENT: CORN LAWS. [chap, lxxxi. prices of the recent war-times ; while hundreds of farms were unlet, and many thousands were starving for lack of work. Ignorance, prejudice, and timidity united with greed in upholding the Corn Laws, although their injustice had been exposed by three generations of able writers since the days of Adam Smith, and although their obvious effect was to enhance prices to the many for the advantage of the few, inasmuch as taxes fall ultimately and invariably on the consumer. Moreover, speculation and gambling were fostered by the Act of 1828, which fixed the import duty at 24s. 8d., when wheat was 62s. a quarter, with a diminishing or an ascending scale. Insufficient crops and high prices, especially after the year 1835, caused much poverty and misery. Thousands of tenant farmers were bankrupt. In the Vale of Aylesbury the poor-rates were 30s. an acre. In parts of Suffolk they were more than the rental. Four years later, wheat was 81s. 6d. The pressure was greatest on the labourer and the mechanic, and on aU persons of small fixed incomes and of limited means. The newspapers of the day relate in harrowing detail the prevalent distress. Men, made wolfish through hunger, and half-frantic women with starving babes, demanded food. Closed mills, empty houses, crowds out of work, stagnant trade, ruined shopkeepers, a vast increase of pauperism, to the extent, in some districts, of a third of the population, bankrupt benefit clubs, wages in Dorset as low as 6s. a week, whole families passing several days without food, other than garbage and refuse, — such were the piteous items, multiplied a thousand-fold. Carlyle's 'Chartism,' and his ' Past and Present,' with Disraeli's early political novels, and works like Charles Kingsley's ' Yeast ' and 'Alton Locke,' even after making allowance for their rhetorical setting, present a dark picture of the social and industrial state of England at the time. In the crowded city of Manchester one-tenth of the people lived in squalor in cellars. It was worse in Liverpool, where one-seventh burrowed underground. Glasgow was still worse. In Carlisle, a fourth of the inhabitants were starving. In all large towns, the living poor herded as closely in fever-stricken courts as the dead in the con- a.d. 1837-1841.] ANTI-CORN-LAW LEAGUE. 383 tiguous and choked-up graveyards ; nor were many country villages much better, owing to lack of work, low Wages, insufficient food, scanty and defective cottages, an inadequate and fitful water-supply, and the neglect of sanitation. It was officially stated in 1841 that 800,000 persons dependent on hand-loom weaving had to subsist on twopence halfpenny a day. Three thousand houses in Stockport were empty. At Leeds, the pauper stone- heap was 150,000 tons ; and as it could not be disposed of, the Guardians had to pay the paupers for doing nothing. Typhus and cholera raged everywhere inter mittently, and swept away numbers of miserable victims. It is not surprising, therefore, that the social wretched ness aroused discontent, and led to clamorous demands for further political reform. An agitation was commenced in London, Birmingham, Manchester, Glasgow, and other large towns, in order to force the question of a repeal of the Corn Laws upon the notice of a reluctant and sceptical Legislature, where a selfish landed interest largely preponderated. Manu facturers naturally wished to sell their goods wherever buyers existed, but found themselves hampered at every turn by prohibitive legislation. Charles Pelham Villiers, M.P. for Wolverhampton, introduced in 1838 the first of a series of motions for inquiry. The Melbourne Cabinet successfully opposed him ; the Premier declaring that a repeal of the Corn Laws was " one of the wildest and maddest schemes that ever entered the imagination of man." The prompt answer to this Whig non possumus was the formation at Manchester, September 18, 1838, of the Anti-Corn-Law League, the most powerful and effective popular organization ever seen. The history of its Seven Years' War against Protection is copiously narrated by Prentice. There had been one or two tentative and local efforts, but this was general and permanent until the end was achieved. It emulated the famous Hanseatic League which, three centuries before, had freed the trade of the Hanse Towns from the arbi trary imposts of German princes. Ample pecuniary means were forthcoming year by year, £250,000 being guaranteed in one instance, if required. An active pro- pagandism was carried on all over the country by means 384 CHARTIST MOVEMENT : CORN LAWS. [chap, lxxxi. of lectures, speeches, discussions, conferences, news papers, tracts, pamphlets, books, and songs. Chief among the workers were Richard Cobden (1804-1865), John Bright (1811-1889), General Perronet Thompson, Milner Gibson, William Johnson Fox, George Wilson, and Ebenezer Elliot, the Corn-Law Rhymer, whose stirring coUoquial songs accomplished for this move ment what J. G. Whittier and J. R. Lowell did for the downfall of slavery in America. Monopolies always die hard. Much interested re sistance, misrepresentation, and abuse had to be en countered. But information was diffused ; arguments were pressed home ; earnest appeals were made ; and a healthy public opinion was created in behalf of Free Trade. The Whigs, who had first opposed, and then hesitated, so far yielded to the inevitable as to submit, in May, 1841, a scheme for a fixed duty of 8s. a quarter on corn. They were defeated on their Budget. Sir James Graham declared in Parliament that a fixed duty would be the destruction, not of one particular class alone, but of the State itself ; and he favoured a continued sliding- scale. A direct vote of want of confidence was then carried by a majority of one, whereupon an appeal was made to the country. The response was a Conservative majority of 76, including the adherents of the old Tory party, from which, however, it somewhat differed, by modifications. Peel became Prime Minister, with a mandate from the constituencies, especially from the agricultural interest, to maintain Protection. The Whigs were discredited, because of their trimming, their greed in office, the utter failure of their financial policy, and the scandalous manner in which they had provided for family and political connections, while always clainung to be more righteous than the Tories. Their course was run, and they were not allowed to save themselves even by a death-bed repentance. They left the Exchequer deficient by more than ten millions. The naval and military expenditure had risen during their six years' tenure of office from eleven millions and three-quarters to fifteen and a half. Ireland was in a ferment. Med dling interference in Egypt had risked a collision with France. One of the miserable and iniquitous Opium a.d. 1837-1841.] THE INDIAN EMPIRE. 385 Wars had been forced upon China ; and the policy in Afghanistan, with the feeling aroused by the treatment of native women, entailed loss and disgrace. The expedition to Kabul, in 1838, the horrors of the humiliating retreat through the Khaiber Pass, and the two Sikh Wars, can never be forgotten. British valour and endurance bore the strain, and ultimately triumphed over all difficulties and reverses. The names of such men as Eldred Pottinger, Sir Alexander Burnes, Sir Robert Sale, Lord Gough, and Sir Charles Napier are immortalized in Indian annals. But there is no excuse for the ambition, the foolhardiness, and the imbecility that marked the whole course of procedure of the con trolling body in England and of the administrators in Calcutta. Forty years later, in 1878, the desire of Lord Beaconsfield to settle a scientific frontier for India led to a repetition of the attempt upon Kabul. Happily, the results were far less disastrous ; but Kandahar had to be evacuated, and the forces withdrawn along the same Khaiber Pass. Lord Lawrence, then the greatest living authority, severely condemned the project, and his opinion was shared by leading statesmen acquainted with Indian affairs. The aggressive policy of Lord Auckland, Governor-General from 1835 to 1842, was in pursuance of the course taken by some of his predecessors, and was persisted in by those who followed, until the Marquis of Dalhousie, between 1848 and 1856, " consummated a policy, and closed a period." When Cornwallis reached India, in 1786, the East India Company, whose original purpose, long followed, was trading, rather than terri torial rule, possessed only a large tract of land in Bengal, a smaller one around Madras, the town of Bombay and the adjacent island of Salsette, and the Circars on the Coromandel coast ; with a loose hold upon districts in Central and Southern India, ruled by the Marhatta princes, by the Nizam at Haiderabad, and by Tipu Sultan at Mysore. When the Marquis of Hastings retired in 1823, after ten years' rule, he left a territory twice as large. The vast district of Sind was annexed in 1843, under EUenborough; the Cis-Sutlej States and others under Viscount Hardinge, in 1846 ; and then the Punjab, Pegu, Nagpur, and Oudh by Dalhousie, who VOL. III. 26 386 CHARTIST MOVEMENT : CORN LAWS. [chap, lxxxi. ranks with the greatest of British Proconsuls. What ever opinion may be formed of his schemes of conquest, they were attended and followed by wise consolidation and development ; especiallyin the construction of roads, canals, railways, and telegraphs, in the increase of reser voirs, and of irrigation and other works of public utility, in the improvement of the postal system, and in the initiation of a great scheme of education. The establishment of cheap and expeditious inland postage, was another beneficent act initiated by the Melbourne Cabinet that had far-reaching commercial and social consequences. Hitherto, the charges for the conveyance of letters were prohibitory, except to the affluent. A day's wages of a labourer were absorbed in sending a letter from London to Scotland. There was only one despatch daily to the provinces, and the service was slow and irregular. Rowland Hill, after contending for years with active opposition and passive resistance on the part of officials, was able, in 1840, by the express direction of the Treasury, to carry out a scheme of uniform inland penny postage, and to perfect plans suggested by earlier reformers. The great advantages of cheap postage, and the recent extension of the tele graphic system, have involved, however, the loss of the art of letter-writing, as embodied in the old quarto sheet, closely filled, wi tU the exception of the small space needed for the superscription. The convenience of envelopes dates only from 1840 ; and though steel pens were in partial use twenty years earlier, the price was excessive. Even so late as 1832, they were 6s. a gross, and the quality was inferior to those now supplied at sixpence. CHAPTER LXXXII. IRISH FAMINE AND EMIGRATION. A.D. 1841-1846. In the new Parliament of 1841, Bright, Cobden, and other prominent members of the Anti-Corn- Law League found places, and their influence at once made itself felt. Among the members of the Peel Ministry were two A.D. 1841-1846.] REVISED SLIDING-SCALE. 387 young men whose character and ability marked them out for high positions ; William Ewart Gladstone, Vice President of the Board of Trade, described by Maeaulay, in his famous review of the ' Essay on Church and State,' as " the rising hope of the stern and unbending Tories" ; and Sidney Herbert (1810-1861), Secretary tp the Admi ralty, and afterwards Lord Herbert of Lea. At first, Peel made no sign of his intentions ; only resisting every proposal for an inquiry into the Corn Laws. In Febru ary, 1842, he carried a measure imposing a tax of seven- pence on all incomes above £150, to meet the chronic deficiency in the revenue, reviving the scheme which had been repealed in 1816. It was to remain in force during three years, and was then extended, and has never been abandoned. The tax was estimated to yield £3,750,000. A single penny in the pound now produces more than two millions. He also relieved trade and commerce by repealing the export duties on British manufactures, and by abolishing or reducing the tariff on 750 articles ; a scheme that was afterwards amplified and completed by his pupil and friend, Gladstone. Hitherto, four-fifths of the national income were derived from Customs and Excise, and these indirect taxes were burdensome and unfair. Peel then submitted a scheme of a revised sliding-scale, on the basis that the duty should never exceed 20s. while wheat sold at or under 50s., and when the price reached 69s. the duty was to sink to five. The measure, though an improvement on the existing plan, was opposed by the League, on prin ciple ; but it became law. Villiers' annual motion for the repeal of the Corn Laws was always lost, but by lessening majorities. The distress in the country fluctuated, but there was still much suffering ; while a million and a half of quarters of foreign corn were lying in bond, awaiting the enhanced prices which speculators hoped to make out of the necessity and distress -of the people. Relief funds were opened, and special measures taken to lighten the strain upon the Poor Law. Peel made guarded utterances ; but it was evident that he had an open mind upon the subject. Carlyle, in ' Past and Present,' issued in 1843, denounced him as Sir Jabesh Windbag ; 388 IRISH FAMINE AND EMIGRATION, [chap, lxxxu. emptying on him and on his sliding-scale the vials of contempt and indignation. The Budget of 1842 pro pounded a masterly scheme for reconstructing the national finances. The logical result was an end of the Corn Laws ; for it surrendered the whole principle of protective duties, which were acknowledged by him in subsequent speeches to rest upon exceptional grounds of assumed expediency. Moreover, the conviction was being brought home, slowly but surely, that the country was paying at least twelve millions a year for a bread-tax, and one-third of that sum as a tax on sugar. The Whigs gradually lowered their suggestion as to a fixed duty, in the eager desire to compete with their opponents. Various shiftings of the political kaleidoscope occurred between 1842 and 1845. Every one felt that changes were impending, but none could forecast the mode or the time, when, suddenly, another factor was introduced that compelled prompt and decisive action. The potato was the chief food in Ireland, as rice is now in India. The prolific growth was suited to the soil, and seemed to meet, while it really aggravated, the miserable condition of the peasantry. Buckle's in genious theory need not be refuted. A tuber disease had appeared in England in 1835, and had been known for some years in America. It now broke out in Ire land, and waged with such virulence during the Winter of 1845, and for several successive seasons, that in many districts the crop wholly perished. Multitudes died of famine, notwithstanding the efforts of the Government by means of grants and of relief works, with the help of private beneficence by humane persons in England and America. There had been previous famines, with something like periodicity, but this was by far the worst. The commemoration in 1887 of the Jubilee of Queen Victoria's reign was marred by the painful re membrance that during the fifty years 1,250,000 of people had died in Ireland of famine, or of the fever induced by it ; that 3,500,000 had been evicted from their homes and little holdings, and that more than 4,000,000 had emigrated. That dispersion, as John Morley remarks, planted in every quarter of the globe irreconcilable enemies to English rule. Absentee land- a.d. 1841-1846.] LEGISLATIVE PALLIATIVES. 389 lords drew at the time from four to six millions annually, according to different estimates ; or from one-third to one-half of the whole rent of the country. Lord John Russell said, in 1846, — "We have made Ireland — I speak it deliberately — the most degraded and miserable country in the world." This state of things continued for another generation, and was not remedied by mea sures like the Encumbered Estates Court, devised by amateur legislators who were puzzled and distracted by agricultural distress, by commercial ruin, and by threa tened social anarchy. A Royal Commission, presided over by the Earl of Devon, was appointed November 20, 1843, to inquire into the state of the law and the practice in respect to the occupation of land in Ireland. Its Report, with copious minutes of evidence, taken in forty-seven places from nearly a thousand witnesses, was issued in four large folio volumes in 1845, and contained a number of practical recommendations that appeared ideal, heroic, and impossible to the statesmanship of that day. Not until Gladstone's Irish Landlord and Tenant Act of 1870 was any comprehensive plan devised to grapple with the evils resulting from dual ownership, from excessive rents, from arbitraiy conditions, from the uncertainty of tenure, and from the lack of compensa tion for permanent or unexhausted improvements. This was the first of a series of proposals made during the next twenty years with a view to deal with the vexed and difficult question. Another Royal Com mission, to inquire into the working of the Act, was appointed in July, 1880, and presided over by the Earl of Bessborough. It reported in the following year, and made sundry suggestions, which were carried out, for extending, cheapening, and simplifying the provisions of the Act. If all has not been accomplished that sanguine persons expected, it must be borne in mind that the evils were widespread and of long duration, and that Statutory remedies alone are ineffectual in such matters. The distress was not confined to Ireland. It prevailed to a considerable extent in England ; but the state of affairs in the sister-country precipitated a repeal of the 390 IRISH FAMINE AND EMIGRATION, [chap, lxxxii. Corn Laws. The poor did not live : they barely existed. Yet landowners and farmers would not con cede that Protection had anything to do with this melancholy state of things. Some thousands of them, belonging to the Royal Agricultural Society, concurred in a manifesto put forth in the columns of ' The Times,' October 24, 1845, in which starving labourers were exhorted to have a week's wages in hand, and to deny themselves the commonest necessaries until that halcyon condition was reached. They were told that three or four pounds of potatoes were as nourishing as a pound of wheaten bread, besides imparting the sensa tion of greater fulness. They were advised to buy a pound of bones for twopence, and to boil them three times, so as to extract all the nutriment. Similar advice led to the hanging of Foulon, at the time of the French Revolution, having around his neck a garland of nettles, thistles, and grass, which he once said the people might eat. The Duke of Norfolk, presiding at an agricultural dinner at Steyning, Sussex, December 8, 1845, suggested to the starving labourers that they might allay their hunger with a pinch of curry-powder in hot water : — " I don't mean to say it will make a good soup ; but this I say, if a man comes home and has nothing better, it will make him warm and go to bed comfortable." The ducal advice was repeated at another dinner at Arundel the following night, and was reported ver batim, with its grammatical blunders, in ' The Times.' That paper suddenly discovered that the League was a great fact ; and on the fourth of December it launched a thunderbolt on the country by announcing Peel's intention to propose the abolition of the Corn Laws. There had been dissensions in the Cabinet, and some withdrawals. Peel retired from office for a few days, but resumed it because the Whigs could not form a Ministry, having no settled policy on the main question. They were awaiting the turn of events. It was an open secret that Peel felt himself impelled, as the only way of escape from the distress and ruin impending over the country, to undertake a task and to adopt a course which he foresaw must result in alienating many of his old friends and political associates. He records in his a.d. 1841-1846.] DISRAELI ASSAILS PEEL. 391 'Memoirs,' and his public speeches prove, that for some time his opinions had been changing under the force of circumstances, and as a result of the arguments of Free Traders. He had acted in a similar way on Catholic Emancipation, on the Currency, and on the ameliora tion of the Criminal Code. Opportunism and expe diency are common considerations with politicians ; as in the case of Burke. This is not mentioned to Peel's dishonour. He was not a constructive statesman, but he had the shrewdness to perceive when a subject was ripe for legislative treatment, and how to ensure the support of average men, who always form the majority. In a noble speech of four hours' duration, January 27, 1846, he avowed the impossibility of longer maintaining the Corn Laws, and proposed to lower the duties at once, and to end them in three years. He was instantly and furiously denounced as a traitor by those with whom he had been in close political union all his life ; though men of ordinary discernment must have perceived whither he had been tending, and that the stress of events rendered the step inevitable. John Wilson Croker solemnly warned him that he was breaking up the old interests, and forcing on exactly such a catas trophe as did the Noailles and the Montmorencies in France, in 1789. Disraeli, in particular, attacked Peel with a ferocity and a malignity unparaUeled since the days of Walpole. It is shocking to read in the 'Parliamentary Debates' the vituperation, the calumnies, the insults, and the gross personal epithets hurled at him night after night by Disraeli, whose conduct is aggravated by the fact which afterwards came to light, that Peel, who was too high-minded to reveal it, had in his possession at the time a written request from his adversary for an office. Disraeli's whole career, though marking him out as a strategist of consummate genius, and a controversial gladiator of unrivalled skill and unscrupulousness, both in attack and in defence, was that of a political adven turer ; from the time when he posed as an ultra-Radical candidate for Wycombe, in 1832, speedily followed by his recantation four years later in the diatribes known as the ' Runnymede Letters,' in ' The Times,' down to 392 IRISH FAMINE AND EMIGRATION, [chap, lxxxi i, his death in 1881 in the odour of Tory sanctity. He was always regarded as the necessary, but feared and mis trusted leader of the party, which he boasted of having educated up to the abandonment of its principles for the sake of office. What he falsely charged upon Peel, was done repeatedly by himself, in an aggravated form. The action of the Tories in detaching themselves from Peel, placed them in antagonism to .the people and to the spirit of the time, and was a main cause of their exclusion from office for nearly a generation. The Government proposal was carried June 25, 1846, after many nights of heated and acrimonious debate. The League instantly dissolved its formidable organiza tion. The Tory thirst for revenge upon Peel was not long delayed. Under the titular leadership of Lord George Bentinck, who suddenly abjured the race-course and the betting-ring for the purpose, but under the actual inspi ration of Disraeli, they joined forces with the Whigs and with Daniel O'Connell's followers, and defeated the great Minister on the second reading of a Bill for the better protection of life in Ireland. Not that they objected to the measure ; for they supported it at the outset, and they adopted it subsequently ; but they were determined to hound him from office, for an opposite reason to that which decreed the exile of Coriolanus from Rome. He foresaw the result, and did not shrink from his course. In his closing speech, one of the most magnanimous, as well as one of the most powerful and effective, ever heard within the walls of Parliament, he bore testimony to the disinterestedness, the energy, and the simple yet un adorned eloquence of Richard Cobden, and declared that his name would ever be associated with the success of the measure. In the same speech he uttered the pathetic words about his own name being remembered with good will in lowly homes when the inmates recruited their strength "with abundant and untaxed food, the sweeter because no longer leavened by a sense of injustice." Pos terity has done honour to his memory, and to his patriotic endeavours "to scatter plenty o'er a smiling land." His career was suddenly terminated, July 2, 1850, by a fall from his horse. The tragical circumstance aroused deep emotion throughout the country. His cold bearing and A.d. 1841-1-846.] THE BANK ACT. 393 his errors of judgment were forgotten in the recollectior of his noble qualities and of all that he had clone for the public good. After being in force for nearly two hundred years, the Navigation Laws were repealed in 1849, so that the re strictions on foreign trade were at length removed. The customary dismal forecasts of commercial ruin were speedily falsified by the impetus given to British shipping. The latest return shows a total of 8,644,754 tons, in which the chief part of the ocean carrying-trade is performed. Peel had prepared the way for this, though it was effected after his retirement. Another great fiscal measure associated with his name was the Bank Act of 1844. It renewed, but revised, the conditions under which the Bank of England had existed for nearly a century and a half. Its business was now separated into two departments, for the issue of notes and for ordinary banking transac tions ; the former being regulated by the amount of public securities held, and by the bullion in stock. Di versities of opinion exist among financial authorities as to how far the rules laid down have averted monetary crises, or have induced or aggravated such as occurred in 1847, in 1857, and in 1866. To the same period belong the various joint-stock banks and other commercial enter prises which have developed into such gigantic propor tions. The principle of limited liability in commercial undertakings, first introduced in 1857 from France by Robert Lowe, then at the head of the Board of Trade, has not been productive of unmitigated benefit. It is too much to expect that, in the mad haste for riches, credulous persons will cease to believe in plausible repre sentations that seem to open up a royal road to wealth. On the downfall of the Peel Ministry, one was formed by Lord John Russell, on the usual basis of a snug family party of Whigs ; but with a minority in the House of Commons. Ireland continued to be a source of profound anxiety, owing to the manner in which many landlords acted ; exercising their legal rights with a hand of iron, and denying their moral duties with a brow of brass. The difficulties were aggravated by an agitation for a Repeal of the Act of Union, under the leadership of Daniel O'Connell, and by the rise of the Young Ireland 394 IRISH FAMINE .AND EMIGRATION, [chap, lxxxii. party against him, headed by Smith O'Brien, Gavan Duffy, Thomas Meagher, and John Mitchel. There was the usual wearisome round of coercive legislation, armed resistance, incendiarism, outrages, State prosecutions, and semi-martial law. New offences were created, such as treason-felony ; an elastic phrase dear to lawyers. Hun dreds of thousands continued to emigrate to America, where the census of 1890 revealed the startling fact that there are in the States more than ten millions of persons of Irish lineage, who exert a controlling influence in many elections. The population of Ireland, which was nearly eight millions and a quarter in 1841, was reduced in fifty years to less than four and three quarters ; instead of increasing to about twelve in the natural order of things. For nearly eighty years after the Union the country was treated exceptionally, as an alien province or a subject dependency. Its just claims and its reason able wishes being disregarded, it is not surprising that recourse was had to other and objectionable means of compelling attention, such as the Fenian Brotherhood and dynamite outrages. To concede the demand for repeal is impossible, considering the geographical, com mercial, and social relations of the two countries, but no excuse can be found for English statesman, whether Whigs or Tories, who persistently refused to investigate the causes of disaffection ; to redress wrong and injustice ; to heed the wail of the oppressed ; to settle the vexed question of tenant-right ; and to put an end to the scan dalous anomaly of an alien Church. Instead of this, Irish representatives were often bought and silenced with lucrative offices, and Irish questions were contumeliously thrust aside. As part of the same system, the sop of £26,000 a year was thrown to May- nooth College in 1845, being an increase of the annual grant of £9,000 made since 1795, when the Penal Laws were relaxed by the Irish Parliament ; with £30,000 towards the erection of new buildings. The design was to silence just complaints against the Anglican hierarchy. It evoked a storm of Protestant fanaticism and of preju dice and hatred that cannot now be thought of without a blush of shame. If the opposition had arisen from the principle that all grants of public money to religious a.d. 1841-1846.] AUSTRALIAN EXPLORERS. 395 purposes, whatever the creed or the polity, are unjust and indefensible, there would have been logical con sistency. Episcopalians were joined by not a few Non conformists, who, to the discredit of their intelligence, were frightened by the cry of " No Popery ! " An Anti- Maynooth Conference was held in London, and meetings were held throughout the provinces, attended by large numbers of excited and terrified old ladies of both sexes, who eagerly responded to the customary denunciations of Rome, and passed strongly-worded resolutions. Clerical dignitaries did not scruple to attribute the Irish famine to the anger of Heaven, aroused by the grant to May- nooth ; just as the death of George IV., in 1830, and the burning of the Houses of Parliament four years later, were ascribed to the Divine displeasure at Catholic Emancipation, by a turgid rhetorician named Croly, rector of one of the many lucrative but empty churches in the City of London. Even Gladstone left Peel's Cabinet, not because he disapproved on political grounds of the Maynooth Grant, but because it was incompatible with the views set forth in 1838 in his juvenile and immature ' Essay on the Relations of the Church with the State.' He rejoined the Ministry after a few months, when the crucial question of the Corn Laws awaited decision. A scheme of University educa tion was also launched, by founding Queen's Colleges in Beffast, Cork, and Galway, affiliated to a central Uni versity in Dublin, for the use of all denominations ; but the results fell far short 6f the wishes of the projectors, if they did not end in utter failure, owing to the resistance of the Roman Catholic bishops. The tide of emigration to which reference has been made was not restricted to Ireland. Many thousands were driven from Sutherlandshire and other parts of Scotland by renewed attempts of powerful landowners to devote vast tracts of country to deer-forests or to sheep- pasture. The expatriated families had to seek homes in Canada or in Australia, whither thousands of English people also went. The interior of that vast continent had been heroically explored since 1813 by Matthew Flinders Wentworth, Lawson, Blaxland, Evans, Oxley, Sir Thomas L. Mitchell, Edward John Eyre, Richard- 396 IRISH FAMINE AND EMIGRATION, [chap, lxxxii. Lander, and others. Later explorers include Edmund B. Kennedy, Allan Cunningham, McDouall Sturt, Robert O'Hara Burke, William John Wills, John M'Kinlay, and William Landsborough. A thin and scattered fringe of settlements had been formed around the coast ; imaginary and arbitrary lines dividing what are now known as the separate colonies of Australia, all of which were then called New South Wales. This was the generic name given in 1778 by Captain James Cook to the whole of the Eastern part of the continent. Ten years later, Sydney was founded. Out of the whole were established South Australia, in 1834 ; Victoria — formerly Port Phillip — in 185 1 ; and Queensland in 1859. Western Australia, or Swan River Settlement, first discovered by Vlamingi in 1697, became an English colony in 1829. Van Diemen's Land, or Tasmania, divided from the general group by Bass's Straits, was visited by Abel Jansen Tasman, a Dutch navigator, in 1642. It was settled by Englishmen in 1825, and New Zealand in 1841. The island of Fiji was annexed in 1874. The early custom was to make land grants on an ex tensive and a reckless scale, but on loose conditions. Then a system, partly philanthropic and religious, but chiefly commercial and speculative, was devised by plausible and fluent persons who, unfortunately, secured the ear of the Colonial Office in London. Instead of the vast tracts of territory being held as the rightful heritage of future generations, they were exploited by a selfish few for their own benefit. South Sea islanders were entrapped, and then treated as slaves on the sheep- runs, or on board whaling-vessels, by men like Benjamin Bond and his brother Archibald, who, liaving posed as capitalists in Sydney on money borrowed in England, perished miserably when the financial crash occurred. One of them was killed and eaten. The other ended his days in poverty in a garret in Bloomsbury, London. The policy of confiscation and squandering was pursued for years, in defiance of protests and warnings from such sagacious and upright men as Sir George Grey, Bishop Selwyn, and Chief Justice Sir William Martin. Land and labour troubles that have since arisen in most of the a.d. 1841-1846.] TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM. 397 Australian Colonies are mainly traceable to this unwise and unjust policy. Robert Lowe, afterwards Viscount Sherbrooke, strenuously protested against it, as he did against the transportation of convicts, during his residence in Sydney from 1842 to 1849, and he strove in vain to ensure an efficient common-school system. The land monopoly was permitted, and the right of veto on legislation against duties on English goods was aban doned, through the ineptitude and neglect of the Colonial Office, which likewise tolerated the abominable Family Compact that oppressed and robbed Canada for generations. The troubles were owing also, in part, to the vain hopes cherished by wearied, disappointed, and incapable persons, that an elixir of bliss and prosperity awaited them across the ocean, without the display of industry or capacity on their part. For more than haff a century after the English flag- was raised on the shores of the Australian continent of three millions of square miles, it was mainly treated as a convenient spot for deporting criminals. Out of sight was literally out of mind. The murderer and the victim of the game-laws, the burglar, and the resister of oppression, the vilest felons and patriotic reformers, were alike consigned to that abyss of woe. What they did there, and what they became, under martinet military governors and their irresponsible myrmidons, separated from the home authorities and from public opinion by half the circumference of the globe, were matters of no concern, though the financial cost was half a million annually, with moral results that no figures can tabulate and no words can describe. Enough is known from the Parliamentary Papers of 1822, 1832, 1837, 1838, and 1847, from numerous works written by eye-witnesses, and from such terrible realistic stories as Marcus Clarke's ' His Natural Life,' to reveal as by a lurid light the way in which savagery and lawlessness engendered by the penal system were sought to be sternly suppressed by brutal rigour and by martial law, only to break out in aggravated forms. The full tale of misery,-corruption, debauchery, tyranny, cruelty, and crime can never be told. Treated as wild beasts and demons, the unhappy creatures became such 398 IRISH FAMINE AND EMIGRATION, [chap, lxxxi 1. in reality. The penal settlements of Norfolk Island and of Botany Bay were synonymous terms for hell let loose. Goethe's dismal legend of abandoned hope might have been inscribed over the portals. But they were 13,000 miles away, involving a voyage of nearly six months, and the secrets of the horrible prison and moral pest-house leaked out but occasionally and partially. It was not the business of any one to with draw the veil, or it was not known how to proceed ; but it was the official interest to keep things quiet, and to hush up any inconvenient rumours that reached England. In the last resort, loud, indignant, brazen denials were given, and then the indolent public went on its contented way. At length, however, the free colonists, who had settled in Australia in increasing numbers, refused to allow the country to be treated as a common sewer for felons and scoundrels from England. Then, in 1849, part of the stream was diverted to South Africa, but the first ship load was refused a landing at Cape Town. Eventually, after a horrible experiment of keeping criminals on board of floating hulks, a scheme of penal servitude at home had to be devised, both punitive and reformatory in character. One result is that there are now fewer than ten thousand convicts, against five times that number in 1836, when the population was not much more than half the returns of the Census of 1891. South Africa was colonized after the middle of the century to a greater extent than formerly. Cape Colony had been ceded to England by the Dutch in 1814. New Settlements were established at Natal and elsewhere in 1843. The centre of the vast continent was supposed for years to be a trackless desert. Mungo Park, James Bruce, Henry Salt, Major Denham, Clapperton, Campbell, J. L. Burckhardt, Richard and John Lander, John Baptist Belzoni, James Richardson, Dr. Henry Barth, Dr. Edward Vogel, and other intrepid explorers had been foiled in attempts to penetrate into the interior. Not until 1849 was David Livingstone able to open up a way into the Dark Un known ; revealing populous regions, teeming with natural resources, but cursed by tribal wars and slavery. His protracted journeys across Equatorial Africa, from A.D. 1841-1846.] SOUTH AFRICA : CANADA. 399 the Indian Ocean to the Atlantic, were patiently con tinued for months and years with marvellous results to science and to commerce, until death overtook him, May 4, 1873, at Ilala ; solitary and remote, except for a few native attendants. They brought his remains, after many perils, and a lengthened and toilsome march, down to the coast, whence they were despatched to England, to find a fitting resting-place in Westminster Abbey. His father-in-law, Robert Moffat, deserves to be honourably remembered for fifty years' devoted missionary labour among the tribes of South Africa. Captains Speke and Grant, Commander Lovett Cameron, Sir Samuel Baker, and, most of all, Sir Richard Burton, did much to explore parts of the Dark Continent and to trace the ancient problem as to the sources of the Nile. Henry M. Stanley, assisted by a body of less known but courageous and unrequited men, and under circumstances that gave rise to severe criticism and to a controversy yet unsettled, completed the task which Livingstone set himself to accomplish. This has been followed by a mad scramble among the English, French, Belgians, Germans, Italians, and Portuguese, for the apportionment of the coast-line ; with as much of the interior as can be seized and held. The traditions and red-tape of the Colonial Office, and unwise attempts to perpetuate in these nascent ernpires in distant parts of the world the usages and methods of the mother-country, and especially to adopt a patriarchal and minatory supervision from Downing-street, led to troubles like the Canadian Rebellion of 1837. Lord Durham was sent out as a pacificator, and judged it prudent to yield the points contended for in the way of local self-government. His scheme was sanctioned only in part by the Colonial Office, which censured him and goaded him into resigning. However, in 1840, an Act was passed, uniting the two Provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, and granting a popular Constitution. Twenty-seven years later, the various Territories in British North America were federated, under the title of the Dominion of Canada, on the plan originally suggested by Lord Durham. Another trouble, arising out of ecclesiastical squabbles over three millions of acres of land in Upper Canada, known as the Clergy Reserves, po IRISH FAMINE AND EMIGRATION, [chap, lxxxi 1, was not settled until 1854, when Parliament enacted that after providing for life-interests, the proceeds should be used for municipal purposes and for education. Similar difficulties arose in Australia, from foolish attempts to establish there a politico-ecclesiastical system identical with England, but under conditions wholly diverse. After a time it was found necessary to concede a larger measure of local self-government and an extension of the representative system in Australia. The governors were to be appointed and removable by the Crown, main taining a pinchbeck royalty ; and were to nominate one- third of the members of the Legislative Assemblies, to whose decision questions of tariff and of the sale of waste lands were to be left. Barely had these arrangements been effected in 1850, when the discovery of gold, similar to that in California, which startled and demoralized the world in 1847, attracted a vast number of emigrants, mostly of the helpless and useless type. In that year there were not quite seventeen thousand ; but in 1852 the increase was more than fivefold. Within a decade, gold to the value of £96,000,000 reached England from New South Wales and Victoria. Seventeen years later, similar excitement attended the discovery of diamonds in Cape Colony. In the course of time, things found their natural level. Trade and industry reaped the chief share of the benefit ; and the community found the advantage in a diffusion of wealth that assisted the development of the Colonies. Most of them, however, in common with Canada, adopted a policy of Protection, even against the mother- country. In most of them, also, the advance of the white man has involved the extinction of the native races, mainly through war, disease, and drunkenness. The case of the Maoris of New Zealand, a superior Malay race, is peculiarly hard. In a few years there will be probably not one survivor of the 120,000 who are said to have inhabited the North Island in 1848 ; just as all the aborigines of Tasmania, and nearly all those of Australia, have perished within living memory. This recapitulation of events included in the Modern Political and Social Revival is followed by a final group relating to the Actual and Potential. Period XV.— ACTUAL AND POTENTIAL. A.D. 1846-1895. Chapter. 83. — Modern Ecclesiastical Affairs. 84. — The Crimean War. 85. — The Indian Mutiny. 86. — Cabinet Mutations. 87. — Summary and Conclusion. VOL. III. 27 ** 402 MODERN ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS, [chap, lxxxiii. CHAPTER LXXXIII. MODERN ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS. A.D. 1846-1874. One of the seasons of ecclesiastical excitement which occur with a kind of periodicity broke out, both in England and Scotland, just before the middle of the century, and was followed, after a time, by organic changes in the Irish Church. With the increase of Anglicanism, and with the decay of the Evangelical movement, a larger, more tolerant, and more generous spirit was manifested among a section of the clergy, known as the Broad Church party. Dr. Thomas Arnold (1795-1842), Richard Whately (1787-1863), Archbishop of Dublin, Frederick Denison Maurice, Charles Kingsley, F. W. Robertson of Brighton, Dean Stanley, and other able and distinguished men, whose spirit and motives are deserving of all honour, identified themselves with the movement, which, though restricted and transient, owing to adverse circumstances, helped to mollify ecclesiastical controversies. The identity of a Christian Common wealth and Church was the vision that inspired Hooker ; and it was the ruling thought of Selden's grave sense, of Burke's political philosophy, and of the religious philosophy of Coleridge. It was a beautiful dream, but wholly impracticable, with the remembrance of Acts of Uniformity and of a long course of intolerance, and with ever-present contrarieties of human nature and diverse interpretations of doctrine and polity. The door of comprehension was finally shut and barred in 1689. Dissenters continued to agitate for the removal of specific disabilities and grievances. A Church- Rate Abolition Society was formed in 1836 ; springing out of the indignant feeling aroused by repeated seizures of goods, and by the imprisonment for non-pay ment of persons conscientiously objecting. The cele brated Braintree case dragged along for many years through the law-courts, which at length upheld the right of the parish vestry to determine whether a rate should be iriiposed. Not until 1868 was the power abandoned a.d. 1846-1874-] RELIGIOUS FREEDOM. 403 of enforcing payment from unwilling persons. Voluntary Church Associations were formed in various places in 1834, following the Society for Promoting Ecclesiastical Knowledge, in 1829, and preceding the Religious Freedom Society, in 1839 ; but their existence was brief. In 1844, the British Anti-State-Church Association, now known as the Liberation Society, was established, mainly under the influence of Edward Miall, whose lofty moral purpose, clearness of spiritual insight, and firm grasp, of the principle of absolute religious equality, gave him a unique position as a leader and teacher. Directing public attention, in the first instance, to the redress of practical grievances, and to the securing of civil rights, the object persistently sought has been the detachment of ecclesiastical and spiritual matters from all governmental and legislative interference. An abstract principle, however true and noble, does not arouse and inspire average human nature like a concrete and pressing injustice. It is not surprising, therefore, that, with growing wealth and luxury, and with the redress of social and civic wrongs, many Nonconformists have ceased to concern themselves about the Established Church, of which they are legal members ; and regard its continued existence and its internal dissensions with equanimity, even while custom, or tradition, or local cir cumstances keep them outside its pale. Ecclesiastical affairs in Scotland, since the Act of Union, had been marked by much excitement and by frequent disputes, chiefly connected with the presenta tion to benefices. The Secession Church was formed in 1733, under the leadership of Ebenezer Erskine of Stirling. It speedily divided into Burgher and Anti- Burgher, on a question as to whether the burgess-oath — to " profess and allow with the whole heart the true religion professed within the realm and authorized by the laws thereof " — could consistently be taken. Sub sequently, another schism occurred, and the Old and New Lights remained separate and antagonistic foi seventy years, when they re-united as the Associate Synod. Meanwhile, in 1758, the Relief Church had been founded, as the result of a dispute in the General Assembly on the claim of congregations to elect their 404 MODERN ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS, [chap, lxxxiii. own ministers. There were other wrangles, such as the Marrow Controversy, one on the Atonement, and another on Voluntaryism, with mutual denunciations, the customary bad language of polemics, and refusals to join either in worship or in work, relieved now and again by the pious and devoted labours of men like James and Robert Haldane. The force of circumstances became adverse to repeated segregations, and in 1847 the United Presbyterian Church was formed. But the Kirk of Scotland had experienced a much graver breach, arising out of the old difficulty about patronage. A case arose in 1839 that brought to the test of law the con stantly-recurring question whether the rights of a private patron to appoint a clergyman to a vacancy could be exercised to the extent of forcing him upon parishioners opposed to his ministrations. The test case arose in Auchterarder, Fifeshire. The people objected to the nominee, but the local Presbytery was ordered by the Court of Session to induct him. When the General Assembly intervened and forbade it, the civil courts were again appealed to, and under their mandate the installa tion was effected. The clergymen taking part in it were deposed ; but they successfully appealed to the law for the maintenance of their status and emoluments. The Ten Years' Conflict, as it was termed — for the above case was the crisis of an earlier dispute — culminated in the great Disruption of 1843, after fierce struggles in the pulpit and the Press, in the law-courts and in Parlia ment, in the Presbyteries, the Synods, and the General Assembly. The question of patronage became absorbed in the wider and vital question whether the Kirk had any spiritual jurisdiction independent of the control of the civil power. Sir Robert Peel truly characterized it as involving " the establishment of an ecclesiastical domina tion, in defiance of the law," such as "could not be acceded to without the utmost ultimate danger both to the religious liberties and the civil rights of the people." All compromise was rejected, and, being foiled in suc cessive appeals to the law, 474 clergymen, or two-fifths of the whole body, constituted themselves into the Free Church of Scotland. They repudiated the name of Voluntaries, claiming to be the original and genuine A.D. 1846-1874.] THE TRACTARIAN MOVEMENT. 405 Scottish Kirk, and to have the right to sustentation from the State without submitting to its control. Their position was logically untenable, and was proved to be so ere long ; but the older men of that generation tena ciously clung to it to the last. Dr. Thomas Chalmers plainly said, and his utterance was endorsed as authori tative, — "Though we quit the Establishment, we go out on Establishment principles." Munificent contribu tions were forthcoming for the erection of churches, manses, and schools, for a Sustentation Fund, and for home and foreign missionary work. The places of the seceders were filled up, more easily than some hoped ; and within forty years the original bone of contention was removed by the abolition of patronage. But no desire was manifested to return to the original fold, even if it had been possible. Time, the great Healer, has smoothed the aspersities of the long strife. Clerical difficulties arose in England at the same time, chiefly from the Tractarian Movement at Oxford. The name was derived from a series of anonymous papers by various writers, issued between September, 1833, and February, 1841, entitled, 'Tracts for the Times.' What were described as Anglican principles, as distinct from Protestantism, and also as distinct from some of those by the Romish Church, were brought into promi nence ; especially those of antiquity, tradition, autho rity, and Catholicity, as recognised in some of the formularies. Emphasis was given to the idea of the Church, to the importance of the Sacraments, and the significance of the priesthood. Baptismal Regeneration, the Real Presence, saving grace through the Eucharist, Apostolical succession, and the Power of the Keys, were strongly insisted upon. The immediate occasion was political ; from the panic caused by the French Revolu tion of 1830, from a dread of the Reformed Parliament, and from dislike of Catholic Emancipation, of the Irish Church Act of 1833, and of the Anglo- Prussian scheme of a Jerusalem Bishopric. In its essence and root-causes, however, it was, in part, like the earlier Evangelical movement of which it was the complement, a protest against formalism and Erastianism ; and, in part, a revived love for mediasval literature, a renewal of the 406 MODERN ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS, [chap, lxxxih. ancient strife with Puritanism, and an assertion that the English Church is entitled to speak with authority as representing the Early Fathers. Coleridge's influence was unmistakable. William Jones, of Nayland, Sikes, of Gainsborough, and H. H. Norris, of Hackney, were among the clergymen who paved the way ; like Joshua Watson and Alexander Knox among learned laymen. The chief promoter and leader was John Keble (1792- 1866). With him were associated John Henry Newman, afterwards Cardinal, Richard Hurrell Froude, William George Ward, Isaac Williams, Hugh James Rose, and the learned Dr. Edward Bouverie Pusey, Regius Pro fessor of Hebrew and Canon of Christ Church. Keble's famous Assize Sermon, preached in Oxford University- pulpit, July 14, 1833, and published, under the startling title of ' National Apostasy,' is commonly regarded as the beginning of the new crusade. Of the earnestness and sincerity of the leaders, no doubt can be entertained. Many persons were puzzled by what seemed to be a revival of the refinements of the Schoolmen, and found it difficult to appreciate the metaphysics or the casuistry that drew subtle distinctions between Romish and Anglican teachings. But it is needful to repeat that the Book of Common Prayer is an avowed compromise. The Tractarians carried out some of its teachings, and those of the Homilies and of the authorized Catechism, to their extreme logical results. Sir William Palmer, in ' Origines Liturgicae,' published at Oxford in 1828, insisted upon the almost forgotten fact that the Prayer Book is mainly a translation from earlier uses, as was clearly shown in the fortieth Chapter. "We agree with Rome," said Keble, " about our major premisses ; our differences are about the minor." Ward, in his ' Ideal Church,' plainly stated that, in subscribing the Articles, he renounced no one Roman doctrine. Newman main tained that the true rule of faith is not in Scripture alone, but also in apostolic tradition as interpreted by the Church. Statements in the Prayer Book were strained, or modified, or glossed, or explained away, so as to bring them into apparent harmony with what was regarded as Catholic doctrine or practice. The agitation was brought to a crisis in 1841 by the a.d. 1846-1874.J NEWMAN: TRACT NO. XC. 407 issue of the notorious 'Tract No. XC.,' written by Newman, with the avowed design to stem the strong tide Romewards, by showing that the Thirty- nine Articles might be construed into an agreement with Mediaeval Christianity, and that Romish dogmas might consistently be held with subscription to the Articles. The Tract laid down, as the first principle of all, the duty "to take our Reformed Confessions in the most Catholic sense they will admit. We have no duties towards their framers." Newman afterwards alleged, in his ' Apologia,' that the position assumed by his party was that " the Articles are to be interpreted, not according to the meaning of the writers, but, as far as the wording will admit, according to the sense of the Catholic Church." He claimed the right of holding, with BramaU (1593- 1663), Archbishop of Armagh, a comprecation with the Saints ; and the doctrine of the Mass, all but Transub stantiation, with Bishop Andrews ; or, with Hooker, that the latter is not a point for Churches to part communion upon ; or, with Henry Hammond (1605-1630), that a General Council, truly such, never did and never can err in a matter of faith ; or, with Herbert Thorndike (died 1672), that penance is a propitiation for post-baptismal sin ; or, with Pearson (1613-1686), Bishop of Chester, that the all-powerful name of Jesus is not otherwise given than in the Catholic Church. Newman and Pusey also made bold and uncertain plunges into the vast quag mires of Patristic antiquarianism, where average men could not foUow. A keen and painful controversy ensued on what was termed the non-natural interpretation of the standards of the Church, or, the old Doctrine of Reserve. A copious literature, of the usual vehement nature, was created on both sides. It was maintained that the clergy might subscribe the Articles with mental reservations^ might read into them their own meaning, and might teach so much as seemed fitting. Plain men, taking a common- sense view of the use of language, were shocked, and faUed to understand how the dead controversies of former centuries could be resuscitated in order to un- Protestan tize the Church of England. Before long, Newman, Manning, the Wilberforces, Frederick WiUiam Faber, 408 MODERN ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS, [chap, lxxxiii. Ward, and others, perceived their untenable position, and went over to the Romish communion, followed by many other clergymen, by some influential laymen, and by women not a few. Pusey was surprised and pained at the numerous defections. His mind was so constituted as to be unable to perceive the inevitable drift and the logical terminus of his opinions. It is unfortunate, and somewhat misleading, that the essentials of Tractarianism have come to be almost lost sight of in the accidents and externals of ritual ; so that matters of architecture, furni ture, dress, adornment, attitude, genuflexion, with all the adjuncts of sensuous emotionalism — the mere milli nery and upholstery so dear to a certain order of minds — are regarded as of supreme importance, because of the symbolical meaning attached to them. Yet, apart from the excrescences and abuses of the movement, it un doubtedly gave an impulse to Church work, and aroused a spirit of consecration and energy in public worship and in philanthropic action, the effects of which are seen in many places and in divers forms, awakening the admiration and stimulating the zeal of good men of every creed. The suppression of the ' Tracts for the Times,' and the prosecution and suspension of Pusey for two years, led to much excitement within the Church of England. The various sections prepared for a decisive trial of strength. Dr. Hampden's selection for the See of Hereford, by Lord John RusseU, was the occasion of a severe conflict. Hampden's opinions had been condemned as heretical, in 1836, by the Oxford authorities, on his appointment as Regius Professor of Divinity ; but their comminations, if loud, were harmless, for they could not remove him, or interfere with his stipend. Thirteen prelates now joined, with many clergymen and laymen, in an address of protest to Lord Russell, who rejected it, as an invasion of the rights of the Crown. Dr. Merewether, the Dean of Hereford, intimated that his Chapter would not go through the form of an election, and was curtly told that its members would thereby violate the law. This exposed them to the pains and penalties of Praemunire ; whereupon they meeldy yielded. The controversy was embittered by two cases out of many in the diocese of A.D. 1846-1874] SHORE AND GORHAM CASES. 409 Exeter. Bishop Henry Phillpotts (1777-1869) was a prelate of the Hildebrand order, combining also, ac cording to the ' Edinburgh Review ' of January, 1852, the bad qualities of a Cyril, a Becket, a Borgia, a War burton, an Atterbury, and a Kitchin. The Rev. James Shore had officiated for eleven years in a district chapel, under the Bishop's license, which was withdrawn, as a new rector would not give the required consent. Mr. Shore registered his chapel as a Nonconformist place of worship, but continued to perform the Liturgical service. The Bishop commenced proceedings against him, alleg ing the indelibility of holy orders ; and he was impri soned for two months for the costs of an unsuccessful appeal to the Privy Council. In the other case, in 1847, the militant prelate refused to institute the Rev. C. G. Gorham to the living of Brampford Speke, on the ground that he did not believe in the doctrine of Baptismal Regeneration. The case was at length brought on appeal before the Judicial Committee, and, after ela borate arguments, judgment was delivered March 8, 1850, declaring Mr. Gorham's opinions " not contrary or repugnant to the doctrine of the Church " ; which, how ever, was left undefined, as it had been since the Refor mation. Mutual forbearance was urged, so as to permit diversity of opinions on matters not expressly and posi tively settled. Institution to the living took place, in spite of the Bishop, who refused to perform it, and who publicly renounced and excommunicated the Primate whom he had sworn to reverence and obey. The feel ing thus aroused was intensified by action on the other side, in prosecuting Archdeacon Denison for sermons delivered in 1853 in WeUs Cathedral, in which he was alleged to have maintained baldly and boldly the dogma of the Real Presence. For this he was condemned by Archbishop Sumner, under the Church Discipline Act, after a trial by a Commission, and was ordered to be deprived of aU his preferments. On the technical ground that the suit had not been commenced within the prescribed time, the decision was reversed, February 6, 1858, on final appeal to the Judicial Committee, which expressed no opinion on the question of heterodoxy. What was known as the Papal Aggression occurred in 410 MODERN ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS, [chap, lxxxiii. 1850. Heretofore the administration of the Roman Church in England had rested with eight Vicars-Apos tolic. Encouraged by numerous defections through the Tractarian movement, and in the expectation that the country was about to return to the ancient faith, it was decided at Rome to issue a Brief, creating a hierarchy ot twelve bishops, with Cardinal Wiseman at its head. Religious fanaticism was aroused, and intolerance asserted itself. Great meetings were convened, for the delivery of fervid addresses, and for passing the customary reso lutions of bigoted denunciation of the great Whore of Babylon, the Scarlet Woman, and the Beast of the Apocalypse. All who withstood the popular frenzy, or who would not utter the prescribed Shibboleths, became objects of suspicion, attack, and obloquy. Lord John Russell addressed an open letter to Bishop Maltby, of Durham, stigmatizing the action of Pope Pius IX. as insolent and insidious, and administering a sharp rebuke to the Tractarians. His brave words were not followed by equally valiant deeds ; insomuch that he was likened by ' Punch ' to a small boy chalking " No Popery " on a door, and then running away. An Ecclesiastical Titles Bill was brought in, February 7, 1851, forbidding their assumption, under heavy penalties. Before the second reading, the public mind had calmed. The measure, carried only in part, was never enforced, and became a dead letter. In the course of a generation it was quietly repealed. But the record stands as one of the many monuments of human fanaticism and imbecility, on which future ages will gaze with pitying wonder. In the Census of 1851, the inhabitants of the United Kingdom were returned at 27,595,388. An attempt was made, for the first and only time, to obtain par ticulars as to the provision for religious worship, and the extent to which it was used. The report gave 35 distinct ecclesiastical communities, besides a few small and isolated sects. The Established Church had 14,077 places of worship in England and Wales, with 5,317,915 sittings, and 3,773,474 attendants. All other denomi nations had 20,390 places, 4,894,720 sittings, and 3,487,558 attendants. In Scotland, the Kirk had 1183 buildings, 767,088 sittings, and 713,567 attendants, A.D. 1846-1874] RELIGIOUS WORSHIP CENSUS. 411 while all other bodies had 2212 ; 1,067,717 ; and 975,482 respectively. Ireland was not included. The accuracy of the figures was impugned ; but one result of the inquiry has failed to receive due attention. After making deductions for sick persons, young children, and others unavoidably detained, the reasonable conclusion was that 58 per cent, of the population could be present in church at one time, if so disposed. Hence there were in England and Wales more than three millions who might have attended, in addition to those actually present. Recent local and unofficial but reliable investi gations show that not more than one-sixth of the people are to be found in the various places of worship. The rivalry of the sects does not appear to allow of an effectual remedy being devised. In crowded cities, numerous churches, often half-empty, are found in close proximity ; and in small towns and villages the supply vastly exceeds the demand or the need. When attempts were made by the joint efforts of Episcopalians and others to conduct special services in public halls and in theatres, they were declared illegal, under an Act of 52 George III. A proposal by the Earl of Shaftesbury, in 1855, to repeal that measure, was resisted, as an infraction of the parochial principle. A compromise was effected, saving the rights of incum- Dents, and under the sanction of the bishop, in each case. Before the clergy had recovered from the shock of the Census revelations, they were stimulated into a new form of heresy-hunting. A number of independent treatises, under the title of ' Essays and Reviews,' appeared in 1862. The contributors, among whom was Dr. Temple, head-master of Rugby, then Bishop of Exeter and of London, were styled by opponents, Septem contra Christum, and their teachings were said to be contrary to the doctrines of the Church. The book was the staple theme for a time with voluble pulpit and platform orators, and with writers of Carlyle's Able-- Editor type. Their frenzied denunciations were echoed by multitudes whose knowledge consljted only of garbled quotations in party newspapers. It was the same with such works as the 'Vestiges of Creation,' 412 MODERN ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS, [chap, lxxxiii. anonymously issued, but ascribed to Robert Chambers, with Professor Sir John Seeley's ' Ecce Homo,' Charles Darwin's elaborate exposition of the Evolution theory, and T. T. Lynch's 'Rivulet'; the heated but ridiculous wrangles over which rent the Con gregational body in 1856. Proceedings in the Arches Court resulted in a partial condemnation, reversed, on appeal, by the Judicial Committee, but, as usual, without pronouncing an opinion on the general tendency of ' Essays and Reviews,' or on any one specifically. A Declaration and Protest was signed by 11,000 clergymen, and what was called a Synodical censure was carried in Convocation ; but, as with the terrible curse upon the Jackdaw of Rheims, " nobody seemed one penny the worse." That disputatious body had been aUowed to meet in 1852, after its long and enforced silence since 1717. It is in no true sense representative, and no resolution passed is more than a pious opinion, for there is no binding force without legislative sanction. FuUer says — " Eveiy Convocation in itself is born deaf and dumb, so that it can neither hear nor speak concerning religion till first, ' Be thou opened ! ' be pronounced unto it by royal authority." A fresh outburst of clerical artillery was heard, in 1862, over a book by Bishop Colenso of Natal, in which he challenged certain numerical statements in the Pentateuch. There were many replies, and Dr. Gray, Bishop of Cape Town, cited Colenso to appear before him, and, in his absence, pronounced a sentence ot deposition. He appealed to the Queen in Council, and the Judicial Committee, after much argument and prolonged deliberation, decided, March 20, 1865, that the judgment of Bishop Gray was invalid, not on the theological merits of the case, which were carefully avoided, but because his letters-patent as Metropolitan of South Africa were granted in error, without the consent of the Legislature of the Cape Colony. There upon, most of the English prelates renounced com munion with the alleged heresiarch, who remained legal Bishop of Natal, while another clergyman was ordained in Scotland, to avoid possible penalties, and was sent out as a rival prelate. Whatever may be a.d. 1846-1874] THE IRISH CHURCH. 413 thought of Colenso's theological opinions, and of his nibbling arithmetical criticisms, his memory is deserving of honour for his self-denying labours among the Zulus, whom he did his utmost to protect and to civilize. The Zulu War of 1879, and that with the Basutos in the following year, like the Abyssinian War of 1867, and the one against Ashanti in 1874, gave rise to proceedings on which future generations of Englishmen will not reflect with pride or complacency. Three years later, the Transvaal was annexed ; an area of 120,000 square miles, with an estimated white population of 40,000 and 250,000 negroes. The former were descended from the Dutch Boers who left Cape Colony between 1830 and 1840, rather than submit to the abolition of slavery, and constituted themselves the South African RepubUc. In 1879, they again asserted their independence. The question of the Irish Church, left unsettled by the expedient of partial reform in 1833, had been repeatedly discussed in Parliament. Practical states men felt that the anomaly and injustice of an alien Church must not continue. Mr. Gladstone submitted in 1868 a series of resolutions, which were carried against the Disraeli Ministry by 330 to 265 votes, and in May he brought in a Bill to stop any new clerical appointments. At the General Election in July the Conservatives were in a minority of 128. Gladstone came into office ; his Cabinet including John Bright, as President of the Board of Trade. A Bill for effecting the Disestablishment and Disendowment of the Church in Ireland was introduced, March 1, 1869, and passed in its integrity by the Commons. It was accepted by the Lords — largely through the wise intervention of the Queen with Archbishop Tait, as appears from his ' Life ' — when the best possible bargain as to pecuniary terms had been made. The principle of a State-Church was surrendered, and nothing more was heard of the theories of Hooker, of Jeremy Taylor, or even of Warburton, as soon as it was perceived that the inevitable change must come. Gladstone estimated that the compensation of the bishops and parochial 414 MODERN ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS, [chap, lxxxiii. incumbents would amount to £4,900,000, but the sum actually paid was £6,486,000. The compensation to curates, put down at £800,000, was swollen to £1,803,935 by hundreds of colourable appointments made just before the Act came into force. Lay-patrons were supposed to be entitled to £300,000, whereas they received £778,887. These excessive payments were mainly due to the rejection of the Suspensory Bill by the House of Lords. The Act came into force January 1, 1871. The fabrics of the cathedrals and churches were retained, with all private endowments since 1660. Bishops ceased to be peers of the realm. The Episcopal Church in Ireland was left free to manage its own affairs by an elected representative body. The Regium Donum to Presbyterian ministers, and the annual grant to Maynooth College, were com muted by an immediate payment of fourteen years in value of the respective sums. For some years prior to 1871 there had been an efflor escence of Ritualism in the Church of England. Em boldened by the ambiguities of the Rubrics, and especi ally by the contradictory directions of the First and Second Prayer Books, and also by the restricted powers of the bishops, and the difficulty and costliness of putting even these in force, numerous clergymen sought to assimilate Anglican worship to the ancient ritual. A Royal Commission was appointed in 1867 to inquire into the matter, but the Report, with its carefuUy balanced recommendations, was allowed to drop. Proceedings were instituted in the Arches Court against certain clergymen whose tenets and practices were conspicuous. Some were admonished and others were suspended, but the forbidden practices were not abandoned, except in a colourable and evasive manner. An address, signed by 60,000 influential laymen, was presented in May, 1873, to the two Archbishops, calling attention to the spread of Ritualism. In the following year Tait brought into the Lords the Public Worship Regulation Bill. It was attacked on all sides ; for excess and for defect. Glad stone assailed it with vehemence in the Commons, in a series of five elaborate resolutions. The Premier, Disraeli, virtually endorsed the Bill ; saying, in his clever, rhe- a.d. 1846-1874.] ECUMENICAL COUNCIL. 415 torical way, that its object was to " put down the Mass in masquerade." Lord Penzance was appointed as special judge to carry out its provisions, but they could not be enforced, owing to numerous flaws, to ingenious techni calities, and to the veto which a bishop could place upon the action of any " three aggrieved parishioners." As time advanced and as the histrionic vagaries and the defiance of the extreme party increased, more prose cutions were instituted, and dragged along their tortuous and expensive course for years. The Erastian theory of the Church, as held by politicians, was re-affirmed, and the utter inutility of Acts of Uniformity was again demon strated. The wave of ecclesiastical excitement that spread over England was part of a larger wave that swept across Europe. Clerical difficulties arose in France, Prussia, Austria, and Italy, with frequent collisions between the Ultramontanists and the civil authorities. An Ecumenical Council, convened at Rome by Pius IX., sat from December, 1867, to September, 1870, and gave rise to much controversy. The chief result of the parade and pomp of these lengthened debates, to which nearly a thousand prelates were summoned from all parts of the world, was the formulation of the dogma of the Infalli bility of the Roman Pontiff. It was a singular coinci dence that, at the same time, and in defiance of his pro tests and threats, Rome was incorporated as part of the Kingdom of Italy, and the seat of supreme government was transferred thither from Florence. The subject of the Vatican Decrees, in their bearing upon civil allegi ance, was treated by Gladstone, with his customary zest for theological polemics, in a series of pamphlets which evoked a storm of criticism. CHAPTER LXXXIV. THE CRIMEAN WAR. A.D. 1851-1857. A Republic was proclaimed in France, February 26, 1848, after the Revolution which drove Louis Philippe from the throne. Louis Napoleon, reputed nephew of 416 THE CRIMEAN WAR. [chap, lxxxiv. the first Emperor, who had already made several futile and ridiculous attempts to trade upon his name, was elected President for four years by popular vote. On December 2, 1851, he effected a coup d'etat ; dissolving the National Assembly, with which his relations had become strained, and by a stroke of the pen conferring universal suffrage as a mask for obtaining despotic power. Paris was declared in a state of siege. Numbers of innocent and unresisting persons were shot or bayoneted in the streets. Newspapers were suppressed, and all the prominent political leaders were arrested. Victor Hugo and A. W. Kinglake have narrated the story in words of burning indignation. In the following November, a similar pretended national appeal, backed by like means, secured a restoration of the tinsel Empire. It was sus tained until 1870 by a profuse expenditure, by a showy but profligate Court, and by a swollen army, for the benefit of a crowd of rapacious harpies. Then the mush room fabric was stricken, and it perished like Jonah's gourd. An ill-advised attack upon Prussia, designed to bolster up waning popularity and to divert attention from the rottenness of the Government, was repulsed with irretrievable disaster at Metz and at Sedan. Louis Napoleon became a captive, and then, an exile. The Prussians entered Paris in triumph, and dictated humiliating terms of peace. Many persons had been dazzled by the temporary success of the coup d'etat. Lord Palmerston, as Foreign Secretary, took upon him self to express to the French ambassador approval of the events of December, 1851, and to send to the Eng lish ambassador in Paris a despatch couched in similar terms ; not only without consulting his colleagues, but in defiance of their decision of neutrality, and of express instructions given the year before, when other embarrass ments had arisen through his action, that all despatches were first to be submitted to the Queen and to the Cabinet. Palmerston was therefore superseded in his office by Earl Granville ; but watched for an opportunity " to be even with Johnny Russell," as he expressed it. No love was lost between the two, owing to their squabbles for party leadership. The chance came ere long, and unex pectedly. In February, 1852, Palmerston carried an A.D. 1851-1857.] GLADSTONE'S BUDGETS. 417 amendment in the Commons on the Militia Bill, against the Ministry, which had to resign. It had become, as is usual, enervated during six years of office, and had lost public confidence. Earl Derby — late Lord Stanley — was sent for, but his Cabinet fell before the end of the year, although it formally abandoned Protection, being de feated on the financial proposals of Mr. Disraeli, Chan cellor of the Exchequer. A Coalition Ministry was formed, with the Earl of Aberdeen at its head. Palmer ston was transferred to the Home Office, where it was thought he would be powerless for mischief ; his old post being filled by Lord John Russell, his rival and former chief. Gladstone, as Chancellor of the Exchequer, delivered the first of a series of luminous financial expositions, retaining the close attention of the House while he stated and vindicated his policy, and investing what is usually regarded as a dry array of Budget figures with the charms of literary, classical, and philosophical allusion. The incidence of taxation was readjusted, " adopting it to ourselves as a sacred aim to diffuse and distribute the burdens, if we must, and the benefits, if we can, with equal and impartial hand." The purpose was high and noble, and the suggested methods might have succeeded under other conditions ; but there was in the political firmament a little cloud, not larger than a man's hand, foreboding trouble and disaster. It was hoped and believed by many, whose enthusiasm outran the teachings of experience, that the Great Exhi bition of the Works of Industry of all Nations, held in Hyde Park in 1851, was the inauguration of an era of universal peace. The dream was rudely dispelled within twenty-four months of the closing of the Palace of Glass, by the outbreak of a war with Russia. The immediate occasion was an acute form of the long-standing dispute between the Latin and Greek Churches for the possession of the Holy Places in Jerusalem. The real cause was found in the ambitious projects of the Czar Nicholas, in a revival, under changed conditions, of the policy of Peter the Great and of Catherine II., and in designs said to be entertained by Russia upon Constantinople. Louis Napoleon fomented the strife, for dynastic reasons. His precipitate action forced on the conflict. Sardinia threw vol. in. 28 418 THE CRIMEAN WAR. [chap, lxxxiv. in her lot with him, and reaped the reward of her folly six years later, when he betrayed and abandoned her hope of a United Italy, with Rome for a capital, as soon as he had secured his own ends by the defeat of the Austrians at Solferino and in other battles. All this was part of the Nemesis of the Crimean War. A combined English and French fleet arrived in Besika Bay, within Turkish jurisdiction, June 15, 1853. Seventeen days later, the Russians crossed the River Pruth, and entered Moldavia. Around that Principality and Wallachia an endless controversy waged. Austria and Prussia inter vened to effect a settlement ; but Abdul Medjid, the feeble Sultan of Turkey, and his incompetent and corrupt advisers, assured of support by the English ambassador, Sir Stratford Canning (1786-1880), afterwards Lord Stratford de Redcliffe, would yield nothing, or intro duced conditions " under the conviction that they could not be complied with." Such is the language of one of the despatches of Lord Clarendon, successor of Lord Russell at the Foreign Office. Herein lies the key of the position. Turkey had nothing to lose, but everything to gain by a war undertaken to bolster up her tottering rule, and to deliver her from the consequences of scan dalous misgovernment and oppression. She declared war, October 5, and her troops crossed the Danube on the 25th ; the ambassadors in London and in Paris being instructed to say that reliance was placed on the material and moral support of England and France. Six months later, England drifted into the conflict. It involved the rigours and horrors of two Crimean Winters, the sacrifice of 28,000 English lives, the per manent disablement of a much larger number, and the expenditure of £75,000,000 beyond the then average charge of £16,000,000 per annum on the Army and Navy ; besides similar results, in varying degrees, to the other contending parties. The total loss of life, in battle and from disease, including Russia, was roughly estimated at half a million, and the total cost of treasure at £262,000,000. The loss to commerce and industry cannot be appraised. The story is narrated in such works as A. W. Kinglake's and Sir W. H. Russell's, where full details are given of the Battles of the Alma, A.D. 1851-1857.] WASTE AND SUFFERING. 419 of Balaklava, with its " thin, red line " of Ninety-third Highlanders, and of Inkermann, the private soldiers' battle ; with repeated attacks upon strongholds like the Redan and the Malakhoff, the awful tragedy of months of work in the trenches, amidst snow and sleet, and the suffering and disease induced by exposure, aggravated by the incompetence of the Commissariat, by the inflexible and preposterous rules of the Circumlocution Office, and by the frauds of contractors, eager to make vampire profits. The Crimean War revealed, in a way that startled and shocked the nation, how unprepared were the two great branches of the military force, notwith standing that £800,000,000 had been spent since 1815 to maintain a supposed state of efficiency. Divided and conflicting authority ; laborious but useless checks and counterchecks ; defective means of transport ; absence of the commonest medical necessaries ; universal muddle, waste, and incompetence ; superabundant pipe-clay and red-tape, caused a needless prolongation of the war, and inflicted untold horrors. Nobody had the courage to break through a monstrous and effete system that pro duced all this chaos and misery, involving the death of thousands of brave men. They nobly discharged their duty and upheld the national renown, under circum stances of extreme difficulty, peril, and suffering. There were numerous instances of personal heroism ; to recog nise and reward which the Order of the Victoria Cross was instituted in 1856. When the tidings reached England, plunging thou sands of homes in misery and in mourning, a cry of agony and rage burst forth. There were fierce discus sions in Parliament and in the Press. A Royal Commis sion, a Parliamentary Committee, and a Board of Officers at Chelsea arrived at three different and conflicting ver dicts as to the causes of the scandalous mismanagement, and as to the incidence of blame. But the immediate duty was to provide for the wants of the men in the Crimea. Large sums and ample supplies were freely given. ' The Times ' raised £25,000 for purchasing suitable stores and medical comforts. Florence Nightin gale immortalized herself and glorified her sex by setting forth with a party of volunteer ladies to initiate a system 420 THE CRIMEAN WAR. [chap, lxxxiv. of nursing in the crowded hospitals of Scutari, where she speedily effected a beneficent change in the squalid and noisome wards into which cargoes of living putres cence had been discharged from the hospital ships. A Patriotic Fund was formed for the relief of widows and orphans, which eventually amounted to a million and a half. An inevitable effect of the mistakes, the fataUties, and the losses of the war was a public censure of the Government. Probably the system was chiefly to blame, and under any other Ministry similar results would have accrued. At such crises people do not stay to reason, but demand a victim for condign punishment. J. A. Roebuck, M.P. for Sheffield, carried by 305 to 148 a motion for a Commission of Inquiry, and the Aberdeen Cabinet resigned. Palmerston became Prime Minister, February 7, 1855. The war was prosecuted during the year with energy, and on September 8 the Russians evacuated Sebastopol, after blowing up its defences and sinking the ships. Austria intervened with proposals for peace, which were at length accepted, after tedious and intricate negotiations. In the early days of the war, Gladstone, as Chancellor of the Exchequer, announced that each year must bear its own expenses. A chief source of supply was the Income Tax. It was doubled in 1854, and then increased to njd. on incomes above £100, but below £150, and to i6d. beyond. Additions were also made to the duties on spirits and other liquors ; giving some ground for the rhetorical assertion of the Earl of Derby, that England drank herself out of the Crimean War. Ultimately, it was deemed needful to resort to borrowing, and £41,000,000 were added to the National Debt. A new phase of the vexed and interminable Eastern question appeared, after an interval, in 1875, in disputes between the Turks and Montenegrins, and, in the next year, in cruelties and murders perpetrated by the former in Bul garia. The Ireland of the Penal Laws was a Paradise, compared with Eastern Europe under Ottoman domina tion. In both instances, the oppressed people would not purchase by apostasy immunity from oppression and suffering. The internal condition of Turkey had aroused much alarm in Europe since the Crimean War. The A.D. 1851-1857.] MONTENEGRO AND BULGARIA. 421 Government was impotent, and the finances were bank rupt. During twenty years, £200,000,000 had been borrowed, chiefly in England, on stringent terms, and the Porte was unable to meet its obligations. Three Sultans had been raised and deposed in rapid succession by palace intrigues. Distant provinces were virtually left to the tyranny and greed of Pashas. Lord Derby addressed a stern reprimand, through the English am bassador, when he heard of the excesses in Bulgaria by semi-savage mercenaries drawn from the Bashi-Bazouks. All the dreadful particulars were not then known, but in August the ambassador sent from Constantinople details of atrocities perpetrated on helpless women and innocent children, as well as upon men. He said that at least 12,000 persons had been wantonly murdered. Such an outburst of indignation had not occurred since the days of Cromwell and the Protestants in Piedmont. Meetings were held to protest against the outrage done to humanity. Gladstone issued a pamphlet, and delivered a stirring address to his constituents on Blackheath. Disraeli ridiculed as coffee-house babble the stories in circulation, but their truth was conclusively established. Matters became complicated by the intervention of Russia on behalf of the oppressed Principalities, where most of the people belonged to the Greek Church. It seemed as though a general conflagration would occur in Europe through a course of conduct by Turkey, similar to that which precipitated the Crimean War. Hostilities were actually commenced by Russia in April, 1877, and were continued fitfully through the Summer in Montenegro and Bulgaria. An English fleet was ordered to the Dardanelles, to defend the lives and property of British subjects, and to take care of British interests. Animated and prolonged discussions took place in both Houses ; but when it was found that this country would not again embark in war on behalf of Turkey, she made terms with Russia, March 3, 1878, by the Treaty of San Stefano ; agreeing to pay an indemnity, to accord independence to Servia and Mon tenegro, to form a new Principality for Bulgaria, with an extended boundary, and to cede certain territories to Russia. The bringing of 7000 native troops from 422 THE CRIMEAN WAR. [chap, lxxxiv. India to Malta, and the cession of Cyprus to England by Turkey as the result of a secret arrangement, were severely criticized in Parliament ; but the Ministerial majority was large and decisive, under the glamour of the Berlin Congress, at which Lords Beaconsfield and Salisbury represented England. Another surprise was in reserve. It was announced in November, 1878, that the British Government had acquired from the Khedive of Egypt, for a sum of £4,000,000, all his shares in the Suez Canal, or nine-twentieths of the whole, with a view to secure a control over the direct route to the East. In both cases, as in the original cession of Gibraltar, and then of Malta, the wisdom of the policy has been justified. CHAPTER LXXXV. THE INDIAN MUTINY. A.D. 1857-1865. Twelve months after the close of the Crimean War, a formidable mutiny broke out in the native army of Bengal, placing British rule in imminent jeopardy. With the enormous extension of territory by annexations, there had been a rapid increase of drilled and trained Sepoys, who became at length five times as numerous as the English soldiers. Since the Battle of Plassey, aU the great victories had been won mainly by native troops under British officers. Sagacious men had long foretold the danger of so vast a force, chiefly recruited from among the Hindoos, with all their religious scruples of caste, just as the Roman Empire was weakened by its great expansion and by having to depend upon rnerce- naries, drawn from other subjugated provinces. Earlier local revolts, notably in 1806, at Vellore, in 1809 at Seringapatam, and in 1824 at Barrackpur, near Calcutta, were unheeded, as were recent premonitory symptoms of disaffection, so great was the confidence felt in the loyalty of the Sepoys, and so assured was the British hold upon India thought to be. The introduction of the a.d. 1857-1865.] CAWNPUR AND LUCKNOW. 423 Minie rifle, instead of the old musket and percussion-cap, was said to be the immediate occasion of the mutiny. Its real causes lay in widespread and long-continued disaffection towards British rule. The cartridges formed a convenient pretext. They had to be greased before they were rammed into the barrel, and it was alleged that the fat of oxen, or cows, or swine was used for the purpose, so that they could not be touched or bitten by Hindoos and Mohammedans without doing violence to their religious prejudices. Early in 1857 witnessed several instances of refusal to use the cartridges, and one or two regiments were dis banded. It soon became evident that insubordination was general. Fortunately, an outbreak on May 12, at Meerut, forty miles from Delhi, was premature, and re vealed the plot. It might have been limited in area, in the opinion of competent authorities, if not wholly sup pressed at the outset, but for the neglect or the in competence of some officials. Instead of disarming the insurgents, they permitted them to depart to Delhi, where there was an immense arsenal and magazine, with no European regiment to protect it. Lieutenant Willoughby heroicaUy blew it up, before every English officer was murdered. Measures were immediately taken to concentrate a large force upon that ancient city, into which the insurgents were pouring from a wide district ; but it could not be captured for nearly four months. The massacres that took place in the meantime at Cawnpur and at Lucknow are the most appalling in Indian story ; far exceeding the dismal tragedy of the Black Hole in Calcutta, June 20, 1756, when 123 victims perished in a night from being confined in a dungeon eighteen feet square. In the midst of general disaffection, some native princes, like Sindhia of Gwalior, and Holkar of Indur, remained faithful, and rendered invaluable service. Sir John Lawrence, afterwards Viceroy, held the Punjab, of which he was Commissioner, and despatched every available soldier to the scene of dis turbance. He instinctively felt that Delhi was the key of the position, and that everything must be subordi nated to the imperative necessity of recapturing the city. When he heard that one of the panic-stricken com- 424 THE INDIAN MUTINY. [chap, lxxxv. manders was intrenching himself instead of marching, he exclaimed, in his terse idiom, " Clubs are trumps ; not spades." His own action in denuding the Punjab of men, ammunition, and stores, largely contributed to the suppression of the mutiny, and the preservation of the Indian Empire. His sagacity, courage, and energy must not obscure the lustre of other historic names, like Lord Harris, Lord Elphinstone, Herbert Edwardes, John Russell Colvin, Baird Smith, Hope Grant, the three Greatheds, Sir Hugh Wheeler, Sir Henry Lawrence, Sir James Outram, and many others. Lord Canning (1812-1862), the Governor-General, son of George Canning, also grasped the situation, and took decisive measures in Calcutta. By his orders, reinforce ments were sent from all parts of India: The troops on their way to China were intercepted. Large contingents were supplied from England, and Sir Colin Campbell ( 1 792-1 863) — created Lord Clyde for his services — was placed in supreme command. Before he could reach India, Sir Henry Havelock had retaken Cawnpur on the sixteenth of July, and advanced, fighting all the way, to the relief of Lucknow, only to be shut up there for two months with General Inglis and the gallant little band who had kept the place against overwhelming numbers of mutineers. Not until the first week in November was Clyde able to collect sufficient men and guns ; but by the seventeenth he had cut his way through all opposition and rescued the Lucknow garrison, with the women and children. Havelock died, from dysentery, in the hour of victory. Delhi, the ancient city of the Mogul Emperors, had been already captured by Sir Archdale Wilson in September, after several days' hard fighting and heavy losses. With the fall of Lucknow, Oudh was again secured, and the mutiny was at an end. So far as can be known, its suppression cost £29,000,000, including the restoration of public buildings and property, and compensation to sufferers. The courage, fortitude, and readiness of resource displayed by most of the English were shadowed by cases of cruelty and rapine. Sir W. H. Russell, 'The Times' correspondent, describes in ' My Diary in India,' the destruction, the confusion, and the violence that prevailed, realising Thomas Camp- a.d. 1857-1865.] LORD CANNING. 425 bell's dreadful line — " And blood for blood shall India's plains bedew." Queen Victoria, with her noble, womanly nature, wrote to Lady Canning, strongly deprecating mere vengeance. When the mutiny was suppressed, the Viceroy issued a Proclamation which was severely condemned by numerous Anglo-Indians, who ridiculed him as Clemency Canning, because he discriminated between those who had instigated the outbreak, or who had taken an active share in it, and those who had been forced into it, or who were in any degree less culpable. Lord EUenborough, at the head of the India Office in England, so far forgot himself, in the gratification of personal and party feeling, as to send to Calcutta a severe and an insulting despatch, which the Home Government repudiated, and he had to resign. Ample justice was done by Canning's country men, ere long, to his statesmanship, his courage, and his discernment, as well as to his high sentiment of right and mercy, when a premature grave received him, worn out in the prime of life with over-work and a terrible strain of anxiety. The details of the awful story of the out break are given in Kaye's ' Sepoy War,' in Holmes' ' Indian Mutiny,' in the ' Lives ' of the two Lawrences, in MaUeson's ' History,' in the more recent one by Sir Evelyn Wood, and in numerous works describing local and personal incidents. The final result was the abolition of the dual government, and the transfer from the East India Company to Imperial rule of the powers and patronage hitherto exercised by that great trading corporation. It had done its work, with not a few mistakes, and with instances of what must be regarded as crimes. Yet it had called into being a mighty empire, embracing one-sixth of the earth's people, and it had trained a body of officials and administrators uuparalleled in any age or country. In April, 1876, the Queen was declared Empress of India by Act of Parliament. Supreme authority was vested in a Secretary of State. For the recognition of public services, the Order of the Star of India was insti tuted in i86i,and that of the Indian Empire, and annther of the Imperial Crown of India, in 1878. A Royal Proclamation was issued, asserting an intended equitable 426 THE INDIAN MUTINY. [chap, lxxxv. jurisdiction, with full religious freedom, and opening up to qualified natives posts of civil administration. The spirit of the promise has to be embodied in actual fact. The railway system has since been largely extended, trunk roads constructed, and provision made for irriga tion and for water storage ; although much remains to be done to prevent periodical famines, fatal to so many millions of the poor, to develop the natural resources of the gigantic continent, to elevate its teeming popula tion, and to qualify them for the duties of citizenship. The first National Indian Congress was held in Bombay, in December, 1885, and a similar gathering has been convened annually in one of the great centres. An increasing number of Indian youths come to England for legal and scientific training. With the spread of education in India, however, it is observed that exposure of old superstitions leads many not only to abandon their native faith, but to discard religion of every kind ; so that intellectual attainments of a high degree are too often accompanied by cynical agnosticism. For the second time did the friendship of Palmerston for the nominal ruler of France occasion his defeat in the House of Commons. An attempt on the life of the Emperor Napoleon, in January, 1858, and the retreat of the intending assassins to England, led to the introduc tion of the Conspiracy to Murder Bill. It was rejected on the second reading, from a suspicion that it pandered to a foreign power, and because it impUed a denial of the right of asylum and of the sufficiency of the existing law. Another Derby Ministry followed, but was defeated in April, 1859, on a scheme of Parliamentary Reform. An appeal to the country confirmed this, and Palmerston resumed his old position as Premier until his death, October 18, 1865 ; staving off the inconvenient subject of Reform by the usual cry about the defenceless state of the country. He contrived, amidst the mutations of Cabinets, to retain office during forty-six out of the fifty- eight years he sat in Parliament. As Chancellor of the Exchequer, Gladstone proposed in i860 further relief from indirect taxation, leaving only 48 articles subject to Customs' duties, against 419 in his previous Budget. An attempt to abolish the Paper Duties, which Carlyle A.D. 1857-1865.] AMERICAN CIVIL WAR. 427 described in his cynical fashion as " Satan's Invisible World Displayed," led to a conflict with the House of Lords. Technically, they were within their right, as it was not, strictly speaking, a Money Bill. The project was dropped for the time, under protest ; but in 1861 the repeal of the Paper Duties was included in a general financial measure, which the Lords were constrained to accept. A similar dispute occurred in 1871 over the Army Regulation scheme, and especially on the abolition of the purchase of commissions, which was rejected by the Lords ; whereupon the Cabinet advised the abolition by Royal Warrant, which was done, at a cost of nearly £8,000,000 for compensation. The same year brought the opportunity of revenge to the Lords, who threw out the Ballot Bill ; but it was carried in the following Session, with certain restrictions. The outbreak of the Civil War in 1861 between the Northern and Southern States of America, on the old and vexed question of slavery, occasioned much com mercial loss and suffering to England, especially in Lancashire, through the failure of the cotton supply. For nearly four years most of the mills were closed, and tens of thousands of industrious operatives were thrown out of employment. Yet they never complained ; know ing the real cause of the terrible conflict, and sympathiz ing in the ultimate object of the emancipation of six millions of slaves. The upper classes and nearly all the leading newspapers supported the view put forth by the Southern States, that they were fighting for freedom to rule themselves ; which derived force and colour from the emphatic statements of President Lincoln and Secre tary Seward, that no intention existed on the part of the North to interfere with the question of slavery, but that the war was being waged to maintain the Union and to put down rebellion. If Lincoln, instead of waiting until the first day of 1863 before issuing his Emancipation Proclamation, with its unfortunate and mistaken corol lary of the franchise, had assumed at the outset the un mistakable position to which he was driven in the course of time by the exigencies of war and the difficulties of his task, much misapprehension, jealousy, and ill-feeling towards England would have been avoided. The 428 THE INDIAN MUTINY. [chap, lxxxv. contest waged until April, 1865, entailing a loss on both sides of 750,000 lives and an incalculable amount of property. The Confederacy, worn out and ex hausted, having by conscription drawn old men and boys, thus robbing the cradle and the grave, and having used every available resource, was com pelled to yield and disband. After the lapse of a generation, the disputes and animosities engendered have abated. All parties have learned to accept the inevitable, and to recognise the motives and the valour of antago nists. Among the wealth of literature evoked since the Civil War, special reference may be made to the able work on ' The Southern States of the American Union,' by the Hon. J. L. M. Curry, LL.D., of Washington, D.C., formerly United States Minister to Spain, and now the Administrator of the Peabody and the Slater Funds for Education in the South. For comprehensive, judicious, and statesmanlike treatment of a difficult subject, the book is unique, and deserves unqualified praise. Twice only, in the early days of the struggle, did it appear that England must be involved. An American ship waylaid the British mail-steamer "Trent," and forcibly seized two Confederate envoys on their way to Europe in November, 1861. For a few weeks war trembled in the balance ; but the sense of justice and the good feeling of the Cabinet at Washington prevailed over popular clamour, and Messrs. Mason and Slidell were surrendered on the demand of the British Govern ment. In spite of a Proclamation of neutrality, constant attempts were made by Englishmen to run the blockade of the Southern ports for the sake of enormous possible gains, and munitions and ships of war were also supplied. The worst case was that of the " Alabama " cruiser, illegally built and fitted at Birkenhead in July, 1862, for the Southern Confederacy. The ship put to sea under a false name and without a clearance, owing to the culpable delay of the law officers of the Crown, to the hesitancy of the Foreign Secretary, Lord John Russell, and to the bungling, the timidity, or the complicity of other officials, who knew the designed purpose ; which was notorious, both in England and America. Great damage was in flicted by the corsair upon the shipping of the United A.D. 1857-1865.] GENEVA ARBITRATION. 429 States, until it was attacked and destroyed by the " Kearsage," off Cherbourg, in June, 1864. The claims made upon England at the close of the war, for damages committed by the "Alabama" and by two other English- built pirates, were referred to a Joint Commission of the two countries which met at Washington in February, 1871. The whole matter was ably argued on both sides, with the counter-claims of England for injuries suffered by the people of Canada in recent Fenian raids ; which, however, were not pressed. The chief difficulty arose over indirect and undefined claims made by the United States, which seem likely to reach an appalling amount. Under a Treaty agreed to by the Commission, and ratified by Parliament and by Congress, a body of arbitrators assembled in Geneva on June 15, 1872. Chief Justice Sir Alexander Cockburn represented England, and Mr. Charles Francis Adams the United States, with nominees from Italy, Switzerland, and Brazil. The case was fuUy argued by eminent legal and diplomatic agents on behalf of the two countries. The arbitrators absolutely rejected the Indirect Claims, as untenable. Thirty-two meetings were held, and an award was given on September 24 ; Sir Alexander Cockburn dissenting on certain points. A sum of £3,200,000 was paid to the United States in satisfaction of all claims, which were afterwards found to faU considerably short of the amount ; but the balance was not returned to England. Another result of the Treaty of Washington was the appointment of a Mixed Commission to settle for ten years, with power of renewal, disputes as to the Canadian coast-fisheries. CHAPTER LXXXVI. CABINET MUTATIONS. A.D. 1866-1895. The usual course with Cabinets of recent years has been one of unpopularity and decay, proportioned to their duration, and to their strength at the outset. The 430 CABINET MUTATIONS. [chap, lxxxvi. political opinions, or prejudices, of many persons are in a state of flux, and they temporarily attach themselves to one party or the other, as impulse, or self-interest, or accident, may prompt. They constitute the unknown quantity that determines a General Election. After a time, when it is found that trade does not improve, or that the seasons are unpropitious, or that some heroic but impracticable policy is not adopted, or that universal happiness and halcyon contentment are not inaugurated, or that vague expectations of legislative legerdemain are not realised, a feeling of ignorant surprise induces dis appointment that leads to anger and opposition. The accident of a few seats being lost to the Government of the day at bye-elections, probably on a local issue, or on a clever but false cry, creates a revulsion under which the timid, the uninformed, the unprincipled, and the treacherous change sides. Every trade, official, or class interest which thinks itself aggrieved, or that better terms can be made with the opposite party, has a strong induce ment to go over. Advocates and propagandists of social crotchets that find so much favour with a narrow and parochial order of minds, unable to look at events in perspective, and devoid of all sense of proportion and harmony, always have a warmer welcome from the Oppo sition than from the party in power, because the latter are conscious of responsibility, and know the practical diffi culties in the way of legislation. When the occupants of the official benches are changed, an analogous process is gone through. Political promissory notes, given with ready facility for the sake of securing office, cannot be met when they fall due. This has been the case with some of the strongest Administrations of recent years. On the death of Palmerston, Russell again became Premier, but resigned June 26, 1866, on a defeat of his Reform Bill. The Earl of Derby followed, but retired through ill-health, February 25, 1868, when Disraeli re constructed the Cabinet. It was overthrown the same year on the Irish Church question. Another notable instance of sudden and startling popular revulsion is furnished in the case of the Glad stone Ministry, which terminated in February, 1874. It had assumed office, five years previously, with a zest, a A.D. 1866-1895-] GRANTS TO SCHOOLS. 431 promise, and a programme that carried all before it. A little rift within the lute, caused by the estrangement of Nonconformists, through what they regarded as the in equalities of the Education Act of 1870, and what were deemed its unfair concessions to the clergy, widened as time went on. Residents in the rural districts, who knew how it was possible to evade or override the most stringent Conscience Clauses, uttered words of warning, but all in vain. A few sagacious minds discerned the approaching religious difficulty, but they were scouted as false prophets. Even some whose utterances claimed to be oracular, and who were regarded as leaders and guides among the Free Churches, went astray upon this matter ; compelling an alteration in the Government policy. Instead of settling the vexed question in a bold, decisive, and statesmanlike manner, it was timidly remitted to every borough and parish to deal with it as they best could, with the result that, on many School Boards, all the virulence of contending factions was called forth. The scheme was lauded by its authors as a paragon of statesmanship, and, compared with the halting methods of former years, it was a decided im provement. W. E. Forster (1818-1886), the Vice- President of the Council, who had charge of the measure in the House of Commons, failed to seize the occasion for establishing a thoroughly national system under efficient local control, in his desire to effect a compromise and to placate the clergy by protecting their Voluntary Schools. As in former instances, Dissenters had themselves to thank for the results. With a few noble exceptions, they were apathetic, narrow, and prejudiced. They failed to perceive the bearings of the question in Ireland, where Roman Catholics preponderate. They were deluded by hollow party cries, they lacked understanding of the times, and they sacrificed the immediate future of England to a mere fetich. When they awoke from their dream, it was angrily alleged that Forster had betrayed his party and had abandoned his Quaker principles. Complaint was also made that he had suffered himself to be hoodwinked by a plausible scheme of cumulative voting, whereby a few sectional minorities can capture 432 CABINET MUTATIONS. [chap, lxxxvi. the School Boards. The Nonconformist revolt was wide spread, and it doomed the Gladstone Ministry to defeat at the next General Election, with other causes mentioned below. Several amendments had to be introduced ere long, and the measure for assisted education, in 1891, relieving parents from the payment of fees, still left much to be done in order to secure a really national system. It is, unhappily, too true of almost every order of re ligionists, that though they profess to love education, they love controversy, and they covet control and pre dominance, still more. New Regulations for the Army, and clumsy devices for licensing public-houses, aroused the antagonism of threatened vested interests. The latter measure was peculiarly unfortunate. It alienated the Temperance party, who thought it did not go far enough, and it irritated the brewers, the distillers, and the publicans, because it went too far. Farmers, the Civil Service, workmen in the dockyards and arsenals, soldiers, sailors, the police, and other sections who subsist upon the public purse, and who are always ready to agitate for increased pay and pensions, had their own grievances, real or imaginary. Moreover, what was regarded as Gladstone's restless activity was viewed with alarm by the quiet, the contented, and the stolid, who form a large part of every community. Some members of the Cabinet had con trived, with needless persistency, to render themselves unpopular ; chief among them being Robert Lowe, afterwards Viscount Sherbrooke, a returned Australian, of great ability, but of no tact, whose Liberalism was of a mild and colourless type. As Chancellor of the Ex chequer he was credited, perhaps unfairly, with the addition of twopence to the Income Tax, and with the clever trick of extorting payment of five quarters in one year. The breeches-pocket argument is most powerful, and the average taxpayer is always ready to complain. Suddenly, like a bolt from the blue, Gladstone announced a General Election, in a manifesto to his constituents at Greenwich, on January 23, 1874. Itwas one of the grave tactical mistakes which the most illustrious statesman of this century has been in the habit of committing. The immediate occasion for his political coup d'dtat was the a.d. 1866-1895-] THE LIBERAL ROUT. 433 defeat of his scheme for higher education in Ireland. He held out a distinct bribe, that, if his majority were restored, he would repeal the Income Tax and diminish the local rates by a grant-in-aid. Such a bid for office cannot be vindicated. The result showed how serious was the blunder. An utter rout shattered his party, when the country rallied from its speechless surprise at the sudden dissolution of a Parliament which, among other things, had disestablished the Irish Church, grappled with the Irish land question, provided a scheme of Ele mentary Education, rescued the remaining Endowed Grammar Schools from extinction, opened the Univer sities, abolished Army purchase, and secured the Ballot. Disraeli replied at once in an address to the electors of Bucks, cleverly seizing upon the weaknesses in the armour of his opponent. Within a month it was known that the Liberals were in a hopeless minority, their number, including the Irish members, being 300, against 352 Conservatives. Gladstone himself was returned second on the poll for Greenwich ; which then had two members. Following a precedent set by his great rival, he instantly resigned. He also withdrew from the post of Liberal leader, on the plea of age and health, until called forth from his retirement by the ferment in the ecclesiastical world, and by the indignation aroused at the atrocities in Bulgaria. The Marquis of Harrington became the titular head of the party. The Disraeli Ministry was formed February 20, 1874, and continued, with various changes and fluctuations, until April 21, 1880. Besides the Montenegrin and Bulgarian troubles, and new phases of old difficulties with Ireland, foreign events included the cession of the Fiji islands to England ; the temporary annexation of the Transvaal ; one of the terrible chronic famines in Bengal ; a Reciprocity Treaty between Canada and the United States ; intervention in Egypt and the control of its finances on behalf of English and French bondholders ; wars in Ashanti and in Zulu- land ; another invasion of Afghanistan, and the acquisi tion of Cyprus. The principal home events were the marriage of the Duke of Edinburgh to the daugther of the Czar of Russia ; the visit of the Prince of Wales to India, at a cost of £140,000 ; the appointment of a Royal vol. in. 29 434 CABINET MUTATIONS. [chap, lxxxvi. Commission on Agriculture ; attempts to legislate on the Ritual controversy in the Church ; a great strike of agricultural labourers ; and Acts for consohdating and amending the Labour Laws. One important measure was the Judicature Act of 1875, which united the existing Courts of Law into one Supreme Court, with two divisions. Law and equity were fused, at least in theory. An elaborate code of rules and regulations, constantly chang ing, was prepared by the judges, in accordance with an objectionable modern practice that has insidiously crept into every branch of the public service, whereby members of the Bench and permanent officials, under pretence of interpreting the law, take upon themselves to amplify and adapt its provisions. With the object of providing facilities for the cheap and easy recovery of small debts, County Courts were established in 1846. Additional duties have since been imposed, and the limits of plaints are largely extended. The Disraeli or Beaconsfield Ministry — the Premier having been called to the Upper House, as an Earl — exhibited signs of decadence during its later period, similar to those which had marked its predecessor. An aggressive foreign policy, a swollen expenditure, and the alleged neglect of urgent home affairs were seized upon by opponents ; especially by Mr. Gladstone, in his Mid- Lothian Campaign of November, 1879, which resulted in his winning that seat at the General Election in March, 1880. The political pendulum swung back with powerful momentum in favour of the Liberals ; their majority, including 60 Irish Home Rulers, being 186. Beaconsfield at once resigned. He did not long survive the defeat ; dying April 19, 1881. An immediate difficulty of the gravest kind confronted the second Gladstone Cabinet. One of the periodical failures of crops had occurred in Ireland. The distress and the disquietude were aggra vated by the growth of a sentiment for Home Rule, with a Parliament in Dublin, and by the action of an organ ized body of members pledged to support it. Under the astute leadership of Charles Stewart Parnell (1846-1891), who had supplanted Isaac Butt by tactics of a different order, they had strenuously opposed a Relief of Distress Bill introduced by the outgoing Ministry, on the ground A.d. 1866-1895.] IRISH OBSTRUCTION. 435 that it was framed in the interests of the landlords. They now resisted other measures, on the same ground, and in revenge for the Lords having thrown out a Bill that proposed to give to evicted tenants compensation for disturbance. The Irish Land League, formed in 1879 by Michael Davitt, was in active operation, and an anti-rent agitation was carried on. There were renewed outbreaks, to repress which additional troops were sent over before the close of 1880. It was commonly said that in wide districts of Ireland the Queen's Writ did not run. The Session of 1881 was occupied almost entirely with another Land Bill. Winter brought fresh anxieties ; for the country seemed on the verge of anarchy. Further coercive measures were divised to suppress agrarian out rages, in accordance with Gladstone's boast at the Lord Mayor's banquet that the resources of civilization were not exhausted. Hundreds of persons, including Parnell and his principal colleagues in the House, were arrested and kept in prison for seven months without trial. When Parliament met, early in 1882, the Irish repre sentatives perfected their obstructive policy, avowedly to frustrate legislation. There were frequent divisions ; talking against time ; all-night sittings ; incessant heck ling of Ministers ; angry interruptions of speakers ; vulgar personalities, and repeated expulsions of offending members. However irritating and unseemly, there was method in all this madness, with which new Rules of Procedure seemed powerless to cope. It was declared that until Irish claims were conceded nothing else should be clone, but aid would be accepted from any political party, as was shown by a secret compact with the Con servatives prior to the Election of 1885. Mr. W. E. Forster had undertaken the arduous and thankless post of Chief Secretary, and upon him broke the fiercest storms. In the end, with the best intentions, the Her culean task proved too great ; as it would have been for any man. He urged his colleagues to adopt still more coercive measures, and he resigned on their refusal. He was succeeded by Lord Frederick Cavendish, who was assassinated in Phoenix Park, Dublin, within twelve hours of his first visit, on May 6, 1882. The attack was generally believed to have been directed against his 436 CABINET MUTATIONS. [chap, lxxxvi. companion, Mr. Burke, the Permanent Secretary, who was also killed. These cold-blooded murders sent a thrill of horror throughout the country, and aroused a revulsion and a prejudice from which Ireland suffered for years. The immediate effect was the introduction of the Prevention of Crimes Bill, which was carried after stormy scenes extending over two months. Consentaneously, there were further attempts to cope with the agrarian difficulty by an Arrears Bill, limited to holdings under £30 by Griffiths' valuation, and to tenants whose rent had been paid to November, 1881. An attempt by Parnell to amend the Irish Land Act was defeated, and in 1884 the Land League was revived under the name of the National League. The Gladstone Cabinet resigned in June, 1885, owing to an adverse vote on the Budget, after one or two narrow escapes in critical divisions on other subjects. Lord Salisbury became Prime Minister ; but at the General Election in November his party obtained only 252 seats, whereas the Liberals had 332, and the Irish party was increased to 86. When Parlia ment met in January, an amendment to the Address was carried, on the motion of Jesse Collings, M.P., expressing regret that the Queen's speech contained no allusion to the subject of allotments and small holdings. Lord Salisbury thereupon resigned, and Gladstone was re instated. His Cabinet included John Morley as Irish Secretary. By precedent, the allotment question should have been dealt with at once ; and its omission aroused strong feeling among the agricultural labourers. Mr. Gladstone introduced two great measures, giving Home Rule to Ireland, and propounding what was designed to be a final settlement of the Land question. Great Britain, however, was not prepared for such heroic methods. The remembrance of recent events was too strong, and the apprehension of further trouble was too keen. The Land Bill was never discussed in Parliament on its merits ; but a widespread fear existed that English taxpayers would have to find from £50,000,000 to £150,000,000 to buy out the landlords. Gladstone asserted that the measure contained adequate safeguards against such a contingency, but he failed to a.d. 1866-1895.] THE PARNELL COMMISSION. 437 carry the whole of the Liberal party with him, and this led to an irreparable breach. The second reading of the Home Rule Bill was defeated in the Commons by 343 to 313. Among the majority were 93 Liberals. Thereupon, he decided to appeal to the country, although only seven months had elapsed since the Election. The response, in July, condemned his policy. The Conservatives secured 316 seats ; the Dissentient Liberals, agreeing with them on the Irish question, 77 ; and the Glad- stonians, including their Irish supporters, only 277. Lord Salisbury again became Premier, and entered on a course of what he defined as "resolute government." Mr. Arthur J. Balfour, as Irish Secretary, introduced into the House of Commons, March 28, 1887, what was known as the Crimes Bill. It was rapidly forced through all its stages. Great assistance was rendered by the opportune publication in ' The Times ' of a series of articles entitled ' Parnellism and Crime.' One of them gave what purported to be a fac-simile of an autograph letter from the Irish leader at the time of the Cavendish and Burke murders, expressing approval of the deed, so far as concerned the latter. Parnell instantly declared the letter a forgery. After much delay and angry re crimination, a Special Commission of tliree judges was appointed in 1889. The proceedings began in October, and continued for four months, when a miserable creature on whose testimony the chief reliance was placed, sud denly disappeared, and shot himself at Madrid ; leaving a written confession that he had forged documents, and sold them to ' The Times.' This part of the case was, therefore, abandoned, and the inquiry was directed to the working of the Land and the National Leagues and other organizations. Hundreds of witnesses were ex amined. Long and able speeches were made by counsel. The Report of the Commission appeared in 1891, dis missing the more serious charges and allegations, or holding them not proven ; but the accused were held, in various degrees, to have sought the independence of Ire land, to have promoted an agrarian conspiracy against rent, circulated newspapers tending to sedition and other crimes, incited to intimidation, and made payments to compensate persons injured in the commission of crime. 438 CABINET MUTATIONS. [chap, lxxxvi. Long before the end of the trial, public interest had abated, as had been the case with Warren Hastings. The proceedings were complicated by a grave personal matter. The able leader of the Irish party was cast in heavy damages in a divorce trial. Stormy scenes ensued at meetings of his adherents ; two-thirds of whom chose Justin M'Carthy, M.P., as leader, and renounced Parnell. Within twelve months the country was startled by his sudden death. The funeral, in Glasnevin Cemetery, Dublin, was attended by a concourse, and evoked a scene of excitement, such as had not been witnessed since the interment of Daniel O'Connell. Another notable man passed away within a few hours, in Mr. W. H. Smith, First Lord of the Treasury, and Leader of the House. The Crimes Act had been enforced in a manner that led to much heated controversy. A General Elec tion, in July, 1892, gave the Government only 315 sup porters, against 355 Liberals and Irish. With the advent of another Gladstone Ministry, a further attempt was made in February, 1893, to deal with the thorny question of Home Rule. The Premier introduced a Bill, and its discussion occupied the whole of the Session, until the first of September, when the third reading was carried, after the closure, by a majority of 34 in a House of 568 ; nearly the whole of the absent members being paired. A week later, the Lords rejected the Bill by 419 to 41 votes. The principal Legislative achievement was the creation of District and Parish Councils ; a complement to the County Council Act of 1888. Early in 1894, on the grounds of failing sight and advanced age, Mr. Glad stone retired from the Premiership, and the Cabinet was reconstituted under Lord Rosebery. Its tenure was in secure, owing to its small majority in the Commons, and, on a snatch division, June 21, 1895, there was an adverse majority of 132 to 125, on a question as to the sufficiency of cordite in store. The Ministry appeared to welcome this as a convenient opportunity for escaping from an irksome position, which was said by the Premier to be aggravated by party differences. They regarded the vote as an expression of want of confidence, and re signed the next clay. Lord Salisbury was once more entrusted with the task of forming a Cabinet. An appeal A.D. 1866-1895-] THE ROSEBERY CABINET. 439 was made to the country in July. Lord Rosebery gave as a battle-cry the reform of the House of Lords. Sir William Harcourt chose to ignore this, and declared that he would stand or fall by the Local Veto Bill which he had introduced. He speedily fell, and that ignominously ; being rejected at Derby, with his colleague. The result of the Election was the return of 411 adherents of the Government, including 72 Liberal Unionists. The Liberals numbered only 177, the Nationalists 71, and the Parnellites 11 ; making, in all, 259. CHAPTER LXXXVII. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION. A.D. 1895. The above occurrences are too recent to be dealt with fully ; having regard to due perspective. Moreover, it is super fluous to narrate circumstantially the course of the long and gracious reign of Queen Victoria, excepting in so far as concerns the crises already described. The record is accessible in such works as Washington Wilks' ' History of the Half-Century ' ; in the one on the century by Robert Mackenzie ; in Justin M'Carthy's ' History of Our Own Time ' ; in Thomas Humphry Ward's ' Reign of Victoria ' ; in Joseph Irving's ' Annals of Our Own Time ' ; in P. W. Clayden's ' England under the Coali tion,' and ' Under Lord Beaconsfield ' ; in W. H. Lucy's ' Diary of Two Parliaments ' ; and in successive volumes of the ' Annual Register.' Gneist, in his ' History of English Parliaments,' forecasts with much sagacity and skill future political and social movements, as does C. H. Pearson, in ' National Life and Character.' What ever may be thought of these horoscopes, it may be said, speaking generally, that a great change for the better has been effected within living memory in the legislative and executive departments. Prior to the Reform Act of 1832, laws were enacted mainly for the advantage of the few at the expense of the many, aiid for the protection of what 440 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION, [chap, lxxxvii. are called the rights of property, regardless of life and freedom. Only by slow degrees, and as the result of persistent effort, are justice and humanity able to triumph over selfishness, ignorance, and oppression. Not before 1839 were dogs forbidden to draw loaded carts. Three years later, an Act prohibited boys being made to climb chimneys for cleaning. So late as 1843, women and girls, dressed like men, and equally coarse in speech' and manners, were harnessed to trucks in coal-mines, and little children sat for weary hours in the darkness, half- dead with exhaustion, pulling the cord that opened the doors for the passage of the trucks along the damp galleries. In more recent times, the condition of females in the nail and chain-making districts was a scandal. Various measures tending in the direction of justice and freedom have been incidentally mentioned in previous pages. Disabilities to trade, to obtaining education, to filling public offices, to the discharge of civil rights, and to the full enjoyment of citizen privileges, because of diversity of opinions on matters of speculative religion, are no longer upheld in theory, though they have not wholly disappeared in practice. Concessions, reforms, and improvements are attributable to widening intelli gence, to a keener sense of justice, to the growth of popular power, and to the way in which public senti ment has been brought to bear on the Legislature. Its action since 1880 has effected some salutary changes. By the Ground Game Act, farmers are permitted, under certain restrictions, to destroy hares and rabbits. The Corrupt Practices Act of 1882 and 1895 provide partial remedies for scandals long prevalent at Elections. In creased encouragement to thrift is furnished by means of the Post Office. Miscellaneous Statutes deal with infant mortality, the adulteration of food and drink, the pollution of rivers, cruelty to animals, the property of married women, international copyright, trade-marks, agricultural holdings, tithes, the Scottish Universities, the housing of the poor, allotments, contagious and infectious diseases, and clergy discipline. Prior to 1840, legislation tended to cheapen the cost and to facilitate the consumption of ardent spirits ; but, with an exception to be noticed immediately, an opposite A.D. 1895.] GROWTH OF EXPENDITURE. 441 policy has since been pursued. Whereas, in 1742, over two gallons of spirits per head were consumed, the quantity now is slightly under one gallon. Self-imposed taxation, in the shape of intoxicating drinks and tobacco, is still far too large, amounting, for duty alone, to nearly £45,000,000 annually, or 25s. per capita. More than half the actual taxation of the country is derived from this source : a state of things that cannot be satisfactory to the moralist, or the patriot, or the social reformer. If the cost of production and of distribution be added, the amount is nearly five times as much, while the resulting pauperism and crime enormously enhance the loss. In 1880, Gladstone abolished the Malt Tax, substituting for it a duty on beer. Twenty years previously, when negotiating, through Richard Cobden, a Commercial Treaty with France, he initiated a system of grocers' licenses, whereby not only claret and light wines are procurable in single bottles at thousands of shops all over the country, but also other wines, with beer and spirits. Against all this must be placed the fact that wholesome tea is obtainable at one-fourth of the price that ruled when the tax was almost prohibitory. The amount con sumed is now five pounds and a half per head per annum. Similar reductions in fiscal charges on coffee, cocoa, currants, sugar, and other articles in daily use, and the entire abolition of duties in many cases, have had the effect of giving an impetus to trade, and adding to the comfort of the mass of consumers. The continuous increase of expenditure, both imperial and local, cannot fail to be remarked. Much of the former is attributable to professional panics got up periodically over the alleged defenceless condition of the country, in spite of the enormous outlay every year ; to the rivalry between makers of rifled cannon and of armour-plates ; to costly scientific experiments at the public charge ; to perpetual changes in weapons of pre cision, and to repeated reconstructions of the Navy. Not a little, also, is due to the tendency of the municipal or parochial mind to widen the sphere of government ; to the growing disposition to inspect and control everybody and everything ; and to the ceaseless requirements in every branch of the public service. All this means an 442 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION, [chap, lxxxvii. additional burden upon the industry, the resources, and the comforts of the nation, and the withdrawal from productive employment of many thousands who have to be supported by the working portion of the community. The amount of the Funded Debt, most of which is the legacy of wasteful and profligate war expenditure, is £586,015,919, according to the last Return ; and that of the Unfunded Debt, £17,400,300. The capital value of Terminable Annuities and other items brings up the public liabilities to £660,160,607, the annual charges and expenses thereon being £25,000,000. The Finance Accounts for the year that ended March 31, 1895, showed a total outlay for all purposes of £94,728,420, omitting cross-entries and temporary loans and advances received and repaid. The Army and Navy absorbed £35,445,000, and the Civil List and Civil Service, which are continu ally increasing, and are insatiable in their demands, £31,831,000. A similar state of things obtains in the affairs of local self-government, the cost of which has more than doubled within a decade, and amounts to eighty-two millions annually. Local debts have swollen to £240,000,000 ; London alone owing £38,500,000, or four millions beyond its rateable value. The indebted ness is largely incurred in the erection of workhouses, infirmaries, infectious hospitals, district and elementary schools, pauper lunatic asylums, and other buildings ; an outlay that is often insisted upon by the Local Government Board. The Board of Trade, the Home Office, the Education Department, and the Board of Agriculture also exercise a rigid and an excessive control, from which there is virtually no appeal. They have as many eyes as Argus, and as many heads as Briareus. Against a system of Government by Chief Clerks incessant vigilance and stern protests are required, for it is a perjDetuation, in another form, of the tyranny exerted in olden times by the King's Council, and of the inces sant interference of the State in the Middle Ages. The modern tendency is vastly to increase the number of inspectors, clerks, and other officials ; to create new administrative Frankensteins ; and to think that legisla tion is a kind of Prospero's wand, if not an overruling Providence. England has no desire to be reduced to the a.d. 1895.] FUNCTIONS OF GOVERNMENT. 443 police pattern of France or of Germany, where the most ordinary functions of life are prescribed and controlled. The true functions of Government are negative, rather than positive. Johnson's closing lines, added to Gold smith's ' Traveller,' express an abiding truth : — " How small, of all that human hearts endure, that part which laws or kings can cause or cure." Many excellent persons, forgetful or ignorant of the failure of the Pro tective Spirit, of Sumptuary Laws, and of the Statutes of Labourers, but moved by a vague feeling of compassion for the poor, and by zeal, without knowledge, to redress social [wrongs, advocate a policy, urge the adoption of methods, and seek the attainment of aims which are simply impossible while human nature endures. If all men and women were industrious, honest, sober, thrifty, and subject to wise self-control and to courteous con sideration for others, it might be possible, with the general consent, to effect great changes in social condi tions that would be for the common good ; but it is im possible to move in advance of public opinion and con viction. Actual circumstances and individual tastes will not bend to any theory, however ideally perfect. Formerly, the waste by war and by disease exceeded sometimes the normal birth-rate. So far as any data exist, it is probable that England had not more than two and a half millions of people from the time of Edward I. to Elizabeth's. At the end of the seventeenth century the estirnate gives five and a half millions. In 1801, there were said to be not quite nine ; but the Census was carelessly taken. That of the United Kingdom — Ireland being estimated at five millions — gave a total of 15,942,646. In 1891, the returns were 29,374,576, for England and Wales, including the small islands, and soldiers and sailors abroad ; 4,704,750 for Ireland ; and 4,025,647 for Scotland ; making 38,104,973 in all, or an increase of 8'i per cent, in the decade. London proper had 4,211,056 ; or, with the suburban districts, 5,633,332. The growth is more extraordinary with the English- speaking race throughout the world. Emigration to almost every quarter of the globe — the average for the last ten years being 260,000 — with the expansion of the United States, has multiplied the race to nearly 444 SUMMARY AXD CONCLUSION, [chap, lxxxvii. 150,000,000. The Egyptian, Assyrian, Babylonian, Persian, Roman, and Gothic waves of conquest or of colonization are not comparable to this for extent or for abiding results. The British Empire, with its Indian and Colonial possessions, embraces an area of more than nine millions of square miles ; having a population, including natives, of 351,000,000, a revenue of £237,000,000, and Imports and Exports valued in the whole at £1,154,900,000. By the year 1843, £65,000,000 had been expended on railways in the United Kingdom ; but the amount in 1894 was £985,387,355, besides £14,112,573 invested in tramways. At the former period, the traffic receipts were less than four millions ; and at the latter, they were £84,310,831. As the working expenses — more than one- half of the amount — consist chiefly of wages, and of commodities raised or produced by labour, the sum annually divided among wage-earners represents a vastly improved condition. The wealth of the upper and middle classes has increased with varying rates of progression during the last thirty years ; Ireland, however, being almost stationary. The amount assessed for property and incomes of all kinds was £706,130,875, by the last Return. Probate and Succession Duty was paid on £211,338,000. The social condition of the artisan and labouring classes has been greatly ameliorated by the cheapness of food, clothing, tools, and fuel, by such recent discoveries as petroleum for lighting, by the provision of public museums, galleries, parks, libraries, baths and washhouses, and by free education for their children. The marvellous development is farther attested by improved systems of water supply and of drainage, by healthier dwellings, by good roads and swift and cheap travelling, by postal and telegraphic facilities, by cheap daily and weekly newspapers, with information gathered from every part of the world, by successful attacks upon zymotic diseases and a diminished death-rate, by new methods of life-assurance and of providing for risks of all kinds. New conditions of production and of distribution have arisen with improvements in machinery, with the extension of railroads, with the substitution of steam- vessels for sailing ships, with such great works as the A.D. 1895.] ACCUMULATED WEALTH. 445 construction of the Manchester Ship Canal, with the improvements of Bessemer and Siemens in the making of steel, with the opening up of Japan, of China, of Australia, and of Africa to commerce, with fresh applications of electricity and the widening area of the telegraph system, with the utilization of what was formerly regarded as waste, and with the wise conservation of force and the nice adjustment of processes. Lighthouses, lightships, and harbours of refuge around the coast have received much attention, and a large annual outlay is expended upon them ; although the wreck charts still present melancholy records of vessels lost, of lives sacrificed, and of property destroyed. The amount standing to the credit of depositors in Savings Banks is £125,393,886, in addition to up wards of eight millions in Government Stock. Building Societies hold £51,538,691 ; Industrial and Coopera tive Societies, £18,041,051 ; Insurance Companies of all kinds have £12,161,449 0I paid-up capital, and £194,175,429 of life and annuity funds in hand. The value of Imports into the United Kingdom dur ing 1894 was £408,344,810, and that of the Exports £273,785,867, or £10 10s. 7d. and £5 us. 3d. re spectively per head of the population. In the same year 21,206 vessels, with a tonnage of 8,956,181, and navigated by 240,458 men and boys, were registered as belonging to the various ports of the British Empire. The acreage under crop or fallow, out of a total in the United Kingdom of 77,477,986, was 45,791,780 ; more than one-half being permanent pasture, besides three millions of acres of wood and coppice, and probably an equal quantity for orchards, nurseries, and market- gardens. The live-stock numbered 2,083,952 horses, 10,749,307 cattle, 29,966,752 sheep, and 3,779.336 pigs- All these figures are approximate, no means existing for the enumeration of animals kept in towns and by cot tagers. Some of the figures show a considerable falling off, when compared with former years. Wheat, also, cannot now be grown at a cost to allow of successful competition with India and elsewhere. The quantities and the value of minerals raised during 1894 were as follows : coal, 181,277,525 tons, estimated 446 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION, [chap, lxxxvii. at £62,729,759 in value at the place of production, and pig-iron, 7,427,342 tons, and £17,082,887. There were 7190 textile factories subject to the Factories and Work shops Acts, having 822,489 power-looms and 53,641,060 spindles, and employing 1,084,531 persons, two-thirds being females. Through the Post Office, 1,771,000,000 letters were delivered in the year, besides 766,500,000 newspapers, circulars, and book-packets, 312,750,000 post-cards, and 56,668,161 parcels weighing 65,269 tons. Seventy-one millions of telegraphic messages were trans mitted, and 176,179 money-orders and 59,773,568 postal orders were issued, to the value of £47,451,935. The gross receipts of the Post Office departments were £15,167,257, and, after payment of all expenses, a sum of three millions was handed over to the Exchequer as net profits. The persons employed, with those in the Civil Service generally, the Army and Navy, the PoUce, and in local administration, and a crowd of pensioners of all kinds, exceed 700,000, and the number is con tinually growing. Thirty-one thousand elementary schools, with an average attendance of 5,118,823, cost £17,558,083 in Parliamentary grants and out of the rates, besides a million more from endowments and voluntary gifts. Social manners and conditions exhibit marked im provement. Crime has diminished, in an inverse ratio to the population, owing to increased vigilance, to the spread of education, and to the influence of moral and religious teaching. According to the last Returns, 35,087 persons were charged with indictable offences in the United Kingdom, and over a million were tried sum marily, including petty thefts and trivial offences of all kinds. The average number of convicts and prisoners under detention at one time was 23,000. Methods of detention and punishment, though open to further im provement, especially by means of visits of suitable persons to long-term inmates of prisons, are far superior to those formerly prevailing. But debtors are still popularly regarded, and are treated by the law, as if they were criminals, without proper discrimination being made between misfortune and recklessness, as is also the case with the pauper-roll. Though considerably a.d. 1895.] SOCIAL IMPROVEMENTS. 447 lessened, it is far too long ; no fewer than 1,015,510 being found upon it, either as inmates of worldiouses, or as recipients of out-door relief, on January 1, 1895, being one in 38-5 of the population, and at a cost of £11,325,444 for the year. Soldiers, sailors, miners, lunatics, and dumb animals are treated with more consideration than formerly. The abolition of the old Law of Settlement, the repeal of the Navigation Laws and of the Corn Laws, the abrogation of a narrow commercial system, the spread of elementary and technical education, the increase of asylums, hospitals, and dispensaries, the dis covery of anaesthetics, the public sentiment against duel ling and slavery, and against the flogging of women and soldiers, are amongthe signs of amelioration and progress. In like manner, a gentleman considers it indecorous to be inebriated, or to indulge in coarse language or in senseless profanity. Brutal and cruel sports are dis couraged. The tone of general literature has been raised, especially in that furnished for popular reading, and in the department of criticism. Political life has lost much of its acerbity. Amenities introduced into the relations of ecclesiastical bodies encourage the hope of further improvement. It needs to be reiterated that the nation is greater than any party ; that the Church is wider than any sect ; and that the teachings of the Sermon on the Mount and the practice of the Royal Law of Love are nobler, purer, and more effectual than the most correct of human creeds or the most aesthetic forms of worship. The spirit of the age is opposed to all legalized monopo lies. Trade and navigation have long since outgrown the swaddling-bands in which arbitrary rulers, foolish legisla tors, and grasping monopolists sought to restrain them. Sumptuary laws for diet and apparel have been ridiculed out of existence. Many lucrative sinecures, created for the benefit of a favoured few, have been abolished. The occupants of all offices, in State or Church, must abide the test of a rigid Utilitarianism ; the modern form of Wycliffe's favourite doctrine of Dominion founded in Grace. Privileges formerly attaching to the accident of birth, to a dubious royal or aristocratic descent, to official positions, to the chance ownership of land, and to adventitious wealth, are challenged to vindicate their H8 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION, [chap, lxxxvii. continued existence on the grounds of abstract justice or of rigid necessity. Law and medicine still maintain the exclusiveness of trade unions, and a disposition is some times shown in other professions or trades to erect them selves into close preserves, as if the majority of mankind were foes to be resisted, or victims to be fleeced. Among subjects of deep concern to the social econo mist, the philanthropist, and the patriot, are the grow ing expenses of administrative government ; the waste and menace of vast armies ; remaining inequalities of taxation ; undue pressure upon agriculture, trade, and industry ; the delay, uncertainty, expense, and frequent injustice of litigation ; the costliness and tediousness of land transfer ; the alarming growth of large cities, and the denudation of the rural districts, partly througU the operation of effete land-laws, and partly as the result of changed economic and social conditions. Other dis quieting matters are the constant assertion of the gamb ling spirit, with periodical outbreaks of mad speculation ; a growing dislike of honest manual labour ; a disposition to work as little as possible, during the fewest hours, and for the highest rate of pay that can be exacted ; and the habit of regarding the Exchequer as a Fortunatus' purse, into which all may dip who know how to take advantage of the ignorance, the folly, or the fears of others. Such things present difficult problems that tax the most saga cious and patriotic to work out in a satisfactory manner. Much remains to be accomplished in raising the tone of commercial morality ; in a righteous and wise crusade against intemperance, vice, idleness, unthrift, and crime ; in dealing with habitual tramps and the Ishmaels of society ; in a just and sympathetic treatment of pauperism ; in care for thousands of neglected chil dren ; in rescuing from social wreckage human flotsam and jetsam that are alike a danger and a disgrace ; and in fostering a spirit of morality, self-control, self-sacri fice, patriotism, and human brotherhood. Moods of doubt and depression sometimes occur when the extent and the difficulties of social work appear to be overwhelming, and especially when it seems im possible to grapple with and to remedy existing evils. Ardent reformers are impatient, because the rate of A.D. 1895.] A- REVIEW OF THE PAST. 449 progress seems tardy. They forget the teachings of the Past, or fail to estimate the force of active opposition and of dogged resistance on the part of those who are interested in things remaining as they are. They do not under stand how many others look on with unconcern, because a particular injustice or abuse does not touch them. Changes are slow to be effected in customs that have long prevailed, and have thereby acquired a prescriptive right that is sacred in the eyes of many. Without indulging in groundless optimism, it is proper to remember that existing conditions and possibilities are far superior to those which prevailed in former times. Brave and patriotic men and women nobly resisted wrong, and heroically struggled and hoped for brighter days. They did not live, or suffer, or work in vain. Their example is a stimulus and an encouragement. The course of events traced in the preceding pages is marked by ebb and flow. Personal despotism ; class autocracy ; the insolence of office ; military rule ; Court intrigues ; monopoly and interference with personal liberty, have been persistently opposed, with a varying measure of success, but always in the end, to the advance ment of justice and freedom. There have been steady continuity and marked progress, in spite of occasional arrests and reverses. Goethe says that humanity is always advancing ; but in spiral lines. Briton, Roman, Saxon, Dane, Norman, Walloon, Dutch, and Huguenot have contributed to the formation of the national character. Ancient rights, laws, and usages, dating back prior to the Conquest, have been perpetuated and ex tended. Municipal privileges and trade customs have exerted a deep influence on public life. Political and ecclesiastical struggles, fiercely waged and long continued, have helped to consolidate national liberties. Under stress of circumstances, new systems and methods have slowly concreted in representative government, in Parlia mentary forms, and in administrative and judicial pro cedure. Saxon love of liberty could not be repressed by Norman force. A fusion of races was effected. The English successfully defied their Angevin rulers, and wrung valuable concessions from the exigencies of Plan- tagenet kings. The growth of the middle class ; rights VOL. III. 3° 450 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION, [chap, lxxxvii. purchased by corporate towns ; the spread of trade and the increase of wealth, involved improved methods of legal administration. Disputes between monarchs and the baronage led to mutual exhaustion, and to a curtail ment of the power of both ; to the advantage of the whole community, whose ancient rights and liberties were revived. Protracted contests between the State and the Church ended in the final assertion of nationality ; free from all foreign clerical domination. With the rising power of Parliament a curb was placed on the throne, on the priesthood, on military license, on the Protective Spirit, and on every assumption of mere authority. Social upheavals in the time of Wycliffe ; the resistless operation of economic laws ; the growth and flexibility of the English language ; the revival of learn ing ; the mighty agency of the printing-press ; and the opening up of distant realms and of new continents, awakened a spirit of inquiry, inspired fresh hopes, and presented boundless possibilities. Tudor despotism was not able permanently to arrest the hands on the dial of progress. The Elizabethan age and the Commonwealth showed what heroic Englishmen were capable of under taking and achieving ; and their lofty utterances and noble deeds can never be forgotten. Necessary protests and stern resistance by Puritans and Separatists against kingly and prelatical tyranny, and growing demands for mercantile, intellectual, and religious freedom, paved the way for the prolonged Stuart struggle ; which, after alternate successes and rebuffs, ended in the vindication of the men of the Commonwealth by the Revolution Settlement, as embodied in the Bill of Rights. The maintenance during dark and troublous days of the principles of liberty ; the steady advance, in spite of all resistance, along the line of progress ; the new era inaugurated by the repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts, by Catholic Emancipation, by the Reform Bill of 1832, and by the long series of equitable measures of which they were the precursors, furnish those who love their country with an incentive to persevere, and awaken a confident expectation of ultimate victory for the cause of that freedom which springs out of righteousness. INDEX. Battles, Wars, Sieges, Treaties, Parliaments, Rivers, Statutes, Councils, Cabinets, Chancellors, Chief Justices, Popes, Societies, etc., are grouped under the respective Headings; and Prelates under their Sees. Copious detaUs are also given under such general Headings as Common wealth, England, Scotland, France, India, Ireland, Bible, Church, Clergv, Reformation, Puritans, Nonconformists, Presbyterians, Independents, Baptists, Education, etc. The Italic words within brackets refer to collateral subjects. (q.v.) denotes specific reference. Abbeville, ii. 17. Abbeys, principal English, i. 77, ii. 154 ; and education, i. 78 ; mitred, 80 ; splen dour, 239 ; exempt from episcopal jurisdiction, 142, 189. {Monasteries. Prio ries^) Abbots of Unreason, i. 319 Abdications of the throne, and depositions, i. 303, 446, u. 24, 27, 30, 476, iii. 60 Abduction made felony, ii. 56 Abercromby, Sir Ralph, iii. 276, 301 Aberdeen, ii. 426 ; Earl of, iii. 379, 417 Abhorrers and Exclusionists, iii. 49 Abingdon, i. 336, 375 Abjuration of heresy, ii. 96 Abney, Sir Thomas, iii. 150 ; park, 158 Absolutism of King John, i. 219; of Richard II., 443; Tudor, ii. 36, 47, 62, 128, 152, 167, 208, 214 ; Stuart, 3i8, 333, 373. 399. 4°5"422, 424, 449, iii. 27, 45, 5» Actors, ii. 282, 299, iii. 248, 363 Actresses, first appearance, ii. 414. (Drama. Stage.) Acts of Parliament (Stat utes.) Adam de Marisco, 1. 244 Adams, John, President U.S., iii. 221, 229, 233 ; Samuel, 221 ; Thomas, ii. 392, 512 ; John Crouch, astronomer, iii. 366 ; Charles Francis, 429 Addington. (Sidmouth.) Addison, Joseph, ii. 300, 346, 498, iii. 40, 45, 60, 67, 93, 101, 111, 113-120, 123, 151, 280 Adelaide, Queen of William IV., iii. 353 Adelbert Ranconis, i. 415 Adiaphoristic Controversy, ii. 185 Adjutators, army, ii. 473 Administrations. (Cabi?iets.) Admiralty, Board of, iii. 284 'Admonition to the Parlia ment,' ii. 225 Adulteration, i. 313, ii. 487 Adulter)' made felony, ii. 465 Advertisement duty, iii. 100, 364 Advowsons held by Catholics, iii. 79 ^lcuin, i. 48, 57, 416 Alfred the Great, i. 44 ; con tests with the Northmen, 44, 45 ; his incipient Navy, 46 ; patriotic work, 46 ; literary labours, 48 ; Dom- 45 1 boe, 59 ; and slavery, 61 ; and Winchester, 147 ; and justice, 178 ^Eschylus, ii. 226, 295 athelbald, i. 44 ^Ethelberht, i. 44, 58, 69 .rEthelred, i. 44, 61, 85 ; the Unready, 86, 89 athelstan, i. 51, 65, 85 ^thelweard, i. 85 ^Ethelwulf, i. 43, 74, 75 Affirmations, instead of oaths, iii. 69, 325. (Oaths.) Africa, i. no, ii. 258, iii. 197 ; Trading Company, 255 ; and India Company of Scotland, 102 ; slavery, ii. 258, iii. 241 ; exploration, 39S Ages of Faith, i. 72, 400 ; ii. 7N Agricola, i. 22, 23 Agriculture, i. 323-5. 359. 363. ii. 50, iii. 142, 247, 445. (Land. Pasturage.) Board ' of, iii. 142, 247, 442 Agricultural theory of wealth, iii. 257 ; labourers' strike, 434 Ague, 11. 58, 503 Aidan, St., i, 56, 70 Aids, i. 135, 252, 255, 304, 342, ii. 36, 106. (Subsidies.) Ainsworth, Henry, ii. 241, 350, 468 ; Harrison, iii, 360 AIR-PUMP.] INDEX. [ARMY. Air-pump, ii. 297 Aislabie, Chancellor of the Exchequer, iii. 128 Akenside, Mark, poet, iii. 257 "Alabama" cruiser, iii. 429 Alablaster, Dr., ii. 401 Alane, or Alesius, Alexander, ii. 150 Albemarle, Duke of (Monk) ; Earl of, iii. 80 Albert, Prince, Consort to Queen Victoria, iii. 323, 375 Albigenses, i. 218, ii. 7, 78, 133 Alchemy, i. 358, ii. 511 Alden, John, ii. 358 Aldermen, how chosen, iii. 343 Aklhelm, Bishop of Sher borne, i. 56 Ale, i. 50, 165, 313, 375, iii. 123, 125 ; houses, ii. 43, 171, 487, iii. 124. (Licensing?) Alexander, Peter, ii. 183 ; Sir William, ii. 284, 365 ; de Hales, i. 154, 244, 402 ; of Macedon, i. 209, ii. 374 ; I. of Russia, iii. 283, 285 ; III. of Scotland, i. 289 Alexandria bombarded, iii. 285 Alexandrines, ii. 28G Algiers, ii. 500 Alien priories, i. 305, ii. 13, 28, 142 Allegiance, oath of, ii. 216, iii. 15, 67, 71, 108 Allegories, Crtdmon's, i. 56 ; Wycliffe's ' Wicket,' 415 ; More's ' Utopia,' ii. 59 ; Spenser's ' Faene Queene,' 291 ; ' Pilgrim's Progress,' iii. 43. (Political Roman ces.) Allen, Thomas, iii. 293 ; William, iii. 351, 368 AUeyn, Edward, ii. 273, 286 Alleyne, Joseph, ii. 498, iii. 24. 3i All-fours, game, iii. 127 AUhallows Church, ii. 135 Alliterative verse, i. 420, 434 Almsgiving, i. 367, ii. 148 Almshouses, ii. 312 Alnwick Castle, ii. 301 Altars, replaced by tables, ii. 185, 205 ; restored, 396 ; eastward position, 221 Althorp, Viscount, iii. 310 Alum, 1. 310 Alva, Duke of, ii. 253, 263, 264, 274, iii. 77 Ambassadors, pay of, ii. 63 Amboyna, massacre at, iii. 3 Ambrose, St., i. 73 America, discovered gradu ally, ii. 37, 38 ; origin of name, 38 ; glut of precious metals from, 182 ; and Spain, 257, 271 ; English Colonies in, 261, 335, 345, 348 ; emigration to, 349, iii. 79 ; trade with, 141 ; and Bishop Berkeley's project, 166 ; struggle between Eng land and France for con trol of, 196 ; growth of the Colonies, 215 ; French, Dutch, and German settlers, 216 ; trade restrictions, 216; Stamp Duties imposed, 217 ; Import Duties, 219 ; force attempted, 220 ; attitude of the Colonists, 220 ; leaders, 221 ; the tea duty, 221-2 ; the first Congress, 225 ; hostilities begun, 225. (New England. United States.) Amhurst, Nicholas, iii. 262 Amicable Life Office, iii. 106 ; loans, ii. 106 Amory, Thomas, iii. 121 Ampullae, i. 199 Amsterdam, i. 57, ii. 240, 353, 355, 4G6 Amusements, i. 317, ii. 284, 328, iii. 126-7. (Drama.) Anabaptists, ii. 86 ; 133, 177, 184, 321, 243, 355. (Bap tists.) Anaesthetics, i. 54, hi. 367 Anarchy, under Stephen, i, 157 ; under Henry VI., ii. 20. (Roses.) 'Anatomy of Abuses,' ii. 304 ; ' of Melancholy,' i. 160, ii. 326, iii. 164, 251 Ancestry, boasted Norman, i. 125, 126 Anderida, i. 32, no Andre, Major, iii. 229 Andredes-ceaster, i. 27, 39 Angel, coin, i. 312 Angevin dynasty, i. 172, 179, 208, 215, 234 Angles, i. 37, 44, 85 Anglesea, i. 21, 23, 269 Angling, ii. 174 Anglo-Saxon, a book word, i. «5 Angus, Earl of, ii. 255 Aniline dyes, iii. 367 Anjou, i. 97, 157, 172, 350, ii. 18 ; Duke of, ii. 215 Annalists and chroniclers, i. 11-13, ii. 283 Annandale, i. 290, 294 Annates, ii. 124, 127 Anne, Queen, iii. 92-110 ; " Bounty Fund," ii. 127, iii. 104 ; of Bohemia, Queen of Richard II., i. 328, 414, 443 ; of Cleves, ii, 138, 162 'Annual Register,' iii. 252 Annuities, iii. 105 Anselm. (Canterbury?) Anson, Admiral Lord, iii, 240 Anthems, ii. 181 Anti-Corn-Law League, iii. 383. 386 Anticosti. ii. 40 Antinomianism, ii. 177, iii, 64, 158 452 Antiquities, i. 13, 31, ii. 146, 217, 508 ; forged, i. 15 Antoninus, wall of, i. 25 ; Itinerary of, 28 Antwerp, i. 370, ii. 99, 101, 227, 259, 273 Apostolical Succession, ii 236, iii. 405 Apothecaries, ii. 59, iii. 132 Apparel. (Dress.) Appeals to Rome, i. 189, 195, 288, 407, 408, ii. in, 122, 124 Apples, i. 311 Apprentices, i . 366, ii. 148, 307, iii. 77, 141 Appropriation Act, i. 386, iii. 62 Aquitaine, i. 157, 172, 173, 34i» 349, 35o Arabic literature, ii. 397, 507 Arable land, i. 325, ii. 50 Arabs, the, and Eastern trade, ii. 273 Aragon, i, 262, 274 Arbuthnot, Dr. John, iii. 98, 114 Arch, simplest form, ii. 297 'Archeeologia,' i. 297, 585, ii. . 454 Archaeology, pre-historic, i. 13 ; revived, 31, ii. 146, 217, 508 Archdeacons in Middle Ages, i. 160 Archery, i. 113, 301, 317, 343, 348, ii. 31, 328 Architecture, Saxon, i. 51 ; Norman, 163 ; Early English, 321 ; later styles, 321 ; Tudor, ii. 301 ; after the Great Fire, iii. 105 : the arch, ii. 297 ; 18th century, iii. 129 Argyle, Earl of, iii. 51 Arianism, iii. 41, 69, 157, 163, 171 Ariosto, ii. 285, 291, 292 Aristides, ii. 323, iii. 38 Aristophanes, i. 399, ii. 437, iii. 248 Aristotle, i. 175, 249, 336, ii. 295 Arkwright, Sir R., iii. 245 Arlington, Lord, iii. 38 Armada, Spanish, ii. 262-270, 384, 452, iii. 365 Armagh, Bramhall, Arch bishop of, ii. 396, iii. 407; Fitzralph, i. 398;'Ussher, ii- 397. 5t>9 Arminianism in Church of England, ii. 207, 394, 401, iii. 173 ; in Holhind, ii. 329 ; an old dispute, 73, 78, iii. 157. 174 Arminius, ii. 177, 180, 330 Armour, i. 307, 344; plates, iii. 367 Armstrong guns, i. 344, iii. 367 Army, no standing, i. 185; ARNOLD.] INDEX. [BARKER. the Fyrd, or militia, 47, 111 ; military tenure, 135 ; billeting, ii. 386 389, 409 ; danger of standing, 400 ; disbanded, 444 ; a citizen, 453, 473 ; Adjutators, 473 ; of the Commonwealth, 475- 486 ; the Cabal, iii. 6 ; ille gally raised by James II., 55 ; and the Mutiny Act, 62 ; reduced, 1697, 87 ; in Flanders, 119 ; commissions purchased, 180 427 ; flog- gingin, 313-4- (Mercenaries. Military.) Arnold, Benedict, ii. 398 ; Dr. Thomas, iii. 357, 362, 402 ; Matthew, ii. 54 Arras, i. 310, ii. 264 Arthur, Prince, son of Henry VII., ii. 42, 126 ; Prince of Biittany, i. 215, 216, 306 Arthurian legends, i. 39, 292, ii. 53, 280, 291 Articles (Thirty-nine. Con fession J Artisans, i. 165, 322, 366, ii. 50, 306 Artois, i. 348, ii. 14, 106 Arts, the, Roman, i. 31 ; Saxon, 52 ; in Middle Ages, 321 ; collection of Charles !., ii. 374; in 18th century, iii. 248-262 Arundel, Earl of, i. 331 Aryan family, i. 55 Ascham, Anthony, ii. 502 ; Roger, ii. 54, 55 Ashburton, Lord, iii. 283 Ashley, Lord, iii. 38, 338 Ashmole, Elias, ii. 508 Askew, Anne, ii. 165 Asser, i. 12, 4**), 58, 178 Assessment, Grand Jury for, i. 212 Assheton, Rev. W., iii. 105 Assize of Clarendon, i. 181 ; Northampton, 181 ; Arms, 184; Bread and Ale, 313, 375, »¦ 3°4 Astrology, i. 358, ii. 26-1, 511, iii. 54 Astronomy, i. 358, ii. 38, 296, 511, iii. 259 Athanasias, St., i. 76> !37 ; Creed of, iii. 147 Atheists, compelled to attend church, ii. 226 ; punished, iii. 69 ; alleged, 255 Athelney, Isle of, i. 45 'Athenian Mercury,' iii. 100 Athens, i. 353, ii. 65 Atmospheric engine, iii. 142 Atonement, doctrine of the, iii. 158 Attainder, Bills of, ii. 23, 25, 162, 167, 192, 348, 440, Hi. 50 Attorney-General, Coke the 1 first in Parliament, ii 337 Audley, Sir Thomas, ii. 130, 160 Augmentation Office, ii. 143, 145 Augsburg, Diet of, ii. 82, 84 Augusta, Princess, of Saxe- Coburg, mother of George III., iii. 201 Augustine of Kent, i. 68, 69 71, 82 ; of Hippo, i. 73, 76, 153. 389, 4°4. ii- 77, 178, 180, 206, iii. 174 ; Monks, i. 76, 80, 238 Augustus Caesar, i. 20 Austen, Jane, iii. 360 Australia discovered, iii. 240 ; an English Empire, 197 ; mistakes in colonizing, ii. 349 ; emigration to, iii. 395 ; ecclesiastical difficulties, 400 ; local self-government, 400 ; gold discoveries, 400 Austria, iii. 273 ; War with France, 276, 279, 284 ; treat ment of Italy, 287, 379. Austrian Line in Spain, ii. 271 ; Succession, War of, iii. 188 Auvergne, i. 173, 346, 350 Avignon, Papal See at, i. 279, 384, 389, 398, 404, 412 Axholme, Isle of, i. 265, ii. r32 Aylmer, Bishop. (London?) Ayloffe, Sir John, i. 297 Azores, the, ii. 39, 281 ' Babees Book,' ii. 55 Bach, J. C, ii. 301 Backgammon, i. 318 Bacon, Friar Roger, i. 162, 244, 245, 336, 357, 358, 395, ii- 343 Bacon, John, sculptor, iii. 248 ; Sir Nicholas, ii. 278, iii. 105 Bacon, Lord, i. 359, 443, ii. 278, iii. 254, 256 ; on kingship, i. 3 ; on Aristotle, 175 ; on the nobility and clergy, 183 ; on money, 325 ; and Friar Bacon, 358 ; on Richard III., ii. 31 ; on Henry VII., 42, 50, 295 ;;on human folly, 70 ; on seditions, 153 ; on the Puritans, 233; on Church reforms, 236 ; on the sinking of the " Revenge," 281 ; and the English language, 283 ; his attainments, 294, 295 ; ' Essays,' 295, 463 ; other works, 295 ; effect on French Encyclopedists, 295, iii. 266 ; limited scientific knowledge, ii. 298 ; on gar dens, 303 ;on Church affairs, 320 ; on bribes, 336 ; and Ralegh, 344; rivalry with Coke, 346 ; his fall, 346 ; on Plantations, 349 ; and Hobbes, 510 ; on the Cabi net, iii. 38 Bceda, i. 12, 39, 55, 78, 158, 159, 231, 352, 4X7 453 Bahamas, the, ii. 38 Baillie, Joanna, iii. 362 : Robert, ii. 425, 426, 439, 462, 464, 465 ; Robert, of Jerviswood, iii. 50 Bakers, i. 313 ; ii. 304 Balance spring of watches, ii. 297 Baldrick, knight's, i. 307 Baldwin of Flanders, i. 97 Bale, Bishop, ii. 234 ; on Church corruptions, 76 ; on monastic libraries, 146 Balfour, Arthur J., iii. 437 Baliol, John, King of Scot land, i. 290, 291 ; Edward, 34° Ball, John, the agitator, i. 432-440 Ballads, ii. 481, iii. 63, 203 Balliol College, Oxford, i. 291, 336, 398, ii. 197, 251 Ballot, vote by, ii. 360, iii. 334- 376, 433 Baltimore, iii. 282 ; Lord, ii. 365 Bamford, Samuel, iii. 314, 378 Banbury, ii. 219, 455 Bancroft, George, ' History of America,' ii. 358, 361, iii. 241 ; Richard, Archbishop, on the jus divinum of Episcopacy, ii. 235 ; his character, 331 ; new Canons, 331 ; theory developed by Laud, 395 Bangor, i. 72 ; Bishops of : — Hoadlv, iii. 148 ; Sherlock, r6i Bangorian Controversy, ii\ 148 Bank of England, iii. 89, 393 Bankers, i. 343, 345, ii. 259, iii. 370 Banquets, Tudor, ii. 303 Banqueting House, White hall, ii. 476 Baptism, sign of cross in, ii. 220 ; regeneration, iii. 405, 409 Baptists, early (Anabaptists) ; and toleration, ii. 218, 355, 466 ; in Holland, 351 ; in London, 351 ; narrowness, 354, iii. 325 ; Declaration of Faith, ii. 355 ; and mis sions, 356 ; ridiculed, 467 ; persecuted, iii. 17 ; and John Bunyan, 44 ; history of, ii. 351, iii. no; and Trinitarian controversy, 156 ; Particular and Gene ral, ii. 35i; iii. 158 ; and foreign missions, 263. (Non conformists.) Barber-Surgeons Company, i. 309, ii. 58 Barbon, Praise-God, ii. 490 Barclay, Alexander, 'Shyppe of Fools,1 ii. 41 ; ' Eclogues,' 49 ; Robert, 506, iii. 15, 176 Barker, Robert, printer, ii. 323 BARLEY.] INDEX. pBERNICIA. Barley, i. 310 Barlow, Dean of Chester, ii. 320 Barnes, Dr. Robert, martyr, ii. 165 Barneveldt, John van O., ii. 324, 330 Barometers, ii. 297, 336 Baronies, old, i. 126 Barons, and William I., i. 136 ; Henry I., 154 ; Henry II. 166, 173, 183, 184, 219 ; John, 184, 219, 225 , Henry III., 250, 256, 257, 258, 260 ; Edward L, 275, 282 ; Ed ward II., 299, 302 ; oppres sion by, 158, 275, 276, 329, 331, ii. 51 ; and the Papacy, i. 286, 404 ; power broken by Wars of Roses, 184, 367, 443, ii. 22, 33 ; numerous retainers, i. 332, ii. 44, 51 Barrow, Isaac, iii. 25, 171 Barrowe, Henry, Separatist, ii. 226, 234, 238, 240, 244, 245, 24G, 3*50, 366 Barry, James, painter, iii. 224, 248 ; Spranger, actor, 248 Bartholomew fair, iii. 126 Basin, Thomas, Bishop of Lisieux, ii. 17 Basing House, ii. 472 Basle, ii. 41, 80, 82, 177 Bass Rock, iii. 49 ; Straits, 4*2 Basset, game, iii. 127 Bastille, the, of Paris, iii. 267 Bastwick, Robert, ii. 416, 438. Bates, Dr. William, iii. 24, 65 Bath, i. 31, iii. 133 ; Earl of, iii. 191 ; Order of the, i. 348, iii. 180 Bath and Wells, Bishops :— Barlow, ii. 149 ; Ken, iii. 57, 72 ; John Still, ii. 285 Battle Abbey, i. in, 125, 141 Battles, land and sea :— Al- buera, iii. 285 ; Alexandria, iii. 276 ; Arcot, iii. 193-195 ; Argaum, iii. 277 ; Aspern, iii. 284 ; Ashdown, ii. 44 ; Assandun, i. 90 ; Assaye, iii. 277 ; Auerstadt, hi. 281 ; Austerlitz, iii. 279 ; Azin court, ii. 14 ; Bannockburn, i. 301 ; Barnet, ii. 27 ; Bar-, rosa, iii. 285 ; Beachy Head, iii. 75 ; Blenheim, iii. 94 ; Boroughbridge, ii. 302 ; Bos worth, ii. 23, 32 ; Boyne, iii. 75 ; Brunanburh, i. 85 ; Bunker's Hill, iii. 226 ; Cam- buskenneth, i. 293 ; Cape St. Vincent, iii. 289 ; Chal- grove Field, ii. 455 ; Char- levoi, iii. 275 ; Charmouth, i. 43 ; " Chesapeake " and " Shannon " frigates, iii. 282 ; Crecy, i. 345 ; Cullo den, iii. 190 ; Dettingen, iii. 188 ; Dover, iii. 3 ; Dunbar, ii. 483 ; Dsmkirk, iii. 275 ; Essling, iii. 284 ; Evesham, i. 264 ; Falkirk, i. 293, iii. 190 ; Flodden, ii. 66 ; Fon- tenoy, iii. 188 ; Fulford, i. 109 ; Hastings, i. 112 ; Hedg- ley Moor, ii. 25 ; Hengs- down-hill, i. 43 ; Hexham, ii. 25 ; Hochstadt, iii. 276 ; Hohenlinden, iii. 276 ; Je- mappes, iii. 275 ; Jena, iii. 281 ; Lewes, i.260 ; Lexing ton, iii. 225 ; Ligny, iii. 286 ; Lincoln i. 236 ; Loano, iii. 275- ; London Hill, i. 297 ; Liitzen, ii. 329; Maldon, i. 87 ; Malplaquet, iii. 94 ; Marengo, iii. 276 ; Marston Moor, ii. 471 ; Methven, i. 296 ; Metz, iii. 416 ; Mincio, iii. 276 ; Mortimer's Cross, ii. 24 ; Naseby, ii. 471 ; Newbury, ii. 456 ; Nile, iii. 276, 289 ; North Foreland, iii. 3 ; Ockley, i. 43 ; Oude narde, iii. 94 ; Pavia, ii. 106 ; Plassey, iii. 193 ; Poictiers, i. 348 ; Portland, i. 43 ; Prague, ii. 381 ; Preston, ii. 475 ; Preston Pans, iii. 190 ; Quatre Bras, iii. 287 ; Qui- beron Bay, iii. 194 ; Ramilies, iii. 94 ; " Revenge," the, sunk, ii. 281 ; St. Alban's, ii. 17, 23, 34 ; Salamanca, iii. 285 ; Saratoga, iii. 230 ; Se dan, iii. 416 ; Sedgemoor, iii. 52 ; Sherstone, i. 90 ; Solferino, iii. 418 ; Solway Moss, ii. 67 ; Stamford. Bridge, 1. no ; Steinkirk, iii. 82 ; Tewkesbury, ii. 27 ; Towton, ii. 25, 33 ; Trafal gar, iii. 279, 289 ; Trichino- poly, iii. 193 ; Ulm, iii. 279 ; Verneuil, ii. 16 ; Vittoria, iii. 286 ; Waterloo, iii. 287, 370 ; Wagram, iii. 284 ; Wakefield, ii. 17, 24 ; Wan- dewash, iii. 193 ; Wilton, i. 44 ; Worcester, ii. 484 ; York Town, Virginia, iii. 230. (Wars.) Bavaria, iii. 94, 404 ' Baviad, the,' iii. 363 Baxter, Richard, ii. 293, 325, 462, 467, 490, 512, iii. 5, 14, 18, 24, 28, 38, 54, 56, 64, 158, 169 Bayeux Tapestry, i. 103, 108 Beacons and buoys, ii. 41 Beaconsfield (Benjamin Dis raeli), Earl of, iii. 107, 180, 236, 297, 324, 362, 380, 383, 384, 391, 414, 421, 431, 433-4 Beadles, church, iii. 170 Bear-baiting, i. 318, ii. 328, iii. 126 Beard, Dr., ii. 401 Beaton, Cardinal, ii. 67, 253 Beattie, James, iii. 42, 201 Beaufort, Cardinal, ii. 19 Beaumont, Francis, ii. 290 454 Beauval, ii. 132 Beaver hats, ii. 264 Bee, Priory of, i. 138, 148, 402 Beccaria, iii. 3*8, 37i Becket, Archbishop, i, 190-9, 217, 422, ii. 157-8. Beckford, * Vathek,' iii. 208, 258 ; Lord Mayor, 312 Bedford, iii. 43 ; Level, ii. 314 ; Duke of, Regent, brother to Henry V., 15, 18 Bedlam, iii. 126 Beds, i. 52, 315 Beer. (A le.)— Bees, i. 50 Beggars and Vagabonds, i, 367, 369, ii. 147, 309, 311, iii. 137 ; unknown in Ne therlands, ii. 264. (Poor.) Behaviour, instructions on, i. 307 Behmen, Jacob, ii. 77, 158 ; iii. 175 Belgee, The, i. 16 Belgium, ii. 265, iii. 286 Bell, Dr. Andrew, iii. 351 ; Henry, 296 Bellarmine, Cardinal, ii. 85, 328 Bellasys, Henry, M.P., ii. 432 Bellows Falls, ii. 371 Bells, i. 52, 129 Bench, the. (fudges?) Benedict College, Cambridge, i. 387 ; of Peterborough, i. 207 Benedictine monks, i. 77, So, 81, 23S, 243 Benefices, English, held by foreigners, i. 138, 245, 287, 405 ; the practice checked by Statutes of Provisors, 406 ; value, ii. 144, iii. 168, 173, 373 ; sold, i. 148, 245, ii. 170. (Firstfruits.) Benevolences, extorted by Edward IV., ii. 28; by Henry VII., 42 ; by James I., 334 ; by Charles I., 384. (Forced Loans?) Bengal, iii. 206, 411 Bentham, Jeremy, i. 272, ii, 509, 510, iii. 165, 362, 370, 376 Bentinck, Duke of Portland, iii. 80 ; Lord George, 418 Bentivoglio, Cardinal, ii. 210 Bentley, Dr. Richard, iii. 113, 164, 186, 257, 280 Beowulf's poem, i. 55 Beresford family, iii. 299, 344 Berkeley, Bishop of Cloyne, ii- 365. 5io, iii. 163, 165, 178, 302, 306, 371 ; Sir WiUiam, 220 ; Judge, ii. 420, 441 ; Castle, i. 303 Berkhampstead, i. 117 Berkshire, i. 265, ii. 434 Berlin, iii. 189, 379 ; the De crees, 281 Bermudas, the, iii. 166 Bernadotte, King of Sweden, iii. 283 Bernicia, i. 40 BERRIDGE.] Berridge, Rev. John, iii. 174 ' Ber row's Worcester Journal,' iii- 155 Berwick, i. 291, 292, 294, 300, 301 Besant, Sir Walter, iii. 52, 146 Bessbotough Irish Commis sion, iii. 389 Bessemer, Sir H., iii. 367, 445 Bethlehem hospital, iii. 126 Bets, absurd, iii. 127 Betterton, Thomas, actor, ii. 299, iii. 249 Bewick, Thomas, iii. 248 Beza, Theodore, ii. 229 Bible, translations, by Breda, i. 56, 139 ; the Vulgate, 231, 417, ii. 80, 91, 100 ; division into chapters, i. 231, and into verses, ii. 230 ; Hebrew MSS., i. 249 ; Wy- cliffe's translation, 416 ; supreme authority asserted by Lollards, 425 ; welcomed by the people, 429 ; per petuated the old vocabu lary, 419 ; need for new translation, ii. 91 ; Tyn dale's (g.v.) ; other editions, 97, 103 ; the standard set up, 99 ; Matthew's, 100 ; Coverdale's, 100 ; Great Bible, 101 ; ordered to be placed in cfcurches, 102 ; editions, 230 ; Genevan, 101, 229, 23b, 321, 322 ; permitted to, be read, 164, 166 ; ar ranged for public reading, 181 ; burned, 196 ; the 'Bishops', 239; the first printed in Scotland, 230 ; its teachings strained and perverted, 319 ; Authorized Version, i. 419 ; ii. 321-323 , action of Long Parliament, 322 ; Revised Version, 322 ; monopoly to print, 323 r peculiar editions, 323 ; mar ginal references, 355 ; Wal ton's Polyglot, 466, 508 ; scarcity, eighteenthcentury, Hi. 2G1 "Bible of the Constitution," i. 229 Bickerstaff, Isaac, ii. 219, 371, iii. 117 Bidding prayers, ii. 166 Biddle John, ii. 505 Bill of Rights, i. 229, ii. 491, iii. 61, 85 Billeting of troops, ii. 386, 389, 4°9 Bills, three readings, i. 388 ; of Mortality, ii. 302, iii. 30 Bilney, Thomas, reformer, ii. «95Biology, 111, 259 Birde, William, ii. 300 Birdwood, Sir George, ii. 273 Birkbeck, Dr. George, iii. 368 Birmingham, i. 318. »¦ T72, iii. 139, 2o6> 246* 3°9i 383 INDEX. Birth-rate, iii. 374, 444 Births and deaths, registra tion of, iii. 358 Bishoprics, early, i. 67 ; di vided by Archbishop Theo dore, 69 ; later areas, 82 ; created by Henry VIII., ii. 144 ; charges on, 170, 327 ; revenues appropriated by monarchs, i. 148, 153, ii. 217 ; of Bristol, 144 ; Chester, 144 ; Chichester, i. 83 ; Coventry, and Lichfield, ii. 196 ; Elm- ham, i. 67, 83 ; Gloucester, ii. 144 ; Jerusalem, iii. 405 ; Manchester, 349 ; Peter borough, ii. 144 ; Ramsbury, i. 83 ; Ripon, iii. 349 ; Salis bury, i. 83 ; Selsey, 83 ; Sherborne, 46, 56, 83 ; Thet- ford, 67 ; Westminster, ii. 144 Bishops, how appointed, i.83, ii. 128, iii. 349 ; investiture, i- 83, 105, 153, 189; courts (Ecclesiastical) ; as tem poral peers, 392 ; ii. 143, 446 ; suffragan, 144 ; as spoliators, 148 ; wives, style of address, 213 ; and pres byters, 235 ; "Tulchan," 333 : withdraw from Parlia ment, 447 ; restored, iii. 14 ; excessive powers, 14 ; op posed to Reform, 332, 351, 356 ; their wealth, 344, 349 ' Bishops' Book,' the, 1537, ii. 156 Bittern, the, iii. 143 Black Art, ii. 293 1 Black Book,' iii. 336 ; of the Monasteries, ii. 141 Black Death, i. 324, 345, 352- 354, ii. 57 ; Friars, i. 241' iii. 130 ; Hole, Calcutta, iii. 423 ; letter books, ii. 230 ; Rubric, 184 Blackheath, i. 438, 439, ii. 20 Blackley's tubular boilers, iii. 246 Blackstone, Sir W., i. 70, 169, 294, 487, iii. 48, 139, 255, Blair, Dr. Hugh, iii. 171, 249 Blake, Admiral, ii. 261, 272, 344. 498, 499, Soo, iii. 2, 13 ; William, painter, iii. 32 Blank verse, ii. 284, 286. (Poetry?) " Bkmketeers," iii. 3l8 Blasphemy laws, ii. 465, 488, iii. 68-9 Bleeding, ii. 58, iii. 132 Blenheim palace, iii. 93 Blight, i. 352 Blind alphabet, iii. 368 ; Harry the minstrel, i. 292 Blockades. (Sieges.) Bluod, circulation of, ii. 297 Bloody Assize, iii. 53 ; Statute, 1539, ii. 160 Bloomfield Robert, poet, iii. 3*5, 36i 455 [BOOKS. Blotting-paper, iii. 292 Blount Charles, iii. 160 Bliicher, Marshal, iii. 286 Blue Laws of Newhaven, al leged, ii. 371 " Blue Stockings," iii. 362 Blunt, J. H., ii. 235 Boadicea, Queen, i. 21 Board of Trade, iii. 90, 340, 442 Boar, wild, i. 50 Boar's head procession, i. 20 Boards of Health, iii. 374 Boccaccio's 'Decameron,' i. 352, 421, ii. 56, 292 Bocking, ii. 242, 477 Bocland, i. 65 Bodleian Library, i. 58, 358, ii. 147, 2S3, 327, 397 Boehm. (Bekmen.) Bohemia, i. 414, ii. 78, 115, 329, 347, 381, 500 Bohim, Humphrey de,i. 76,282 Boiling alive, ii. 56 ; water, permanent temperature of, ii. 297 Boleyn, Queen Anne, ii. 109, 114, 123, 126, 129, 138, 281 Bolingbroke village, ii. 2 ; Viscount, iii. 94, 107, no, 114, 123, 154, 160, 183, 252 Bolton, i. 78 ; Abbey, i. 403 ; Robert, ii. 397 " Bomba," King, iii. 379 Bombardment. (Stormi?ig.) Bombast, origin of word, ii. 305 Bombazines, ii. 264 Bombs, i. 343 Bonaparte, Jerome, iii. 283 ; Joseph, 283 ; Louis, 283 (Napoleon.) Bond of Association, 1584, ii. 271 ; Benjamin, iii. 396 Bondage, system of, in Scot land, iii. 243 Bondsmen in monasteries, ii. 89 Bonner, Bishop. (Londoji.) ' Book of Advertisements,1 1565, ii. 223; 'of Discip line,' 227, 254 ; ' of Sports,' 328 Book of Common Prayer, rudimentary form, ii. 166 ; the first, 180 ; a compila tion and a compromise, 180, iii. 406 ; resisted, ii. 182 ; revised, 183 ; the second, 184, 396 ; majestic style, 157, 180 ; burned, 196 ; re vived under Elizabeth, 204 ; Communion Service, 173, 183, 197 ; another com promise, 206 ; the standard of belief and ritual, 207 ; Gunpowder Plot Service, 332 ; called in, 470 ; Service for Charles I., 476, iii. 78 ; revision of 1661, 18-23 ; re vision of 1689, 65 ; contra dictions in, 414 Books, illuminated, i. 53, 55, BOOKSELLERS.] INDEX. [BULWER. 162, 321 ; scarcity in Middle Ages, 402;.high prices, ii. 52 ; lost and neglected in mo nastic libraries, 146 ; sedi tious, 114, 213, 234, iii. 98 ; chained in churches, ii. 195, 267 ; in Roman type, 230 ; dedications, 265 ; four great, 273 ; of Nature, Providence, and Revelation, 277 ; wrong ly printed, 295 ; written in prison, 343, 403, iii. 43, 99 ; singular titles, ii. 468 ; pub lished by subscription, 508 ; praised, but not read, iii. 162 ; forbidden to be lent, 311. (Literature. Press.) Booksellers, few in 1565, ii. 224 Boot, the, torture of, iii. 49 Borde, Dr. Andrew, ii. 59 Bordeaux, i, 350, 351 Border, the Scottish, ii. 399 ; feuds, 66, 104, 167 Borgias, the, ii. 76 Boroughs, Saxon, i. 66 ; Nor man, 165, 166 ; English, 340, 365 ; Parliamentary repre sentatives, 380 ; elections in, ii. 4 ; new, created, 172, iii. 299,; bought and sold, 286, 302, ; rotten, ii. 491, iii. 320, 33o, 333 ; Charters revoked, 50, 55 ; franchise extended, 333-4. 381 ; magistrates in, 343 ; police in, 372 Boscawen, Admiral, iii. 194 Bosquet, General, ii. 14 Boston, Lincolnshire, i. 276, 309, ii. 363 ; Mass., 362-3, iii. 158, 222, 225, 367 Boswell, James, iii. 161, 250 Botany Bay, iii. 240, 319, 398 Botetourt, Governor of Vir ginia, iii. 241 Bothwell, Earl of, ii. 256 Boulton and Watt, iii. 296 Bourbon, Constable de, ii. 108 ; House of, iii. 214, 286 Bourchier, Elizabeth, Crom well's wife, iii. 5, 39 Bow, church, i. 164, 320 ; bridge, 326 Bowls, ii. 328 Bow-street runners, iii. 136, 372 Bowyers, ii. 51 Boy-Bishop, game, i. 319 Boyce, William, composer, ii. 300, iii. 115 Boyer, Abel, ' Historical Re gister,' iii.. 184 Boyle, Hon. Robert, ii. 297, 364, iii. 44, 366 ; Lectures, 67 Boyse,t Samuel, iii. 113 Brabant, i. 107, 205, 310 Bracton, i. 176, ii. 376 Bradbury, Rev. Thomas, iii. 32, 108-110, 151 Bradford, John, H. 186, 194 ; William, ii. 353, 358 ; on Avon, i. 326 Bradlaugh, Charles, iii. 212 Bradley, James, \astronomer, i. 291 Bradshaw, Sergeant, ii. 476, 479, 495, iii- J3 Bradstreet, Simon, ii. 362 Brady, Dr. Maziere, ii. 276 Brainerd, David, ii. 364, iii. 264 Braintree Church-Rate case, iii, 402 Branding the face, ii. 8, 89, 309, 412, 415 Brandt's 'Shyppeof Fools,' 11. 41 Bray, Dr. Thomas, iu. 173 : Vicar of, ii. 209 Brazil, ii. 39, iii. 2 Bread, i. 52, 313, 375, "• 3°4 > Assize of, i. 375, ii. 304 Breda, ii. 482, iii. 9 Brest, iii. 75, 194, 279 Bretwalda, pretended, i. 41 Breviary, the, ii. 180 Brewing, i. 313. (Ale.) Brewster, Sir David, iii. 365, 367 ; William, ii. 352, 355, 358, 359 Bribes and fees, 1. 178, 11. 33", 347, 410, iii. 102, 180-2, 201, 206, 208, 333 Brickmaking, i. 51, ii. 49 Bridewell hospital, ii. 172 ; prison, 242 Bridge, William, ii. 464, iii. Bridges, 1. 326 ; 11. 313 Bridgewater, ii. 472, Hi. 52 ; Duke of, iii. 245 Bright, John, iii. 328, 380, 384, 386 Brighton, ii. 484, iii. 133 Brindley, James, canals, iii. 245 Bristol, i. 62, 98, 167, 216, 303, 3o8, 310, 353, 370, ii. 40, 256, 350, 452, 455. 472, 484, iii. 99, 141, 296, 298, 328 ; bishopric, ii. 144 ; Bishops :— Butler, iii. 167 ; Newton, 168 ; Trelawney, 57 Britain, early history, i. 10 ; etymology of the word, 14 ; classical allusions, 15, 23, 24; people of, 17, 23 ; Romans in, 20-35 : ramparts in North, 23, 24 ; drainage works, iii. 153 ; mercenary troops, i. 25 ; the Romans depart, 26 ; corn trade with, 34 ; trees, 34 ; arrival of Saxons, 35. (England.) British Columbia, iii. 241 British mounds, i. 14 ; camps, 15 ; tribes, 16 ; remains, 18, 19 ; oysters, 24 ; employed as mercenaries, 25 ; coins, 20, 26 ; strife and rivalry, 35 ; blended with Saxons, 35 ; Church, alleged, 70, 71 British Museum, 1. 199, 225, 45*3 417, ii. 98, 102, 203, 435, iii. 133, 171, 313, 338 Brittany, i. 96, 172, 215, 310 Broad Church party, iii. 402 Broadcloth, ii. 304 Broadwood, John, ii. 301 Bronze, i. 14, 15 Brooke, Henry, Hi. 258 ; Lord ii. 432 ; Stopford, i. 57 Brooks, T., ii. 468 Brown, Alexander, ' Genesis of United States,' ii. 349, 361 ; " Capability," iii. 201 ; George, poet, ii. 344 ; Dr. Thomas, iii. 362 Browne, Robert, ii. 243, 244, 355 ; Sir Thomas, ' Religio Medici,', 293, 151 ; William, iii. 113 Brownists, ii. 221, 243, 249. (Independents.) Bruce, Robert, King of Scot land, i. 290, 295, 296, 298, 340 ; David, i. 340 ; James, traveller, iii. 39S Bruges, i. 370, 408, ii. 53 Brunswick, Duke of, iii. 273 Brussels, ii. 210, iii. 331 Bubble Companies, iii. 128 Bubo-Plague, i. 352 Buccaneers. (Piracy?) Bucer, Martin, ii. 170, 180, 183, 186, 196 Buch, Capital de, i. 349 Buchan, Dr. William, Hi. 132 Buchanan, George, ii. 316, 319, 343, 477 Buckhurst, Lord, ii. 278, 284 Buckingham, George Villiers, Duke of, ii. 317, 343, 347, 375-6, 379, 383, 3S6, 390-1, 398 ; the second Duke of, iii. 36 ; his ' Rehearsal,' 36 ; and the Cabal, 38 ; opinion of Charles II. , 51 ; Edward Stafford, Duke of, ii. 68 Buckingham palace stables, cost of, iii. 353 Buckingham - street water- gate, ii. 301 Buckland, Dean of West minster, geologist, iii. 259 Buckle, H. T., i. 304, ii. 454, 466, 511, iii. 165, 200, 256, 266, 388 Buckles, i. 309 Buffoons, i. 308 Bugenhagen, John, ii. 87 Buildings, destruction of, ii. i49> 454, 455 Bulgaria, iii. 421 Bull, Dr. John, ii. 300 Bull-baiting, i. 318, ii. 328, iii. 126 Bullinger, Henry, Swiss Re former, ii. 164, 176, 204, 242 Bullion, i. 312 ; Report, 1810, iii. 37o Bulls. (Papal) Bulwer, John, ' Artificial Changeling,' ii. 305 BUNHILL-FIELDS.] INDEX. Bunhill-fields, iii. 31 Bunyan, John, i, 434, ii. 165, I95, 343, 300, 452, iii. 29, 41, , 43-4, 56 Buoys and beacons, ii. 41 Burdett, Sir F., ii. 480, iii. 330 Bureaucracy. (Officialism?) Burgess, Daniel, ii. 468, iii. -292 Burgesses, Parliamentai-y, i. 278, 379 " ii- 3- (Boroughs. Electors?) Burghers and Anti-Burghers, iii. 403 Burghley, Lord, ii. 202-3, 214, 228, 243-4, 252, 266, 274, 278 ; House, 301 Burgoyne, General, iii. 230 Burgundians and Orleanists, ii- 13 Burgundy, i. 309, 348, ii. 106 Burial laws, iii. 326, 373 Burke, Edmund, i. 55, 62, 164, 209, ii. 129, 320, 350, 380, 420, 491, Hi. 62, 75-6, 98-9, 148, 155, 161-5, 184, 187, 202-280, 298-9, 322, 332, 357, 402 Burlesques, iii. 274 ; tracts, ii- 37i, 435 Burnet, Thomas, iii. 45 ; Gil bert, Bishop of Salisbury, H. 209, 279, iii. 50 ; on Authorized Version, ii. 322 ; on Cromwell,5o5; onChurch leases, iii. 14 ; on Sheldon, 22 ; on clerical subscription, 23 ; on the clergy, 25, 163 ; on Sir Isaac Newton, 44; on ' Lilliburlero,' 60 ; on William III., 63, 84; on Nonjurors, 73 ; on the War Supply, 82 ; on Convoca tion, 103 ; and Thomas Bradbury, 108 Burney, Charles, ii. 301 ; Frances, iii. 204, 362 Burnham Beeches, iii, 141 Burning, death by, ii. 6, 10, 133, 154, 165, 194-199, 249 Burns, Robert, poet, i. 292, Hi. 253 ; William, mission ary, 264 Burr, Aaron, ii. 398, iii. 221 Burroughs, Jeremiah, ii. 397, 464 Burton, Henry, ii. 416, 438 ; John Hill, i. 289 ; Sir Richard, iii. 399 ; Robert, 'Anatomy,' i. 160; ii. 326, iii. 164, 251 Bury St. Edmund's, i. 77, 190, 224, ii. 74, 196, 249, 311 Busby, Dr. Richard, iii. 41 Bushel's case, freedom of jury, i. 186, iii. 47 Busher, Leonard, ii. 355 Bute, Earl of, iii. 208 Butler, Samuel, ' Hudibras, ii. 54, 219, 306, 437, 454. 499, 512, iii. 113, 170 Butler clan in Ireland, ii. 274 Butts, Dr. William, ii. 59 Buxton, iii. 133 ; Sir T. F., iii. 368 Byng, Admiral, iii. 198 Byrom, John, iii. 164 Byron, Lord, iii. 114, 166 209, 287, 327, 357, 3<5i Byzantine Empire over thrown, ii. 79 Cabal, the Army, iii. 6 ; Ministry, Hi. 38, 45, 232 Cabbages, i. 311 Cabinet, the, i. 177, iii. 38, 14-4, 184 Cabinets : — Aberdeen, iii. 417, 420 ; Addington, iii. 277-8 ; AU-the-Hacks, iii. 281 ; All- the-Talents, Hi. 280 ; Bath, Earl of, iii. ig2 ; Beacons field, iii. 434 ; Broad-bottom, iii. 192 ; Bute, Hi. 208 ; Cabal, Hi. 38, 45 ; Canning, iii. 310, 323 ; Chatham, iii, 192, 219 ; Coalition of 1783, Hi. 201 ; Derby, iii. 417, 426, 431 ; Devonshire, iii. 198 ; Disraeli, iii. 431, 433-4 ; Grafton, iii, 213 ; Gladstone, Hi. 431, 435-6, 438-9 ; Gren ville, iii. 280, 310 ; Grey, iii. 332 ; Liverpool, iii. 281, 316, 323 ; Melbourne, iii. 346^7 ; Newcastle, iii. 192 ; North, iii. 201, 221, 232 ; Palmer ston, iii. 420, 426, 431 ; Peel, iii. 347-392 ; Pelham, iii. 192 ; Perceval, iii. 281 ; Pitt, iii. 234, 277-8, 280 ; Portland (Coalition), iii. 233, 281 ; Rockingham, iii. 223 ; Rose- bery, iii. 439 ; Russell, iii. 393, 43i ; Salisbury, iii. 436, 439 ; Short-lived, iii. 192 ; Walpole's, iii. 178 ; Welling ton, iii. 324, 327 Cabot, John and Sebastian, ii. 39, 40, 41 Cabs, Hi. 373. (Coaches.) Cade's Rebellion, i. 170, ii. 20 Cadiz, ii. 268, iii. 4 Casdmon, the poet, i. 56, iii. 4° Caen, i. 96, 343 CSesar, Sir C, Master of Rolls, ii. 410 Cairo, i. 250 Caius College, Cambridge, i. 337, ii. 58 Cajetan, Cardinal, ii. 82, 299 Calais, i. 344, 349, ii- *4, l8, 28, 104, 200, 412 Calamy, Dr. Edmund, iii. 24, 152, 157-8 Calculus, the, 111. 366 Calcutta, Hi. 195, 385, 423 ' Bishop Heber, 264 Caledonii, the, i. 25, 36 Calendar, the, i. 358, ii. 181, Hi. 189 Calendars of the Treasury, i. 8 ; of State Papers (q.v?) Calhoun, John C, iii. 217 457 [CANON LAW. Calicoes, iii. 179 California, ii. 260, iii. 400 Calves'-head Club, iii. 125 Calvin, John, ii. 174-8, 184, 189, 221, 229, 284 Calvinism of Church of Eng land, ii. 186, 206, 394 ; estab lished in Scotland, 254 ; of Presbyterians, 470 ; essence and central principle, 177 ; and political freedom, 178, 213 ; in Holland, 329, 330 ; and Arminianism an old dispute, 75, 178, iii. 157, 174 ; ultra, or hyper, ii. 177, iii. 158 Calvinistic Methodists, iii. 176 Cambridge, i. 28, ii. 8o, 95, iii. 271 ;- University, i. 244, 336, 337, ii. 183, 45*6, 507, iii. 56, 369 " Cambridge (U.S.A.) Plat form" of 1648, ii. 368 Cambridgeshire, i. 123, 438 Camden, William, ii. 147, 209, 280, 283 ; Society, i. 261, 305, 317, ii- 143, 377 Camlet, Hi. 179 Camoens, and the 'Lusiad,' ii. 39, 292 Campbell, Douglas, 'Puritan in Holland,' &c, ii. 361 ; Lord Chancellor, on trial of Fisher and More, 134 ; on Statute of Frauds and Per juries, iii. 48 ; on Jeffreys, 53 ; Thomas, poet, 253, 357, 369. 425 Campeggio, Cardinal, ii. in, 114 Campion, Edward, ii. 251 ; Thomas, 283 Canada, iii. 44 ; French in, 196 ; acquired by England, 197, 231 ; representative government conceded, 241 ; invaded by America, 282 ; boundary line, 283 ; emi gration to, 395 ; Rebellion of 1837, 399 ; the Dominion formed, 399 ; Clergy Re serves, 400 ; Fenian raids, 429 ; fisheries dispute, 429 Canals, Hi. 245, 296 Canary Company, ii. 272 ; Islands, 38, iii.. 4 Candles, i. 315, ii. 340 Canes, walking, iii. 129, 132 Canne, John, ii. 355 Canning, George, ii. 353, Hi. 107, 277, 303, 323, 326 ; Vis count, 424-5 Cannock Wood, i. 331 Cannon, i. 343, ii. 33, 269, iii. 285, 367 Canon law, i. 188, 272, 284 ; origin, 139, 174 ; enforced, 141 ; of Fourth Lateran Council, 218 ; conflicts with civil law, 393, ii. 115 ; abro gated, 166 ; existing, 174 ; Cranmer's code, 186;. Ban- CANONS.] INDEX. [CHANCELLORS. croft's, 331 ; only binding in part on laity, 331 Canons of 1603-4, "• 2°6, 331 '• of 1640, 431, 440 ; for Scot land, 425 ; Royal Commis sion to revise, iii. 65 Cant, Andrew, ii. 426 Canterbury, i. 28, 43, 69, 117, 164, 197J 244, 370, ii. 172, 196, 264, iii. 55 ; Colony, New Zealand, ii. 367 ; pil grims, i. 199, 422. (Chaucer.) Canterbury, Abps. of : Abbot, ii. 385 ; -iElphege, i. 88 ; JEthelm, i. 85 ; Anselm, i. 77, 139, 148, 152-3, 163, 201 ; Arundel, 1. 412, 424, ii. 6, 9 ; Augustine, i. 68-71 ; Bald win, i. 336 ; Bancroft, ii. 235, 33o-i, 385, 395 ; Becket, i. 192-200 ; Bradwardine, i. 336, 353 ; Chicheley, i. 175, ii- 9, I0 : Cornwallis, iii. 168 ; Cranmer, ii. 101, 122-199, 217, 235, 394 ; Dun- stan, i. 79, 86, 201 ; Grindal, ii. 230 ; Howley, iii. 327, 350-1 ; Hubert, i. 213, 217, 336 ; Islip, i. 337 ; Kemp, ii. 22 ; Robert Kilwardby, i. 268 ; Lanfranc, i. 77, 83, 138, 142, 145, 148, 202 ; Langton, i. 175, 184, 217, 223-232, 238, 244 ; Laud, ii. 207, 235, 329, 332, 378-401, 411-3, 421, 432, 442 ; Morton, ii. 74, 139 ; Parker, i. 48, ii. 147, 213-229, 415 ; Peckham, i. 284 ; Pole, ii. 199 ; Ed mund Rich, i. 336 ; Robert of Jumieges, 1. 94 ; Sancroft, iii- 54> 57, 71 ; Seeker, iii. 157, 163 ; Sheldon, iii. 19, 22, 29 ; Stigand, i. 84, 99, 101, 119, 138 ; Stratford, i. 233, 353 ; Sudbury, i. 439 ; Sumner, Hi. 409 ; Tait, iii. 414 ; Tenison, iii. 66-7, 97, 173 ; Theobald, i. 62, 160, 190, 336 ; Theodore, i. 69, 82 ; Tillotson, ii. 279, Hi. 66-7, 71, 96 ; Wake, iii. 108 ; Warham, ii. 80, 89, 106, 139 ; Whitgift, ii. 207, 219, 220, 225, 231, 233, 236, 245-6 ; Winchelsey, i. 233, 283-6 Cantwell,the hypocrite, ii. 498 Cape Breton, ii. 352 ; Cod Harbour, 356 ; de Verd , Islands, 39 ; Horn, 260 ; of Good Hope, 39, 272, Hi. 263, 277, 400, 413 Capital offences, numerous, iii. 136, 252, 316 Capital and labour disputes, iii- 339-342 Capitation tax, i. 280, 436, ii. 5 Captives, ransom of, ii. 487 Caractacus, i. 21 Carausius, i. 26 Caravans from the East, i. 352 Cardinal's title of " Emi nence," ii. 69 Cards and dice, i. 309, 317, ii. 171, 306. (Gambling.) Carew, Sir Philip, ii. 274 ; Papers, 274 Carey, Henry, composer, ii. 300 ; William, missionary, iii. 264 Caricature, i. 163, 399, 435, iii. 118, 274, 282, 331 Carisbrooke Castle, ii. 474 Carlisle, i. 28, 150, 293, 294, 296, 298, ii. 256, 484. iii. 382 ; Bishop Rainbow, 28 Carlyle, Thomas, i. 27, 90, 127, 190, ii. 70, 256, 284, 286, 360, 396. 418, 428, 436, 437, 481, 504, iii. 136, 187, 219, 251, 327, 352, 358, 363, 37o, 382, 387, 427 Carmarthen, ii. 197 Carmelite Friars, i. 241 Carnarvon, i. 270 Carnot, Sardi, iii. 293 Carolinas, the, ii., 262, 345. 357, 365, iii- 55, 216-7 Caroline of Anspach, Queen of George IL, iii. 119, 167, 178 ; of Brunswick, Queen of George IV., 322 Carpets, ii. 303, iii. 129 Carr, Robert, Earl of Somer set, ii. 317, 342 Carrying trade in English ships, ii. 40. (Mercantile.) Carte, Thomas, iii. 72, 255 Carteret. (Granville.) Carthagena, ii. 261 Carthaginians, i. 16, ii. 352 Carthusians, i. 77, 80, 238, ii. 27, 132 Cartier, Jacques, ii. 41, 357 Cartwright, Thomas, ii. 215, 224-7 ; Dr. Edmund, power- loom, iii. 245 Carucage, i. 220 Carver, John, ii. 358 Caryl, Joseph, iii. 24 Cash payments suspended, 1797-1810, iii. 291 Cashel, i. 204, 205, ii. 46 Cassiterides, the, i. 15 Castell, Dr. Edmond ' Lexi con,' ii. 508 Castile, i. 241, 350, 443 Castle Acre, i. 286 ; Howard, iii. 93 ; Rising, i. 341 Castlereagh, Lord, Hi. 302, 323 Castles, i. 120, 121, 169 Cathari, the, i. 424, ii. 78, 133 Catechism, ii. 174, 235, iii. 406 ; 'Larger' and 'Shorter,' ii. 47o Cathedrals, priories, i. 77 ; . buildings, 163, 321 ; archi tectural styles, 321 ; de spoiled, ii. 149 ; uses of, iii. 371 Catherine, of Braganza, Queen of Charles II., iii. 458 34 ; of France, Queen of Henry V., ii. 14, 15 ; de" Medici, 277 Catholic Apostolic Church, iii. 352 Catholic Emancipation, pro mised, iii. 300, but with held, 300, 303, 326 ; extorted, with exceptions, 327-8 Catholic League, ii. 329, 378, 381 Catholics, persecution of, u. 331. (Martyrs.) Cattle, i. 324, iii. 143 Cavalier party, ii. 365, 436, 452 ; emigration to Virginia, iii. 215 Cave of Mammon, Spenser's, i. 145 Cavendish, GeGrge, Wolsey's biographer, ii. 113, 116, 117 ; Thomas, ii. 280 ; Lord Frederick, murdered, iii. 436 Cawnpur, Hi. 423-4 Caxton, William, ii. 53 Cecil, Sir Robert, ii. 231, 316 ; Rev. R., Hi. 174 ; William. (Burghley?) " Cecil's Fast," ii. 182 Celibacy of clergy, i. 80, 139, 394, 427, H. 123, 160, 182, 208, 213 Celtas, the, i. 16, 19, 203 Celtic population, i. 35 Censorship. (Pnss.) Census, of 1801, iii. 131, 303 ; of 1851, 410 ; of 1891, 444*; Centralization, i. 372, iii. 338, 372,399- (Official.) Cervantes, i. 348, 381, ii. 234, 343, iii- 251 Chadwick, Edwin, iii. 373 Chain-mail, i. 307 Chained books in churches, ii. 267 Chalmers, Dr. Thomas, iii. 352, 302, 405 Chambers, Richard, alder man, H. ,420; W. and R., publications, iii. 438 ; Ephraim, 258 ; ' Journal,' 370 Champlain, Samuel de, ii. 41, 357 Chancellors and Lord Keepers :— Audley ii. 130 ; Bacon, Lord (q.v.) ; Bacon, Sir N., iii. 105 ; Brougham, Hi. 347 ; Camden, iii. 210, 219 ; Campbell, ii. 134, iii. 53. 56 ; Clare, iii. 296 ; Clarendon, iii. 28-37 ; Cow per, iii. 101, 108 ; Egerton, ii. 231, 305 ; Eldon, iii. 244, 260, 325 ; Erskine, iii. 211, 319, 3T2 ; Finch, ii. 411, 429, 439; Gerrard, ii. 274; Hardwicke, ii. 331 ; Hatton, ii. 214, 278 : Jeffreys, iii. 53, 60 ; Kemp, ii. 22 ; Lough borough, iii. 222, 304; CHANCE-MEDLEY.] INDEX. [CHURCH (of England). Lyndhurst, iii. 326 ; Mac clesfield, iii. 128 ; Markham, ii. 449 ; More, ii. 113, 125 ; Richard of Bury, i. 402 ; Thurlow, iii. 222, 242, 244, 325, 336 ; Waynflete, i. 335 ; William of Wykeham, i. 335 ; Williams, ii. 347, 377, 396 ; Wolsey (g.v.) Chance-medley, ii. 385 Channel Islands, i. 215 Channing, Dr. W. E., iii. 69 Chantries, i. 326, ii. 145, 172 Chaplains, private, iii. 168, 176 Chapman, George, poet, ii. 286, 287, 290, 344, 349 Chapmen and pedlars, i. 308 Chapter House, Westminster, i. 380 ; Papers, ii. 157 Charcoal, i. 32, 310 Charibert, King of Paris, i. 69 Charities, abuse of, ii. 273, 312, 341 Charity Commission, iii. 355 ; false, i. 247, 367, ii. 313 ; schools, iii. 108, 169, 173, 261, 355 Charlemagne, i. 57, 74, 279 Charles I., King of England, H- 334. 338, 340, 344- 362, 372-477, iii- 73, 125, 313 ; li ii. 481-4, 499, iii. 7-51, 84, 215 Charles I., of Spain, ii. 67 ; II., 271, iii. 87 Charles IV., Emperor of Ger many, i. 349, 4*4 : v-i ii- 68, 83. 103, 133, 190, 255, 262 ; VI., iii. 188 Charles V. of France, i. 303, 341, 351, 443 ; VI., ii. 13, 14. 16 ; X., iii. 331 ; the Simple, i- 95 Charies XII. of Sweden, i. 209 Charles, Rev. Thomas, iii. 176 Charles Edward, the Preten der, ii. 154, iii. 190-1 Charles Emmanuel II., of Savoy, ii. 500 Charles Louis of Bavaria, iii. 379 .. , Charlestown, Mass., 11. 362 Charlotte, Princess, daughter of George IV., ii. 344 Charlotte Sophia of Mecklen- burg-Strelitz, Queen of George III., iii. 204, 208 Charms and simples, i. 53, 309. 356, ii. 59. iii- 261 Charnock, Stephen, iii. 24, 171 Charterhouse, London, 1. 77, 353, ii- 132, iii- 45 Charters, to London, 1. 119; by Henry I., i. 151, lfi6 ; II., 173, 223 ; John, 178, 219- 234, iii. 65 ; Henry III., i. 236,253,254,255, 256; Ed ward I., 282 ; Edward III., 340 ; infringed, ii. 45 ; ap pealed to, 376, 388, 389, 491 ; sealed, not signed, i. 274 ; civic, 165, 166, 340, 365 (Boroughs) ; revoked, iii- 50, 55 Chartists, the, iii. 313, 376-381 Chartres, i. 160, 349, ii. 17 Chartreuse, ii. 132 Charts, early, ii. 40 Chase, the, i. 92, 130-132, ii. 56. (Game?) Chatham, William Pitt, Earl of, i. 229, 231, ii. 181, iii. 184, 191-4, 207, 219, 222, 225, 230, 270, 272 Chatterton, Thomas, poet, ii. 372, iii. 257 Chaucer, Geoffrey, i. 420 ; ii. 52, 53> 56, 234 ; not the earliest English poet, i. 420 ; compared to Shak spere, 421, and Boccaccio, 421 ; Frenchinfluenceupon, 421 ; Tennyson upon, 421 ; ' Canterbury Tales,' 199, 399, 421, 422 ; his ' Per soun,' 401 ; oaths used by his characters, 425 ; com pared with Langland, 434 ; the Pardoner, 400, ii. 81 ; and Primers, 166 ; poetry silent after his death, 283 ; Addison on, iii. 115 Chauvinism, iii. 286 Cheapside, ii. 21 Chelsea, ii. 125 ; hospital, iii. 84 Cheltenham, iii. 133 Chemistry, i. 358, iii. 143, 258 " Chesapeake " and " Shan non " sea-fight, iii. 282 Cheshunt, iii. 5 ; college, 176 Chess, i. 358 Chester, i. 27, 28, 123, 125, 167, 445 ; bishopric, ii. 144 ; Bishops : — Pearson, iii. 407 ; Brian Walton, ii. 466, 508 ; Wilkins, iii. 28, 66 Chesterfield, Lord, Hi. 127, 168, 184, 262, 265, 297 Chichester, i. 28, 196 ; bishop ric, 83 ; Bishops :— Andrews, ii. 327 ; Kemp, 22 ; Lake, iii. 57 ; Montague, ii. 379 ; Patrick, 507, iii. 96, 151 ; Pecock, ii. 10 ; grammar- school, 341 Chief Justices :— Camden, iii. 210 ; Carew, ii. 411 ; Cock burn, iii. 429 ; Coke, ii. 192, 205, 337-9, 341-6, 388-9, 408, iii. 317 ; EUenborough, iii. 313-4 ; Fortescue, ii. 33 ; Gascoigne, ii. 12 ; Hale, ii. 293, 462, 487, 491, iii. 10, 66 ; Heath, ii. 411 ; Holt, Hi. 211 ; Hyde, ii. 389, 406 ; Jeffreys, iii. 52 ; Mansfield, iii. 149, 210, 211, 242 ; Pratt (Camden) ; Richardson, ii. 389, 410 ; Scroggs, iii. 52 ; Toler, Hi. 302 ; Vaughan, iii. 47 459 Children, to be taught the Creed, &c, ii. 151, 159 ; in factories, iii. 337 Childs, G. W., Ui. 39 Chillingworth, William, ii. 279, 394, 397, 466, 509, iii- 96 Chiltern Hundreds, iii. 381 Chimneys, i. 52, ii. 302 China, ii. 260, 272, iii. 125, 129, 134- 385 Chivalry, false, i. 185, 295, 345, 347, ii. 54-455 Chloroform, iii. 367 Chocolate, iii. 128, 133 Choirs, Church, iii. 170 Cholera, iii. 377, 383 Christ Church, Canterbury, i. 402 ; Newgate-street, iii. 31 ; Oxford, ii. 118, 198, 512 Christ's College, Cambridge, i. 337 ; Hospital, London, ii. 172 Christendom, idea of unity exploded by Papal Schism, i. 412 Christian Brethren, the, ii. 94 ; ' Remembrancer,' iii. 364 ; III. of Denmark, ii. 101 Christina of Sweden, ii. 277 Christmas, i. 20, 54, 63 Christofori, Bartolommeo, of Padua, ii. 300 1 Chroniclers and Memorials,' i. 8, 190 ; monkish, 11 Chronology, i . 358 Chrysostom, St., ii. 178, 327, 510 Chubb, Thomas, deist, iii. 168 Church, Dean, i. 153, ii. 346 Church, social influence, i. 52, 62 ; music, 69, ii. 300 ; fur niture and vestments, 53, 151, 158 ; dioceses, i. 67 ; 69 ; patronage, 70, ii. 128, 216 ; doctrinal disputes, i. 73, 395, 414, ii. 82-5 ; Norman influence, i. 138 ; enormous powers, 390 ; edifices, 320, 399 ; decaying influence, 427 ; reforms resisted, ii. 72, but inevitable, 75 ; head ship (Royal) ; property, value of, 144, 158 ; disci pline of Calvin, 176 ; Dis cipline Acts, 205 ; refusal to attend, punished, 184, 208, 248, iii. 28 (Conven ticle) ; attendance and games, ii. 328 ; Common, Law of the, 413 ; " in dan ger "' cry, iii. 108 ; theories of Hooker, ii. 225, 279, 463 ; of Taylor, 509, and of War burton, iii. 165 Church Cess, iii. 346 ; Rates, 402 Church of England, alleged British origin, i. 70, 71 *¦ a child of the Church of CHURCH (of Ireland).] INDEX. [CLERGY (Saxon). Rome, 71 ; founded by St. Augustine, 68 ; nominal conversions, 69, 72 ; com parative independence, 104 ; Roman power extended, 137-142, 187-201, and re sisted, 245 ; nationality as serted, 283-288, 395, 403- 408, ii. 85, 89, * 121-124 ; beginnings of breach with Rome, 127-131 ; early the ology, 155-164, 180, 183, 204, 207, 212 ; Royal supre macy (g.v.) ; no change in doctrine or ritual without Parliamentary sanction, 146, 151, 160, 163, 180, 182, 184, 189, 204, iii. 22 ; livings sold, ii. 170 ; not a corporation, 145 ; rubrics, 174, 184, 205 ; Anglican and Evangelical schools, 178, iii. 68 ; dubious teachings on the Eucharist, ii. 205 ; final breach with Rome, 206 ; Thirty-nine Articles, (g.v.) ; differences between, and Rome and the sects, 207 ; Tudor theory, 208 ; formative period, 217 ; failures at comprehension, 220, 237, 321, 493, iii- 19, 65, 96, 428 ; foreign orders recognised, ii. 235 ; Bacon on reforms, 236 ; persecu ting spirit, 247 ; forced upon Ireland, 276 ; Fathers of the Church, 278, 394, iii. 26 ; concessions refused under James I., ii. 320 : Canons (g-v.) ; alleged Apostolic nature, 331 ; Laud's theory, 393 ; Decla ration prefixed to Articles, 394, 401 ; prelatical govern ment ended, 447 ; root-and- branch petition, 447 ; Pres byterian form, 470 ; temp. Commonwealth, 463, 492 ; the Triers, 493 ; under the Restoration, iii. 13-26 ; ceased to be national at the Ejectment, 24, 68 ; aloof from Christendom, 26 ; not recognised by Rome, 27 ; Latitudinarian school, ii. 507, iii. 96, 156 ; Occasional Conformity (g.v.) ; parties in, 98, 108, 149, 163, 172 ; Schism Act, 107 ; torpor in 18th century, 160-177 ; re lation to Methodism, 176 j principle abandoned by Toleration Act, 68, 325 ; re straint of Municipalities, 325 ; partial reform, 372 ; influence of Tractarian Movement, 405-8 ; Ritual ism, 408, 414. (Reformation. Rome, Church of.) Church of Ireland, ii. 276, iii. 1 79 ; reformed, 344-6 ; sur plus revenues, 346 ; dises tablished, 413 Church of Scotland, ii. 254, 428, 462, 470, iii. 26, 102 ; divisions, 403 ; the Disrup tion, 404 Churches, Saxon, i. 51 ; number, size, and uses, in Middle Ages, 320 ; destruc tion of, ii. 149, 170, 455 ; restorations, 149 ; chained books in, 195, 267 ; fifty new, in London, 1710, iii. 104, 141 ; neglected con dition, 169 ; Building Acts, 320 Churchill, Charles, H. 317, Hi. 172, 209, 261, 221, 279 ; John (Marlborough.) Cibber, Colley, ii. 219, 371, Hi- H7, 359 Cicero, ii. 35, 178, 292, 478, in. 161 Cinnamon, i. 165 Cinque Ports, i. 129, 130 Circuit Courts, i. 179 Circumlocution Office, i. 372, iii. 446 Circumnavigators, ii. 39, 260, iii. 240 Cirencester, i. 28, 29, 33, 78, ni. 106 Cistercians, i. 77, 80, 211, 238, 239, 329 Citadels, i. 67, 118, 121, 122 City of London, Livery Companies (g.v.) ; and Irish estates, ii. 275 ; members on Treasury Bench, 450 ; and public improvements, iii. 142 ; election of Aldermen, 343 ; and the Jews, 350 ; Nonconformist sheriffs chosen and fined, 149 ; contest with the Commons, on warrants, 185 ; and police control, 372. (London.) Civic Charters, i. 165, 166, 340, 365. (Boroughs?) Civil engineering, iii. 260, 391 ; Law, Roman, i. 174 ; List expenditure, iii. 203, 337, 375 ; Service, 442, 446 Civil War of 17th century, absurd to call it Rebellion, i. 246, 259, ii. 23, 451 ; begin ning of the outbreak, 452 ; division of parties, 452 ; contrast with Wars of Roses, 452 ; character of the army, 453, 454; de struction of property, 455 ; expenditure, 456 ; taxes, 457 ; various Committees appointed, 457 ; Church questions, 458 ; Committee for Preaching, 461 ; end of first war, 472 ; resumed, 474 ; Battle of Preston, 475 ; of Dunbar, 483 ; of Worcester, 484 Civis Romanics sum, ii. 497 460 Clams, ii. 359 Clapham, Sect, the, Hi. 167 Clare College, i. 337, ii. 508 Clare-market, iii. 120 Clarence, Lionel, Duke of, son of Edward III., i. 387, 421, ii. 2, 20 ; Duke of, brother of Edward IV., ii. 26 29, 35 Clarendon, Assize of, 1. 181 ; Constitutions of, 181, 193, 201 Clarendon, Hyde, Earl of, ii. 380 ; on Strafford, 399 ; on Earl-Marshal's Court, 412 ; on Ship-Money, 418, 421 ; on Long Parliament, 436, 437 ; on the clergy, 469 ; on Ireland, 482 ; on Cromwell, 497, 500 ; on learning temp. Commonwealth, 507 ; on Admiral Blake, iii. 2 ; con ferences with clergy, 13 ; on Charles II., 15 ; and Act of Uniformity, 21, 27 ; and Conventicle Act, 31 ; fall of, 37 ; writings, 37 :— Earl of, 418 Clarke, Dr. Adam, iii. 387 ; Dr. Samuel, 171, 178, 258 ; Marcus, novelist, 397 Clarkson, David, iii. 24 ; Thomas, 242 Classes, war of, iii. 292 Classical allusions to Britain, i. 15 ; studies revived, 402, ii. 79 ; translations, 292, Hi. 116 Classics, lost, ii. 146 Claudius Cassar, i. 20, 26 Clavichord, the, ii. 300 Clayden, P. W., iii. 439 Claypole, Lady, Cromwell's daughter, ii. '503, Hi. 5 Clergy, Saxon, i. 69, 72, 79 ; as doctors, 53 ; share of tithes, 75 ; corrupt, 76, 200 ; Secular and Regular, 78, 242, 283 ; exempt from taxa tion, 78 ; celibacy (g.v.) ; character, 81, 394 ; separate Order, 105, iii. 24 ; foreign, in England, i. 138, 245, 287, 405 ; capitular, 139 ; paro chial, 139 ; jurisdiction over, 193 ; patriotic, 233 ; with drawn from law, 272 ; self- taxed in Convocation, 279 ; 380, iii. 48, 103 ; wealth, -i. 283, ii. 144 ; and Mortmain, i. 284, 391 ; refuse to pay- taxes, 284 ; power curbed, 284, 285, 288, 403 ; many perished during Black Death, 353 ; portion of stipend allotted to poor, 75, 369 ; condition at time of Wycliffe, 390 ; of Henry VII., ii. 74 ; of Henry VIII., 91 ; benefit of, i. 393, ii. 90, 124 ; the lawyers, states men, &c, of the age, i. 390 ; CLERICAL RHETORIC] INDEX. [COMMONWEALTH. a majority in House of Lords, 392, 407, ii. 115 ; claim separate jurisdiction, i. 393 ; as a priesthood, 395 ; not all corrupt, 400, 401, ii. 77 ; but general degeneracy, i. 401, ii. 73 ; complaints of the Commons against, in 1394, i- 427 ; in 1529, ii- 114 ; and heretics temp. Henry IV,, 5-10 ; resist reform, 10, 72 ; foment a French war, 10 ; brought under the law, 90 ; withhold the Bible, 93 ; restrained, 115, 124 ; de clared in Praemunire, 1530, 121 ; they purchase pardon, 121 ; Statute for Submis sion, 127 ; Oath of Succes sion, 130, 188 ; executed in official dress, 133 ; claim to be the church, 146 ; their elastic creed, 165, 189, 203, 208, 251 ; attainments and habits, temp. Edward VI., 171 ; to use the Catechism, 174 ; marriage permitted, 182 ; to wear surplice, 223 ; infringe civil rights, 226 ; " dumb dogs," 230 ; and Passive Obedience (g.v.) ; John Walker and 'Suffer ings,' 461 ; ejectments of, at Restoration, iii. 14 ; in voke Nonconformist aid, 56; resist James IL, 57; and. life assurance, 105 ; and Union of Scotland, 106 ; oppose inoculation, 134 ; many were Jacobites, 71, 152 ; not believe in Articles, 162 ; social status in 18th century, 168 ; oppose re forms, 189, 356 ; neglect of popular education, 261, which they oppose, 35I_7 ; described by Hannah More and Cowper, 261 ; disquali fied for Parliament, 312 ; in Ireland, sinecures and pluralities, 344-6 ; and mar riages and burials, 359 Clerical rhetoric, ii. 7 ; neg lect of duty, 22, iii. 169-171, 174 ; subscription to Ar ticles, ii. 187, 206, 235, 33ii iii. 154, 156, to the Liturgy, ii. 206, iii. 19, 22 ; assump tions, ii. 221 ; pluralities, 225, 228, iii. 168, 344, 34^- 350 ; orders, foreign, recog nised, ii. 235 ; ignorance and bigotry, iii. 134, 259> 356 . L . . Cleveland district, 1. 109; John, satirist, ii. 509 Clifford, Lord, Hi. 38, 46 Clive, Lord, iii. 193. 195, 237 ; Kittv, actress, 248 Clocks, ii. 296, 297, 303, »»¦ 129 Close Rolls, i. 321 Cloth, hats, caps, and bon nets, ii. 52 ; trade, i. 370, 372, 373 ; "• 304- (Wool.) Clover, field, Hi. 142 Cloyne. (Berkeley.) Clubs, iii. 125 Clugny, i. 105, ii. 13 Clyde, Lord, Hi. 424 Clydesdale, i. 294 Clym of the Clough, i. 430 Cnut, King, i. 75, 87, 89, 91, 95, 98, 100, 130 Coaches, ii. 306, 487 ; stage, iii. 131, 244-5, 294 Coal as fuel, i. 32, ii. 301 ; brought to London, 18th century, iii. 141 ; mining, 246 ; duty in London, 141 Coalition against France, Hi. 273, 276, 278, 2S6 Coarseness of language, i. 305, 425. (Controversy?) Cobbett, William, ii. 234, 343 ; 410, iii. 101, 235, 314, 324, 337, 374 Cobden, Richard, iii. 236, 328 ; 384, 386, 392, 441 Cobham, Lord, ii. 9, 10 Cochl^eus, John, ii. 93 Cochrane, Lord, iii. 198 Cockayne, Land of, i. 240 Cockburn, Lord, ' Memorials,' iii. 191 Cock-fighting, i. 318, iii, 106, 120 Cock-lane Ghost, iii. 261 Cod-fisheries, ii. 40 Codes of Saxon laws, i. 58 Coffee-houses, iii. 106, 128, 133 Coinage, British, i. 23, 26 ; Roman, 32 ; Saxon, 65 ; English, 311-2, ii. 487, 509 ; debased, 107, 153, 182, 586 ; clipped, i. 312, Hi. 83 Coiners, punishment of, ii. 6 Coke, Sir E. (Chief Justices?) Colchester, i. 21, 316, ii. 196, 264, 416 ; abbey, ii. 143 Colenso, Bishop.iii. 412 Coleridge, Hartley, iii. 386 ; Samuel Taylor, ii. 463, iii. 70, 121, 235, 250, 253, 35S, 402, 406 ; Mr. Justice, 69 Colepeper, Sir John, on mo nopolies, ii. 408 Colet, Dean, i. 199. ii. 54, 79, 89 Coligny, Admiral, 11. 175, 252 ' Colin Clout,' ii. 283 Collects and Suffrages, ii. 181 College of Physicians, ii. 58, 297 : Surgeons, 58 Colleges dissolved, ii. 145 Collegiate School of York, i. 57 t Collier, Jeremy, 11. 415, 111. 72, 117 Co'.lings, Jesse, M.P., iii. 436 Collingwood, Admiral, iii. 275 Collins, Anthony, iii. 67, 160 ; John, 403 ; William, 113 461 Colman, George, dramatist, iii. 248, 254, 363 Cologne, ii. 93 Colonial Office, iii. 172, 399 ; State Papers, ii. 258, 280, iii. 2 Colonies, early English, ii. 261 ; American, settlement of, 348, iii. 228 ; mistaken methods, ii. 349 ; exempt from Excise, 457 ; imports from, iii. 179, 215. (America. Australia. Canada?) Colquhoun, Dr. Patrick, iii. 124 Columba, St., 1. 70, 202 Columbus, Christopher, offers services to England, ii. 37 : accepted by Spain, 38 ; first Atlantic voyage, 38 ; his discoveries, 38 Combe, George, iii. 362 Combermere, Viscount, iii. 290 Combinations. (Labour.) Comedy, early English, ii. 285, 286, 349 Comes, or Count, title of, i.64 Comets, i. 108 Commercial treaties, ii. 51, iii. 250, 441 Comminations, i. 392 Committee, of Council on Education, Hi. 353 ; for Scandalous Ministers, ii. 493 Common employment, judge- made law of, Hi. 342 Common land rights, i. 366 Common law, i. 141, 174, 176. 181, 207, 272 ; of the Church, ii. 413 ; Pleas Court, i. 226, 272 ; Serjeant, 167 Commons enclosed, ii. 21,182, iii. 306 Commons, House of (g.v.) Commonwealth, the, pro claimed, ii. 479; committees, 457, 493, 494 ; its army, 453 ; Council of State, 457, 479, 486, 490, 501 ; attempted Church settlement, 463 ; a Presbyterian model, 465 ; to be tried for a year, 470 ; Self-denying Ordinance, 471 ; a Republic proposed, 473 ; Scheme- of Govern ment, 474 ; vindicated by the Revolution, 477, iii. 62, 89 ; founded on Dutch model, ii. 479 ; House of Lords and Kingship abo lished, 479 ; authority re cognised, 484 ; legal reform, 487, iii. 371 ; Little Parlia ment, H. 489 ; its mistakes, 490 ; the Lord Protector, 490, 501 ; ' Instrument of Government,' 490, 501 ; and ecclesiastical affairs, 492 ; the Triers, 493 ; Parliamen tary disputes, 494 ; factions, COMMUNION.] INDEX. [COUVRE-FEU. 495. 501 ; expenscs'of gov ernment, how met, 497; the 'Petition and Advice,' 501 ; Second Chamber, 501 ; am bassadors assassinated, 502; state of learning and litera ture, 507 ; decline and fall, iii. 6-10 ; Acts burned, 20 ; electoral reforms cancelled at Restoration, 206 Communion Service instead of Mass, ii. 173, 183, 185, 197, 205, 396 Communism, i. 431, ii. 20, iii. 336, 380 Company of Merchant Ad venturers, 1531:, ii. 40; of Turkey Merchants, 272 Compass, magnetic, ii. 38 Complaints of the Commons of Kent, ii. 21 Compline, ii. 166 Complutensian Polyglot, i. 244 Compounding by Royalists under Commonwealth, ii. 457, 458 Comprehension. (Church.) Compurgators, Saxon, i. 60 Comte, Auguste, H. 510 Condottieri, i. 107 Conf cderateStates of America, iii. 217, 427-8 Confession of Faith, Tudor, ii. 151, 155-6 ; Separatist, 241-245, 351 ; Scottish, 254 ; Independent, ii. 351, 355, 506 ; Presbyterian, 226, 470 ; Augsburg, 84. (Thirty-iiine Articles.) Confessional, the, i. 390 Congk d'elire,'u. 64, 128, 216, iii. 408 Congregationalists, ' Heads of Agreement ' with Presby terians, iii. 65 ; of New England became Unitarian, 158"; the established religion in some States, ii. 371, iii. 228 ; and the ' Rivulet ' Controversy, 412. (Inde pendents?) Congress of Berlin, iii. 422 ; Vienna, 286. (Treaties.) Congreve, William, i. 232 ; iii. 114 Conjurors, iii. 126 Connecticut, ii. 362,. 363, 364, 37i, 437, iii- 228 'Connoisseur, the,' iii. 123 Conrad of Waldhauseu, i. 415, ii. 78 Conscience, freedom of, claimed, ii. 464, 466 ; rights of, 222 , and prejudice, 239. (Toleration?) Conseils de prud'hommes, iii. 341 Conservatism, tendency to, 111. 334; majority in 1841, 384, and in 1895, 468 Consistory Courts. (Ecclesi astical.) Consolidated Fund, iii. 236, 337 Conspiracy law, iii. 378 Constantine the Great, i. 26, 28, iii. 15 Constantinople, ii. 280, 355, 458 ; captured by Turks, 79, 109 Constitution, the English, i. 5; developments of, 171,228, 258, 262, 278-9, 381, 389, 446, ii. 3, 443, iii. 60-1 ; an eclec tic combination, i. 381 ; only written, ii. 491 ; vio lated, 36, 47, 62, 128, 167, 208, 214, 318, 333-341- 4°5- 422, 424-449 ; earliest Ameri can, 358 ; a Cabinet un known to, iii. 38 ; gradual changes in, 62, 334; dif ferentiated from other na tions, 184 ; in danger, temp. George III., 319 Constitutions of Clarendon, i. 181, 193, 201 Consubstantiation, ii. 174 Continental subsidies, ii. 66, iii. 283, 293 Controversy, coarse and fierce style of, ii. 97, 234, 459, 467, 478, iii. 164 Conventicle Acts, ii. 248, iii. 28,47 Convention Parliament, 1660, Hi. 9, 12 ; of 1668, 60 Conveyances,!. 328. (Coaches?) Convict-galleys, iii. 137, 398 Convocation of clergy, i. 279, 380, 392, 411, ii. 89, 104, 121, 123, 127, 137, 150, 159, 174, 181, 187, 192, 204, 206, 223, 331, 395, 431, 440, iii. 19, 48, 66; silenced for 135 years, 103, 149 ; revived, 412 Conway, i. 270, 445 General, iii. 210 Cook, Captain James, iii. 240, 396 ; Eliza, 369 Cookery books, Mediaeval, i. 314 Cooper, Anthony Ashley (Shaftesbury) ; Fenimore, ii. 365, iii. 197, 230 ; Thomas, ii. 343, iii. 378 Coote, Sir Eyre, Hi. 193 Cope, Anthony, M.P., ii. 228 Copenhagen, Hi. 276, 283 Copernicus, ii. 38, 296 Copper, i. 32, ii. 304, iii. 247 Copping, John, martyr, ii. 249 Copyholders, i. 169, 360, ii. 4, 51 Cordwainers, i. 362 Cork, city of, i. 444, ii. 482, iii. 75, 296, 395 Corn-laws imposed, ii. 51, 304, 338, iii. 314 ; operation of, 337 ; agitation for repeal, 381-4, 387-9 Cornwall, i. 15, 16, 27, 32, 43, 120, ii. 173, 304 ; Barry, iii. 362 ; Duchy of, ii. 173, iii. 375 462 Cornwallis, Lord, iii. 230, 232. 277, 30I> 385 ; Admiral Sir William, iii. 273 Coronation-oath, iii. 304, 327 Corporation Act, Hi. 21, 46, 70, 152, 155, 325 ; Charters revoked, 50, 55 ; Close, 206 .Corpus Christi College, Cam- '. bridge, i. 337, ii. 217, 322, 352 Corresponding Society, Hi, 312 Corsican vendetta, iii. 81 Cort, Henry, iii. 246 Cortez, Fernando, ii. 38 Corunna, iii. 284 Cottages to have land, ii. 302 Cotton, Rev. John, ii. 363, 370 ; Sir Robert, his library, and MSS., ii. 140, 147, 151, 163, 382, 406 Cotton manufacture, iii. 179, 245-6 Council. (Great. Witcnage- mot. Parliament) ; of the North, ii. 44, 398, 399, 412, 443 ; of Scottish Marches, 44 ; of State, Common wealth, 457, 479, 486, 490, 501 ; of Troubles, or of Blood, in Netherlands, 263, 267 Councils, Church : — Aries, i. 70 ; Basle, ii. 83 ; Clermont, i. 146 ; Constance, i. 279, 412, 415, 423, ii. 83 ; Ecu menical, iii. 415 ; Lambeth, i. 151 ; Lateran, Fourth, 218, 'ii. 83, and Fifth, ii. 83 ; Nice, i, 70, ii. 206 ; Pisa, i. 412-3, ii. 83 ; Reading, i. 284; Trent, 412, ii. 11, 85, 180, 206, 250 ; Whitby, i. 72 ; General, appealed to, 126, 162, 164, 198. (Synods?) Counsel, instructions to, i. 273 Country gentlemen in 18th century, iii. 122 County, the, i. 67, 212 ; repre sentation in Parliament, 262, 380 ; constituencies : enlarged, iii. 333, 380 ; Councils Act, i. 167, iii. 439 ; Courts, i. 64, 135, 179, 262, ii. 3, iii. 434 Couriers, i. 327 Courts, conflicts between civil and ecclesiastical, i. 393, ii. 90, 115, 124, 233 ; of law settled, i. 272 ; of Arches, 320, iii. 410, 412 ; Augmen tations, ii. 143, 145 ; Con sistory (g.v.) ; County (g.v.) ; Prerogative, 457 ; Probate, 1 14 ; Requests, 457 ; Star Chamber, 44 ; Stepway, Brotherhood, and Guest- ling, i. 130 ; Wards, 182, 226, ii. 457, iii. 48 ; con gested state of Chancery, 325 Couvre-feu, i. 129 COVENANT.] Covenant, the First in Scot land, ii. 254 ; later, 427 ; Solemn League and, 465, 482, iii. 20, 49 ; of Indepen dent Church, Cambridge, 27 Covent-garden, ii. 301, iii. 105, 248 ; market, ii. 51 Coventry, i. 440, ii. 26, 351, iii. 55 ; Sir John, 36 ; and Lich field bishopric, ii. 196 Coverdale, Bishop. (Exeter?) Coverlets, i. 315, ii. 304 Coverley, Sir Roger de, iii. 67, 123 Cowley, Abraham, poet, ii. 499, 511, iii. 12 Cowper, Lady, ' Diary,' iii. 127 ; Edward, printing, 284 ; William, poet, i. 401-2, ii. 13, 269, 511, iii. 21, 43, 111, 117, 132-3, 169, 170, 172, 181, 200, 240, 242, 249, 250, 253, 257, 260-1, 267 Crabbe, George, Hi. 224, 247, 252, 308 'Craftsman, the,' iii. 182 Craggs, James, iii. 128 Cranmer. (Canterbury.) Crashaw, Richard, poet, ii. 5H Creeds and endowments, iii. 150; uselessness of subscrip tion to, 156 Cremation, i. 32 Creuzot, France, iii. 246 Cribbage, iii. 127 Crime and vice confused, ii. 369. 465, »"¦ 172 Crimea, the, iii. 418 Criminal law, severity of, iii. 137, 252, 316, 371 ; proce dure, i. 58, 186, 330, 333, ii. 43, 3io ; present number of offences, iii. 447. (Prisons.) Criminals, i. 60, 333, ii. 310 Crimping, iii. 277 Cripplegate Church, iii. 39 Crisp, Steven, Quaker, iii. 16 Criticism, early, ii. 290 Croft, William, ii. 300, iii. 115 Croker, John Wilson, iii. 186, 391 Cromlechs, i. 19 Crompton's mule jenny, Hi. 245 Cromwell, Oliver, ii. 149, 175, 259, 271, 278, 401-2, 422, 437, 444, 453-6, 471-6, 480-508, iii. 5, 6, 13, 20, 41 Cromwell, Richard, Protec tor, ii. 506, iii. 4-6 ; Henry, ii. 482, iii. 5 ; Thomas, Earl of Essex, ii. 102, 116, 120, 130, 137, 142, I52, iS9i *6i-3, 401 Crosby, ' History of Baptists,' ii. 351 ; Lord Mayor, iii. 185 ; Hall, ii. 273 Cross, a, for signature, i. 275 ; sign of, in baptism, ii. 220 Cross-bow, ii. 385 Crosses on tenements, i. 2S4 Crotch, Dr., iii. 115 INDEX Crown revenues, ii. 63, 215, iii. 202, 336, 375 ; enormous powers, ii. 63, "iii. 203 ; suc cession to (Royal); dormant powers revived under Charles I., ii. 410; jewels, pawned, 450 ; powers at Restoration, Hi. 10, and defined at Revolution, 61 ; lands alienated, ii. 386, iii. 202 ; influence through officeholders, 148 ; Parlia ment not dissolved at de mise of, 381. (Royal.) Crowns of England and Scot land united, ii. 332 Croyland Abbey, i. 123 ; Chronicle, ii. 24 Crucifixes, ii. 170 Cruikshank, George, Hi. 119 Crusades, i. 146, 209, 238, 268, 304 ; diseases spread by, ii. 57 Cudworth, Ralph, ii. 293, 507, 508 Cumberland, i. 150 ; Duke of, " the Butcher," son of George II., iii. 188, 190 ; son of George III- 374 ; Richard, dramatist, iii. 248, 257 Cup, the, and the laity, ii. 185 Curfew bell, i. 129 Curia Regis, i. 177, 179 Curran, J. P., iii. 298 Currency, i. 311. (Coinage.) Curry, Hon. J. L. M„ on the Southern States, iii. 428 Customs' dues, i. 282, 371, ii. 335, 444 : farmed, ii. 410, 441, 457 ; increased, iii. 83, 95, ; duty on tea, 125 ; amount in 1761, 221 ; Pitt's scheme, 236 ; great increase, 291 ; reductions, 387, 427 Custos Rotulorum, ii. 183 Cuthbert, St., i. 70, 157 Cutlery, ii. 304 Cutpuirscs, iii. 130 Cyclopaedias, iii. 258 Cyprus, i. 352 Daguerre, L. J., iii. 366 Dalabar, Anthony, ii. 95 Dale's Code, Virginia, ii. 369 D'Alembert, Jean le R., ii. 295, iii. 266 Dalrymple of Stair, iii. 82 Dampier, William, iii. 240 Dancing, i. 317. (Games.) Danegeld, i. 87, 130, 192, 211, ii. 384 Danelagh, i. 45, 88, 89, 121, 122 Danes, their origin, i. 41, 42 ; attacks on Britain, 40, 41, 42, 44, 45, 84, 86, 88, 89 ; names of settlements, 45 ; title of Jarl, 64 ; towns. 67 ; bribed to leave, 87, 88, 89 ; massacre of, 87 ; rule under Cnut, 91 ; English rule 463 [DEMOCRATIC. ceases, 93 ; last attack, 150 ; settlements in Ireland, 202, 203 , explorations, ii 280 Dante, i. 57, 421, 435, ii. 194, 292, iii. 43, 312, 362 Danton, G. J., iii. 273 D'Arblay, Madame, iii. 204 Darcy, Lord, ii. 154 Darien, Isthmus of, iii. 90 Dark Ages, i. 357, 395 Darnley, Lord, ii. 255 Darwin, Charles, H. 510, iii. 259, 412 Davenant, Sir Will-am, ii, 343, 509, iii- 39 ; Charles, 118, 143 Davison, William, Secretary of State, ii. 256 Davitt, Michael, iii. 435 Davy, Sir Humphrey, iii. 44 142, 290, 366 Days of the week, Saxon names, i. 54 Dead, prayers for, i. 427, ii. 151 ; to be buried in wool, iii. 126 Deaf-mutes, iii. 368 Death duties, iii. 291 ; rate, 374 Debates, Parliamentary, re ported, iii. 184-5 : freedom claimed, ii. 339, 374, 383, 390 Debt, imprisonment for, ii. 487, iii. 136, 172 Declaration of Indulgence, iii. 13, 42 ; of Liberty of Conscience, 56 ; of 1628, prefixed to xxxix. Articles, ii. 394, 401 ; of Dutch In dependence, 265, iii. 61 ; of American, 217, 227 ; of Rights, 1688, 10, 61 ; of Rights of Man, 268 ; of Pil- nitz, 273 Decretals, i. 175 ; the false 137 Deduction and Induction, i. 358 Deeds of gift, fraudulent, ii. 56 "Defender of the Faith," ii. 86 Defoe, Daniel, i. 125, ii. 237, 272, 343, iii. 30-6, 56-68, 92, 98-102, 106, 11S, 139-143 De Harretico Comburendo, ii. 6. (Burning?) Deira, kingdom of, i. 40 Deistical writers, iii. 160-163 Dekker, Thomas, ii. 286, 302. iii. 30, 113 De la Mare, Sir Peter, i. 386-7 Delaware Bay, iii. 282 ; State of, ii. 356, 357, iii. 220 Delft, ii. 263, 353, iii. 86, 140 Delia Cruscans, iii. 364 De Missd ad men sam, \. 314, Democratic spirit, rise of, ii. 333 ; not acknowledged in New England settlement, 363 DENE.] INDEX. L-DUK-tiAivi. Dene, WiUiam, of Rochester, i. 359 Denison, Archdeacon, Hi. 409 Denmark, i. 309, ii. 87, 494, iii. 3, 276, 289, 374 Dennis, John, critic, iii. 186 Deposition of Edward II., i. 303; Richard II., 446; of Henry VI., ii. 24 ; of Charles I., 476 ; of James II., iii. 60 Deptford, ii. 41, iii. 84 De Quincey, Thomas, iii. 122, 358 Derby, i. 67, 121 ; ii. 154, in. 190, 292 ; House, siege of, ii. 273 ; James, Earl of, be headed, 485 ; the fourteenth Earl, iii. 346, 380, 417, 421 Derbyshire, i. 323, iii. 140 Dermot, King. of Dublin, i. 98 ; of Leinster, 204 Descartes, Rene, ii. 298, 510, iii. 59, 71 De Silva, Spanish ambassa dor, ii. 204 Despenser, Hugh le, i. 299, 34° Devon Land Commission, Ireland, iii. 389 Devonshire, i. 43, 167, 438, ii. 173, iii. 18 ; Earl of, ii. 20 D'Ewes, Sir Symonds, ii. 435, 449 Dexter, Dr. H. M., ii. 246 'Dialogue of Familiar Talk,' 1554, ii. 156 Diamonds, iii. 34, 426 Diana of Ephesus, silver shrines, i. 428 Diaz, Bartholomew, ii. 39 Dibdin, Charles, iii. 356 Dice, i. 309, 317, ii. 171, 306 Dickens, Charles, iii. 114, 260, 360, 363 Dictum of Kenilworth, i. 265 Diderot, Denys, ii. 139, 295, 343, iii. 142, 266 Diet and dress regulated, i. 373, ii- 52, 305 Digges, Sir Dudley, ii. 383 Dikes, ii. 263, 314 Dioceses. (Bishoprics?) Diplomacy under Tudors, ii. 64, 72 'Directory of Public Wor ship,' ii. 470 Discoveries and inventions, variously claimed, iii. 366-7 Diseases, i. 57, 301, 324, 345, 351-356, ii. 57, 182, 379, 456, iii- 30, 33, 84 ; contagious, introduced from abroad, ii. 57 Dispensing power claimed, iii. 27, 45, 56 Disraeli, Benjamin (Beacons field) ; Isaac, iii. 362 Dissent, the Old, iii. 144-159 ; a duty or a crime, 156. (Nonconform, ists.) Dissenting Brethren in West minster Assembly, ii. 464, . 466, iii. 24 ; Deputies, the, 153, 320 " Dissidence of Dissent," ii. 238 Distilled waters, ii. 59 Distilling, iii. 124 District Councils, iii. 439 Divine judgments, supposed, i. 130, 150, 423, ii. 145, 476, Hi. 4, 395 ; Right of Epis copacy, Mi. 235, 327, 330, 395, 459- of Kingship, i. ioo, ii. 225, 236, 317, 318, 333, 342, 431, 478, iii. 55, 62, 310 Divinity of Christ, burning for denial of, ii. 184 Dixon, W. Hepworth, ii. 346, 498, Hi. 238 Doctrine of Reserve, iii. 407 Documents, modes of keep ing, i. 274 Doddridge, Dr. P., iii. 152, 159 Dodsley, Rooert, Hi. 252 Dogs for the chase, i. 51 ; in churches, Hi. 170 Doles, i. 367, iii. 170 Domesday Book, i. 120, 123, 125, 132, 133, 186, 354 Domestic manners, Saxon, i. 49-53 ; Norman, 164, 165 ; 13th and 14th centuries, 305- 337 ; Chaucer's descriptions, 422 ; hard and stern under Tudors, ii. 54, 55, 301-306 ; Puritan, 498 ; 18th century, ih. 118-128. (Social.) Dominican Friars, i. 80, 240, 241, ii. 81 Donatist controversy, i. 73 ; ii. 78 Donne, Dr. John, ii. 283, 292, 397 Donnybrook Fair, i. 206 Doolittle, Thomas, iii. 24, 32 Dorchester, i. 28, 120, iii. 53 ; bishopric, i. 83 ; case of six labourers, iii. 339 Dorislaus, Dr. Isaac, ii. 502, iii. 13- Dorset, i. 323, iii. 339, 382 ; Earl of, ii. 187, 278, 284 Douai College, ii. 251 Dover, i. 28, 94, 98, 113, 116, 129, 268, 309, 327, ii. 14, 264, iii. 11 Down and Connor, Bishops : — Jeremy Taylor, ii. 157, 279, 509, iii- 25, 157 ; Dr. Dickson, 301 Downshire family, iii. 299 Doyle, Conan, iii. 52, 55; J, A., ' English in America,' ii. 361 ; the caricaturists, Hi. H9, 331 Dragonnades, French, of 1684, iii. 55, 73 Dragoons, iii. 49, 52 Drake, Sir Francis, ii. 39, 258-262, 268-9, 281, 344 Drama, rudimentary form, ii. 284 ; slight stage' accesso- 464 ries, 284 ; comedy and tragedy, 286 ; the historical, 287 ; of the Restoration, iii. 35 ; 18th century, 1 16-8, 248, 253. (Miracle. Mys tery. Stage.) Drayton, Leicestershire, ii. 506 ; Michael, i. 250, ii. 286, 290, 349 Dress, Saxon, i. 50 ; Norman, 162 ; in Middle Ages, 307 ; regulated, 372, 373 ; ii. 52, 305 ; Tudor, 304, 305 ; im modest, punished, 488 ; 18U1 century, iii. 119, 120 Drinking horns, i. 313 Drogheda, i. 444, ii. 46, 481, iii- 74 Dromore, Bishop, Bedell, ii. 397 Druids, i. 19, 20, 21, 34, 54 Drummond of Hawthornden, ii. 2S4, 289, 344 ; Thomas, Under-Secretary, Ireland, iii. 329 Drums and routs, iii. 119 Drunkenness, iii. 123, 373 Drury-lane, iii. 117, 248 Dryburgh, ii. 67 Dryden, John, i. 400, 420, ii 283, 292, 499, 502, iii. 5, 25 32-52, 67, 99, 113, 359 Dublin, i. 204, 205, 444 ; ii 46, 418, 481, iii. 74-5, 395 Archbishop Whately, iii. 98, 255. 4°2 Ducking-stool, i. 375 Dudley, Lord Guilford, Iii. 187 ; Thomas, 362 ; and Empson, 36, 48, 63 Duelling, ii. 488, iii. 323 Duffv, Sir C. Gavan, Hi. 394 Dugdale, Sir W., i. 77, 78, ii. 147, 158. 219 Dukedoms, i. 126, 387 Dulcimers, ii. 300 Dumas, Alexandre, iii. 359 Dumfries, i. 296, iii. 49 Dunbar, i. 291, 300, 301, ii. 483 ; William, ii. 283 Duncan, Admiral, iii. 275 Dundas Despotism in Scot land, iii. 191. (Melville.) Dundonald, Earl of, Hi. 197 Dunkirk, iii. 36, 194 Dunning, John, M.P., iii, 203 Dunnottar Castle, iii. 49 Duns Scotus, i. 244, 395, 3g8 Dunse Castle, ii. 67 Dunstable, ii. 126 Dunstan. (Canterbury?) Dunton, John, ' Athenian Mercury,' iii. 100 Dupleix, Joseph F., iii. 193 Durand, ' Speculum Juris,' i. 273 Durham, i. 122 ; ii. 74, 172, 399 ; Lord, iii. 334, 399 ; Uni versity, ii. 507 ; Bishops :— Barrington, iii. 349 ; Butler, Hi. 157, 162-3, 167, 178 ; Cosin, iii. 19; Maltby, iii. DUTCH.] itibEXl [ENGLAND. 410 ; Morton, ii. 328 ; Pil kington, ii. 220 ; Hugh Pudsey, i. 106 ; Ralph le Flambard, i. 148 ; Richard of Bury, i. 402 ; Tonstall, ii. 188 ; Van Mildert, ii. 507 r Westcott, ii. 32S Dutch, Baptists burned, ii. 133 ; Republic, rise of, ii. 262 ; and English languages related, 265 ; Independence declared, 265 ; iii. 61 ; com mercial and artistic renown, ii. 266 ; influence on United States, 266 ; Eastern trade, 272 ; settlers in America, 356, 357, 365 I English crown jewels pawned, 450 ; Charles II. a refugee in, 484 ; Navigation Laws against, 488 ; Admiral Blake and, iii. 2, 3, 36; French War with, - 1689, 74 ; trade with India, 193, 195. (Ne therlands. Holland?) Duties on numerous articles, 1711, iii. 95. (Customs?) Dymchurch potteries, i. 31 Dysentery, i. 355, ii. 13, 117 Eadgar, i. 65, 86 ; ^Etheiing, 101, 118, 119, 122, 152, 289 Eadgyth, Queen, i. 98 Eadie, Dr. John, ii. 322 Eadmer, i. 152 Eadmund Ironside, i. 89, 90, 100 Eadred, King, i. 85, 86 Eadward, King, i. 84, 85, 86 ; of Deira, 40 ; the Confessor, 78, 93, 97, 98, 100 Eadwig, i. 79, 86 Eadwine, Earl, i. 109, no, Ii8, 119, 121, 122 Ealdorman, i. 63 Ear-cropping, ii. 148, 309, 368, 401, 412, 415 Earl, title of, i. 64, 97, 126 Earl-Marshal's Court, ii. 412 Earle, Alice Morse, 'Old New England,' ii. 363 ; Bishop, •Microcosmography,' ii. 328 Early English Text Society, ii. 55 Earthquake in London, in 1382, i. 413 ; in Lima, 1652, iii. 4 ; in Lisbon, 1755, ii. 194 East, the exploration of, 111. 255 ; trade with the, ii. 272, iii. 2 ; Anglia, i. 40, 44, 88 : India Co. (India) ; Saxon kingdom, i. 40 Easter, i. 54, 63 Eastern Counties, and Wy- cliffeism, i. 426 ; settlers from, in Massachusetts, ii. 365 ; agriculture in, iii. 143 1 Eastward Hoe ! ' comedy, ii. 349 Eastward position of altar, 11. 205, 221, 396 VOL. III. Eburacum. ( York.) 'Ecce Homo,' Seeley*s, iii. 412 Ecclesiastical Commission, iii. 373 ; courts, i. 141, 392-3, ii. 8, 115, 124, 127, 413, Hi. 20, 35° : history, i. 56 ; laws, ii. 166 (Canon) ; offices, i. 148 ; vestments (g.v.) ; year, dating of, iii. 189. (Clergy. Church. Clerical?) Ecgberht, King, i. 40, 43 ; Archbishop of York, i. 57, 58 Echard, Archdeacon, iii. 255 ' Eclectic Review,' iii. 364 ' Eclogues,' ii. 344 ; Barclay's, 49 ; Spenser's, 291 ; Collins', iii. 113 Eden, Sir F. M., 'State of the Poor,' ii. 307, iii. 106, 306 Edgeworth, Maria, iii. 298, 363 ; R. L., iii. 293 Edinburgh, i. 291, 292, 301, ii. 254, 424, 428, 445, 475, 483, iii. 206, 328, 334 ; ' Re view,' 363, 370 Edison, Thomas Alva, ui. 367 Edom, ii. 273 Education in abbeys, i. 78, 334, 338, ii- 172 ; restricted, i. 223, 275 ; Erasmus on, ii. 54 ; Henry VIII. and Edward VI. pretended patrons of, 118, 172 ; by chantry priests, 172 ; the Jesuits and, 250 ; in Scot land, 255, 363, 508 ; in the Netherlands, 264, 508 ; com mon-schools in New Eng land, 360, 362, 363 ; scheme favoured by Cromwell, 508 ; forbidden to Noncon formists, iii. 31 ; state of, 17th century, 71, 119; re strained by Schism Act, 108 ; end of 18th century, 173 ; Cowper on, 260 ; modern, 262 ; and the clergy, 351-3 ; Parliament ary grant, 353 ; wrangles over, 354; the Conscience Clause, 355: Act of 1870, 431. (Grammar Schools?) Edward I., King, i. 259, 267, 297, 377; H.» 270, 298-303, ii. 287; III., 303, 340-387, 420 ; IV., ii. 24-9, 449 ; V., 29-31 ; VI., 118, 138, 169-188, iii. 322 Edward the Black Prince, i. 126, 346, 348, 350, 385. 388 Edwards, Richard, dramatist, ii. 285 ; Thomas, ' Gan- grama,' 467 Eels, i. 3^4 Egypt, i. 352, ii. 37. 272, 273, 280, iii. 277, 384, 422 Ejectment of 1662, ii. 461, iii. 23 ; disastrous effects, 25 ; ended the nationality of the church, 68, 325. (Church?) 46s Elastic bodies, laws of, ii. 297 Elba, Isle of, iii. 286 Eleanor of Aquitaine, Queen of Henry II., i. 157, 206, 216, 306, 349 ; of Provence, Queen of Henry III., 250, 327 ; of Castile, Queen of Edward I., 268 Election, doctrine of, ii. 178, 351. (Calvin?) Elections, regulated, . 3 ; interfered with, 4, 21, 172 ; dispute, decided by House of Commons, 337 ; place men ineligible, iii. 180 ; contested, rare, 198, but enormously expensive, 208 ; rough humours at, 190, 208, Committees for disputed, 212. (House of Commoiis.) Electors, number of, Hi. 206, 328, 333, 381 ; and bribes, 188, 206, 333 Electricity, ii. 297, ui. 218, 365 Eliot, George, iii. 114 ; Sir John, i. 245, ii. 377, 379, 382, 383, 387, 39o, 404. 405, 407, 408 ; Joh*^ Apostle to Indians, ii. 364, iii. 264 Elizabeth, Queen, ii. 129, 190-3, 202-313 Elizabethan age, a patriotic revival, ii. 147 ; its brilliancy, 278 Elliot, Ebenezer, iii. 384 Ellwood, Thomas, Hi. 39, 41 Elstow the Friar, ii. 281 Ely, Isle of, i. 77, 123, 265 ; cathedral, 321 ; Bishops : — Andrews, ii. 327 ; Cox, ii. 214 ; Goodrich, ii. 152 ; Hugh de Balsham, i. 337 ; Turner, iii. 57 ; West, ii. 96 Elyot, Sir Thomas, ' Boke of the Governor,' ii. 13, 54, 59 Embowelling, ii. 132 Embroidery, i. 50 Emerson, R. W., iii. 225 Emigration, ii. 349, 361, iii. 388, 394-5 " Eminence," title of, ii. 69 Emma, Queen of ^Ethelred and of Cnut, i. 78, 89, 91, 92, 96 Empson and Dudley, ii. 36, 48,63 Enactments, form of, i. 388 Enamel, i. 316 Enclosures, ii. 21, 182, iii. 306 Encyclopaedias, iii. 258 Encyclopedists, the French, ii. 250, 295, iii. 142, 266 Endicott, Governor, ii. 361 Endowments misappropri ated, i. 335, ii. 273, iii. 160, 262, 355 Engineering, Hi. 293 296 England, early state, of country, i. 14 ; under- the Romans, 20-35 ; arrival of 31 ENGLISH.] Saxons, 36 ; titular king-, doms, 39, 40 ; combined under Wessex, 40 ; real beginning, 41 ; attacked by the Danes, 40-46, 84 ; Saxon administration, 63 ; Papal interference, 75, 104, 139, 140 ; and Scandinavia, 89 ; Saxon rule ended, 90 ; early Church of, 104 (Church) ; Norman invasion, 107-114 ; the spoil, 124, 125 ; the conquerors absorbed, 116, 125, 126, 127, 128, 157 ; law of, not supplanted by Norman, 129, 166 ; takes herplace among the nations, 144, iii. 197 ; early usages and liberties perpetuated, i. 262 ; ii. 337, 376, 382, 388, Hi. 61 ; Continental posses sions, i, 172, 215,. 238, 257, 303, 341-351 ; contests with Papacy (Reformation) ; growth of liberties since Norman Conquest, 447 (English. Liberty) ; con dition under Henry VI., ii. 19 ; Continental alliances unprofitable, ii. 66, 103, 106 English Bible (g.v.) :— Chan nel, i. 344, ii. 105, 270, 418, Hi. 3 :— institutions and habits, i. 128 :— -language, «axon form of, i. 55 ; arbi trary periods, 55 ; continu ity, 129 ; judicial proceed ings in, 384, ii. 487 ; legisla tive use of, i. 420 ; in Wy- cliffe's time, 417 ; of slow growth, 419 ; colloquial use. 419 ; Chaucer's contribu tions, 420 ; Tyndale's ser vices, ii. 100 ; majestic Uturgical style, 157 ; related to the Dutch, 265 ; capacity revealed by Spenser, Shaks pere, and Bacon, 283 ; changed meaning of words, i. 370 ; obsolete words, 420 ; literature of exploration, iii. 241 ; Tooke's ' Diversions of Purlcy,' 312 English people an amalgam of Britons and Saxons, i- 35 ; 85 ; an infusion of Danes, 90, 91, and of Nor mans, 125, 127, 157 :— na tional sentiment, 216, 219, 403, ii. 1 22 ; — love of free dom, i. 5, 94, 100, 119, 128, 228-9, 237, 262, 276, 282, 378, 446, ii. 3, 168, 214, 337, 376, 451, Hi. 47, 48, 61 :—great eaters and heavy drinkers, i. 50, H. 42 :— profanity, iii. 119 :-— hatred of the French, 269 .Envelopes, Hi. 120, 412 Eormen-street, i, 27 Ephemeral literature, Hi., in, 162, 184, 186, 259, 364 INDEX. Epidemics, i. 324, 345, 352, ii. 57, iii. 131 (Plague. Szveat- i?ig Sickness. Black Death.) Epilepsy, ii. 12 Episcopacy in England, i. 67, 69, 82, 83 ; its Divine Right not held by Cranmer, ii. 187, nor by Hooper, 186 ; assailed, 224 ; abandoned for Presbyterianism, 220 ; development of the theory, 225, 236, 395 ; suppressed in New England, 366 ; abolished in England, 447 ; dispute concerning, 459 ; restored, 1660, Hi. 14 ; forced on Scotland, ii, 332, 333, 424, iii. 49, 81, in America, 228. (Bishoprics- Divine Right.) Episcopal ordination enforced iii. 19, 22 ; succession, 72 Epochs and crises, i. 5 Epping Forest, iii. 141 Erasmus of Rotterdam, na ture of his work, ii. 79 ; residence in England, 80 ; his Greek Testament, 80, 91 ; hated by the monks, 80 ; other works, 80 ; at Becket's shrine, i. 199 ; at Walsingham, ii. 73 ; assails the Schoolmen, i. 401 ; on education, ii. 54 ; on the plague, 57 ; on Henry VIII., 02 ; on Wolsey, 71 ; des- ciiption of clergy, 75, 141 ; attitude towards Luther, 82, 84 ; jest upon heretics burning, 89 ; on war, 103 ; on Sir Thomas More, 125, 346 ; death, 137 ; proficiency in Latin, 175 ; style of con troversy, 234 ; his ' Para phrase,' 267 ; and Hooker, 279 ; and Swift, iii. 112 Erastianism, ii. 199, 463, iii. 165, 415 Eric, King of Norway, i. 289 Erskine, Ebenezer, of Stirling, iii. 403 ; Lord, 211, 310, 312 Eschatology, iii. 353 Escorial, the, ii. 271 Esher palace, ii. 114 Essayists, the, iii. 101, in 1 Essays and Reviews,' iii. 411 Essex, i. 369, 435, 438, ii. 173 ; Earl of, favourite of Elizabeth, ii. 274, 277, 344 ; Thomas (Cromwell) ; Par liamentary general, 451, 453. 454. 471 Established church not a cor poration, ii. 145 ; principle abandoned by Toleration Act, iii. 68. (Church of England.) Estates of the Realm, i.380 Esterlings, i. 310 Etcetera oath, ii. 432 Ether, iii. 367 [FAIRFAX. 466 Eton college, i. 335, ii. 27, 50, 73, 92, 285, 327, 490, iii. 355 Eucharist, Lutheran theory, i. 396, ii. 173, 184 ; change in EngUsh mode, 173 ; ad vanced opinion, 183 ; reces sion, 185 ; a compromise, 205 ; Laud's teaching, 396. (Transubstantiation?) Euphuism, ii. 285 Eustache, Count of Boulogne, i. 94, 98 Evangelical Movement, the, iii. 167, 263 Evelyn, John, ii. 512, iii. 30, 32, 34, 86 Evesham, i. 77, 264 Evictions (Ireland) ; in Su therland, iii. 327, 395 Evolution theory, Hi. 259 'Examiner,' the, iii. 313 Exchequer organized, i. 153, 180 ; barons of, 179, 185 ; records, 247, 251 ; Court, 272 ; ii. 403 ; Commons' control over, i. 382, 386 ; ju risdiction abolished, ii. 457 ; closed in 1673, iii. 45 Excise introduced, ii. 457 ; enlarged, iii. 83 ; returns for 1751, 124 ; Pitt's scheme, 236 ; great increase, 290 Exclusion Bill, 16S0, Hi. 47, 49 Excommunication, i. 390, ii. 126, 209 Executions, under the Nor man Forest Laws, i. 132; in Middle Ages, 333 ; ex aggerated under H enry VIII., ii. 161 ; during the Bloody Assize, 1685, iii. 53 ; in 18th century, 134 ; in 19th, 252, 317 Exeter, i. 29, 67, 88, 120, 167, 370, ii. 294, iii. 59, 156; Bishops :— Brownrigg, u. 508 ; Coverdale, ii. 100-102, 150, 189, 227, 229 ; Phill- potts, iii. 409 ; Temple, Hi. 411 ; Marquis of, ii. 154 Exiles, Protestant, to Conti nent, ii. 161, 179, 189, 211, 212, 242, 350, 352 Exmouth, Viscount, iii. 290 Ex officio oath, ii. 88, 232 244 Exorcising, i. 53, 427 Exports in 14th century, i. 301, 371 ; in 1 6th, ii. 272 ; in 18th, iii. 141 ; in 1761, 215 ; duties on, repealed by Wal pole, 178 ; present exports, 444 Eyres, judicial, 1. 179 Factories, or trading set tlements, in East, ii. 272 Factory Acts, iii. 335, 337, 353 Fagius, Paul, ii. 183, 196 Fagot, bearing a, ii. 94, 184 Fairfax, Lord-General, ii. 471, 473. 475 ; Edmund, 292 FAIRS.] Fairs, i. 205, 374, iii. 126 Falconer, William, poet, Hi. 258 Falkland, Viscount, ii. 447, 456 False hair, i. 307 Falstaff, Shakspere's, not in tended for Oldcastle, ii. 10 Familists, ii. 496 Family Pact, the, iii. 214 Family and Social Life. (Do- mestic?) Fans, iii. 119 Faraday, Michael, ii, 297, iii. 366 Farms, small, absorbed, ii. *53- (Agriculture?) Farrant, Richard, ii. 300 Fashions. (Dress.) Fasting, i. 314, ii. 182 Fathers, writings of the, ii. 77, 186 ; of the Church (g.v.) Feast of Fools, i. 319 F6camp, ii. 18, 484 Feckenham, last abbot of Westminster, ii. 209, 212 Fees, officials paid by, iii. 295, 336 ; and bribes, ii. 336, Hi. 38, 181 Felony laws, ii. 56, 487, iii. 394 Fen-district, i. 121, 123, 233, 263, ii. 314, 485, iii. 143 Fenians, iii. 394, 429 Fenn, on the Funds, iii. 290 Ferdinand, and Isabella of Spain, ii. 38, 43, 65, 67 ; II. of Naples, iii. 379 Ferguson, Robert, poet, iii. 258 ' Ferrex and Porrex,' ii. 284 Fertilizers, iii. 143 Feudalism, i. 94, 134, 135. 157, 169, 183, 2ii, 226, 264, 289, 293, 323, 359, 360, 378, ii- 37, 49, 5o, 65, 381, iii. 48, 83, 266, 284 Fever-powders, James's iii. 132 Fichte, J. T., ii. 295 Fides Carbonarii, ii. 217 Field, John, ii. 225 ; Richard, Dean of Gloucester, 235 ; of Cloth of Gold, 68 ; sports, i. 51. (Forest. Game.) Fielding, Henry, novelist, i. 401, iii. 112-3, 121, 124, 135, 173, 181, 183, 250, 260 ; Sir John, iii. 116, 124 Fifteenths and Tenths as Sub sidies, i. 279, 280 Fifth-Monarchy, ii. 479, 495, iii. 12 Fiji annexed, Hi. 396 Financial crises, iii. 128, 178, 323, 333, 393. 396 Finch, Sir John, Speaker, 11. 390, 404/ as Chief Justice, 411, and as Lord Keeper, 429, 430, 437, 439 Fine Rolls, i. 220, 253 INDEX. Fines for personal injuries, i. 58 ; arbitrary, 221, ii. 36, 413 Fire of London, the Great, iii. 32, 86, 105 ; signals, 365 Fireplaces, i. 52, ii. 301 Fireships, ii. 269 Firstfruits of benefices, i.405 ; ii. 63, 124, 127, 217, iii. 104 Fish, in Saxon times, i. 49 ; trade in Middle Ages, 310 ; kinds of, in use, 314 ; at tempts to revive the trade, ii. 182 Fisher, the Jesuit, ii. 394 Fisheries, coast, iii. 90 ; cod, H. 40 ; dispute with U.S.A., iii. 429 Fiske, John, ii. 37, 49, 361 Fitz, Richard, ii. 242 Fitzherbert, Sir Anthony, i. 324, ii. 50 ; Mrs., iii. 322 Fitz-Osbert, William, i. 170, 212 Fitz-Stephen, William, i. 172 Five Members, arrest of, ii. 105, 404, 448, 450 Five-Mile Act, iii. 31 Flamsteed, John, iii. 115 Flanders, i. 98, 99, 173, 205, 240, 282, 293, 309, 310, 341, 342, 343, ii. 26, 41, 51, 106, 304, iii. 37 Flannel, ii. 264 Flaxman, John, iii. 247-8 Fleet Ditch, Hi. 130 ; mar riages, iii. 126 ; prison, ii. 185, 228, 244, 413, 416, iii. 31 Fleetwood, Charles, Parlia mentary General, iii. 6, 32 ; WiUiam, M.P., ii. 214, 228 Flemish lace, ii. 264 Fleta, i. 176, ii. 343 Fletcher, Giles, ii. 292 ; John, ii. 290 ; Rev. John, iii. 174 ; Phineas, ii. 292 Flint, castle, i. 269 ; imple ments, i. 14 ; lock muskets, iii. 285 ; and steel, 294 Flogging in the Army, iii. 313-4 Flood, Henry, M.P., iii. 298, 330 Flooi-s, inlaid, ii. 303 Florence, city of, i. 205, 311, ii. 28, 79, 108, 267, 300, 460, iii. 191 Florida, ii. 261, 357, Hi. 283 Florin, coin, i. 312 Flux, or dysentery, i. 355, ii. 13. n7 Flying Dutchman legend, ii. 282 Folcland, i. 65 ; lore, 53 ; motes, 66 Food, Saxon, i. 49 ; in Middle Ages, 313, 314 ; in Tudor times, ii. 303 Foote, G. W., iii. 69 ; Samuel, iii. 113, 248-9 Footpads, i. 328, ii. 487, iii. 131. 137 467 [FRANCE. Forced labour, 1. 378 ; loans, ii. 28, 63, 103, io6, 334, 386, 432 Fords, i. 167 Forefathers' Day, ii. 358 Fore'gn affairs under tudors, ii. 64, 65, 72, 106, 113, 256- 270 ; under Stuarts, 340, 380 ; under CromweU, 497 ; Charles II., Hi. 34, 36, 46 ; William III., 73, 82, 86 ; Anne, 94 ; George II. 187, 196, 214 ; George III., 231, 275 Foreigners in England, i. 117, 250 ; appointed to benefices, 138, 245, 287, 405 Forest, Friar, ii. 154 ; laws, i. 92, 130-132, 226, 254, 277, ii. 56, 410, 444, iii. 139 ; of Dean, i. 32, ii. 20, iii. 139, 174 ; Epping, 141 ; New, i. 130, 150 Forestalling, i. 375 Forks, i. 315, ii. 303, iii. 1S9 Formalism, Religious, i. 239, iii. 169-177 Formosa island, Hi. 106 Forster, John, ii. 408, 445, 449 ; W. E., Hi., 360, 431, 436 Fortescue, Sir John, ii. 23, 50, 376 Fortune-teUing, Hi. 261 Fosseway, i. 27 Foster, Dr. James, iii. 162 ; John, essayist, ii. 294, iii. 255. 355, 361, 364 Fotheringay, ii. 256 Foundling Hospital, iii. 129 Fountain of Justice, sup posed, i 185 Fountains abbey, ii. 154 Fox, Charles James, iii. 84, 127, 152, 155, 202-3, 2°8, 212, 222, 224, 233-4, 236, 242-3, 268, 271, 278 280, 298, 300-1, 322-3, 376 ; George, ii. 506, Hi. 16, 175 (Quakers) ; William Johnson, M.P., 384 Foxe, John, i. 424, ii. 9, 95, 102, 150, 195 227, 267 France, Capetian kings, i, 216 ; English in, 173, 215 ; claims upon, 341-351, ii- *3- 19 ; relations with, 67 ; in trigues with Scotland, i. 291, 341 ; war with, by Edward I., 291, 292, by Edward III., 342-351, b> Henry V., ii. 10, 13 ; waste of the war, 15 ; its horrors, 16, 17; English reverses in, 18 ; territories lost, 18 ; claims by Edward IV., 28 ; Transatlantic projects, 37, 41 ; war with in 1522, 103 ; monasteries suppressed in, 141 ; Calais lost, the last English possession, 200 ; sale of titles in, 336 ; settle- FRANCHISE.] INDEX. [GLADSTONE. ments in America, 357,365 ; Admiral Blake and, iii. 2 ; Charles II. a pensioner of, 38 ; war with, 1689, 73, 82, and in 1703-1713, 93 ; con test with, for India, 193-4, and for America, 196 ; aid to American Colonies, 231 ; Commercial Treaty with, 236, 441 ; condition prior to Revolution of 1719, 265 ; its causes, i. 349, iii. 264 ; its course, to the advent of Napoleon (g.v.), 267-275 ; Great War of 1793-1815, 230, 275-288 ; Bourbons restored, 286 ; territory divided, 287 ; Imperialism in, 288 ; Revolution of 1S48, 288, 379 ; Louis Napoleon and the Second Empire, 416. (Louis.) Franchise, the, i. 262, ii. 3. [Electors- House of Com mons.) Francis I., of France, i. 349. ii. 67, 106, 122, 137 ; II., ii. 67, 253 ; Sir Philip, iii. 214 Franciscans. ( Friars.) Frankfort, ii. 189, 212 Frankincense, i. 311 " Franking'' letters, iii 245 Franklin, Benjamin, ii. 371, iii. ioi, 208, 218, 231, 366 Frankpledge, i. 61 ' Eraser's Magazine,' Hi. 363 Frederick, son of George II., iii. 190 ; Barbarossa, Em peror, i. 195 ; William of Prussia, iii. 178, 188-9, I94> 214 Free tenants, i. 360 Free Trade, advocated by Coke, ii. 337 ; Adam Smith's labours, iii. 272-3 ; proposed for Ireland, 320 ; secured in England, 406-418 :— Hall, Manchester, 340 Freedom of conscience. (To leration.) Freeholders, forty-shilling, ii. 3. (Electors.) Freeman, E. A., i, 62, 71, 84 127, 136, 289, 336 Freemen in boroughs, iii. 343 French, language used, i. i2g, 172, 272, 274, 419, 420 ridicule of, iii. 184 Friars, i. 77, 80, 240-244, 308 354. 395. 398, ii. 130, 144, 146 Friendly Societies, iii. 339, 445 Friesland, u, 134 Friezes, ii. 304 Froben, of Basle, ii. 80 Frobisher, Sir Martin, ii. 268 FrOebel, Friedrich, iii. 351 Froissart, i. 343, 347, 388, 432, 440, 442 Fronde, War of the, 11. 454 Froude, J. A., ii. 115, 167 Fruits of Middle Ages, i. 311 ; modern glass cultivation, iii. 367 Fry, Elizabeth, iii. 318, 368 ; Francis, ii. 98 Fryth, John, martyr, ii. 92,97 Fugitives and wanderers, i. 170, 181 Fulham, ii. 264, 306 Fuller, Andrew, iii. 168 ; Thomas, i. 141, 149, 248, 391, 399, 423, 435- ii- 9, 46, 7i, 87, 147, 179, 207-9, 217, 232, 237, 244, 259, 289, 320, Hi. 412 Fulling-mills, ii. 52 Fulton, Robert, iii. 296 Funerals, i. 32, 268, Hi. 31, 126 Furmenty porridge, ii. 303 Furniture, i. 52, 316, ii. 264, 30^, iii. 129. — Furs, i. 310 Fyrd, the, i. 47, 185 Fyshe, Simon, ' Supplycacyon for Beggers,' ii. 58, 85 Gage, General, iii. 225 Gagging Act, 1795 iii, 3™ Gainsborough, i. 89, ii. 352 Gale, John, iii. 152; Theo philus, 26 ; Dr. Thomas, ii. 58 Galileo, ii. 296, 460, 510, ui. 44. 365 Gall, James, blind school, iii, 368 Gallaudet, T. H., deaf-mutes, Hi. 368 Galloway, i. 290, 294, iii. 49 Gallows, the, i. 132, 333, iii. 136. (Criminals.) Galt, John, novelist, iii. 49, 360 Galvani, Lewis, iii. 366 Gama, Vasco da, ii. 39, 273 Gambling, ii. 31, 171, 306, iii. 120, 125, 127. (Cards.) Game and game-laws, i. 92, 130-132, 325, ii. 56, iii. 139, 292, 371-2, 440 Games, i. 315, 317, ii, 328, iii. 127. (Sports.) ' Gammer Gurton's Needle,' ii. 285 Gaol-fever, ii. 243, 247 Garden produce, i. 34, 52, 311, ii. 303, iii. 142 Gardiner, S. R., ii, 338, 400 ; Bishop. (Winchester.) Garlic, i. 310, 311 Garrick, David, iii. 120, 132, 248 Gascoigne, George, dramatist, ii. 285 ; Thomas, 22 Gascony, i. 173, 349, 350, ii. 18 Gascoygne, WiUiam, ii. 296 Gas-lighting, Hi. 247, 297, 367 Gatling guns, i. 344 Gatton, iii. 206-7 Gauden, Dr. John, ii 477 Gaul, i. 14, 17 Gaunt, Elizabeth, iii. 53 Gavelkind, i. 65, 438 Gaveston, Piers de, i. 299 468 Gay, John, poet, iii. 111, 114, i'i6,;i3o, 134 Geffcken, F. H., on State and Church, ii. 205 General Warrants, iii. 209 Geneva, ii. 101, 174, 175, 189, 329, 494, iii. 284 ; "jigs," ii. 29S ; preaching-gown, iii. 169 ; Arbitration, 1872, 429. (Bible.) Genoa, i. 311, ii. 28, 39, 106, 259, 273, 433 ' Gentleman's Magazine,' iii. 132, 184, 245 Geology, iii. 258 George I., ii. 336, iii. 109, 144-5, 177; II., "167, 177-8, 198; III., ii. 230, iii. 132, 185, 198- 204, 336 ; IV„ 203, 243, 284, 305, 3H, 313. 318-9, 322 George, Prince, of Denmark, iii. 59, 84, 97 Georgia, iii. 215, 225 Gerefa, i. 63 German historical writers, i. 10 ; tribes, 37 Germany, Peasants' War, i. 349, ii. 134 ; trade with, 4T ; bricks from, 49 ; monasteries suppressed, 141 ; the Refor mation in, 81-85 : Protestant influence on England, ii. 123, 162, 179 ; disputes between Calvinists and Lutherans, 329 ; Thirty Years' War, 134, 167 32t>, 378, 482 ; intolerance in, 494 ; struggle for national existence, iii. 196 Ghent, i. 282, 350, 370, iii. 188 Ghosts, iii. 175, 261 Gibbon, Edward, Hi. m, 113, 148, 165, 222, 253, 258, 262, 365 Gibraltar, ii. 37, iii. 94, 194, 215, 231 Gifford, William, critic, iii. 186, 363 Gifts and bribes from suitors, i. 178, ii. 336, 347, 410, iii. 102, 180-2, 201, 206, 208, 333 Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, ii. 258, 281; Dr. William, "297, Hi. 365 Gildas, i. 12, 37, 39, 70 Gill, Dr. Tohn, iii. 32, 158 Gillray, James, iii. 118, 124, 282 Gilpin, Bernard, i. 401, ii. 171, iii. 175 Gin-drinking, iii. 122 Gipsies, ii. 56 Giraldus Cambrensis, i. 30, 159, 200, 239 Girls, treatment of, temf, Tudors, ii. 55. (Women.) Giustiniani, Venetian ambas sador, ii. 70 Gladstone, W. E., ii. 491, iii, 25, 144, 179, 291, 328, 379, 387, 389, 395, 420-1, 427, 432- 441 GLANVILL.] Glanvill, Joseph, ii. 293 ; Ranulf de, i. 175, 176, ii. 376 Glasgow, i. 294, iii. 296, 334, 383 ; University, ii. 255, 426 Glass, coloured, i. 311, 322 j flint and plate, iii. 129 ; window, ii. 264, 301 Glastonbury, i. 39, 77, 79, 202, ii. 143 Gleemen, i. 308. (Music.) Glencoe massacre, iii. 81, 238 Gloucester, i. 28, 63, 133, 221, 236, 252, 314, ii. 452, iii. 54 ; bishopric, ii. 144; Bishops: — Hooper, ii. 164, 185, 186, T94, 195, 220 ; Warburton, ii. 326, iii. 149, 164-5, 185, 209, 251 :— Duke of, brother to Henry V., ii. 15, 19 ; son of Queen Anne, iii. 84 : — Earl of, i. 259, 264, 268 Gloves, i. 307 ; ii. 264 Gneist, H. R., i. 127 ; ii. 115, Hi. 440 "Goddams" in France, iii. 119 Godfrey de Bouillon, i. 147 Godwin, William, ii. 504, iii. 268, 273, 318, 361 Godwine, Earl, i. 98, 99 Goethe, ii. 287, iii. 398 Gold and silver forbidden to be "multiplied," iii. 140; relative value, ii. 107 ; im ports affect prices, 182 Golden Age of England, ii. 278 Goldsmith, Oliver, i. 401, iii. 113, 123, 132, 136, 172, 223, 249, 250, 253. 257, 265. 271, 306 Gomarists, ii. 330 Gondomar, Spanish ambassa dor, ii. 339, 340, 343, 344 Gonfanon, i. 104 Good Friday buns, ii. 220 Goodwin, John, ii. 468 ; Dr. Thomas, 397, 464, 466, 494, 506, 507, iii. 24, 32, 171 Goodwin Sands, iii. 3 'Gorboduc,' ii. 284 Gordon, Lord George, Riots, Hi. 204, 309 Gorges, Sir Ferdinando, ii. 352 Gorham, Rev. C. G., iii. 409 Goschen, G. J., iii. 290 Gothic tribes, i. 37 Gourds, or hoUow dice, ii. 306 Government, excessive, i. 372-6, iii. 90, 338, 372, 443 ; exists for the governed, 62 ; limited powers, 376. (Officialism.) Gower, John, i. 422, 435 ; ii. 53 Grafton, Richard, 11. 17, 100, 102 Graham, Sir James, iii. 244, 346, 353-4- 304 INDEX. Graham's Dyke, i. 25 Grammar schools, i. 338, 420, ii. 118, 145, 172, 380. (Edu cation.) Grammont, Comte de, iii. 36 Grampus, fish, i. 314 Grand Jury for assessment, i. 212 ; for trials, ii. 43 Grandison, Sir Charles, iii, 123 Grant, James, 'The News paper Press,' iii. 1S6 Grants-in-aid of wages, iii. 308 ; of local rates, 433 Granville, Earl, iii. 124, 181, Grattan, Henry, iii. 223, 243, 298 Gravitation, theory of, ii. 297 Gray, Bishop of Cape Town, iii. 439 ; Thomas, pnct, i. 144, 270, 387, ii. 167, iii. 113, 249, 257, 262, 294 Gray's Inn, ii. 285, 397 Great Britain, Act of Union, iii. 102 ; steamship, 297 Great Charter, i. 219-234 Great Councils, Norman, i. 102, 133, 135, 141, 177, 192, 193, 204, 224, 227, 252, 253, 255, 256, 295, ii. 433 ; differ from ParUaments, i. 380, ii. 41. (Witan.) Great Exhibition of 1851, Hi. 417 ; " Rebellion," i. 246, 259, ii. 23, 451 (Civil Wa}-) : Seal, i. 211 ; "Western" steamship, iii. 296 Greater Britain, iii. 197, 444 " Greatest happiness " for mula, iii. 371, 374 Greek, Church, subscription not required, ii. 206 ; lan guage, i. 357, 402 ; revived study, ii. 79 Green, J. R., i. 214, 427, ii. 168, iii. 35 ; Mrs. J. R., i. 207 Greene, Robert, ii. 286, 290 Greenwich, ii. 154, 312 ; hos pital, iii. 84, 114 Greenwood, John, Separatist, ii. 226, 238, 240, 244, 350 Gregory of Nyssa, ii. 458 Grenville, Sir Richard, H. 281 ; George, iii. 209, 217-8, 236 ; Hbrary, ii. 98 Gresham, Sir Thomas, ii. 273, 283 ; College, ii. 296, iii. 44 Grey, Earl, iii. 244, 310, 330-1 ; Sir George, 396 ; Lady Jane, ii. 55, 187, 188, 190 Gridirons, i, 316 Grievances, Redress of, and Grant of Supply, i. 255, 304, 340, 345, 379, ii- 2, 335, 378, 431, 437 Grimston, Sir Harbottle, M.P., ii. 430, 437 Groat, the, i. 436 Grocers' Company, ii. 59 Grocyn, William, ii. 79 Grote, George, iii. 361, 369, 376 469 [HALLAM. Grotius, Hugo, ii, 262, 327 330, 343, 460, 463, iii. 24, 256 Groton, Suffolk, ii. 362 Ground-rent, i. 360 Grub-street writers, iii. 92, 114 Guelphs and Ghibellines, ii. 25 Guericke, Otto von, ii. 297, iii. 366 Guiana, ii. 260, 26^, 343 Guienne, i. 173, 210, 215, 251, 257, 262, 268, 270, 282, 346, 348, 349, 350, ii- 18 Guildhall, i. 119, ii. 197, 449, iii. 312 Guilds, i. 68, 165, 319, 326, 338, 371, H. 145, 275, 360 ; iii. 105 Guinea Coast, ii. 256, 280 ; Company, 272 Guizot, F. P. G., ii. 504, iii. 288 Gun-cotton, Hi. 367 Gunpowder, i. 343, 357, ii. 53 Gurney, Hudson, Hi. 319 ; Joseph John, 368 Gustavus Adolphus of Swe den, ii. 329, 357, 381 ; Vasa, 141 ; IV., Hi. 283 Guthrum, i. 44 Gutta percha, Hi. 366 Guttenberg, John, ii. 53 Gwyn, Nell, iii, 93 Gymnosophists, ii. 194 Gyrth, Earl, i. 113 Habakkuk Mlxklkwrath, ii. 427 Habeas Corpus, ii. 387, 388, 405, 491, iii. 47, 311, 316, 319 Hackney coaches, ii. 487, iii. 131 Hadfield, George, M.P., iii. 325 Hadrian, Emperor, i. 24 Hsesten the Dane, i. 45 Hague, the, ii. 26, 265, 296, 562, 503, iii. 59, 82, 86 Hair, the, i. 163, ii. 305 Hakluyt, Richard, ii. 38, 258, 280 ; Society, 260 Haldane, James and Robert, iii. 404 Hale, Sir Matthew, ii. 293, 462, 487, 491, iii. io, 66 Hales, John, of Eton, ii. 186, 279, 466, iii. 94, 266 Halfway Covenant, ii. 368 Halifax, Lord, " the Trim mer," iii. 51-2 ; Earl of, 209, 210 Hall, the Saxon, i. 52 ; the English, ii. 49 Hall, Edward, chronicler, ii. 10, 34, 107, 115, 126, 160, 288 ; Rev. Robert, iii. 24, 160, 175, 206, 223, 269, 310, 323 Hallam, Henry, i. 136, ii.. 3, HALLEY.] INDEX. [HISTORY. 60, 168, 181, 199, 218, 290, 296, 337, 466, iii. 25, 61, 80, 255, 36i Halley, Edward, i. 108, Hi. 115; Robert, ' Puritanism in Lancashire,' ii. 498 Halliwell-Phillips, J. 0., ii. 288 Hallowmass, i. 20 Hament, or Hammond, Mat thew, ii. 249 Hamilton, Alexander, iii. 221 ; Duke of, ii. 475 ; Patrick, 87, 253 ; Sir W., i. 291, iii. 362 Hampden Clubs, Hi. 316 ; John, ii. 360, 387, 420, 432, 434, 437, 445, 448, 453, 455 Hampton Court, 11. 70, 117, 450, 474, 484 ; Conference at, 174, 320, iii. 18, 88, 371 Hanapers, i. 274 Handel, G. F., ii. 200, Hi. 41, 1 15-6 Hand-in-Hand Life Office, Hi. 106 Hand-mills, 1. 316 Hands cut off, i. 132, ii. 215 Hangman, books burned by, iii. 98 Hanover, iii. 84, 109, 126, 145, 177, 198, 202, 374 Hansard, i. 7 ; and Stockdale case, iii. 185 Hanse Towns, i. 310, 311, ii. 26, 94, iii. 3, 383 Hanway, Jonas, iii. 129 Harcourt, Sir Simon, iii. 98 ; Sir W. V., 291, 439 Hardy, Thomas, Hi. 32, 312 ; Sir T. Duffus, i. 8, 13, 159 Hare, Archdeacon, Hi. 25 Hargreaves' spinning-jenny, Hi. 245 Harieian MSS., ii. 311 Harley. (Oxford, Earl of.) Harold, King, i. 98-9, xor- 114 : — Harefoot, 92 : — Har drada, 109 Harpists, i. 50, ii. 303 Harpsichord, the, ii. 300 Harrington, James, 'Oceana,' ii. 510 ; Sir John, 283, 290, 292, 306, 321 Harrison, Major-General, ii, 495, iii. 12 Harthacnut, i. 92 Harvard University, ii. 362, 364, Hi. 167 Harvey, William, circulation of blood, ii. 297, 302, 510 ; Ci-omwell's Groom of the Bed-chamber, 503 Hastings,, i, 111, 129, 141 ; Warren, ii. 380, 439, iii. 237- 240, 277 Hats, ii. 264, 303 Hatton, Sir Christopher, ii. 214, 278 ; Lady, 346 Havelock, Sir Henry, iii. 424 , Hawaii, iii. 243 Hawkers, i. 308, iii. 83, 96 Hawkins, Sir John, ii. 258, 259, 261, 268, Hawks, i. 22r, 318 Hawthorne, Nathaniel, ii. 361, iii. 386 Hazard, game, Hi. 127 Hazlitt, William, ii. 287-8, iii. 35, 260, 314, 358, 361, 368 Healing Declaration, iii. 14 " Health of the soul," i. 392 Health, public, i. 53, 354, ii. 57, iii. 131, 373 Hearne, Thomas, ii. 147, iii. 262 Hearth-tax, iii. 82 Heath "Carrion" James, ii. 503 ; Sir Robert, Attorney- General, 406 Hebrew learning, i. 249, 357 ; pivpliets, merciless,' ii. 176 Hegel. ¦•' W. F., iii. 14S HeidelLa-g Catechism, ii. 330 Hell-fire Club, iii. 125 Helwys, Thomas, ii. 351 Hemans, Felicia, ii. 361, iii. 362 Henderson, Alexander, H. 462 ; Robert, poet, 283 Hengest and Horsa, i. 37 Henrietta Maria of France, Queen of Charles I., ii. 345, 365, 372, 377, 38i, 403, 448, 450 Henry I., King, i. 130, 150-5, 204 ; II., 157, 172-207, 269 ; III., 227, 236, 238, 244-265, 307 ; IV., 444-6, ii. 2-12 ; V., 11-15, 52 ; VI., i. 337, ii. 16-27; VII., 15, 32-47, 50, 295, 462 ; VIII., 62-3, 86-7, 90, 111-168 Henry, Prince of Wales, son of lames I., ii. 344 ; Prince of Portugal, the Navigator, 37 ; IV., Emperor, i. 105 ; V., 156 Henry of Huntingdon, i. 19, 92, 155, 158 ; of Navarre, ii. 271, 448 ; Matthew, iii. 152 ; Patrick, 220 ; Philip, 24 ; Dr. Robert, historian, 258 Henryson, or Henderson, Robert, poet, ii. 283 Heptarchy, pretended, i. 40 Heraclius, Patriarch of Jeru salem, i. 216 Hei'balists, i. 308 Herbert, George, i. 401, ii. 397, 414, iii. 251 ; Attorney- General, ii. 448 ; Lord, of Cherbury, iii. 180 ; Lord, of Lea, 387' Herbs, medicinal, i. 356, ii. 59 Hereford city, i- 264, ii. 172, 267 ; Bishops :— Baxter, iii. r6 ;Fox, ii. 137, 152 ; Hamp den, iii. 408 : — Duke of, i. 443 :— Earl of, 76, 282 ;— Nicholas, i. 417 1 Hereford Journal,' iii. 102 Heresv, attempted suppres- 470 sion, under Richard II., i. 414, ii. 6 ; trial of William Thorpe, i. 424 ; linked with sedition, 428 ; put down under Henry IV., ii. 5, 7 ; Bishop Pecock charged, 10 ; test-questions, 88 ; cases in Lincoln diocese, 96 ; process of trials, 127 ; cases, temp. Henry VIII., 133, 154, 165 ; Servetus burned for, 176 ; cases temp. Edward VI., 184 ; under- Mary, 192 : under Elizabeth, 244-246 ; suppressed during Com monwealth, 465 ; alleged in iSth century, iii. 156-7 Hereward, i. 123, 265 Heron, the, iii. 143 Herrings, i. 314, Hi. 3 Herrnhut, iii. 175 Hertford, Earl of. (Somerset.) Hervey, Lord Arthur, ii, 98 ; Rev. James, iii. 174 ; Lord John, 177 Hessian mercenaries in America,' Hi. 230, and in Ireland, 300 HevHn, Peter, ii, 167, 347, 512 Heywood, Abel, iii. 364 ; John, ii. 285, 286 ; Oliver, Hi, 24 ; Thomas, ii. 290 Hickes, George, Dean of Worcester, iii. 72 Hicksites, iii. 17 Hides of land, i. 88, 192 Higden, Ranulph, i. 403, 419, ii. 53 HLgh, Church party, iii. 96-8, 107, 149, 166 ; Commission Court, ii. 8, 88, 232, 234, 242, 244- 33i, 332, 394, 4T°, 412^ 437, 443, iii- 56 ; Court of Justice, ii. 476, iii. 13 ; 'Life Below Stairs,' iii. 124 ; Peak, Derbyshire, 140 Highlanders, iii. 49, 81, 146, 190 Highway robbery, i. 328, 329, ii. 487, iii. 145 Highways, control of, ii. 313 HiU, John, quack, 141 ; Sir Rowland, iii. 244, 386 Hispaniola, ii. 497 Historic archaeology, i. 13 ; fictions, 11, 47, 129, 209,228, 270, 337, 344, 347, 397, ii- 29, 87, 184, 371, 422, 425, 498, Li. 359- (Legendary. Talcs.) Historical MSS. Commission, i. "8 ; method, the, founded by Montesquieu, Hi. 256, and applied by Sir WiUiam Jones, 258; novels, i. 114, 124, ii. 33, 258, 365, iii. 52, 121, 197, 230, 384 (Scott) ; drama, ii. 287 History, Character of, i. 2 ; of other countries, 9 ; foreign writers on English, 9 ; fables of, 11 ; materials for, 7, 13 ; HOBBES.] INDEX. [HUTCHINSON. Gibbon's conception of, iii. 254 ; Hume's method, 255 Hobbes, Thomas, of Malmes bury, ii. 510, iii. 160, 165, 257, 266, 319 Hocklcy-in-the-hole, iii. 120 Ho:us-Pocus, ii. 150 Hodge, name for countryman, ii. 285 Hogarth, William, ii. 58, iii. 113, 116, 118, 120, 124, 126, 130, 132, 151, 189, 190, 209 Holbein, Hans, ii. 62, 101, 125 Holinshcd, Raphael, i. 436, u. 28, 283, 288 Holland, Lord, iii. 127, 311 Holland, emigration from, to America, ii. 356, 357. 365 ; Admiral Blake and, iii. 2, 3, 38 ; invasion of England, 36; Triple Alliance with, 37 ; refugees in, 54 ; asylum of liberty, 58 ; system of annuities", 105 ; drainage operations, 143 ; and Aus tralia, 240 ; Louis Bona parte, King of, 282 ; cedes Cape Colony, 398. (Dutch Republic. Netherlands?) Holies, Denzil, ii. 404, 405, 407, 448 Holmby House, ii. 472, 473 Holmes, Oliver Wendell, iii. 249, 253, 36i Holy Alliance, iii. 287 ; Grail, ii. 376 ; Island, i. 70 ; Land, 146, 305, iii. 241 ; League, ii. 65, iii. 287 ; Office. (In- guisition?) Holyoake, G. J., iii. 69, 378 Home, John, dramatist, iii. 248 Home Secretary, his powers, iii. 372 Homer, ii. 288 ; 'Iliad,' trans lated by Chapman, 286 Homilies, ii. 170, 327 Homoousians and Homoiou- sians, ii. 210 Hone, William, iii. 316, 362 Honey, i. 50, 165, 255 Hood, Thomas, poet, iii. 362 Hook, Dean, i. 71 Hooke, Dr. Robert, ii. 296 Hooker, Richard, iii. 402 ; Bishop Pecock a precursor of, ii. 11 ; majestic style, 157 ; on the Eucharist, 205 ; on Calvin, 207 ; ' Ecclesias tical Polity,' 225, 279 ; and Walter Travers, 227 ; on Apostolical Succession, 236 ; "the Judicious," 278; and Erasmus, 279 ; and Jewel, 279 ; and Jeremy Taylor, 509 Hooker, Thomas, ii. 362-3 Hooper, Bishop. (Gloucester?) Hops, i. 3*3 Horace, i. 220, ii. 287 'Horn for windows, ii. 302; ' spoons, 303 ; books, iu. 261 Hornebolt, Luke, painter, ii. 62 " Horned Cattle Speech," iii. 221 Horner, Francis, iii. 287, 310, 369 Homers, ii. 51 Horoscopes, ii. 293 Horseflesh eaten, i. 149 Horse-ljtters, i. 328, U. 306; riding, i. 328, ii. 58 Horses, i. 324, 328, iii. 140 ; forbidden to be sold to Scots, ii. 56 Hospitals, ii. 172 ; dissolved, H5 Hostellers, i. 362 Hot-cross buns, ii. 220; Gos pellers, 6 Hour-glass in pulpits, iii. 170 Hours of Our Lady, ii. 166 ; of meals, 303 House of Commons, rise of, i. 258, 262 ; growth, 278, 380- 3S4 ; methods of procedure, 380 ; originates money-bills, 388, ii. 3, iii. 48 ; Act of accusation of clergy, 1529, ii. 114 ; packed, temp. Ed ward VI., 172 ; temp. Mary, 190, temp. James L, 335 ; and Elizabeth, 214 ; number of members, 172, 173 ; rights asserted, 335, 339, 389 ; last boroughs created, 170 ; Coke's eulogy on, 338 ; claims freedom of speech, 339 ; members chosen by close corpora tions, 402 ; and Charles I., 376-388, 404, 446 ; Speaker Finch held in the chair, 404 ; City members on Treasury bench, 450 ; abo lishes House of Lords, 479 ; the Rump, dispersed by CromweU, 486 ; Appropria tion Act, i. 386 ; iii. 61 ; officials and pensioners excluded, 85 ; property qualification, 85 ; members bribed, 181, 205 ; ridiculous pretensions, 185, 212 ; asserts control over Civil List, 203 ; large towns unrepresented, 206 ; sale of seats, 207 ; strained powers, 211-3 ; trial of election petitions, 212 ; constituencies after Reform Bill, 333 ; Jews admitted, 350 ; method in Committee of Supply, 375; conflict with the Lords, 97, 108, 159, 427 ; obstruction and Rules of Procedure, 435- (Parliament.) House of Lords, rise of, i. 279, 380 ; clergy, a majority in, 392, 407, ii. 115; dimin ished number of peers, 33, 143 ; remonstrate with Pope Clement VII. on the di- 471 vorce, 123 ; abbots cease to be members, 143 ; number of members, temp. Eliza beth, 204 ; peers created by her, 336, by James I., 336 ; abolished under the Com monwealth, 4791 ; and Money Bills, iii. 48 ; defend pubUc rights, 97, 108, 159 ; attempt to limit their number, 147 ; doubled under George III., ii. 336, iii. 201 ; powers defined, 333 ; conflict with Commons, 97, 108, 159, 427. (Parliament. Peers.) House-duty, ii. 4, iii. 83 Houses, Roman, i. 29 ; Saxon 51 ; Xorman, 164 ; in Middle Ages, 321 ; tax on, ii. 4 ; Tudor, 49, 301, 303 ; 18th century, iii. 129 ; of Correc tion, ii. 310, iii. 137 ; of Parliament burned, i. 180, iii- 395 Howard of Effingham, Lord, u. 268, 281 ; John, iii. 16, 136, 318 ; Association, 348 Howe, John, ii. 462, 507, iii. 5, 24, 54, 56, 65, 99, 171 ; Admiral, Lord, 275 Howell, George, iii. 342 • Thomas, recorder, 47 Howitt, William, iii. 368 Hubert de Burgh, i. 237 ' Hudibras.' (Butler.) Hudson, Henry, ii. 356, 357 ; William, on Star Chamber, 413 ; Bay Company, iii. 215 Hugo, Victor, Hi. 359, 416 Huguenots, ii. 222, 252, 304, 357, 365, 381, 386, 500, iii. 55, 73, 216 ; societies in America, 55 Hulks, for criminals, iii. 137, 398 Hull, i. 309, ii. 451, iii. 38 Humanists, the, ii. 79 Hume, David, i. 128, 270, ii. 168, 214, 298, 479, iii. 67, 113, 162, 165-6, 171, 254-5, 266 ; Joseph, M.P., 338, 375 Hun, Richard, ii. 90 Hundred, Court, i. 64, 272 ; Rolls, i. 275 Hungary, i. 100 ; ii. 109, 329, iii. 287, 379 Hunt, Henry, "Orator," iii. 314; Leigh, i. 161, ii. 343, iii. 35, 100, 313, 369 Hunter, Joseph, i. 8 ; ii. 361 Huntingdon, ii. 401, 437 ; Earl of, i. 290 ; Countess of, iii. 176 Huntington, WiUiam, '.'S.S„" iii. 158 Husbandry. (Agriculture?) Huskisson, Wm., iii. 324 Huss, John, i. 3^6, 410, 415, ii. 78, 87, iii. 175 Hustings, i. 166 Hutches, wooden, i. 315 , Hutchinson, Colonel and HUTTEN.] INDEX. [IRELAND. Lucy, ii. 362, 372, 495, 498 ; Anne, ii. 367 Hutten, Ulrichvon, ii. 125 Huygens, Christian, ii. 296 Hyde. (Clarendon.) Hymnology, ii. 299, 426, iii. 151, 175 Hypocausts, i. 30 Hypocrites of fiction, ii. 289. 498 Hythe, i. 129 ; ii. 264 Iceland, ii. 40 Iceni, i. 21, 22 Icknield-street, i. 27 Iconoqlasm, i. 163, ii. 454 Ideajs, impossible, ii. 221 Ignatius, iii. 66 Ignorance, popular, i. 20, 54, 394, ii. 52, 54, 156, 293, 511, Hi. 187, 261, 351 Ilchester. i. 357 Illuminated books (g.v.) Images, ii. 157 Impanation, ii. 174 ¦ Impeachment, ii. 114 ; .of Lords Latimer and Neville, i- 385, 387 ; of Bacon, ii. 347 ; of Lord Melville, ii. 348 ; instances, 348 ; of Manwaring, 385 ; of Straf ford, 438 ; of Laud, 439 : of Clarendon, iii. 39 ; of Macclesfield, 128 ; of War ren Hastings, 239 ; general, ii- 335, iii- 48 ; pardon no bar to, 85 Imperialism, ii. 49, Hi. 288, 416 Impey, Sir Elijah, iii. 237 Imports, in Middle Ages, i. 310, 371 ; in 16th century, H. 272 ; in 1761, iii. 215 ;, duties on, repealed, 178, 346 ; Walpole's plan, 186 ; present imports, 445 Imprisonment without war rant or charge, ii. 388, iii. 209 Income-tax, i. 132 ; of 1435 and of 1450, ii. 4, graduated, 5 ; under Commonwealth, 497 ; Pitt's, iii. 291 ; Peel's, 387 ; later, 42b, 433 Indemnity Act, annual, for Nonconformists, iii. 46, 152 Independents, early Separa tists not, ii. 241 ; and the Brownists, 243, 244 ; exiled to Holland, 350 ; divisions among, 350 ; emigrate to New England, 351, 352 ; and John Robinson, 353 ; church at Southwark, 351, Scrooby, 352, at Gainsborough, 352 j opinions of, 355 ; in Massa chusetts, 366 ; a modified form, 368 ; in the West minster Assembly, 464 ; theory of the Church, 466 ; controversy with Edwards,1 of ' Gangrasna,' 467 ; pro-' posal to establish, 506 ; at Cambridge, Covenant, iii. 29 ; and Trinitarian con troversy, 166. (Nonconfor mists. Separatists.) India, i.311 ; supposed Wes tern route, ii. 37 ; Eastern route, 39, 257, 272 ; early voyages to, 260 ; Companies trading with, 272 ; the East India Company, 272-3, 433, iii. 205, 219, 251, 410, 453 ; North- West passage, ii, 356-7 ; scattered settle ments, iii. 90 ; rivalry for trade with, 193 ; Moham medan invasion, 193 ; Eng land's contest for supre macy with France, 194 ; seats in Commons bought by "nabobs," 195, 207 ; Fox's Bill, 195, 207 ; North's Regulating Act, 236 ; Kar- natic War, 237 ; Napoleon's designs on, 276 ; Mysore War, 277 ; annexation po licy, 277, 385 ; salt-tax, 291 ; Kabul Expeditions. 385 ; Mutiny of 1857, 422-6 country transferred to Crown, 237, 425 ; the Na tional Congress, 426 India, Governors-General :— Auckland, iii. 277, 385 ; Can ning, 424 ; Cornwallis, 232 , 239, 385 ; Dalhousie, 277, 385 ; EUenborough, 277, 385 ; Hardinge, 385 ; Mar quis of Hastings, 277, 385 ; Warren Hastings, 237-240 ; Lawrence, 385, 423 ; Wel lesley, 277 Indian corn, ii. 359 Individualism repressed, i. 372 Inductive philosophy, i. 358, ii. 295, 298 Indulgences, i. 416, ii. 81 Industries, introduced to England from Netherlands, ii. 264, 304 ; by Huguenots, iii. 55 ; in 18th century, 118, 245; regulated, i. 372- 376 ; ii. 488. (Prices. Pro tective. Trade.) Influenza, ii. 58 ; Hi. 133 Informers, U. 130, 157 ; iii. 18, 21 "Inhabitant occupiers," iii. 381 Ini, of Mercia, i. 59, 74 Injunctions to clergy, ii. 151, 159, 171, 224 Inns, i. 329 ; yards of, ii. 285 ; of Court, i. 272, ii. 284 Inoculation for smaU-pox, iii. 133, 189 Inquests by recognition, I, 186 Inquisition never set-up in England, H. 7 ; and the Waldenses, 78 ; methods adopted under Whitgift, 4*72 232 ; in Spain, 257 ; in the Netherlands, 262, 267 ; pro cedure, 465 ; in India, Hi. 195 ' Instrument of Government, ii. 490, 501 Insurrections : — English against Norman, i. 120- i24;of Barons against John, 224-235 ; Welsh, 269 ; of Barons against Edward II., 300 ; ' Wat Tiler's 438 ; Henry Bolingbroke's, 445 ; against Henry IV., ii. 12 ; iack Cade's, 20 ; against lenry VI., 24 ; Edward IV., 26 ; Richard III., 32 ; Henry VII., 36 ; Pilgrimage of Grace, 153 ; for Lady Jane Grey, 188; Wyatt's, 190 ; in Ireland, i. 441 ; ii. 257, 273-5, 444, 481 ; in Scotland, 475, iii. 49 ; Mon mouth's 51 ; Jacobite, 146, 190-2, 311 ; Cato-stree*^ 319. (Plots. Rebellions.) ' Intercursus Magnus/ ii, 51 Interdict, Papal, i. 217 Interest regulated, ii. 488 Interludes, ii. 284, 285, 328 Inventions variously claimed, iii. 366-7 Inventories for taxation, i. 316 Invitatories, ii. 181 Iona, i. 70 Ipswich, H. 117, 118, 413 Ireland, W. H., iShaksper forgeries, ii. 372 Ireland, Romans in, i. 24 ; called Scotia, 25 ; Scot; came from, 36 ; early kings, 98 ; Papal grant to Henry IL, 201, ii. 39; Church of, independent, i. 202 ; people of, 203 ; round towers, 203 ; the Pale, 205, ii. 46; the con quest nominal, i. 205 ; trade of, 205 ; under Henry III., 238; Richard II. in, 445; under Henry VII., ii. 45 ; disorder, 46 ; Poynings Act, 46 ; in rebellion, 257 ; temp. EUzabeth, 273 ; feeling to wards England, 274 ; severe treatment, 274 ; Edmund Spenser on, 275 ; the Penal Code, 275, 482, iii. 75-9, 326 ; Anglican Church in, ii. 276, Hi. 79, 344 ; Tyrone's RebeUion, ii. 275 ; settlers and adventurers, 275 ; the country adhered to Rome, 276 ; effects of misrule on England, 276 ; planting of Ulster, 336; settlers from, in America, 365; Strafford's rule, 399, 400; Protestant massacre of 1641, 444 ; eight years' anarchy, 481 ; repre sented in CromweU's Par liaments, 489, 494 ; invasion by James II., Hi. ^ . IRELAND.] Protestant ascendency in, 75-9 ; emigration to Ame rica, 79, 388, 394 ; land for feitures^; Nonconformists relieved, 154 : royal heredi tary revenues, 202 ; Scotch- Irish in America, 216 ; Pitt proposes to free the trade of, 236, 298 ; Parlia ment and the Regency, 24.3; Rebellion of 1798, i. 441, iii. 300 ; French intervention, 269, 300 ; state during 18th century, 297 ; absentee-tax, 297 ; secret societies, 297, 394 ; some concessions, 298; the Grattan Parliament, 299 ; Catholic Emancipation pro mised, but withheld, 300, 303 ; Act of Union, 301- 303 ; coercive legislation, 304 ; landlord severity, 306 ; Encumbered Estates Court, 389 ; poor law in, 330 ; fresh outbreaks, 326 ; Catholic Relief Act, 327-8 ; minority had political power, 350 ; Drummond's wise policy, 329 ; numerous relief mea sures, 329 ; the franchise, 314; and Municipal Reform, 343 ; Religious Census, 344 ; tithe-war, 345 ; Queen's Colleges, 395 ; Royal Con stabulary, 372 ; potato disease, 388 ; deaths from famine and fever, 388 ; Repeal agitation, 393 ; dwindling population, 394 ; Maynooth grant, 394, 414 ; higher education scheme defeated, 433 ; Home Rule question, 437. (Church?) Ireland, Lords-Lieutenant, the office, ii, 46 ; Roman Catholics debarred, iii. 327 ; Earl of Chesterfield, iii. 250, 297; Earl Cornwallis, iii. 232, 301 ; Cromwell, ii. 481 ; Earl of Essex, 1573, 274; Earl Fitzwilliam, Hi. 299, 318, 344 ; Sir Edward Poynings, ii. 46 ; Earl of Strafford, 399 ; Earl of Sussex, 1561, 274 ; Duke of Tyrconnel, iii. 74 ; Lord Wharton, iii. 60 Ireton, Henry, ii. 474, 482, iii. 13 Irish Society, London, ii. 275 Iron, i. 32, Hi. 139, 246, 4^.6 Ironsides, CromweU's, ii. 453, 471,473 rt Irresistible Grace, 11. 178 Irving, Rev. Edward, iii. 175, 352 ; Washington, ii. 357, 476 IsabeUa of AngoulSme, Queen of John, i. 306 ; of France, Queen of Edward IL, 298, 303, 340 ; of Richard II., 444 INDEX. Islington, ii. 242, iii. 133 Italian bankers, i. 343, 345 ; opera, iii. 116 Italy, ii. 64, 79, 292, 494, iii. 287, 415, 418 Itch, the, i. 311 Ivimey, ' Baptist History,' iii. t 1I9 ¦ Ivory, 1. 311 Jackson, General "Stone wall," iii. 217 Jacob, Henry, ii. 319, 350, 351, 355 Jacobins, Hi. 266, 274 Jacobites, iii. 71, 84-5, 88, 109, 145-6, 149, 152, 190-2, 311 Jacquerie, rising of the, i. 349 : ii- 134 Jamaica, ii. 497, iii. 241, 368 James I., King, ii. 316-8, 320-1, 328, 333-5, 337-345, 351, 372, 381, 385, iii- 3; II. 37, 46-7, 51-60, 74-5. 88 James Francis Edward, the Old Pretender, iii. 88, 109, 190-1 James I., of Scotland, ii. 12, 283; IL, i. 344; IV., ii. 36, 43, 66 ; V., 66, 67, 253 ; VI., 256. (James I. of Eng land.) James, G. P. R. novelist, iii. 360 ; Dr. fever-powders, iii, 132 Jansenists, ii. 178 Japan, ii. 249, 272, 280 Jarl, Danish title, i. 64, 97 Jay, John, U.S.A., ii. 234 Jedburgh, abbey, ii. 67 ; justice, i. 213, 292 Jefferson, Thomas, President U.S., iii. 227, 229, 241 Jeffrey, Francis, iii. 206, 323, 332, 363 Jeffreys. (Chancellors?) ienkyn, WiUiam, iii. 30 enner, Dr. Edward, iii. 134 enny Geddes, ii. 425 erome, St., ii. 80 ; of Prague, i. 410, 415, ii. 78, 87 Jerusalem, i. 146, ii. 273 ; bishopric, iii. 405 ; Chamber, the, ii. 462 ; Holy Places, iii. 417 Jervaulx abbey, ii. 154 Jesters, ii. 3°3 Jesuits, rise of, ii. 249 ; plots 251 ; why they suffered under Elizabeth, 252 ; mis sionaries, 260, 357 ; with the Armada, 269 ; dispute with Jansenists, 178 ; in England, 378 ; and educa tion, iii. 173 ; in Canada, 196 "Jesus," the ship, ii. 258 Jewel, Bishop. (Salisbury?) Jewel House of the Tower, ii. 261 JeweUery, i. 33, 50 Jewels, ii. 158 ; crown, pawned, 450 473 [JULIUS. Jews, the, i. 182, 211, 222, 247 357 ; ii- 505 ; and oaths, iii. 325, 35o Joan of Arc, ii. 17, 18, iii. 119 ; of Kent, ii. 184 John, King of England, i. 205, 215-225, 231-4, 306 ; I., of Portugal, ii. 37 ; IV., iii. 36 ; II., of France, i. 346, 348, 349, 350 John of Brompton, i. 125, 216; of Gaddesden, 356; of Gaunt (Lancaster) ; of Leyden, ii. 480 ; of Salisbury, i. 160, 175, 200, 201, 357 ; of Stekna, 415 ; of Trevisa, 420 Johnson, Francis, ii. 240, 350, 352 ; George 352 ; Isaac, 362 ; Dr. Samuel, i. 3, ii. 128, 288-9, 326, 463, 511-2, iii. 102, 111, 113-4, 133, 150, 161-2. 166, 168, 182-7, 208, 223,248- 250, 254, 261-2, 363 Joint-stock enterprise, iii. 393 Joliet, Louis, iii. 196 Jones, Ernest, iii. 378 ; Rev, Griffith, 176 ; Inigo, ii. 301, 374, iii. 105 ; Rev. William, 171 Jongleurs, i. 318 Jonson, Ben, i. 308, ii. 219, 286, 289, 292, 295, 347, 371, 415, 448, 459, Hi. 29, 113 Joseph of Arimathea, i. 70, 79 Joyce, Cornet, ii. 473 Joye, George, ii. 166 Judge-made law, iii. 211, 339, 342, 381 Judges appointed by Henry IL, i. 179, 184, by Edward L, 272 ; interference with juries, i. 185, Hi. 47, 210 ; responsible for iUegal acts, ii. 2 ; removed, 215, 345, 411, 420, 441, iii. 48 ; oppose ecclesiastical jurisdiction, ii. 233 ; and bribes and fees, i. 178, ii. 336, 347, 410, iii. 102 ; purchase appoint ments, ii. 335, 410 ; subser vience to Charles I., 387, 388, 389, 405, 410, 411, 419 ; retribution taken by Long Parliament, 441 ; appointed for life, 348, 441 ; and James II. Hi. 52, 54, 56 ; displaced at Revolution, 60 ; tenure fixed, 85 ; salaries, 102. (Chancellors. Chief Jus tices. Legal.) Judicature Act, 1875, iii. 434 Judicial Committee of Privy Council, i. 179, iii. 409, 412 ; proceedings in English, i. 384, 489; Eyres, 179; ini quity, ii. 114, 117, 134. 345, 406, 420, iii. 51, 339 Julian the Apostate, ii. 398, »i 153 Julius Caesar, i. 17, 19, 20, 26, no, ii. 35, 454 JUNIUS.] INDEX. [LEAGUE. "Junius," ii. 234, iii. 210, 213- 4, 221 Jurisprudence, early, i. 174, 178 Jury, trial by, i. 60, 185, 186 ; ii. 57, 127, iii. 47, 191 Justice, delay of, i. 177 ; sold, i. 147, 220, 253, 281 ; foun tain of, 185. {judges.) Justices Itinerant, i. 179, 181, 182 ; of the peace, 330, 368 ; ii. 43, 148, 160 Justiciars, i. 148, 166, 237 Justification by Faith, doc trine of, i. 409 ; ii. 180 Justinian, 'Institutes' of, i. 175, 352 Jutes, i. 37 Kabul Expeditions, iii. 385 Kaleidoscope, iii. 367 Karnes, Lord, ii. 284, 426, iii. 249, 257 Kant, Immanuel, ii. 510, iii, 148. 253 Katerfelto, quack, iii. 132 Katharine of Aragon, wife of Prince Arthur, ii. 42, 126, and of Henry VIII., 43, 109, 126, 138 : — Parr, Queen, 138 Kay's fly-shuttle, iii. 245 Kaye, or Caius, John, ii. 58 Kean, Edmund, ii. 299, iii. 248, 363 " Kearsage," cruiser, iii. 429 Keats, John, poet, iii. 361 Keble, Rev. John, iii. 5, 406 Keepers, Lord. (Chancellors.) Kembles, the, actors, ii. 299, iii. 248, 363 Kenilworth, i. 2G4, 265, 303, ii. 278 Kenny, ' Raising the Wind,' iii. 291 Kent, i. 16, 32, 65, 129, 436, 438, ii. 20, 173, 304 ; Duke of, son of George III., iii. 375 Kepler, John, ii. 296, 510 Keyboards, musical, ii. 300 Kidnapping, i. 62 Kiffi.11, William, ii. 467, iii. 32 Kildare, Earl of, ii. 46 ' Killing no Murder,' pamph let, ii. 502 Kimbolton, Lord, ii. 448 Kindergarten system, iii. 351 King, Charles, iii. 118 ; Gre gory, 118 King de jure and de facto, ii. 23, 34, iii. 60. (Royal.) King's Bench, i. 272 ; Book, of doctrine, ii. 163, and of values, 144 ; Court, the, i. 141, 177 ; Evil (Scrofula) j Pamphlets, BritishMuseum, ii- 435 Kinglake, A. W., iii. 416, 418 Kings, English,- mostly liars, i. 232, 253, 382. (Royal.) Kingship • ^abolished, ii. 479- (Divine Right.) Kingsley, Charles, i, 124, ii. 258, 415, iii. 277, 382, 402 Kingston-on-Thames, i. 85, ii. 441 - Kirk of Scotland. (Church.) ¦ " Kirke's Lambs," iii. 52 Knibb, William, of Jamaica, iii. 264, 270, 368 ' Knickerbocker History of New York,' ii. 357 Knight, Charles, ii. 288, iii. 368 Knighton, Henry, chronicler, i. 397, 418, 425, 437 Knights Templars, i. 304 ; of St. John of Jerusalem, 304, ii. 109, iii, 277-8 ; of St. James and St. Michael, i. 304 ; Hospitallers, 323, 439 ; ii. 143 ; of the Bath, i. 348, iii. 180 ; of the Garter, i. 347, ii. 509 ; of the Star of India, iii. 425 ; of the Im perial Crown of India, 425 ; of the shires, i. 262, 380, 386 ; fees, ii. 381, 419, 444 Knitting, iii. 119 Knives and forks, ii. 303 Knollys, Hanserd, ii. 351, 46G, iii. 32 Knowle, ii. 301 Knox, Alexander, iii. 406, John, ii. 175, 184, 189, 222, 253, 254, 255, 320, 332, 363, iii. 50 ; Dr. Vicesimus, iii. 172, 263 Kcenig," F., printing, iii. 369 Krupp cannon, i. 344, iii. 367 Kyrie eleison, ii. 299 Labour disputes, iii. 340 ; forced, i. 337 ; laws, iii. 342 ; saving contrivances, 292 Labrador, ii. 40, iii. 263 Lace, ii. 264 Ladies. (Women?) Lady Margaret Professor ships, i. 337 La Hogue, i. 343, iii. 82 Lamb, Charles, ii. 286-7, iii. 35, 118, 358 ; Samuel, 89 Lambert, or Nicolson, John, burned, ii. 154 ; John, Par liamentary General, 475, iii. 6 Lambeth, i. 336, 411 ; ii. 138, 183, 213, 223, 231, 319, iii. 29, 66 ; Articles of 1595, ii. 207 Lampoons, 1. 163, 399, 435. (Parodies. Pasquinades.) Lampreys, i. 155, 314 Lancashire, i. 310, ii. 484, Hi, 247 ; a county -palatine, ii. 44, iii- 375 ; and the Ameri can War, 455 Lancaster Castle, iii. 16 ; Duke of (John of Gaunt), i. 350, 386, 404, 40S, 410, 411, 436, 443, ii- 38; Earl of, i. 302 ; Joseph, iii. 351 Lancaster and York, Houses of, ii. 22. (Wars of Roses.) 474 Land, under Saxons, i. 47, 65, 88 ; Normans, 133 ; Roman theory, 134 ; Church, tenure of, 140 ; religious houses held one-fifth, ii. 144 ; out of tillage, 153 ; but little culti vated, 302, iii. 142 ; mono poly, Australia, 397. (Agri culture. Pasturage.) Landed gentry, i. 126, iii. 83 ; benefit by French War, 309 Landowners and taxation, iii. 291 ; and railways, 295 ; and evictions, 216, 307, 3Q5 Land-tax, initial form, i. S7, 2S0, ii. 4, increased, iii. S3 Land tenure, i. 66, 136, 1S3, 323, 360, ii. 50, 388 ; rental, i- 323, 358, 360 Lanfranc. (Canterbury?) Langton, Cardinal, i. 175, 1S4, 217, 223, 231-2, 238, 244 Language. (English.) Languedoc, i. 346, ii. 500 Lap-dogs, iii. 119 Lardner, Dr. Nathaniel, iii. 32, 162, 255 Las Casas, Bishop, ii. 258 Lathes of Kent, i. 65 Lathom House, siege of, ii. 485 Latimer, Bishop (Worcester) \ Lord, i. 385, 387 Latin authors, study of, i. .1=59 ; use of, i. 129, 274; ii. 175, 479 Latitudinarian school, ii. 507, iii. 96, 156 Laud. (Canterbury.) Lauder, WiUiam, on Milton, ii. 372 Lauderdale, Duke of, iii. 3S Law, John, iii. 208 ; William, mystic, ii. 77, iii. 71, 146, 148, 162, 175 Law, Reign of, i. 372 Law of nations, iii. 2 Law's delay, the, i. 177 Lawlessness, i. 151, 157, 276, 330 Lawrence, Stringer, general, iii. 193 ; Sir T., painter, iii. 363 Laws, Saxon, i. 58-61 ; Cnut's, 92 ; English, not supplanted by Norman, 129, 174 ; de mand for old, 229, ii. 388, 389 ; consolidated under Edward I., i. 271 ; and the Statute Book, 383. (Judges. Statutes.) Lawyers, early, i. 176 ; the clergy as, 272, 390 ; ancient instructions to counsel, 273 ; excluded from Parliament, ii. 4 ; and Law of Settle ment, iii. 138. (Legal.) Lead, i, 32, 370, iii. 140 League, Wars of the, in France, ii. 49 ; of Cambray, 64 65 ; the Holy, 65 ; suggested Protestant, 137, LEARNING.] INDEX. [LOCKHART. 159, 162 ; of Augsburg, iii. 58 (Covenant. Treaties?) Learning, Revival of, i. 402, ii. 48, 79 ; neglected at Universities, iii. 262 Leaseholders, ii. 4 Leasing-making, iii. 313 Leather, i. 35, 310, 317, 362, ii. 306 Lecky, W. E. H., i. 81, ii. 274, iii. 76, 213, 312 Lectureships in churches, ii. 395, iii- 172 Lee, WiUiam, and stocking- frame, ii. 304 ; WiUiam, and Defoe, iii. 92 Leeds, ii. 51, iii. 206; 'Mer cury,' iii. 100 Leeks, i. 311 Legacy duties, ii. 115 Legal developments, i. 171 ; fictions, 116, 134, 136, 185, ii. 117, 134, iii. 365 ; in justice, ii. 114, 120, 134, iii. 51 ; procedure, ii. 56 ; re forms, temp. Common wealth, 487, iii. 371 ; techni calities, i. 102, 133, 378, ii. 121 ; treatises, 175, 273, 376 Legates. (Papal.) Legatine Constitutions, i. 175 ; Courts, 288, iii. in, 114 Legendary tales, i. 1 1, 54, 403, ii. 272, 371 (Historic fictions?) Legge, Chancellor of Ex chequer, iii. 210 Legislation, ex post facto, ii. 129, 141 Legislative leading-strings, i. 361, 372-6, 397, iii. 48 Legislature. (Parliament?) Leibnitz, Baron G. W., iii. 44, 366 Leicester, i. 27, 28, 67, 121, ii. ¦ 32, 117, 471 ; Earl of, 228 ; 231, 278. (Montfort.) Leighton, Alexander, ii. 412, 438 Leinster, i. 98, 203, 204 Leland, John, i. 31, ii. 146, Hi. 162 Lely, Sir Pe.ter, iii. 34 Lenthall, WilUam, Speaker, ii- 437, 494- Leofric, Earl, i. 98, 99 Leofwine, Earl, i. 113 Leopold, Emperor of Ger many, iii. 87; King of the Belgians, 322 Leprosy, i. 54, 3", 355, ii- 12, 58, iii. 133 Le Sage, ' Gil Bias,' iii. 250 Lesseps, Ferdinand de, ii. 272, iii. 422 Lessing, G. E., iii. 253 L' Estrange, Roger, iii. 9, 100 Letters, carriage of, ii. 487, iii. 120, 131, 244; opened, 244, 311. (Post Office.) Letters^Patent, ii. 40 Levellers, ii. 479, 495 Lever, Thomas, ii. 242 Lewes, i. 141, 260, ii. 196 Leyden, Holland, ii. 353, 354, 477 ; Jar, iii. 366 Libel, Law of, iii. 210 1 Libel of English Policie,' ii. 40 ' Liber Albus,' i. 311, 374 Liberal majority in 1833, iii. 335 ; in 1880, 434 Liberty, a growth of ancient date, ii. 389, iii. 66 ; per sonal, interfered with, i. 182, 372, ii. 51 ; pioneers of, i. 213, 389, ii. 333 ; not ex tinct under Elizabeth, 214 ; attacked under Charles I., 405-423, and James II., iii. 58-62 ; restored at the Re volution, ii. 65 ; iii. 58-71 ; repressed under George III., 309-320; and by the Whigs, 378. (English People. Patriots.) Libraries, monastic, i. 402, ii. 146 ; parochial, iii. 173 ; cir culating, 311 Library of Anglo-Catholic Theology, ii. 328 Licenses to preach, iii. 43, 46 Licensing system, ii. 43, 487 ; iii. 132 ; the Press (q.v.) ; theatres, iii. 117, 363 Lichfield, i. 74, 82, 331, iii, 249 ; cathedral, 299 ; Bi shop CornwaUis, iii. 168 Life Insurance, iii. 105 Light, researches into, i. 357, ii. 296, 298, iii. 391 ; wave theory of, 296 Lightfoot, Hannah, iu. 204; Dr. John, ii. 462, 507 Lighthouses, iii. 367 Lilburne, John, ii. 416, 480 ' Lilliburlero,' song, iii. 59 Lillv, WiUiam, astrologer, ii. 54 Lily, William, ' Grammar,' ii, 54 Lima, earthquake at, 111. 4 Limited Liability, Hi. 393 Limoges, i. 310, 346 Limousin, i. 173, 346, 349 Linacre, Dr. Thomas, ii. 58 ; WiUiam, 79 Lincoln, i. 27, 28, 67, 121, 167, 221, 225, 268, 277, 370, ii. 351 ; cathedral, ii. 158 ; Bishops of : — Fleming, i. 423 ; Green, iii. 210 ; Grosseteste, i. 233, 245, 336, 397, ii. 146 ; Longland, ii. 96 ; Neile, ii. 401 ; Prety- man-Tomline, iii. 325 ; Sanderson, ii. 397 ; Tenison, iii. 67 ; WiUiams (York) ; ¦Wolsey, ii. 69 Lincoln's Inn, ii. 509, iii. 67 Lincolnshire, fens, i. 121, 123 233, 263, 485 ; risings in, ii. 153 475 Lindisfarne, i. 56, 70 Lindsay, Sir David, ii. 283 Lindsey, Theophilus, iii. 260 Linen thread, ii. 264 Lingard, Dr. John, i. 203, Iii, 361 Linkmen, iii. 130 Lions, the Tower, iii. 125 Lisbon, iii. 304 ; earthquake of, ii. 194 Lisle, Lady Alice, iii. 53 Litanies, ii. 166 Literary Club, iii. 250 Literature, Saxon, i. 55, 56 ; twelfth century, 153, 158- 161 ; Jewish, 249 ; 13th century, 335-338 ; 14th, 396- 403, 414, 429 ; 15th, ii. 52 ; 16th, 79-81, 98, temp. Elizabeth, 282 ; the link between Chaucer and Spenser, 284 ; coarseness of, 290 ; early criticism, 290 ; the Sonnet, 292 ; Bacon's influence, 295 ; books writ ten in prison, 343, 403, on New England, 361, on Long Parliament, 435 ; grotesque titles, 467, 468 ; general character of 17th centurv, 512, iii. 25, 35, 38. 43; 18th 70, 99, 109-116, 139, 160 ; 19th, 357; ephemeral, ur, 162, 259 ; English translated into French, 266 ; pay ments for, 113-4, 254-5, 357 ; cheap, struggles of, 364, 369. (Books. Poetry.) Liturgies, ii. 166, 180, 183, 184, 204 ; and Scotland, 332, 425, iii. 49 ; promised revision, 14 ; enforced, 14 ; Royal Commission to re vise, 65. (Church of Eng land.) Liveries, i. 332, ii. 44, 51 Livery Companies, i. 165, 372, iii. 150 Liverpool, ii. 418, iii. 131, 141, 231, 242, 296, 382 Livings. (Benefices?) Livingstone, Dr. David, iii. 264, 398 Livy, ii. 291, iii. 359 Llandaff, Bishop Watson, iii. 168 Llewelyn of Wales, i. 268 Loans, amicable, ii. 106 ; forced (q.v.) ; stringent terms for public, iii. 95, 236, 290 Local self-government, ii. 179, 313, 360 ; Milton's scheme, iii. 8, 374 ; existing debts, 442 Local Government Board, ii. 313, 398, 47i, iii- 442 Locke, John, ii. 162, 209, 2iR, 274-5; 279, 360, 46S, 5 TO, iii. 23, 62, 68, 70, 157, 256-7, 263, 266 Lockhart, Sir William, ii. 500 LOCK-OUTS.] INDEX. [MAINTENANCE. Lock-outs by employers, iii. 339 Locomotive, the, iii. 293 Lodge, Henry Cabot, ii. 371 ; Thomas, playwright, 285 Loftie, W. J., i. 163 Logarithms, ii. 297 Lollards, origin of name, i. 424 ; a movement, not a system, 425 ; characteristics, 425, 426 ; precursers of the Reformation, 426, ii. 196, and of the Puritans, i. 426 ; attempts to root out, ii. 6 ; sought to reform abuses, 7 ; persecuted under Henry IV., 6-10 ; their continuous work, 70, 78, S8 Lollardus, Walter, of Cologne, i. 424 Lombard, bankers, i. 281 ; Peter, ii. 207 Lombe's silk-throwing, iii. 245 London, Roman, i. 22, 27, 28, 30 ; Saxon, 43, 63, 67, 87, 89, 90, 117; Norman, 119, 163, 166 ; Plantagenet, 252, 353 ; Mayor of, 166 ; ancient municipal rights, 167, 221 ; bridge, 251, 326, 327, ii. 21, 302 ; chief port of entry, i. 309 ; streets, condition, in r376, 355 ; earthquake in 1382, 413 ; a stronghold of Lollardism, ii. 6 ; Parlia- mentary representation, 172 ; foreigners in, 1568, 264 ; a commercial centre, 273 ; theatres, end sixteenth century, 287 ; attempts to check growth of, 302 ; popu lation in 1592, 302 ; fines for building suburbs, 410 ; stronghold of liberty, 450 ; street-traffic regulated, 487 ; Great Fire of, iii. 32 ; Charter revoked, 50 ; fifty new churches, 1710, 104, 141 ; gin-shops in 1751, 124 ; streets of, 130 ; size, in 1714, 132 ; coal brought to, 141 ; newspapers in, 259 ; ex empted from Municipal Reform Act, 343 ; Univer sity of, 369 ; birth and death-rate^ 374 London, Bishops of : — Ayl mer, ii. 214, 228, 233, 246 ; Bancroft, ii. 330 ; Blomfield, iii. 352 ; Bonner, ii. 165, 171, 184, 1S8, 194, 204 ; Compton, iii. 65 ; Courte- nay, i. 410 ; Fletcher, ii. 214 ; Gibson, ii. 147, iii. 108, 163, 168 ; Gilbert Foliot, i. 196 ; Grindal, ii. 101, 220, 230 ; Kemp, ii. 22 ; Laud (Canterbury) ; Lowth, iii. 164 ; Porteous, iii. 167 ; Ravis, ii. 322 ; Ridley, ii. ; 170, 184, 186, 188, 197 ; Sheldon (Canter bury) ; Sherlock, iii. 161, 171 ; Stokesley, ii. 141 ; Temple, iii. 411 ; Tonstall, ii. 92 Londonderry, ii. 275, Hi 74 Longbeard, William, i. 170, 212 Longfellow, H. W., ii. 361, iii- 253 Loo, Holland, iii. 58 Looking-glasses, ii. 302 Lords of Misrule, i. 319 Lords-Lieutenant of counties, i. 64, ii. 182 ; of Ireland (q.v.) ; Ordainers, i. 281, 299 ; House of (g.v.) Lotteries, ii. 215, iii. 127 Louis VII. of France, i. 157, 306 ; VIII., 234, 236 ; IX., 260 ; XL, ii. 28, 42, 64 ; XII., 65, 66 ; XIII., 378 ; XIV., ii. 49, 454, iii. 34, 36, 37, 46, 50, 55, 58, 64, 73, 85, 197, 216, 264 ; XV., 265 ; XVI., 267-8, 273-4 : XVIIL, 286-7 ; Napoleon, 415, 417, 426 ; Philippe, 331, 379 Louisiana, ii. 365, iii. 197, 282 Lovelace, Richard, ii. 343 Lovett, William, iii. 373 Loving cup, i. 50 Low Church party, iii. 163, 167 ; Countries. (Nether lands.) Lowe, Robert. (Sherbrooke.) LoweU, James Russell, i. 422, ii. 345, Hi. 42, 253, 361, 364, 384 Loyola, Ignatius, ii. 249 Lucca, i. 205, 311 Lucifer matches, iii. 293 Lucknow, iii. 423-4 Luddites, iii. 292 Luke, Sir Samuel, ii. 436 Lunatics, iii. 126, 243 Luther, Martin, early life, ii. 81 ; and Indulgences, 82 ; his ninety-five theses, 82 ; effects of visit to Rome, i. 408 ; Erasmus keeps aloof, ii. 82 ; at Diet of Augsburg, 82 ; appeals to a General Council, 83 ; at Diet of Worms, i. 398, ii. 83 ; theory of the Eucharist, i. 396, ii. 173, 184 ; controversy with Henry VIII., 86 ; attacks the Anabaptists, 86 ; de clares against divorce of Henry VIII., 123 ; and Loyola, 249 ; and hymn- ology, 299 Lutheranism, ii. 123, 152, 179, 183, 494 Lutherans persecuted, ii. 222, 329 Lutterworth, i. 409, 423 Lydgate, John, i. 422, 423, ii. 52, 53, 283 Lydiat, Thomas, ii. 343, 466 Lyell, Sir Charles, geologist, iii. 259 476 Lyly, John, ' Euphues,' ii. 2S5 Lynch, T. T., iii. 412 Lynn. i. 167, 309, ii. 26 Lyttleton, Sir Tliomas, on tenures, ii. 388 Lytton, Lord, i. 114, ii. 33, iii. 114, 360, 363 Macadam, John, Loudon, Hi. 245 M'Carthy, Justin, iii. 335, 438-9 Maeaulay, Lord, ii. 135, 199, 218, 294, 346, 396, 398, 504, iii. 11, 25, 58, 81, 89, 93, 114, 128, 160, 214, 235, 237-8, 250, 252, 256, 280, 304, 328, 359, 363, 387 ; Zachary, iii. 242, 369 M'Crie, Dr. Thomas, iii. 362 MacCuUoch, J. R., iii. 311 Machiavelli, h. 373, 475 Machinery, prejudice against, ii. 52, iii. 292 Mackenzie, Henry, ' Man of Feeling,' Hi. 258 ; Bishop, missionary, 264 Mackintosh, Sir James, i. 297, iii. 256, 273, 317, 3G1 Macklin, Charles, actor, iii. 248 Macpherson, ' Annals,' iii. 118 ; James, poet, 249 Madhouses, Hi. 126 Madison, James, President, U.S., iii. 220, 229 ; Dr., Bishop of Virginia, 228 Madox, ' History of Ex chequer,' i. 206, 253 Madrid, ii. 106, 182, 258, 271, 274, 374, 502, Hi. 283 Madrigals, ii. 300 Mceatse, the, i. 25, 36 Magazines, iii. 184, 186, 259, 364 Magdalen CoUege, Oxford, i. 336, ii. 69, 464, iii. 280 ; Hospital, iii. 129 Magellan, Ferdinand, ii. 39, 260 Magic, ii. 511 ; rings, i. 307 Maginn, William, critic, iii. 186 Magna Charta, i. 219-234 Magnetic compass, ii. 38 Magnetism, terrestrial, ii. 297 Magnifying glass, i. 357 Magnus of Norway, i. 150 Mahan, Captain A. T., iii. 280 Mahogany, ii. 262, iii. 129 Maid of Brittany, i. 216 ; of Kent, ii. 127, 129 ; of Nor way, i. 289 ; of Orleans, ii. 17, 18, iii. 119 Maidstone, ii. 196, 242, 264 ; John, Cromwell's steward, »¦ 437 Maimonides, Moses, i. 249 Maine, i. 97, 172, 215, 349, 350, ii. 16, 18, 365, iii. 283 ; Sir Henry, i. 66, 176 Maintenance, suits of, i. 385 MAJOR-GENERALS.] INDEX. [METHODISTS. Major-Generals, Cromwell's, ii. 496, 501 Malcolm III. of Scotland, i. 121 ; Canmore, 151, 289 Malet, Judge, ii. 441 Malignants, ii. 446, 494 Malingering, i. 368 Mallory, WiUiam, M.P., ii. 341 Malmesbury, i. 77 Malone, Edmond, ii. 288 Malory, Sir Thomas, ii. 53 Malta, iii. 277-8, 286, 422 Malthus, T. R., iii. 315, 369 Malton, i. 32, iii. 320 Malt-tax abolished, iii. 441 Malvern, i. 77, 434 Man, Isle of, iii. 329 Man-at-arms, i. 344 Manchester, ii. 151, 304, iii. 131, 141, 206, 318, 328, 383 ; Ship Canal, 296 ; Earl of, ii. 402, 453, iii. 21 Mandeville, Bernard, iii, 112, 160, 162 ; Sir John, i. 311, 418 Manias, speculative, iii. 128, 178, 196, 295 Manners and customs, i. 49- 68, 158-171, 305-33S, ii- 49- 60, 301-314, 498, iii- H7-I43 ; books on, i. 307 Manorial courts, i. 169, 361, ii. 51 Manors, Norman, i. 66, 167 ; in Middle Ages, 323, 360 Mansion House, London, i. 27, iii. 149 Mantua Collection of pictures, ii- 374 Manufactures, iii. 118, 246-8, 258, 292-3 Mapes, Walter, i. 39, 160, 161, * 200, 414 March, Earl of, i. 303, 340 Mare, Sir P. de la, Speaker, i. 386 Margaret of Anjou, Queen of Henry VI., i. 337, ii. 18, 24, 25, 27 ; of France, second Queen of Edward I., i. 294 ; Tudor, Queen of James IV., ii- 43, 253, 255, 3i6 ; Queen, of Scotland, i. 289 ; Countess of Richmond and Derby, i. 337 Maria Theresa, Empress, ii. 277, iii. 188 Maritime power, England's. ii. 270, iii. 3, 193, 279 ; risks insured, 105 Mark system, i. 65 Market Deeping, iii. 5 ; Har- borough, ii. 471 : rights, i. 167, 221, ii. 51. (Trade.) Marl, i. 255, 324 Marlborough, John Churchill, Duke of, i. 265, iii. 52, 75, 93-4- 145- 238 . Marlowe, Christopher, 11. 286, 287 ... „ Marquette, explorer, 111. 196 Marriages, clandestine, iii. 126 ; of children, i. 294, ii. 55 ; the ring in, 221 ; royal, politic, iii. 84 Marryat, Captain F., iii. 360 Marseillaise of the Reforma tion, ii. 83 Marshall, Rev. Stephen, ii. 494- iii- I3 Marshalsea prison, ii. 204, 406, iii. 135 Marsiglio, John, of Padua, i. 395, ii- 78 Marston, John, ii. 290, 349 Marten, Henry, ii. 434, 480, iii. 13 Martial law, ii. 182, 274, iii. 333 Martin Marprelate Tracts, ii. 213, 234 Martinus Scriblerus, iii. 251 Martyr, Peter, ii. 183, 210, 212 Martyrs, the first English, ii. 6, 8-10 ; and Lollardism, i. 426, ii. 8, 196 ; under Henry VIII., 132-5, 154 ; under Mary, 194, 242 ; number of, 8, 195 ; the effect, 211 ; Memorial, Oxford, 197 ; Catholic, 132, 135, 249, 250 ; Anabaptist, 133, 184 ; Separatist, 245-249 ; Uni tarian, 184. (Toleration.) Marvell, Andrew, ii. 476, 482, 498, 512, iii. 38 Mary, Queen of England, ii. 11b, 129, 188, 190-3, 195, 200 ; Queen of Scots, 67, 253- 254, 255, 256, 257, 271 ; Queen of WilUam III., iii. 58, 6o, 84 ; of Guise, ii. 66 ; of Modena, Queen of James IL, iii. 88 Maryland, ii. 365, iii. 242 Masques, ii. 284, 285, 289, 414, iii. 119 Mass, the, changed into a Communion, ii. 173, 185; deemed a mystical cere mony, 221. (Transubstan tiation?) Massachusetts, ii. 361, 363, 365, 367, 493, iii. 26, 55, 222, 228 ; Historical Society, ii. 361 Massacre of St. Bartholo mew's, 1572, ii. 252, 304 Masses for the dead, i. 390, 394, ii. 47, J 72 Massinger, Philip, i. 392, ii. 290, iii. 116 Masson, David, ii. 255, 462 Mast, for pigs, i. 49 Masterless men, i. 308 Mather, Cotton, ii. 293 Mathew, Father, iii. 373 Matilda, Queen of William I. i- 97, 103, 143 ; of Henry I., 151, 156, 289 Matrimonial jurisdiction, i, 393 Matthew Pans, 1. 12, 161, 231, 242, 251 477 Maurice, Prince of Orange, ii. 330 ; Prince, nephew ut Charles L, ii. 472, iii. 2 ; Rev. F. D., iii. 72, 402 Maximilian, Emperor, ii. 65, 68 May, Thomas, historian, ii. 435, iii- 13 May-day bonfires, i. 20 " Mayflower, the," ii. 356, 359 Maynard, Sergeant John, ii. 462, iii. 61 Maynooth Grant, iii. 394-5, 414 Maypoles, i. 317, ii. 228, 328 Mazarin, Cardinal, ii. 71, 497, 500 Maxzini, Joseph, iii. 244 Mead, Dr. Richard, iii. 30, 133 ; William, iii. 47 Mead, drink, i. 50, 165 Meals, i. 49, 314, ii. 303 Measles, ii. 58 Measures and Weights, i. 326, ii- 59 Meat-eating a misdemeanour, ii. 182 Mechanics' Institutes, iii. 368 Medal for Spanish Armada, ii. 270 ; the first war, 483 ; Ashmole's Collection, 509 Medici family, ii. 28, 86, 267, 277, 448 Medicine, Roman, i. 31 ; Saxon, 53 ; Plantagenet, 309, 354 ; Tudor, ii. 58, 302 ; 18th century, iii. 132-4. (Quacks. Physic?) Mediterranean, i. 67, 173, 311, ii. 41, 64, iii. 2, 194, 275 Melanchthon, i. 396, 409, ii. 84, 150 159, 176, 180, 183 Melbourne, Viscount, iii. 346, 383 Melville, Viscount, iii. 131, 237 ; Andrew, ii. 255, 319 Mendoza, Spanish ambassa dor, ii. 251, 261 Mennonites, ii. 134, 355, 506 Mercantile, marine, i. 67, ii. 40, 260-262, iii. 419 ; theory of wealth, iii. 257 Mercenaries, i. 101, 107, 123, 184, 224, 233, 342, 34G, 348, ii. 26, 34, 58, 104, 133, 182, 386, 428, 433, 444, iii. 226, 230, 320 Mercers' Company, iii. 105 Mercia, kingdom of, i. 40, 43, 69. 73, 82, 109 Merewether, Dean, Hi. 408 Merry Andrews, ii. 59 ; Eng land, ii. 329 Merton College, Oxford, i. 325, 336, 395 Metaphysical poets, ii. 292 Methodists, the name, i. 424 ; of the 14th centurv, 413 ; of 18th, iii. 173 ; unwilling Dissenters, 65, 157, 177 ; and the Low Church, 167 ; charged with fanaticism, 252. (Wesley.) METRICAL.]7 INDEX. [MORE. Metrical romances, i. 420 Mexico, ii. 38, 57, 141, 260, 3-13, iii. 283 Miall, C. S., iii. 159; Edward, M.P., 328, 403, 429 Micrometer, ii. 296, 297 Microscope, ii. 297 Middle class, rise of, i. 165, 263, 280, ii. 33 Middleburg, ii. 244, 351 Middlesex, i. 167, 310, ii. 173, Hi. 211 Milan, ii. 64, 68, 106, 108, Hi. 2K7 Mile End, i. 440, iii. 212 Milestones, i. 27, ii. 313 Military service, Saxon, i. 38 47, 111 ; Norman, 135, 184 ; abolished, iii. 48 ; militia, instead of feudal force, ii. I53> 451 ; a citizen army, 453 ; military license, 154 ; royal control of militia, iii. 21 ; disbanded, 54 ; military defects, 419. (Army, Mer cenaries.) Mill, James, Hi. 165, 368-9 ; John Stuart, ii. 471, 510, iii. 319, 37o Millenarians, ii. 495 Millenary Petition, ii. 318, 321 Mills, i. 167, 326, 436, ii. 51 Milman, Dean, i. 71, 74, 390, 409 Milton, John, i. 4, 199, ii. 70, 222, 283, 360 ; on monkish annalists, 12 ; on Saxon quarrels, 41 ; on monasti cism, 80, 398, ii. 139 ; on liberty, 237, iii. 6 ; on the Schoolmen, i. 402 ; on tole ration, ii. 218, iii. 6 ; on Sidney's 'Arcadia,' ii, 281 ; on Euphuism, 285 ; on tragedy, 287 ; early poems, 459; 'Paradise Lost,' i. 56 ; ii. 461 ; iii. 35, 40, 113 ; ' Prelatical Episcopacy,' i. 72 141 ; on Wycliffe, 410 ; proficiency in Latin, ii. 175 ; ' Areopagitica,' 224, 470, iii. 69, 85; 'Sonnets,' ii. 292, 362, 493, 500, iii. 6; and Burton's 'Anatomy,' ii. 326 ; and Roger Williams, 370 ; Lauder on, 372 ; original of Satan, 398, 485 ; ' Lycidas,' 422 ; on Episcopacy in Scot land, 428 ; on the Long Parliament, 434, 488 ; oh Strafford, 439 ; on the Civil War, 452 ; and Bishop Hall, ' 459 ; controversial treatises, 460 ; on Presbyterianism, 464 ; on the Westminster Assemby, 468 ; marriage and divorce, 468 ; ' Defence of People of England,' 476, 478. 493, iii. 6, 39 ; ' Eikono- klastes,' ii. 477 ; 'Tenure of Kings and Magistrates,' 477 ; blindness, 478, iii. 41 ; Secretaiy for Foreign Tongues, ii. 479 ; appeal to Cromwell, 493 ; original of Adam, 493 ; on the " slaugh tered saints," 500 ; and John Howe, 507 ; efforts to pre serve the Commonwealth, iii. 6 ; ' Civil Power in Ecclesiastical Causes,' 6 ; ' Hirelings in the Church,' 6 ; his ideal impossible, 7 ; his further appeals, 8, 9 ; scheme of local devolution, 8, 374 ; his Belial, 35 ; and Andrew Marvell, 38 ; and Thomas EUwood, 39 ; clos ing years, 39 ; sale of works, 41 ; ' Treatise on Christian Doctrine,' 41 ; and Locke, 70 , Addison on, 115 Mince-pies, ii. 220 Mineral-spas, iii. 133 Minie rifles, i. 344, iii. 423 Ministry responsible, i. 259, 386, ii. 3, 443, iii. 62-3, 184. (Cabinets.) Minot, Lawrence, i. 388 Minstrels, i. 50, 308, 319 Mint, the, i. 312, ii. 457. (Coinage.) Mirabeau, Count de, ii. 343, 456 Miracle plays, i. 57, 319, ii. 284 Miracles, alleged, i. 80, 82, 4°3 Mirrors, steel, ii. 302 ; plate- glass, iii. 129 ' Mirrour for Magistrates,' ii. 284, 415 Mise of Lewes, i. 260 Missals, ii. 146, 159; and the Praj'er Book, 181 Missions, Christian, ii. 249, 260, 356, 357, 364, iii. 264 Mississippi Bubble, iii. 196 Mitford, William, Hi. 258, 361 ; Mary Russell,' 362 Moffat, Robert, missionary, iii. 264, 399 Mogul dynasty, iii. 193 Mohair, iii: 179 Mohammedans, iii. 193 Mohocks, iii. 125 Moldavia, iii. 418 Moles, i. 325 Mompesson, Sir Giles, ii. 290 Monarchs, character of, i. 3 ; mostly liars, 232, 253, 382 ; addressed kneeling, ii. 170, 271 ; cannot arrest subjects, 449 ; alien, i. 129, 177, iii. 144 ; reign, but do not govern, 63. (Royal.) Monarchy, end of the old, ii, 477, iii. 10, 11, 61 Monasteries in England, i. 77; wealth, 78, ii. 158 ; built, temp. Stephen and Henn' II., i. 189 ; temp. Henry III., 321 ; the Scriptorium, 478 55, 403, ii- 146 ; gardens, i. 311 ; guest-houses, 329 ; and doles, 367; ii. 147; libraries, i. 402, ii. 146 ; suppressed by Edward IL, i. 305, by Henry V., ii. 13, by Henry VI., 28, by Henry VIII., 86, 139-149 ; ' Black Book ' of, 141 ; Wolsey's scheme for, 118 ; the spoliators, 145 ; Durham Universityfounded, 507. (Abbeys. Monks.) Money. (Coinage.) Monk, General, ii. 484, iii. 7-9 Monks, Chronicles by, i. 11 ; primitive, 76 ; degeneracy, 80, 238 ; ii. 74, 140 ; exempt from episcopal.jurisdiction, i. 142, 189, 239,' 405 ; which was conferred on theCrown, ii. 139 ; antagonism to Friars, i. 242 ; ignorance of, 403 ; the Pppe's garri son, ii. 140 ; influence after suppression, 162. (Augus tine. Benedictines. CartJiu- sians. Clergy?) Monmouth's rising, iii. 51-3, 238, 270 Monopolies, i. 281, 372, 375, ii. 51, 52, 214, 290, 333, 3S6, 408, 438 Monson, Justice, ii. 215 Montagu, Lady Mary W., iii. 133, 163 Montaigne's ' Essays,' ii. 463 Montcalm, Marquis de, iii. 197 Montenegro, iii. 421 Montesquieu, Charles de, Hi. 256. 266, 270 Montfort, Simon de, i. 99, 246, 256, 259, 260, 264, 278, 317, 384 Montgomery, James, ii. 343, "i- 253, 312, 362 Monument, the Fire of Lon don, iii. 33 Moore, Sir John, iii. 284; Thomas, Hi. 186, 323, 364 Moors, the, i. 173 Moralities, the. (Mysteries.) Moravians, i. 415, iii. 175, 263, 325 More, Alexander, iL 478 ; . Hannah, iii. 168, 261 ; Henry, the Platonist, ii. 293, 507, iii. 96 ; Sir Thomas, opposes an illegal Aid, ii. 36 ; ' Utopia,' 59, 136, 291, 306; on Wolsey, 73, 113; desired reform, not revolu tion, 79; defends Purgatory, , 86; controversy with Luther and Tyndale, 97, 234 ; Speaker of the House, 105; Chancellor, 113 ; and the royal divorce, 123, 125 ¦ . resigns, 125 ; refuses Oath of Succession, 129 ; im_ ' prisbned fourteen months MORKERE.] INDEX. [NONCONFORMISTS. 130 ; beheaded, 135 ; his intolerance of heretics, 136 Morkerc, Earl, i. 99, 109, no, 118, 119, 121, 122, 143 Morley, John, Hi. 260, 266-7 271, 38S, 437 Morris-dancing, i. 317, ii. 328 Mortalists, ii. 496 Mortality, rate of, i. 133, ii. 302, iii. 374 Mortimer, Earl of March, i. 303, 340 Mortmain. (Statutes.) Morton, Cardinal, ii. 42 ; Earl of, Scottish Regent, 254 ; George, ii. 358, 361 Mortuaries, ii. 90, 115 Mosaic Law, i. 60, 224 Mosheim, i. 424, iii. 159 Motley, J. L., iii. 262, 267 Moulin, Peter du, ii. 478 Mounds, British or Saxon, i. 14 Mountebanks, i. 308 Mourning-rings, iii. 126 Muggletonians, ii. 496, iii. 15 Muir and Palmer tried for sedition, iii. 312 Mum, drink, iii. 95 Mummers, i. 317 Munchausen tales, ii. 272, 371 Municipal institutions, ii. 360 ; suppressed, 402, iii. 50, 54 ; officers and the Established Church, 325 ; Reform Act, 1S35, i. 130, ii. 402, iii. 50, 342 ; rights, i. 340. (Boroughs. Towns.) Munster, i. 203, ii. 274, 275 Murphy, Arthur, dramatist, iii. 248 Murrain, i. 301, 324, 352, 358 Muscovy Company, ii. 40 Music, i. 50, 319, ii. 300, iii. "5, "9. 372 Muskets, iii. 285. (Mi?ne.) Mutinies in the fleet, iii. 277, 3H Mystery plays, i. 57, 319 ; u. 384. (Drama.) Mystics, the, i. 402, ii. 77 Myths, Legends, and Ro mances, i. 2 ; 403, ii. 184. (Historic?) "NAMBY-PAMIJY," iii. Ill Names, Common, i. 86 ; Nor man, 125 ; arbitrary spell ing, ii. 288 Nantes, Edict of, ii. 252, 304, 365, iii. 55, 73 Napier, Sir Charles, iii. 385 ; John, of Merchiston, ii. 297 Naples, ii. 68, 106 Napoleon Bonaparte, i. 208, 424, ii. 454, iii. 197. 254, 276-287 Nash, Thomas, ii. 219, 237, 286, 288; Beau, iii. 133 Nasmyth, James, steam- hammer, iii. 246 Natal colony, iii. 398, 412 National accretion and forma tion, i. 35, 86, 127 (England. Liberty. Rome) ; Debt, iii. 89, 95, 188, 215, 236, 290, 420, 442 ; Gallery, 396 Nativities, ii. 293 Naval Battles. (Battles?) Navigation Laws, ii. 488, iii. 324. 393 Navy, Alfred's, i. 46 ; in 14th century, 342 ; in 15th, ii. 40 ; l6th, 258, 262 ; 17th, 487 ; under Commonwealth, 487, Hi. 2-4 ; temp. Charles IL, 36 ; part played by, in con quest of India, 194 ; su premacy during Great French War, 279 ; prize- money, 307. (Shipping.) Nayler, James, Quaker, ii. 505 Neckham, Alexander, i. 161, 165, 3H Neck-verse, the, i. 394 Needles, i. 52, ii. 264 Neilson, iron manufacture, Hi. 246 Nelson, Admiral, Lord, iii. 4, 275-6, 279, 289 ; Robert, 72 Nennius, chronicler, i. 12 Nepotism and corruption, temp. Charles II. , iii. 34'; Anne, 93 ; George I., 145 ; George IL, 168 ; George III., 201, 205, 207, 325 ; later, 336 Neptune, the planet, iii. 366 Netter of Walden, i. 397 Netherlands, early called the Low Countries, ii. 25, 26, 53, 68 ; persecution by Spain, i. 76, ii. 194, 253 : exiles from, 243, 263, iii. 55 ; influence upon England, ii. 248, 263, 264, 266, 454 ; revolt from Spain, 259, 262, 263, 265 ; industries brought to England, 264, 304 ; Spanish fury in, 265; asylum for English refugees, 265 ; toleration maintained, 266 ; commercial and artistic renown, 266 ; English sym pathy, 266 ; assist against the Armada, 269 ; lost to Spain, 270 ; services to agriculture and drainage, 314 ; temporary intolerance, 329 ; Confession of Faith, 330 ; American settlements, 357. (Dutch Republic. Holland?) Neville, Lord, i. 385, 387 New Amsterdam, ii. 266, 357, 368 ; CoUege, Oxford, i. 336 New England, the name of, ii- 35° >** planting of, 348 ; Charters granted, 350 ; emigrationof Independents, 351 ; the fontal spring, 352 ; 479 Council for, 352 ; Pilgrim Fathers (Plymouth) ; prin ciples and aims in settle ment, 360 ; early history, 361 ; democracy not ac knowledged, 363 ; Society for Propagating Gospel, 364, iii. 263 ; tithing-man, i. 64 ; early Puritan settlers, ii. 361-365 ; character fixed, 365 ; largely settled from Eastern Counties, 365 ; Episcopacy suppressed, 366 ; dread of Prelacy, 366, 367 ; a rigid ecclesiastical system, 368, 369 ; George Herbert on, 414 ; emigration forbidden, 422 ; exempt from Excise, 407 ; Common wealth prisoners deported to, 485. (United States?) New Forest, i. 130, 150 ; Hampshire, ii. 364 ; Hol land, 263 ; Jersey, 356, 357 ; Netherlands, 357 ; Rochelle, iii. 55 ; South Wales, 396 ; York, ii. 266, 357, iii. 282, 296 ; Zealand, ii. 367, iii. 396, 403 Newbery, John, iii. 132 Newcastle, Duke of, iii. 191, 217 ; on-Tvne, i. 24, 293, 294, 309, 370, 433, ii- 444. 472 Newcomen, Thomas, iii. 142, 246 Newfoundland, ii. 40, 281 Newgate prison, i. 186, ii. 133 412, iii. 31, 101, 135, 208 Newhaven, Conn., ii. 364, 365, 371 Newman, Cardinal, J. H., ii. 75, 208, iii. 406-8 ; Francis, iii. 79 Newmarch, WiUiam, iii. 340 Newmarket, ii. 389, 451, 473, iii. 50 Newspapers, Hi. 89, 99, 259 ; writers bribed, 92, 182, (Press.) News-sheets, ii. 487, iii. 100 Newton, Isle of Wight, iii. 320 ; Sir Isaac, ii. 297, 298, iii. 44, 113, 115, j 49, 263, 566 ; Rev. John, 172, 174 Ney, Marshal, iii. 2S6 Nicknames, i. 424, ii. 6, 490. iii. 174, 282 Nicolson, Archbishop of Cash el, ii. 147 ; John, burned, 154 Niebuhr, B. G,, iii. 254 Nightingale, Florence, iii. 419 Nihilist literature, ii. 234 " No Popery Riots," iii. 204, 309 Noble, coin, i. 312, ii. 107 Nominalists and Realists, i. 395, ii. 510, iii. 166 Nonconformists, lineage of, i. 72 ; early manifestations, ii. 78, 240 ; martyrs, 245, NONJURORS.] INDEX. [ORLEANISTS. 249; a broad line at the Ejectment of 1662, iii. 25 ; causes of narrowness, 26, 46 ; Ucenses to preach, 43, 46 ; and Test and Corpora tion Acts, 21, 46, 70 ; perse cuted under James IL, 54 ; aid invoked by clergy, 60, 436 ; attempted compre hension of, 65 ; the Tolera tion Act, 67 ; subscription lo trust-deeds, 67, 150 ; places registered, 68 ; loyalty, 70, 152 ; and Queen Anne, 96 ; assailed by Sacheverell, 97, 106 ; and. the Schism Act, 108 ; largely aided the Hanover ian succession, no, 152 j and the Marriage Act, 1753, 126, 356 ; and education, 353, 432 ; sheriffs chosen and fined, 149 ; and the Old Dissent, 149, 159 ; prolonged ostracism, 150 ; but them selves to thank, 152, 156 ; narrowness, 150, 154 ; great divines, 152 ; partial relief from penal laws, 153 ; the Dissenting Deputies, 153 ; spiritual decay, 156 ; quar rels, 158-9 ; Wesley re pudiated the name, 176 ; Reg/'um Donum to, 303 ; assailed, in 1791, 309 ; Sid- mouth proposes certificates, 320 ; registered chapels, 1812, 349 ; and Maynooth Grant, 395 ; redress of grievances, 402. (Separa tists. Baptists. Indepen dents?) Nonjurors, the, iii. 64, 67, 71-2, 148 Non-resistance. (Passive.) Norfolk, i. 27, 37, 88, 310, 353, 369, 438, ii. 263, iii. 247 ; Earl of, i. 282 ; Duke of, temp. Henry VIII., ii. 162, 167, 172, 188 ; oldest duke dom, i. 126 ; Duke of, 1846, advice to labourers, iii. 416 Norman-French speech, i. 128, 272, 274, 384, 419 ; form of royal assent, ii. 390, 391 Normans, origin of, i. 95 ; settle in France, 95 ; at English Court, 94, 97, 98 ; disputes with English, 94, 98 ; invasion of England, 105-110 ; rule finally es tablished, 124 ; manors, 66, r24 ; fortresses, 67, 163, 164 ; cathedrals, 100, 163, brutality, 113, 118, 122; seize land and property, 124 ; absorbed by English, 116, 125, 126, 127, 128, 157 ; land system, 134 ; houses and furniture, 164 Norse poetry, i. 55, ii. 40 North, Lord, iii. 200, 221, 230, 236 ; Roger, 64, 293 ; Mr. Justice, 69 North American Indians, ii. 37, 356, 357, 370, iii. 125. 197, 264 North Sea, i. 173, ii. 64 Northampton, i. 224, 278, ii. 244,* 294, 385, 472, iii. 159 ; Assize of, i. 181 Northmen. (Danes.) Northumberland, i. 32, 65, 293, ii. 399 ; Duke of, for merly, Earl of Warwick, ii. 183, 187, 188, 190 Northumbria, kingdom of, i. 28, 40, 55, 69, 70, 85, 86, 87, 99, 101, 109, 121 Norwegian attack upon Eng land, i. 87, 109 Norwich, i. 67, 88, 167, 252, 309, 310, 353, 370, ii. 188, 196, 243, 249, 263, 264, 304, 511, iii. 59, 125 ; Bishops : — Bathurst, iii. 332 ; Bateman, i. 337 ; Freake, ii. 244 ; John de Grey, i. 217 ; HaU, ii. 306, 397, 4i5, 459, 467 ; Montague, 379 ; Parkhurst, 204 ; Reynolds, iii. 15 ; 23 ; Henry Spencer, i. 438 Nose-slitting, ii. 412 Notitia Imperii, i. 25, 33 Nottingham, i. 67, 121, 233, H. 452, iii. 140 ; Countess of, ii. 277 ; Earl of, iii. 65, 153 Nova Albion, ii. 260 ; Scotia, 365 Novation controversy, ii. 78 Novel, the, Thonas Nash, the harbinger, ii. 237 ; Defoe the creator, 237, iii. 101 , of 18th century, 121 ; Frances Burney's, 204 ; the romantic and sentimental, 252 ; the historical (g.v.) Novgorod Fair, i. 375 Nowell, Dean, ii. 174, 212, 220 Noy, WiUiam, Attorney- General, ii. 418 Numbers, fallacious, X. 72, 108, 123, 337, 352, ii. 161, 171 Nun of Kent, ii. 127, 129 Nuremberg, Diet of, ii. 75 ; Liturgy, 180 Nye, Philip, ii. 464, 466, iii. 24 Oastler, Richard, iii. 338 Oates, Titus, iii. 46 Oaths, affirmations instead of, Hi. 69, 347 ; doctrinal, as tests (g.v.) for office ; the Etcetera, ii. 432 ; ex officio, 88, 232,1244 ; of fashionable ladies, iii. 119; of allegiance, ii. 216, iii. 16, 67, 108 ; of fealty, i. 136 ; peculiar, 225 2S2, 425 ; Queen Elizabeth's, j ii. 214 ; relative value of, i. | 480 61 ; on reUcs, 44, 103 ; of succession, ii. 129, 130 ; of supremacy, 131, 208 ; "on true faith of a Christian," iii. 325, 350 ; strained against Dorset labourers, 339. (Pro fanity. Test.) Obsolete words, i. 420 Occam, WiUiam of, i. 244, 395, 398, ii. 78 ¦ Occasional Conformity, 111.64., 97, 99, 107, 150, 152 Occleve, Thomas, i. 423, ii, 52, 283 Ocean steamships, iii. 296 ' Oceana,' Harrington's, ii. 306 O'Connell, Daniel, ii. 480, iii. 326, 328, 330, 348, 376, 392-3 Odo, Bishop of Bayeaux and Earl of Kent, i. 119, 120, 125, 143, 145 Oersted, Hans Christian, ii, 297, iii. 366 Offa of Mercia, i. 741 Office-holders in Parliament, iii. 148 Officers of State, appointment, i. 256, 299 ; controlled, 386, 443 Offices sold, ii. 147, 170, 335, 410, iii. 180, 205 Officialism, excessive, i. 372-6, ii. 51-2, iii. 90, 338, 372, 4ig, 443 Oglethorpe, General J., iii. 135, 215 Oil-lamps in streets, iii. 130 Old Bailey, ii. 244, Hi, 47 ; Colony, the, ii. 360 ; Do minion, the, 360 ; Kent- road, 247 ; ' Moore's Alma nac/ 54, Sarum, iii. 206, 312 Oldcastle, Sir John, ii. 9, 10 Oldham, John, ii. 499, Hi. 25 Oldmixon, John, iii. 238 Olney, Bucks, iii. 172, 279 Ombre, game, iii. 127 O'Neill, Shan, ii. 274 Onions, i. 310, 311 Open Communion, iii. 44 Opie, John, iii. 248 ; Amelia, 258 Optics, i. 357 Orange, William the Silent, Prince of, ii. 134, 175, 263-6, iii. 58, 63 Ordeal, i. 59, 187, 272 Ordinal, the, ii. 185 Ordinances of 1311, i. 299 ; of Lords and Commons, ii. 461, 476 ; of CromweU, 492 Orford, Earl of, (Walpole.) Oriel CoUege, Oxford, i. 336 ii. 11 Orient, the, i. 311, ii. 28. 37 272. (India.) Oriental learning, i. 240 ii 323, 507-8 Original Sin, ii. 178 Orleanists and Burgundians in France, ii. 13 ORMOND.] INDEX. [FASQUINADES, Ormond, Butler, Duke of, Hi. 107 Ornaments Rubric, 1559, ii. 205 Osiander, Andreas, ii. 123 Osnaburg, Bishopric of, iii. 202 Ossory, Bale, Bishop of, ii. 76, 146, 234 Otho, Cardinal, i. 175 Othobon, Cardinal, i. 175 Otway, Thomas, iii. 113 Outlawry, i. 285, ii. 37 Outram, Sir James, iii. 293, 424 Overland trade with East, ii. 39, 272, ih. 241 Overreach, Sir Giles, ii. 290 Overseers of the poor, ii. 312, 313, iii- 138 Owen, Dr. John, ii. 364, 464, 467, 507, iii- 24, 32, 45, 56, 64 ; Robert, socialist, iii. 335 Oxen, weight of, i. 324, iii. 143 Oxford city, i. 92, .121, 175, 224, 257,- 258, 411, ii. ioi, 243, 38o, 471, iii- 3°, 49, 208 ; bishopric of, ii. 144 ; Bishops of: — Parker, iii. 38 ; Seeker, 163 ; Stubbs, i. 62, 64, 66, 75, 80, 185, 207, ii. 8, 30 ; Harley, Earl of, iii. ioi, 107, 109, 123 ; Movement, 405-8, ii. 208, iii. J67 ; Uni versity of, i. 244, 249, 336, ii. 95, 117, 146, 1S3, 197, 208, 507, iii. 50, 56, 262-3 Oxfordshire, i, 310 Oxygen gas, iii. 247 Oysters, British, i. 24, 50 Pacific Ocean, ii. 37, 39, 260, 281, iii. 240 Padua, ii. 300 ; University, i. 395, 42t Paine, Thomas, Hi. 69, 273 Paint and patches, ii. 488 Painters, ii. 37s, iii. 248, 363 Palace Yard, ii. 345, 416 Palatinate, the, ii. 329, 347, 381, iii. 73, 94, 216 Pale, the Irish, i. 205, ii. 46, 273- (Ireland.) Palestine, i. 146, 305 Paley, Archdeacon, ii. 509, iii. 162, 165, 168, 254, 317 Palgrave, Sir F., i. 8 PaUium, the, ii. 125, 197 Palm-branch, i. 199 ; oil, 3" Palmer, John, and Post Office, iii. 244; Samuel, 'Noncon formist Memorial,' 23 ; Sir WiUiam, 'Origines Litur- gicae,' 406 Palmerston Viscount, 111. 380, 416-7, 420. 426 r .. , Panama, Isthmus of, u. 260, 262 Pancakes, ii. 220 Pandulph, Cardinal, 1. 23S VOL. III. Pannage, i. 277 ' Pantaj^ruel.' ii. 81 Pantheists, iii. 160-1 Papacy, claims of, i. 75, 156 ; zenith of power, 105. 106, 137, 218, 390 ; and the monks, 79 ; contests with, 188, 21S, 237, 245, 284, 384, 403, 404, ii. 116. 124 ; tri bute demanded, i. 218, 403, 404 ; schisms in, 195, 279, 384, 389, 398, 404, 412 ; iii. 72 ; immorality condoned for money, i. 306; corrup tion. 389, ii. 76 ; supremacy renounced, 121 ; appeals to Rome forbidden, i. 195, 28S, 407, ii. 111, 122, 124 ; In fallibility Dogma, iii. 415. (Reformation.Rome,Church of.) Papal Aggression, 1850, iii. 436 ; Bulls, i. 201, 232, 236, 237, 279, 2S4, 286, 411, ii. 35, T37, 157, 249, 267 ; Legates, i- T37, 175, 218, 238, 245, 287, 288, 357, H. 69 Paper-duty, iii. 100, 364, 427 Papin, Denys, iii. 142 Paraffin oil, iii. 367 Parchment, ii. 146, 264 Pardoners and Sumpnours, i. 308, 400, ii. 81, 148 Paris, attacked by Edward III., i. 343, 349, 350 ; Henry VI. of England crowned there, ii. 18 ; massacre of Huguenots, 252 ; the Stuarts refugees in, 484 ; Revolution of 1789 (France), of 1831, iii. 331 : — University, i. 159, 160, 336, 357, 395, ii. 80, 175 Parish, the ecclesiastical, i. 65 ; clerks, iii. 169, 170 ; Councils, iii. 438 ; registers, ii. 159 ; system, 313 ; settle ment (q.v.) Parishes, number of, i. 394 Parker, Archbishop. (Canter bury?) Parliament, Rolls of, i.*7, 274 ; and the royal succession (g.v?) : the first nominal, 257, 261 ; an informal, 278 ; first actual, 278 ; residents chosen, 279 ; Writs of Sum mons existing, 380 ; differ ence from Great Councils, 380 ; two Houses, 279, 380 ; petitions in, 304, 382, 386 ; consolidation, 283, 304, 342, 379 ; control over expendi ture, 371, 382, ii. 3, »3 (Grievances) ; three read ings of BiUs, i. 388 ; pay of members, 383, ii. 307 ; royal interference with choice, 120, 172, 173, 433 : restricted under Henry VII.,, 47, and Henry VIII., 163, 168 ; long intervals undo; him, 103, 104, 112, 113 ; and Eliza-. 481 beth, 214 ; attempts to rule without by the Stuarts, 333, 375, 405-429 ; infrequent meetings, 333, 377, iii. 46, 55 ; members imprisoned by James I., ii. 341, and bv Charles I., 375. 383, 405. 432 ; Remonstrances ad dressed to him, 379, 380, 383, 39o, 392, 445 : Triennial Act, H. 441, iii. 28, 147 ; Sep tennial Act, ii. 441, iii. 147 ; regular meetings secured, Gi ; placemen in, 148, 205-6 ; proceedings reported, 184-5 ; Hogarth on elections, 190 ; interference by George III., iii. 201-7, 233 ; members chosen by Town Councils, 334 ; excessive fees for Private Bills, 296 ; demands for Reform, 329, 331-3 ; Re form Act, 1832 (q.v.) Parliament, peculiar titles :— Addled, ii. 334 ; Barbon's, 490 ; Club, 16 ; Convention, iii. 9, 12, 60-1 ; Drunken, 20 ; Good, i. 346, 385, 405 ; Little, ii. 489, 490 ; Long (see below) ; Merciless, i. 443 ; Pensionary, Hi. 20 ; Reconciliation, ii. 192 ; Rump, 475, iii. 6 ; Un learned, or Lacklearning, ii. 6 Parliament, the Long, ii. 265 ; recital of monopolies, 408 ; rescued the nation from crushing despotism, 417 ; how convened, 434 ; early character, 434, 436 ; histori cal records. 435 ; members Episcopalian^. 437, 447 ; re tribution taken, 438-441 ; declared indissoluble, 441 ; remedial measures, 443, 444 ; and Westminster Assembly, 461, 469, 470 ; and the Army, 473 ; Pride's Purge, 475 ; and trial of Charles I., 476 ; and John Lilburne, 480 ; rejects scheme of Govern ment, 485 ; dispersed by Cromwell, 486 : work ac complished, 487, iii. 48 : mistaken aims; ii. 488 ;. re stored by Army Cabal, iii. 6 ; again ejected, 7 Parliament, Acts of. number repealed, i. 373. (Statutes.) Parnell, Charles S„ iii. 435-S Parochial Settlement (g'v.) Parodies, ii. 435, 436. (Pas- guinades. Lampoons.) Parr, Dr. Samuel, ii. 294 ; iii. 149 Parsons, Robert, Jesuit, ii. 251 particular Redemption, ii. 178, 35i Pascal* Blaise, iu 194, 250 . Pasquinades, ii. 8%i 150, 435, 32 PASSING-BELL.] INDEX. [PLATONISTS. 481. '* '{Lampoons. Paroj ¦ dies.) Passing-bell, the, i. 129 Passive obedience, germ ofj ii. 152 ; developed, 241, 318, 373, 385, 394 : asserted, iii. 20 ; Declaration by Oxford University, 50 ; preached, 54 ; resisted, 57 "; revived, 96,310. (Divine Right.) Paston Letters, ii. 55 ¦ Pasturage, L, 325, 36G, ii. 50, ,-' 1*53, 182. (Agriculture.) Patches on the face, iii. 119 Patent offices, iii. 38, 205 Paternal government, i. 372-6, ii- 5i, 52 Paterson, WiUiam, iii. 89 Patrick, St., i. 202 Patriotic Fund, iii. 420 Patriots, nameless, i. 213 ; in spired by former times, 389 ; ii. 169 ; and religion, 179 ; an unbroken line, 214 ; Johnson on, 182. (Liberty.) JPatristic authority, i. 75 Patten-makers, ii. 51 Paul's Cross, ii. 96, 165, 171, ',' r88,'235, 330, 401 ; Pauperism. (Poor.) Paying Act, the first, iii. 130 ; extension, 245 Paymaster of the Forces, iii. 127, 272 _ Payments in kind, i. 180 ¦ PeaCe, Treaties of (q.v.) Peacocks, i. 50 I Pears, i. 311 Peasantry, condition of, i. 61, 1,68, 171, 322, ii. 308, 309, iii. 134 ; free, i. 367 ; Rising of 1381, i. 428-432 ; War in Gennany, i. 349, ii. 134 Pease, i. 311 ; Joseph, M.P., i'i. 325 Pedantry, classical, ii. 429, 437 Pedlars and chapmen, i. 308, iii. 83, 95 Pedro the Cruel, of Castile, i.' 35o Feci, Sir Robert (the first), iii. 535 ; (the second), 179, 235, 323-4. 327, 347-8, 372, 384, 393 " Peclites, Hi. 324 Pick-, George, playwright, ii.,' 285 ". : Peerages, old, i. 126 ; privi leges, iii. 127. (Barons., House of Lords.) Peine forte et dure, i. 1S6 Pelagian controversy, i. 73, ii. 178, Hi. 163 Pelham, Henry.'iii, 192 j PeUico, Silvio, Hi. 287 Pembroke, WilUam Mare- ' schal, Earl of, i. 236, 237;; - -Aymer de Valence, 296, 298,: 337 ; Strongbow,. 204 - ¦- ' . . PenaJ ¦Ca<£e."(Trslalzd.y '• • •^hartcfe, n.'Sg; 151, 184 ¦ Pendulum, oscillating, ii. 296 Penn, William, ii. 343, 371, iii. 16, 47, 238 Pennant, Thomas, iii. 118, 258 Pennies, silver, i. 311 Pennington, Alderman, M.P., ii. 447 Pennsylvania, iii. 216, 220 ' Penny Cyclopaedia,' iii. 368 Penology, iii. 348. (Crime.) Penry, John, ii. 234, 246, iii. 176. Pens, iii. 293, 386 Pensions, iii. 309, 359 ; foreign, to English states men, ii. 316 Pepys, Samuel, diarist, iii. 12, 14, 24, 28, 30, 32, 34, 37, 125-6 Percys of Northumberland, i. 305,411, ii. 154 Perfectists, ii. 495 Perfumery, ii. 303 Perigord, i. 173, 349 Perjury, ii. 57, iii. 136 Perrers, AUce, i. 385 Persecution, of Lollards, ii. 6-9 ; by Catholics, 9, 165, 194-200 ; by Protestants, 9, 133. 176, 184, 221, 222, 232, 238-251, 329, iii. 77 ; of Quakers, 16, 29, 47, 367 ; of Baptists, ii. 133, iii. 17 ; of Unitarians, ii. 184, 505, iii. 68 ; universal tendency, ii. 221. (Independents.. Ireland- Nonconformists. Separatists. Toleration?) Perseverance of Saints, ii. 178 Persia, ii. 272, 280 Perth, i. 2gi, 294, ii. 332, 4S4 Pestalozzi, J. H., iii. 351 PestiU-nce. (Plague.) Peter I. of Russia, iii. 86 ; of, Blois, i. 208 ; the Hermit, 146 ; Pindar, iii. 214 Peter's Pence, i. 74, 75, 139, 195, 202, 405, H. 128 Peterborough, i. 123 ; cathe dral, 321 ; bishopric, ii. 144 ; Bishops : — Cumberland, iii. 165 ; Kennet, 255 ; White, .57 : — Earl of, 147 Peterloo Massacre, iii. .318 Peters, Samuel, ii. 371 Petition of Right, i. 229, ii. 3, 389, 390, 391, 392, 398, 400, 406, 419, 491, iii. 61 Petitions m Parliament, i. 304, 382, 386; attempt to sup press, Hi. 21,324 Peto, Father, ii. 130 Petrarch, i. 403, 421, ii. 292 Petroleum, iii. 367 Petticoats, hooped, iii. 119 Petty,' Sir -William, Iii. 302 Pevensey, i. 27, 39, no, 145 Pharmacopoeia, the, iii. 132 Philadelphia, iii. 225, 227 Priilip I. of Frarice, j, 143 : IT 210, 216, 217, 234, 306," 341 ; 482 IV., 279, 291, 294, 299, 305, 341 ; V., 303 ; VI., 341, 345, 347 Philip II. of Spain, ii. 49, 64, 133, lgt, 164, 257, 263, 267 271 ; III., 344 Philippa, Queen of Edward III., i. 344 1 Philobiblon,' of Richard of Bury, i. 402 Phoenicians, i. 15, ii. 273 Photography, iii. 366 [ Phylypp Sparowe,' ii. 283 Physic and Surgery, i. 309, 356, ii. 58, 302. (Medicine.) Physicians, i. 309, 356 ; Col lege of, ii. 58. (Medicifie.) Pianoforte, the, ii. 300 Picardy, i. 310, 348, ii. 14, 104, 175 Pickpockets, iii. 130 Picts and Scots, i. 26, 36 . Piers Ploughman, i. 330, 397, 414, 420,^23, 435, ii. 14(1 , Pigs, Saxon herds, i. 49.; in Middle Ages, 326 1 Pigments, i. 50 - Pilgrim Fathers, ii. 240; 353, 356-361, 370 Pilgrimage of Grace, ii. 133, 153, 399 Pilgrims to Holy Land, i. 308, 319 ; to shrines, 199, 422, ii. 74 ; to Rome, 43, .73, 75, 96 PUlions, for ladies, ii. 306 Pillory, the, 309, 313, 333, 375, ii. 412, 415, 417, iii. 69, 99, 3H Pilnitz, Declaration of, ' Hi. 273 Piloting, ii. 41 Pins, ii. 264, 304 Pipe, Great Roll of the, i. 180 Piracy, i. 344, ii. 40, 105, 257, 259, 262, 418, 500, iii. 2, 231 Pitch, i. 310 Pitt, WUliam, the elder, (Chatham) ; the younger, iii. 83, 124, 155, 202, 207, 234-7,. 242, 257, 269,-275, 280, 292, 299, 300,:303T4,*323. Pittsburg, iii. 207, 226 Pizarro, Francis, ii. '38 Place; Francis, Hi. 313, 338, 368 ¦. . Placebo, the, ii. 166 ' Placemen, iii. 148, 205-6 Plagiarisms, i. 176, ii. 299, 299, 326, iii. n6, 251 Plague, the, i. 54, -301, 324, 352, ii. S7, 379, 45$, iii- 3°, 33 Plantagenet kings aliens, i. 122, 177 ; origin of the name, 172 Plantations, the, ii. -349, iii. 16, 57, 156- (Emigration.) Piatonists, the Cambridge,. ii. 77, 293, 5°7, iii- '96 "' ' ¦ • PLAYERS.] Players. . (Drama. Stage.) Plays, Examiner of, iii. 117, 363 Plead, refusal to, i. 186 Plots : — Earl of Essex,- 1601, 277 ; Gunpowder, 1605, ii. 331 ; Jacobite (q.v.) ; for ' Mary, Queen of Scots, ii. 256 ; Rye House, 1683, iii. 50 ; Throgmorton's, ii. 251 ; Titus Oates', 1678, iii. 46. (Insurrections. Riots.) Plunket family, iii. 344 Plymouth, i. 309, ii. 256, 259, 260, 268, 269, 356 ; Colony, ii- 240, 353, 355-361, 370 ; Rock, 358 Pneumatics, ii. 297 Poaching, i. 92, 130-132, ii. 56, iii. 139. (Game-laws.) Pocock, Edward, Arabic scholar, ii. 507', 512 Poetry, Saxon, i. 55, 56 ; Plantagenet, 260, 420 ; of Chaucer, 420-434 ; of Lang- land, 434 ; none during Wars of Roses, 423, ii. 52, 283 ; outburst of song, 285, 202 ; Milton's, 493, 500, iii. 42 ; of the Commonwealth, ii. 511-2; Dryden, iii. 41; Pope and Swift, 112-115 ; . Cowper, 172, 253 ; later, 357-361. . (Ballads.) Poets-laureate, ii. 283, Hi. 117, 201, 384 Poisoning in Middle Ages, i. 356, ii. 56 Poland, ii, 500, Hi. 287, 379 Pole, Cardinal, ii. 123, 137, 154, 162, 167, 192, 194, 197 Police-force, modern, iii. 136, 372 PoUtical apostates, H. 398, 502, 512, iii. 8, 38, 222, 302, 304, 326, 330; corruption, 33, 180-2, 201-6 ; Economy, 255, 315, 339, 369 ; freedom and Calvinism, ii. 178, 213 ; ostracisms, iii. 328 ; pri soners, treatment of, 311, 313, 378; romances, ii. 59, 306, 511, iii. 112 ; songs and ballads (q.v.) ; and theological matters closely related, i. 428,, ii. 208, 241, 245, 333 ; trials, iii. 311, 313, 316, 378 Polling hours, Hi. 334 Poll-ta*x„i. 280, 436, ii. 5 Polydore Vergil, ii. 69 Pondicherry, iii. 193, Ponsonby family, iii. 299 ; George, 310 Poole, Matthew,' iu. 26 ; R. L. i. 395 Poor, condition of, in Saxon times, i. 61 ; in 1.1th and 12th centuries, 171 ; in *4th ''430-434 . . . fn_n Ppor, Law, origin, 1. 367-9 ; 1 compulsory relief jntro- INDEX. duced, ii. 148, and extended, 309-318, 487 ; in 18th cen tury, iii. 137 ; in 19th, 306, 3<>8, 337, 383 ; Amend ment Act, 337 ; Board, 398 ; present number of paupers, 447. (Settlement.) Pope, Alexander, i. 10, 209, ii. 59, 193, 288, 346, 459, iii. 33, 36, 42, 111-120, 127-8, 136, 161-170, 186-7 Pope Joan story, ii. 216 Popery in poUtical aspect, ii, 378 ; of Protestantism, 240. (Rome, Church of.) Pope's Companies, the, i. 287 Popes : — Adrian IV. (Nicholas Breakspeare), i. 201 ; VI., ii. 75, 86 ; Alexander II., i. 104 ; ii. 267 ; III. i. 93, 194 ; IV., i. 251 ; VI., Iii. 38, 76 ; VII., ii. 499 ; Benedict IX., i. 138 ; XIII., i. 413 ; Boni face VIII., i. 279, 284, 286 ; Celestinus I., i. 202 ; Cle ment IV., i. 175, 265, 357 ; V., i. 279, 305, 404 ; VII. i. 412, ii. 87, 108, no, 123, 180; XIV., ii. 250 ; the German, i. 105; Gregory I. (the Great), 68, 77, 217 ; VII. (Hilde- brand), i. 68, 105, 137, 139, 142, 188, 217 ; ii. 137, 180 ; IX., i. 175; XI. i. 411; XIII., ii. 252, iii. 201 Honorius III, i. 199, 237; Innocent II., i. 53 ; III., i. 68, 189, 201, 217, 232 ; ii. 83, 137 ; IV., i. 154, 245, 246 ; VIII., ii. 35, 74, 293 ; John XV., i. 93; XXIII., ii. 76; Julius II., ii. 64, 65, no ; III., ii. 75 ; Leo IV., i. 44 ; IX., i. 105 ; X. ii. 80, 81, 86, 108 ; Pascal II, i. 153 ; HI., i- 195 ; Paul III, ii. 75, 249 ; Pius IV, ii. 206 ; VI. i. 137 ; VII, ii, 250, iii. 298 ; IX, iii. 415 ; Sixtus V, ii. 267 ; Urban II, i. 146 ; IV, i. 243 '; V„ i. 403 ; VI, 412, 413, 423 ; VIII, ii. 69 Population, i. 83, 133, 169, 354, iii. 30, 131, 303, 410, 444 Porcelain, iii. 129 Porpoise, i. 314 Porter, G. R, iii. 295, 305 ; Anna Maria and Jane, i. 292, iii. 362 Portland, Duke of, iii. 80 Portreeve, i. 37 Ports, the chief, i. 309 Portsmouth, ii. 261, 393, 451, iii. 4. !37 Portugal, Transatlantic pro- ' jects, ii. 37 ; Papal award of territory across Atlantic, '. 39 ; monasteriessuppressed, 141 ; trade rivalry, 205, 207, 257, 272, 273 ; intolerance . in, 494 ; and Brazil, iii. 2 ; and India, iii. 193 ; integrity 48.V [PRIOR. secured, 277 ; .invaded- by Napoleon, 283 Post-horses, ii. 306, iii, 131 Post Office, ii. 487, Hi. 120, 244, 386, 446. (Letters?) Potato, introduced, ii. 262; disease, iii, 388 Pottery, i. 31, iii. 140, 246 Poultry-keeping, i. ^26, iii. Pounce-box, in. 294 Powder, face, iii. 119 Powell, Vavasor, iii. 176 Power-loom, iii. 292 Poynings, Sir Edward, ii. 4O Praemunire, i. 407, ii. 91, 121, 208, iii. 20, 408 Pragmatic Sanction, i. 194, iii. 1S8 Prague, University of, i. 4J4 ; Jerome of, 410, 415, ii. 7^. 87 Prayer Book. (Book.) Prayers for the dead, i. 427 ; ii. 151 ; in English, 166 Preaching of the Friars, i, 241 ; controversial, forbid den, H. 130 ; lack of, 152, 170 ; excessive, 231 ; a lost art, iii. 170 Precious metals, i. 51 Predeslinarianisrn, ii. 177, 207. (Calvin?) Prelacy. (Bishops, Episco pacy.) Prelate-statesmen, i. 79, 84, 138 Presbyterians, in Scotland, ii, 254, 428 ; in America, iii. 216-7 ; hated ' by James I., ii. 321 ; despotic, 240, 464 ; the ' Directory ' and ' Catechisms,' 470 ; the system tried for one year, 470, 475; and Charles II., 483, iii, 27 ; their- narrow ness, 65, 81, 154 ; bigotry aroused against, 96 ; in City of London, 150 ; and Trini tarian controversy, iii. 156,; decline of, 157. (Puritans?) Press, the, gagged, ii. 224, Hi- 89 ; struggles for freedom of, ii. 224, 470, iii. 74, 95, 100, 310, 364,427 " Press-gangs, Hi. 137, 297 Pressing to death, i, 186 Pretenders to the throne, ii. 36, iii. 107, 190-91 Price, Dr. Richard, fti. 157, 235, 3°9 Prices, i. 323, ii. 308 Pride's Purge, ii. 475 Priestley, Dr. Joseph, iii. 157, 247, 272, 309, 370 Priests. (Clergy.) Prime Ministers. (Cabinets?) Primers, or Missals, ii. 166 Prince, a German title, i. 259 Printing, art of, i. 9, ?i. 53, 93, 94, 101, iii. 259, 369 Prior, Matthew, poet, Hi. iu PRIORIES.] INDEX. [RESTORATION. Priories, i. 80 ; Alien, 305, ii. 13, 28, 142 Prison literature, ii. 343 Prisons, i, 333, ii. 243, iii. 16, 135 Privateering, ii. 5, 259, iii. 231, 429. (Piracy?) Privy Council, i. 177, 179, 184, H. 44, 112, 348, 405, 429, Hi. 38 ; seal, ii. 63, 103 Proclamations, arbitrary, i. 374. 4^5, ii- 168 Profanity, iii. 68, 119. (Oaths.) Pronunciation of words, i. 420 - Property qualification, iii. 85 ; tax, iii. 84, 444 Prose, EngUsh, Wycliffe and, i. 418 Protectors, WilHam Mare- schal, Earl of Pembroke, i. 236 ; Duke of Bedford, ii. 15 ; Duke of Gloucester, 30 ; Duke of Somerset, 169, 174, ^83 ; CromweU (q.v.) Protective Spirit, the, i. 372, 375. ii- 52, 179, ii>- 381 Protestant ascendency, Ire land; iii. 76-80 Protestants, Primitive, ii. 78 ; essence of the principle, 84 ; League of, proposed, 137, 162 ; Popery of, 240. (Reformation. Puritans. Presbyterians?) Protestantism, the phrase, i. 4°9) Provisions of Oxford, i. 258-9 ; of Westminster, 265 Prussia, Hi. 273 Psalms, Prayer Book Version, ii. 100 ; Metrical Versions, 298, 490, iii. 151, 169 Prynne, WiUiam, iii. 395, 414, 438 ' Public Advertiser,' iii. 213 Public meetings, iii. 212 Pulpit hour-glass, Hi. 170 "Pulpits, turning the," ii. 130 Pumps, iii. 130 'Punch,' iii. 119, 375 Punishments, brutal, i. 130, 255, ii. 215 Purcell, Henry, iii. 60 Purchas, Samuel, 'Pilgrimes,' ii. 281 Purchase system in the Army, iii. 180, 427 Purgatory, i. 390, ii. 86, 151 Puritans, the, their connec tion with Lollards, i. 426 ; origin, ii. 218 ; the root- principle, 220 ; mistakes, 222, 226, 324 ; prophesyings suppressed, 231 ; and civil freedom, 223 ; tithing-man in New England, i. 64 ; dis tinct from Separatists, ii, 240, iii. 157 ; exiles sheltered in HoUand, ii. 265; Millenary Petition, 318 ; demands re fused, 321 ; the Later Puri tans, 323 ; intolerance, 325, 329, 368 ; in Massachusetts, 361-371 ; the ideal, 366 ; Laud's treatment of, 395 ; in social life, 498 ; Dr. Robert South on, iii. 20 ; finaUy driven out of the Church, iii. 26 ; and the drama, 35 ; and the Mon mouth rising, 52 ; influence on America, 216. (Presby terians.) Purvey, John, i. 417 Purveyance, i. 92, 281, 376, ii. 21, 334, Hi. 48 Pusey, Dr. E. B., iii. 406, 408 Pym, John, patriot, ii. 341, 360, 385, 389, 398, 403, 430-9, 448, 455-7, 462, iii. 13 Pyrenees, i. 173 Quacks, Hi. 132 Quadrant, the, ii. 297 Quakers, George Fox and the, ii. 506 ; persecuted, iii. 15, 29, 47 ; peculiarities, 17 ; and Bunyan, 42 ; treatment in Massachusetts, 368 ; and the Toleration Act, 68 ; and oaths, 70 Quarles' ' Emblems,' ii. 479 Quarter Sessions, ii. 43 'Quarterly Review,' iii. 363 Quebec, iii. 197 Queen Anne's Bounty, iii. 104 Queen's CoUeges, Ireland, Hi. 395 ; gold, i. 251 Quignon, Cardinal, ii. 180 Quinquarticular controversy, ii. 330 Quo Warranto, writ of, ii. 158, iii. 50 Quotations, sources of, iii. 114 Rabelais, i. 348, ii. 81, 234, 251 Rack, the, ii. 56 Radcliffe, Ann, novelist, iii. 252 Radcliffe Observatory, iii, 133 Radical, the word, iii. 314 Raikes, Robert, iii. 261 Railroads, Hi. 293, 444 Ralegh, Sir Walter, ii. 135, 258-261, 274, 278, 281, 291, 337, 342-5 Ralph de Diceto, i. 195 ' Ralph Roister Doister,' ii. 285 Ranelagh Gardens, iu. 119 Ranulf de GlanviU, i. 175 Rapes of Sussex, i. 64 Raphael's cartoons, ii. 508 Ray, John, Hi. 45 Real Presence. (Transub stantiation.) Rebellions :— Barons (q.v.) ; Cade's, ii. 20 ; the Great (Civil War) ; India, iii. 423 ; Irish, of 1798, Hi. 301 ; Monmouth's, iii. 51 ; PU- grimage of Grace (g.v.) ; for 4s4 the Pretender, 1715 and 1745, Hi. 146, 190 ; Sepoy, iii. 422 ; Tyrone's, ii. 275 ; Wat Tiler's, i. 438 ; Wyatt's, ii. 190. (Plots. Insurrec tions. Riots.) Record Commission, i. 7. 225 ; Office, i. 8 Recorders, i. 166 Records in Latin, i. 274 ; and TaUies, i. tSo Recusancy Laws, ii. 458 Rede, or counsel, i. 86 Redistribution of franchise, iii. 206, 381 Rees, Dr. Abraham, iii. 32, 258 Reform BiU, 1832, i. 130, 175, iii- 5°, 332, 37o ; of 1S84, iii. 328, 381 Reformation, Reformers be fore the, i. 395, 415, ii. 76-8 (Lollai'ds. Wycliffe) ; poli tics and theology related, i. 42S ; new hopes' and aspir ations, 429, 430 ; influence of St. Augustine of Hippo, 73, ii. 178 ; inevitable, 79 ; in Europe, 81-5; in Eng land, 86 ; a widespread movement, 87 ; Wycliffe's influence, 88 ; a struggle for nationality, 89 ; work of Tyndale (q.v.) ; ribaldry, I5°> J73 ; Ten Articles, 151 ; new theological codes, 155, I59, I63 ; partial, under Henry VIII., 163-4 ; further measures, 170 ; Cranmer's Articles, 187, 206 ; arrested under Mary, 189-199 ; re sumed, 204 ; the Articles, 206-7 ; strength of parties, 209 ; the final settlement, 212. (Church of England. Clergy. Puritans. Rome.) Refugees from HoUand, ii. 263 Regency, the, iii. 243, 305 Regicides, treatment of, iii. 12 Registration of births and deaths, iii. 356 Regium Donum, HI. 154, 303, 414 Regrating, and forestalling, i, 375 Reign of Law, i. 372 Relics, i. 82, ii. 73 Religion, temp. Anne, iii. 159, 177 Religious freedom, iii. 403 ; Worship Census, iii., 410 Remonstrance, the Grand, ii. 445 Rennie, John, engineer, iii. 245 Rent-charge on land, iii. 83 Reporting the debates, iii. 184 Restoration, the Stuart, UI. 2-35 REUCHUlN.] Reuchlin, John, ii. 78-9 / "¦ "Revenge," the, sinking of, ii. 28r .' .' Revised Cdctes, iii. 353 Revival of Learning, i. 9, ii. Revolution of 1688, ii. 445, Hi. 60-4; of 1789, 264-278; of 1848, 2S8, 379. 415 Reynolds, Dr. John, ii. 321-2 ; Sir Joshua, iii. 248, 250 Rhe\ Isle of, ii, 386 Rhode Island, ii. 240, 371, iii. 166 Rhymed verse, i. 420 Rich, Christopher, Hi. 117 Richard, I., King, i. 147, 209- 216,289; II. , 150, '388, 414, 439,443-6 ; UL, ii. 27-35 Richardson, Samuel, novelist, iii. 121, 123 Richelieu, Cardinal, ii. 71, 175, 393 Richmond, Countess of, i. 337 Richter, J.P., ii. 84 "Ridings" of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire, i. 64 Ridley, Bishop. (London?) Riots : — Birmingham, Hi., 309; Lord George Gordon, 204, 309 ; Luddite, iii. 292 ; Re form Bill, iii.' 331; Sache verell, iii, 96, 106, 154. (Rebellions.) Ripon, bishopric, Jii. 349 Ritual.' (Puritans.) Ritualists of Dissent, Hi. 18 Rivers : — Alma, Hi. 418 ; Balaklava, iii. 419; Boyne,. i. 205 ; Danube, iii. 418 ;' Dive, i. 108 ; Dwina, ii. 280 ; , Epte, i. 95; Eure, i. 95; ' Hudson, ii. 356, iii. 296 ; Humber, i. 16, 83, 109 ; Irwell, i. 310 ; Loire, ii. 16 ; Medway, Hi. 36 ; Mersey, i. 16, 310 ; Ohio, iii. 197 ; Ouse, i. 109 ; St. John, Florida, ii. ^ 357 ; St. Lawrence, ii. 41, iii. 194 ; Seine, i. 108, ii. 16 ; Severn, i. 16 ; Shannon, i. 205 ; Somme, i. 108, no, H.; 16 ; Stour, i. 83 ; Tagus, Hi. 2 ; Thames, i. 16, 39, 87, 117, ii. 41, 568, iii. 130 ; Tigris, ii. 37 ; Tweed, ii. 433 ; Volga, ii. 281 Rizzio, David, ii. 256 Roads, British, i. 18 ; Roman, 27 ; country, iii. 131 ; and bridges, i- 326-7 Robert the Devil, of Nor mandy, i. 96 Robertson, Dr. W„ historian, iii. 255 ' ' r Robinson, John,1 of Leyden, ii. 352-4 ;" Prosperity," iii. 324 ' ; - .' Rochelle, i. 35°. »• 3-Si -'Rochester,' Bishops :— Atter- •bury, iii. 107, no, 171 ; VOL. III. INDEX. Fisher, ii. 94, 115, 134-5; Hilsey, ii. 152 ; Kemp, ii. 22: — Earl of, iii. -36, 113 Rodney, Admiral, iii. 279, 290 Roger of Salisbury, i. 176 ; of Wendover, 12 Rogers, John, martyr, ii. 100, 194 ; Samuel, iii. 347 ; Thor- old, ii. 307, iii. 325, 375, Rogues and vagabonds, iii. 137- (Beggars?) * Rolle, John, M.P., Hi. 202 Rolls of Parliament, i. 7, 345 ; of the Pipe, 180; ai Re cords, 7 Romaine, Wm., iii. 167, 174 Roman Civil Law, i. 174, ii. 55 Romances, historical, i. 71, ii, 306, 359 Romanists, number of, ii. 209 Romans, in Britain, i. 20-34 *" character of, iii. 122 Rome, capture and sack of, ii. 108 Rome, Church of, early influ ence on England, i. 71, 73, 74 ; claims gradually made, 75 ; struggles for suprem acy, 75. 105-6, I39-I4r, l88, 194, 237, 283-8, 389-395 ; power broken, ii. 122 ; re stored under Mary, 189 ; again rejected, 203 ; and the Monks, i. 76-79 ; the Friars, 241 ; and the Jesuits, ii. 249. (Appeals. Reforma tion. Papacy?) Romilly, Sir Samuel, iii. 316 Romney Marsh, i. 45 Root and Branch Petition, ii. 447 Roots for cattle, 1. 324 Roses, wars of the, causes, i. 387, 443, ii. 19 ; baronial power broken by, i. 184, 367, 443, ii. 22, 33 ; fatality, i- 354, ii- 33 ; revolting char acter, 17, 24, 25, 27 ; relation to the Great Rebellion, 23 ; contrasted with Civil War, 452 ; ended at Bosworth Field, 32 ; general effects of the strife, 34 ; recovery from, 62 ; rebound to kingly power, 64 ; spoken of in Shakspere's day, 289 Rothschild, Baron Lionel de, Hi. 35° Rouen, i. 144, ii. 14, 18 Rough, John, martyr, ii. 242 Rous, Francis, ii. 490, iii. 151 Rousseau, J. J., ii. 510, iii. 227, 256, 266 Rowe, Nicholas, iii. 113, 116 Rowlandson, Thomas, iii. 118 Royal absolutism (q.v.); assent to Bills, form of, ii. 391 ; Commission, on Universi ties, i. 337 ; on Ecclesias tical Courts, ii. 8, 115 ; to revise the Liturgy, iii* 65-6 ; *4»S [SALISBURY. on Commons, 307 ; on drain age and water-supply, 373 : on Irish land, 389 ; Ex change, London, ii. 273 ; Marriage Act, iii. 200 ; pre rogative strained, ii. 334, 373 ; succession, i. 85, gi, 102, 214, ii. 127 ; supremacy, i. 75, ii. 121, 131, 17T, 203, iii. 5 ; tyranny, ii. 49, Gz, 317, (Crown?) Royalists. (Civil War.) Runnymede, i. 225 Rupert, Prince, ii. 455, 472, 499, iii. 215 Rushworth, John, ii. 395, 421, 435-6 Russia, invaded by Napoleon, ii. 87, iii. 285 ; Crimean War, 417-420 ; Company, ii. 40, 272 Russell, Earl, ii. 87, iii. 324, 330, 342, 346, 35o, 377, 380, 393, 4T°, 4J7, 429 ; Lord WilHam, iii. 50 Rutherford, Samuel, ii. 426, 462 Rymer, Thomas, ii. 147, iii. 40 Sacheverell, Rev. H., iii. 96, 106, 154 Sacking of a town, i. 116 Sacramentarianism, ii. 180, iii. 405 Sacraments, the seven, ii. 86, 155 Sacrilege, alleged, ii. 145 St. Alban's, i. 30, 201 ; diocese of, i. 30 St. Andrew's, ii. 254 ; Arch bishop Sharp, iii, 49 St. Asaph, Bishops : — Horsley, iii. 310 ; Lloyd, iii. 57 ; Pe- cock, ii. n ; Standish, ii. 91 ; Tanner, ii. 142, 144, 147 ; Warton, ii. 149 St. Bartholomew's day, ii. 252, 304, iii. 22 St. Cross, Hospital of, i. 335 St. David's, Bishops :— Bar low, ii. 149, 152 ; Manwar- ing, ii. 385 St. Germains, iii. 7, 75, 8S St. Giles', Cripplegate, iii. 39 St. Helena, iii. 287 St. James's Palace, ii. 381, 449 St. John's College, Cam bridge, i. 34 St. Margaret's, Westminster. ii. 345, 464, iii. 39 St. Paul's Cathedral, i. 218, 223, 320, 410-1, ii. 158, iii. 32, 86, 139, 371 ; two scenes in, ii. 212 ; school, 54 St. Stephen's Chapel, West minster, 1. 378 Saladin, i. 210 Salem, Settlement of, ii. 361 Salic law, iii. 374 Salisbury, i. 19 ; Bishops of :— Burnet (q. v.) ; Dave nant, ii. 397 ; Earle, ii. 328 32* SALMASIUS.] INDEX. [SIEGES. Jewel, ii. 195, 210, 212, 220, 235, 267, 279, 293, 394 ; Josceline de Baliol, i. 196 ; Shaxton, ii. 73, 152.; Sher lock, Hi. 161 ; Countess of, ii. 154 ; Marquis of, iii. 380, 436, 439 Salmasius, 'Defence,' ii. 477 Salomons, Sir David, iii. 350 Salt, iii. 140 ; tax, 83, 291 Salted Food, i. 54, 356 Sampson, Dean, ii. 229 Samson, the Abbot, i. 190 Sanctuary, right of, i. Se, ii. 27 Sanders, the Jesuit, ii. 167 Sanitation, ii. 57, iii. 373 ' Saracens, the, i. 146 Sarum Use, the, ii. 181 'Satan's Invisible World dis played,' ii. 294, 427 Savage, Richard, poet, iii. 113, 249 Savery, Thos,, iii. 142, 246 Savile, Sir Henry, ii. 341 'avilian Professorships, ii. 327 Savings Banks, iii. 445 Savonarola, Jerome, n. 7S Savoy Palace, Strand, i. 348, ^39 ; conferences in, ii. 321, 506, iii. 18 Sawlre, Wm., martyr, ii. 6. Saxon Chronicle, i. 12, 58, 131, 144, 156, 164 ; an tiquities, 15 Saxons, early arrival, i. 37 ; character, 38 ; kingdoms, 39 ; conflicts with Danes, or Northmen, 41-47, 85-90 ; laws and usages, 49-68 ; end of the rule, 90 Scandinavians, i. 39, 89, 91 Scheele, C. W., chemist, iii. 247 Schism, BiU, Hi. 152-3 ; the Papal, i. 412 Schomberg, Duke of, iii. 74, 82 Schoolmen, the, i. 154, 162, 358, 398, 4OI-2. ii- 77, 146 Schools, Saxon, i. 45 ; mon astic, 1. 78 ; H.54 ; grammar, 172 ; of Design, iii. 371. (Ed ucation?) Science, Saxon, i. 53-4 ; of Ro.^cr Bacon, 244, 357 ; 13th een tur v, 336-8 ; 15th, ii, 58-9 ; 16th, 294-7 ; 17th, Hi. 115 ; modern, 365 Sciliy Isles, i. 15 Scone, i. 292, ii, 483 Scot' and Lot, i. 68, ii. 4 Scotland, the nam'* '.7.5 ; and Edward I., 2R8-297 ; inde pendence gained, 301, 340 ; war with, ii. 66 ; first Bible printed in, 230 ; Mary and Elizabeth, 253-6 ; literary barrenness, 283 ; attempts to enforce Episcopacy, 332, 424 ; resists Charles I., 433 ; and Prince Charles, 482 ; Union with England, Hi. 90, 102 ; the Highland clans, 146 ; Church ques tions, 403 Scott, Sir Walter, i. 127, 293, ii. 66, 316, iii. 35-6, 49, 60, 114, 121, 122, 191, 359 Scotus, John Duns, i. 395 Scriptorium, the, i. 55 Scrofula, i. 311, 355, iii. 133 Scrooby Manor-House, ii. 352 Scurvy. (Scrofula.) Scutage, i. 135, 183, 219 Sea-fights: (Battles.) Seals on documents, i. 274 Sea-power of England, ii. 270, iii. 3, 194, 279. (Navy.) Seats, Parliamentary, sold, iii. 207 Sebastopol, iii. 420 Secret Service Money, iii, 181 Sedan chairs, iii. 130 Sedition confused with heresy, i. 428, ii. 7, 128 Sedley, Sir Chas., iii. 35 Seeley, Professor, Sir J. R., i. 297, iii. 412 Sees. (Bishoprics.) Selden, John, i. 74, ii. 147, 341, 374, 387, 400, 405, 407, 463 Self-acting mule, iii. 292 Self-denying Ordinance, ii. 47i Selwyn, George A., iii. 124, 134, 172, 178 Semaphores, iii. 365 Seminary Priests, ii. 151 Senlac, i. 112 Separatists, the, difference from Puritans, H. 237, 240, iii. 26 ; narrowness and dog matism, ii. 238 ; their belief, 240-1 ; persecuted, 238, 242, 244-6, 249 ; Brownists, 243 ; exiles, 248 ; they are shel tered in HoUand, 265 ; settle Plymouth Colony, 350-9 ; during Common wealth, 464-5 (Baptists. Independents. Quakers.) Sepulchral monuments, \. 33 Sequestration Committee, ii. 457 Servetus burned, ii. 176 Servile classes, i. 168, 360, 443. (Slavery.) Settle, Elkanah, iii. 42 Settlement, law of, 1. 368, iii. 138, 308 Seven, Bishops, trial of, iii. 57 ; Deadly Sins, i. 188 Shadwell, Thomas, ii. 209, iii. 42. Shaftesbury, Earl of, the first, ii. 502 ; of the ' Character istics,' iii. 38, 42, 47, 160; the philanthropist, 338, ^11 Shakspere, i. 103, 306; and Friar Laurence, 242 ; com pared to Chaucer, 420 ; ' Richard II.', 446 ; ' Henry 486 IV.,' il. 10, 12, 289 ; ' Henry VI.,' 27, 34 ; on women, 56 ; ' Merchant of Venice,' 65 ; on Wolsey, 117 ; ' Henry VIII.,' 117; on the Puri tans, 219 ; revealed the capacity of the language, 283 ; absence of stage ac cessories, 285 ; ' Midsummer Night's Dream,' 285 ; his resemblances to Marlowe, 287 ; characteristics, 287 ; dim personality 287 ; plays ascribed to Bacon, 288 ; bibliography, 288 ; German commentators, 288 ; Vol taire on, 28S ; origin of works, 2S8 ; traditions, 289 ; ' Merry Wives of Windsor,' 289, 306 ; use of North's Petrarch, 292 ; Nahum Tate's version of ' King Lear/ 299 ; Ireland for geries, 372 ; familiar quo tations, iii. 115 ; banished from the stage, temp. Anne, 115 ; Nicholas Rowe's edition, 116 ; Colley Cibber's acting version, 116, 264 ; Garrick's impersonations, 249 Sharp, GranviUe, iii. 242 Sheep, i. 324, iii. 143 Sheffield, ii. 51 Shelburne, Lord, Hi. 232, 236 SheUey, Percy B., iii. 361 Shepherd, Sir Samuel, iii. 316 Sheppey, Isle of, i. 43 Sherborne, i. 46 ; bishopric of, 36, 46, 83 ; Bishop Aid- helm, 56 Sherbrooke, Viscount, iii. 460, 288, 393, 397 432 Sheridan, H. B., iii. 124, 213, 242, 249 Sheriffs, i. 64, 166, 179, 184 Shiel, R. Lalor, iii. 326, 347 Ship-Money, ii, 384, 387, 418, 428, 440 Shipping, iii. 141, 445.' (Navy.) •Shire-mote, i. 63, 262 Shires, i. 47 Shore case, the, iii. 409 Shorthand, Hi. 146 Shrines plundered, ii. 157 Shrove Tuesday, ii. 220 Sibbes, Richard, ii. 397,, iii. 171 Sibthorpe, Robert, ii. 385 Side-saddles, i. 328 Sidmouth, Viscount, iii. 278, 318, 320 Sidney, Algernon, ii. 247, 360, 505, iii. 50 ; Sir Philip, ii, 266, 281, Hi. 50 Sieges : — Alengon, i. 96 ; Bas ing House, ii, 472 ; Ber wick, i. 291 ; Brest, iii. ,279 ; Calais, i. 344 ; Constanti- ¦ nople, ii. 79; Delhi, iii. 423-4 ; Gibraltar, iii. 94 ¦ Lathom House, ii. 485 ; SIERRA.] Limerick, iii. 75 ; Limoges, , i:. 3io, 346 ; Londonderry, iii. 74 ; Lucknow, iii. 423-4 ; Mons; iii. 82 ; Namur, ui. 82, 86 ; Quebec, iii. 197 ; guesnoy, i. 343 ; Rochelle, ii. 381 ; Roxburgh Castle, i. 344 ; Sebastopol, iii. 420 ; Toulon, iii. 276 ; Waterford, iii. 75 ; Zutphen, ii. 266. < (Storming?) Sierra Leone, Hi. 242 Signatures, i. 275 Signs, for documents, i. 274 Signs-manual, i. 275, ii. 31 Silures, the, i. 21 Silvio Pelico, iii. 287 Simeon, of Durham, i. 12 ; Rev. Charles, iii. 167, 174 Simony, i. 148 Simples, i. 53 Sinecures, Hi. 336 Siward, Earl, i. 97, 99 Six Acts, the, iii. 319 Skeat, W. W., i. 422 Skeats, Herbert S., iii. 159 Skelton, John, i. 423, ii. 283 Skippets, i. 274 Slavery, Saxon, i. 61, 168 ; in Plantagenet times, 366 ; demand for abolition, 431 ; abolished in West Indies, iii. 368, and in the United States, 215, 227 Slave-trade begun, ii. 258 ; agitation for abolition, iii. 248-2, 269 Sloane, Sir Hans, iii. 133 Small-pox, ii. 58, iii. 84, 133, 189 " Smectymnuus," ii. 459, iii. 24 Smiles, Samuel, iii. 24$, 294 Smith, Adam, ii. 5, 337, 488, iii. 132, 138, 166, 179, 224, 275, 262, 266, 276, 293, 297, 302 ; Sydney, ii. 409, iii. 269, 281, 292 ; Sir Thomas, on Procedure, i. 388 ; Right Hon. W. H., iii. 438, 467; William, geologist, 258 Smithfield, i. 440, ii. 136, Hi. 108 Smollett, Tobias, iii. 124, 172, 181, 186, 250 Snowdon, i. 269 Snuff, iii. 129 Social, improvement, iii. 446- 9 ; life, Saxon, i. 49-68 ; Norman, 158-171 ; 13th cen tury, 305-338 ; Tudors, ii. 49-60, 301-314 ; Common wealth, 498 ; temp. Anne, Hi. H9-H3 Socialism, i. 431, ii. 20, Hi. 335, 357. 4°5 , /ri r Society of Friends. (Quakei s.) Societies :— Antiquaries, i. 34, . 297 ; of Artists of Great ' Britain, iii. 248 ; of Arts and Manufactures, iii. 248 ; Bible, iii. 264; British and Foreign School, iii. 351, INDEX. 353 ; Camden, i. 305, 317, ii- 143, 377 ; Chetham, iii. 146 ; Church Rate Aboli tion, iii.402; the Correspond- ' ing,iii.3i2 ; for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, iii. 368 ; Early English Text, ii. 55 ; of Friends of the People, ih. 207, 310, 376 ; Hakluyt, ii. 260 ; Hanserd Knollys, ii. 351 ; Irish, of London, ii. 275 ; Liberation, iii. 404 ; London Corre sponding, iii. 312; Marine, iii. 129 ; Missionary, Hi. 263 ; National, iii. 351 ; Parker, ii. 155 ; Percy, i. 305 ; for Promoting Chris tian Knowledge, Hi. 263 ; for Promoting Ecclesiasti cal Knowledge, iii. 403 ; for Propagating the Gospel, iii. 263 ; Protestant, for Protec tion of Religious Liberty, iii. 320 ; for Reformation of Manners, iii. 172 ; Religious Freedom, iii. 404 ; Religious Tract, iii. 264 ; Royal, Hi. 44, 309 ; Statistical, iii. 340 ; for Sunday Schools, Hi. 261 ; of Supporters of the Bill of Rights, iii. 212 ; for Sup pression of Slave Trade, iii. 242 Socinianism, iii. 14, 157 Socmen, or yeomen, i. 133 Sodor and Man, Bishop Wil son,- iii. 171 SolenmLeague and Covenant, ii. 254, 465, 482, Hi. 20, 21, 49 Somers, Lord, iii. 61, 97, 108 ' Somers Tracts,' ii. 435, 475, Hi. 18 Somerset, the negro, iii. 242 Songs, i. 50, 90, "161, iii. 191. (Ballads.) Sonnet, the, ii. 292, 500, Hi. 6, 61 Sophia, Electress of Hanover, iii. 84 South, Dr. Robert, iii. 20, 66, 171 South Australia, iii. 396 South Carolina, ii. 357, 365 South Sea Bubble, Hi. 128, 178, 196 Southcott, Joanna, iii. 352 Southey, Robert, iii. 32, 94, 260, 316, 359, 363 Southwark, i. 117; Fair, iii. 126 Sovereign, the coin, i. 313 Spain,' and the Moors, i. 173 ; and discovery of America, ii. 38 ; rise of, 64 ; and the Empire of Germany, 67-8, 106 ; Philip II. marries ,Mary, 191 ; jealousy of England, 252 ; causes of dispute, 256-261, 267 ; the Armada, 270 ; decadence, 487 [STATUTES. 271 ; influence on James I., 340 ; and Sir W. Ralegh, 345 ; and the Palatinate, 381 ; and the West Indies. 497 ; and Admiral Blake, iii. 2 ; and the War of Suc cession, 87 ; and Right of Search, 187, 189 ; and the Family Pact, 215 ; Pacific monopoly finally broken, 241 Spanish Main, the, ii. 257 Spas, mineral, iii. 133 Spectator, iii. in, 118 Speculation, high, iii. 128 Speed, John, ii. 147, 2S3, Hi. 168 Spelman, Sir Henry, ii. 145 Spencer, Herbert, i. 373, ii. 240, iii. 261 Spenser, Edmund, i. 145, 421, ii. 274, 281, 283, 291, Hi. 113, H5 Spice Islands, iii. 2 Spices, i. 165, 311, 313 Spies, iii. 311 Spinning jenny, iii. 292 Spinoza, Benedict de, ii. 507, iii. 148 Spinster, i. 52, 101 Spires, Diet of, ii. 78, 84 Spirits, consumption of, iii. 441 • Spiritual power. (Rome.) .Spitalfields, iii. 55 Sports, i. 317, ii. 306, iii. 134 ; ' Book of,' ii. 32S Springs, mineral, iii. 133 Squire, the country, Hi. 123 Stael, Madame de, iii. 274 Surf; pastoral, i. 153 Staffordshire potteries, iii. 247 Stage, the, ii. 285, 414, iii. 117. (Drama.) Stage-coaches, iii. 131 Stamp Duties, Hi. 100, 111 Standish, Captain Miles, ii. 35S Stanhope, Earl, iii. 153, 155 Stanley, Dean, i. 197, iii. 402 ; (Derby, Earl of). Hi. 346 Staple, Ordinances of, i. 370, 383 ; towns, i. 370 Star Chamber, Court of, ii. 44, 224, 331, 348, 381, 410, 413. 435. 443 Star of India, Order of, ui. 425 Starch, ii. 304-5 State Papers, ii. 130, 157, 193, 242, 258, 276, 280, 310, 340, 345, 410, 419, 457, 505, iii. 2, 14, 41 States-General of France, i. 279, iii. 267 Statesmen, prelates as, i. 79, 84, 138 Statutes of the Realm, early, i. 7, 272 ; in Norman- French, 272 ; number re pealed, 373 ; Act of Settle- STEAM-ENGINE.] INDEX. [TAXATION. ment, iii. 85 ; Annates, ii. 127 ; Apparel, i. 373 ; Ap peals to Rome, 75, 407, ii. 124 ; against Benevolences, ii. 106 ; Bill of Rights, iii. 61 ; to abolish bondage in Scotland, iii. 243 ; of Bread and Ale, i. 375 ; Catholic Relief, iii. 328 ; for Submis sion of Clergy, ii. 127 ; against Combinations of Workmen, iii. 179 ; Con firmation of Charters, i. 340 ; Conspiracy and Pro- lection of Property, iii. 342 ; Conventicle, ii. 248, iii. 28, 320 ; Corrupt Practices, iii. 441 ; for County Elections, ii. 3 ; Crimes (Ireland), iii. 392, 437 ; Criminal Law Amendment, iii. 342 ; De Do7iis, i. 284 ; De Hozrctico Comburendo, ii. 7 ; De Re- ligiosis (Mortmain?) ; dor mant, revived, ii. 37, iii. 220 ; Ecclesiastical Titles, iii. 410 ; Education, 1870, iii. 431 ; Employers and Work men, iii. 342 ; Factories and Workshops, iii. 342 ; Five- Mile, iii. 31, 320; Frauds and Perjuries, iii. 48 ; Gagging, iii. 310 ; Game, iii. 139, 440 ; of Gloucester,!. 271; Habeas Corpus, iii. 47, 3" '• High ways, ii. 313, iH. 245 ; Im provement of Towns, iii. 374 ; Irish Church Dis establishment, iii. 413 ; Irish Church Temporalities, iii. 345 j of Labourers, i. 359- 365, il. 306, iii. 434 ; Land- Tax, iii. 83 ; Liveries, ii. 51 ; Merchant Shipping, iii. 342 ; Merton, iii. 307 ; Metropo litan Buildings, iii. 374 ; Mortmain, i. 75, 80, 266, 277, 284, iii. 104 ; Mutiny, iii. 62, 87 ; Occasional Conformity, iii. 97, 107; respecting the Poor (q.v.) ; of Praemunire, i. 407, H. 91, 121-2 ; Pro visors of Benefices, 75, 134, 287, 406-7, ii. 114, 117, 121 ; Public Worship Regulation, iii. 414 ; against Purvey ance,!. 377 ; Quia Emptores, 276 ; Quo Warranto, 277 ; Reform (q.v.) ; Redistribu tion, 1885, iii. 206, 381 ; Riot, iii. 145 ; Royal Marriage, iii. 200, 322 ; Royal Succes sion, ii. 127 ; Royal Supre macy, 131 ; Schism, iii. 107, 152 ; Septennial, ii. 441, iii. 147 ; the Six Acts, iii. 319 ; Six Articles, ii. 160, 173 ; to regulate the Slave-trade, Hi. 241 ; Stamp Duties, America, iii. 218-9 ** Ten Hours, iii. 338 ; Test (q.v.) ; Toleration (q.v.) ; Triennial, I ii. 441, iii. 147 ; Truck, iii. 337 ; of Uncertain Date, i. 375 ; Union with Scotland, . iii. 102 ; Uniformity (q.v.) ; Uses, ii. 63 ; of Westmin ster, the First, i. 271, the Second, 271 ; of Winches ter, i. 272 Steam-engine, the, ii. 297, iii. 142, 246, 292, 369 ; ships, ocean, iii. 296 Steele, Sir Richard, iii. 98, no, 119, 132 Stephen, King of England, i. 156-8 ; King of Hungary, 100 Stephen, Sir James, iii. 167 ; Sir J. Fitzjames, ii. 6, iii. 136 ;' Leslie, iii. no, 118, 123, 149, 205, 252, 255 Stephens, Robert, printer, ii, 230 Stephenson, Geo., iii. 293 Stepway, Court of, i. 130 Sterne, Laurence, i. n, ii. 58, 326, iii. 82, 119, 172, 250 Sternhold and Hopkins, Psalms, ii. 298, iii. 169 Stevenson, R. L., ii., 317 Stillingfleet, Benj., iii. 362 Stirling, i. 293-4, 300 Stocking-frame, the, ii. 304, iii. 245 Stockings, silk, ii. 304 Stocks, the, ii. 148 Stomach brushes, iii. 133 Stone altars, ii. 205, 396 Stonehenge, i. 19 " Stony Sabbath," ii. 426 Storming of a town, i. 116 ; Alexandria, iii. 285 ; Bada- joz, ii. 484 ; Bristol, ii. 472 ; Caen, 'i. 343 ; Ciudad Ro- drigo, ii. 482 ; Copenhagen, iii. 276, 283 ; Drogheda, ii. 481 ;Rome, ii. 108 ; Wex ford, ii. 481. (Sieges.) Stoughton, Dr. John, ii. 499, iii. 25, 159 Stow, John, i. 132, ii. 20, 141 Strafford, Earl of, ii. 44, 388, 398-400, 421, 433, 438-442 Strand, the, ii. 302 Streets, London, iii. 130 Strikes, iii. 340, 462 Strode, William, M.P., ii, 404-5 Strongbow, Earl of Pem broke, i. 204 Strutt's.stocking-frarne, iii. 245 Strype, John, ii. 102, 216, 230, 242 Stuart, Lady Arabella, ii. 342 Stuarts, origin of the, i. 340 ; character, Hi. n, 88 ; Strug gle, the, ii. 333, et seq. Stubbes, Philip, 'Anatomy,' ii. 304 Stubbs, Bishop (Oxford); John, mutilated, ii. 215 Sturge, Joseph, iii. 378 Submanne Telegraphy, iii. 367 488 Subscription, clerical (q.v.) Subsidies, i. 252, 279, 280, 316, 386, 444, ii. 4, 42, 104, 382 419 ; to foreign Powers, iii 188, 283, 293. (Taxation.) Succession Duty, iii. 83, 291- Suckling, Sir John, ii. 326 Suez Canal, ii. 272, iii. 422 Suffolk, iii. 247 Sugar, i. 165 Sumpnour. (Pardoner?) Sumptuary Laws, i. 373 Sunderland, Earl of, iii. 128 Sunday Schools, iii. 170, 260 Superstitions, i. 54, ii. 293 Supplies, stopping the, iii. 62. (Aids. Grievances?) ' Supplycacyon for Beggers,' - ii. 85 Supremacy. (Royal.) Surgery, i. 54, ii- 58 Surnames, i. 86 Surrey, i. 39 ; Earl of, ii. 104, 167 ; John de Warrene, Earl ' of, i. 277, 292 Sussex, i. 39 ; Duke of, iii. 203 Sweating sickness, ii. 57, 182 Sweden, i. 41, 92 Swedenborg, Emmanuel, ii. 77 Swegen of Denmark, i. 87-9 Swift, Dean, i. 435, ii. 234, 306, iii. 60, 80, 94, 98, 112, 118, 123, 128, 130, 169, 262, 343 Swithin (Winchester) Switzerland, ii. 174, 189, 204. iii. 3 Sydenham, Dr. Thos., iii. 133 Sympathetic pills, iii. 133 Symson, Cuthbert, ii. 242 Synods:— Calne, i. 202: Cashel. ; i. 205 ; Dort, ii. 177. 330 ; Lambeth, i. 411. (Councils?) Tables v. altars, ii. 396 Tacitus, i. 17, 22, 206 Tallack, William, Hi. 348' Tallages, i. 252,280 Tallies, i. 180 TaUis, Thomas, ii. 300 Tar-water, medicine, iii. 133 Tasmania, iii. 396 Tasso, i. 147 Tate and Brady, Psalms, ii. 298-9, iii. 151, 169 ' Tatler,' the, iii. 67, no Taunton, iii. 4, 52 Taxation in Middle Ages, i. 212, 219, H. 19; on wool, i. 281-2, 370-1 ; on mov ables, i. 220, 280 ; illegal and oppressive 220 ; chang ing methods, 280 ; inven tories for, 316; arbitraiy, checked, 371 ; under the Tudors, ii. 68 ; on land, i. 87, 280, ii. 311, 369, 390» 4*9» 437 Tierney, Geo., M.P., in. 310, 336 Tindal, Matthew, iii. 160 Tithes, i. 74, 202, ii. 336, 34xi iii. 374- 345 Tithings, i. 64 Tobacco, ii. 261, 335, iii. 129 Toland, John, iii. 160 Toleration, religious, long un known, ii. 9, 217, 221-3,. 464-6 ; practised in Hoi- land, 266 ; appeal for, 319 ; the Baptists and, "355 ; limits of, 466, iii. 68 ; Cromwell's, ii. 494, 505 ; of William III,, iii. 65 f Act of, iii. 67. J54, 320; struggles for, iii. 152-6 Tolling of bells, i. 129 Tolls, market, ii. 51 Tone, T. Wolfe, iii. 30c Tooke, Home, iii. 32, 312 Toothache, i. 54 Toplady, Augustus, iii. 174 Torbay, iii. 59 Torches in streets, iii. 130 Tories, ii. 482, iii. 145, 152, 192, 233. 243 Torres Vedras, lines of, iii. 284 Torture, ii. 56, 133 Tostig, i. 99, 101, 109 Toulon, iii. 276, 279 Tower of London, i. 67, 118, 150, 291, 340, ii. 26, 134, 138, 197, 383, 405 Town CouncUs elect M.P.'s, iii. 206 Townley, Rev. James, iii. 124, 248 Towns, Saxon, i. 51 ; growth of, and influence, i. 136, 167, 366, ii. 33. (Boroughs.) Townshend, Charles, Ui. 219 ; Viscount, iii. 142, 183 Townships, i. 64, 66 Tractarian Movement, Ox ford, iii. 405 Trade, growth of, i. 309, iii. 140 ; Unions, i. 367, ii. 307, iii- 339- (Labour?) Trading class, rise of, i. 165, 365,379; guilds, i. 165,371 Tragedy, the Father of, ii. 286 Tragedies, early, ii. 284 Tram-roads, iii. 293 Translations, classical, iii. 116 Transubstantiation, i. 139, 218, 416, ii. 151, 154, T56, l6°. 173, 183, 396, iii- 67 Transvaal, the, iii., 413 Travelling, i. 329, ii- 3°6 Travers, Walter, ii. 227 Treason, ii. 129, 131 Treasury, the, in commission, iii. 144 Treaties :— Aix - la- Chapelle, iii. 188, 193 ; Amiens, iii. 277 ; Ashburton, iii. 283 ; Berlin, iii. 422 ; Bretigny, i. 349; Family Pact, iii. 214; Holy Alliance, iii. 287 ; Holy League, ii. 65 ; Lime rick, iii. 75, St ; Oxford, ii. 472 ; Paris, iii. 197, 214, 232, 286-7 ; Partition, iii. 94, 273 • Pecquigny, ii. 29 ; Reciprocity, iii. 434 : Rvs- 489 wick, iii. 86 ; San Ste fano, iii. 421 ; Schonbrunn, iii. 284 ; Tilsit, iii. 283 ; Triple Alliance, iii. 37, 63 ; Utrecht, ii. 365, iii. 94, 147, 187 ; Uxbridge, ii. 471 ; Vienna, iii. 286 ; Washing ton, iii. 429. (Leagues.) "Tient," mail-steamer, iii, 42S Trevor. Sir John, iii. 64 Triennial Act, ii. 441, iii. 28, 147 Triers, the, ii. 493 Trieste, iii. 284 Trinidad, iii. 277 Trinitarian controversy, iii. 64, 156 Trinity College, Dublin, iii. 74 ; Corporation, the, ii. 4L Tromp, Admiral van, iii. 3 Truck Acts, iii. 337 Tudor absolutism, ii. 36 ; theory of government, ii. 208 ; Owen, ii. 1^, 34 "Tulchan Bishops," ii. 333 Tull, Jethro, iii. 142 Tunnage and Poundage, ii. 63, 384- 392, 402-3, 430, 443. iii. 12, 56, 95 Turf-cutting, i. 167 Turkey Merchants, Company of, ii. 272 Turks, the, i. 146, ii. 109, iii. 277, 418 Turnips introduced, iii. 142, 183 Twisse, Dr. William, ii. 462 Twysden, Sir Roger, ii. 147 Tvburn, ii. 133, iii. 13, 53, 130, 134 Tyndale, William, early strug gles, ii. 91 ; life-work, 92 ; in London, 92 ; seeks refuge at Hamburg, 93 ; and Luther, 93 ; New Testament of 1525, 94 ; the Pentateuch, 98 ; Jonah, 98 ; revised Xew Testament, 99 ; relation to Wycliffe, i. 419, ii. 99 ; his phrase, " the bishops' hang man," 7 ; play on Wolsey's name, 69 ; controversy with More, 97 ; other works, 98, 99 ; martyrdom, 99 ; esti mate of his labours, g9 ; standard of translation set up, 100, 322 ; memorials to him, roo ; his friend and successor, John Rogers, 100, 194 ; like Hooper, 186 Typhoid fever, i. 355 Tyrconel, Duke of, iii. 74 Tyrolese, the, iii. 284 Udall, John, martyr, ii. 213 Umbrellas, iii. 129 Uniformity, Acts of, ii. 179, 182, 184, 190, 204, iii. 15, 21, 42, 156 ; impossible of en- UNION.] INDEX. [WESTMINSTER. forcement, 187, 224, Hi. 25, 157 ; disastrous effects, iii. 19, 162 Union, Act of, iii. 302 Unitarians, iii. 68, 158, 261 United States, townships, i. 66 ; residents as representa tives, 279 ; bail required of accused, 332 ; Fugitive Slave Law, 364 ; genesis of, ii. 349 ; Mennonites in, 134 ; full liberty accorded, 263 ; soldiers after the Civil War, 453 ; rigid Baptists in, iii. 44 ; character formed by Puritans, 217 ; Civil War of 1861-5, 217, 288, 427 ; the Thirteen United Colonies, 226 ; Federal and State Constitutions, 227-8 ; War with England, 1812, 282 ; extent of territory, 283 ; "Alabama" case, 429. (America?) Universities, growth of, i, 336 ; and the Reformation, ii. 95, 171 ; learning in the, 507, iii. 262. (Cambridge. Ox ford?) "Uses' for public worship, ii. 181. (Book.) Ussher, Archbishop, ii. 397, 509 Utilitarianism, iii. 37a V \carius, i. 175 Vaccination, iii. 134 Vagabonds. (Beggars.) Valentine, Benjamin, M.P., ii. 404-7 Values, standard of, i. 311 -2 Vanbrugh, Sir John, iii. 93, 114 Vancouver, Captain George, Hi. 241 Vandalism, alleged, ii. 454 Vane, Sir Henry, ii. 370, 436, iii. 12 Vatican Decrees, the, iii. 415 Vaudois, the, ii. 500 • Vauxhall Gardens, iii. 119 ; Vegetables, i. 311, 356, ii. 262 - Venereal diseases, ii. 58 Venetian glass, iii. 129 Venice, ii. 62, 65, 70 Vernacular prayers, ii. 166 Verulamium, i. 22, 29 Vespasian, i. 21 Vespucci, Amerigo, ii. 38 Vestments, ecclesiastical, ii. 158 ; controversy, 185, 219 Vestry meeting, origin of, i. 65 Vice and crime confused, ii. 369, 465, iii. 172 Vikings, i. 42, H. 40 Villas, Roman, i. 29 . Villehagc, i. 168. (Slavery?) Villiers, C.P., iii. 383 Victoria, Queen, Hi. 363, 374, 388, 425, 439 ; Colony, 396, ; Cross, Order of, 419 Vincent, Rev. Thos., iii. 30 Violence and lawlessness, i. 331-3 Virginal, the, ii. 300 Virginia, Colony of, ii. 261, 348, 335, 350-2, 369, 371, iii. 28, 215, 220, 22S Voltaire, i. 356, ii. 80, 194, iii. 266, 276 Vondel, Justus van den, iii. 40 Vulgate, the, ii.91,94. (Bible.) Wace, the Chronicler, i. 108 Wager of battle, i. 187 Wages, i. 323, 342, 359-305, ii. 306-8, iii. 179, 341 Waghoni, Lieutenant, ii. 272 Walchcren Expedition, iii. 284 Waldenses, ii. 133 Waldseemuller, Martin, ii. 38 Wales, i. 16, 35, 150, 238, 2hS- 270 ; first Prince of. i. 270 ; the Black (Edward) ; Albert Edward, iii. 375, 434 Walker, ' Sufferings of the Clergy,' ii. 461 Wallace, WiUiam, i. 292, 295 Waller, Edmund, ii. 512 Wallsend, 1. 24 Walpole, Horace, iii. 96, 121, 132, 145, 177, 243, 251-3 ; Sir Robert, repeals duties, 95, 178 ; and Licensing Act; 117; letters to the Queen, 119 ; free living, 127 ; on creation of peers, 147 ; his Place BiU, 148 ; and the Nonconformists, 153 ; the Regium Donum, 154 ; Toleration Act modified, 154 ; Prime Minister, 178 ; financial policy, 178, 236 ; would not tax the Colonies, 218 ; expediency his rule, 180 ; sway in the Commons, 192, 235 ; political corrup tion, 180-2 ; character, 183 ; Parliamentary rule, 184 ; and Import Duties, 186 ; the plan carried out by Pitt, 236 ; and Spanish War, 187-8 ; defeat and death, 188 Walsingham, Sir F., ii. 214, 220, 252, 266 ; shrine at, 74 Walter of Coventiy, i. 12 ; John, and 'The Times,' iii. 3H Waltham Abbey, i. 104, 112, 113 Walton, Bishop Brian, ' Poly glot Bible,1 ii. 466, 508 ; I/aak, ii. 174, 397 Walworth, Sir William, i. 440 Wapentake, the, i. 65 War, sufferings by, ii. 16 Warburton. (Gloucester?) Ward, Ned, ' London Spy,' iii. 118 ; Samuel, ii. 397, 413 Wardmotes, i. 166 4QO Wardens of the Marches, i. 05 ' ' \ Warham. (Canterbury?) , ' Warming-pan story, iii, 88; Warrants, General, iii. 209; Wars, between Saxons and Danes, i. 4I-8, 85-95;* of Henry III. and the baron age, 258-265 ; with ' Scot land, 292-301 ¦ with France (q.v.) ; of the Roses (q.v.) : of the League, ii. 49 ; Thirty Years', 134, 162, 329, 37b, 482 ; the Fronde, ii. 454 ; Peasants', Germany, i. 349, ii. 134 ; of Austrian Succes sion, iii. 188 ; Seven. Years', 198, 214 ; American Inde pendence, 215-233 ; with Spain, S7, 231 : Kamatic, 238 ; French Revolutionary, 275 ; Peninsular, 3S4-5 ; Zulu, 413 ; Abyssinian, 413 ; Crimean, 417-420 ; Ashanti, 434 Warton, Joseph and Thomas, iii. 257 Warwick, Earl of, tile king maker, i. 105, ii. 26 ; Sii Philip, ii. 437-445 ¦ Washington, George, Hi. 220, 226, 228-9 Wat Tiler, i. 170, 433, 438-440, ii. 21 Watches, ii. 297,-iii. 129 Waterford, iii. 75 Waterland, Daniel, Hi. 258 Water-mills, ii. 51 Water-supply, iii. 130 Watling-street, i. 27, 89 Watt, James, iii. 246, 369 Watts, Dr. Isaac, ii. 300, iii. 5, 32, 108, 150, 15S, 162 Wax for seals, i. 274 Waverley Abbey, i. 239 Wealds of Sussex and Kent, i. 32 Wealth, national, iii, 444 Webster, Daniel, iii. 221 Wedgwood, Josiah, iii. 140, 247 , ' Weights and Measures, i. 326, ii- 59 Wellington, Duke of, iii. 169, 277, 284, 286-9, 326-7, 33 ip 333, 347 Wells, iii. 130 Wentworth, Petert M.P., ii. 214, 228 ; . Sir Thomas. (Strafford.) Wesleys, the, ii. 294^ iii, 24, 32, 97, 100, 157, ,159/ 171, 173, 242, 258, 261 Wessel, John, ii. 78 Wessex, i. 40, 43 West, Benjamin, iii. 248 AVest Indies, ii. 37, iii. 54^ 194, , 198, 263, 275 Westminster Abbey, i. -ico, 292, 3S0, ii. 47, 503, iii. 13, 116, 231, 2S0, 371 ; Assembly of Divines, ii. 461, 478: WHARTON.] bishopric, 144 ; last abbot, ii. 200 ; Hall, i. 150, ii. 440, 475, 501, iii. 57 ; school, 41 Wharton, Lord, Hi. 60 ; Ne hemiah, ii. 454 WheweU, Dr. WiUiam, i. 358, ii. 298, Hi. 365 "Wtiip with six strings," ii. 160 (, ' Whipping, iii. 134 Whigs, ii. 482, iii. 71, 76, 92, 97, xo6, 145, 152, 154, 156, ^85, 233, 243, 377 Winston, WiUiam, iii. 69 White, Gilbert, iii. 171, 258 Whitefield, George, iii. 159, 173-4' White Friars, i. 241 Whitehall palace, ii. 116, 282, 439, 449, 45o, 4S9, 494 Whitelocke, Bulstrode, ii. 323, 435, 498 Whitgift. (Canterbury?) Whitney, Eli, Hi. 246 Whittier, J. G., iii. 40, 253, 384 Whittingham, Dean of Dur ham, ii. 149, 189, 229 Whittington, Sir R., ii. 273 WUberforce, William, iii. 155, 168, 242, 262, 269 Wild-fowl, iii. 143 Wilkes, John, iii. 173, 185, 209- 212 William I., King, i. 96-7, 101- 7, 116-144, 187, 204, ii. 39, 267; II., i. 145-150; III., ii.' 493, iii. ro, 39, 62-94, T4* ; IV., 304, 353, 355, 369, 370,' 399 William of Malmesbury, i. 12,13,78,82, 146, 158/164, 174; of Newbury, 12; of Sens, i. 164 ; the "Silent, ii. 134, 175, 263, 265-6, iii. 58, 63 ; of Wykeham, i. 164, 233, 334, ii- x72 WiUiams, Dr. Daniel, iii. 32, 109, 152, 171 ; Roger, ii. 370 WiUoughby, Francis, iii. 45 Wilson, Walter, iii. 108 Winchester, i. 123, 145, 150, 234 ; minster of, i. 85, 99, 334 > school, i. 335 ; Bishops : — ^thewald, i. 80 ; Bilson, ii. 236 ; Lancelot Andrews, ii. 327 ; Fox, ii. 69, 71 ; Gardiner, ii. 102, 141, 159, 165, 188.; Heniy de Blois, i. 335 ; Hoadly, in. 14S ; Neile, ii. 401 ; Brown- low North, iii. 168 ; Poy- net, ii. 174 ; Prideaux, ii. 397 ; Stigand, i. 98 ; Swithin, i. 44 ; Waynflete, i. 335 ; WilUam of Wykeham, i. 164. 233, 334> ii- !72 :— Mar quis of, ii. 210 Windebank, Secretary, ii. 439 Windham, WiUiam, iii. 235 Window tax, iii. 83 Windsor, i. 334, 378, 420 INDEX. Wine, i. 165, 310 Winslow, Edward, ii. 353 Winsor, Justin, ii. 37 Winthrop, Governor, ii. 362 Wiseman, Cardinal, iii. 410 Wishart, George, ii. 253 Witan, the, i. 60, 62, 91, 97, 101, 118, 135, 173, 263. (Great Council.) Witchcraft, ii. 6, 18, 293, 361 Wither, George, ii. 512 Witt, John de, iii. 105 Woffington, Peg, iii/248 Wolcot, Dr. John, iii. 214 Wolfe, Sir James, iii. 197 Wolseley, Lord, iii. 93 Wolsey, Cardinal, origin and early career, ii. 69 ; his offices, wealth, and pomp, 70 ; palaces, 70, 114, 116 ; great abilities, 70, 71; his justice, 71 ; intrigues for the Popedom, 86 ; tolerance, 96 ; deals with the clergy and the Legislature, 104 ; unpopularity, 107 ; as Le- ¦gate, tries the divorce, in ; college at Oxford, 92, 95, 96, 117, 120, 142 ; and Ipswich, 117, 118, 120 ; loses the royal favour, in ; his fall, 113 ; charged under Statute of Provisors, 114," 116, 117 ; charge of high treason, 1 16 ; pardoned, 116 ; further charges, 117 ; death, 117; his scheme for the abbeys, 118 ; inquiry into them, T39 ; John Skelton's invec tives, 283 Wolves, i. 131 Women, treatment of, i, 306, ii. 55 ; instructions to young, i. 308 ; dress regulated, 373- 4 ; modern legislation for, iii. 440 Wood, Anthony, ii. 326, 467 Woodfall, WiUiam, iii. 213 Wool, taxes on, i. 281-2, 370- 1 ; trade, 358, 369, ii. 50, iii. 139 Woolsack, the, i. 370 Woolston, T., iii. 69, 160, 162 Worcester, Bishops : — Bab- ington, ii. 415 ; Bilson, ii. 236 ; Dunstan, i. 79 ; Earle, ii. 328-; Latimer, ii, 50, 95, 141, 151, 154, 161, 170-1, 179, 1S6, 197, 234, 360, iii. 1S2 ; Oswald, i. 80 ; StiUingfleet, iii. 64, 66 ; Whitgift, ii. 225 Words, changed meanings of, i. 370, pronunciation, 420 Wordsworth, William, iii. 40, 253, 358, 377 Worms, Diet of, ii. 83, 86 Wrecking, i. 103 Wren, Sir Chr., Hi. 32, 84 Wright, Thomas, i. 34, 261, 271, 305, »i- "9 Writs in Latin, i. 129 ; of Sum mons to Parliament, i. 3S0 491 [YORK. Wycliffe, John de, precursors of, i. 246, 395 ; appearance, 397 ; and the Friars, 397, 39H, 416 ; his capacity, 398 ; ' Trialogus/ 396, 416 ; de fends the royal supremacy, 403 ; on bishops and priests, ii. 235 ; " Dominion founded in Grace," i. 404, 411, iii. 447 ; social effects of his teachings, i. 404 ; popularity, ii. 234 ; ' Speculum de Anti- christo,' i. 405 ; at Bruges, 408 ; development oi opinions, 409, 416 ; pre cursor of Puritans, 410 ; ii. 88 ; Father of English Pro testantism, i. 426 ; cited to St. Paul's, 410, 411, and to Lambeth, 411 ; censured at Oxford, 411 ; tract on Papal Schism, 413 ; his Poor Priests, 413, 426, 429, 430 ; other writings, 414, 415; relations to Bohemia, 415 ; assails abuses of the Papacy, 416 ; translates Bible, 416; the father of English prose, 418 ; com pletion of life-work, 423 ; death, 423 ; bones burned, 423, ii. 158 ; character and work, i. 424 ; spread of doctrines, 424, 426, 442 ; at tempts at suppression, 426 ; effects of teachings on Peasants' Rising, 428-440 ; left no party, ii. 6 ; but his work continued by Lol lards, 72 ; copies of his writings, 77 Wynkyn de Worde, ii. 41, 54 Xavier, Francis, ii. 249 Ximenes, Cardinal, i. 244, ii. 7i Yale CoUege, iii. 167 Yawning for a cheese, iii. 134 York, i. 26, 27, 44, 109, 121, ii. 433 ; minster, ii, 30 ; col legiate school at, i. 57 ; -early site of See, 28, 83 ; Arch bishops : — Alfric, i. 416 ; Ealdred, i. 101, 118, 138 ; Ecgberht, i. 57, 78 ; Grin- dal, ii. 230 ; Kemp, ii. 22 ; Roger, . i. 196 ; Sandys, ii. 220 ; Scrope, ii. 12 ; Wil liams, ii. ,347, 377, 396, 446 ; Duke of, son of George the Third, iii. 276, 284 York and Lancaster. 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